romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
At the decision-making point of their lives, youth is susceptible to drug addiction, sexual abuse, peer pressure, violent crimes and other illegal activities. Developmental Intervention Science (DIS) is a fusion of the literature of both developmental and intervention sciences. This association conducts youth interventions that mutually assist both the needs of the community as well as psychologically stranded youth by focusing on risky and inappropriate behaviors while promoting positive self-development along with self-esteem among adolescents.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is DIS?
A: a fusion of the literature of both developmental and intervention sciences', '
Q: What are some of the negative things adolescents are susceptible to?
A: drug addiction, sexual abuse, peer pressure, violent crimes and other illegal activities', '
Q: What does the DIS focus on in adolescents?
A: risky and inappropriate behaviors']
Peer acceptance and social norms gain a significantly greater hand in directing behavior at the onset of adolescence; as such, the alcohol and illegal drug habits of teens tend to be shaped largely by the substance use of friends and other classmates. In fact, studies suggest that more significantly than actual drug norms, an individual's perception of the illicit drug use by friends and peers is highly associated with his or her own habits in substance use during both middle and high school, a relationship that increases in strength over time. Whereas social influences on alcohol use and marijuana use tend to work directly in the short term, peer and friend norms on smoking cigarettes in middle school have a profound effect on one's own likelihood to smoke cigarettes well into high school. Perhaps the strong correlation between peer influence in middle school and cigarette smoking in high school may be explained by the addictive nature of cigarettes, which could lead many students to continue their smoking habits from middle school into late adolescence.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the alcohol and illegal drug habits of teens tend to be shaped by?
A: the substance use of friends and other classmates', '
Q: What is one possible reasoning behind many students choosing to continue their smoking habits from middle school into late adolescence?
A: addictive nature of cigarettes', '
Q: Do peer acceptance and social norms have a greater or lesser effect on behavior at the onset of adolescence?
A: significantly greater']
The age of consent to sexual activity varies widely between jurisdictions, ranging from 12 to 20 years, as does the age at which people are allowed to marry. Specific legal ages for adolescents that also vary by culture are enlisting in the military, gambling, and the purchase of alcohol, cigarettes or items with parental advisory labels. It should be noted that the legal coming of age often does not correspond with the sudden realization of autonomy; many adolescents who have legally reached adult age are still dependent on their guardians or peers for emotional and financial support. Nonetheless, new legal privileges converge with shifting social expectations to usher in a phase of heightened independence or social responsibility for most legal adolescents.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the range of consentual age variance between jurisdictions?
A: 12 to 20 years', '
Q: Is the age that peope are allowed to marry universally decided upon?
A: No', '
Q: What are other areas in which legal societal age varies?
A: enlisting in the military, gambling, and the purchase of alcohol, cigarettes or items with parental advisory labels']
Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F), though the average for the third quarter (the coldest part of the year) is −63 °C (−81 °F). There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, and certain animals, such as mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of land is Antarctica considered to be?
A: desert', "
Q: What is Antarctica's annual precipitation along the coast?
A: 200 mm (8 in)", "
Q: What is Antarctica's average temperature during the coldest part of the year?
A: −63 °C (−81 °F)", '
Q: Approximately how many people live throughout the year at research stations across Antarctica?
A: anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000', '
Q: What are some animals native to Antarctica?
A: mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades', '
Q: Which continent is the highest in elevation?
A: Antarctica', '
Q: What is the annual precipitation rate of coastal Antarctica?
A: 200 mm', '
Q: What is the average coldest temperature?
A: −63 °C', '
Q: What is the coldest recorded temperature?
A: −89.2 °C', '
Q: Ehat is the vegetation type on Antarctica? 
A: tundra']
Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America. The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to East Antarctica.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does West Antarctica most resemble geologically?
A: the Andes mountain range of South America', '
Q: How was the Antarctic Peninsula formed?
A: by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments', '
Q: During what eras was the Antarctic Peninsula formed?
A: late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic', '
Q: What are the most common rocks found in West Antarctica?
A: andesite and rhyolite volcanics', '
Q: Where has evidence of volcanic activity been discovered in Antarctica?
A: Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island', '
Q: To what mountainous area is Antarctica geologically similar?
A: Andes', '
Q: An uplift of what formed Antarctica?
A: sea bed sediments', '
Q: Starting from the late Paleozoic era, when did Antarctica finish forming?
A: early Mesozoic', '
Q: What are the most often found rocks in Antarctica?
A: andesite and rhyolite', '
Q: What type of geologic activity occurred even after the formation of the ice sheets?
A: volcanic']
Integral to the story of the origin of the name "Antarctica" is how it was not named Terra Australis—this name was given to Australia instead, and it was because of a mistake made by people who decided that a significant landmass would not be found farther south than Australia. Explorer Matthew Flinders, in particular, has been credited with popularizing the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia. He justified the titling of his book A Voyage to Terra Australis (1814) by writing in the introduction:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What country was given the name Terra Australis instead of Antarctica?
A: Australia', '
Q: Who was credited with popularizing the use of name Terra Australis to Australia?
A: Explorer Matthew Flinders', '
Q: In what year did Matthew Flinders write his book A Voyage to Terra Australis?
A: 1814', '
Q: What did people once believe could not be found further south than Australia?
A: significant landmass', '
Q: What explorer gave the name of Terra Australis to Australia?
A: Matthew Flinders', '
Q: What was the name of Flinders book about his trip to Australia?
A: A Voyage to Terra Australis', '
Q: When did Flinders write his book of discovery?
A: 1814', '
Q: What event caused people to misname Antarctica?
A: mistake']
A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms, sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport eggs and larval stages.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Part of what study is the census of Antarctic marine life?
A: Census of Marine Life', '
Q: When was the census of sea life carried out in Antarctica?
A: International Polar Year', "
Q: How many sea animals live in Earth's polar regions?
A: 235", '
Q: Besides birds, what large animals travel from one pole to the other?
A: cetaceans', '
Q: What is the amount of difference in temperature  in the deep ocean?
A: 5 °C']
During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931. In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf, the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountains (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier. One month later, the doomed Scott Expedition reached the pole.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What explorer led the Nimrod Expedition into Antarctica?
A: Ernest Shackleton', '
Q: Who led the party to first climb Mount Erebus?
A: Edgeworth David', '
Q: Who led the return expedition to find the Magnetic pole?
A: Douglas Mawson', '
Q: When did Mawson retire after leading several expeditions?
A: 1931', '
Q: When did Roald Amundsen reach the geographic south pole?
A: 14 December 1911']
The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act (1978) in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on Antarctica. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem. Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S.), remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes (35,300 short tons) in 2000.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Antarctic Conservation Act passed by the U.S.?
A: 1978', '
Q: What type of penalty can importing plants and animals into Antarctica bring?
A: criminal', '
Q: How many tonnes of Patagonian toothfish were illegally fished in 2000?
A: 32,000', '
Q: When did the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources  come into force?
A: 1980', '
Q: Over fishing of which species of fish helped promote regulations on fishing?
A: krill']
Small-scale "expedition tourism" has existed since 1957 and is currently subject to Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol provisions, but in effect self-regulated by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, but IAATO members account for 95% of the tourist activity. Travel is largely by small or medium ship, focusing on specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. A total of 37,506 tourists visited during the 2006–07 Austral summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number was predicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Since what year has tourism been ongoing to Antarctica?
A: 1957', '
Q: What is expedition tourism to Antarctica subject to?
A: Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol', '
Q: How many of the Antarctic tour operators belong to IAATO?
A: 95%', '
Q: What is the mode of travel for Antarctic tours?
A: small or medium ship', '
Q: How many tourists went to Antarctica during the 2006-07 season?
A: 37,506']
The main mineral resource known on the continent is coal. It was first recorded near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the Nimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of iron ore. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the oil and natural gas fields found in the Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the main mineral found on Antarctica?
A: coal', '
Q: Where was coal first found on Antarctica?
A: Beardmore Glacier', '
Q: What expedition discovered coal on Antarctica?
A: Nimrod Expedition', '
Q: Where is iron ore found on Antarctica?
A: Prince Charles Mountains', '
Q: Where are oil and gas deposits located near Antarctica?
A: Ross Sea']
On 6 September 2007, Belgian-based International Polar Foundation unveiled the Princess Elisabeth station, the world's first zero-emissions polar science station in Antarctica to research climate change. Costing $16.3 million, the prefabricated station, which is part of the International Polar Year, was shipped to the South Pole from Belgium by the end of 2008 to monitor the health of the polar regions. Belgian polar explorer Alain Hubert stated: "This base will be the first of its kind to produce zero emissions, making it a unique model of how energy should be used in the Antarctic." Johan Berte is the leader of the station design team and manager of the project which conducts research in climatology, glaciology and microbiology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of research was Princess Elizabeth station built to study?
A: climate change', '
Q: How much did the Princess Elizabeth station cost?
A: $16.3 million', '
Q: What unique characteristic does the Princess Elizabeth station feature?
A: zero-emissions', '
Q: From what country was the Princess Elizabeth station shipped?
A: Belgium', '
Q: Who is the leader of the station design team?
A: Johan Berte']
Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise (since the ice displaces only its own mass of water). However it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level. This effect is offset by snow falling back onto the continent. Recent decades have witnessed several dramatic collapses of large ice shelves around the coast of Antarctica, especially along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns have been raised that disruption of ice shelves may result in increased glacial outflow from the continental ice mass.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of ice originates on land and floats out to sea?
A: floating ice shelves', '
Q: What events have occurred in recent decades to the ice shelves surrounding Antarctica?
A: collapses', '
Q: Along what area has there been more collapsing ice shelves?
A: Antarctic Peninsula', '
Q: What could the displacement of ice cause?
A: glacial outflow', '
Q: What weather event would offset loss of ice shelves?
A: snow falling']
The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit plant growth. As a result, the diversity of plant life is very low and limited in distribution. The flora of the continent largely consists of bryophytes. There are about 100 species of mosses and 25 species of liverworts, but only three species of flowering plants, all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass), Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native Poa annua (annual bluegrass). Growth is restricted to a few weeks in the summer.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What can not grow extensively in Antarctica?
A: vegetation', '
Q: What does the climate of Antarctica inhibit?
A: plant growth', '
Q: hat is low and limited in Antarctica?
A: diversity of plant life', '
Q: How many species of Mosses are there in Antarctica?
A: 100']
New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959 although Norway in 2015 formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole. Antarctica's status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty was signed by twelve countries including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection, and banned military activity on Antarctica. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Since what year have claims been suspended in Antarctica?
A: 1959', "
Q: What document regulates Antarctica's status?
A: Antarctic Treaty System", "
Q: What latitude is defined as being Antarctica's border?
A: south of 60° S", '
Q: How many countries signed the treaty protecting Antarctica from claims?
A: twelve', '
Q: What does the treaty set Antarctica aside as?
A: scientific preserve']
European maps continued to show this hypothesized land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774. Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. According to various organizations (the National Science Foundation, NASA, the University of California, San Diego, and other sources), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820: von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captain in the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (a sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). The expedition led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Queen Maud's Land and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W﻿ / ﻿69.35778°S 2.24722°W﻿ / -69.35778; -2.24722, which became known as the Fimbul ice shelf. This happened three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. The first documented landing on Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis, apparently at Hughes Bay, near Cape Charles, in West Antarctica on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim. The first recorded and confirmed landing was at Cape Adair in 1895.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When did Cook's ships cross the Antarctic circle?
A: 17 January 1773", '
Q: What kept Captain Cook from getting too close to Antarctica?
A: field ice', '
Q: How many men sighted Antarctica in 1820?
A: three', '
Q: How close did von Bellingshausen and Lazarev come to Antarctica?
A: 32 km', '
Q: When was the first recorded landing on Antarctica?
A: 1895']
Since the 1970s, an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1985, three British scientists working on data they had gathered at Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) emitted by human products. With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989, climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has been an important atmospheric study since the 1970s?
A: ozone layer', '
Q: When did scientists discover the hole in the ozone layer?
A: 1985', '
Q: Where in Antarctica is Halley Station?
A: Brunt Ice Shelf', '
Q: What chemical was discovered to have caused the hole in the ozone?
A: chlorofluorocarbons', '
Q: What agreement banned the use of CFC s?
A: Montreal Protocol']
During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of sandstones, limestones and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea floor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), as Gondwana became centered on the South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period, the land became dominated by seed plants such as Glossopteris, a pteridosperm which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of climate did Gondwana have during the Cambrian period?
A: mild', '
Q: In what hemisphere did west Antarctica share during the Cambrian?
A: Northern', '
Q: Where was east Antarctica during the Cambrian period?
A: equator', '
Q: What was the climate of Gondwana at the beginning of the Devonian period?
A: cooler', '
Q: Where was Gondwana located by the end of the Devonian period?
A: South Pole']
Antarctica (US English i/æntˈɑːrktɪkə/, UK English /ænˈtɑːktɪkə/ or /ænˈtɑːtɪkə/ or /ænˈɑːtɪkə/)[Note 1] is Earth's southernmost continent, containing the geographic South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres (5,400,000 square miles), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi; 6,200 ft) in thickness, which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is the Earth's most southern continent?
A: Antarctica", '
Q: Which pole is located in Antarctica?
A: South Pole', '
Q: What ocean surrounds Antarctica?
A: Southern Ocean', '
Q: What is the size of Antarctica?
A: 14,000,000 square kilometres', '
Q: How much of Antarctica is ice covered?
A: 98%']