romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
In 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "worldview" (Weltanschauung). According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Prussian linguist called for an anthropology?
A: Wilhelm von Humboldt', '
Q: During which ere did scholars of Germany developed a more inclusive culture?
A: Romantic era', '
Q: What was the German name given for the creation of this culture during the Romantic era?
A: Weltanschauung']
In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity of mankind". He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "elementary ideas" (Elementargedanken); different cultures, or different "folk ideas" (Völkergedanken), are local modifications of the elementary ideas. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: According to Bastian, what did he believe all human societies shared?
A: elementary ideas', '
Q: What was the name of the person argued for "The psychic unity of mankind"?
A: Adolf Bastian', "
Q: Who trained under Bastian's ideas on culture?
A: Franz Boas"]
In practice, culture referred to an élite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine. As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was identified with "civilization" (from lat. civitas, city). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a "culture" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did culture refer to in practice?
A: élite ideal', '
Q: What was associated with culture during this German practice?
A: art, classical music, and haute cuisine', '
Q: Art and music were some of these forms of  cultural related to what type of living?
A: urban life', '
Q: The idea of culture in Europe in the 19th century reflected what during this time period?
A: inequalities within European societies.']
Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature". According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized." According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, some critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Matthew Arnold view "Culture" with?
A: anarchy', '
Q: Which two philosophers contrasted "culture" with the state of nature?
A: Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau', '
Q: Which race was considered living "in a state of nature" by the Europeans?
A: Native Americans', '
Q: "In a state of nature" was divided into two groups, what where they?
A: "civilized" and "uncivilized."']
Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by "the folk", i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as "noble savages" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of music did critics associate with corrupt high culture?
A: folk music', '
Q: Which type of music seemed superficial and decadent?
A: classical music', '
Q: What was another name used for the corrupted high culture of the indigenous people?
A: noble savages']
Although anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture, in the 20th century "culture" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially.[citation needed] American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and archaeology.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who's definition of culture did anthropologist  accept?
A: Tylor's", '
Q: What four fields make up American anthropology which play a vital role on its research of culture?
A: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and archaeology.', '
Q: In which century did "culture" as a central concept of American anthropology emerge?
A: 20th century']
The sociology of culture concerns culture—usually understood as the ensemble of symbolic codes used by a society—as manifested in society. For Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history". Culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be any of two types, non-material culture or material culture. Non-material culture refers to the non physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief system, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. While Material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make, or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture past or present.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who referred to culture as a cultivation of individuals?
A: Georg Simmel', '
Q: What makes up the sociological parts of culture according to Simmel?
A: ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects', '
Q: What does non-material culture refer to?
A: non physical ideas', '
Q: The term material culture is only relevant to what?
A: archeological and anthropological studies']
Cultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term Kultursoziologie (cultural sociology). Cultural sociology was then "reinvented" in the English-speaking world as a product of the "cultural turn" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may loosely be regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods,[citation needed] instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. "Culture" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science. "Cultural sociology" is one of the largest sections of the American Sociological Association. The British establishment of cultural studies means the latter is often taught as a loosely distinct discipline in the UK.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did sociology culture stem from?
A: Weimar Germany', '
Q: Who was the first to refer to culture as sociology?
A: Alfred Weber', '
Q: What do cultural  sociologist tend to reject as key attribute of culture?
A: scientific methods']
The sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx, Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, where in researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which three early theorist helped shape sociology of culture?
A: Marx, Durkheim, and Weber', '
Q: What were the early concerns for the field of Sociology culture?
A: popular culture, political control, and social class', '
Q: What is most of the research into sociological culture ?
A: qualitative']
In the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism, such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988), developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified "culture" with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). Nevertheless, they saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which scientist was influenced by Marxism in the United Kingdom?
A: Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988)', '
Q: What did Marxist like Stuart Hall and Raymond Williams  they identify culture as?
A: consumption goods and leisure activities', '
Q: What made up Leisure activities and goods as viewed by Marxist?
A: art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing', '
Q: What led sociologist like Stuart and Raymond to focus on class relations and the organization of production?
A: saw patterns of consumption and leisure']
In the United States, "Cultural Studies" focuses largely on the study of popular culture, that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS. It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director. Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as "Western Civilization" or as "Globalism."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In the U.S what does "Cultural Studies" focus largely on in this field?
A: popular culture', '
Q: Who first coined the term "Cultural Studies" in the United States?
A: Richard Hoggart', '
Q: What was the name of the company founded by Hoggart in 1964?
A: Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS', '
Q: The CCCS has since been associated with who?
A: Stuart Hall']
From the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender.[citation needed] Cultural studies has a concern with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television, or eating out) in a given culture. This field studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television in order to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture, unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends in order to "fit in" certainly qualifies, since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice. Recently, as capitalism has spread throughout the world (a process called globalization), cultural studies has begun[when?] to analyze local and global forms of resistance to Western hegemony.[citation needed] Globalization in this context can be defined as western civilization in other ways, it undermines the cultural integrity of other culture and it is therefore repressive, exploitative and harmful to most people in different places.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who did Stuart Hall work along side with?
A: Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie', '
Q: What did Stuart and his colleagues create?
A: international intellectual movement.', '
Q: In the field that Stuart was working, what did he and his colleagues often concentrate on?
A: matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender', '
Q: Capitalism can be referred to as what process?
A: a process called globalization']
In the context of cultural studies, the idea of a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture.[citation needed] Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of "culture". "Culture" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The idea of text in cultural studies can include what forms other than written language?
A: films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles', '
Q: Which two practices have become the main focus in cultural studies?
A: high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture', '
Q: What makes up cooperative cultural studies? 
A: based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies']
Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence first of Richard Hoggart, E. P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as "capitalist" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the "culture industry" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Around when did the United States and United Kingdom began to develop different versions of cultural studies?
A: late 1970s', '
Q: When did the British version of cultural studies emerge?
A: 1950s and 1960s', '
Q: Who had influenced cultural studies in the U.K?
A: Richard Hoggart, E. P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall', '
Q: Which University did research of cultural studies take place under CCCS?
A: the University of Birmingham']
In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, "Cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition". The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom.[citation needed] The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.[citation needed] Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, those who control the means of production (the economic base) essentially control a culture.[citation needed] Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.), which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which two wrote Cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition?
A: Lindlof and Taylor', '
Q: From a Marxist view, what did they believe had to be controlled  to essentially control a culture?
A: the economic base']
Raimon Panikkar pointed out 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about. Some of these are: growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation. Hence Modernization could be similar or related to the enlightenment but a 'looser' term set to ideal and values that flourish. a belief in objectivity progress. Also seen as a belief in a secular society (free from religious influences) example objective and rational, science vs religion and finally been modern means not being religious.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many ways did Raimon Panikkar believed cultural change can be based on?
A: 29 ways', '
Q: What is the term used to describe what Modernization could be similar or related to?
A: enlightenment', "
Q: What type of society was seen that came from Raimon's 29 ways?
A: secular society"]
The Sahara (Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى‎, aṣ-ṣaḥrāʾ al-kubrā , 'the Greatest Desert') is the largest hot desert in the world. It is the third largest desert after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its surface area of 9,400,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi)[citation needed]—including the Libyan Desert—is comparable to the respective land areas of China or the United States. The desert comprises much of the land found within North Africa, excluding the fertile coastal region situated against the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley of Egypt and Sudan. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north, to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually transitions to a coastal plain. To the south, it is delimited by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna around the Niger River valley and Sudan Region of Sub-Saharan Africa. The Sahara can be divided into several regions, including the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, and the Libyan Desert. Its name is derived from the plural Arabic language word for desert (صحارى ṣaḥārā  [ˈsˤɑħɑːrɑː]).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the third hottest desert in the world?
A: The Sahara', '
Q: What is the third largest desert in the world?
A: The Sahara', '
Q: What is the surface area of the Sahara Desert?
A: 9,400,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi)', '
Q: What is the hottest desert in the world?
A: Sahara']
The central part of the Sahara is hyperarid, with little to no vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid part, there are many subdivisions of the great desert such as the Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert, the Nubian Desert and others. These absolute desert regions are characterized by their extreme aridity, and some years can pass without any rainfall.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the central part of the Sahara Desert?
A: hyperarid', '
Q: What does the Sahara have little to none of?
A: The northern and southern reaches of the desert', '
Q: The northern and southern reaches of the desert are spare of what items?
A: grassland and desert shrub', '
Q: What does the Sahara have little of?
A: The northern and southern reaches of the desert', '
Q: How often does the Sahara go without rainfall?
A: years']
To the north, the Sahara skirts the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Maghreb, the Sahara borders the Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub ecoregions of northern Africa, all of which have a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot summers and cool and rainy winters. According to the botanical criteria of Frank White and geographer Robert Capot-Rey, the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of date palm cultivation and the southern limit of the range of esparto, a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What sea is North of the Sahara Desert?
A: Mediterranean Sea']