romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Although the Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme, there are some historical and morphological deviations from this: for example preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'.[clarification needed] Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž, they are substituted with sh and zh in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect. Otherwise, the h in sh represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in Pasha (pas-ha); this also applies to some foreign names.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What principles usually govern the Estonian orthography?
A: phonemic principles', "
Q: To how many phoneme's does each grapheme correspond?
A: one", '
Q: What type of deviations are there from the single phoneme to each grapheme general principle?
A: some historical and morphological deviations', '
Q: On what occasions are š and ž replaced with sh and zh?
A: Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž', '
Q: What is an example of a word containing a voiceless glottal fricative?
A: Pasha (pas-ha)']
Modern Estonian orthography is based on the Newer Orthography created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish orthography. The Older Orthography it replaced was created in the 17th century by Bengt Gottfried Forselius and Johann Hornung based on standard German orthography. Earlier writing in Estonian had by and large used an ad hoc orthography based on Latin and Middle Low German orthography. Some influences of the standard German orthography — for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' persisted well into the 1930s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q:  In what Orthagraphy does Modern Estonian orthography have its basis?
A: Newer Orthography', '
Q: Who is responsible for the creation of the Newer Orthography?
A: Eduard Ahrens', '
Q: In what century was the Newer Orthography created?
A: 19th century', '
Q: Previous to the Newer Orthography what orthography was in place?
A: Older Orthography', "
Q: From what other country's orthography did the Older Orthography get its basis?
A: standard German orthography"]
It should be noted that Estonian words and names quoted in international publications from Soviet sources are often back-transliterations from the Russian transliteration. Examples are the use of "ya" for "ä" (e.g. Pyarnu instead of Pärnu), "y" instead of "õ" (e.g., Pylva instead of Põlva) and "yu" instead of "ü" (e.g., Pyussi instead of Püssi). Even in the Encyclopædia Britannica one can find "ostrov Khiuma", where "ostrov" means "island" in Russian and "Khiuma" is back-transliteration from Russian instead of "Hiiumaa" (Hiiumaa > Хийума(а) > Khiuma).

Questions and answers:
["
Q: In Soviet international publications what language's transliteration are Estonian words and names often back-transliterations from?
A: Russian", '
Q: What famous encyclopedia contains a Russian back-transliteration of Estonian?
A: Encyclopædia Britannica', '
Q: What is the Russian back-transliteration from Encyclopædia Britannica?
A: "ostrov Khiuma"']
Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an agglutinating language to a fusional language. The canonical word order is SVO (subject–verb–object).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the typological form of Estonian?
A: transitional', '
Q: What is Estonian typologically transitioning from?
A: an agglutinating language', '
Q: What sort of form is Estonian transitioning into?
A: a fusional language', '
Q: How are words ordered in Estonian canonically?
A: subject–verb–object']
In Estonian, nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative, with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form). Thus the illative for kollane maja ("a yellow house") is kollasesse majja ("into a yellow house"), but the terminative is kollase majani ("as far as a yellow house"). With respect to the Proto-Finnic language, elision has occurred; thus, the actual case marker may be absent, but the stem is changed, cf. maja – majja and the Pohjanmaa dialect of Finnish maja – majahan.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language lacks gendered nouns and pronouns?
A: Estonian', '
Q: In the nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative cases what always agrees with the noun in number and case?
A: adjectives']
The direct object of the verb appears either in the accusative (for total objects) or in the partitive (for partial objects). The accusative coincides with the genitive in the singular and with nominative in the plural. Accusative vs. partitive case opposition of the object used with transitive verbs creates a telicity contrast, just as in Finnish. This is a rough equivalent of the perfective vs. imperfective aspect opposition.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What other language has a telicity contrast?
A: Finnish', '
Q: Aside from the accusative, where can the direct object of the verb be found?
A: partitive', '
Q: What is the accusative used for?
A: total objects']
The verbal system lacks a distinctive future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined subject (the "impersonal").

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From what system is a distinctive future tense lacking?
A: verbal system', '
Q: What is used in place of the future tense?
A: present tense', '
Q: What does Estonian use to show actions performed by an undecided subject?
A: special forms']
Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of very different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and English, for example. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Close to 33 percent of Estonian's vocabulary belong to what group of languages?
A: Germanic languages", '
Q: What is the main Germanic language from which Estonia gets the Germanic portion of its vocabulary?
A: Low Saxon', '
Q: When did Low Saxon make its appearance as part of the Estonian language?
A: during the period of German rule', '
Q: From what other Germanic language does Estonian derive its vocabulary?
A: High German', '
Q: Standard German is part of what Germanic language?
A: High German']
Often 'b' & 'p' are interchangeable, for example 'baggage' becomes 'pagas', 'lob' (to throw) becomes 'loopima'. The initial letter 's' is often dropped, for example 'skool' becomes 'kool', 'stool' becomes 'tool'.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What two letters can be replaced with each other a lot of the time in Estonian?
A: 'b' & 'p'", "
Q: What happens in many cases when a word starts with an 's'?
A: The initial letter 's' is often dropped", "
Q: In an example of replacing 'b' with 'p' how is 'baggage' pronounced?
A: pagas"]
Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s–90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschöpfung; i.e. they created new words out of nothing.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the journalist who was also a language planner?
A: Ado Grenzstein', '
Q: In what years did Ado Grenzstein do journalism work in Estonia?
A: 1870s–90s', '
Q: What is another term for making up words from nothing?
A: formation ex nihilo', '
Q: Who in the course of their language planning attempted to use the formation ex nihilo technique?
A: Ado Grenzstein']
The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). In Aavik’s dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo, many of which are in common use today. Examples are

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Of all of Estonian's language reformers who is the most well known?
A: Johannes Aavik", '
Q: What was the period of time in which Johannes Aavik was alive?
A: 1880–1973', '
Q: What is the technique Aavic used to create Estonian words out of nothing?
A: creations ex nihilo', '
Q: In what publication can examples of ex nihilo words be found?
A: Aavik’s dictionary', '
Q: How many words did Aavik put in his dictionary?
A: approximately 4000']
Many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French. Consider roim ‘crime’ versus English crime or taunima ‘to condemn, disapprove’ versus Finnish tuomita ‘to condemn, to judge’ (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik’s 1921 dictionary). These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What languages did Aavik know?
A: Ancient Greek, Latin and French', "
Q: When was Aavik's dictionary published?
A: 1921", '
Q: What is another term for words created by Aavik?
A: Aavikisms', "
Q: Instead of being created from nothing Aavik's ex nihilo terms are thought to actually possibly have been influenced by what?
A: foreign lexical items"]
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a source for the particles in paper?
A: wood', '
Q: What is a common use for paper?
A: writing', '
Q: What is the last step in paper production?
A: drying']
The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century AD, possibly as early as the year 105 A.D., by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BC in China. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the pulp papermaking process developed?
A: 2nd century AD', '
Q: What country was the process developed in?
A: China', '
Q: What country is leading in production of paper?
A: China', '
Q: What country is the second largest produced of paper?
A: United States', '
Q: Which court eunuch was associated with the papermaking process?
A: Cai Lun']
The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch. With paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is credited with the papermaking process?
A: Cai Lun', '
Q: What material did paper replace upon its invention?
A: silk', '
Q: Which Age did the invention of the papermaking process contribute towards?
A: Golden Age', '
Q: What century is the first papermaking process attributed to?
A: 2nd']
Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered paper mills were built. Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos. In the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what century did the papermaking process spread from China to Europe?
A: 13th', '
Q: Which middle eastern city did the papermaking process to Europe from?
A: Baghdad', '
Q: What name did the process take on in Baghdad?
A: bagdatikos', '
Q: In which century did the process become much cheaper than before?
A: 19th', '
Q: Which Canadian inventor helped F.G. Keller to develop their own process?
A: Charles Fenerty']
The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος (papuros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe. Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Latin word is paper derived from?
A: Papyrus', '
Q: What language is papyrus derived from?
A: Greek', '
Q: What process changes the properties of the fibres used in papermaking?
A: maceration', '
Q: What plant was used in Egypt to make papyrus?
A: Cyperus', '
Q: What part of the Cyperus plant was used in making papyrus?
A: the pith']
To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with tree-free paper; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is separated from the cellulose fibres?
A: lignin', '
Q: What type of paper is paper made from chemical pulps known as?
A: wood-free', '
Q: What percentage of fibres are wasted in the bleaching process?
A: 5%', '
Q: What percentage of cotton is cellulose?
A: 90%']
There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many chemical pulping processes are there?
A: three', '
Q: What decade does the sulfite process date to?
A: 1840s', '
Q: What process is most commonly used?
A: The kraft process', '
Q: What is another process used to pulp straws with high silicate content?
A: Soda pulping']
There are two major mechanical pulps, the thermomechanical one (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Besides the thermomechanical process, what is a process used in pulping?
A: groundwood pulp', '
Q: What is the main ingredient in the groundwood process?
A: debarked logs', '
Q: What strength of paper is produced by mechanical pulps?
A: weak']
Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Recylced papers can be made with what new type of pulp?
A: virgin']
Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve its characteristics for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of clay improves the characteristics of the pulps used in papermaking?
A: china clay', '
Q: What is added for sizing purposes?
A: Additives', '
Q: What besides china clay is used as a filler?
A: chalk']
Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is the water removed by force from a sheet of paper?
A: Pressing', '
Q: What is used to collect the water expelled from pressing?
A: felt', '
Q: What is used to collect water when hand-making paper?
A: blotter sheet', '
Q: Besides a blotter sheet, what can be used to collect water?
A: felt']
Drying involves using air and/or heat to remove water from the paper sheets; in the earliest days of paper making this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine the most common is the steam heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans; where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the main component of drying the paper?
A: air', '
Q: At what percentage moisture content is the papermaking process trying to achieve in the end?
A: 6']
Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Besides calcium, coated paper has a thin layer of what?
A: china clay', '
Q: What process is done to polish the surface of the paper?
A: calendering', '
Q: What is the shiniest type of coated paper?
A: Gloss', '
Q: What papers give the best optical density?
A: Gloss']
The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What contraption is used to carry the paper to the web printing presses?
A: reels', '
Q: In what manner are sheets normally cut?
A: long-grain', '
Q: If the paper is not to be used in the web printing process, what is done?
A: cut into sheets']
All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of paper is produced on a machine like the Fourdrinier?
A: wove paper', '
Q: What is used to apply watermarks and other patterns?
A: rollers', '
Q: What is in common with the lentgh along and across the grain of paper produced by a machine such as the Fourdrinier?
A: density', '
Q: What leaves a pattern on the paper that has a consistent density width and lengthwise?
A: wire mesh']
Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of lines does wove paper not exhibit?
A: Laidlines', '
Q: What are small regular lines left on paper when handmade in a mould?
A: Laidlines', '
Q: What runs perpendicular to the laidlines?
A: chainlines', '
Q: Which is lines are commonly higher in density, laidlines or chainlines?
A: Laidlines']
The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch in the United States and in thousandths of a mm in the rest of the world. Paper may be between 0.07 and 0.18 millimetres (0.0028 and 0.0071 in) thick.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What tool is often used in measuring the thickness of paper?
A: caliper', '
Q: In the United States, what units are used when stating the measurements of paper thickness?
A: thousandths of an inch', '
Q: Someone measuring the thickness of paper in the UK is likely to use what unit?
A: mm', '
Q: Sated in inches, what is the common range of paper thickness?
A: 0.0028 and 0.0071 in']
Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8.5 in × 11 in (216 mm × 279 mm) paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces. In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What characteristic is paper usually classified by?
A: weight', '
Q: In the US, the weight of what is used to classify paper for sale?
A: a ream', '
Q: Paper rated at over 110lb is considered what type of stock?
A: card']
In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m2 or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g. Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What ISO sizing system does Europe use?
A: ISO 216', '
Q: If paper is over 160g what is it considered as?
A: card', '
Q: Besides thickness, what attribute is used in stating the weight of a ream in Europe?
A: dimensions']