romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Polemics about humanism have sometimes assumed paradoxical twists and turns. Early 20th century critics such as Ezra Pound, T. E. Hulme, and T. S. Eliot considered humanism to be sentimental "slop" (Hulme)[citation needed] or "an old bitch gone in the teeth" (Pound) and wanted to go back to a more manly, authoritarian society such as (they believed) existed in the Middle Ages. Postmodern critics who are self-described anti-humanists, such as Jean-François Lyotard and Michel Foucault, have asserted that humanism posits an overarching and excessively abstract notion of humanity or universal human nature, which can then be used as a pretext for imperialism and domination of those deemed somehow less than human. "Humanism fabricates the human as much as it fabricates the nonhuman animal", suggests Timothy Laurie, turning the human into what he calls "a placeholder for a range of attributes that have been considered most virtuous among humans (e.g. rationality, altruism), rather than most commonplace (e.g. hunger, anger)". Nevertheless, philosopher Kate Soper notes that by faulting humanism for falling short of its own benevolent ideals, anti-humanism thus frequently "secretes a humanist rhetoric".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was one early naysayer of Humanism?
A: Ezra Pound', '
Q: What was the main reason they disagreed with the beliefs?
A: sentimental', '
Q: Who stated Humanism creates of people placeholder?
A: Timothy Laurie', '
Q: Who stated that this argument was in fact support of Humanism?
A: Kate Soper']
In his book, Humanism (1997), Tony Davies calls these critics "humanist anti-humanists". Critics of antihumanism, most notably Jürgen Habermas, counter that while antihumanists may highlight humanism's failure to fulfil its emancipatory ideal, they do not offer an alternative emancipatory project of their own. Others, like the German philosopher Heidegger considered themselves humanists on the model of the ancient Greeks, but thought humanism applied only to the German "race" and specifically to the Nazis and thus, in Davies' words, were anti-humanist humanists. Such a reading of Heidegger's thought is itself deeply controversial; Heidegger includes his own views and critique of Humanism in Letter On Humanism. Davies acknowledges that after the horrific experiences of the wars of the 20th century "it should no longer be possible to formulate phrases like 'the destiny of man' or the 'triumph of human reason' without an instant consciousness of the folly and brutality they drag behind them". For "it is almost impossible to think of a crime that has not been committed in the name of human reason". Yet, he continues, "it would be unwise to simply abandon the ground occupied by the historical humanisms. For one thing humanism remains on many occasions the only available alternative to bigotry and persecution. The freedom to speak and write, to organise and campaign in defence of individual or collective interests, to protest and disobey: all these can only be articulated in humanist terms."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was the book humanism published?
A: 1997', '
Q: In what century was the horrific wars?
A: 20th century', '
Q: What is the only alternative to bigotry and persecution on many occasions?
A: humanism', '
Q: Who wrote the book humanism?
A: Tony Davies']
The ad fontes principle also had many applications. The re-discovery of ancient manuscripts brought a more profound and accurate knowledge of ancient philosophical schools such as Epicureanism, and Neoplatonism, whose Pagan wisdom the humanists, like the Church fathers of old, tended, at least initially, to consider as deriving from divine revelation and thus adaptable to a life of Christian virtue. The line from a drama of Terence, Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto (or with nil for nihil), meaning "I am a human being, I think nothing human alien to me", known since antiquity through the endorsement of Saint Augustine, gained renewed currency as epitomising the humanist attitude. The statement, in a play modeled or borrowed from a (now lost) Greek comedy by Menander, may have originated in a lighthearted vein – as a comic rationale for an old man's meddling – but it quickly became a proverb and throughout the ages was quoted with a deeper meaning, by Cicero and Saint Augustine, to name a few, and most notably by Seneca. Richard Bauman writes:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who quoted the line of Terence most notably?
A: Seneca', '
Q: What allowed for a deeper understanding and personal exploration of older philosophers theories?
A: ancient manuscripts', '
Q: Who was the most influential supporter of the ideals of Terence?
A: Saint Augustine', '
Q: Who were the Humanists in agreement with about using these manuscripts in their quests for pure Christian living?
A: Church fathers']
Davies identifies Paine's The Age of Reason as "the link between the two major narratives of what Jean-François Lyotard calls the narrative of legitimation": the rationalism of the 18th-century Philosophes and the radical, historically based German 19th-century Biblical criticism of the Hegelians David Friedrich Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach. "The first is political, largely French in inspiration, and projects 'humanity as the hero of liberty'. The second is philosophical, German, seeks the totality and autonomy of knowledge, and stresses understanding rather than freedom as the key to human fulfilment and emancipation. The two themes converged and competed in complex ways in the 19th century and beyond, and between them set the boundaries of its various humanisms. Homo homini deus est ("The human being is a god to humanity" or "god is nothing [other than] the human being to himself"), Feuerbach had written.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What writing was considered a bridge between two other major writings?
A: The Age of Reason', '
Q: Which century was the first writing from?
A: 18th-century', '
Q: Who states imply that humans are their own Gods?
A: Feuerbach', '
Q: What was the origin of the second writing?
A: German']
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the Earth's mass impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The initial state of earth was what?
A: molten', '
Q: What formed on the outside of the earth after it cooled?
A: a solid crust', "
Q: How does the mass of the moon compare to earth?
A: about 10% of the Earth's mass", '
Q: What created a primordial atmosphere on earth?
A: Outgassing and volcanic activity', '
Q: Ice from what source helped to create earths oceans?
A: comets', '
Q: Powerful volcanism contributed to cause early earth to be in what state?
A: molten', '
Q: What occurred in the atmosphere of the earth after the crust was formed?
A: water began accumulating', '
Q: What size of object may have created the moon?
A: Mars', '
Q: When water was creating the oceans what was happening to atmospheric water vapor?
A: Condensing']
The Earth of the early Archean (4,000 to 2,500 million years ago) may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to subduct and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of erosion and subsequent tectonic events.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what time period was the Archean era?
A: 4,000 to 2,500 million years ago', '
Q: During what period did the earths crust cooling allow the creation of plates?
A: Archean', '
Q: It is believed that a very warm earth would lead to more recycling of what?
A: crustal material', '
Q: What might have a very hot earth stopped from occurring?
A: cratonisation and continent formation', '
Q: What do some believe accounts for the small amount of Archean rocks?
A: erosion and subsequent tectonic events']
In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as graywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments and banded iron formations. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks were derived from volcanic island arcs, while the low-grade metamorphic rocks represent deep-sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island frogs and deposited in a forearc basin. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are Archean rocks composed of, in general?
A: metamorphized deep-water sediments', '
Q: What type of formation is indicated by low and high grade metamorphic rocks?
A: Greenstone', '
Q: From where did high grade Archean rocks originate?
A: volcanic island arcs', '
Q: Low grade metamorphic rocks are composed of what, generally?
A: deep-sea sediments', '
Q: What is a greenstone belt?
A: sutured protocontinents']
The geologic record of the Proterozoic (2,500 to 541 million years ago) is more complete than that for the preceding Archean. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of these rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean-age ones, and plenty are unaltered. Study of these rocks show that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and wholly modern orogenic activity. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 Ma.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what time period did the Proterozoic era occur?
A: 2,500 to 541 million years ago', '
Q: What era came before the Proterozoic era?
A: Archean', '
Q: In what type of sea did typical Proterozoic geology come to be?
A: shallow epicontinental seas', '
Q: What type of continental behavior was unique to the Proterozoic?
A: rapid continental accretion', '
Q: What is the name for the large super continent that broke apart 750 million years ago?
A: Rodinia']
The Paleozoic spanned from roughly 541 to 252 million years ago (Ma) and is subdivided into six geologic periods; from oldest to youngest they are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what period was the Paleozoic era?
A: 541 to 252 million years ago', '
Q: How many periods of geology are within the Paleozoic era?
A: six', '
Q: The Permian is an example of what?
A: geologic periods', '
Q: After what continental event did the Paleozoic begin?
A: breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia', '
Q: What continent was formed at the end of the Paleozoic?
A: Pangaea']
The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma. Cambrian continents are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a Neoproterozoic supercontinent called Pannotia. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. Continental drift rates may have been anomalously high. Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia remained independent continents following the break-up of the supercontinent of Pannotia. Gondwana started to drift toward the South Pole. Panthalassa covered most of the southern hemisphere, and minor oceans included the Proto-Tethys Ocean, Iapetus Ocean and Khanty Ocean.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: At what rough time did the Cambrian era start?
A: 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma.', '
Q: What were the continents of the Cambrian area believed to have formerly been a part of?
A: Pannotia', '
Q: What continent moved to the southern-most part of the earth in the Cambrian era?
A: Gondwana', '
Q: What continent ranged over the majority of the southern hemisphere of earth in the Cambrian?
A: Panthalassa', '
Q: Baltica and Sibera are examples of what thing, during the Cambrian era?
A: independent continents']
The Ordovician Period started at a major extinction event called the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events some time about 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma. During the Ordovician the southern continents were collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in the equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician the continents Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica were still independent continents (since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but Baltica began to move toward Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean to shrink between them. Also, Avalonia broke free from Gondwana and began to head north toward Laurentia. The Rheic Ocean was formed as a result of this. By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long ago did the Ordovician period begin?
A: 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma.', '
Q: Which event precipitated the Ordovician period?
A: the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction', '
Q: What was the name of the large southernmost continent during the Ordovician?
A: Gondwana', '
Q: Which ocean decreased in size with the movement of Baltica in the Ordovician?
A: Iapetus Ocean', '
Q: What continent fractured off Gondwana in the direction of Laurentia?
A: Avalonia']
The most-commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of an ice age, in the Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable greenhouse conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen isotopes in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of climate was normal in the Ordovician period?
A: stable greenhouse conditions', '
Q: What ice age signaled the end of the normal climate in the Ordovician period?
A: the Hirnantian faunal stage', '
Q: Oxygen from what kind of fossil were used to date the Hirnantian faunal stage?
A: brachiopods', '
Q: How many years is the Hirnantian faunal stage believed to have lasted?
A: 0.5 to 1.5 million years', '
Q: What started to develop on Gondwana as it moved over the south pole?
A: ice caps']
The Silurian is a major division of the geologic timescale that started about 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma. During the Silurian, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian ice caps were less extensive than those of the late Ordovician glaciation. The melting of ice caps and glaciers contributed to a rise in sea levels, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an unconformity. Other cratons and continent fragments drifted together near the equator, starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Euramerica. The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include Proto-Tethys, Paleo-Tethys, Rheic Ocean, a seaway of Iapetus Ocean (now in between Avalonia and Laurentia), and newly formed Ural Ocean.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Silurian period believed to have begun?
A: 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma.', '
Q: Compared to the Ordovician glaciation, how big were the ice caps on Gondwana during the Silurian?
A: less extensive', '
Q: What did the melting of ice on Gondwana add to?
A: a rise in sea levels', '
Q: Which supercontinent formed during the Silurian?
A: Euramerica', '
Q: Which ocean ranged the majority of the northern hemisphere in the Silurian period?
A: Panthalassa']
The Devonian spanned roughly from 419 to 359 Ma. The period was a time of great tectonic activity, as Laurasia and Gondwana drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn. In these near-deserts, the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (hematite) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator Pangaea began to consolidate from the plates containing North America and Europe, further raising the northern Appalachian Mountains and forming the Caledonian Mountains in Great Britain and Scandinavia. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent of Gondwana. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo-Tethys, Proto-Tethys, Rheic Ocean and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what time period was the Devonian era?
A: 419 to 359 Ma.', '
Q: Which continent was formed from the meeting of Laurentia and Baltica?
A: Euramerica (or Laurussia)', '
Q: Which sedimentary beds were created in the dry areas of Euramerica in the Devonian period?
A: Old Red Sandstone', '
Q: What was the largest ocean referred to that existed in the Devonian period?
A: Panthalassa', '
Q: Which mountains associated with the USA were formed near the equator on  Pangaea during the Devonian?
A: the northern Appalachian Mountains']
A global drop in sea level at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the Carboniferous; this created the widespread epicontinental seas and carbonate deposition of the Mississippian. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern Gondwana was glaciated throughout the period, though it is uncertain if the ice sheets were a holdover from the Devonian or not. These conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush coal swamps flourished within 30 degrees of the northernmost glaciers. A mid-Carboniferous drop in sea-level precipitated a major marine extinction, one that hit crinoids and ammonites especially hard. This sea-level drop and the associated unconformity in North America separate the Mississippian Period from the Pennsylvanian period.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What occurred to the level of the sea when the Devonian period was finished?
A: A global drop', '
Q: During which period were epicontinental seas created?
A: Carboniferous', '
Q: What was on the land at 30 degrees latitude north in the carboniferous period?
A: lush coal swamps', '
Q: What was the result in the decline in sea level in the middle of the Carboniferous period?
A: a major marine extinction', '
Q: The Pennsylvania period is separated by the drop in Carboniferous era sea levels from what other period?
A: Mississippian Period']
The Carboniferous was a time of active mountain building, as the supercontinent Pangea came together. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America-Europe (Laurussia) along the present line of eastern North America. This continental collision resulted in the Hercynian orogeny in Europe, and the Alleghenian orogeny in North America; it also extended the newly uplifted Appalachians southwestward as the Ouachita Mountains. In the same time frame, much of present eastern Eurasian plate welded itself to Europe along the line of the Ural mountains. There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous the Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed the Rheic Ocean (closed by the assembly of South and North America), the small, shallow Ural Ocean (which was closed by the collision of Baltica, and Siberia continents, creating the Ural Mountains) and Proto-Tethys Ocean.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What geologic events took place when Pangea combined during the Carboniferous?
A: mountain building', '
Q: What was the continent that came to be North America and Europe called during the Carboniferous?
A: Laurussia', '
Q: What was the effect of Laurussia impacting Gondwana in North America?
A: the Alleghenian orogeny', '
Q: The mountains forming to the southwest of the Appalachians in the Carboniferous are known as what?
A: the Ouachita Mountains', '
Q: Which two large oceans existed during the Carboniferous period?
A: the Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys']
During the Permian all the Earth's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (Panthalassa, the universal sea), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What supercontinent prevailed during the Permian era?
A: Pangaea', '
Q: What was the largest ocean during the Permian called?
A: Panthalassa', '
Q: There was an ocean between Gondwana and Asia in the Permian, what was it?
A: Paleo-Tethys Ocean', '
Q: The moving of which continent contributed to the decrease in size of the Paleo-Tethys?
A: Cimmeria', '
Q: During which period was the Tehtys Ocean dominant?
A: the Mesozoic Era']