romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The remainder was the world-ocean known as Panthalassa ("all the sea"). All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through subduction of oceanic plates; thus, very little is known of the Triassic open ocean. The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic—especially late in the period—but had not yet separated. The first nonmarine sediments in the rift that marks the initial break-up of Pangea—which separated New Jersey from Morocco—are of Late Triassic age; in the U.S., these thick sediments comprise the Newark Supergroup. Because of the limited shoreline of one super-continental mass, Triassic marine deposits are globally relatively rare; despite their prominence in Western Europe, where the Triassic was first studied. In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west. Thus Triassic stratigraphy is mostly based on organisms living in lagoons and hypersaline environments, such as Estheria crustaceans and terrestrial vertebrates.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which ocean name is translated to mean "all the sea?"
A: Panthalassa', '
Q: What process obscures information aboutt he ocean during the Triassic period from inspection?
A: subduction of oceanic plates', '
Q: What was occurring to Pangaea in the late Triassic?
A: Pangaea was rifting', '
Q: Which sediements in the US are an indication of the break up of Pangaea?
A: Newark Supergroup', '
Q: What type of terrestrial animals are found from the Triassic period?
A: terrestrial vertebrates']
The Jurassic Period extends from about 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma. During the early Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land near either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. The Jurassic geological record is good in western Europe, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of the continent was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site and the renowned late Jurassic lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface. Though the epicontinental Sundance Sea left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the United States and Canada during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the alluvial deposits of the Morrison Formation. The first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern Cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia and the United Kingdom.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what years was the Jurassic period?
A: 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma.', '
Q: Which supercontinent came apart in the Jurassic period?
A: Pangaea', "
Q: The Gulf of Mexico formed in the rift between North America and what other land mass?
A: Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula", '
Q: At what point did the South Atlantic ocean begin to open?
A: Cretaceous Period', '
Q: Which late Jurassic cultural sites are famous in Europe?
A: lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen']
During the Cretaceous, the late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent-margin orogenies that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies. Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous, Gondwana itself broke up as South America, Antarctica and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The current continents were formerly known as what continent?
A: Pangaea', '
Q: Which oregenies followed the Nevadan in the Cretaceous?
A: Sevier and Laramide', '
Q: South America was formerly which continent?
A: Gondwana', '
Q: The rifting in the Cretaceous had what result on the oceans?
A: raising eustatic sea levels', '
Q: Antarctica was a part of what supercontinent?
A: Gondwana']
To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central North America (the Western Interior Seaway) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged. The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Mid-ocean ridge activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton. These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe and China. In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During the height of the Cretaceous transgression how much of the earths land mass was under water?
A: one-third', '
Q: What type of rock was the Cretaceous notable for forming the most amount of?
A: Phanerozoic', '
Q: The Cretaceous is a part of which geologic era?
A: Phanerozoic', '
Q: Where can one find the Smoky Hill Chalk Member?
A: North America', '
Q: Where are the Deccan Traps?
A: India']
The Cenozoic Era covers the 66 million years since the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event up to and including the present day. By the end of the Mesozoic era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present form. Laurasia became North America and Eurasia, while Gondwana split into South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent, which collided with the Asian plate. This impact gave rise to the Himalayas. The Tethys Sea, which had separated the northern continents from Africa and India, began to close up, forming the Mediterranean sea.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many years long was the Cenozoic Era?
A: 66 million years', '
Q: Which extinction marked the beginning of the Cenozoic Era?
A: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event', '
Q: What geologic period are we in currently?
A: Cenozoic Era', '
Q: At the end of which era had the continents taken roughly their current shape?
A: Mesozoic', '
Q: The collision of the Indian sub continent and the Asian plate created which mountain range?
A: the Himalayas']
In many ways, the Paleocene continued processes that had begun during the late Cretaceous Period. During the Paleocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Supercontinent Laurasia had not yet separated into three continents. Europe and Greenland were still connected. North America and Asia were still intermittently joined by a land bridge, while Greenland and North America were beginning to separate. The Laramide orogeny of the late Cretaceous continued to uplift the Rocky Mountains in the American west, which ended in the succeeding epoch. South and North America remained separated by equatorial seas (they joined during the Neogene); the components of the former southern supercontinent Gondwana continued to split apart, with Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia pulling away from each other. Africa was heading north toward Europe, slowly closing the Tethys Ocean, and India began its migration to Asia that would lead to a tectonic collision and the formation of the Himalayas.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many continents did Laurasia break into?
A: three', '
Q: In the Paleocene period Greenland was joined to which continent?
A: North America', '
Q: What mountain chain in the Cretaceous was lifted as a result of the Laramide oregeny?
A: the Rocky Mountains', '
Q: In which period did North and South america join?
A: Neogene', '
Q: Which ocean was closed when Africa moved northward during the Paleocene?
A: Tethys']
During the Eocene (56 million years ago - 33.9 million years ago), the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what years did the Eocene period take place?
A: 56 million years ago - 33.9 million years ago', '
Q: Australia was connected to which other continent at the start of the Eocene?
A: Antarctica', '
Q: How long ago did Antarctica and Australia split?
A: around 45 Ma', '
Q: Around how many years ago is the current ice age pattern believed to have begun?
A: 40 million years', '
Q: The mixing of equatorial currents with Antarctic waters in the Eocene resulted in what?
A: keeping global temperatures high']
The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, creating the Himalayan orogeny.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: during which period did mountains form in the western part of North America?
A: Eocene', '
Q: In the Eocene, in Europe, which sea ceased to be?
A: Tethys Sea', '
Q: The Mediterranean sea is a remaining part of which sea from the Eocene?
A: Tethys Sea', '
Q: What began to form in the flat basins in North America during the Eocene?
A: huge lakes', '
Q: Which oregeny was created when India collided with Asia?
A: the Himalayan orogeny']
Antarctica continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent ice cap. Mountain building in western North America continued, and the Alps started to rise in Europe as the African plate continued to push north into the Eurasian plate, isolating the remnants of Tethys Sea. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and drifted north toward North America. It also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the continent.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What permanent structure formed on Antarctica?
A: ice cap', '
Q: The lift of which mountain range in Europe was the result of the African plate moving north into the Eurasian?
A: the Alps', '
Q: During what period was there a land bridge joining Europe and North America?
A: Oligocene', '
Q: In the Oligocene period South America broke free from what other continent?
A: Antarctica', '
Q: Which current resulted in the cooling of Antarctica?
A: the Antarctic Circumpolar Current']
During the Miocene continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, the subduction zone along the Pacific Ocean margin of South America caused the rise of the Andes and the southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula. India continued to collide with Asia. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish-Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma (ICS 2004). Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea resulting in the Messinian salinity crisis near the end of the Miocene.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The formation of which mountain range was the result of of what zone along the Pacific Ocean side of South America?
A: the Andes', '
Q: Which continent was India colliding with in the Miocene?
A: Asia', '
Q: When Africa was colliding with Eurasia which seaway ceased to be during the Miocene?
A: The Tethys Seaway', '
Q: Between what period of time did the Tethys disappear?
A: 19 and 12 Ma', '
Q: Which crisis occured towards the end of the Miocene period?
A: Messinian salinity crisis']
South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive marsupial faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about 2.58 million years ago (the start of the Quaternary Period), the current ice age began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the link between North and South America called?
A: the Isthmus of Panama', '
Q: In which period did North and South America become linked?
A: Pliocene', '
Q: The Mediterranean was created by the collision of Europe and what?
A: Africa', '
Q: What period came after the Pliocene?
A: the Quaternary Period', '
Q: The Pliocene saw the end of what fauna in South America?
A: marsupial faunas']
The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. Ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from Vermont, Quebec, Ontario and Michigan. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in Scandinavia resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the Baltic Sea, including much of Finland. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long ago did the last glacial period end?
A: about 10,000 years ago', '
Q: During what period did sea levels rice 115 feet?
A: Holocene', '
Q: By what height did sea levels rise at the end of the last glacial period?
A: 35 metres (115 ft)', '
Q: Glaciars from what period depressed the height of northern lands by 591 feet?
A: Pleistocene', '
Q: What sea did the Hudson Bay used to be a part of?
A: Tyrrell Sea']
A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the state want a police force to do?
A: enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder', '
Q: What are gendarmerie?
A: military units charged with civil policing', '
Q: What are police usually separate from?
A: military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors']
Law enforcement, however, constitutes only part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but the predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order. In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree. The police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How are police usually paid?
A: through taxes', '
Q: When were police used to protect the class system?
A: late 18th and early 19th centuries', '
Q: What kind of service are police?
A: public sector', '
Q: What problem do many police forces have?
A: corruption', '
Q: How are police usually paid?
A: through taxes', '
Q: What kind of service are police?
A: public sector', '
Q: When were police used to protect the class system?
A: late 18th and early 19th centuries', '
Q: What problem do many police forces have?
A: corruption']
Law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by "prefects" for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. They were appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the emperor, and they oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction. Under each prefect were "subprefects" who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area. Some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Prefects could also be women. The concept of the "prefecture system" spread to other cultures such as Korea and Japan.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Chinese kingdoms developed law enforcement?
A: Chu and Jin', '
Q: What period was the Chu kingdom in?
A: Spring', '
Q: What period was the Jin kingdom in?
A: Autumn', "
Q: Which countries adopted the 'prefecture system' from China?
A: Korea and Japan", '
Q: What did ancient China call its police?
A: prefects']
As one of their first acts after end of the War of the Castilian Succession in 1479, Ferdinand and Isabella established the centrally organized and efficient Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) as a national police force. They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What war ended in 1479?
A: War of the Castilian Succession', "
Q: Who formed Spain's first national police force?
A: Ferdinand and Isabella", "
Q: What was Spain's first national police force called, in Spanish?
A: Santa Hermandad", '
Q: What does Santa Hermandad mean?
A: Holy Brotherhood', '
Q: When did Spain suppress local police units?
A: 1835']
In France during the Middle Ages, there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France. The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy because its authority ultimately derived from the Marshal. The marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years' 'War, and some historians trace it back to the early 12th century. Another organisation, the Constabulary (French: Connétablie), was under the command of the Constable of France. The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under King Francis I (who reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary. The resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?
A: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France', '
Q: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?
A: Great Officers of the Crown of France', "
Q: What was the Marshal's force called?
A: the Marshalcy", "
Q: What was the Constable's force called, in English?
A: the Constabulary", "
Q: What was the Constable's force called, in French?
A: Connétablie", '
Q: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?
A: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France', '
Q: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?
A: Great Officers of the Crown of France', "
Q: What was the Marshal's force called?
A: the Marshalcy", "
Q: What was the Constable's force called, in English?
A: the Constabulary", "
Q: What was the Constable's force called, in French?
A: Connétablie"]
The first centrally organised police force was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city in Europe. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667 created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined the task of the police as "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did Paris get a police force?
A: 1667', "
Q: Who created Paris's police force?
A: King Louis XIV", '
Q: What was the largest European city in 1667?
A: Paris', "
Q: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in English?
A: lieutenant general of police", "
Q: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in French?
A: lieutenant général de police"]