romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by difficulties encountered during his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast. His subsequent experience with encountering German autobahn limited-access road systems during the concluding stages of World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but provide a measure of continued economic growth. The legislation initially stalled in the Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and the law was signed by Eisenhower in June 1956.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What event led Eisenhower to want to improve highways in the US?
A: the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy", '
Q: What German transportation project influenced Eisenhower on highways?
A: autobahn', '
Q: When did Eisenhower sign the law to create the Interstate Highway System?
A: June 1956', '
Q: Along with military benefits, what did Eisenhower see as the benefit of the highway project?
A: economic growth', '
Q: Why did Congress hold up the highway bill?
A: issuance of bonds to finance the project']
In 1953, the Republican Party's Old Guard presented Eisenhower with a dilemma by insisting he disavow the Yalta Agreements as beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch; however, the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953 made the matter a practical moot point. At this time Eisenhower gave his Chance for Peace speech in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to forestall the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union by suggesting multiple opportunities presented by peaceful uses of nuclear materials. Biographer Stephen Ambrose opined that this was the best speech of Eisenhower's presidency.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What agreements did the GOP Old Guard want Eisenhower to abandon?
A: Yalta', '
Q: Why did the Old Guard say Eisenhower should void the Yalta Agreements?
A: beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch', '
Q: What world leader died in March of 1953?
A: Joseph Stalin', '
Q: What speech did Eisenhower give after Stalin died?
A: Chance for Peace', '
Q: Who called the Chance for Peace speech the best one Eisenhower gave as president?
A: Stephen Ambrose']
The U.N. speech was well received but the Soviets never acted upon it, due to an overarching concern for the greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the U.S. arsenal. Indeed, Eisenhower embarked upon a greater reliance on the use of nuclear weapons, while reducing conventional forces, and with them the overall defense budget, a policy formulated as a result of Project Solarium and expressed in NSC 162/2. This approach became known as the "New Look", and was initiated with defense cuts in late 1953.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Eisenhower reduce as he increased nuclear weapons stockpiles?
A: conventional forces', '
Q: What was the policy of increasing nuclear weapons while decreasing conventional forces called?
A: New Look', '
Q: When did Eisenhower begin to cut the defense budget?
A: 1953', '
Q: Along with NSC 162/2, what influenced the development of the New Look policy?
A: Project Solarium']
In 1955 American nuclear arms policy became one aimed primarily at arms control as opposed to disarmament. The failure of negotiations over arms until 1955 was due mainly to the refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections. In talks located in London that year, they expressed a willingness to discuss inspections; the tables were then turned on Eisenhower, when he responded with an unwillingness on the part of the U.S. to permit inspections. In May of that year the Russians agreed to sign a treaty giving independence to Austria, and paved the way for a Geneva summit with the U.S., U.K. and France. At the Geneva Conference Eisenhower presented a proposal called "Open Skies" to facilitate disarmament, which included plans for Russia and the U.S. to provide mutual access to each other's skies for open surveillance of military infrastructure. Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev dismissed the proposal out of hand.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why did nuclear arms negotiations with Russia fail prior to 1955?
A: refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections', '
Q: In what city did the US and Russia conduct nuclear talks in 1955?
A: London', '
Q: Who refused to permit nuclear weapons inspections in the wake of the 1955 talks?
A: Eisenhower', '
Q: In May of 1955, a treaty was signed giving independence to what country?
A: Austria', '
Q: What was the plan Eisenhower presented at the Geneva Conference called?
A: Open Skies']
In 1954, Eisenhower articulated the domino theory in his outlook towards communism in Southeast Asia and also in Central America. He believed that if the communists were allowed to prevail in Vietnam, this would cause a succession of countries to fall to communism, from Laos through Malaysia and Indonesia ultimately to India. Likewise, the fall of Guatemala would end with the fall of neighboring Mexico. That year the loss of North Vietnam to the communists and the rejection of his proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were serious defeats, but he remained optimistic in his opposition to the spread of communism, saying "Long faces don't win wars". As he had threatened the French in their rejection of EDC, he afterwards moved to restore West Germany, as a full NATO partner.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What country did Eisenhower believe communists would conquer if they took over Guatemala?
A: Mexico', '
Q: The domino theory was applied to Central America and what other region?
A: Southeast Asia', "
Q: In what year was Eisenhower's EDC rejected?
A: 1954", '
Q: What country was made a full partner in NATO as the result of the failure of EDC?
A: West Germany', '
Q: According to Eisenhower, all of Southeast Asia would become communist if the communist insurgency won in what country?
A: Vietnam']
With Eisenhower's leadership and Dulles' direction, CIA activities increased under the pretense of resisting the spread of communism in poorer countries; the CIA in part deposed the leaders of Iran in Operation Ajax, of Guatemala through Operation Pbsuccess, and possibly the newly independent Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). In 1954 Eisenhower wanted to increase surveillance inside the Soviet Union. With Dulles' recommendation, he authorized the deployment of thirty Lockheed U-2's at a cost of $35 million. The Eisenhower administration also planned the Bay of Pigs Invasion to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba, which John F. Kennedy was left to carry out."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the director of the CIA?
A: Dulles', '
Q: What was the code name of the overthrow of the Iranian government?
A: Operation Ajax', '
Q: What CIA operation toppled the Guatemalan government?
A: Pbsuccess', '
Q: What company made the U-2?
A: Lockheed', '
Q: Under what president did the Bay of Pigs Invasion take place?
A: John F. Kennedy']
Over New York City in 1953, Eastern Airlines Flight 8610, a commercial flight, had a near miss with Air Force Flight 8610, a Lockheed C-121 Constellation known as Columbine II, while the latter was carrying President Eisenhower. This prompted the adoption of the unique call sign Air Force One, to be used whenever the president is on board any US Air Force aircraft. Columbine II is the only presidential aircraft to have ever been sold to the public and is the only remaining presidential aircraft left unrestored and not on public display.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What make and model aircraft was Air Force Flight 8610?
A: Lockheed C-121 Constellation', '
Q: What aircraft had an incident with Air Force Flight 8610?
A: Eastern Airlines Flight 8610', '
Q: What call sign does an Air Force aircraft have when a president is traveling on it?
A: Air Force One', '
Q: What was the name of the Lockheed C-121 Constellation that carried Eisenhower?
A: Columbine II', '
Q: In what year was Eisenhower involved in an incident while flying?
A: 1953']
On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, created NASA as a civilian space agency, signed a landmark science education law, and fostered improved relations with American scientists.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What caused Eisenhower to kickstart the US space program?
A: Soviet launch of Sputnik', '
Q: What was the legal status of the U-2 flyovers?
A: illegal', '
Q: Along with the U-2 flyovers, what did Eisenhower try to legitimize with the Open Skies Policy?
A: Project Genetrix', '
Q: What was the name of the civilian space agency created by Eisenhower?
A: NASA', '
Q: With whom did Eisenhower try to improve relations?
A: American scientists']
In late 1952 Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he threatened to use nuclear force if an armistice was not concluded. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese. The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against China. With the death of Stalin in early March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did the Chinese begin to increase forces after Eisenhower entered the White House?
A: Kaesong sanctuary', '
Q: What did Eisenhower threaten to do if there was no armistice in Korea?
A: use nuclear force', '
Q: Along with the Joint Chiefs and SAC, what body was involved with formulating plans for nuclear war with China?
A: National Security Council', '
Q: What event led to decreased Russian support for China?
A: death of Stalin', '
Q: What was SAC an abbreviation of?
A: Strategic Air Command']
In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today, with American soldiers stationed there to guarantee it. The armistice, concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The boundary line of what year formed the 1953 armistice line?
A: 1950', '
Q: In what month in 1953 did the armistice come into being?
A: July', '
Q: Who was the President of South Korea at the time of the armistice?
A: Syngman Rhee', '
Q: What American official notably opposed the armistice?
A: Secretary Dulles', "
Q: Who described the armistice as Eisenhower's greatest presidential accomplishment?
A: Ambrose"]
In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis, receiving praise from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations, and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt. Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, which were published in 1965.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with the British and Israelis, what forces invaded Egypt in 1956?
A: French', '
Q: What was the combined Israeli-British-French invasion in response to?
A: Suez Crisis', '
Q: Who was the leader of Egypt at the time of the Suez Crisis?
A: Gamal Abdel Nasser', '
Q: Who invaded Hungary in 1956?
A: Soviet', "
Q: What year saw the publication of Eisenhower's memoirs?
A: 1965"]
Early in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in French Indochina against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the First Indochina War. Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel to Vietnam to study and assess the French forces there. Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What war was being fought by France in 1953?
A: First Indochina War', "
Q: What was John W. O'Daniel's nickname?
A: Iron Mike", '
Q: Who convinced Eisenhower not to intervene in Vietnam?
A: Matthew Ridgway', '
Q: Who was providing supplies to the Vietnamese communists fighting against France?
A: China', '
Q: How large of a military deployment did Ridgway say would be necessary in Vietnam?
A: massive']
Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval. When the French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urgings from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Aside from bombers, what aid did Eisenhower provide to the French?
A: non-combat personnel', '
Q: What did American bombers drop on Vietnam?
A: napalm', '
Q: When did Dien Bien Phu fall to the communists?
A: May 1954', '
Q: Along with the Vice President and NCS head, who urged Eisenhower to intervene after the fall of Dien Bien Phu?
A: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs', '
Q: What arguably impossible conditions did Eisenhower set for further intervention on behalf of the French?
A: allied participation and congressional approval']
Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the U.K., France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the U.S. would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam. Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the U.S out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had in the end put the U.S. back into the conflict.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is SEATO?
A: Southeast Asia Treaty Organization', '
Q: Along with the United States, the United Kingdom and France, who formed SEATO?
A: New Zealand and Australia', '
Q: What was the purpose of SEATO?
A: defense of Vietnam against communism', '
Q: What group did France split Vietnam with?
A: Communists', '
Q: Who met in peace talks with France at Geneva?
A: Chinese']
In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam" (the term South Vietnam came into use in 1955), effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign. In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was South Vietnam called in 1955?
A: Free Vietnam', '
Q: Who was the first ambassador to South Vietnam?
A: J. Lawton Collins', '
Q: When did Eisenhower first send military advisers to South Vietnam?
A: February 1955', '
Q: Who was the leader of South Vietnam in 1954?
A: Ngo Dinh Diem', '
Q: Along with Free Vietnam, what was another term for South Vietnam?
A: Republic of Vietnam']
In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U.S. military advisors in South Vietnam to 900 men. This was due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall. In May 1957 Diem, then President of South Vietnam, made a state visit to the United States for ten days. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many days did the President of South Vietnam visit the US for in 1957?
A: ten', '
Q: Where was a parade held for the President of South Vietnam?
A: New York City', '
Q: How many soldiers did Eisenhower ultimately send to Vietnam?
A: 900', '
Q: Who was Secretary of State in 1957?
A: John Foster Dulles', '
Q: According to Dulles, why was Diem made president of Vietnam?
A: there were no better alternatives']
On May 1, 1960, a U.S. one-man U-2 spy plane was reportedly shot down at high altitude over Soviet Union airspace. The flight was made to gain photo intelligence before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit conference, which had been scheduled in Paris, 15 days later. Captain Francis Gary Powers had bailed out of his aircraft and was captured after parachuting down onto Russian soil. Four days after Powers disappeared, the Eisenhower Administration had NASA issue a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey. It speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, and falsely claimed that "the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was a U-2 downed over the Soviet Union?
A: May 1, 1960', '
Q: What was the downed U-2 gathering intelligence in advance of?
A: East–West summit conference', '
Q: What was the rank of the pilot of the downed U-2?
A: Captain', '
Q: Where was the East-West summit to have taken place?
A: Paris']
Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev announced that a "spy-plane" had been shot down but intentionally made no reference to the pilot. As a result, the Eisenhower Administration, thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a "weather research aircraft" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed "difficulties with his oxygen equipment" while flying over Turkey. The Soviets put Captain Powers on trial and displayed parts of the U-2, which had been recovered almost fully intact.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the Eisenhower administration refer to the downed U-2 as?
A: weather research aircraft', '
Q: Where did the Eisenhower administration say that the downed U-2 was intended to be flying?
A: Turkey', '
Q: According to the cover story, what did the "weather research" pilot have trouble with?
A: oxygen equipment', '
Q: What happened to Powers in the Soviet Union?
A: trial', '
Q: What did Khrushchev refer to the U-2 as?
A: spy-plane']
The 1960 Four Power Paris Summit between President Dwight Eisenhower, Nikita Khrushchev, Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle collapsed because of the incident. Eisenhower refused to accede to Khrushchev's demands that he apologize. Therefore, Khrushchev would not take part in the summit. Up until this event, Eisenhower felt he had been making progress towards better relations with the Soviet Union. Nuclear arms reduction and Berlin were to have been discussed at the summit. Eisenhower stated it had all been ruined because of that "stupid U-2 business".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with Eisenhower, Macmillan and de Gaulle, what leader attended the Four Powers Paris Summit?
A: Nikita Khrushchev', '
Q: What did Khrushchev demand that Eisenhower do?
A: apologize', '
Q: Along with reducing nuclear weapons, what was to have been the topic of conversation at the Four Power Paris Summit?
A: Berlin', '
Q: What did Eisenhower blame for ruining the summit?
A: stupid U-2 business', '
Q: In what year was the Four Power Paris Summit intended to take place?
A: 1960']
While President Truman had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces in 1948, actual implementation had been slow. Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union address in February 1953, saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces". When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating "Wherever Federal Funds are expended ..., I do not see how any American can justify ... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which president initially began to desegregate the US military?
A: Truman', '
Q: When did the desegregation of the United States Armed Forces begin?
A: 1948', '
Q: When did Eisenhower deliver his first State of the Union?
A: February 1953', '
Q: What control did Eisenhower use to push through desegregation?
A: military spending', '
Q: In what geographical area did Eisenhower promise to end desegregation in his State of the Union address?
A: District of Columbia']
Eisenhower told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children. He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and of 1960 and signed those acts into law. The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since 1875.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who did Eisenhower tell DC officials to integrate?
A: school children', '
Q: What was the first civil rights act proposed to Congress by Eisenhower?
A: Civil Rights Act of 1957', '
Q: In what year did Eisenhower propose his second civil rights act?
A: 1960', '
Q: What sort of commission did the Civil Rights Act of 1957 establish?
A: Civil Rights Commission', '
Q: Under the Civil Rights Act of 1957, what federal department contained a civil rights office?
A: Justice']