romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Their endowment by a prince or monarch and their role in training government officials made these Mediterranean universities similar to Islamic madrasas, although madrasas were generally smaller and individual teachers, rather than the madrasa itself, granted the license or degree. Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, some medieval Islamic madrasahs became universities. George Makdisi and others, however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world. Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of university was an Islamic madrasa akin to?
A: Mediterranean universities', '
Q: What type of individual funded a Mediterranean university?
A: prince or monarch', '
Q: From where did a degree come in a madrasa?
A: individual teachers', '
Q: In which century did Islamic madrasas start to transform into universities?
A: 10th']
Many scholars (including Makdisi) have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the religious madrasahs in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades). Other scholars see this argument as overstated. Lowe and Yasuhara have recently drawn on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Madrasas in which specific location are said to have guided the formation of medieval universities?
A: Al-Andalus', '
Q: Some scholars think that universities come from what, rather than solely local influences?
A: a global context', '
Q: Al-Andalus was an Emirate of which entity?
A: Sicily', '
Q: During what notable Middle East conflict is it believed by some that Universities received influence from madrasas?
A: the Crusades']
During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first university was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe and Eastern Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. It should be noted that the identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the time span of the Early Modern period?
A: late 15th century to 1800', '
Q: At the completion of the Middle Ages how long had universities existed?
A: about 400 years', '
Q: How many universities were within Europe at the closure of the middle ages?
A: twenty-nine', '
Q: How many universities were within Europe by the completion of the 18th century?
A: 143', '
Q: The German Empire had how many universities?
A: 34']
The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War, disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What war most curtailed the spread of universities in the 17th century?
A: the Thirty Years' War", '
Q: Which university is said to have started faculty governance?
A: University of Paris', '
Q: Which entity started to appoint the administration of universities in the 17th century?
A: the state', '
Q: The control of universities by the state can be attributed to the advancement in the development of what?
A: the nation-state.', '
Q: How would one describe the control of universities before nation-states in the 17th century?
A: student-controlled']
Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters," provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What were the faculty who supervised students in the University of Paris called?
A: masters', '
Q: The structure of the University of Paris served as what for other universities?
A: a standard', '
Q: What type of student did schools that focus on very specific topics aim to create?
A: specialists', '
Q: Which university had teaching which was more general, and not centralized?
A: University of Oxford', '
Q: How many styles did the University of Paris model end up taking when applied to other universities?
A: at least three']
Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy (and astrology), law, grammar and rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives. Other scholars within the university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities. Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the University of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the source of educational material in Early Modern age universities?
A: the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages', '
Q: What sources did Early Modern age universities rely on for medical curricula?
A: Galen and Arabic scholarship', '
Q: The concentration on students to live honorable lives is an example of what form of thought?
A: Humanist', '
Q: Niccolò Leoniceno was a professor of what subject?
A: medicine', '
Q: Which individual added a humanist view into the Corpus Juris?
A: Andreas Alciatus']
Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Discovery and exposition were examples of the focus of what type of university scholar?
A: humanist', '
Q: A concentration on the study of the self resulted in what field of study?
A: the humanities', '
Q: What work did Vesalius push the study of?
A: Galen', '
Q: What spread the use of texts by Galen within universities?
A: the printing press']
There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In multiple countries in Europe students can attend a university with what kind if financial burden?
A: without tuition fees', '
Q: Until what year were public universities in nordic nation free of tuition?
A: around 2005', '
Q: What kind of students pay fees in public universities in Denmark?
A: foreign students', '
Q: In terms of Universities in Denmark what is the fee status for citizens of EFA states?
A: exempted from tuition fees', '
Q: What happened to public grants in nordic universities that continued to allow foreign students?
A: increased']
Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries university is often contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.[citation needed] "Varsity" is still in common usage in Scotland.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In Ireland what word is mainly used instead of university?
A: college', '
Q: Scotland is said to frequently refer to university as what?
A: Varsity', '
Q: Spain refers to a university in what other way?
A: uni', '
Q: The nation of Ghana shortens university to what?
A: varsity', '
Q: In what century was it believed that the UK used the word varsity to refer to a university?
A: 19th']
In Canada, "college" generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while "university" connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings) into large research universities with many PhD granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but aren't geared toward research (such as Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: A college teaches students for how many years in Canada?
A: two', '
Q: What type of institution is a college in Canada?
A: non-degree-granting', '
Q: How many years does a degree-granting university in Canada spend teaching students?
A: four', '
Q: What is McGill University in Canada an example of?
A: medical schools', '
Q: What type of university is St Francis Xavier in Canada?
A: undergraduate']
Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many vice presidents do most universities have?
A: at least one', '
Q: What kind of board does a university commonly have?
A: a board of trustees', '
Q: Who controls public universities?
A: government-run higher education boards', '
Q: What are the different departments of a university called?
A: schools or faculties', '
Q: Besides students, what is the source of funds of private universities?
A: business corporations']
The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How does the financial backing of universities around the world differ?
A: varies widely', '
Q: Outside of state funded schools, and funds coming from donors, how might a university collect funds?
A: fees which students attending the university', '
Q: In nations that accept students from through the world what might the university offer to a student?
A: accommodation']
Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the Academy of European Law, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organisation dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and the United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute, a post-graduate university specialised in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organisation, set up by the member states of the European Union.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a university formed through a bilateral treaty known as?
A: intergovernmental', '
Q: In terms of intergovernmental universities, what is EUCLID?
A: Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University', '
Q: What is a mission of EUCLID as it relates to signatory nations?
A: sustainable development', '
Q: What type of school is the European University Institute?
A: post-graduate', '
Q: What type of study does the European University Institute focus on?
A: social sciences']
A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland in the early days of Irish independence collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture. Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic higher education system.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was a focus of the National University of Ireland during the beginning of Irish Independence?
A: Irish language and Irish culture', '
Q: In what nation did the University Revolution occur?
A: Argentina', "
Q: In what year did Argentina's University Revolution occur?
A: 1918", '
Q: What was the result of the University Revolution in Argentina?
A: Reforms']
In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did the Robbins report say that universities should have four objectives to remain balanced?
A: 1963', '
Q: What nation did the 1963 Robbins Report focus on?
A: the United Kingdom', '
Q: What should a university promote, according to the Robbins Report?
A: general powers of the mind', '
Q: Universities should maintain what, according to the Robbins Report?
A: research in balance with teaching', '
Q: The Robbins Report says universities should transmit what?
A: a common culture and common standards of citizenship']
Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of Strathclyde. The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Ending with what century did religion play a smaller part in the curriculum of universities?
A: 19th', '
Q: what model of university structure was being used throughout the world at the finish of the 19th century?
A: the German university model', '
Q: What was the focus of universities in the 20th century?
A: science', '
Q: Who was Sir Keith Murray?
A: chairman of the University Grants Committee', '
Q: What university did Sir Samuel Curran contribute to the creation of?
A: the University of Strathclyde']
By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: At the end of what period would universities become alike to contemporary universities?
A: the end of the early modern period', '
Q: What type of focus did universities have at the end of the early modern period?
A: mechanistic', '
Q: What replaced theological studies in universities at the completion of the early modern period?
A: humanities', '
Q: The change in universities towards the completion of the early modern period is credited with the formation of what entity?
A: the modern state', '
Q: The study of the humanities at the end of the early modern period replaced the study of the work of what individual?
A: Aristotle']
The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Scientists and universities were competing for what?
A: limited resources', '
Q: What type of education did private benefactors hope to provide to the public?
A: free', '
Q:  Governments created universities to serve as what?
A: an alternative to traditional universities', '
Q: What type of entity created competition with government created universities?
A: private benefactors']