romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
This office was first held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who had 44 commissaires de police (police commissioners) under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police (police inspectors). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the commissaires, each assigned to a particular district and assisted by a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of the Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities and towns.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who was Paris's first head of police?
A: Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie", '
Q: How many commissioners worked under Reynie?
A: 44', '
Q: How many policing districts was Paris divided into?
A: 16', "
Q: When was Paris's police system expanded to the rest of France?
A: October 1699", "
Q: When were police inspectors added to Paris's police?
A: 1709"]
The word "police" was borrowed from French into the English language in the 18th century, but for a long time it applied only to French and continental European police forces. The word, and the concept of police itself, were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression" (according to Britannica 1911). Before the 19th century, the first use of the word "police" recorded in government documents in the United Kingdom was the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714 and the creation of the Marine Police in 1798.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When did the French language adopt the word 'police'?
A: in the 18th century", "
Q: Which dictionary said police were 'a symbol of foreign oppression'?
A: Britannica 1911", "
Q: What language did French borrow the word 'police' from?
A: English", '
Q: When were the Marine Police created in the UK?
A: 1798', "
Q: What was the first use of 'police' in the UK?
A: the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714"]
In 1797, Patrick Colquhoun was able to persuade the West Indies merchants who operated at the Pool of London on the River Thames, to establish a police force at the docks to prevent rampant theft that was causing annual estimated losses of £500,000 worth of cargo. The idea of a police, as it then existed in France, was considered as a potentially undesirable foreign import. In building the case for the police in the face of England's firm anti-police sentiment, Colquhoun framed the political rationale on economic indicators to show that a police dedicated to crime prevention was "perfectly congenial to the principle of the British constitution." Moreover, he went so far as to praise the French system, which had reached "the greatest degree of perfection" in his estimation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who convinced the West Indies merchants in London to establish police?
A: Patrick Colquhoun', '
Q: Where did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?
A: docks', '
Q: When did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?
A: 1797', '
Q: How much cargo had been being stolen from West Indies merchants in London each year?
A: £500,000', '
Q: How did Colquhoun praise the French police?
A: "the greatest degree of perfection"']
With the initial investment of £4,200, the new trial force of the Thames River Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on the game." The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives." Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Marine Police Bill on 28 July 1800, transforming it from a private to public police agency; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames. It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City, Dublin, and Sydney.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the initial size of the Thames River Police force?
A: 50', '
Q: How many dock workers were the Thames River Police policing?
A: 33,000', '
Q: How many dock workers did Colquhoun say were criminals?
A: 11,000', '
Q: When was the Thames River Police made a public service?
A: 28 July 180', '
Q: How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police prevent in its first year?
A: £122,000']
Colquhoun's utilitarian approach to the problem – using a cost-benefit argument to obtain support from businesses standing to benefit – allowed him to achieve what Henry and John Fielding failed for their Bow Street detectives. Unlike the stipendiary system at Bow Street, the river police were full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees. His other contribution was the concept of preventive policing; his police were to act as a highly visible deterrent to crime by their permanent presence on the Thames. Colquhoun's innovations were a critical development leading up to Robert Peel's "new" police three decades later.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did the Bow Street group pay their employees?
A: stipendiary system', '
Q: Who started the Bow Street detectives?
A: Henry and John Fielding', "
Q: Who came up with the concept of the 'new' police?
A: Robert Peel", '
Q: How did the Thames River Police pay their employees?
A: full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees', '
Q: What schedule did the Thames River Police employees work?
A: full-time']
Meanwhile, the authorities in Glasgow, Scotland successfully petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow Police Act establishing the City of Glasgow Police in 1800. Other Scottish towns soon followed suit and set up their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Ireland, the Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 marked the beginning of the Royal Irish Constabulary. The Act established a force in each barony with chief constables and inspectors general under the control of the civil administration at Dublin Castle. By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Which law established Glasgow's police?
A: Glasgow Police Act", "
Q: When was Glasgow's police force established?
A: 1800", "
Q: Which law established Ireland's police?
A: Irish Constabulary Act", "
Q: When was Ireland's police force established?
A: 1822", "
Q: What was Ireland's police force called?
A: Royal Irish Constabulary"]
Peel, widely regarded as the father of modern policing, was heavily influenced by the social and legal philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, who called for a strong and centralized, but politically neutral, police force for the maintenance of social order, for the protection of people from crime and to act as a visible deterrent to urban crime and disorder. Peel decided to standardise the police force as an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who was the 'father of modern policing'?
A: Peel", '
Q: Whose philosophy influenced Peel?
A: Jeremy Bentham', '
Q: What political position did Bentham think police should have?
A: neutral', '
Q: How did Peel standardize police?
A: as an official paid profession', '
Q: How did Peel organize police?
A: in a civilian fashion']
The 1829 Metropolitan Police Act created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers, and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different to the 'Continental model' of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Metropolitan Police Act passed?
A: 1829', '
Q: What did the Metropolitan Police Act say police were a subset of?
A: the judicial system', "
Q: Where was the 'Continental model' of police from?
A: France", '
Q: What part of the government did French police work under?
A: the authority of the monarch']
In 1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in the state of Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, because of the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Rio get its first police investigator?
A: 1566', '
Q: How had the Rio police grown by the 17th century?
A: most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions', '
Q: When did Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?
A: July 9, 1775', '
Q: Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1808?
A: Brazil', '
Q: Who invaded Portugal in 1808?
A: French']
In Canada, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was founded in 1729, making it the first police force in present-day Canada. It was followed in 1834 by the Toronto Police, and in 1838 by police forces in Montreal and Quebec City. A national force, the Dominion Police, was founded in 1868. Initially the Dominion Police provided security for parliament, but its responsibilities quickly grew. The famous Royal Northwest Mounted Police was founded in 1873. The merger of these two police forces in 1920 formed the world-famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Canada get its first police?
A: 1729', "
Q: What was Canada's first police force?
A: Royal Newfoundland Constabulary", '
Q: When was the Toronto police created?
A: 1834', '
Q: When was the Montreal police created?
A: 1838', '
Q: When were the first Mounties created?
A: 1873']
In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What were the Old West's local police options?
A: poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses", "
Q: Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?
A: The Army", '
Q: Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?
A: Army', '
Q: Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?
A: Pinkerton National Detective Agency']
Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept?
A: German and French", "
Q: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published?
A: 1705", "
Q: What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?
A: Traité de la Police", "
Q: Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?
A: Nicolas Delamare", "
Q: What was von Hornigk's career?
A: Political economist and civil servant"]
As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft,according to Foucault the police had an administrative,economic and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographic concerns and needed to be incorporated within the western political philosophy system of raison d'état and therefore giving the superficial appearance of empowering the population (and unwittingly supervising the population), which, according to mercantilist theory, was to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), and surveillance of prices.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which economic theory did Foucault say supported the police?
A: mercantilist theory', '
Q: How did Foucault describe the social duty of police?
A: procuring abundance', '
Q: Who wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?
A: Foucault', '
Q: Why did the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?
A: because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.']
Edwin Chadwick's 1829 article, "Preventive police" in the London Review, argued that prevention ought to be the primary concern of a police body, which was not the case in practice. The reason, argued Chadwick, was that "A preventive police would act more immediately by placing difficulties in obtaining the objects of temptation." In contrast to a deterrent of punishment, a preventive police force would deter criminality by making crime cost-ineffective - "crime doesn't pay". In the second draft of his 1829 Police Act, the "object" of the new Metropolitan Police, was changed by Robert Peel to the "principal object," which was the "prevention of crime." Later historians would attribute the perception of England's "appearance of orderliness and love of public order" to the preventive principle entrenched in Peel's police system.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who wrote 'Preventive Police'?
A: Edwin Chadwick", "
Q: When was 'Preventive Police' published?
A: 1829", "
Q: Where was 'Preventive Police' published?
A: London Review", '
Q: What did Chadwick say police should be focused on?
A: prevention', '
Q: What was the alternative to prevention?
A: a deterrent of punishment']
Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically?
A: patrol duties', '
Q: Where do some think the most important police work happens?
A: on patrol', '
Q: How do patrol officers affect crime?
A: prevent crime by their presence']
The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Nadelmann write about global policing?
A: 1993', '
Q: When did Sheptycki write about global policing?
A: 1995', '
Q: What terms have been used to describe policing beyond one country?
A: international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing']
Historical studies reveal that policing agents have undertaken a variety of cross-border police missions for many years (Deflem, 2002). For example, in the 19th century a number of European policing agencies undertook cross-border surveillance because of concerns about anarchist agitators and other political radicals. A notable example of this was the occasional surveillance by Prussian police of Karl Marx during the years he remained resident in London. The interests of public police agencies in cross-border co-operation in the control of political radicalism and ordinary law crime were primarily initiated in Europe, which eventually led to the establishment of Interpol before the Second World War. There are also many interesting examples of cross-border policing under private auspices and by municipal police forces that date back to the 19th century (Nadelmann, 1993). It has been established that modern policing has transgressed national boundaries from time to time almost from its inception. It is also generally agreed that in the post–Cold War era this type of practice became more significant and frequent (Sheptycki, 2000).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Deflem write about cross-border policing?
A: 2002', '
Q: What groups did European police work against across borders in the 19th century?
A: anarchist agitators and other political radicals', '
Q: Which police force monitored Karl Marx?
A: Prussian', '
Q: What international police agency was created before WW2?
A: Interpol', '
Q: In what era did cross-border policing increase?
A: post–Cold War']
Not a lot of empirical work on the practices of inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing has been undertaken. A notable exception is James Sheptycki's study of police cooperation in the English Channel region (2002), which provides a systematic content analysis of information exchange files and a description of how these transnational information and intelligence exchanges are transformed into police case-work. The study showed that transnational police information sharing was routinized in the cross-Channel region from 1968 on the basis of agreements directly between the police agencies and without any formal agreement between the countries concerned. By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, which formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union, there were worries that much, if not all, of this intelligence sharing was opaque, raising questions about the efficacy of the accountability mechanisms governing police information sharing in Europe (Joubert and Bevers, 1996).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did Sheptycki study police cooperation?
A: the English Channel region', '
Q: When did Sheptycki write about police cooperation?
A: 2002', '
Q: When did the Channel region establish routine cross-border policing?
A: 1968', '
Q: When was the Schengen Treaty signed?
A: 1992', '
Q: What did the Schengen Treaty do for policing?
A: formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union']
Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied?
A: outside of Europe', '
Q: Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices?
A: Alain', '
Q: What kind of policing has become common practice?
A: Intelligence-led', "
Q: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police?
A: make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic", '
Q: What paradox did Sheptycki point out?
A: the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity']
Police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states is another form of transnational policing that has garnered attention. This form of transnational policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set to grow in the years ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict (Goldsmith and Sheptycki, 2007) With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark and there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions (Hills, 2009).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where has transnational policing become more important?
A: in United Nations peacekeeping', '
Q: Who wrote about police development-aid in 2007?
A: Goldsmith and Sheptycki', '
Q: What kind of countries get assistance with policing?
A: weak, failed or failing states', '
Q: What concern did Hills raise about power imbalances?
A: With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark', '
Q: What concern did Hills raise about police models?
A: there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions']
Perhaps the greatest question regarding the future development of transnational policing is: in whose interest is it? At a more practical level, the question translates into one about how to make transnational policing institutions democratically accountable (Sheptycki, 2004). For example, according to the Global Accountability Report for 2007 (Lloyd, et al. 2007) Interpol had the lowest scores in its category (IGOs), coming in tenth with a score of 22% on overall accountability capabilities (p. 19). As this report points out, and the existing academic literature on transnational policing seems to confirm, this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote the Global Accountability Report for 2007?
A: Lloyd, et al.', '
Q: Why is transnational policing so unaccountable?
A: this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement', '
Q: How accountable is Interpol?
A: 22%', '
Q: What is the least-accountable IGO?
A: Interpol']