romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's Republic, which was followed by Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and Politics. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, including the Roman statesman Cicero.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Western political philosophy originates in what philosophy?
A: ancient Greece', '
Q: What philosophy has dates back to at least Plato?
A: philosophy of ancient Greece', '
Q: Ancient Greece was dominated by what?
A: city-states']
Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What demarcates a clear distinction between nation and state, as well as religion and state?
A: Indian political philosophy', '
Q: What was divided into governance, administration, defense, law and  order?
A: The institutions of state', '
Q: What was the governing body of the Hindu states?
A: Mantranga']
Chanakya, 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher. The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state. Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor. Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher?
A: Chanakya', '
Q: What provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler?
A: The Arthashastra', '
Q: What is an example of a code of law in ancient India?
A: the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu']
The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderatation of the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who heavily influenced the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo?
A: Plato', '
Q: What was a key change brought about by Christian thought?
A: the moderatation of the Stoicism', '
Q: Who also preached that one was not a member of his or her city?
A: Augustine', '
Q: What does Civitas terrena mean?
A: City of Man', '
Q: What does Civitas Dei mean?
A: City of God']
The rise of Islam, based on both the Qur'an and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth—in effect all philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Hellenic view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the Caliphate. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region?
A: The rise of Islam', '
Q: What emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion?
A: Early Islamic philosophy', '
Q: Who challenged the early Islamic philosophy\'s views?
A: the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers', '
Q: What type of views did the "rationalist" Mutaziite philosophers hold?
A: Hellenic view']
Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam—i.e., the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad—thus making it essentially theocratic. However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah (power), sultan, ummah, cemaa (obligation)-and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an—i.e., ibadah (worship), din (religion), rab (master) and ilah (deity)—is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The clashes between Ehl-i Sunna and Shia had what kind of character? 
A: political', '
Q: Islamic political philosophy was rooted in what sources? 
A: Islam', '
Q: What is taken as the basis of an analysis?
A: The political conceptions of Islam']
Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazalite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics though subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was heavily influenced by Christian thinking?
A: Medieval political philosophy in Europe', '
Q: Medieval political philosophy had much in common with what type of thinking?
A: Mutazalite Islamic thinking', '
Q: Who was the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe? 
A: St. Thomas Aquinas']
One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of the classical period, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the di Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the secure and powerful state. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was one of the most influential works during the period? 
A: Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince", "
Q: When was Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince published? 
A: 1532", '
Q: Who wrote The  Prince?
A: Niccolò Machiavelli', '
Q: Who was well known for his theory of the social contract?
A: Thomas Hobbes']
These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of natural order was not introduced, the social sciences could not evolve independently of theistic thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified? 
A: state', '
Q: What refers to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state?
A: government', '
Q: Society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to what?
A: the physical world']
Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment. After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of what?
A: free trade', '
Q: The enlightenment was an outright attack on what?
A: religion', '
Q: What increasingly challenged the Roman Catholic dominance of theology?
A: Protestant churches', '
Q: Who was the most outspoken critic of the church in France?
A: François Marie Arouet de Voltaire']
In the Ottoman Empire, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the New World and the advanced civilizations of the Aztec, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially the Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what area did these ideological reforms not take place until much later?
A: Ottoman Empire', '
Q: Whose philosophy gave much to Christian thought of the time?
A: The Iroquois philosophy', '
Q: Who was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy?
A: Benjamin Franklin']
John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work Two Treatises of Government. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the divine right of kings became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was responsible for the work Two Treatises of Government?
A: John Locke', '
Q: Locke refuted whose political theory?
A: Sir Robert Filmer', '
Q: According to Locke, an absolute ruler is proposed by Hobbes is what?
A: unnecessary']
The Marxist critique of capitalism — developed with Friedrich Engels — was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Though Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again". Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who developed the Marxist critique of capitalism?
A: Friedrich Engels', '
Q: What was one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century?
A: The Marxist critique of capitalism', '
Q: What produced a parallel revolution in political thought?
A: The industrial revolution']
World War I was a watershed event in human history, changing views of governments and politics. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism - and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also on a smaller level Luxemburgism (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage. However, a group of central European economists led by Austrian School economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new socialist and fascist doctrines of government power as being different brands of political totalitarianism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was a watershed event in human history?
A: World War I', '
Q: When was The Russian Revolution?
A: 1917', '
Q: What brought communism?
A: The Russian Revolution of 1917', '
Q: What did Ludwig Von Mises and Friedrich Hayek run?
A: a group of central European economists']
From the end of World War II until 1971, when John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with Marxism dominating the field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968 led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who published A Theory of Justice? 
A: John Rawls', '
Q: What did John Rawls publish?
A: A Theory of Justice', '
Q: What continent saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy?
A: Europe', '
Q: The events of May 1968 led to an increased interest in what?
A: revolutionary ideology']
Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the social contract by philosophers Charles W. Mills in his book The Racial Contract and Carole Patemen in her book The Sexual Contract that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What remained an important focus during the 1950s and 1960s?
A: Communism', '
Q: There was a marked trend towards what type of approach to political issues?
A: pragmatic approach', '
Q: Who wrote The Racial Contract?
A: Charles W. Mills', '
Q: Who wrote The Sexual Contract?
A: Carole Patemen']
In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did John Rawsl publish?
A: A Theory of Justice', '
Q: Who Published A Theory of Justice?
A: John Rawls', '
Q: When was A Theory of Justice published?
A: 1971', '
Q: Who wrote Anarchy, State, and Utopia?
A: Robert Nozick']
Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Herbert Marcuse was from what school?
A: Frankfurt School,', '
Q: Thinkers out of the Frankfurt School combined Marxian and what other perspective?
A: Freudian', '
Q: Who in particular moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption? 
A: Guy Debord']
Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective.These and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems? 
A: The liberal-communitarian debate', '
Q: What type of control do communitarians tend to support?
A: greater local control', '
Q: What type of economic and social policies do Communitarians tend to support?
A: policies which encourage the growth of social capital']