romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
During the Hellenistic period, many different schools of thought developed. Athens, with its multiple philosophical schools, continued to remain the center of philosophical thought. However Athens had now lost her political freedom and Hellenistic philosophy is a reflection of this new difficult period. In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as ataraxia (un-disturbedness), autarky (self-sufficiency) and apatheia (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or eudaimonia out of the most difficult turns of fortune. This occupation with the inner life, with personal inner liberty and with the pursuit of eudaimonia is what all Hellenistic philosophical schools have in common.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What city remained the center of philosophical thought?
A: Athens', '
Q: What does ataraxia mean?
A: un-disturbedness', '
Q: What does autarky mean?
A: self-sufficiency', '
Q: What does apatheia mean?
A: freedom from suffering']
The Epicureans and the Cynics rejected public offices and civic service, which amounted to a rejection of the polis itself, the defining institution of the Greek world. Epicurus promoted atomism and an asceticism based on freedom from pain as its ultimate goal. Cynics such as Diogenes of Sinope rejected all material possessions and social conventions (nomos) as unnatural and useless. The Cyrenaics meanwhile, embraced hedonism, arguing that pleasure was the only true good. Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium, taught that virtue was sufficient for eudaimonia as it would allow one to live in accordance with Nature or Logos. Zeno became extremely popular, the Athenians set up a gold statue of him and Antigonus II Gonatas invited him to the Macedonian court. The philosophical schools of Aristotle (the Peripatetics of the Lyceum) and Plato (Platonism at the Academy) also remained influential. The academy would eventually turn to Academic Skepticism under Arcesilaus until it was rejected by Antiochus of Ascalon (c. 90 BCE) in favor of Neoplatonism. Hellenistic philosophy, had a significant influence on the Greek ruling elite. Examples include Athenian statesman Demetrius of Phaleron, who had studied in the lyceum; the Spartan king Cleomenes III who was a student of the Stoic Sphairos of Borysthenes and Antigonus II who was also a well known Stoic. This can also be said of the Roman upper classes, were Stoicism was dominant, as seen in the Meditations of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and the works of Cicero.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who promoted freedom from pain as the ultimate goal?
A: Epicurus', '
Q: Who said social norms and material possesions were unnatural and useless?
A: Diogenes of Sinope', '
Q: Which group embraced hedonism?
A: Cyrenaics', '
Q: Who founded Stoicism?
A: Zeno of Citium', '
Q: Who rejected Academic Skepticism in favor of Neoplatonism?
A: Antiochus of Ascalon']
Hellenistic culture produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean. Hellenistic science differed from Greek science in at least two ways: first, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in the larger Hellenistic world; secondly, to some extent, it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander's successors. Especially important to Hellenistic science was the city of Alexandria in Egypt, which became a major center of scientific research in the 3rd century BC. Hellenistic scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: The Royal patrons of Alexander's successors supported what type of science?
A: Hellenistic", '
Q: What city was especially important to Hellinistic science?
A: Alexandria', '
Q: What century did Alexandria become scientific research hub?
A: 3rd']
Hellenistic Geometers such as Archimedes (c. 287 – 212 BC), Apollonius of Perga (c. 262 – c. 190 BC), and Euclid (c. 325 – 265 BC), whose Elements became the most important textbook in mathematics until the 19th century, built upon the work of the Hellenic era Pythagoreans. Euclid developed proofs for the Pythagorean Theorem, for the infinitude of primes, and worked on the ﬁve Platonic solids. Eratosthenes used his knowledge of geometry to measure the circumference of the Earth. His calculation was remarkably accurate. He was also the first to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis (again with remarkable accuracy). Additionally, he may have accurately calculated the distance from the Earth to the Sun and invented the leap day. Known as the "Father of Geography ", Eratosthenes also created the first map of the world incorporating parallels and meridians, based on the available geographical knowledge of the era.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Archimedes die?
A: 212 BC', '
Q: When was Euclid born?
A: 325', '
Q: Who worked on the five Platonic solids?
A: Euclid', '
Q: Who measured the circumference of the Earth?
A: Eratosthenes', '
Q: Who was the Father of Geomtery?
A: Eratosthenes']
Astronomers like Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) built upon the measurements of the Babylonian astronomers before him, to measure the precession of the Earth. Pliny reports that Hipparchus produced the first systematic star catalog after he observed a new star (it is uncertain whether this was a nova or a comet) and wished to preserve astronomical record of the stars, so that other new stars could be discovered. It has recently been claimed that a celestial globe based on Hipparchus's star catalog sits atop the broad shoulders of a large 2nd-century Roman statue known as the Farnese Atlas. Another astronomer, Aristarchos of Samos developed a heliocentric system.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was Hipparchus born?
A: 190', '
Q: Hipparchus measured the precession of what?
A: Earth', '
Q: Who stated that Hipparchus created the first systematic star map?
A: Pliny', "
Q: Hipparchus' star may be depicted in a statue called what?
A: Farnese Atlas", '
Q: Whch astronomer developed a heliocentric system?
A: Aristarchos of Samos']
The level of Hellenistic achievement in astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150–100 BC). It is a 37-gear mechanical computer which computed the motions of the Sun and Moon, including lunar and solar eclipses predicted on the basis of astronomical periods believed to have been learned from the Babylonians. Devices of this sort are not found again until the 10th century, when a simpler eight-geared luni-solar calculator incorporated into an astrolabe was described by the Persian scholar, Al-Biruni.[not in citation given] Similarly complex devices were also developed by other Muslim engineers and astronomers during the Middle Ages.[not in citation given]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name of the 37 gear computer which noted the motions of the Sun and Moon?
A: Antikythera mechanism', '
Q: Until what century were similar devices like the Antikythera mechanism found?
A: 10th', '
Q: What Persian scholar noted the 10th century calculator similar to the Antikythera mechanism?
A: Al-Biruni', '
Q: What range of years is the Antikythera mechanism thought to have been created?
A: 150–100 BC']
Medicine, which was dominated by the Hippocratic tradition, saw new advances under Praxagoras of Kos, who theorized that blood traveled through the veins. Herophilos (335–280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body, animal vivisection and to provide accurate descriptions of the nervous system, liver and other key organs. Inﬂuenced by Philinus of Cos (ﬂ. 250), a student of Herophilos, a new medical sect emerged, the Empiric school, which was based on strict observation and rejected unseen causes of the Dogmatic school.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who theorized that blood traveled through the veins?
A: Praxagoras of Kos', '
Q: Who was the first to finalize his conclusions with dissections of cadevers?
A: Herophilos', '
Q: Which school of medicine was based on strict observation?
A: Empiric', '
Q: Who was the first to provide accurate descriptions of the nervous system?
A: Herophilos']
Hellenistic warfare was a continuation of the military developments of Iphicrates and Philip II of Macedon, particularly his use of the Macedonian Phalanx, a dense formation of pikemen, in conjunction with heavy companion cavalry. Armies of the Hellenistic period differed from those of the classical period in being largely made up of professional soldiers and also in their greater specialization and technical proficiency in siege warfare. Hellenistic armies were significantly larger than those of classical Greece relying increasingly on Greek mercenaries (misthophoroi; men-for-pay) and also on non-Greek soldiery such as Thracians, Galatians, Egyptians and Iranians. Some ethnic groups were known for their martial skill in a particular mode of combat and were highly sought after, including Tarantine cavalry, Cretan archers, Rhodian slingers and Thracian peltasts. This period also saw the adoption of new weapons and troop types such as Thureophoroi and the Thorakitai who used the oval Thureos shield and fought with javelins and the machaira sword. The use of heavily armored cataphracts and also horse archers was adopted by the Seleucids, Greco-Bactrians, Armenians and Pontus. The use of war elephants also became common. Seleucus received Indian war elephants from the Mauryan empire, and used them to good effect at the battle of Ipsus. He kept a core of 500 of them at Apameia. The Ptolemies used the smaller African elephant.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Philip II used a dense military formation called what?
A: Macedonian Phalanx', '
Q: Were Hellenistic armies smaller or larger than traditional Greek armies?
A: larger', '
Q: The Thorakitai used what type of oval shield?
A: Thureos', '
Q: From whom did Seleucus receive war elephants?
A: Mauryan empire', '
Q: What kind of elephant did the Ptolemies use?
A: African elephant']
Hellenistic military equipment was generally characterized by an increase in size. Hellenistic-era warships grew from the trireme to include more banks of oars and larger numbers of rowers and soldiers as in the Quadrireme and Quinquereme. The Ptolemaic Tessarakonteres was the largest ship constructed in Antiquity. New siege engines were developed during this period. An unknown engineer developed the torsion-spring catapult (ca. 360) and Dionysios of Alexandria designed a repeating ballista, the Polybolos. Preserved examples of ball projectiles range from 4.4 kg to 78 kg (or over 170 lbs). Demetrius Poliorcetes was notorious for the large siege engines employed in his campaigns, especially during the 12-month siege of Rhodes when he had Epimachos of Athens build a massive 160 ton siege tower named Helepolis, filled with artillery.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the largest ship constructed in Antiquity?
A: Ptolemaic Tessarakonteres', '
Q: Who invented the Polybolos?
A: Dionysios of Alexandria', '
Q: What type of weapon is the Polybolos?
A: ballista', '
Q: Who heavy was the Helepolis siege tower?
A: 160 ton', '
Q: How long was Demetrius Poliorcetes siege of Rhodes?
A: 12-month']
Hellenistic art saw a turn from the idealistic, perfected, calm and composed figures of classical Greek art to a style dominated by realism and the depiction of emotion (pathos) and character (ethos). The motif of deceptively realistic naturalism in art (aletheia) is reflected in stories such as that of the painter Zeuxis, who was said to have painted grapes that seemed so real that birds came and pecked at them. The female nude also became more popular as epitomized by the Aphrodite of Cnidos of Praxiteles and art in general became more erotic (e.g. Leda and the Swan and Scopa's Pothos). The dominant ideals of Hellenistic art were those of sensuality and passion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Emotion is called what in Hellenistic art?
A: pathos', '
Q: Character is called what in Hellenistic art?
A: ethos', '
Q: Who is the artist that drew grapes so lifelike, birds flew up and pecked at them?
A: Zeuxis', '
Q: The ideals of Hellenistic art are sensuality and what?
A: passion', '
Q: What painting epitomized the female nude?
A: Aphrodite of Cnidos of Praxiteles']
People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. Artists such as Peiraikos chose mundane and lower class subjects for his paintings. According to Pliny, "He painted barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects, earning for himself the name of rhyparographos [painter of dirt/low things]. In these subjects he could give consummate pleasure, selling them for more than other artists received for their large pictures" (Natural History, Book XXXV.112). Even barbarians, such as the Galatians, were depicted in heroic form, prefiguring the artistic theme of the noble savage. The image of Alexander the Great was also an important artistic theme, and all of the diadochi had themselves depicted imitating Alexander's youthful look. A number of the best-known works of Greek sculpture belong to the Hellenistic period, including Laocoön and his Sons, Venus de Milo, and the Winged Victory of Samothrace.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which artist chose mundane and low class subjects?
A: Peiraikos', '
Q: Which barbarians were depicted in heroic form?
A: Galatians', '
Q: All of the diadochi painted themselves to look like what leader?
A: Alexander the Great', '
Q: Venus de Milo belongs to which period?
A: Hellenistic']
Developments in painting included experiments in chiaroscuro by Zeuxis and the development of landscape painting and still life painting. Greek temples built during the Hellenistic period were generally larger than classical ones, such as the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the temple of Artemis at Sardis, and the temple of Apollo at Didyma (rebuilt by Seleucus in 300 BCE). The royal palace (basileion) also came into its own during the Hellenistic period, the first extant example being the massive fourth-century villa of Cassander at Vergina.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Greek painter experimented in chiaroscuro?
A: Zeuxis', '
Q: Were Greek temples built in the Hellenistic period larger or smaller than classical temples?
A: larger', '
Q: Who rebuilt the Apollo at Didyma in 300 BCE?
A: Seleucus', '
Q: What is a Greek royal palace called?
A: basileion', '
Q: What is the first example of Hellenistic period royal palace?
A: villa of Cassander at Vergina']
There has been a trend in writing the history of this period to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following of the Golden Age of Classical Athens. Pliny the Elder, after having described the sculpture of the classical period says: Cessavit deinde ars ("then art disappeared"). The 18th century terms Baroque and Rococo have sometimes been applied, to the art of this complex and individual period. The renewal of the historiographical approach as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of Vergina, allow a better appreciation of this period's artistic richness.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who said "then art dissapeared"?
A: Pliny the Elder', '
Q: The discovery of what tombs raised the profile of Hellenistic art?
A: Vergina', '
Q: Hellenistic art is describe as decadent mainly due to it following which style  period?
A: Golden Age of Classical Athens', '
Q: What century do the terms Baroque and Rococo come from?
A: 18th']
The focus on the Hellenistic period over the course of the 19th century by scholars and historians has led to an issue common to the study of historical periods; historians see the period of focus as a mirror of the period in which they are living. Many 19th century scholars contended that the Hellenistic period represented a cultural decline from the brilliance of classical Greece. Though this comparison is now seen as unfair and meaningless, it has been noted that even commentators of the time saw the end of a cultural era which could not be matched again. This may be inextricably linked with the nature of government. It has been noted by Herodotus that after the establishment of the Athenian democracy:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What century of scholars considered the Hellenistic period a decline in culture from classic Greece?
A: 19th', '
Q: How did 19th century scholars view the Hellenistic period?
A: a mirror', '
Q: The viewpoint that the Hellenistic period represented a decline in culture was proven to be meaningless and what?
A: unfair']
However, William Woodthorpe Tarn, between World War I and World War II and the heyday of the League of Nations, focused on the issues of racial and cultural confrontation and the nature of colonial rule. Michael Rostovtzeff, who fled the Russian Revolution, concentrated predominantly on the rise of the capitalist bourgeoisie in areas of Greek rule. Arnaldo Momigliano, an Italian Jew who wrote before and after the Second World War, studied the problem of mutual understanding between races in the conquered areas. Moses Hadas portrayed an optimistic picture of synthesis of culture from the perspective of the 1950s, while Frank William Walbank in the 1960s and 1970s had a materialistic approach to the Hellenistic period, focusing mainly on class relations. Recently, however, papyrologist C. Préaux has concentrated predominantly on the economic system, interactions between kings and cities and provides a generally pessimistic view on the period. Peter Green, on the other hand, writes from the point of view of late 20th century liberalism, his focus being on individualism, the breakdown of convention, experiments and a postmodern disillusionment with all institutions and political processes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who focused on the issue of racial and cultural confrontation?
A: William Woodthorpe Tarn', '
Q: Which organization did Michael Rostovtzeff flee from?
A: Russian Revolution', '
Q: Who studied the problem mutual understanding between races in conquered areas?
A: Arnaldo Momigliano', '
Q: Frank William Walbank mainly focused on which relations in his depictions of Hellinistic culture?
A: class', '
Q: Whish Hellinistic historian focused primarely on the economic system?
A: C. Préaux']
Napoléon Bonaparte (/nəˈpoʊliən, -ˈpoʊljən/; French: [napɔleɔ̃ bɔnapaʁt], born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815. Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815. Often considered one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. He also remains one of the most celebrated and controversial political figures in Western history. In civil affairs, Napoleon had a major long-term impact by bringing liberal reforms to the territories that he conquered, especially the Low Countries, Switzerland, and large parts of modern Italy and Germany. He implemented fundamental liberal policies in France and throughout Western Europe.[note 1] His lasting legal achievement, the Napoleonic Code, has been adopted in various forms by a quarter of the world's legal systems, from Japan to Quebec.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Napoleon spent ten years as emperor of what people?
A: the French', "
Q: When did Napoleon's empire collapse?
A: 1815", "
Q: Where are Napoleon's campaigns still studied today?
A: military schools", '
Q: What did Napoleon bring civilly to his territories?
A: liberal reforms', "
Q: What is Napoleon's legal achievement, still reaching a quarter of the world's legal systems?
A: the Napoleonic Code", '
Q: When was Napoleon Bonaparte born?
A: 15 August 1769', '
Q: When did Napoleon Bonaparte die?
A: 5 May 1821', "
Q: What was Napoleon Bonaparte's nationality?
A: French", '
Q: During what historical event did Napoleon rise to prominence?
A: the French Revolution', "
Q: When did Napoleon Bonaparte's empire finally collapse?
A: 1815", '
Q: When did Napoleon Bonaparte die?
A: 5 May 1821', '
Q: During what historical event did Napoleon rise to prominence?
A: the French Revolution']
Napoleon was born in Corsica to a relatively modest family of noble Tuscan ancestry. Napoleon supported the French Revolution from the outset in 1789 while serving in the French army, and he tried to spread its ideals to Corsica but was banished from the island in 1793. Two years later, he saved the French government from collapse by firing on the Parisian mobs with cannons. The Directory rewarded Napoleon by giving him command of the Army of Italy at age 26, when he began his first military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies, scoring a series of decisive victories that made him famous all across Europe. He followed the defeat of the Allies in Europe by commanding a military expedition to Egypt in 1798, invading and occupying the Ottoman province after defeating the Mamelukes and launching modern Egyptology through the discoveries made by his army.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Of what ancestry was Napoleon?
A: Tuscan', '
Q: How did Napoleon save the French government in 1795?
A: by firing on the Parisian mobs with cannons', '
Q: How old was Napoleon when he was given command of the Army of Italy?
A: 26', '
Q: Where did Napoleon lead his troops in 1798?
A: Egypt', "
Q: Against whom was Napoleon's first military campaign waged?
A: the Austrians", '
Q: Where was Napoleon born?
A: Corsica', '
Q: When was Napoleon banished from Corsica?
A: 1793', '
Q: At what age did Napoleon receive command of the Army of Italy?
A: 26', '
Q: Who did Napoleon fight his first military campaign against?
A: the Austrians and their Italian allies', '
Q: When did Napoleon command his military expedition to Egypt?
A: 1798']