romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Insects play important roles in biological research. For example, because of its small size, short generation time and high fecundity, the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in the genetics of higher eukaryotes. D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles like genetic linkage, interactions between genes, chromosomal genetics, development, behavior and evolution. Because genetic systems are well conserved among eukaryotes, understanding basic cellular processes like DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies can help to understand those processes in other eukaryotes, including humans. The genome of D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000, reflecting the organism's important role in biological research. It was found that 70% of the fly genome is similar to the human genome, supporting the evolution theory.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Insects play prominent roles in what?
A: biological research', '
Q: What is a common insect used for research purposes?
A: fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster', '
Q: What percent of the fly genome is similar to the human genome
A: 70%', '
Q: Drosophila has helped develop principles in what kind of linkage?
A: genetic', '
Q: Genetic systems are conserved among what?
A: eukaryotes']
In some cultures, insects, especially deep-fried cicadas, are considered to be delicacies, while in other places they form part of the normal diet. Insects have a high protein content for their mass, and some authors suggest their potential as a major source of protein in human nutrition.:10–13 In most first-world countries, however, entomophagy (the eating of insects), is taboo. Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects are inadvertently present in many foods, especially grains. Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit their quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Insects are considered as what in some cultures?
A: delicacies', '
Q: What deep-fried insect is part of the normal diet in some cultures?
A: cicadas', '
Q: Insects have what kind of protein content?
A: high', '
Q: What is the term for eating insects?
A: entomophagy', '
Q: Where is eating insects considered taboo?
A: first-world countries']
Scarab beetles held religious and cultural symbolism in Old Egypt, Greece and some shamanistic Old World cultures. The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality. In Mesopotamian literature, the epic poem of Gilgamesh has allusions to Odonata which signify the impossibility of immortality. Amongst the Aborigines of Australia of the Arrernte language groups, honey ants and witchety grubs served as personal clan totems. In the case of the 'San' bush-men of the Kalahari, it is the praying mantis which holds much cultural significance including creation and zen-like patience in waiting.:9

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What ancient world insect is considered symbolic?
A: Scarab beetles', '
Q: Cicadas symbolize immortality in what culture?
A: Chinese', '
Q: The praying mantis symbolizes patience and what else?
A: creation', '
Q: Witchety grubs serve as personal clan totems in what country?
A: Australia', '
Q: What kind of ants are symbolic among the Australian Aborigines?
A: honey ants']
Even though there is a broad scientific agreement that essentialist and typological conceptualizations of race are untenable, scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways, some of which have essentialist implications. While some researchers sometimes use the concept of race to make distinctions among fuzzy sets of traits, others in the scientific community suggest that the idea of race often is used in a naive or simplistic way,[page needed] and argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance by pointing out that all living humans belong to the same species, Homo sapiens, and subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do all living humans belong to?
A: the same species', '
Q: What species are all humans?
A: Homo sapiens', '
Q: Race has no taxonomic significance among whom?
A: humans', '
Q: What set of traits do some scientists use race to make distinctions among?
A: fuzzy', '
Q: How do scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race?
A: in widely differing ways']
There is a wide consensus that the racial categories that are common in everyday usage are socially constructed, and that racial groups cannot be biologically defined. Nonetheless, some scholars argue that racial categories obviously correlate with biological traits (e.g. phenotype) to some degree, and that certain genetic markers have varying frequencies among human populations, some of which correspond more or less to traditional racial groupings. For this reason, there is no current consensus about whether racial categories can be considered to have significance for understanding human genetic variation.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What type of group can't be biologically defined?
A: racial", '
Q: What type of categorization in every day usage is there wide agreement it is only a social construct?
A: racial', '
Q: What do some people contend racial categories are obviously correlated with?
A: biological traits', '
Q: Some genetic markers have varying frequencies among what populations?
A: human', '
Q: What is the majority opinion on whether racial categories can be considered to have impact on human genetic variation? 
A: no current consensus']
When people define and talk about a particular conception of race, they create a social reality through which social categorization is achieved. In this sense, races are said to be social constructs. These constructs develop within various legal, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of major social situations. While race is understood to be a social construct by many, most scholars agree that race has real material effects in the lives of people through institutionalized practices of preference and discrimination.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How do people create a social reality in which social categorization is achieved?
A: define and talk about a particular conception of race', '
Q: What can be said to be a social construct?
A: races', '
Q: What contexts do racial social constructs develop within?
A: legal, economic, and sociopolitical', '
Q: Constructs may be the result rather than the inciter of what?
A: major social situations', '
Q: What effect does race have in the lives of people?
A: real material']
Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups. Racial discrimination often coincides with racist mindsets, whereby the individuals and ideologies of one group come to perceive the members of an outgroup as both racially defined and morally inferior. As a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while hegemonic individuals and institutions are charged with holding racist attitudes. Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Socioeconomic factors and enduring views on race has led to what for certain racial groups?
A: considerable suffering', '
Q: What is discrimination often paired with?
A: racist mindsets', '
Q: What do members of one group typically perceive the moral standing of outgroups as?
A: inferior', '
Q: What do groups with less power often find themselves?
A: excluded or oppressed', '
Q: What has led to many tragic instances of events like slavery and genocide?
A: Racism']
In some countries, law enforcement uses race to profile suspects. This use of racial categories is frequently criticized for perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation, and promoting stereotypes. Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable. As sociological factors, racial categories may in part reflect subjective attributions, self-identities, and social institutions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does law enforcement in some countries use to profile suspects?
A: race', '
Q: Why is using racial categorization for profiling often criticized? 
A: perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation', '
Q: What promotes stereotypes?
A: use of racial categories', '
Q: Who can race serve as a significant factor when studying social inequality?
A: social scientists', '
Q: What may in part reflect subjective attributes, self-identities and social institutions? 
A: sociological factors']
Groups of humans have always identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups, but such differences have not always been understood to be natural, immutable and global. These features are the distinguishing features of how the concept of race is used today. In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What have human groups always considered themselves as compared to other nearby groups?
A: distinct', '
Q: During which process did our current idea of race come about?
A: exploration and conquest', '
Q: Where did Europeans come into contact with other groups?
A: different continents', '
Q: What have differences among groups not typically been perceived as being?
A: natural, immutable and global', '
Q: What ideaology is found in the natural sciences?
A: classification and typology']
The European concept of "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, arose at the time of the scientific revolution, which introduced and privileged the study of natural kinds, and the age of European imperialism and colonization which established political relations between Europeans and peoples with distinct cultural and political traditions. As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the world, they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the Atlantic slave trade, which gradually displaced an earlier trade in slaves from throughout the world, created a further incentive to categorize human groups in order to justify the subordination of African slaves. Drawing on Classical sources and upon their own internal interactions — for example, the hostility between the English and Irish powerfully influenced early European thinking about the differences between people — Europeans began to sort themselves and others into groups based on physical appearance, and to attribute to individuals belonging to these groups behaviors and capacities which were claimed to be deeply ingrained. A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities. Similar ideas can be found in other cultures, for example in China, where a concept often translated as "race" was associated with supposed common descent from the Yellow Emperor, and used to stress the unity of ethnic groups in China. Brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did many of the ideas associated with the term "race" arise?
A: time of the scientific revolution', '
Q: What created relations between Europeans and people with different cultures?
A: colonization', '
Q: Who speculated about the observable difference among different groups of humans?
A: Europeans', '
Q: Justifying the subordination of what group was one of the incentives to categorize human groups?
A: African slaves', '
Q: What groups has there always been brutal conflict between?
A: ethnic']
The first post-Classical published classification of humans into distinct races seems to be François Bernier's Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent ("New division of Earth by the different species or races which inhabit it"), published in 1684. In the 18th century the differences among human groups became a focus of scientific investigation. But the scientific classification of phenotypic variation was frequently coupled with racist ideas about innate predispositions of different groups, always attributing the most desirable features to the White, European race and arranging the other races along a continuum of progressively undesirable attributes. The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human race Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer, each associated with a different humour: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic, respectively. Homo sapiens europaeus was described as active, acute, and adventurous, whereas Homo sapiens afer was said to be crafty, lazy, and careless.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the author of the first published book classifying humans into distinct races?
A: François Bernier', '
Q: In what century did differences among human groups become a focus of science?
A: 18th century', '
Q: What race was typically ascribed the most desirable features?
A: White', '
Q: How was Homo sapiens europaeus described as?
A: active, acute, and adventurous', '
Q: What attributes were bestowed on homo spaiens afer?
A: crafty, lazy, and careless']
The 1775 treatise "The Natural Varieties of Mankind", by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach proposed five major divisions: the Caucasoid race, Mongoloid race, Ethiopian race (later termed Negroid, and not to be confused with the narrower Ethiopid race), American Indian race, and Malayan race, but he did not propose any hierarchy among the races. Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them".

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What year was Blumenbach's treatise published?
A: 1775", "
Q: How many divisions did Blumenbach's treatise specify?
A: five", '
Q: What type of transition was noted from one group to the next?
A: graded', '
Q: What can one not mark between the variety of mankind?
A: limits', '
Q: What race was later renamed to Negroid?
A: Ethiopian']
From the 17th through 19th centuries, the merging of folk beliefs about group differences with scientific explanations of those differences produced what one scholar has called an "ideology of race". According to this ideology, races are primordial, natural, enduring and distinct. It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups. Subsequent influential classifications by Georges Buffon, Petrus Camper and Christoph Meiners all classified "Negros" as inferior to Europeans. In the United States the racial theories of Thomas Jefferson were influential. He saw Africans as inferior to Whites especially in regards to their intellect, and imbued with unnatural sexual appetites, but described Native Americans as equals to whites.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the merging of superstitious beliefs and scientific ones regarding group differences produce?
A: an "ideology of race"', '
Q: What were races considered to be, according to the ideology of race?
A: primordial, natural, enduring and distinct', '
Q: How might some groups have resulted, according to the ideology?
A: mixture between formerly distinct populations', '
Q: What group was identified as being inferior to Europeans?
A: Negros', '
Q: Who particularly noted the unnatural sexual appetites of Africans?
A: Thomas Jefferson']
In the last two decades of the 18th century, the theory of polygenism, the belief that different races had evolved separately in each continent and shared no common ancestor, was advocated in England by historian Edward Long and anatomist Charles White, in Germany by ethnographers Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster, and in France by Julien-Joseph Virey. In the US, Samuel George Morton, Josiah Nott and Louis Agassiz promoted this theory in the mid-nineteenth century. Polygenism was popular and most widespread in the 19th century, culminating in the founding of the Anthropological Society of London (1863) during the period of the American Civil War, in opposition to the Ethnological Society, which had abolitionist sympathies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What theory is the belief that differences races had evolved independently on each continent?
A: polygenism', '
Q: What country did Edward Long and Charles White advocated the belief of polygenism in?
A: England', '
Q: What was the profession of Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster?
A: ethnographers', '
Q: In what century was polygenism most widespread?
A: 19th century', '
Q: The Ethnological Society was sympathetic towards what cause?
A: abolitionist']
Today, all humans are classified as belonging to the species Homo sapiens and sub-species Homo sapiens sapiens. However, this is not the first species of homininae: the first species of genus Homo, Homo habilis, are theorized to have evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. Homo erectus is theorized to have evolved more than 1.8 million years ago, and by 1.5 million years ago had spread throughout Europe and Asia. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that Archaic Homo sapiens (A group including the possible species H. heidelbergensis, H. rhodesiensis and H. neanderthalensis) evolved out of African Homo erectus ((sensu lato) or Homo ergaster).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What species do all living humans today belong to?
A: Homo sapiens', '
Q: When is it theorized that Homo habilis evolved in East Africa?
A: 2 million years ago', '
Q: How many millions of years ago had Homo erectus spread throughout Europa and Asia?
A: 1.5', '
Q: Members of what species populated parts of Africa in a relatively short time?
A: Homo habilis', '
Q: What group might have Archaic Homo sapiens evolve out of?
A: African Homo erectus']
In the early 20th century, many anthropologists accepted and taught the belief that biologically distinct races were isomorphic with distinct linguistic, cultural, and social groups, while popularly applying that belief to the field of eugenics, in conjunction with a practice that is now called scientific racism. After the Nazi eugenics program, racial essentialism lost widespread popularity. Race anthropologists were pressured to acknowledge findings coming from studies of culture and population genetics, and to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation. A significant number of modern anthropologists and biologists in the West came to view race as an invalid genetic or biological designation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who taught and accepted the belief that biologically distinct races were isomorphic?
A: many anthropologists', '
Q: What practice was combined with the field of eugenics regarding the distinctness of social groups?
A: scientific racism', '
Q: What effect did the Nazi eugenics program have on racial essentialism? 
A: lost widespread popularity', '
Q: What conclusions were race anthropologists pressured to revise?
A: sources of phenotypic variation', '
Q: What did a lot of modern anthropologists in the West come to view racial designation as?
A: invalid']
Population geneticists have debated whether the concept of population can provide a basis for a new conception of race. In order to do this, a working definition of population must be found. Surprisingly, there is no generally accepted concept of population that biologists use. Although the concept of population is central to ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation biology, most definitions of population rely on qualitative descriptions such as "a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular time" Waples and Gaggiotti identify two broad types of definitions for populations; those that fall into an ecological paradigm, and those that fall into an evolutionary paradigm. Examples of such definitions are:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of geneticists have debates about what can provide a basis for a new conception of race?
A: Population', '
Q: What class of researchers surprisingly have no generally accepted concept of population?
A: biologists', '
Q: What do most definitions of population rely on?
A: qualitative descriptions', '
Q: What do Waples and Gaggiotti identify two broad types of?
A: definitions for populations', '
Q: What are both ecological and evolutionary definition modifiers of?
A: paradigm']
Traditionally, subspecies are seen as geographically isolated and genetically differentiated populations. That is, "the designation 'subspecies' is used to indicate an objective degree of microevolutionary divergence" One objection to this idea is that it does not specify what degree of differentiation is required. Therefore, any population that is somewhat biologically different could be considered a subspecies, even to the level of a local population. As a result, Templeton has argued that it is necessary to impose a threshold on the level of difference that is required for a population to be designated a subspecies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are traditionally geographically isolated?
A: subspecies', '
Q: What is "subspecies" used to indicate an objective degree of?
A: microevolutionary divergence', "
Q: What is an objection to the idea of subspecies because it doesn't specify this?
A: degree of differentiation", '
Q: What would a population have to somewhat be to be considered a subspecies?
A: biologically different', '
Q: What did Templeton argue is necessary to impose a threshold on for a population to be a subspecies?
A: level of difference']
This effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies. Dean Amadon proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a population must lie outside 99% of the range of other populations for a given defining morphological character or a set of characters. The seventy-five percent rule still has defenders but other scholars argue that it should be replaced with ninety or ninety-five percent rule.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What must organisms have a measurable level of to be seen as a subspecies?
A: difference', '
Q: Who proposed subspecies be defined by the seventy-five percent rule?
A: Dean Amadon', '
Q: What year did Dean Amadon make his proposal?
A: 1949', '
Q: The 75% rule states how much of a population must lie outside the range of other populations for a defining set of characters?
A: 99%', '
Q: Many scholars argue what should be replaced with a ninety or ninety-five percent rule?
A: The seventy-five percent rule']