romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and most commercial ores are sulfides, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and to a lesser extent chalcocite (Cu2S). These minerals are concentrated from crushed ores to the level of 10–15% copper by froth flotation or bioleaching. Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag. The process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulfides into its oxides, which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag, which floats on top of the heated mass. The resulting copper matte consisting of Cu2S is then roasted to convert all sulfides into oxides:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the average concentration of copper in ores?
A: 0.6%', '
Q: What are most commercial ores?
A: sulfides', '
Q: What happens to the silicate slag  during the flash smelting process?
A: floats on top', '
Q: What does heating copper ore materials with silica remove?
A: iron', '
Q: What do the sulfides convert to after the copper matte is roasted?
A: oxides']
Together with caesium and gold (both yellow), and osmium (bluish), copper is one of only four elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the filled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells – the energy difference between these shells is such that it corresponds to orange light. The same mechanism accounts for the yellow color of gold and caesium.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: How many metals have a natural color that isn't gray?
A: four", '
Q: What color is pure copper?
A: orange-red', '
Q: What does copper aquire when exposed to air?
A: reddish tarnish', '
Q: The energy difference between filled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells corresponds to what color of light?
A: orange light', '
Q: What color is the metal caesium?
A: yellow']
Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable, corrosion resistant, and weatherproof architectural material. Roofs, flashings, rain gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, and doors have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years. Copper's architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior wall cladding, building expansion joints, radio frequency shielding, and antimicrobial indoor products, such as attractive handrails, bathroom fixtures, and counter tops. Some of copper's other important benefits as an architectural material include its low thermal movement, light weight, lightning protection, and its recyclability.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has copper been used for since ancient times?
A: architectural material', '
Q: In recent times what is one interior use copper been expanded to include?
A: antimicrobial indoor products', '
Q: What is an important benefit to using copper as an architectural material?
A: low thermal movement', '
Q: How long has copper been used in building construction?
A: hundreds or thousands of years', '
Q: What is the benefit to using copper for things such as counter tops and hand rails?
A: antimicrobial']
A psychological identity relates to self-image (one's mental model of oneself), self-esteem, and individuality. Consequently, Weinreich gives the definition "A person's identity is defined as the totality of one's self-construal, in which how one construes oneself in the present expresses the continuity between how one construes oneself as one was in the past and how one construes oneself as one aspires to be in the future"; this allows for definitions of aspects of identity, such as: "One's ethnic identity is defined as that part of the totality of one's self-construal made up of those dimensions that express the continuity between one's construal of past ancestry and one's future aspirations in relation to ethnicity" (Weinreich, 1986a).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Self-image, self-esteem, and individuality relate to what?
A: A psychological identity', '
Q: What aspect or type of identity does Weinreich single out?
A: ethnic identity', '
Q: What psychological concept does Weinreich state as between the past and future?
A: identity', "
Q: A person's identity is defined as the totality of what?
A: one's self-construal"]
The description or representation of individual and group identity is a central task for psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists and those of other disciplines where "identity" needs to be mapped and defined. How should one describe the identity of another, in ways which encompass both their idiosyncratic qualities and their group memberships or identifications, both of which can shift according to circumstance? Following on from the work of Kelly, Erikson, Tajfel and others Weinreich's Identity Structure Analysis (ISA), is "a structural representation of the individual's existential experience, in which the relationships between self and other agents are organised in relatively stable structures over time … with the emphasis on the socio-cultural milieu in which self relates to other agents and institutions" (Weinreich and Saunderson, (eds) 2003, p1). Using constructs drawn from the salient discourses of the individual, the group and cultural norms, the practical operationalisation of ISA provides a methodology that maps how these are used by the individual, applied across time and milieus by the "situated self" to appraise self and other agents and institutions (for example, resulting in the individual's evaluation of self and significant others and institutions).[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The central task for psychologists, sociologists, and anthropologists is to describe what topics?
A: individual and group identity', '
Q: Who developed the ISA?
A: Weinreich', '
Q: ISA stands for what?
A: Identity Structure Analysis']
Weinreich's identity variant similarly includes the categories of identity diffusion, foreclosure and crisis, but with a somewhat different emphasis. Here, with respect to identity diffusion for example, an optimal level is interpreted as the norm, as it is unrealistic to expect an individual to resolve all their conflicted identifications with others; therefore we should be alert to individuals with levels which are much higher or lower than the norm – highly diffused individuals are classified as diffused, and those with low levels as foreclosed or defensive. (Weinreich & Saunderson, 2003, pp 65–67; 105-106). Weinreich applies the identity variant in a framework which also allows for the transition from one to another by way of biographical experiences and resolution of conflicted identifications situated in various contexts – for example, an adolescent going through family break-up may be in one state, whereas later in a stable marriage with a secure professional role may be in another. Hence, though there is continuity, there is also development and change. (Weinreich & Saunderson, 2003, pp 22–23).

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Identity diffusion, foreclosure, and crisis are categories of what?
A: Weinreich's identity variant", '
Q: Those with high levels of identity diffusion are classified as what?
A: diffused', '
Q: Those with low levels of identity diffusion are classified as what?
A: foreclosed or defensive', '
Q: An adolescent going through a family break up turning into an adult in a stable marriage is given as an example of change in what?
A: the identity variant', '
Q: What level of identity diffusion is interpreted as the norm?
A: an optimal level']
Anthropologists have contributed to the debate by shifting the focus of research: One of the first challenges for the researcher wishing to carry out empirical research in this area is to identify an appropriate analytical tool. The concept of boundaries is useful here for demonstrating how identity works. In the same way as Barth, in his approach to ethnicity, advocated the critical focus for investigation as being "the ethnic boundary that defines the group rather than the cultural stuff that it encloses" (1969:15), social anthropologists such as Cohen and Bray have shifted the focus of analytical study from identity to the boundaries that are used for purposes of identification. If identity is a kind of virtual site in which the dynamic processes and markers used for identification are made apparent, boundaries provide the framework on which this virtual site is built. They concentrated on how the idea of community belonging is differently constructed by individual members and how individuals within the group conceive ethnic boundaries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What group has shifted the focus of research in identity?
A: Anthropologists', '
Q: What does a researcher have to identify to carry out empirical research?
A: an appropriate analytical tool', '
Q: What researcher advocated for focus on the boundaries of ethnic groups rather than the cultural aspects of ethnic groups?
A: Barth', '
Q: If identity is a virtual site, what do boundaries supply to the virtual site?
A: the framework', '
Q: Boundaries are frequently used by researchers to help define what?
A: identity']
The inclusiveness of Weinreich's definition (above) directs attention to the totality of one's identity at a given phase in time, and assists in elucidating component aspects of one's total identity, such as one's gender identity, ethnic identity, occupational identity and so on. The definition readily applies to the young child, to the adolescent, to the young adult, and to the older adult in various phases of the life cycle. Depending on whether one is a young child or an adult at the height of one's powers, how one construes oneself as one was in the past will refer to very different salient experiential markers. Likewise, how one construes oneself as one aspires to be in the future will differ considerably according to one's age and accumulated experiences. (Weinreich & Saunderson, (eds) 2003, pp 26–34).

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What are gender identity, ethnic identity, and occupational identity aspects of?
A: one's total identity", '
Q: How one construes oneself now and in the future differs considerably because of what 2 things?
A: age and accumulated experiences', '
Q: The young child, the adolescent, the young adult and the older adult are phases of what?
A: the life cycle', "
Q: The salient experiential markers one uses to define one's past self differ based on the age that one was at what?
A: the height of one's powers"]
Although the self is distinct from identity, the literature of self-psychology can offer some insight into how identity is maintained (Cote & Levin 2002, p. 24). From the vantage point of self-psychology, there are two areas of interest: the processes by which a self is formed (the "I"), and the actual content of the schemata which compose the self-concept (the "Me"). In the latter field, theorists have shown interest in relating the self-concept to self-esteem, the differences between complex and simple ways of organizing self-knowledge, and the links between those organizing principles and the processing of information (Cote & Levin 2002).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is distinct from the self?
A: identity', '
Q: What can the literature of self-psychology offer insight into?
A: how identity is maintained', '
Q: What have theorists shown interest in relating to the self-concept?
A: self-esteem', '
Q: The I and the Me are two areas of interest in what?
A: self-psychology']
At a general level, self-psychology is compelled to investigate the question of how the personal self relates to the social environment. To the extent that these theories place themselves in the tradition of "psychological" social psychology, they focus on explaining an individual's actions within a group in terms of mental events and states. However, some "sociological" social psychology theories go further by attempting to deal with the issue of identity at both the levels of individual cognition and of collective behavior.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Self-psychology is compelled to investigate how personal self relates to what?
A: the social environment', "
Q: What two factors are focused on when explaining an individual's actions within a group?
A: mental events and states", '
Q: What are individual cognition and collective behavior are levels of?
A: identity']
Anthropologists have most frequently employed the term 'identity' to refer to this idea of selfhood in a loosely Eriksonian way (Erikson 1972) properties based on the uniqueness and individuality which makes a person distinct from others. Identity became of more interest to anthropologists with the emergence of modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the 1970s. This was reinforced by an appreciation, following the trend in sociological thought, of the manner in which the individual is affected by and contributes to the overall social context. At the same time, the Eriksonian approach to identity remained in force, with the result that identity has continued until recently to be used in a largely socio-historical way to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others and to a particular group of people.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term have Anthropologists employed to refer to the Eriksonian idea of selfhood?
A: identity', "
Q: Modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the 1970's led what group to be more interested in identity?
A: anthropologists", "
Q: Until recently, what approach was used to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others?
A: the Eriksonian approach"]
Boundaries can be inclusive or exclusive depending on how they are perceived by other people. An exclusive boundary arises, for example, when a person adopts a marker that imposes restrictions on the behaviour of others. An inclusive boundary is created, by contrast, by the use of a marker with which other people are ready and able to associate. At the same time, however, an inclusive boundary will also impose restrictions on the people it has included by limiting their inclusion within other boundaries. An example of this is the use of a particular language by a newcomer in a room full of people speaking various languages. Some people may understand the language used by this person while others may not. Those who do not understand it might take the newcomer's use of this particular language merely as a neutral sign of identity. But they might also perceive it as imposing an exclusive boundary that is meant to mark them off from her. On the other hand, those who do understand the newcomer's language could take it as an inclusive boundary, through which the newcomer associates herself with them to the exclusion of the other people present. Equally, however, it is possible that people who do understand the newcomer but who also speak another language may not want to speak the newcomer's language and so see her marker as an imposition and a negative boundary. It is possible that the newcomer is either aware or unaware of this, depending on whether she herself knows other languages or is conscious of the plurilingual quality of the people there and is respectful of it or not.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the two types of group boundaries?
A: inclusive or exclusive', '
Q: A marker that imposes restriction on the behavior of others is what kind of boundary?
A: exclusive', '
Q: A marker that people are ready and willing to associate with is what kind of boundary?
A: inclusive', '
Q: What boundary is given as an example that can be inclusive or exclusive?
A: language']
The "Neo-Eriksonian" identity status paradigm emerged in later years[when?], driven largely by the work of James Marcia. This paradigm focuses upon the twin concepts of exploration and commitment. The central idea is that any individual's sense of identity is determined in large part by the explorations and commitments that he or she makes regarding certain personal and social traits. It follows that the core of the research in this paradigm investigates the degrees to which a person has made certain explorations, and the degree to which he or she displays a commitment to those explorations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What identity status paradigm emerged due to the work of James Marcia?
A: Neo-Eriksonian', '
Q: The Neo-Eriksonian identity status paradigm focuses on what twin concepts?
A: exploration and commitment', "
Q: In the Neo-Eriksonian identity status paradigm, exploration and commitments determine what in large part?
A: any individual's sense of identity"]
Many people gain a sense of positive self-esteem from their identity groups, which furthers a sense of community and belonging. Another issue that researchers have attempted to address is the question of why people engage in discrimination, i.e., why they tend to favor those they consider a part of their "in-group" over those considered to be outsiders. Both questions have been given extensive attention by researchers working in the social identity tradition. For example, in work relating to social identity theory it has been shown that merely crafting cognitive distinction between in- and out-groups can lead to subtle effects on people's evaluations of others (Cote & Levine 2002).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do many people gain from their identity groups?
A: a sense of positive self-esteem', '
Q: People favoring those in their group over outsiders, is an example of what?
A: discrimination', '
Q: Belonging and discrimination are both important to researchers working in what tradition?
A: the social identity tradition', "
Q: Distinction between in and out groups has been shown to affect people's evaluations of others in work related to what?
A: social identity theory"]
The first favours a primordialist approach which takes the sense of self and belonging to a collective group as a fixed thing, defined by objective criteria such as common ancestry and common biological characteristics. The second, rooted in social constructionist theory, takes the view that identity is formed by a predominantly political choice of certain characteristics. In so doing, it questions the idea that identity is a natural given, characterised by fixed, supposedly objective criteria. Both approaches need to be understood in their respective political and historical contexts, characterised by debate on issues of class, race and ethnicity. While they have been criticized, they continue to exert an influence on approaches to the conceptualisation of identity today.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What approach takes the sense of self and belonging as a fixed thing?
A: a primordialist approach', '
Q: The view that identity is based on a political choice of characteristics is rooted in what theory?
A: social constructionist theory', '
Q: Primordialist and social constructionist views need to be understood in what contexts?
A: political and historical contexts']
The implications are multiple as various research traditions are now[when?] heavily utilizing the lens of identity to examine phenomena.[citation needed] One implication of identity and of identity construction can be seen in occupational settings. This becomes increasing challenging in stigmatized jobs or "dirty work" (Hughes, 1951). Tracy and Trethewey (2005) state that "individuals gravitate toward and turn away from particular jobs depending in part, on the extent to which they validate a "preferred organizational self" (Tracy & Tretheway 2005, p. 169). Some jobs carry different stigmas or acclaims. In her analysis Tracy uses the example of correctional officers trying to shake the stigma of "glorified maids" (Tracy & Tretheway 2005). "The process by which people arrive at justifications of and values for various occupational choices." Among these are workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 33). People in these types of jobs are forced to find ways in order to create an identity they can live with. "Crafting a positive sense of self at work is more challenging when one's work is considered "dirty" by societal standards" (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 7). "In other words, doing taint management is not just about allowing the employee to feel good in that job. "If employees must navigate discourses that question the viability of their work, and/ or experience obstacles in managing taint through transforming dirty work into a badge of honor, it is likely they will find blaming the client to be an efficacious route in affirming their identity" (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 33).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Various research traditions are using what lens to examine phenomena?
A: the lens of identity', '
Q: What stigma do correctional officers have to deal with?
A: glorified maids', '
Q: The implications of identity and identity construction are discussed in what settings?
A: occupational settings', '
Q: What are people in stigmatized jobs forced to create?
A: an identity they can live with', '
Q: What are the two examples give for justifications and values for occupational choices?
A: workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life']
However, the formation of one's identity occurs through one's identifications with significant others (primarily with parents and other individuals during one's biographical experiences, and also with "groups" as they are perceived). These others may be benign - such that one aspires to their characteristics, values and beliefs (a process of idealistic-identification), or malign - when one wishes to dissociate from their characteristics (a process of defensive contra-identification) (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003, Chapter 1, pp 54–61).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is it called when someone aspires to the characteristics of significant others?
A: benign', '
Q: What is it called when someone wants to dissociate from the characteristics of significant others?
A: malign', '
Q: Dissociating from the characteristics of significant others is a process of what?
A: defensive contra-identification', '
Q: The formation of identity occurs through identifications with whom?
A: significant others']
A person may display either relative weakness or relative strength in terms of both exploration and commitments. When assigned categories, four possible permutations result: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. Diffusion is when a person lacks both exploration in life and interest in committing even to those unchosen roles that he or she occupies. Foreclosure is when a person has not chosen extensively in the past, but seems willing to commit to some relevant values, goals, or roles in the future. Moratorium is when a person displays a kind of flightiness, ready to make choices but unable to commit to them. Finally, achievement is when a person makes identity choices and commits to them.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What may a person display in terms of both exploration and commitments?
A: relative weakness or relative strength', '
Q: What is the permutation when a person lacks exploration and commitment?
A: identity diffusion', '
Q: What is the permutation when a person has not chosen goals in the past but is willing to in the future?
A: identity foreclosure', '
Q: What is the permutation when a person is ready to make commitments but unable to commit?
A: identity moratorium', '
Q: What is the permutation when a person commits to identity choices?
A: identity achievement']