romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Since the armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor are moving through a magnetic field, they have a voltage induced in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "back electromotive force (emf)". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back emf of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes, must equal the voltage at the brushes. This provides the fundamental mechanism of speed regulation in a DC motor. If the mechanical load increases, the motor slows down; a lower back emf results, and more current is drawn from the supply. This increased current provides the additional torque to balance the new load.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Voltage opposing the motor supply voltage is called what?
A: back electromotive force', '
Q: EMP is proportional to what?
A: the running speed of the motor', '
Q: Voltage at the brushes is equal to what?
A: back emf of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance', '
Q: If load increases, what happens to current drawn?
A: more current is drawn from the supply']
All the electromagnetic motors, and that includes the types mentioned here derive the torque from the vector product of the interacting fields. For calculating the torque it is necessary to know the fields in the air gap . Once these have been established by mathematical analysis using FEA or other tools the torque may be calculated as the integral of all the vectors of force multiplied by the radius of each vector. The current flowing in the winding is producing the fields and for a motor using a magnetic material the field is not linearly proportional to the current. This makes the calculation difficult but a computer can do the many calculations needed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What needs to be known to calculate torque?
A: fields in the air gap', '
Q: How are the many calculations to determine torque done?
A: FEA', '
Q: How is torque determined?
A: from the vector product of the interacting fields', '
Q: What is the formulia to determine torque?
A: the integral of all the vectors of force multiplied by the radius of each vector']
When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or generators.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are factors that determine shaft torque?
A: torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density', '
Q: Whate decides the size of an electromagnetic core?
A: air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth', '
Q: What limits excessive torque?
A: magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage']
The brushless wound-rotor synchronous doubly-fed (BWRSDF) machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set, the active current of the BWRSDF machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the only device with dual ported transformer circuit topology?
A: brushless wound-rotor', '
Q: What is a brushless wound-rotor?
A: both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port', '
Q: How does a brushless wound rotor achieve stability?
A: a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set', '
Q: What is the theoretical maximum of a brushless wound rotor?
A: eight times operating torque']
The continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or samarium-cobalt PMs, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling and permissible period of operation before destruction by overheating of windings or PM damage.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What determines continuous torque density?
A: size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth', '
Q: What three elements determine the size of the air-gap area and back iron depth?
A: power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation', '
Q: What does continuous torque density refer to?
A: method of cooling and permissible period of operation before destruction by overheating', '
Q: How does continuous torque density vary between well designed motors?
A: virtually the same']
An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge?
A: electrostatic', '
Q: What are electrostatic motors like two of?
A: conventional coil-based motors', '
Q: What type of power supply do electrostatic motors usually have?
A: high-voltage', '
Q: What two inventors developed the first electrostatic motors?
A: Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon', '
Q: Micro-electro mechanical systems prefer what type of motor?
A: electrostatic motor']
Switzerland (/ˈswɪtsərlənd/), officially the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a country in Europe. While still named the "Swiss Confederation" for historical reasons, modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities, called Bundesstadt ("federal city").[note 3] The country is situated in Western and Central Europe,[note 4] and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found: among them are the two global and economic centres, Zürich and Geneva.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the official name of Switzerland?
A: Swiss Confederation', '
Q: What type of government does Switzerland have?
A: a federal directorial republic', "
Q: How many cantons are in Switzerland's federal directorial republic?
A: 26", '
Q: What 3 geographical features divide Switzerland?
A: the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura', '
Q: What is the population of Switzerland?
A: approximately 8 million']
The establishment of the Swiss Confederation is traditionally dated to 1 August 1291, which is celebrated annually as the Swiss National Day. The country has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. Nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to numerous international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association, but notably it is not part of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area. However the country does participate in the Schengen Area and the EU's single market through a number of bilateral treaties.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the traditional date of the establishment of the Swiss Confederation?
A: 1 August 1291', '
Q: What year did Switzerland join the United Nations?
A: 2002', '
Q: What country is the birthplace of the Red Cross?
A: Switzerland', '
Q: In what year was Switzerland last involved in a war internationally?
A: 1815', '
Q: What Swiss holiday is celebrated on August 1st every year?
A: Swiss National Day']
Straddling the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and Romansh. Therefore, the Swiss, although predominantly German-speaking, do not form a nation in the sense of a common ethnicity or language; rather, Switzerland's strong sense of identity and community is founded on a common historical background, shared values such as federalism and direct democracy, and Alpine symbolism. Due to its linguistic diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names: Schweiz [ˈʃvaɪts] (German);[note 5] Suisse [sɥis(ə)] (French); Svizzera [ˈzvittsera] (Italian); and Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ] (Romansh).[note 6]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which four main linguistic and cultural regions make up Switzerland?
A: German, French, Italian and Romansh', '
Q: What is the predominant language in Switzerland?
A: German', '
Q: What do the French Swiss call Switzerland?
A: Suisse', '
Q: What do the German Swiss call Switzerland?
A: Schweiz', '
Q: What do the Italian Swiss call Switzerland?
A: Svizzera']
Switzerland is one of the richest and wealthiest countries in the world. Switzerland ranks top or close to the top in several metrics of national performance, including government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic competitiveness, and human development. It has the highest nominal wealth (financial and non-financial assets) per adult in the world according to Credit Suisse and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product on the IMF list. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities with the highest quality of life in the world, with the former ranked 2nd globally, according to Mercer.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How does Switzerland rank worldwide in areas such as quality of life and civil liberties?
A: top or close to the top', '
Q: Which country has the highest nominal wealth per adult in the world according to Credit Suisse?
A: Switzerland', '
Q: Which two Swiss cities have been ranked as having the highest quality of life in the world?
A: Zürich and Geneva', '
Q: What assets are included in nominal wealth?
A: financial and non-financial', "
Q: What is Switzerland's ranking for per capita gross domestic product on the IMF list?
A: eighth-highest"]
The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, an obsolete term for the Swiss, which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, one of the Waldstätten cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The name originates as an exonym, applied pars pro toto to the troops of the Confederacy. The Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for "Confederates", Eidgenossen (literally: comrades by oath), used since the 14th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the Swiss term for Switzerland during the 16th - 19th centuries?
A: Switzer', '
Q: Where did the English adjective Swiss originate from?
A: French Suisse', '
Q: Where did the name Switzer originate from?
A: the Alemannic Schwiizer', '
Q: What did the Alemannic Schwiizer help form the nucleus of?
A: the Old Swiss Confederacy']
The toponym Schwyz itself is first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately perhaps related to suedan "to burn", referring to the area of forest that was burned and cleared to build. The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton, and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation. The Swiss German name of the country, Schwiiz, is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement, but distinguished by the use of the definite article (d'Schwiiz for the Confederation, but simply Schwyz for the canton and the town).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was the toponym Schwyz first attested as Old High German Suittes?
A: 972', '
Q: At what time did the name Schwyz begin to be used by the entire Confederation?
A: after the Swabian War of 1499', '
Q: What was the Swiss German name for Schwyz?
A: Schwiiz', "
Q: What was the name d'Schwiiz used for?
A: the Confederation"]
The earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel. La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC, possibly under some influence from the Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii. Steadily harassed by the Germans, in 58 BC the Helvetii decided to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western Gallia, but Julius Caesar's armies pursued and defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte, in today's western France, forcing the tribe to move back to its original homeland. In 15 BC, Tiberius, who was destined to be the second Roman emperor and his brother, Drusus, conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire. The area occupied by the Helvetii—the namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica—first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. Sometime around the start of the Common Era, the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called Vindonissa, now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers, near the town of Windisch, an outskirt of Brugg.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What were the two earliest know cultural tribes in Switerland?
A: Hallstatt and La Tène', '
Q: Which Swiss cultural tribe developed and flourished during the late Iron Age?
A: La Tène', '
Q: Which Swiss tribal group was defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bribacti as they tried to escape the Swiss plateau?
A: the Helvetii', '
Q: In what year did Tiberius conquer the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire?
A: 15 BC', '
Q: What is the name of the large legionary camp, now a ruin, that the Romans maintained around the start of the Common Era?
A: Vindonissa']
In about 260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses, like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defense at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes), but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept, and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of German tribes.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: In what year did the fall of the Agri Decumates territory transform today's Switzerland?
A: about 260 AD", '
Q: In about 260 AD, what forced the people of Roman towns to find shelter in Roman fortresses?
A: raids by the Alamanni tribes', '
Q: What was the name of the concept used by the Roman Empire when building another line of defense at the north border?
A: the linear defence concept', '
Q: What increased pressure forced the Romans to abandon their line of defense concept at the end of the 4th century?
A: Germanic', '
Q: Who was allowed to settle on the Swiss plateau by the end of the 4th century?
A: German tribes']
In the Early Middle Ages, from the end of the 4th century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century, forming Alemannia. Modern-day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy. The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century, following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From the end of the 4th century, what territory was the western extent of modern-day Switzerland part of?
A: the Kings of the Burgundians', '
Q: Where did the Alemanni settle in the 5th century?
A: the Swiss plateau', '
Q: Where did the Alemanni settle in the 8th century, forming Alemannia?
A: valleys of the Alps', '
Q: In the 8th century, what two kingdoms made up Modern-day Switzerland?
A: Alemannia and Burgundy', '
Q: What Empire did the entire region of Modern-day Switzerland become part of in the 6th century?
A: Frankish Empire']
By 1200, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg. Some regions (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, later known as Waldstätten) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With the extinction of its male line in 1263 the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264; then the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In 1200, what area did the houses of Savoy, Zahringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg comprise?
A: the Swiss plateau', '
Q: In 1264 AD, what caused the Kyburg dynasty to fall?
A: extinction of its male line in 1263', '
Q: Who claimed the Kyburg lands after their fall in 1264 AD?
A: the Habsburgs', '
Q: Which Holy Roman Emperor were the Habsburgs under in 1273 AD?
A: King Rudolph I', '
Q: What did the three regions of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden become known as?
A: Waldstätten']
By 1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Bern city states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the federation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains, particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did the three original  cantons join with five other cantons to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states?
A: By 1353', '
Q: Which century did the Old Confederacy of the eight states exist until?
A: end of the 15th century', '
Q: What effect did the expansion of the three cantons into eight have on the status of the federation?
A: increased power and wealth', '
Q: By 1460, who controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine?
A: the confederates', '
Q: Which Swiss victory in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire?
A: Swabian War']
The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of the federation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 (Wars of Kappel). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Peace of Westphalia, European countries recognized Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Battle was the first to interrupt the seeming invincibility of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1515?
A: Battle of Marignano', '
Q: What inter-cantonal conflicts resulted in the Wars of Kappel?
A: religious', "
Q: In what year did European countries first recognize Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire?
A: 1648", '
Q: In what two years were the Wars of Kappel?
A: 1529 and 1531', "
Q: Under the Peace of Westphalia, who finally recognized Switzerland's neutrality?
A: European countries"]
In 1798, the revolutionary French government conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen joined France and Valtellina valley, the Cisalpine Republic, separating from Switzerland. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the occupation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who conquered Switzerland in 1798?
A: the revolutionary French government', '
Q: What did the French government impose on Switzerland in 1798, centralizing the Swiss government?
A: a new unified constitution', '
Q: What was abolished with the introduction of the unified constitution in Switzerland?
A: the cantons', '
Q: What was the name of the new regime created when the Cisalpine Republic separated from Switzerland?
A: Helvetic Republic', '
Q: Which unpopular republic destroyed centuries of Swiss traditions?
A: Helvetic']