romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) and south-eastern Sicily had been colonized by the Greeks during the 8th century. In 4th century Sicily the leading Greek city and hegemon was Syracuse. During the Hellenistic period the leading figure in Sicily was Agathocles of Syracuse (361 – 289 BCE) who seized the city with an army of mercenaries in 317 BCE. Agathocles extended his power throughout most of the Greek cities in Sicily, fought a long war with the Carthaginians, at one point invading Tunisia in 310 and defeating a Carthaginian army there. This was the first time a European force had invaded the region. After this war he controlled most of south-east Sicily and had himself proclaimed king, in imitation of the Hellenistic monarchs of the east. Agathocles then invaded Italy (c. 300 BCE) in defense of Tarentum against the Bruttians and Romans, but was unsuccessful.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was Southern Italy refered to as?
A: Magna Graecia', '
Q: Southern Italy and south-eastern Sicily were colonized by the Greeks in what century?
A: 8th', '
Q: In 310 Agathocles invaded Tunisia and defeated what army?
A: Carthaginian', '
Q: Who was the leading figure in Sicily during the Hellenistic period?
A: Agathocles of Syracuse', '
Q: In defense of Tarentum, when did Agathocles attack Italy?
A: 300 BCE']
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul were mostly limited to the Mediterranean coast of Provence. The first Greek colony in the region was Massalia, which became one of the largest trading ports of Mediterranean by the 4th century BCE with 6,000 inhabitants. Massalia was also the local hegemon, controlling various coastal Greek cities like Nice and Agde. The coins minted in Massalia have been found in all parts of Ligurian-Celtic Gaul. Celtic coinage was influenced by Greek designs, and Greek letters can be found on various Celtic coins, especially those of Southern France. Traders from Massalia ventured inland deep into France on the Rivers Durance and Rhône, and established overland trade routes deep into Gaul, and to Switzerland and Burgundy. The Hellenistic period saw the Greek alphabet spread into southern Gaul from Massalia (3rd and 2nd centuries BCE) and according to Strabo, Massalia was also a center of education, where Celts went to learn Greek. A staunch ally of Rome, Massalia retained its independence until it sided with Pompey in 49 BCE and was then taken by Caesar's forces.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first Greek colony in the Mediterranean?
A: Massalia', '
Q: How many inhabitants were in Massalia?
A: 6,000', '
Q: Who controlled Nice and Agde?
A: Massalia', '
Q: Massalia was the center of education according to whom?
A: Strabo', '
Q: When did Massalia side with Pompey?
A: 49 BCE']
The Hellenistic states of Asia and Egypt were run by an occupying imperial elite of Greco-Macedonian administrators and governors propped up by a standing army of mercenaries and a small core of Greco-Macedonian settlers. Promotion of immigration from Greece was important in the establishment of this system. Hellenistic monarchs ran their kingdoms as royal estates and most of the heavy tax revenues went into the military and paramilitary forces which preserved their rule from any kind of revolution. Macedonian and Hellenistic monarchs were expected to lead their armies on the field, along with a group of privileged aristocratic companions or friends (hetairoi, philoi) which dined and drank with the king and acted as his advisory council. Another role that was expected the monarch fill was that of charitable patron of his people, this public philanthropy could mean building projects and handing out gifts but also promotion of Greek culture and religion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who ran the Hellenistic states of Asia and Egypt?
A: Greco-Macedonian administrators and governors', '
Q: Where did Hellenistic monarchs put most of the tax revenues?
A: military and paramilitary forces', '
Q: Who handed out gifts in the promotion of Greek culture and religion?
A: the monarch', '
Q: What type of estates did Hellenistic monarchs run their kingdoms?
A: royal estates', '
Q: Who were the small core in the Hellenistic states of Asia and Egypt?
A: Greco-Macedonian settlers']
Ptolemy, a somatophylax, one of the seven bodyguards who served as Alexander the Great's generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself King Ptolemy I, later known as "Soter" (saviour) for his role in helping the Rhodians during the siege of Rhodes. Ptolemy built new cities such as Ptolemais Hermiou in upper Egypt and settled his veterans throughout the country, especially in the region of the Faiyum. Alexandria, a major center of Greek culture and trade, became his capital city. As Egypt's first port city, it was the main grain exporter in the Mediterranean.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death?
A: Ptolemy", '
Q: When did Alexander die and Ptolemy assume his position?
A: 323 BC', '
Q: When did Ptolemy declare himself King Ptolemy I?
A: 305 BC', '
Q: What nickname did Rhodians give Ptolemy?
A: Soter', '
Q: Where did Ptolemy settle his most of his veterans?
A: Faiyum']
The Egyptians begrudgingly accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt, though the kingdom went through several native revolts. The Ptolemies took on the traditions of the Egyptian Pharaohs, such as marrying their siblings (Ptolemy II was the first to adopt this custom), having themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participating in Egyptian religious life. The Ptolemaic ruler cult portrayed the Ptolemies as gods, and temples to the Ptolemies were erected throughout the kingdom. Ptolemy I even created a new god, Serapis, who was combination of two Egyptian gods: Apis and Osiris, with attributes of Greek gods. Ptolemaic administration was, like the Ancient Egyptian bureaucracy, highly centralized and focused on squeezing as much revenue out of the population as possible though tariffs, excise duties, fines, taxes and so forth. A whole class of petty officials, tax farmers, clerks and overseers made this possible. The Egyptian countryside was directly administered by this royal bureaucracy. External possessions such as Cyprus and Cyrene were run by strategoi, military commanders appointed by the crown.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Whose tradition did Ptolemy take on as leader of Egypt?
A: Egyptian Pharaohs', '
Q: What god did Ptolemy I create?
A: Serapis', '
Q: Cyprus and Cyrene were run by whom?
A: strategoi', '
Q: By using a central government that taxes heavily, Ptolemy ran his country akin to which bureaucracy?
A: Ancient Egyptian', '
Q: Apis and Osiris combined to make which god?
A: Serapis']
Under Ptolemy II, Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes, Theocritus and a host of other poets made the city a center of Hellenistic literature. Ptolemy himself was eager to patronise the library, scientific research and individual scholars who lived on the grounds of the library. He and his successors also fought a series of wars with the Seleucids, known as the Syrian wars, over the region of Coele-Syria. Ptolemy IV won the great battle of Raphia (217 BCE) against the Seleucids, using native Egyptians trained as phalangites. However these Egyptian soldiers revolted, eventually setting up a native breakaway Egyptian state in the Thebaid between 205-186/5 BCE, severely weakening the Ptolemaic state.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Syrian was were fought between Ptolemy II and whom?
A: the Seleucids', '
Q: What region was fought for during the Syrian wars?
A: Coele-Syria', '
Q: Who won the great battle of Raphia?
A: Ptolemy IV', '
Q: When was the great battle of Raphia?
A: 217 BCE', '
Q: Who did Ptolemy IV defeat in the great battle of Raphia?
A: Seleucids']
Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. Her suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt though Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods until the Muslim conquest.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Till what year did Ptolemy's family rule Egypt?
A: 30 BC", '
Q: All the male rulers of Egypt took what name during the Ptolemy dynasty?
A: Ptolemy', '
Q: Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice were common names for whom?
A: Ptolemaic queens', '
Q: Who was the last and most famous queen of the Ptolemy dynasty?
A: Cleopatra VII', '
Q: How did Cleoptra die?
A: suicide']
Following division of Alexander's empire, Seleucus I Nicator received Babylonia. From there, he created a new empire which expanded to include much of Alexander's near eastern territories. At the height of its power, it included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, today's Turkmenistan, Pamir, and parts of Pakistan. It included a diverse population estimated at fifty to sixty million people. Under Antiochus I (c. 324/3 – 261 BC), however, the unwieldy empire was already beginning to shed territories. Pergamum broke away under Eumenes I who defeated a Seleucid army sent against him. The kingdoms of Cappadocia, Bithynia and Pontus were all practically independent by this time as well. Like the Ptolemies, Antiochus I established a dynastic religious cult, deifying his father Seleucus I. Seleucus, officially said to be descended from Apollo, had his own priests and monthly sacrifices. The erosion of the empire continued under Seleucus II, who was forced to fight a civil war (239-236) against his brother Antiochus Hierax and was unable to keep Bactria, Sogdiana and Parthia from breaking away. Hierax carved off most of Seleucid Anatolia for himself, but was defeated, along with his Galatian allies, by Attalus I of Pergamon who now also claimed kingship.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: After Alexander's empire was split, what region did Seleucus I Nicator receive?
A: Babylonia", '
Q: Pergamum was led by whom when they defeated a Seleucid army?
A: Eumenes I', '
Q: Who defied his father Seleucus I, and set up a religous cult?
A: Antiochus I', '
Q: What was the name of Seleucus II brother, whom he fought in civil war?
A: Antiochus Hierax', '
Q: Who ultimately defeated Seleucid Anatolia?
A: Attalus I']
The vast Seleucid Empire was, like Egypt, mostly dominated by a Greco-Macedonian political elite. The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by emigration from Greece. These cities included newly founded colonies such as Antioch, the other cities of the Syrian tetrapolis, Seleucia (north of Babylon) and Dura-Europos on the Euphrates. These cities retained traditional Greek city state institutions such as assemblies, councils and elected magistrates, but this was a facade for they were always controlled by the royal Seleucid officials. Apart from these cities, there were also a large number of Seleucid garrisons (choria), military colonies (katoikiai) and Greek villages (komai) which the Seleucids planted throughout the empire to cement their rule. This 'Greco-Macedonian' population (which also included the sons of settlers who had married local women) could make up a phalanx of 35,000 men (out of a total Seleucid army of 80,000) during the reign of Antiochos III. The rest of the army was made up of native troops. Antiochus III the great conducted several vigorous campaigns to retake all the lost provinces of the empire since the death of Seleucus I. After being defeated by Ptolemy IV's forces at Raphia (217), Antiochus III led a long campaign to the east to subdue the far eastern breakaway provinces (212-205) including Bactria, Parthia, Ariana, Sogdiana, Gedrosia and Drangiana. He was successful, bringing back most of these provinces into at least nominal vassalage and receiving tribute from their rulers. After the death of Ptolemy IV (204), Antiochus took advantage of the weakness of Egypt to conquer Coele-Syria in the fifth Syrian war (202-195). He then began expanding his influence into Pergamene territory in Asia and crossed into Europe, fortifying Lysimachia on the hellespont, but his expansion into Anatolia and Greece was abruptly halted after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BCE). In the Treaty of Apamea which ended the war, Antiochus lost all of his territories in Anatolia west of the Taurus and was forced to pay a large indemnity of 15,000 talents.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Seleucid Empire was mostly dominated by whom?
A: Greco-Macedonian political elite', '
Q: What are Seleucid garrisons called?
A: choria', '
Q: What are Seleucid military colonies called?
A: katoikiai', '
Q: Who defeated Antiochus III at Raphia?
A: Ptolemy IV', '
Q: What year did Ptolemy IV die?
A: 204']
After the death of Lysimachus, one of his officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city of Pergamum in 282 BC along with Lysimachus' war chest of 9,000 talents and declared himself loyal to Seleucus I while remaining de facto independent. His descendant, Attalus I, defeated the invading Galatians and proclaimed himself an independent king. Attalus I (241–197BC), was a staunch ally of Rome against Philip V of Macedon during the first and second Macedonian Wars. For his support against the Seleucids in 190 BCE, Eumenes II was rewarded with all the former Seleucid domains in Asia Minor. Eumenes II turned Pergamon into a centre of culture and science by establishing the library of Pergamum which was said to be second only to the library of Alexandria with 200,000 volumes according to Plutarch. It included a reading room and a collection of paintings. Eumenes II also constructed the Pergamum Altar with friezes depicting the Gigantomachy on the acropolis of the city. Pergamum was also a center of parchment (charta pergamena) production. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which officer took control of Pergamum in 282 BC?
A: Philetaerus', '
Q: Who did Philetaerus declare himself loyal to?
A: Seleucus I', '
Q: Attalus I was a strong ally of Rome and which ruler?
A: Philip V of Macedon', '
Q: Where was the library of Pergamum located?
A: Pergamon', '
Q: What depicts the Gigantomachy on the acropolis of the city?
A: Pergamum Altar']
The Celts who settled in Galatia came through Thrace under the leadership of Leotarios and Leonnorios circa 270 BC. They were defeated by Seleucus I in the 'battle of the Elephants', but were still able to establish a Celtic territory in central Anatolia. The Galatians were well respected as warriors and were widely used as mercenaries in the armies of the successor states. They continued to attack neighboring kingdoms such as Bithynia and Pergamon, plundering and extracting tribute. This came to an end when they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince Antiochus Hierax who tried to defeat Attalus, the ruler of Pergamon (241–197 BC). Attalus severely defeated the Gauls, forcing them to confine themselves to Galatia. The theme of the Dying Gaul (a famous statue displayed in Pergamon) remained a favorite in Hellenistic art for a generation signifying the victory of the Greeks over a noble enemy. In the early 2nd century BC, the Galatians became allies of Antiochus the Great, the last Seleucid king trying to regain suzerainty over Asia Minor. In 189 BC, Rome sent Gnaeus Manlius Vulso on an expedition against the Galatians. Galatia was henceforth dominated by Rome through regional rulers from 189 BC onward.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did the Celts who settled in Galatia pass through?
A: Thrace', '
Q: What battle did the Celts lose to Seleucus I?
A: battle of the Elephants', '
Q: What famous statue signified the victory of the Greeks over a worthy enemy?
A: Dying Gaul', '
Q: What century did the Galatians become allies of Antiochus the Great?
A: 2nd century BC', '
Q: Who sent Gnaeus Manlius Vulso on an expedition against the Galatians?
A: Rome']
The Bithynians were a Thracian people living in northwest Anatolia. After Alexander's conquests the region of Bithynia came under the rule of the native king Bas, who defeated Calas, a general of Alexander the Great, and maintained the independence of Bithynia. His son, Zipoetes I of Bithynia maintained this autonomy against Lysimachus and Seleucus I, and assumed the title of king (basileus) in 297 BCE. His son and successor, Nicomedes I, founded Nicomedia, which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign (c. 278 – c. 255 BCE), as well as those of his successors, the kingdom of Bithynia held a considerable place among the minor monarchies of Anatolia. Nicomedes also invited the Celtic Galatians into Anatolia as mercenaries, and they later turned on his son Prusias I, who defeated them in battle. Their last king, Nicomedes IV, was unable to maintain himself against Mithridates VI of Pontus, and, after being restored to his throne by the Roman Senate, he bequeathed his kingdom by will to the Roman republic (74 BCE).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who were a Thracian people living in northwest Anatolia?
A: The Bithynians', '
Q: King Bas defeated which general of Alexander?
A: Calas', '
Q: Who assumed the title of king from Bas?
A: Zipoetes I', '
Q: When did Zipoetes I assume the role of king?
A: 297 BCE', '
Q: Who founded Nicomedia?
A: Nicomedes I']
In 255 B.C., Ariarathes III took the title of king and married Stratonice, a daughter of Antiochus II, remaining an ally of the Seleucid kingdom. Under Ariarathes IV, Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of Antiochus the Great, then as an ally against Perseus of Macedon and finally in a war against the Seleucids. Ariarathes V also waged war with Rome against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated in 130 BCE. This defeat allowed Pontus to invade and conquer the kingdom.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who married Stratonice?
A: Ariarathes III', '
Q: When did Stratonice marry Ariarathes III?
A: 255 B.C.', "
Q: Who was Stratonice's father?
A: Antiochus II", "
Q: Cappadocia began it's realtionship with Rome under whom?
A: Ariarathes IV", '
Q: What year was Ariarathes V defeated?
A: 130 BCE']
The Kingdom of Pontus was a Hellenistic kingdom on the southern coast of the Black Sea. It was founded by Mithridates I in 291 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63 BC. Despite being ruled by a dynasty which was a descendant of the Persian Achaemenid Empire it became hellenized due to the influence of the Greek cities on the Black Sea and its neighboring kingdoms. Pontic culture was a mix of Greek and Iranian elements, the most hellenized parts of the kingdom were on the coast, populated by Greek colonies such as Trapezus and Sinope, which became the capital of the kingdom. Epigraphic evidence also shows extensive Hellenistic influence in the interior. During the reign of Mithridates II, Pontus was allied with the Seleucids through dynastic marriages. By the time of Mithridates VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the kingdom though Anatolian languages continued to be spoken.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kingdom was Hellenistic and on the southern coast of the Black Sea?
A: Pontus', '
Q: Who founded the Kingdom of Pontus?
A: Mithridates I', '
Q: When was the Kingdom of Pontus founded?
A: 291 BC', '
Q: When was the Kingdom of Pontus taken over by the Roman Republic?
A: 63 BC', '
Q: What was the official language of the Kingdom of Pontus during the reign of Mithridates VI Eupator?
A: Greek']
The kingdom grew to its largest extent under Mithridates VI, who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Lesser Armenia, the Bosporan Kingdom, the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos and for a brief time the Roman province of Asia. Mithridates VI, himself of mixed Persian and Greek ancestry, presented himself as the protector of the Greeks against the 'barbarians' of Rome styling himself as "King Mithridates Eupator Dionysus." and as the "great liberator". Mithridates also depicted himself with the anastole hairstyle of Alexander and used the symbolism of Herakles whom the Macedonian kings claimed descend from. After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic wars, Pontus was defeated, part of it was incorporated into the Roman Republic as the province Bithynia and Pontus and the eastern half survived as a client kingdom.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who ruled when the Kingdom of Pontus' was at it's biggest?
A: Mithridates VI", '
Q: Who called themselves King Mithridates Eupator Dionysus?
A: Mithridates VI', '
Q: What hairstyle did Mithridates IV copy from Alexander?
A: anastole', '
Q: Who did the Macedoniankings claim Mithridates IV descended from?
A: Herakles', '
Q: Pontus was defeated in what wars?
A: Mithridatic']
Orontid Armenia formally passed to empire of Alexander the Great following his conquest of Persia. Alexander appointed an Orontid named Mithranes to govern Armenia. Armenia later became a vassal state of the Seleucid Empire, but it maintained a considerable degree of autonomy, retaining its native rulers. Towards the end 212 BC the country was divided into two kingdoms, Greater Armenia and Armenia Sophene including Commagene or Armenia Minor. The kingdoms became so independent from Seleucid control that Antiochus III the Great waged war on them during his reign and replaced their rulers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Orontid Armenia was given to Alexander the Great after he took control of what area?
A: Persia', '
Q: Who did Alexander apoint to govern Armenia?
A: Mithranes', '
Q: Armenia became a vassal state of what Empire?
A: Seleucid', '
Q: What year did Armenia split into Greater Armenia and Armenia Sophene?
A: 212 BC', '
Q: Who attacked Armenia when they became too distant from Seleucid rule?
A: Antiochus III the Great']
After the Seleucid defeat at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, the kings of Sophene and Greater Armenia revolted and declared their independence, with Artaxias becoming the first king of the Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia in 188. During the reign of the Artaxiads, Armenia went through a period of hellenization. Numismatic evidence shows Greek artistic styles and the use of the Greek language. Some coins describe the Armenian kings as "Philhellenes". During the reign of Tigranes the Great (95–55 BC), the kingdom of Armenia reached its greatest extent, containing many Greek cities including the entire Syrian tetrapolis. Cleopatra, the wife of Tigranes the Great, invited Greeks such as the rhetor Amphicrates and the historian Metrodorus of Scepsis to the Armenian court, and - according to Plutarch - when the Roman general Lucullus seized the Armenian capital Tigranocerta, he found a troupe of Greek actors who had arrived to perform plays for Tigranes. Tigranes' successor Artavasdes II even composed Greek tragedies himself.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Seleucid defeat the Battle of Magnesia?
A: 190 BC', '
Q: Who was the first king of Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia?
A: Artaxias', '
Q: Artaxian coins called some Armenian kings what?
A: Philhellenes', '
Q: What years did Tigranes the Great reign?
A: 95–55 BC', '
Q: Which Tigranes successor composed Greek tragedies?
A: Artavasdes II']