romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt) and paper marbling (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Were would one find the sheets where Ottoman's created illuminated decorations?
A: muraqqa", '
Q: What is another name for an Ottoman miniature?
A: taswir', '
Q: Ottoman calligraphy can also be referred to as what?
A: hat', '
Q: Who commissioned illustrated manuscripts in the Ottoman empire?
A: the Sultan or the administrators of the court', '
Q: What palace was the place of creation for illustrated manuscripts?
A: Topkapi Palace']
The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism, and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters. The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and was eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs and kilims not just on the floors of a room, but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which art was important in religious symbolism and as a decoration in the Ottoman empire?
A: carpet weaving', "
Q: What was the custom for those wearing shoes indoors in the Ottoman empire?
A: it was customary to remove one's shoes", '
Q: Where did carpet weaving in the Empire originate?
A: the nomadic cultures of central Asia', '
Q: Where did carpet weaving initially spread to inside of the Empire?
A: Anatolia', '
Q: Kilims were used by Turks to provide insulation where?
A: walls and doorways']
Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The elites of the Ottoman empire found what type of music important?
A: Ottoman classical music', '
Q: Many of the Sultans of the Ottoman empire were accomplished at being what?
A: musicians and composers', '
Q: The sultan known by what name has compositions which are still performed today?
A: Selim III', '
Q: What rhythmic units does Ottoman classical music use?
A: units called usul', '
Q: What are the melodic units used by Ottoman classical music?
A: makam']
The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the three most used Anatolian and central asian instruments in Ottoman Classical music?
A: the saz, the bağlama, the kemence', '
Q: Which Middle Eastern instruments can be heard in Ottoman classical music?
A: the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney', '
Q: In late Ottoman classical music one can find Western instruments, what were they?
A: the violin and the piano', '
Q: There were two main style of music in the Ottoman empire, what were they?
A: classical music, and folk music', '
Q: What were the most distinctive style of music in the Ottoman provinces?
A: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music']
Ottoman cuisine refers to the cuisine of the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The cuisine known as Ottoman cuisine is in reference to the food eaten where?
A: the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities', "
Q: In what kitchen's was Ottoman cuisine perfected?
A: the Imperial Palace's kitchens", '
Q: What is one type of religious event that the general public may come to experience the creations of the Imperial Palace?
A: Ramadan', '
Q: Preparing food at the Yalıs of the Pashas was one way Ottoman Cuisine might spread to whom?
A: the population', "
Q: What did the chefs ingredients in the Imperial Palace's kitchens?
A: create and experiment"]
Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish cuisine, and including Greek cuisine, Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine. Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab/gyro/shawarma, cacık/tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte/keftés/kofta, börek/boureki, rakı/rakia/tsipouro/tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Turkish cuisine originates from what source?
A: a shared Ottoman cuisine', '
Q: The cuisine of what territories are descended from Ottoman cuisine?
A: former Ottoman territories', '
Q: Turkish and Greek cuisine are descended from Ottoman Cuisine, along with the food of what other regions?
A: Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine', '
Q: Turkish coffee is descended from what?
A: Ottoman cuisine', '
Q: Pita bread descends from what type of cuisine?
A: Ottoman cuisine']
Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th Century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji -an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand- who became a professor in two madrasas, and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years before his death in Istanbul.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: In what century did the Ottoman's start to desire foreign manuscripts?
A: 15th Century", '
Q: Which sultan ordered a Greek scholar to do translations of work by Ptolemy?
A: Sultan Mehmet II', '
Q: Who did an Ottoman sultan order to translate work by Ptolemy?
A: Georgios Amiroutzes', '
Q: How many years did Ali Qushji spend in Istanbul?
A: two or three years', '
Q: Where was Ali Qushji from?
A: originally from Samarkand']
The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish Wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, Equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905) and Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907) in Istanbul. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did European sport clubs begin to form in the Ottoman empire?
A: 19th century', '
Q: Where did football matches become to be popular in the Ottoman empire?
A: Constantinople', '
Q: What was the leading sport club in 1905?
A: Galatasaray Sports Club', '
Q: In what year did the Altay Sports Club form?
A: 1914', '
Q: What was the football club known as Ülküspor formerly known as?
A: Turkish Fatherland Football Club']
Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether or not time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which philosophy branch is concerned with issues surrounding ontology?
A: Philosophy of space and time', '
Q: The philosophy of space and time was inspired by what kind of philosophy?
A: early analytic philosophy', '
Q: The  philosophy of space and time focuses on whether or not time and space exist independently of what?
A: the mind', '
Q: The  philosophy of space and time focuses what kind of flow within time? 
A: unidirectional']
The earliest recorded Western philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient Egyptian thinker Ptahhotep (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said, "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit." The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy, dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction, and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who expounded the earliest recorded Western philosophy of time?
A: Ptahhotep', '
Q: When do the Vedas date back to?
A: late 2nd millennium BC', '
Q: Which philosophies are the Vedas oriented with?
A: Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy', '
Q: What do the Vedas describe?
A: ancient Hindu cosmology', '
Q: How long is the cycle of rebirth discussed in the Vedas?
A: 4,320,000 years']
In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still the things intended are understood."  But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (Confessions Book XI ¶30; City of God Book XI ch.6).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which christian philosopher ruminated on time?
A: St. Augustine', '
Q: What did St. Augustine comment on in Book 11, regarding thinking about time?
A: the difficulty', '
Q: Who presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation? 
A: Augustine', '
Q: What did Augustine say that the knowledge of time depended on?
A: the knowledge of the movement of things', '
Q: Where did Augustine say time could not appear?
A: where there are no creatures to measure its passing']
In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension. His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the understanding of the visual perception of space, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which 11th century Muslim physicist discussed space perception and its epistemological implications? 
A: al-Haytham', '
Q: Which 11th century book discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?
A: Book of Optics', "
Q: Whose definition of topos did Alhazen reject?
A: Aristotle's", "
Q: Alhazen's  experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to the change of understanding of what?
A: Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things", '
Q: Alhazen stated that without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us what about spatial perception?
A: next to nothing']
In 1781, Immanuel Kant published the Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time. He describes time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or time are substance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds, rather, that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) events. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real—that is, not mere illusions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Kant publish one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time.
A: 1781', "
Q: What was Kant's influential work on the history of the philosophy of space and time titled?
A: Critique of Pure Reason", '
Q: What did Kant describe time as?
A: a priori notion', '
Q: What did Kant say was similar notion to time?
A: space', '
Q: What did Kant say time and space allow one to do?
A: sense experience']
Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of thought experiments with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles. The principle of sufficient reason holds that for every fact, there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise. The identity of indiscernibles states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Leibniz argue against?
A: the absolutist position', "
Q: Which principles did Leibniz's arguments trade heavily upon?
A: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles", '
Q: Leibnitz held that there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise for every what?
A: fact', '
Q: What states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing?
A: identity of indiscernibles']
The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The example is only possible if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible, according to Leibniz, for if it were, a universe's position in absolute space would have no sufficient reason, as it might very well have been anywhere else. Therefore, it contradicts the principle of sufficient reason, and there could exist two distinct universes that were in all ways indiscernible, thus contradicting the identity of indiscernibles.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Leibniz's example involves how many universes?
A: two", "
Q: Where are Leibniz's universes situated?
A: absolute space", "
Q: How far are Leibniz's universes situated apart?
A: five feet", "
Q: What is the only way Leibniz's example would be possible?
A: absolute space exists"]
Standing out in Clarke's (and Newton's) response to Leibniz's arguments is the bucket argument: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue to spin, and while the spin continues, the surface will remain concave. The concave surface is apparently not the result of the interaction of the bucket and the water, since the surface is flat when the bucket first starts to spin, it becomes concave as the water starts to spin, and it remains concave as the bucket stops.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What stood out in Clark's response to Leibniz?
A: the bucket argument", "
Q: According to Clark's argument, water in a bucket, hung from a rope and spun, will begin with kind of surface?
A: flat", '
Q: As the buck spins, what happens to the water?
A: the water will become concave', '
Q: If the buck stops, the water will do what?
A: continue to spin', '
Q: What is the surface of the water apparently not caused by?
A: the interaction of the bucket and the water']
Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newton's system, the frame of reference exists independently of the objects contained within it. These objects can be described as moving in relation to space itself. For many centuries, the evidence of a concave water surface held authority.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Leibniz describes space as existing only as a relation between what?
A: objects', '
Q: According to Leibniz, what has no existence apart from the existence of objections?
A: space', '
Q: What provides the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion?
A: Newtonian space', "
Q: In Newton's system, how does the frame of reference exist between objects within it?
A: independently", '
Q: For how long did the evidence of a concave water surface hold authority in reference to space?
A: many centuries']
Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newton's account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But in the absence of anything else in the universe, it would be difficult to confirm that the bucket was indeed spinning. It seems equally possible that the surface of the water in the bucket would remain flat.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Mach describe thought experiments like the bucket argument?
A: problematic', '
Q: What is difficult to confirm about the bucket in the absence of anything else in the universe?
A: that the bucket was indeed spinning', '
Q: What was equally possible about the surface of the water in the bucket?
A: would remain flat.']
Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object were introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there would now be something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a slight curve. To account for the curve that we observe, an increase in the number of objects in the universe also increases the curvature in the water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (Mach's Principle).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Mach argue about the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe?
A: would remain flat', "
Q: What did Mach argue would happen if another object were introduce in the bucket's universe?
A: the bucket could be seen as rotating", '
Q: What does the increase in the number of objects in the universe do to the curvature of the water?
A: increases the curvature', "
Q: The Mach argument is called what?
A: Mach's Principle", '
Q: Mach argued that the momentum of an object exists as a result of the sum of the effects of what?
A: effects of other objects in the universe']
Albert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the principle of relativity. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by Maxwell's equations, which show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at the speed of light. However, Maxwell's equations give no indication of what this speed is relative to. Prior to Einstein, it was thought that this speed was relative to a fixed medium, called the luminiferous ether. In contrast, the theory of special relativity postulates that light propagates at the speed of light in all inertial frames, and examines the implications of this postulate.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: lbert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on what principle?
A: relativity', '
Q: The principle of relativity holds that the rules of physics must be the same for who?
A: all observers', '
Q: In all reference frames, how is the the speed of light?
A: the same', "
Q: Einstein's theory was motivated by who?
A: Maxwell", '
Q: Before Einstein, speed was though to be relative to what?
A: the luminiferous ether']