romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
In 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome (Bacteriophage MS2). The next year Fred Sanger completed the first DNA-genome sequence: Phage Φ-X174, of 5386 base pairs. The first complete genome sequences among all three domains of life were released within a short period during the mid-1990s: The first bacterial genome to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae, completed by a team at The Institute for Genomic Research in 1995. A few months later, the first eukaryotic genome was completed, with sequences of the 16 chromosomes of budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae published as the result of a European-led effort begun in the mid-1980s. The first genome sequence for an archaeon, Methanococcus jannaschii, was completed in 1996, again by The Institute for Genomic Research.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first person to sequence a viral genome?
A: Walter Fiers', '
Q: Which viral genome did Fiers sequence?
A: Bacteriophage MS2', '
Q: Who was first to sequence a DNA-based genome?
A: Fred Sanger', '
Q: What organization first sequenced a bacterial genome?
A: Institute for Genomic Research', '
Q: In what year was the archaeon genome sequenced?
A: 1996']
The development of new technologies has made it dramatically easier and cheaper to do sequencing, and the number of complete genome sequences is growing rapidly. The US National Institutes of Health maintains one of several comprehensive databases of genomic information. Among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for rice, a mouse, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the puffer fish, and the bacteria E. coli. In December 2013, scientists first sequenced the entire genome of a Neanderthal, an extinct species of humans. The genome was extracted from the toe bone of a 130,000-year-old Neanderthal found in a Siberian cave.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which U.S. government agency keeps a large amount of information on genomes?
A: US National Institutes of Health', '
Q: What is a mammal whose genome has been sequenced?
A: mouse', '
Q: What is a fish whose genome has been sequenced?
A: puffer fish', "
Q: When was the Neanderthal's genome sequenced?
A: December 2013", '
Q: How old in years was the material that was used to sequence the Neanderthal genome?
A: 130,000']
New sequencing technologies, such as massive parallel sequencing have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool, as pioneered by Manteia Predictive Medicine. A major step toward that goal was the completion in 2007 of the full genome of James D. Watson, one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a recent development in sequencing methods?
A: massive parallel sequencing', '
Q: Which company has led the way in sequencing of individual genetic makeup?
A: Manteia Predictive Medicine', '
Q: Whose complete genetic information was recorded in 2007?
A: James D. Watson', '
Q: What is Watson famous for helping discover?
A: the structure of DNA']
Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome. A fundamental step in the project was the release of a detailed genomic map by Jean Weissenbach and his team at the Genoscope in Paris.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the term for something that lists the important and notable parts of a genome?
A: genome map', '
Q: Which group was created to generate a genome map of human genetic material?
A: The Human Genome Project', '
Q: Whose genome map greatly aided the Human Genome Project?
A: Jean Weissenbach', '
Q: Where did Weissenbach and his colleagues work?
A: Genoscope']
Genome composition is used to describe the make up of contents of a haploid genome, which should include genome size, proportions of non-repetitive DNA and repetitive DNA in details. By comparing the genome compositions between genomes, scientists can better understand the evolutionary history of a given genome.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the term that accounts for the constituents of the haploid genome?
A: Genome composition', '
Q: What aspect of a genome can genome compositions help researchers in learning about?
A: evolutionary history']
When talking about genome composition, one should distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes as the big differences on contents structure they have. In prokaryotes, most of the genome (85–90%) is non-repetitive DNA, which means coding DNA mainly forms it, while non-coding regions only take a small part. On the contrary, eukaryotes have the feature of exon-intron organization of protein coding genes; the variation of repetitive DNA content in eukaryotes is also extremely high. In mammals and plants, the major part of the genome is composed of repetitive DNA.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What two types of organisms have remarkable differences in their genomic composition?
A: prokaryotes and eukaryotes', '
Q: What type of organizing can be observed in eukaryote genomes?
A: exon-intron', '
Q: In what types of eukaryotes is there a large amount of non-coding DNA?
A: mammals and plants']
Most biological entities that are more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include information stored on this auxiliary material, which is carried in plasmids. In such circumstances then, "genome" describes all of the genes and information on non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is an example of an organism that has a portion of its genetic material outside of its chromosomes?
A: pathogenic microbe', '
Q: What is an example of an organism whose full complement of genetic material resides in its chromosomes?
A: virus', '
Q: Where is additional genetic material found in pathogenic microbes?
A: plasmids']
In eukaryotes such as plants, protozoa and animals, however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only information on chromosomal DNA. So although these organisms contain chloroplasts or mitochondria that have their own DNA, the genetic information contained by DNA within these organelles is not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome often referred to as the "mitochondrial genome". The DNA found within the chloroplast may be referred to as the "plastome".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are examples of classes of eukaryotes where genome only refers to the information found in chromosomes?
A: plants, protozoa and animals', '
Q: What is a name for the genetic material found within chloroplasts?
A: plastome', '
Q: What is a name for the genetic makeup of mitochondria?
A: mitochondrial genome']
Genome size is the total number of DNA base pairs in one copy of a haploid genome. The genome size is positively correlated with the morphological complexity among prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes; however, after mollusks and all the other higher eukaryotes above, this correlation is no longer effective. This phenomenon also indicates the mighty influence coming from repetitive DNA act on the genomes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name for the count of all DNA base pairs in a single haploid genome?
A: Genome size', '
Q: What does genome size have a direct relationship with in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes?
A: morphological complexity', '
Q: What accounts for the breakdown of the relation between genome size and morphological complexity in higher eukaryotes?
A: repetitive DNA']
Since genomes are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a name for the reduced complement of genetic material necessary for an organism to live?
A: minimal genomes', '
Q: In what experimental contexts are experiments being carried out on minimal genomes?
A: in vivo and in silico']
The proportion of non-repetitive DNA is calculated by using the length of non-repetitive DNA divided by genome size. Protein-coding genes and RNA-coding genes are generally non-repetitive DNA. A bigger genome does not mean more genes, and the proportion of non-repetitive DNA decreases along with increasing genome size in higher eukaryotes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are two types of non-repetitive DNA?
A: Protein-coding genes and RNA-coding genes', '
Q: In higher eukaryotes, what has an inverse relationship with genome size?
A: proportion of non-repetitive DNA', '
Q: What is the size of non-repetitive DNA divided by to get the proportion of non-repetitive DNA?
A: genome size']
It had been found that the proportion of non-repetitive DNA can vary a lot between species. Some E. coli as prokaryotes only have non-repetitive DNA, lower eukaryotes such as C. elegans and fruit fly, still possess more non-repetitive DNA than repetitive DNA. Higher eukaryotes tend to have more repetitive DNA than non-repetitive ones. In some plants and amphibians, the proportion of non-repetitive DNA is no more than 20%, becoming a minority component.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is an example of an organism which does not contain any repetitive DNA?
A: E. coli', '
Q: What are two organisms that have more non-repetitive than repetitive DNA?
A: C. elegans and fruit fly', '
Q: What is the percentage of non-repetitive DNA in some plant and amphibian genomes?
A: 20%']
The proportion of repetitive DNA is calculated by using length of repetitive DNA divide by genome size. There are two categories of repetitive DNA in genome: tandem repeats and interspersed repeats.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are two types of repetitive DNA found in genomes?
A: tandem repeats and interspersed repeats', '
Q: What is found by dividing size of repetitive DNA by length of total genome?
A: proportion of repetitive DNA']
Tandem repeats are usually caused by slippage during replication, unequal crossing-over and gene conversion, satellite DNA and microsatellites are forms of tandem repeats in the genome. Although tandem repeats count for a significant proportion in genome, the largest proportion in mammalian is the other type, interspersed repeats.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Unequal crossing over can create what type of repetitive DNA?
A: Tandem repeats', '
Q: What are two examples of tandem repeats in DNA?
A: satellite DNA and microsatellites', '
Q: What is the most common type of repetitive DNA in mammals?
A: interspersed repeats.']
Interspersed repeats mainly come from transposable elements (TEs), but they also include some protein coding gene families and pseudogenes. Transposable elements are able to integrate into the genome at another site within the cell. It is believed that TEs are an important driving force on genome evolution of higher eukaryotes. TEs can be classified into two categories, Class 1 (retrotransposons) and Class 2 (DNA transposons).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the main source of interspersed repeats?
A: Transposable elements', '
Q: What do researchers think transposable elements are key factors in when considering higher eukaryotes?
A: genome evolution', '
Q: What are the constituents of Class 1 transposable elements?
A: retrotransposons', '
Q: What are the constituents of Class 2 transposable elements?
A: DNA transposons']
Retrotransposons can be transcribed into RNA, which are then duplicated at another site into the genome. Retrotransposons can be divided into Long terminal repeats (LTRs) and Non-Long Terminal Repeats (Non-LTR).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of genetic material can be produced from retrotransposons?
A: RNA']
DNA transposons generally move by "cut and paste" in the genome, but duplication has also been observed. Class 2 TEs do not use RNA as intermediate and are popular in bacteria, in metazoan it has also been found.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a term that can describe how DNA transposons move?
A: cut and paste', '
Q: DNA transposons do not use which genetic material used by Class 1 TEs?
A: RNA']
Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number (karyotype), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another word for the total count of chromosomes?
A: karyotype', '
Q: Aside from karyotype, what are other genomic traits studied by scientists?
A: genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content']
Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplication may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplication of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of generation of genetic material has a big part in making the genome what it is?
A: Duplications', '
Q: What is a possible product of duplications?
A: genetic novelty']
Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is an explanation for the resemblance between disparate parts of the genome?
A: Horizontal gene transfer', '
Q: In which organisms does horizontal gene transfer appear to occur commonly?
A: microbes', '
Q: Parts of which organelle genomes are thought to have ended up in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells via transfer?
A: chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes']
A comprehensive school is a state school that does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. This is in contrast to the selective school system, where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria. The term is commonly used in relation to England and Wales, where comprehensive schools were introduced on an experimental basis in the 1940s and became more widespread from 1965. About 90% of British secondary school pupils now attend comprehensive schools. They correspond broadly to the public high school in the United States and Canada and to the German Gesamtschule.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of school does not base its admissions on academic merit?
A: comprehensive school', '
Q: What kind of school system uses academic success to judge admissions?
A: selective school system', '
Q: What countries used comprehensive schools extensively?
A: England and Wales', '
Q: How many secondary school students attend comprehensive schools in England?
A: 90%', '
Q: What is the German analogue of the comprehensive school?
A: Gesamtschule']
Comprehensive schools are primarily about providing an entitlement curriculum to all children, without selection whether due to financial considerations or attainment. A consequence of that is a wider ranging curriculum, including practical subjects such as design and technology and vocational learning, which were less common or non-existent in grammar schools. Providing post-16 education cost-effectively becomes more challenging for smaller comprehensive schools, because of the number of courses needed to cover a broader curriculum with comparatively fewer students. This is why schools have tended to get larger and also why many local authorities have organised secondary education into 11–16 schools, with the post-16 provision provided by Sixth Form colleges and Further Education Colleges. Comprehensive schools do not select their intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude, but there are demographic reasons why the attainment profiles of different schools vary considerably. In addition, government initiatives such as the City Technology Colleges and Specialist schools programmes have made the comprehensive ideal less certain.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are some areas of learning in comprehensive schools that were not found often in grammar schools?
A: design and technology and vocational learning', '
Q: What two kinds of schools were developed in response to the costs of post-16 comprehensive school education?
A: Sixth Form colleges and Further Education Colleges', '
Q: Which types of school projects have called the model of comprehensive schools into question?
A: City Technology Colleges and Specialist schools programmes']
In these schools children could be selected on the basis of curriculum aptitude related to the school's specialism even though the schools do take quotas from each quartile of the attainment range to ensure they were not selective by attainment. A problem with this is whether the quotas should be taken from a normal distribution or from the specific distribution of attainment in the immediate catchment area. In the selective school system, which survives in several parts of the United Kingdom, admission is dependent on selection criteria, most commonly a cognitive test or tests. Although comprehensive schools were introduced to England and Wales in 1965, there are 164 selective grammar schools that are still in operation.[citation needed] (though this is a small number compared to approximately 3500 state secondary schools in England). Most comprehensives are secondary schools for children between the ages of 11 to 16, but in a few areas there are comprehensive middle schools, and in some places the secondary level is divided into two, for students aged 11 to 14 and those aged 14 to 18, roughly corresponding to the US middle school (or junior high school) and high school, respectively. With the advent of key stages in the National Curriculum some local authorities reverted from the Middle School system to 11–16 and 11–18 schools so that the transition between schools corresponds to the end of one key stage and the start of another.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many selective grammar schools are still currently functioning in England and Wales?
A: 164', '
Q: In what year were comprehensive schools first created?
A: 1965']
In principle, comprehensive schools were conceived as "neighbourhood" schools for all students in a specified catchment area. Current education reforms with Academies Programme, Free Schools and University Technical Colleges will no doubt have some impact on the comprehensive ideal but it is too early to say to what degree.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is a word that can be used to describe the scope of a comprehensive school's intake?
A: neighbourhood", '
Q: What are some new initiatives that may impact the concept of comprehensive schools?
A: Academies Programme, Free Schools and University Technical Colleges']
Finland has used comprehensive schools since the 1970s, in the sense that everyone is expected to complete the nine grades of peruskoulu, from the age 7 to 16. The division to lower comprehensive school (grades 1–6, ala-aste, alakoulu) and upper comprehensive school (grades 7–9, yläaste, yläkoulu) has been discontinued.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what decade did Finland begin employing comprehensive schools?
A: 1970s', '
Q: What age ranges does Finnish comprehensive school cover?
A: 7 to 16']
Germany has a comprehensive school known as the Gesamtschule. While some German schools such as the Gymnasium and the Realschule have rather strict entrance requirements, the Gesamtschule does not have such requirements. They offer college preparatory classes for the students who are doing well, general education classes for average students, and remedial courses for those who aren't doing that well. In most cases students attending a Gesamtschule may graduate with the Hauptschulabschluss, the Realschulabschluss or the Abitur depending on how well they did in school.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of school is the Gesamtschule?
A: comprehensive', '
Q: What kinds of courses are offered to students who are not experiencing academic success?
A: remedial', '
Q: What are the different kinds of certificates that Gesamtschule students can earn?
A: the Hauptschulabschluss, the Realschulabschluss or the Abitur']
The percentage of students attending a Gesamtschule varies by Bundesland. In the State of Brandenburg more than 50% of all students attended a Gesamtschule in 2007, while in the State of Bavaria less than 1% did.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What percentage of Brandenburg students went to a Gesamtschule in 2007?
A: 50%', '
Q: What percentage of Bavarian students went to a Gesamtschule in 2007?
A: less than 1%']
Starting in 2010/2011, Hauptschulen were merged with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen to form a new type of comprehensive school in the German States of Berlin and Hamburg, called Stadtteilschule in Hamburg and Sekundarschule in Berlin (see: Education in Berlin, Education in Hamburg).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the combination of Hauptschulen with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen called in Hamburg?
A: Stadtteilschule', '
Q: What was the combination of Hauptschulen with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen called in Berlin?
A: Sekundarschule', '
Q: In what school year were Hauptschulen first combined with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen?
A: 2010/2011']
The "Mittelschule" is a school in some States of Germany that offers regular classes and remedial classes but no college preparatory classes. In some States of Germany, the Hauptschule does not exist, and any student who has not been accepted by another school has to attend the Mittelschule. Students may be awarded the Hauptschulabschluss or the Mittlere Reife but not the Abitur.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of classes are not offered in Mittelschule?
A: college preparatory classes', '
Q: What certificate is not available to Mittelschule students?
A: Abitur', '
Q: What kind of school is not available in some parts of Germany?
A: Hauptschule']