romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who created the sun-centered model of the solar system?
A: Aristarchus of Samos', '
Q: Who was able to determine the circumference of the Earth?
A: Eratosthenes', '
Q: Who made the first catalog of stars?
A: Hipparchus', '
Q: When was the Antikythera mechanism used?
A: 150-100 BC', '
Q: What was used to determine the position of planets within the solar system?
A: the Antikythera mechanism']
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote the book Elements?
A: Euclid', '
Q: What was contained within the book Elements?
A: the foundations of mathematical rigor', '
Q: Who was able to determine the the area under a parabola?
A: Archimedes', '
Q: What method did Archimedes employ to determine the area under a parabola?
A: exhaustion', '
Q: Which mathematical figure did Archimedes approximate?
A: Pi']
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What classification guide did Theophrastus create?
A: the first taxonomy', '
Q: In what year did Pliny the Elder publish the largest encyclopedia?
A: 77 AD', '
Q: What did Pliny the Elder observe about diamonds?
A: the octahedral shape', '
Q: Who do engravers use diamond dust for?
A: to cut and polish other gems', '
Q: What characteristic was Pliny the Elder the first to recognize about amber?
A: was a fossilized resin']
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to have traces of what?
A: mathematical knowledge', '
Q: What proportional size were the bricks that the civilization used?
A: 4:2:1', '
Q: What characteristic determined the proportions of the bricks?
A: stability', '
Q: What was the name of the ruler that they created?
A: the Mohenjo-daro ruler', '
Q: How long were the units in inches of the Mohenjo-daro ruler?
A: 1.32 inches']
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Aryabhata live?
A: 476-550', '
Q: What were the trigonometric functions that Aryabhata discovered?
A: sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine', '
Q: What theory did Brahmagupta suggest in 628 AD?
A: gravity was a force of attraction', '
Q: What did Brahmagupta use the number zero for?
A: a placeholder and a decimal digit', '
Q: What language did the work of Brahmagupta and Aryabhata have to be translated from?
A: Arabic']
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which text was the first to have concepts of astronomy in it?
A: the Vedas', '
Q: Who wrote the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani?
A: Bhāskara', '
Q: In what time period was the Siddhanta Shiromani written?
A: 12th century', '
Q: The second section of the Siddhanta Shiromani has how many chapters?
A: 13', '
Q: What topic does the second part of the Siddhanta Shiromani contain?
A: the nature of the sphere']
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where are the Neolithic graveyards?
A: Pakistan', '
Q: What do the findings in the graveyards show evidence of?
A: proto-dentistry', '
Q: What kind of medicine was practiced in India before 2500 BC?
A: Ayurveda', '
Q: What is the name of the text that has information regarding Ayurveda?
A: Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta', '
Q: What information is in the Susrutasamhita of Susruta?
A: surgical procedures']
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What method did early Chinese mathematicians use to calculate?
A: a positional decimal system on counting boards', '
Q: One rod in the second box from the right is what number?
A: 10', '
Q: When did negative numbers and decimals start being used?
A: 1st century BC', "
Q: What text includes Horner's method?
A: The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art", '
Q: What advanced mathematical methods did the Tang dynasty have?
A: Cubic equations']
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What observations in astronomy did China record?
A: sunspots', '
Q: What kind of predictions were made during the 12th century?
A: eclipses', '
Q: Who made predictions in 1601?
A: Jesuit Matteo Ricci', '
Q: What year did Chinese astronomers start to observe comets?
A: 635', '
Q: How many records of sunspots are there?
A: 112']
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was invented in 132 CE?
A: a seismometer', '
Q: What occurrence is measured by a seismometer?
A: an earthquake', '
Q: What is the Chinese name for a seismometer?
A: Houfeng didong yi', '
Q: What did the Chinese caused earthquakes?
A: enormous compression of trapped air', '
Q: What was Luoyang renamed to?
A: Gansu']
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who discovered the idea of true north?
A: Shen Kuo', '
Q: When was Shen Kuo alive?
A: 1031–1095', '
Q: What are drydocks used for?
A: to repair boats', '
Q: What did silt and marine fossils teach Shen Kuo?
A: geomorphology', '
Q: What did Shen Kuo study to discover climate change?
A: petrified bamboo']
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the Needham Research Institute named after?
A: Joseph Needham', '
Q: What type of bridge originated in China?
A: suspension', '
Q: What type of map originated in China?
A: raised-relief', '
Q: What type of fan originated in China?
A: rotary', '
Q: What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent?
A: water-powered celestial']
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided?
A: the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past', '
Q: Where was support found for Greek philosophy?
A: Arab Empire', '
Q: What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam?
A: the 7th and 8th centuries', '
Q: How long did the Islamic Golden Age last?
A: until the 13th century', '
Q: What language did Muslim philosophers speak?
A: Arabic']
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks?
A: experiment', '
Q: What book did Ibn al-Haytham write?
A: Book of Optics', '
Q: What law did the Persians know of?
A: The law of refraction of light', "
Q: What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname?
A: the father of optics", '
Q: What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for?
A: the intromission theory of light']
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession?
A: mathematician", '
Q: Where does the word "algebra" come from?
A: al-jabr', '
Q: Where did Arabic numerals originate?
A: India', '
Q: What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals?
A: decimal point notation', '
Q: What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to?
A: chemistry and medicine']
In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Whose work did Al-Battani improve?
A: Hipparchus', '
Q: What does He Megale Syntaxis mean?
A: The great treatise', "
Q: Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon?
A: the Earth's axis", '
Q: The geocentric model is similar to what other model?
A: Copernican heliocentric model']
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy?
A: Ibn Sina', '
Q: What method did Ibn Sina introduce?
A: clinical trials', '
Q: What does Kitab al-shifa mean?
A: Book of Healing', '
Q: The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what?
A: standard medicinal texts', '
Q: What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases?
A: contagious']
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When were medieval universities created?
A: the 12th century', '
Q: Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators?
A: Raymond of Toledo', '
Q: At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into?
A: Latin', '
Q: Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly?
A: Michael Scotus']
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries?
A: Latin', '
Q: Who favored empirical methods?
A: Bacon', '
Q: Who favored mathematics?
A: Grosseteste', "
Q: Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277?
A: Pierre Duhem", '
Q: What era was important for scientific advancements?
A: the Middle Ages']