romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
For digital photo cameras ("digital still cameras"), an exposure index (EI) rating—commonly called ISO setting—is specified by the manufacturer such that the sRGB image files produced by the camera will have a lightness similar to what would be obtained with film of the same EI rating at the same exposure. The usual design is that the camera's parameters for interpreting the sensor data values into sRGB values are fixed, and a number of different EI choices are accommodated by varying the sensor's signal gain in the analog realm, prior to conversion to digital. Some camera designs provide at least some EI choices by adjusting the sensor's signal gain in the digital realm. A few camera designs also provide EI adjustment through a choice of lightness parameters for the interpretation of sensor data values into sRGB; this variation allows different tradeoffs between the range of highlights that can be captured and the amount of noise introduced into the shadow areas of the photo.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another name for an exposure index rating?
A: ISO setting', "
Q: How do some camera designs give some EI choices?
A: by adjusting the sensor's signal gain in the digital realm", '
Q: Who provides the exposure index rating?
A: the manufacturer', '
Q: What are digital photo cameras also called?
A: digital still cameras']
Digital cameras have far surpassed film in terms of sensitivity to light, with ISO equivalent speeds of up to 409,600, a number that is unfathomable in the realm of conventional film photography. Faster processors, as well as advances in software noise reduction techniques allow this type of processing to be executed the moment the photo is captured, allowing photographers to store images that have a higher level of refinement and would have been prohibitively time consuming to process with earlier generations of digital camera hardware.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What types of cameras have proven to be much more sensitive to light than film?
A: Digital cameras', '
Q: What ISO equivalent speeds can digital cameras obtain?
A: 409,600', '
Q: What is responsible for these vast increases in speed?
A: Faster processors, as well as advances in software noise reduction techniques', '
Q: What is one thing that limited speeds of older digital hardware?
A: prohibitively time consuming to process', '
Q: What does the higher speed do for the images produced?
A: a higher level of refinement']
The ISO standard ISO 12232:2006 gives digital still camera manufacturers a choice of five different techniques for determining the exposure index rating at each sensitivity setting provided by a particular camera model. Three of the techniques in ISO 12232:2006 are carried over from the 1998 version of the standard, while two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files are introduced from CIPA DC-004. Depending on the technique selected, the exposure index rating can depend on the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image. The standard specifies the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components such as digital sensors, although Kodak has reported using a variation to characterize the sensitivity of two of their sensors in 2001.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many techniques are available because of ISO 12232:2006?
A: five', '
Q: What techniques did CIPA DC-004 provide?
A: two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files', '
Q: What factors affect the exposure index rating?
A: the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image', '
Q: What does the standard of ISO 12232:2006 specify?
A: the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components', '
Q: In what year did Kodak start using a different way of characterizing two sensors?
A: 2001']
The Recommended Exposure Index (REI) technique, new in the 2006 version of the standard, allows the manufacturer to specify a camera model’s EI choices arbitrarily. The choices are based solely on the manufacturer’s opinion of what EI values produce well-exposed sRGB images at the various sensor sensitivity settings. This is the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space. This is also the only technique available under the standard when multi-zone metering (also called pattern metering) is used.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What option does the Recommended Exposure Index give manufacturers? 
A: to specify a camera model’s EI choices arbitrarily', '
Q: What is another name for multi-zone metering?
A: pattern metering', '
Q: What distinction does the Recommended Exposure Index have?
A: the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space', '
Q: When was the Recommended Exposure Index introduced?
A: 2006', '
Q: What is the only technique that can be used when multi-zone metering is used?
A: Recommended Exposure Index (REI) technique']
The Standard Output Sensitivity (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically JPEG—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year was the Standard Output Sensitivity technique introduced?
A: 2006', '
Q: What does the Standard Output Sensitivity technique apply to?
A: sRGB images—typically JPEG', '
Q: What is the output level measured in?
A: the sRGB output from the camera', '
Q: With what type of metering can the Standard Output Sensitivity not be used?
A: multi-zone metering', '
Q: With what standard is the automatic exposure control system calibrated?
A: ISO 2721']
The CIPA DC-004 standard requires that Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras use either the REI or SOS techniques, and DC-008 updates the Exif specification to differentiate between these values. Consequently, the three EI techniques carried over from ISO 12232:1998 are not widely used in recent camera models (approximately 2007 and later). As those earlier techniques did not allow for measurement from images produced with lossy compression, they cannot be used at all on cameras that produce images only in JPEG format.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which methods are required by CIPA DC-004?
A: REI or SOS techniques', '
Q: In what year did the three EI techniques from ISO 12232:1998 largely stop being used?
A: approximately 2007 and later', '
Q: With what cameras can earlier techniques not be used?
A: cameras that produce images only in JPEG format', "
Q: What nation's cameras does the CIPA DC-004 apply to?
A: Japanese", '
Q: What does the DC-008 change?
A: the Exif specification']
where  is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/√2 = 12.7% of saturation. The factor √2 indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting white surface.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the sensor usually determine?
A: lower limit of the saturation speed', '
Q: How can the saturation speed be increased?
A: with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter', '
Q: What is indicated by the factor √2?
A: there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting white surface', '
Q: What can too much exposure lead to?
A: clipped or bloomed camera output']
The noise-based speed is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 ("excellent image quality") and the 10:1 ("acceptable image quality") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25 cm (9.8 inch) distance. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which ratios are employed to calculate noise-based speed?
A: the 40:1 ("excellent image quality") and the 10:1 ("acceptable image quality") ratio', '
Q: What is the noise-based speed?
A: the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels', '
Q: How are the two ratios found?
A: subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25 cm (9.8 inch) distance', '
Q: What is a definition of signal-to-noise ratio?
A: the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels', '
Q: What factors influence the noise-based speed?
A: the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter']
The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is higher than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded downwards to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is lower than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the range for exposure latitude?
A: from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed', '
Q: What is another speed that can also be reported by the camera?
A: SOS-based speed', '
Q: When should the noise-based speed be used?
A: the noise-based speed (40:1) is higher than the saturation-based speed', '
Q: Why should noise-based speed be rounded down to a lower standard?
A: exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image', '
Q: What does the standard specify?
A: how speed ratings should be reported by the camera']
Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user "ISO" setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce sRGB files in an uncompressed format such as TIFF. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What measures might the user "ISO" setting correspond to?
A: the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes', '
Q: What did the 1998 version of ISO 12232 not permit?
A: measurement of camera output that had lossy compression', '
Q: What types of sensitivity ratings can be specified by a camera?
A: REI or SOS', '
Q: What standards changed what Japanese camera makers have to specify?
A: CIPA DC-004', '
Q: In what year was CIPA DC-004 introduced?
A: 2006']
Mexico City, or the City of Mexico (Spanish: Ciudad de México  audio (help·info) American Spanish: [sjuˈða(ð) ðe ˈméxiko]; abbreviated as "CDMX"), is the capital of Mexico. As an "alpha" global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas. It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres (7,350 ft). The city consists of sixteen municipalities (previously called boroughs).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How man feet above sea level is Mexico City
A: 7,350', '
Q: How many municipalities are in Mexico City?
A: sixteen', '
Q: What did they used to call the municipalities within Mexico City?
A: boroughs', '
Q: What is the Spanish word for Mexico City?
A: Ciudad de México', '
Q: How many meters above sea is Mexico City?
A: 2,240']
The Greater Mexico City has a gross domestic product (GDP) of US$411 billion in 2011, making Mexico City urban agglomeration one of the economically largest metropolitan areas in the world. The city was responsible for generating 15.8% of Mexico's Gross Domestic Product and the metropolitan area accounted for about 22% of total national GDP. As a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Rica's and about the same size as Peru's.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: How big is Mexico City's GDP?
A: US$411 billion", "
Q: How much bigger is Mexico City's GDP's than Costa Rica's?
A: five times", '
Q: What percent of the Mexican GDP is the metropolitan area of Mexico City responsible for?
A: 22%', '
Q: Which country has about the same size GDP as Mexico city?
A: Peru']
Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians (Native Americans), the other being Quito. The city was originally built on an island of Lake Texcoco by the Aztecs in 1325 as Tenochtitlan, which was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan, and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, and as of 1585 it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the Federal District was created in 1824.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the original name of Mexico City?
A: Tenochtitlan', '
Q: Who originally built Mexico City?
A: the Aztecs', '
Q: When was the Federal District formed?
A: 1824', '
Q: Where was the city first built?
A: on an island of Lake Texcoco', '
Q: When was Mexico City officially founded by the Spanish?
A: 1585']
After years of demanding greater political autonomy, residents were given the right to directly elect a Head of Government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by popular vote in 1997. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) has controlled both of them. In recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29, 2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.) and is now in transition to become the country's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the Union, it can never become a state, lest the capital of the country be relocated elsewhere.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Why can't Mexico City become a state?
A: Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution", '
Q: When did people become able to vote for representation?
A: 1997', '
Q: What political party controls the Mexico City legislature? 
A: Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD)', "
Q: What was Mexico City's old affiliation with the nation of Mexico?
A: Federal District", '
Q: How are officials elected to the legislature? 
A: popular vote']
The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake's waters. As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe, compelled thousands of Indians over the colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding. Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city's streets. By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for Indian cultivation close to the capital.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the labor draft called?
A: the desagüe', '
Q: Who helped build infrastructure around the lake?
A: Indians', '
Q: What was the main problem with being so close to the lake?
A: flooding', "
Q: What was a negative of regulating the lake's water height?
A: changed the habitat for fish and birds", '
Q: How many Indians helped build the infrastructure? 
A: thousands']
The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City's nickname of "The city of palaces" given by Alexander Von Humboldt.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a common nickname for Mexico City?
A: The city of palaces', '
Q: How did mexican nobles spend money in Mexico City?
A: building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes', '
Q: When did the construction of exuberant houses slow down?
A: the last half of the 18th century']
The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores") also known as El Grito de la Independencia ("Cry of Independence"), uttered from the small town of Dolores near Guanajuato on September 16, 1810, is the event that marks the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence and is the most important national holiday observed in Mexico. The "Grito" was the battle cry of the Mexican War of Independence by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Roman Catholic priest. Hidalgo and several criollos were involved in a planned revolt against the Spanish colonial government, and the plotters were betrayed. Fearing his arrest, Hidalgo commanded his brother Mauricio as well as Ignacio Allende and Mariano Abasolo to go with a number of other armed men to make the sheriff release the pro-independence inmates there on the night of September 15. They managed to set eighty free. Around 6:00 am September 16, 1810, Hidalgo ordered the church bells to be rung and gathered his congregation. Flanked by Allende and Juan Aldama, he addressed the people in front of his church, encouraging them to revolt. The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of the insurgency, occurred four days later. Mexico's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on September 27, 1821, after a decade of war. Unrest followed for the next several decades, as different factions fought for control of Mexico.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Mexico gain independence? 
A: September 27, 1821', '
Q: How long was the war?
A: a decade', '
Q: What was the first battle of the Mexican Independence war called? 
A: The Battle of Guanajuato', '
Q: What was the battle cry of the war?
A: Grito', '
Q: When did the war begin?
A: September 16, 1810']
The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from September 8 to September 15, 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the Mexican–American War. Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on August 8 where the Saint Patrick's Battalion, which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants, but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexican people, fought for the Mexican cause repelling the American attacks. After defeating the Saint Patrick's Battalion, the Mexican–American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions. The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who commanded the U.S. Army in the battle against Mexico City?
A: Winfield Scott', '
Q: What war did America and Mexico fight in?
A: Mexican–American War', '
Q: When did the battle for Mexico City take place
A: September 8 to September 15, 1847', "
Q: What American divisions got into Mexico City?
A: U.S. Army's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th"]
During this battle, on September 13, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes"). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who led the 4th division?
A: John A. Quitman', '
Q: What treaty was signed?
A: Guadalupe Hidalgo', '
Q: Who were the future confederate generals?
A: George E. Pickett and James Longstreet', '
Q: Who carried the castle?
A: the 4th Division', '
Q: When did the castle fall?
A: on September 13']
During this era of Porfirian rule, the city underwent an extensive modernization. Many Spanish Colonial style buildings were destroyed, replaced by new much larger Porfirian institutions and many outlying rural zones were transformed into urban or industrialized districts with most having electrical, gas and sewage utilities by 1908. While the initial focus was on developing modern hospitals, schools, factories and massive public works, perhaps the most long-lasting effects of the Porfirian modernization were creation of the Colonia Roma area and the development of Reforma Avenue. Many of Mexico City's major attractions and landmarks were built during this era in this style.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was most of the urbanization completed? 
A: by 1908', '
Q: The extensive modernization started with what?
A: Many Spanish Colonial style buildings were destroyed', '
Q: What was built during the modernization?
A: hospitals, schools, factories and massive public works', '
Q: What famous street was built during this period of modernization?
A: Reforma Avenue']