romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal of the male's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may have to later be euthanized.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is it called when an animal is altered to prevent procreation?
A: Neutering', '
Q: According to the text, what agency recommends altering dogs to prevent pregnancies?
A: the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA)', '
Q: What is typically surgically removed on male dogs to prevent procreation?
A: testicles', '
Q: What is usually removed in female dogs to prevent pregnancy?
A: ovaries and uterus', '
Q: In neutering, what is removed in a male dog?
A: testicles', '
Q: In neutering, what is removed in female dogs?
A: ovaries and uterus', '
Q: What does the ASPCA recommend for dogs who are not used for breeding purposes?
A: neutered']
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs. Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs. However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs, and prostate cancer in males, as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Hypersexual behavior in male dogs is diminished by what?
A: Neutering', '
Q: According to the text, what is a possible side effect of neutering a female dog?
A: urinary incontinence', '
Q: Female dogs are less likely to develop cancer if what happens?
A: Spayed', '
Q: What is increased in female dogs with neutering?
A: urinary incontinence', '
Q: What is increased in male dogs with neutering?
A: prostate cancer']
Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception. A study showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving experiment, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans. Another study indicated that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. Modern domestic dogs use humans to solve their problems for them.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name of the dog that could ID over 200 things?
A: Rico', '
Q: What is the name of the Border collie that knew over 1000 words?
A: Chaser', '
Q: In addition to interpreting body language and verbal commands dogs can also interpret what two other things?
A: gesturing and pointing', '
Q: What wild canine did better at a problem-solving experiment?
A: Australian dingos', '
Q: What is one thing, according to the text, that domesticated dogs use humans for?
A: to solve their problems for them.', '
Q: Perceiving information and retaining it is what?
A: intelligence', '
Q: How many labels does Rico the dog know?
A: over 200', '
Q: What kind of memory skills do dogs have?
A: advanced', '
Q: How many words did Chaser know?
A: over 1,000']
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli. As the oldest domesticated species, with estimates ranging from 9,000–30,000 years BCE, the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans and they are uniquely attuned to our behaviors. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the otherwise humble domestic dog. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes. Rather, these skills parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Dogs are estimated to be domesticated as far back as what date range of years on the calendar?
A: 9,000–30,000 years BCE', '
Q: Dog minds have been shaped by thousands of years of contact with what species?
A: humans.', '
Q: What do some dog skills parallel in human beings?
A: social-cognitive skills of human children', "
Q: Dogs are  very well attuned to what other species' behaviors?
A: humans.", '
Q: Dogs can understand and communicate with what other species?
A: humans.', "
Q: What is a dog's responses to stimuli known as?
A: Dog behavior", '
Q: More than any other species, dogs are able to do what with people?
A: understand and communicate', '
Q: Dogs have some social skills that parallel what?
A: human children']
Dog communication is about how dogs "speak" to each other, how they understand messages that humans send to them, and how humans can translate the ideas that dogs are trying to transmit.:xii These communication behaviors include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals and body posture.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is gustatory communication include in dogs?
A: scents, pheromones and taste', '
Q: People communicate with dogs by voice commands, body language or posture and what else?
A: hand signals', '
Q: Eye gaze, vocalization and body posture are examples of what?
A: Dog communication', '
Q: In addition to vocalization and body posture, how do people communicate with dogs?
A: hand signals']
Despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed, there are a number of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs. Domesticated dogs are clearly distinguishable from wolves by starch gel electrophoresis of red blood cell acid phosphatase. The tympanic bullae are large, convex and almost spherical in gray wolves, while the bullae of dogs are smaller, compressed and slightly crumpled. Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 30% smaller brains.:35 The teeth of gray wolves are also proportionately larger than those of dogs; the premolars and molars of wolves are much less crowded and have more complex cusp patterns. Wolves do not have dewclaws on their back legs, unless there has been admixture with dogs. Dogs lack a functioning pre-caudal gland, and most enter estrus twice yearly, unlike gray wolves which only do so once a year. Dogs require fewer calories to function than wolves. The dog's limp ears may be the result of atrophy of the jaw muscles. The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which typically has thicker skin, dogs or wolves?
A: dogs.', '
Q: Dogs having ears that are not erect may be due to what?
A: atrophy of the jaw muscles.', '
Q: What kind of features differentiate gray wolves from dogs?
A: diagnostic features', '
Q: How often do female wolves enter estrus?
A: once a year.']
Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to have an impact on the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Instead of genetic traits for production, dogs are bred for what?
A: behaviors.', '
Q: How many "fixed" genes demonstrate the differences between the wolf and dog?
A: 11', '
Q: The gene differences indicate what two things done by selection in dogs during breeding for domestication?
A: morphology and behavior', '
Q: What is the common trait selected for dogs in overall breeding?
A: tameness', '
Q: What do most dogs show less of than wolves?
A: fear and aggression', '
Q: Most domestic animals were selected for what traits?
A: production-related traits', '
Q: Why were dogs initially selected?
A: for their behaviors.', '
Q: For wolves and dogs, how many fixed genes show a variation?
A: 11', '
Q: Dogs show less fear and what as opposed to wolves?
A: aggression']
The global dog population is estimated at 525 million:225 based on a transparent methodology, as opposed to other estimates where the methodology has not been made available – all dog population estimates are based on regional human population densities and land uses.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the larger count for numbers of dogs considered to populate the planet?
A: 525 million', '
Q: How many dogs are estimated to be in the world?
A: 525 million', '
Q: What are dog population estimates based on other than land uses?
A: human population densities']
Although large wild dogs, like wolves, are apex predators, they can be killed in territory disputes with wild animals. Furthermore, in areas where both dogs and other large predators live, dogs can be a major food source for big cats or canines. Reports from Croatia indicate wolves kill dogs more frequently than they kill sheep. Wolves in Russia apparently limit feral dog populations. In Wisconsin, more compensation has been paid for dog losses than livestock. Some wolf pairs have been reported to prey on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush. In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Like wolves, big domesticated dogs are considered what type of predator?
A: apex', '
Q: Wolves may act in what behavioral manner when attacking dogs?
A: fearless', '
Q: What animal is reported to be killed more often than sheep by wolves in Croatia?
A: dogs', '
Q: Like wolves, what kind of predators are large dogs?
A: apex', '
Q: Dogs die as a result of Croatian wolf encounters more than what kind of animal?
A: sheep', '
Q: What limits the feral dog population in Russia?
A: Wolves']
Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular are known to have a predilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of the dog's size or ferocity. Tigers in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigor as leopards. Striped hyenas are major predators of village dogs in Turkmenistan, India, and the Caucasus. Reptiles such as alligators and pythons have been known to kill and eat dogs.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What large cat has a particular taste for dogs no matter how big the dog is?
A: leopards.', '
Q: What is a typical predator of dogs in places such as Turkmenistan?
A: Striped hyenas', '
Q: What two reptiles kill dogs and consume them?
A: alligators and pythons', '
Q: What big cat has a tendency to attack dogs?
A: Leopards', '
Q: What big cats in Indonesia also attack dogs?
A: Tigers', '
Q: What type of reptiles eat dogs?
A: alligators and pythons', '
Q: What is a known predator of village dogs in India?
A: Striped hyenas']
Despite their descent from wolves and classification as Carnivora, dogs are variously described in scholarly and other writings as carnivores or omnivores. Unlike obligate carnivores, such as the cat family with its shorter small intestine, dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and are not dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill their basic dietary requirements. Dogs will healthily digest a variety of foods, including vegetables and grains, and can consume a large proportion of these in their diet. Comparing dogs and wolves, dogs have adaptations in genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Dogs exhibit carnivore as well as what other type of dietary behavior?
A: omnivores', '
Q: Dogs can digest meat as well as what else?
A: vegetables and grains', '
Q: Cats are known as what type of carnivore?
A: obligate', '
Q: Because of what they eat, dogs are classified as what?
A: carnivores or omnivores', '
Q: Dogs do not require a very high level of what when eating?
A: protein', '
Q: Dogs have genes that allow them to thrive on what when compared to wolves, who cannot?
A: starch']
Most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old, having been artificially selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles. Through this selective breeding, the dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal. For example, height measured to the withers ranges from 15.2 centimetres (6.0 in) in the Chihuahua to about 76 cm (30 in) in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth. It is common for most breeds to shed this coat.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The majority of dog breeds have only been around for how long?
A: a few hundred years', '
Q: People selected dogs they wanted based on what two things?
A: particular morphologies and behaviors', '
Q: Hundreds of different dog breeds exist because of what?
A: selective breeding', '
Q: Height measurements in dogs go from six inches for Chihuahuas to 30 inches in what breed?
A: Irish Wolfhound', '
Q: How old are most dog breeds?
A: a few hundred years old', '
Q: How many different breeds are there?
A: hundreds', '
Q: Gray color is often called what when referring to dogs?
A: blue']
While all dogs are genetically very similar, natural selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs, giving rise to dog types and dog breeds. Dog types are broad categories based on function, genetics, or characteristics. Dog breeds are groups of animals that possess a set of inherited characteristics that distinguishes them from other animals within the same species. Modern dog breeds are non-scientific classifications of dogs kept by modern kennel clubs.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Natural selection and what makes certain dogs behave certain ways?
A: selective breeding', '
Q: What distinguishes different types of dogs from one another?
A: breed', '
Q: Who keeps classifications of different dog breeds?
A: modern kennel clubs.', '
Q: What is responsible for different dog types and breeds today?
A: natural selection and selective breeding', '
Q: Animals that share characteristics that are different than what other animals in that species have is known as what?
A: breeds', '
Q: Modern dog breeds are what type of classification which is maintained by modern kennel clubs?
A: non-scientific']
Purebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguishable from purebred dogs of other breeds, but the means by which kennel clubs classify dogs is unsystematic. Systematic analyses of the dog genome has revealed only four major types of dogs that can be said to be statistically distinct. These include the "old world dogs" (e.g., Malamute and Shar Pei), "Mastiff"-type (e.g., English Mastiff), "herding"-type (e.g., Border Collie), and "all others" (also called "modern"- or "hunting"-type).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The methods kennel clubs used to classify dogs is what?
A: unsystematic.', '
Q: A scientific study of dog genetics has shown only how many  types of dogs being determinably distinct?
A: four', '
Q: What, according to the text, are two examples of "old world" dogs?
A: Malamute and Shar Pei', '
Q: the Border collie is an example of what type of dog?
A: herding', '
Q: How many main types of dogs are there?
A: four', '
Q: What type of dogs are Shar Peis?
A: old world dogs', '
Q: What are the other modern and hunting types of dogs called?
A: all others']
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today.:pages95-136

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is one of the complex behaviors pet dogs have gotten from wolves?
A: bite inhibition', '
Q: What may make dogs have the ability to be trained by, play with and fit in with people?
A: sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication', '
Q: Higher social attributes  and human relationships may have caused dogs to reach what as a species?
A: one of the most successful species on the planet today.', '
Q: What is a complex behavior that dogs inherited from wolves?
A: bite inhibition']
The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship, and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This impact on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Dogs had a worth to what type of early humans?
A: hunter-gatherers', '
Q: Dogs have hunted with and done other things for people for a long time, but what is a more recent help to people they provide?
A: aiding handicapped individuals.', "
Q: Because of a dog's resourcefulness to people, they have been given what nickname?
A: man's best friend", '
Q: Some cultures treat dogs as what rather than companions?
A: a source of meat']
Humans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogs associated with their camps. For instance, dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps. Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred to in the Australian Aboriginal expression "three dog night" (an exceptionally cold night), and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers, using their acute hearing to provide an early warning.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did dogs clean up to help with keeping habitations of people clean?
A: food scraps.', '
Q: What do Australian aborigines call a frigid night? 
A: three dog night', "
Q: What did a dog's good hearing help humans with?
A: early warning.", '
Q: How could dogs have helped with sanitation issues in camps?
A: cleaning up food scraps', '
Q: What is the Australian Aboriginal expression that indicates a very cold night?
A: three dog night']
Anthropologists believe the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs' robust sense of smell to assist with the hunt. The relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of hunting is it called when humans and dogs hunt together?
A: cooperative hunting', '
Q: What year was research completed to demonstrate humans benefited by having dogs hunt with them?
A: 2004', '
Q: What would have been the top benefit for dogs in camps?
A: sense of smell', '
Q: The successful mixing of dogs with hunting is often given as a primary reason for what?
A: the domestication of the wolf']
Emigrants from Siberia that walked across the Bering land bridge into North America may have had dogs in their company, and one writer suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago, although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in North America dates from about 9,400 years ago.:104 Dogs were an important part of life for the Athabascan population in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs also carried much of the load in the migration of the Apache and Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. Use of dogs as pack animals in these cultures often persisted after the introduction of the horse to North America.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of working dog may have been the reason so many humans were able to get into North America 12,000 tears ago?
A: sled dogs', '
Q: What did ancient people walk across from Siberia into North America?
A: Bering land bridge', '
Q: How old are the oldest findings of dogs in North America?
A: 9,400 years', '
Q: Evidence places dogs in North America when?
A: 12,000 years ago', '
Q: Dogs were the only domesticated animals for what North American population?
A: Athabascan', '
Q: Dogs contributed to what migration 1400 years ago?
A: Apache and Navajo tribes', '
Q: People still used dogs as pack animals even after what other animal began being used for this purpose?
A: horse']