romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
In December 1831, he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist. He read Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore, at St. Jago, found Lyell's uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes. Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their "centre of creation". The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuego were friendly and civilised, yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages", and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What expedition did Darwin join in 1831?
A: Beagle expedition', '
Q: Who wrote The Principles of Geology?
A: Charles Lyell', '
Q: Where was the first stop of the Beagle Expedition?
A: St. Jago', '
Q: What did some of the fossils Darwin found on St. Jago resemble?
A: huge armadillos', '
Q: What caused Darwin to change his mind about the unbridgeable gap between animals and humans?
A: their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages"']
Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea (though their territories overlapped), that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches. Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain these findings, and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, discarding Lamarck's independent lineages progressing to higher forms. Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who showed that extinct South American fossils were related to living species?
A: Richard Owen', "
Q: What did John Gould announce in 1837?
A: Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea", '
Q: How many species of mockingbirds were found to be present on the Galapagos Islands?
A: three separate species', '
Q: What type of scientist was John Gould?
A: ornithologist', '
Q: Which animal did Darwin see at a zoo that made him further consider evolution?
A: an ape']
In late September 1838, he started reading Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population with its statistical argument that human populations, if unrestrained, breed beyond their means and struggle to survive. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle's "warring of the species" in plants; he immediately envisioned "a force like a hundred thousand wedges" pushing well-adapted variations into "gaps in the economy of nature", so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed. By December 1838, he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which book did Darwin begin reading in 1838?
A: An Essay on the Principle of Population', "
Q: What did Thomas Malthus' book theorize would happen to human populations if they were unrestrained?
A: breed beyond their means and struggle to survive", '
Q: Which species did Darwin compare with the human struggle to survive?
A: plants', '
Q: What concept was de Candolle considering as he studied plants?
A: "warring of the species"']
Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who did Darwin write his ideas to in 1842?
A: Lyell', '
Q: What was the name of Darwin\'s 35-page writing of his theory?
A: "Pencil Sketch"', '
Q: Which botanist did Darwin begin a correspondence with about his theories?
A: Joseph Dalton Hooker', "
Q: What information was Darwin's essay based on?
A: scientific results of the Beagle voyage", "
Q: How many pages had Darwin's sketch grown to in 1844?
A: 230-page"]
In November 1844, the anonymously published popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, written by Scottish journalist Robert Chambers, widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species. Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin's work in progress, and it ignored adaptation. Darwin read it soon after publication, and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists, including Adam Sedgwick, attacked its morality and scientific errors. Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion, and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream. While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation, Herbert Spencer became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the name of the anonymously published science book?
A: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation', '
Q: What kind of progression did Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation propose?
A: a linear progression', '
Q: Who wrote Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation?
A: Robert Chambers', '
Q: What was the evidence in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation used to support?
A: that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time.', '
Q: Which scientist was in favor of Lamarckism in the 1850s?
A: Herbert Spencer']
Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What creatures did Darwin study that made him believe variation arose constantly?
A: barnacle', '
Q: In what year did Darwin begin to work on his evolution theory full-time?
A: 1854', "
Q: By which year had Darwin's theory become more complex and supported by a lot of evidence?
A: 1856", '
Q: Which bird species did Darwin become extremely interested in studying?
A: fancy pigeon', '
Q: What species did Darwin study for dispersal across oceans>
A: plant seeds and animals']
An 1855 paper on the "introduction" of species, written by Alfred Russel Wallace, claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species. Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace's paper and its possible connection to Darwin's work, although Darwin did not, and in a letter written on 1–2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper. He met Lyell, and in correspondence with Joseph Dalton Hooker affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. He began a "sketch" account on 14 May 1856, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species. His theory including the principle of divergence was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent Asa Gray a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the "Introduction of Species" paper written?
A: 1855', '
Q: Who wrote the "Introduction of Species" paper?
A: Alfred Russel Wallace', '
Q: How did Wallace claim that patterns in the distribution of species could be explained?
A: if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species', "
Q: Which scientist recognized the possible validity and implications of Wallace's paper?
A: Charles Lyell", '
Q: When did Lyell ask Darwin to publish his theory to give it priority?
A: 1–2 May 1856']
Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which book was Darwin working on when he received a package from Wallace?
A: "big book" on Natural Selection,', '
Q: What was in the packages Darwin received from Wallace?
A: twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism', '
Q: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?
A: Wallace', '
Q: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?
A: Darwin', "
Q: What do some historians think made Wallace's concept of natural selection different from Darwin's?
A: Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation."]
After the meeting, Darwin decided to write "an abstract of my whole work". He started work on 20 July 1858, while on holiday at Sandown, and wrote parts of it from memory. Lyell discussed arrangements with publisher John Murray III, of the publishing house John Murray, who responded immediately to Darwin's letter of 31 March 1859 with an agreement to publish the book without even seeing the manuscript, and an offer to Darwin of 2⁄3 of the profits. (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.)

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Darwin decide to write in July, 1858?
A: "an abstract of my whole work".', "
Q: Which publisher did Lyell convince to arrange publication of Darwin's work?
A: John Murray III", '
Q: What did the publisher offer Darwin in payment for the book?
A: 2⁄3 of the profits', "
Q: What edition was the book in by the time of Darwin's death?
A: 6th edition", '
Q: How much had the book earned Darwin by the time he died?
A: nearly £3000']
Darwin had initially decided to call his book An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Here the term "races" is used as an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races—the first use in the book refers to "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and proceeds to a discussion of "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants".

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What title did Darwin's book ultimately have?
A: On the Origin of Species", '
Q: What had Darwin wanted to name his book?
A: An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection', '
Q: Who convinced Darwin that his book needed a shorter, more compelling title?
A: Murray', '
Q: What does the word "races" mean as referenced in Darwin\'s book?
A: an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races', '
Q: What is the extended name of The Origin of Species that is written on the title page?
A: by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life']
Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection "by which to work" by December 1838, yet almost twenty years later, when Wallace's letter arrived on 18 June 1858, Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Charles Darwin's illness caused repeated delays. His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: By which year did Darwin have the basic premise of his natural selection theory?
A: 1838', '
Q: Why might Darwin have postponed publishing his theory of evolution for over 20 years?
A: fear of religious persecution or social disgrace', '
Q: Which paper did Darwin write that was incorrect?
A: Glen Roy', '
Q: Who might Darwin have feared upsetting by publishing his work?
A: his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma.']
A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. Darwin always finished one book before starting another. While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. He firmly intended to publish, but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full-time. His estimate that writing his "big book" would take five years was optimistic.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What did Darwin's contemporaries think of the long delays on his publishing?
A: Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable", "
Q: What was Darwin's process on writing his books?
A: Darwin always finished one book before starting another", "
Q: What was Darwin's original estimate for the amount of time his book would take to write?
A: five years", "
Q: Which scientist's study theorized that the idea of Darwin's work being delayed dates to the 1940s?
A: John van Wyhe"]
On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers' Hall copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale. Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie's Library, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library. The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860, and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from Charles Kingsley, and the phrase "by the Creator" added to the closing sentence. During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase "survival of the fittest", which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology (1864).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the cost for the first published copies of On the Origin of Species?
A: fifteen shillings', '
Q: How many copies of On the Origin of Species were created in the first printing?
A: 1250 copies', "
Q: Where was the book, On the Origin of Species first offered for sale?
A: Murray's autumn sale", "
Q: How many editions did On the Origin of Species go through during Darwin's lifetime?
A: six editions", "
Q: Which institution bought 500 copies of the book, ensuring that a large number of people would have access to it?
A: Mudie's Library"]
In January 1871, George Jackson Mivart's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included false metaphysics. Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin (this was the first edition in which he used the word "evolution" which had commonly been associated with embryological development, though all editions concluded with the word "evolved"), and added a new chapter VII, Miscellaneous objections, to address Mivart's arguments.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did On the Genesis of Species argue against natural selection?
A: claimed it included false metaphysics', '
Q: Who wrote On the Genesis of Species?
A: George Jackson Mivart', '
Q: When did Charles Darwin first use the word "evolution" in On the Origin of Species?
A: the sixth edition', "
Q: What did Charles Darwin do to address Mivart's arguments?
A: added a new chapter VII,", '
Q: What was chapter VII entitled?
A: Miscellaneous objections']
In the United States, botanist Asa Gray an American colleague of Darwin negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin. Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits. Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with Appleton's of New York, who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Why couldn't Asa Gray use a Boston publisher for an American version of On the Origin of Species?
A: two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin", '
Q: How much of a royalty was Gray able to negotiate with a New York publisher for On the Origin of Species?
A: a 5% royalty', '
Q: When was the first American edition of On the Origin of Species published?
A: mid January 1860', '
Q: What did Darwin decide to do with the profits of the American version of On the Origin of Species?
A: asked Gray to keep any profits', '
Q: What was the print run that Darwin mentioned for On the Origin of Species?
A: 2,500 copies']
The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated "favoured races" as "perfected races", and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to Naturphilosophie. In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack. Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867. Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics, as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions. He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876. A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860. By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. In Darwin's lifetime, Origin was published in Swedish in 1871, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the German translator that Darwin welcomed for On the Origin of Species?
A: Heinrich Georg Bronn,', "
Q: What did Bronn do in his translation that went completely against what Darwin wanted in On the Origin of Species?
A: the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted.", '
Q: What did Bronn change "Favoured Races" to in his translated edition of On the Origin of Species?
A: "perfected races"', '
Q: Who published an improved translation of On the Origin of Species in 1867?
A: Julius Victor Carus', '
Q: Why was Darwin unhappy with the first French translation of On the Origins of Species?
A: numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed']