romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
One month later, the proposed European Treaty was rejected not only by supporters of the EDC but also by western opponents of the European Defense Community (like French Gaullist leader Palewski) who perceived it as "unacceptable in its present form because it excludes the USA from participation in the collective security system in Europe". The Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France stating to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. And considering that another argument deployed against the Soviet proposal was that it was perceived by western powers as "directed against the North Atlantic Pact and its liquidation", the Soviets decided to declare their "readiness to examine jointly with other interested parties the question of the participation of the USSR in the North Atlantic bloc", specifying that "the admittance of the USA into the General European Agreement should not be conditional on the three western powers agreeing to the USSR joining the North Atlantic Pact".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The omission of which nation from involvement in the proposed security system led to its NATO opposition?
A: the USA']
Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by UK, US, and French governments shortly after. Emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO "must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella." He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that "the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the general who spoke out against the USSR joining NATO?
A: Hastings Ismay', '
Q: To what did the British general compare the USSR in his opposition to their joining NATO?
A: burglar']
In April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did Konrad Adenauer first visit the United States?
A: 1954']
Memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too. On 30 August 1954 French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure and blocking a major objective of US policy towards Europe: to associate Germany militarily with the West. The US Department of State started to elaborate alternatives: Germany would be invited to join NATO or, in the case of French obstructionism, strategies to circumvent a French veto would be implemented in order to obtain a German rearmament outside NATO.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which NATO country feared a unified and rearmed Germany?
A: France']
On 23 October 1954 – only nine years after Allies (UK, USA and USSR) defeated Nazi Germany ending World War II in Europe – the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany to the North Atlantic Pact was finally decided. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time. In November 1954, the USSR requested a new European Security Treaty, in order to make a final attempt to not have a remilitarized West Germany potentially opposed to the Soviet Union, with no success.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which year was West Germany admitted to NATO?
A: 1954', '
Q: Halvard Lange was a minister of which NATO member?
A: Norway']
On 14 May 1955, the USSR and other seven European countries "reaffirming their desire for the establishment of a system of European collective security based on the participation of all European states irrespective of their social and political systems" established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO, declaring that: "a remilitarized Western Germany and the integration of the latter in the North-Atlantic bloc [...] increase the danger of another war and constitutes a threat to the national security of the peaceable states; [...] in these circumstances the peaceable European states must take the necessary measures to safeguard their security".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which month of 1955 was this pact declared?
A: May']
One of the founding members, East Germany was allowed to re-arm by the Soviet Union and the National People's Army was established as the armed forces of the country to counter the rearmament of West Germany.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which nation was permitted rearmament by the foundation of the Warsaw Pact?
A: East Germany', "
Q: What was the name of the East German armed forces?
A: the National People's Army"]
The eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defense of any member who would be attacked. Relations among the treaty signatories were based upon mutual non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence. However, almost all governments of those member states were indirectly controlled by the Soviet Union.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many countries formed the initial Warsaw Pact membership?
A: eight']
In July 1963 the Mongolian People's Republic asked to join the Warsaw Pact under Article 9 of the treaty. For this purpose a special protocol should have been taken since the text of the treaty applied only to Europe. Due to the emerging Sino-Soviet split, Mongolia remained on observer status. Soviet stationing troops were agreed to stay in Mongolia from 1966.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which year did Mongolia seek entry in the Warsaw Pact?
A: 1963', '
Q: In which year were Soviet forces scheduled to leave Mongolia? 
A: 1966']
For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was the focus of both alliances' policies towards the other in lieu of direct fighting?
A: containment", '
Q: Which continent was considered to be at the center of NATO/Warsaw Pact intrigues?
A: Europe']
In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government. Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the death of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which year did Hungary attempt to leave the Warsaw Pact?
A: 1956', '
Q: Who was the head of the Hungarian government at the time of the revolt?
A: Imre Nagy']
The multi-national Communist armed forces' sole joint action was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. All member countries, with the exception of the Socialist Republic of Romania and the People's Republic of Albania participated in the invasion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which year was the Warsaw Pact activated in a joint action?
A: 1968', '
Q: Which country did the Pact conquer?
A: Czechoslovakia']
On 25 February 1991, the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defense and foreign ministers from remaining Pact countries meeting in Hungary. On 1 July 1991, in Prague, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the USSR. In fact, the treaty was de facto disbanded in December 1989 during the violent revolution in Romania, which toppled the communist government, without military intervention form other member states. The USSR disestablished itself in December 1991.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which country did Warsaw Pact officials meet to dissolve the alliance?
A: Hungary', '
Q: In which year did Romania overthrow its communist government?
A: 1989', '
Q: For how many years did the Warsaw Pact formally exist?
A: 36']
On 12 March 1999, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland joined NATO; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Albania joined on 1 April 2009.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which former Eastern Bloc country was the latest to join NATO?
A: Albania', '
Q: In which year did Poland join NATO?
A: 1999', '
Q: In which year did Slovakia join NATO? 
A: 2004']
In November 2005, the Polish government opened its Warsaw Treaty archives to the Institute of National Remembrance, who published some 1,300 declassified documents in January 2006. Yet the Polish government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their military declassification. Eventually, 30 of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained secret, and unpublished. Among the documents published is the Warsaw Treaty's nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine – a short, swift counter-attack capturing Austria, Denmark, Germany and Netherlands east of River Rhine, using nuclear weapons, in self-defense, after a NATO first strike. The plan originated as a 1979 field training exercise war game, and metamorphosed into official Warsaw Treaty battle doctrine, until the late 1980s – which is why the People's Republic of Poland was a nuclear weapons base, first, to 178, then, to 250 tactical-range rockets. Doctrinally, as a Soviet-style (offensive) battle plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine gave commanders few defensive-war strategies for fighting NATO in Warsaw Treaty territory.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which year did Poland declassify most of its Warsaw Pact-era archives?
A: 2005', '
Q: How many documents remain classified?
A: 70', "
Q: What was the name of the Warsaw Pact's planned counteroffensive to a NATO first strike?
A: Seven Days to the River Rhine", '
Q: How many nuclear weapons were eventually housed in Poland?
A: 250', '
Q: In which year was the counteroffensive strategy first conceived?
A: 1979']
Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all phenomena, including mental phenomena and consciousness, are identical with material interactions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is materialism?
A: a form of philosophical monism', '
Q: In nature, this is an essential substance?
A: matter']
Materialism is closely related to physicalism, the view that all that exists is ultimately physical. Philosophical physicalism has evolved from materialism with the discoveries of the physical sciences to incorporate more sophisticated notions of physicality than mere ordinary matter, such as: spacetime, physical energies and forces, dark matter, and so on. Thus the term "physicalism" is preferred over "materialism" by some, while others use the terms as if they are synonymous.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are some examples of philosophical physicalism?
A: spacetime, physical energies and forces, dark matter', '
Q: Some people consider physicalism to be synonymous with what?
A: Materialism']
Materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology. As such, it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations of the phenomenal reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism, neutral monism, and spiritualism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What class does materialism belong to?
A: monist ontology']
Despite the large number of philosophical schools and subtle nuances between many, all philosophies are said to fall into one of two primary categories, which are defined in contrast to each other: Idealism, and materialism.[a] The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality, and the primary distinction between them is the way they answer two fundamental questions: "what does reality consist of?" and "how does it originate?" To idealists, spirit or mind or the objects of mind (ideas) are primary, and matter secondary. To materialists, matter is primary, and mind or spirit or ideas are secondary, the product of matter acting upon matter.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the first question to ask in order to define the two classes?
A: "what does reality consist of?"', '
Q: What is the second question to ask in order to define the two classes?
A: "how does it originate?"', '
Q: An idealist considers what as the most important?
A: spirit or mind or the objects of mind (ideas)', '
Q: A materialist considers what as the most important?
A: matter']
The materialist view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically, famously by René Descartes. However, by itself materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized. In practice, it is frequently assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Was René Descartes an idealist or a materialist?
A: materialist', '
Q: Materialism does not define what?
A: how material substance should be characterized.']
During the 19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels extended the concept of materialism to elaborate a materialist conception of history centered on the roughly empirical world of human activity (practice, including labor) and the institutions created, reproduced, or destroyed by that activity (see materialist conception of history). Later Marxists developed the notion of dialectical materialism which characterized later Marxist philosophy and method.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of materialism defined the Marxist philosophy?
A: dialectical materialism']
Materialism developed, possibly independently, in several geographically separated regions of Eurasia during what Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age (approximately 800 to 200 BC).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who coined the Axial Age?
A: Karl Jaspers', '
Q: In what part of the world did materialism develop during the Axial Age?
A: Eurasia']
In Ancient Indian philosophy, materialism developed around 600 BC with the works of Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada, and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy. Kanada became one of the early proponents of atomism. The Nyaya–Vaisesika school (600 BC - 100 BC) developed one of the earliest forms of atomism, though their proofs of God and their positing that the consciousness was not material precludes labelling them as materialists. Buddhist atomism and the Jaina school continued the atomic tradition.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Around what time did materialism become part of Ancient Indian philosophy?
A: 600 BC', '
Q: At that time, who helped develop materialism?
A: Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada, and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy', '
Q: What school advanced atomism?
A: Nyaya–Vaisesika school', '
Q: Between what years did the school advance atomism?
A: 600 BC - 100 BC']
Materialism is often associated with reductionism, according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description, if they are genuine, must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description — typically, at a more reduced level. Non-reductive materialism explicitly rejects this notion, however, taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects, properties, or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents. Jerry Fodor influentially argues this view, according to which empirical laws and explanations in "special sciences" like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of basic physics. A lot of vigorous literature has grown up around the relation between these views.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Materialism is linked to what?
A: reductionism']
Ancient Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaxagoras (ca. 500 BC – 428 BC), Epicurus and Democritus prefigure later materialists. The Latin poem De Rerum Natura by Lucretius (ca. 99 BC – ca. 55 BC) reflects the mechanistic philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus. According to this view, all that exists is matter and void, and all phenomena result from different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called "atoms" (literally: "indivisibles"). De Rerum Natura provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion, evaporation, wind, and sound. Famous principles like "nothing can touch body but body" first appeared in the works of Lucretius. Democritus and Epicurus however did not hold to a monist ontology since they held to the ontological separation of matter and space i.e. space being "another kind" of being, indicating that the definition of "materialism" is wider than given scope for in this article.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: De Rerum Natura is a poem by who?
A: Lucretius', '
Q: What kinf of explanation does De Rerum Natura provide for phenomena?
A: mechanistic explanations']
Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta (6th century) in his work Tattvopaplavasimha ("The upsetting of all principles") refuted the Nyaya Sutra epistemology. The materialistic Cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400. When Madhavacharya compiled Sarva-darśana-samgraha (a digest of all philosophies) in the 14th century, he had no Cārvāka/Lokāyata text to quote from, or even refer to.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Name the title of the work by Jayaraashi Bhatta.
A: Tattvopaplavasimha ("The upsetting of all principles")', '
Q: Which type of philosphy did not continue after 1400?
A: materialistic Cārvāka philosophy', '
Q: What is Sarva-darśana-samgraha?
A: a digest of all philosophies', '
Q: Who wrote the Sarva-darśana-samgraha?
A: Madhavacharya']
In early 12th-century al-Andalus, the Arabian philosopher, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer), wrote discussions on materialism in his philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus), while vaguely foreshadowing the idea of a historical materialism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name of the novel written by Ibn Tufail?
A: Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus)']
The French cleric Pierre Gassendi (1592-1665) represented the materialist tradition in opposition to the attempts of René Descartes (1596-1650) to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations. There followed the materialist and atheist abbé Jean Meslier (1664-1729), Julien Offray de La Mettrie, the German-French Paul-Henri Thiry Baron d'Holbach (1723-1789), the Encyclopedist Denis Diderot (1713-1784), and other French Enlightenment thinkers; as well as (in England) John "Walking" Stewart (1747-1822), whose insistence in seeing matter as endowed with a moral dimension had a major impact on the philosophical poetry of William Wordsworth (1770-1850).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Pierre Gassendi lived from what year to what year?
A: 1592-1665', '
Q: René Descartes lived from what year to what year?
A: 1596-1650', '
Q: abbé Jean Meslier lived from what year to what year?
A: 1664-1729', '
Q: Denis Diderot lived from what year to what year?
A: 1713-1784', '
Q: William Wordsworth lived from what year to what year?
A: 1770-1850']
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) wrote that "...materialism is the philosophy of the subject who forgets to take account of himself". He claimed that an observing subject can only know material objects through the mediation of the brain and its particular organization. That is, the brain itself is the "determiner" of how material objects will be experienced or perceived:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Arthur Schopenhauer lived from what year to what year?
A: 1788-1860', '
Q: What did he say that the brain would decide?
A: how material objects will be experienced or perceived']
The German materialist and atheist anthropologist Ludwig Feuerbach would signal a new turn in materialism through his book, The Essence of Christianity (1841), which provided a humanist account of religion as the outward projection of man's inward nature. Feuerbach's materialism would later heavily influence Karl Marx.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote "The Essence of Christianity"?
A: Ludwig Feuerbach', '
Q: In what year was "The Essence of Christianity" written?
A: 1841', '
Q: What did the author of "The Essence of Christianity" consider religion to be?
A: the outward projection of man\'s inward nature', "
Q: The author's ideas would later influence what well known philosopher?
A: Karl Marx"]
Many current and recent philosophers—e.g., Daniel Dennett, Willard Van Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, and Jerry Fodor—operate within a broadly physicalist or materialist framework, producing rival accounts of how best to accommodate mind, including functionalism, anomalous monism, identity theory, and so on.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In regards to the mind, what are 3 theories that modern day philosophers try to harmonize?
A: functionalism, anomalous monism, identity theory']
The nature and definition of matter - like other key concepts in science and philosophy - have occasioned much debate. Is there a single kind of matter (hyle) which everything is made of, or multiple kinds? Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (hylomorphism), or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (atomism)? Does it have intrinsic properties (substance theory), or is it lacking them (prima materia)?

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is hyle?
A: matter']
One challenge to the traditional concept of matter as tangible "stuff" came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century. Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable. This enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms. On the other hand, the Standard Model of Particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions. On this view it could be said that fields are prima materia and the energy is a property of the field.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Relativity illustrates that what is interchangeable?
A: matter and energy', '
Q: Ontological theory suggests that what is the main substance?
A: energy', '
Q: Quantum field theory suggest what is the main substance?
A: fields']
According to the dominant cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, less than 5% of the universe's energy density is made up of the "matter" described by the Standard Model of Particle Physics, and the majority of the universe is composed of dark matter and dark energy - with little agreement amongst scientists about what these are made of.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which model suggests that matter is 5% of the universe?
A: Lambda-CDM model', '
Q: What type of matter does the model consider it to be?
A: dark matter']
With the advent of quantum physics, some scientists believed the concept of matter had merely changed, while others believed the conventional position could no longer be maintained. For instance Werner Heisenberg said "The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct 'actuality' of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range. This extrapolation, however, is impossible... atoms are not things." Likewise, some philosophers[which?] feel that these dichotomies necessitate a switch from materialism to physicalism. Others use the terms "materialism" and "physicalism" interchangeably.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Werner Heisenberg suggested that atoms are not what?
A: things']
Some modern day physicists and science writers—such as Paul Davies and John Gribbin—have argued that materialism has been disproven by certain scientific findings in physics, such as quantum mechanics and chaos theory. In 1991, Gribbin and Davies released their book The Matter Myth, the first chapter of which, "The Death of Materialism", contained the following passage:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are some of the findings that support their argument?
A: quantum mechanics and chaos theory.', '
Q: What is the name of the 1991 book by Paul Davies and John Gribbins?
A: The Matter Myth']