romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens. There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is resistance to infection known technically as?
A: immunity', '
Q: When may immunity be acquired?
A: following a disease', '
Q: What is knowledge of protective antigens more complete for?
A: primary pathogens', '
Q: What does herd immunity offer to vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity?
A: a measure of protection', '
Q: Vaccination is a way in which what may be acquired?
A: immunity']
The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with ribavirin, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in Nature, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from Nature demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What can the clearance of pathogens be influenced by in an individual?
A: genetic variants', '
Q: What is the brand name Pegasys for?
A: Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b', '
Q: What are patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene more likely to achieve?
A: sustained virological response']
When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (antibiotic; including antitubercular), antiviral, antifungal and antiparasitic (including antiprotozoal and antihelminthic) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied topically. Severe infections of the brain are usually treated with intravenous antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is resistance to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include penicillin, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, macrolides, quinolones and tetracyclines.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of drugs can suppress an infection when it attacks the body?
A: anti-infective', '
Q: How many broad types of anti-infective drugs exist?
A: Several', '
Q: What depends on the method an antibiotic is given?
A: severity and the type of infection', '
Q: How are severe infections of the brain usually treated?
A: with intravenous antibiotics', '
Q: How do antibiotics work?
A: slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria']
The top three single agent/disease killers are HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the top three killer diseases?
A: HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria', '
Q: How much have deaths due to HIV/AIDS increased?
A: fourfold', '
Q: What are some popular childhood diseases?
A: pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus', '
Q: Who makes up a large percentage of diarrheal deaths?
A: Children', '
Q: What is the number 4 leading cause of death in the world?
A: lower respiratory infections']
The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" pneumonia will generally be treated by the internist or the pulmonologist (lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as laboratory scientists, immunologists, bacteriologists and other specialists.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What medical field does the treatment of infectious diseases fall into?
A: field of Infectious Disease', '
Q: Disease propagation can fall under the purview of what field of study?
A: Epidemiology', '
Q: Who tends to initially diagnose an infection?
A: primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists', '
Q: What is the non-medical mumbo jumbo term for pulmonologist?
A: lung physician', '
Q: Who works with both patients and general practitioners to identify a disease?
A: infectious diseases specialist']
A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher fertility rates and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with polygyny which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygny may also be due to a lower male:female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What have a number of studies found a correlation between?
A: pathogen load in an area and human behavior', '
Q: What is higher pathogen load associated with?
A: decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area', '
Q: What does avoidance of other groups reduce?
A: pathogen transmission', '
Q: What does more restricted sexual behavior result in?
A: Higher pathogen load', '
Q: What may poor socioeconomic factors ultimately in part be due to?
A: high pathogen load preventing economic development.']
Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were afflicted by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another Herrerasaurus. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include Acrocanthosaurus, Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus and a tyrannosaur from the Kirtland Formation. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the Herrerasaurus specimen.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What profession finds evidence of infection in fossil remains to be interesting?
A: paleopathologists', '
Q: What do paleopathologists study?
A: occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms', '
Q: What has been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs?
A: Signs of infection', "
Q: What dinosaur's skull had pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone?
A: Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis", '
Q: How did tyrannosaurs become infected?
A: being bitten during a fight']
Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade. In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal?
A: Hunting', '
Q: Why do humans most commonly hunt wildlife?
A: food', '
Q: What is there a distinction between lawful hunting and?
A: poaching', '
Q: What is poaching?
A: illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species', '
Q: What is the species which is hunted referred to as?
A: prey', '
Q: What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal called?
A: Hunting', '
Q: When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?
A: 2010s', '
Q: Illegally killing, capturing or trapping an hunted species is called what?
A: poaching', '
Q: Hunted species are usually referred to as what?
A: game or prey', '
Q: What animals are usually hunted?
A: mammals and birds', '
Q: What is it called to kill or trap an animal?
A: Hunting', '
Q: What species are usually hunted?
A: mammals and birds', '
Q: Why do humans hunt?
A: food, recreation, to remove predators', '
Q: When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?
A: 2010s', '
Q: Species hunted are referred to as what? 
A: game or prey']
Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought. However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does evidence suggest hunting may have been a factor in the extinction of?
A: holocene megafauna', '
Q: What was the North American megafauna extinction coincidental with?
A: Younger Dryas impact event', '
Q: What are humans thought to have played a significant role in, in Australia?
A: extinction of the Australian megafauna', "
Q: When was Australian's megafauna widespread?
A: prior to human occupation", '
Q: What along with multiple environmental factors led to the extinction of the holocene megafauna?
A: hunting', '
Q: What replaced the holocene megafauna?
A: smaller herbivores', '
Q: What event was coincidental with the North American megafauna extinction? 
A: Younger Dryas impact event', '
Q: What is thought to have played a significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna?
A: humans']
While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity. With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is undisputed about early humans?
A: were hunters', '
Q: Hunting was important for the emergence of the Homo genus from what?
A: earlier Australopithecines', '
Q: Production of stone tools and control of fire were also pushed forward by what?
A: hunting', '
Q: What became a theme of stories and myths?
A: hunting', '
Q: Hunting allowed what type of rituals?
A: dance and animal sacrifice', '
Q: What is undisputed about earlier humans?
A: humans were hunters', '
Q: What did hunting become a theme of?
A: stories and myths', '
Q: Stone tools and control of fire are emphasised in what hypothesis? 
A: hunting hypothesis']
Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the New World, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery. They still persist in some tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Aché), some Central and Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples. In Africa, the only remaining full-time hunter-gatherers are the Hadza of Tanzania.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of lifestyle was prevalent in Siberia until the European Age of Discovery?
A: Hunter-gathering', '
Q: Where does the hunter-gathering lifestyle persist, though in decline?
A: some tribal societies', '
Q: Indigenous peoples of the Amazonas preserved what until the recent past?
A: paleolithic hunting-gathering', '
Q: Who are the only remaining full-time hunter-gatherers in Africa?
A: the Hadza of Tanzania', '
Q: Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent until when?
A: European Age of Discovery', '
Q: What parts of the New World did the hunter-gathering lifestyles remain?
A: Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia', '
Q: Who are the only remaining full-time hunter-gatherers in Africa?
A: Hadza of Tanzania']
Archaeologist Louis Binford criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers, not hunters, and this idea is popular among some archaeologists and paleoanthropologists. Robert Blumenschine proposed the idea of confrontational scavenging, which involves challenging and scaring off other predators after they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein-rich meat by early humans.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is Louis Binford's profession?
A: Archaeologist", '
Q: What idea did Binford take issue with?
A: that early hominids and early humans were hunters', '
Q: What did Binford conclude humans were instead of hunters?
A: scavengers', '
Q: What idea did Blumenschine propose?
A: idea of confrontational scavenging', "
Q: What does confrontational scavenging involve doing to other predators after they've made a kill?
A: challenging and scaring off", '
Q: Who is the archaeologist that does not believe early humans were hunters?
A: Louis Binford', '
Q: Louis Binford concluded what based on skeletal remains of consumed animals?
A: hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers', '
Q: What did Robert Blumenschine propose?
A: confrontational scavenging', "
Q: Louis Binford's idea is popular among whom?
A: archaeologists and paleoanthropologists", '
Q: Confrontational scavenging involves doing what to other predators?
A: challenging and scaring off']
Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after the development of agriculture, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the human food supply. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein, bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur, feathers, rawhide and leather used in clothing. Man's earliest hunting weapons would have included rocks, spears, the atlatl, and bows and arrows. Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or agriculture.[citation needed] For example, Inuit people in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks, clothing, and footwear.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was a significant contributor to the human food supply?
A: hunting', '
Q: What did the supplementary meat from hunting include?
A: protein, bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur, feathers, rawhide and leather', '
Q: What was the leather from hunting used for?
A: clothing', "
Q: Rocks and spears are examples of some of man's earliest what?
A: hunting weapons", '
Q: Where is hunting still vital?
A: marginal climates', '
Q: Hunt was a significant contributor to what?
A: human food supply', '
Q: Where is hunting still vital?
A: marginal climates', '
Q: Why is hunting still vital in marginal climates?
A: unsuited for pastoral uses or agriculture', '
Q: How are the skins of sea mammals useful for people in the Arctic trap?
A: make kayaks, clothing, and footwear']
On ancient reliefs, especially from Mesopotamia, kings are often depicted as hunters of big game such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a war chariot. The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity, the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana. Taboos are often related to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple. Euripides' tale of Artemis and Actaeon, for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or impudent boasting.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are kings often depicted as on ancient reliefs?
A: hunters', '
Q: What are the kings portrayed as hunting?
A: big game', '
Q: How was the cultural importance of hunting in ancient societies represented?
A: by deities', '
Q: What could the mythological association of prey species with divinity be a form of?
A: hunting restrictions', "
Q: What might the meaning of Euripides' tale be seen as a caution against?
A: disrespect of prey", '
Q: Kings were depicted as hunting what big game from a chariot?
A: lions', '
Q: What is often related to hunting?
A: Taboos', '
Q: Deities represent what importance?
A: cultural and psychological', "
Q: What tale is seen as cautions against disrespecting prey or impudent boasting?
A: Euripides' tale of Artemis and Actaeon"]
In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer". In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who in medieval Europe obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory?
A: the upper class', '
Q: What was game in the  areas used by the upper class used as a source of?
A: food and furs', '
Q: What legends show the importance of the proprietary view of game as held by the nobles?
A: Robin Hood', '
Q: What is one of the primary charges against the outlaws in the legend?
A: they "hunt the King\'s deer', '
Q: Who in medieval Europe obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory?
A: the upper class', '
Q: What did Anglophone settles take gloried pride in?
A: democratically in hunting for all', '
Q: What was game in the  areas used by the upper class used as a source of?
A: food and furs', '
Q: What legends show the importance of the proprietary view of game as held by the nobles?
A: Robin Hood', '
Q: What is one of the primary charges against the outlaws in the legend?
A: they "hunt the King\'s deer', '
Q: What did Anglophone settles take gloried pride in?
A: democratically in hunting for all', '
Q: In medieval Europe who obtained sole rights to hunt in certain areas?
A: upper class', '
Q: What was the game in feudal territory was used as?
A: food and furs', '
Q: Who provided the game obtained in feudal territory?
A: professional huntsmen', '
Q: The importance of can be seen in what legends?
A: Robin Hood', '
Q: Who did Anglophone colonies democratically glorify hunting for?
A: all']
Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an acceptable occupation, as well as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered godly are described to have engaged in hunting. One of the names of the god Shiva is Mrigavyadha, which translates as "the deer hunter" (mriga means deer; vyadha means hunter). The word Mriga, in many Indian languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for all animals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha, is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In the epic Ramayana, Dasharatha, the father of Rama, is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, he accidentally killed Shravana, mistaking him for game. During Rama's exile in the forest, Ravana kidnapped his wife, Sita, from their hut, while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and his brother Lakshman went after him. According to the Mahabharat, Pandu, the father of the Pandavas, accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer. Krishna is said to have died after being accidentally wounded by an arrow of a hunter.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of occupation do Hindu scriptures describe hunting as being?
A: acceptable', '
Q: What is one of the names of the god Shiva?
A: Mrigavyadha', '
Q: What is the translation of Mrigavyadha?
A: "the deer hunter"', '
Q: What does Shiva destroy in human beings?
A: animal instincts', '
Q: What talent does Dasharatha have?
A: hunt in the dark', '
Q: What scriptures describe hunting as and acceptable occupation?
A: Hindu', '
Q: Godly figures have engaged in what activity?
A: hunting', '
Q: Mrigavyadha means what?
A: deer hunter', '
Q: Mrigavyadha destroys animal instinct in who?
A: human beings', '
Q: What happened after Krishna was accidentally wounded by an arrow of a hunter?
A: died']