romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
One use of the term "computer security" refers to technology that is used to implement secure operating systems. In the 1980s the United States Department of Defense (DoD) used the "Orange Book" standards, but the current international standard ISO/IEC 15408, "Common Criteria" defines a number of progressively more stringent Evaluation Assurance Levels. Many common operating systems meet the EAL4 standard of being "Methodically Designed, Tested and Reviewed", but the formal verification required for the highest levels means that they are uncommon. An example of an EAL6 ("Semiformally Verified Design and Tested") system is Integrity-178B, which is used in the Airbus A380 and several military jets.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Technology that is used to implement secure operating systems is one use of what term?
A: computer security', '
Q: What does EAL stand for?
A: Evaluation Assurance Levels', '
Q: What is the standard of EAL4?
A: Methodically Designed, Tested and Reviewed', '
Q: What is the standard for EAL6?
A: Semiformally Verified Design and Tested', '
Q: What is an example of a system that meets EAL6?
A: Integrity-178B']
China's network security and information technology leadership team was established February 27, 2014. The leadership team is tasked with national security and long-term development and co-ordination of major issues related to network security and information technology. Economic, political, cultural, social and military fields as related to network security and information technology strategy, planning and major macroeconomic policy are being researched. The promotion of national network security and information technology law are constantly under study for enhanced national security capabilities.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When was Chine's network security and information technology leadership team established?
A: February 27, 2014", '
Q: What is the reason for studying the promotion of national network security ad information technology law?
A: enhanced national security capabilities.', '
Q: What country has a network security and information technology leadership team??
A: China']
Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between hosts on a network. For instance, programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight have been used by the FBI and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact to the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon via monitoring the faint electro-magnetic transmissions generated by the hardware; TEMPEST is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation?
A: Eavesdropping', '
Q: Conversations that people eavesdrop on are typically between who?
A: hosts on a network', '
Q: Who has used programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers?
A: the FBI and NSA', '
Q: Eavesdropping on a closed system via the faint electro-magnetic trasmissions generated by the hardware has been referred to as what by the NSA?
A: TEMPEST', '
Q: What are machines that operate with no contact to the outside world called?
A: a closed system']
Desktop computers and laptops are commonly infected with malware either to gather passwords or financial account information, or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smart phones, tablet computers, smart watches, and other mobile devices such as Quantified Self devices like activity trackers have also become targets and many of these have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. Wifi, Bluetooth, and cell phone network on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are desktop computers and laptops commonly infected with?
A: malware', '
Q: Constructing a botnet to attack another target is an example of the activity of what?
A: malware', '
Q: Activity trackers are an example of what?
A: Quantified Self devices', '
Q: What could wifi, bluetooth, and cellphone network on devices be used as?
A: attack vectors', '
Q: What could be remotely activated after a sucessful breach?
A: sensors']
Within computer systems, two of many security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and capability-based security. Using ACLs to confine programs has been proven to be insecure in many situations, such as if the host computer can be tricked into indirectly allowing restricted file access, an issue known as the confused deputy problem. It has also been shown that the promise of ACLs of giving access to an object to only one person can never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by capabilities. This does not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based systems, but only that the designers of certain utilities must take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does ACL stand for?
A: access control lists', '
Q: ACLs and capability based security are two security models capable of what?
A: enforcing privilege separation', '
Q: A host computer tricked into indirectly allowing access to restricted files is known as what?
A: the confused deputy problem', '
Q: What must designers of systems that are ACL based do?
A: take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws', '
Q: The confused deputy problem and the problem of not guaranteeing only one person has access are resolved by what?
A: capabilities']
In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the Rome Laboratory, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using trojan horses, hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did over a hundred intrusions made into the Rome Laboraroty?
A: 1994', "
Q: How were hackers able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems?
A: Using trojan horses", '
Q: How were hackers able to penetrate connected networks?
A: by posing as a trusted Rome center user', "
Q: What is the Rome Laboratory?
A: the US Air Force's main command and research facility", '
Q: Who does the Goddard Space Flight Center belong to?
A: National Aeronautics and Space Administration']
In July of 2015, a hacker group known as "The Impact Team" successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently. With this initial data release, the group stated “Avid Life Media has been instructed to take Ashley Madison and Established Men offline permanently in all forms, or we will release all customer records, including profiles with all the customers' secret sexual fantasies and matching credit card transactions, real names and addresses, and employee documents and emails. The other websites may stay online.”  When Avid Life Media, the parent company that created the Ashley Madison website, did not take the site offline, The Impact Group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned, but the website remained functional.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did The Impact Team successfully breach Ashley Madison?
A: July of 2015', '
Q: What is the name of the parent company that created Ashley Madison?
A: Avid Life Media', '
Q: When did the Avid Life Media CEO resign?
A: After the second data dump', "
Q: What was in the first data dump?
A: emails from the company's CEO", '
Q: What website, in addition to Ashley Madison, was Avid Media instructed to take offline?
A: Established Men']
The question of whether the government should intervene or not in the regulation of the cyberspace is a very polemical one. Indeed, for as long as it has existed and by definition, the cyberspace is a virtual space free of any government intervention. Where everyone agree that an improvement on cybersecurity is more than vital, is the government the best actor to solve this issue? Many government officials and experts think that the government should step in and that there is a crucial need for regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. R. Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco, he believes that the "industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through." On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that the government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: According to goverment officials, what has the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem created?
A: a crucial need for regulation', '
Q: Where was the RSA Security Conference held?
A: San Francisco', '
Q: Who believes that government intervention would affect innovation?
A: executives from the private sector', '
Q: Who said "industry only responds when you threaten regulation"?
A: R. Clarke', '
Q: What is a virtual space free of any government intervention?
A: cyberspace']
On October 3, 2010, Public Safety Canada unveiled Canada’s Cyber Security Strategy, following a Speech from the Throne commitment to boost the security of Canadian cyberspace. The aim of the strategy is to strengthen Canada’s "cyber systems and critical infrastructure sectors, support economic growth and protect Canadians as they connect to each other and to the world." Three main pillars define the strategy: securing government systems, partnering to secure vital cyber systems outside the federal government, and helping Canadians to be secure online. The strategy involves multiple departments and agencies across the Government of Canada. The Cyber Incident Management Framework for Canada outlines these responsibilities, and provides a plan for coordinated response between government and other partners in the event of a cyber incident. The Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy outlines the ongoing implementation of the strategy.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When did Public Safety Canada unveil Canada's Cyber Security Strategy?
A: October 3, 2010", "
Q: What outlines the ongoing implementation of the Cyber Security Strategy?
A: The Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy", '
Q: What outlines the responsibilities and provides a plan for coordination during a cyber incident?
A: The Cyber Incident Management Framework for Canada']
Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable to physical damage caused by malicious commands sent to industrial equipment (in that case uranium enrichment centrifuges) which are infected via removable media. In 2014, the Computer Emergency Readiness Team, a division of the Department of Homeland Security, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a potential attack vector for utilities such as the power grid?
A: The Internet', '
Q: What demonstrated equipment controlled by computers not connected to the internet can also be vulnerable?
A: the Stuxnet worm', '
Q: When did the Computer Emergency Readiness Team investigate 79 hacking incidents at energy companies?
A: 2014', '
Q: What department does the Computer Emergency Readiness Team belong to?
A: the Department of Homeland Security', '
Q: How did the Stuxnet worm infect industrial equipment?
A: via removable media']
Today, computer security comprises mainly "preventive" measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet, and can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real time filtering and blocking. Another implementation is a so-called physical firewall which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Firewalls and exit procedures are considered what?
A: "preventive" measures', '
Q: What is defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or network and another network?
A: A firewall', '
Q: What does a physical firewall consist of?
A: a separate machine filtering network traffic', '
Q: What type of machines normall have a firewall?
A: permanently connected to the Internet', '
Q: What compromises mainly preventative measures?
A: computer security']
Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has caused serious financial damage?
A: security breaches', '
Q: Data made public who is available to estimate the cost of an incident?
A: the organizations involved', '
Q: What is the amount of losses estimated from worms and viruses in 2003?
A: $13 billion', '
Q: Who produces estimates of worldwide losses attributable to security breaches?
A: Several computer security consulting firms', '
Q: What is the underlying methodology of finding worldwide estimates for losses fur to security breaches?
A: basically anecdotal']
While hardware may be a source of insecurity, such as with microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced during the manufacturing process, hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Microchips vulnerabilities are introduced when?
A: during the manufacturing process', '
Q: What offers an alternative to soft-ware only computer security?
A: hardware-based or assisted computer security', '
Q: What can hardware be a source of?
A: insecurity', '
Q: What is required in order for hardware to be compromised?
A: physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access)']
Public Safety Canada’s Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada’s critical infrastructure and cyber systems. The CCIRC provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond and recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada’s critical infrastructure sectors. The CCIRC posts regular cyber security bulletins on the Public Safety Canada website. The CCIRC also operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident. Canada's Cyber Security Strategy is part of a larger, integrated approach to critical infrastructure protection, and functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does CCIRC stand for?
A: Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre', "
Q: Who is resposible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure?
A: CCIRC", '
Q: Where does the CCIRC post regular cyber security bulletins?
A: on the Public Safety Canada website', "
Q: What functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure?
A: Canada's Cyber Security Strategy"]
This has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism. More and more critical infrastructure is being controlled via computer programs that, while increasing efficiency, exposes new vulnerabilities. The test will be to see if governments and corporations that control critical systems such as energy, communications and other information will be able to prevent attacks before they occur. As Jay Cross, the chief scientist of the Internet Time Group, remarked, "Connectedness begets vulnerability."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who said "Connectedness begets vulnerability?"
A: Jay Cross', '
Q: What organization does Jay Cross belong to?
A: the Internet Time Group', '
Q: What is the advantage of more critical infrastructure being controlled via computer programs?
A: increasing efficiency', '
Q: What is the disadvantage of more critical infrastructure being controlled via computer programs?
A: exposes new vulnerabilities']
On September 27, 2010, Public Safety Canada partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations dedicated to informing the general public on how to protect themselves online. On February 4, 2014, the Government of Canada launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program. The program is a $1.5 million five-year initiative aimed at improving Canada’s cyber systems through grants and contributions to projects in support of this objective. Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's Cyber Security Strategy in early 2015. Public Safety Canada administers and routinely updates the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and carries out Cyber Security Awareness Month during October.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Public Safety Canada partner with Stop.Think. Connect?
A: September 27, 2010', '
Q: When was the Cyber Security Cooperation Program launched by the Government of Canada?
A: February 4, 2014', '
Q: Who routinely updates the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens?
A: Public Safety Canada', '
Q: What month is Cyber Security Awareness Month?
A: October', '
Q: How much does the Cyber Security Cooperation Program cost?
A: $1.5 million']
An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly download data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, or covert listening devices. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be able to be by passed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Installing keyloggers and making operating system modifications are examples of ways unauthorized users for what?
A: compromise security', '
Q: Booting a tool or another operating system from a CD Rom can bypass what?
A: standard security measures', '
Q: Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent what?
A: attacks', '
Q: An unauthorized user with physical access to a computer can likely do what?
A: directly download data from it']
Clickjacking, also known as "UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack", is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks a user into clicking on a button or link on another webpage while the user intended to click on the top level page. This is done using multiple transparent or opaque layers. The attacker is basically "hijacking" the clicks meant for the top level page and routing them to some other irrelevant page, most likely owned by someone else. A similar technique can be used to hijack keystrokes. Carefully drafting a combination of stylesheets, iframes, buttons and text boxes, a user can be led into believing that they are typing the password or other information on some authentic webpage while it is being channeled into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack is also known as what?
A: Clickjacking', '
Q: What is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks the user into clicking on a button or link?
A: Clickjacking', '
Q: Where are the clicks meant for the top level page routed?
A: some other irrelevant page', '
Q: Where would a password typed on a seemingly authetic webpage be directed?
A: into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker', '
Q: How istricking the user accomplished in clickjacking?
A: using multiple transparent or opaque layers']
In 1988, only 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On November 2, 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet "computer worm". The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. who said 'he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet'.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many computers were connected to the internet in 1988?
A: 60,000', '
Q: When was the first computer worm released?
A: November 2, 1988', '
Q: Who was the first computer worm traced back to?
A: Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.', '
Q: What is a malicious code that demands processor time and spreads itself to other computers?
A: computer worm', '
Q: Why did Morris Jr make the computer worm?
A: he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet']
In 2013 and 2014, a Russian/Ukrainian hacking ring known as "Rescator" broke into Target Corporation computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards, and then Home Depot computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers. Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using self checkout machines are believed to have played a large role. "The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting," says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee – meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing antivirus software had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who are Rescator?
A: a Russian/Ukrainian hacking ring', '
Q: What was stolen from Target Corporation computers in 2013?
A: 40 million credit cards', '
Q: How many credit card numbers were stole from Home Depot in 2014?
A: between 53 and 56 million', '
Q: What machines were involved in the physical security breaches that played a large role in the incident?
A: self checkout machines', '
Q: Who is Jim Walter?
A: director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee']