romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
While the cardinalate has long been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia, every cardinal priest has a titular church in Rome, though they may be bishops or archbishops elsewhere, just as cardinal bishops are given one of the suburbicarian dioceses around Rome. Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights cardinals had with regard to their titular churches, though the cardinal's name and coat of arms are still posted in the church, and they are expected to celebrate mass and preach there if convenient when they are in Rome.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Each cardinal priest has what?
A: a titular church in Rome']
While the number of cardinals was small from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and frequently smaller than the number of recognized churches entitled to a cardinal priest, in the 16th century the College expanded markedly. In 1587, Pope Sixtus V sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the College at 70, including 50 cardinal priests, about twice the historical number. This limit was respected until 1958, and the list of titular churches modified only on rare occasions, generally when a building fell into disrepair. When Pope John XXIII abolished the limit, he began to add new churches to the list, which Popes Paul VI and John Paul II continued to do. Today there are close to 150 titular churches, out of over 300 churches in Rome.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did Pope Sixtus V put a cap on the number of cardinals in the College of Cardinals?
A: 1587', '
Q: What was the maximum number allowed per Pope Sixtus V?
A: 70', '
Q: Who removed the cap on cardinals in the College of the Cardinals?
A: Pope John XXIII']
The Iranian languages or Iranic languages form a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, which in turn are a branch of the Indo-European language family. The speakers of Iranian languages are known as Iranian peoples. Historical Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE), and New Iranian (since 900 CE). Of the Old Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Old Persian (a language of Achaemenid Iran) and Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Middle Iranian languages included Middle Persian (a language of Sassanid Iran), Parthian, and Bactrian.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another term meaning Iranian languages?
A: Iranic languages', '
Q: What are the Iranic languages a subgroup of?
A: Indo-Iranian languages', '
Q: What are Indo-Iranian languages a subset of?
A: Indo-European language family', '
Q: When did the change from Old Iranian to Middle Iranian occur?
A: 400 BCE', '
Q: What is an example of a Sassanid language?
A: Middle Persian']
As of 2008, there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of Iranian languages. Ethnologue estimates there are 86 Iranian languages, the largest amongst them being Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many different Iranian languages exist?
A: 86']
The term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language. Iranian derives from the Persian and Sanskrit origin word Arya.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Iranian languages are all said to be derived from which predecessor?
A: Proto-Iranian', '
Q: From what languages does the word Aryao come?
A: Persian and Sanskrit']
The use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen. Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the phrase Iranian language family first used?
A: 1836', '
Q: Who first used the term Iranian language?
A: Christian Lassen', '
Q: Who first used the term Irano-Aryan?
A: Robert Needham Cust', '
Q: When was the phrase Irano-Aryan first used?
A: 1878']
All Iranian languages are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Iranian. In turn, and together with Proto-Indo-Aryan and the Nuristani languages, Proto-Iranian descends from a common ancestor Proto-Indo-Iranian. The Indo-Iranian languages are thought to have originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is the suggested candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BC.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From where did Iranian languages originate?
A: Proto-Iranian', '
Q: What part of the world is it theorized that Indo-Iranian languages came from?
A: Central Asia', '
Q: What society is a strong contender for the common culture speaking Indo-Iranian?
A: Andronovo', '
Q: When did the Andronovo culture exist?
A: 2000 BC']
It was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia (and present-day Kazakhstan). It was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, like Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the steppes of southern Russia to the north of the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language family did Thracian and Balto-Slavic belong to?
A: Indo-European']
Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after Proto-Indo-Iranian break-up, or the early second millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did early Iranian people establish societies?
A: southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia']
The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two have survived. These are:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What characteristic of Middle Iranian civilization is shown by the number of different languages and their speakers?
A: linguistic diversity', '
Q: How many of the Middlie Iranian tongues have remained in existence since ancient time?
A: two']
Old Persian is the Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in south-western Iran by the inhabitants of Parsa, who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed circa 520 BC, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BC the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which historical record does Old Persian appear in exemplary form?
A: the Behistun inscription', '
Q: When was the Behistun inscription written?
A: 520 BC', '
Q: During what century was the change from Old to Middle Persian well underway?
A: 4th century BC']
The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What ancient religious document exists in two versions and includes Old Iranian language?
A: Avestan', '
Q: What is the contemporary name of the religion which Avesta was part of?
A: Zoroastrianism', '
Q: What language shows a level of maturity corresponding to Old Avestan?
A: Rigvedic Sanskrit', '
Q: What language shows the same level of development as Younger Avestan?
A: Old Persian']
In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Carduchi (the hypothetical predecessor to Kurdish) and Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary. Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language is Carduchi thought to have become?
A: Kurdish', '
Q: What language did Herodotus invent a name for?
A: Scythian']
Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped in "western" and "eastern" branches. These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it isn't known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the two main divisions of Iranian tongues?
A: western and eastern', '
Q: Which language is associated with the western branch of Iranian?
A: Old Persian', '
Q: Which language is associated with the eastern branch of Iranian?
A: Avestan']
Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What elements of Proto-Indo-Iranian did not diverge according to the ensuing split between eastern and western variants?
A: *ć and *dź', '
Q: What type of letters are *ć and *dź?
A: first-series palatal consonants']
As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What languages share a similar situation?
A: Nuristani languages', '
Q: What other elements of early Iranian languages problematize the east-west division?
A: *ćw and *dźw', '
Q: What is the linguistic categorization of *ćw and *dźw?
A: consonant clusters']
It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothethical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What may have also been in use at the time?
A: other distinct dialect groups', '
Q: Precursors of what subset of Scythian are theorized to have existed?
A: Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian', '
Q: What possible predecessor of Pathian is thought to have existed?
A: Old Parthian']
What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the age of Middle Iranian come to a close?
A: 9th century', '
Q: What are the two main divisions of Middle Iranian?
A: Western and Eastern']
The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Bactrian, Sogdian, and Saka are examples of what type of Iranian language?
A: Eastern', '
Q: Which language bears a resemblance to the diversity of eastern Iranian languages?
A: Avestan', '
Q: Where did the the alphabets used by eastern languages come from?
A: Aramaic', '
Q: What did the Bactrian language use for writing?
A: Greek script']
Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another term for Middle Persian?
A: Pahlavi', '
Q: When did Middle Persian start being u sed?
A: 3rd century CE', '
Q: What are three languages employed by the Manichaeans?
A: Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian', '
Q: What was the writing of Manichaean documents similar to?
A: Syriac script']
Following the Islamic Conquest of Persia (Iran), there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists, and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the Dialects of Fars. They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The proliferation of which religion had a profound effect on the development of Iranian languages?
A: Islam', "
Q: What language displaced Middle Iranian as the court's official tongue?
A: Dari", '
Q: What was the first dynasty to use Dari?
A: Saffarid', '
Q: When did the Saffarid dynasty begin using Dari?
A: 875 CE', '
Q: What area was the name Dari connected to by medieval Iranian thinkers?
A: Khorasan']
The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred some time during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the new form of writing introduced by the spread of Islam?
A: Arabic script', '
Q: When did usage of Middle Persian script fall off?
A: second half of the 8th century', '
Q: What script was converted to Latin in the 1920s?
A: Tajik script', '
Q: When was Tajik script converted to Cyrillic?
A: the 1930s', '
Q: Who catalyzed the conversion of Tajik script into Cyrillic?
A: the Soviet government']
The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively been taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century AD. This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamirs survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another term for Western Iran?
A: Khuzestan', '
Q: What are two languages that were forced out by the spread of Arabic?
A: Sogdian and Bactrian', '
Q: By what century had the area inhabited by Sarmatians been absorbed by pre-Slavic people?
A: 6th century AD', '
Q: Where can the remnants of Yaghnobi be found?
A: Zarafshan valley', '
Q: Ossetic is a version of which Scythian language?
A: Saka']
Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting (using windows, skylights, or light shelves) is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save energy in place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings. Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the appearance of an area, or have positive psychological effects on occupants.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is used a main source of light for a building during the day?
A: Daylighting', '
Q: What kind of effects can natural illumination have on a persons psychological?
A: positive', '
Q: Using natural illumination instead of artificial light sources help with what?
A: energy consumption', '
Q: Lamps and light fixtures are a form of what?
A: artificial light sources', '
Q: The use of light to achieve an aesthetic effect is know as?
A: Lighting or illumination', '
Q: What can be used a main source of light for a building during the day?
A: Daylighting', '
Q: Lamps and light fixtures  are a form of what?
A: Lighting', '
Q: What kind of effects can proper lighting have on a persons psychologically?
A: positive', '
Q: What does using natural illumination instead of artificial lighting help with?
A: energy consumption', '
Q: What is the used to achieve a practical effect?
A: Lighting or illumination']
Indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design. Lighting can also be an intrinsic component of landscape projects.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of fixtures do you use for indoor lighting?
A: light fixtures', '
Q: What is considered a key part of interior design?
A: Indoor lighting', '
Q: What can be a intrinsic component of landscaping?
A: lighting', '
Q: What type of fixtures are used typically used for indoor lighting?
A: light fixtures', '
Q: What can be used as a intrinsic component of landscape projects?
A: lighting']
Forms of lighting include alcove lighting, which like most other uplighting is indirect. This is often done with fluorescent lighting (first available at the 1939 World's Fair) or rope light, occasionally with neon lighting, and recently with LED strip lighting. It is a form of backlighting.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was fluorescent lighting first available?
A: 1939']
Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in Canada, "can lights" or 'high hats" in the US) is popular, with fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it. These downlights can use narrow beam spotlights, or wider-angle floodlights, both of which are bulbs having their own reflectors. There are also downlights with internal reflectors designed to accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are generally less costly than reflector lamps. Downlights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID (high intensity discharge) or LED.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of lighting can be mounted in the ceiling to appear flush?
A: Recessed lighting']
With the discovery of fire, the earliest form of artificial lighting used to illuminate an area were campfires or torches. As early as 400,000 BCE, fire was kindled in the caves of Peking Man. Prehistoric people used primitive oil lamps to illuminate surroundings. These lamps were made from naturally occurring materials such as rocks, shells, horns and stones, were filled with grease, and had a fiber wick. Lamps typically used animal or vegetable fats as fuel. Hundreds of these lamps (hollow worked stones) have been found in the Lascaux caves in modern-day France, dating to about 15,000 years ago. Oily animals (birds and fish) were also used as lamps after being threaded with a wick. Fireflies have been used as lighting sources. Candles and glass and pottery lamps were also invented. Chandeliers were an early form of "light fixture".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Peking man kindled fire as early as?
A: 400,000 BCE', '
Q: Which type of oily animals where also used as lamps after being threaded with wick?
A: birds and fish', '
Q: What is considered the earliest form of artificial lighting?
A: campfires or torches', '
Q: The hollow worked stones lamps found in Lascaux caves date back how far?
A: 15,000 years']