romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Anthropology is a global discipline where humanities, social, and natural sciences are forced to confront one another. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of Homo sapiens, human physical traits, human behavior, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens has influenced its social organization and culture, and from social sciences, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science, global studies, and various ethnic studies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What fields are forced to confront one another in anthropology?
A: humanities, social, and natural sciences', '
Q: What builds upon natural and social sciences?
A: Anthropology', '
Q: What type of discipline is anthropology?
A: global', '
Q: Where did early anthropology originate?
A: Greece and Persia', '
Q: What interdisciplinary fields has anthropology been central in the development of?
A: cognitive science, global studies, and various ethnic studies']
Sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline.[page needed] During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has sociocultural anthropology been heavily influenced by?
A: structuralist and postmodern theories', '
Q: When was there an epistemological shift away from positivist traditions in anthropology?
A: During the 1970s and 1990s', '
Q: What questions came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology?
A: nature and production of knowledge', '
Q: What two fields remained largely positivist? 
A: archaeology and biological anthropology', '
Q: What have the four sub-fields of anthropology lacked over the last several decades?
A: cohesion']
Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among persons and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to philosophy, literature and the arts (how one's culture affects experience for self and group, contributing to more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to sociology and history. in that it helps develop understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What draws together the axes of cultural and social anthropology?
A: Sociocultural anthropology', '
Q: Which type of anthropology studies relationships among persons and groups?
A: social', '
Q: What does social anthropology help develop an understanding of?
A: social structures,', '
Q: What kind of distinction is lacking between social and cultural anthropology?
A: hard-and-fast', '
Q: What studies the way people make sense of the world around them?
A: Cultural anthropology']
Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by cultural relativism, the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic monograph. As methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emic (conceptual, vs. etic, or technical) point of view.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the attempt to understand other societies on their own terms?
A: cultural relativism', '
Q: What can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research?
A: Ethnography', '
Q: What is one of the foundational methods of social anthropology?
A: Participant observation', '
Q: What is a needlessly complicated word which means "conceptual"?
A: emic', '
Q: What does accepting other cultures in their own terms moderate?
A: reductionism in cross-cultural comparison']
The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why type of anthropology is the study of social organization a central focus of?
A: Sociocultural', '
Q: What patterns does sociocultural anthropology get up in the morning to learn about?
A: consumption and exchange', '
Q: What is a human universal?
A: kinship', '
Q: What is the object of study for linguistic anthropology?
A: language', '
Q: Why type of conflict is sociocultural anthropology interested in?
A: resolution']
Archaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine these material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What field studies human's past through material remains?
A: Archaeology", '
Q: What can archaeologists deduce from material remains?
A: human behavior and cultural practices', '
Q: What do Ethnoarchaeologists gain a better understanding of by studying living human groups?
A: past human groups', '
Q: How are long dead human groups presumed to have lived and behaved as compared to still living populations?
A: in similar ways', '
Q: What are artifacts, faunal remains and human altered landscapes the evidence of?
A: cultural and material lives of past societies']
Linguistic anthropology (also called anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What problems does linguistic anthropology bring linguistic methods to bear on?
A: anthropological', '
Q: What is the analysis of linguistic forms and processes linked to?
A: interpretation of sociocultural processes', '
Q: What subdivision of anthropology seeks to understand the process of human communications?
A: Linguistic', '
Q: What related fields do linguistic anthropologists draw on?
A: sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis']
One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts. To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' Primitive Art, Claude Lévi-Strauss' The Way of the Masks (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a cultural phenomenon? 
A: art', '
Q: What have several anthropologists noted about Western artistic endeavors and their place in non-Western contexts?
A: do not exist', "
Q: What formal features in objects do anthropologists of art focus on?
A: evident 'aesthetic' qualities", '
Q: When was Art as Cultural System penned?
A: 1983', "
Q: What is the trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of?
A: culturally specific 'aesthetics'"]
Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by Étienne Serres in 1838 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the National Museum of Natural History (France) by Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who used the term anthropology to describe the natural history of man?
A: Étienne Serres', '
Q: When was anthropology used as a term for comparative anatomy?
A: 1838', '
Q: When was a chair created for anthropology at the National Museum of Natural History?
A: 1850', '
Q: Where is the National Museum of Natural History located?
A: France', '
Q: What organization was formed by members whose primary objective was the abolishment of slavery?
A: Société Ethnologique de Paris']
Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy, linguistics, and Ethnology, making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is anthropology the intellectual results of?
A: comparative methods', '
Q: What were theorists in diverse fields beginning to notice between animals and languages?
A: similarities', '
Q: What did the theorists suspect these patterns were the result of?
A: processes or laws unknown to them then', "
Q: What was Darwin's On The Origin of Species for theorists?
A: epiphany", '
Q: How did Darwin arrive at his conclusions?
A: comparison of species']
Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. Paul Broca in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the Société de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859.[n 4] When he read Darwin he became an immediate convert to Transformisme, as the French called evolutionism. His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Wallace and Darwin unveil the theory of evolution?
A: late 1850s.', '
Q: What was there a rush to do with the theory of evolution?
A: bring it into the social sciences', '
Q: Where did Paul Broca reside?
A: Paris', '
Q: What organization was Broca in the process of disentangling himself from?
A: Société de biologie', '
Q: What did the French call evolutionism?
A: Transformisme']
Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him. His interest was mainly in Biological anthropology, but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, Theodor Waitz, took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker, 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: If Broca were alive today, what would his profession be?
A: neurosurgeon', '
Q: What particularly interested Broca?
A: the pathology of speech', '
Q: What did Broca discover in the human brain?
A: speech center', '
Q: What did the German philosopher Waitz specialize in?
A: psychology', '
Q: How many volumes was Waitz work?
A: six']
Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". By nature he meant matter animated by "the Divine breath"; i.e., he was an animist. Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation. The history of civilization as well as ethnology are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Waitz define anthropology?
A: the science of the nature of man', '
Q: What philosophical perspective did Waitz hold?
A: an animist', '
Q: What would anthropology use to differentiate man from the animals nearest him?
A: comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology', '
Q: What did Waitz stress that the data of comparison must be?
A: empirical', '
Q: What history was to be brought into the comparison?
A: civilization']
Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer Richard Francis Burton and the speech therapist James Hunt broke away from the Ethnological Society of London to form the Anthropological Society of London, which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French Société were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, The Anthropological Review, Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard.[n 5] Among the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor, inventor of cultural anthropology, and his brother Alfred Tylor, a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was Waitz influential among?
A: British ethnologists', '
Q: In what year did Richard Francis Burton break away from the Ethnological Society of London?
A: 1863', '
Q: What path of exploration did the Anthropological Society of London follow?
A: anthropology', '
Q: Representatives from where were present in the Anthropological Society of London?
A: French Société', '
Q: Whose work did Hunt stress in the first volume of The Anthropological Review?
A: Waitz']
This meagre statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. Organization has reached global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What did the 20th century see the expansion of anthropology departments into?
A: majority of the world's higher educational institutions", '
Q: What was anthropology diversified into dozens of?
A: subdivisions', '
Q: What type of anthropology is used to solve specific problems?
A: Practical', '
Q: What does a forensic archaeologist become stimulated to do in the presence of buried victims?
A: recreate the final scene', '
Q: From how many nations does the WCAA boast members from?
A: about three dozen']
Media anthropology (also known as anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include cyber anthropology, a relatively new area of internet research, as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, social movements, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, the press, new media and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of anthropology tries to understand the social aspects of mass media?
A: Media anthropology', '
Q: Media production and media reception are examples of what type of context?
A: ethnographic', '
Q: Media such as a radio and television have started to make their presences felt since what years?
A: early 1990s', '
Q: Following audiences in their everyday responses to media is encompassed by what type of context?
A: media reception', '
Q: What type of anthropology involves the relatively new area of internet search?
A: cyber']
Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of anthropology concerns itself with the study of photography and film?
A: Visual', '
Q: What are performances, art, and the production of mass media grouped under?
A: visual representation', "
Q: What cultures' visual representations are included in visual anthropology?
A: all", '
Q: What term is visual anthropology sometimes used interchangeably with?
A: ethnographic film']
Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of Anthropology, Bronislaw Malinowski, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast. Economic Anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which branch of anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior?
A: Economic', '
Q: Economic anthropology covers what scope of human economic behavior?
A: historic, geographic and cultural', '
Q: What is economic anthropology highly critical of?
A: discipline of economics', '
Q: Who was the Polish-British founder of Anthropology?
A: Bronislaw Malinowski', '
Q: What is Economic Anthropology mostly focused upon?
A: exchange']
Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of Historical Materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlins work on Hunter-gatherers as the 'original affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system. More recently, these Political Economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does political economy in anthropology apply Historical Materialism to?
A: traditional concerns', '
Q: What did Political Economy introduce questions of to theories of social structure and culture?
A: history and colonialism', '
Q: Who were the original affluent society?
A: Hunter-gatherers', '
Q: What do peasants make up the vast majority of in the world?
A: population', '
Q: What have Political Economists most recently focused on the issues of?
A: industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism']