romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages, where agglutination is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example elèctric [əˈlɛktrik] ("electrical") vs. electricitat [ələktrisiˈtat]. Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, for as in preveure ("foresee").

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is common in Romance languages?
A: agglutination', '
Q: What kind of derivation in Catalan is similar to other languages?
A: morphological', '
Q: What word additive is usually added to verbs?
A: Prefixes', '
Q: What other word changes can occur in derivations?
A: sound alternations', '
Q: What word supplement  can be put on an already existing word base?
A: affixes']
In gender inflection, the most notable feature is (compared to Portuguese, Spanish or Italian), the loss of the typical masculine suffix -o. Thus, the alternance of -o/-a, has been replaced by ø/-a. There are only a few exceptions, like minso/minsa ("scarce"). Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the usual masculine suffix?
A: -o']
Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has noi/noia ("boy"/"girl") and gall/gallina ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has garçon/fille and coq/poule.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of words does Catalan have few of?
A: suppletive couplets', '
Q: What languages have more couplets than Catalan?
A: French', '
Q: What languages are  similar to Catalan in numbers of  couplets?
A: Italian and Spanish', '
Q: What language is not like Catalan in suppletive couplets?
A: French']
There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favour of marked ones, something prevalent in Occitan and French. Thus, one can find bullent/bullenta ("boiling") in contrast with traditional bullent/bullent.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What languages have a tendency to lose gender-invariable adjectives?
A: Occitan and French', '
Q: What is ab example of a gender marked adjective?
A: bullent/bullenta', '
Q: What would be the traditional form of a gender-invariable adjective?
A: bullent/bullenta']
As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix -s, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely. The most important one is the addition of -o- before certain consonant groups, a phonetic phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: el pols/els polsos ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs. la pols/les pols ("the dust"/"the dusts").

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the usual way to make a plural?
A: suffix -s', '
Q: What can the addition of the suffix -s produce?
A: morphological alternations', '
Q: To what are these morphological changes similar?
A: gender inflection', '
Q: What is an important plural alternation?
A: addition of -o-']
The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages. Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than Spanish, like dels ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as Italian (which has sul, col, nel, etc.).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the large number of omissions  make the determinatives?
A: complex', '
Q: What is much like the neighboring languages?
A: inflection of determinatives', '
Q: What language does Catalan have more contractions than?
A: Spanish', '
Q: Catalan has less contractions than what language?
A: Italian', '
Q: What type of word is added to the contraction of the preposition?
A: article']
Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (mon, etc.) in favour of constructions of article + stressed forms (el meu, etc.), a feature shared with Italian.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has Central Catalan mostly abandoned?
A: unstressed possessives', '
Q: What other language shares this type of construction?
A: Italian', '
Q: What is an example of an article +stressed forms?
A: el meu', '
Q: What is an example of an unstressed possessive?
A: mon']
The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, specially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian).  Features include the gender-neutral ho and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many forms of personal pronouns are there in Catalan?
A: 13 distinct forms', '
Q: How many personal pronouns are there is Spanish?
A: 11', '
Q: What is the number of personal pronouns in Italian?
A: 9', '
Q: How many different combinations of unstressed pronouns are there?
A: 65']
Catalan pronouns exhibit T–V distinction, like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English). This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is this distinction similar to?
A: all other Romance languages', '
Q: What modern language does not have a T-Y distinction?
A: English', '
Q: What does this imply the use an extra group of pronouns for?
A: formality']
This flexibility allows Catalan to use extraposition extensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can have m'hi recomanaren ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say ils m'ont recommandé à lui, and Spanish me recomendaron a él. This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence topic, without having to use so often the passive voice (as in French or English), or identifying the direct object with a preposition (as in Spanish).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What languages use extrapositioning in sentences less than Catalan? 
A: French or Spanish', '
Q: What do you not need to use in Catalan?
A: passive voice', '
Q: What languages use the passive voice more than Catalan?
A: French or English', '
Q: What method does Spanish use to identify the object?
A: preposition']
Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. Suffixation is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role. Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is Catalan verbal inflection ?
A: more complex', '
Q: What plays a primary part in Catalan?
A: Suffixation', '
Q: What plays a secondary part in Catalan?
A: morphological alternations', '
Q: How are vowel alternances in Catalan?
A: active']
The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of anar ("to go") + infinitive.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What system is common to Western Romance?
A: Catalan verbal system', '
Q: What have many dialects replaced?
A: synthetic indicative perfect', '
Q: What is the Catalan verbal system common to?
A: all Western Romance']
Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes -a-, -e-, -i-, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical. Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of servir, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How are Catalan verbs grouped?
A: into three conjugations', '
Q: Which conjugation has about 3500 verbs?
A: first conjugation', '
Q: How many verbs are in the third conjugation?
A: 700', '
Q: Which conjugation has less than 100 verbs?
A: second']
In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname. The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction i ("and").

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many surnames does everyone in Spain have?
A: two', "
Q: Which one of one's father's surnames is used?
A: first", '
Q: What is Spain thinking of doing to the two surnames?
A: joining both surnames', "
Q: What conjunction would be used to join a person's surnames?
A: in"]
Estonian (eesti keel [ˈeːsti ˈkeːl] ( listen)) is the official language of Estonia, spoken natively by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various migrant communities. It belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the official language of Estonia?
A: Estonian', '
Q: How many people in Estonia speak Estonian?
A: about 1.1 million', '
Q: How many people in different migrant communities speak Estonian?
A: tens of thousands', '
Q: What branch of the Uralic language family does Estonian belong to?
A: Finnic', '
Q: What language family does Estonian belong to?
A: Uralic', '
Q: What country has Estonian as its official language?
A: Estonian', '
Q: In Estonia how many people speak Estonian as their native language
A: 1.1 million', '
Q: Of what language family is Estonian a part of?
A: Uralic', '
Q: On which branch of Uralic language family can Estonian be found?
A: Finnic', '
Q: How many estimated non native speakers of Estonian are there in Estonia?
A: tens of thousands']
One distinctive feature that has caused a great amount of interest among linguists is what is traditionally seen as three degrees of phonemic length: short, long, and "overlong", such that /sɑdɑ/, /sɑˑdɑ/ and /sɑːdɑ/ are distinct. In actuality, the distinction is not purely in the phonemic length, and the underlying phonological mechanism is still disputed.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is interested in the degrees of phonemic length?
A: linguists', '
Q: What are the phonemic length\'s three degrees?
A: short, long, and "overlong"', '
Q: What is a matter of dispute among linguists regarding the distinction?
A: the underlying phonological mechanism']
Estonian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, along with Finnish, Karelian, and other nearby languages. The Uralic languages do not belong to the Indo-European languages. Estonian is distantly related to Hungarian and to the Sami languages.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Uralic language branch contains Estonian?
A: Finnic', '
Q: What are two other languages in the Finnic branch?
A: Finnish, Karelian', '
Q: What language group is Estonian not a part of?
A: Indo-European languages', '
Q: What languages are related to Estonian but not closely?
A: Hungarian and to the Sami languages']
Estonian has been influenced by Swedish, German (initially Middle Low German, which was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League and spoken natively in the territories of what is today known as Estonia by a sizeable burgher community of Baltic Germans, later Estonian was also influenced by standard German), and Russian, though it is not related to them genetically.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who spoke German in what came to be known as Estonia?
A: Baltic Germans', '
Q: Aside from standard German what German language influenced Estonian?
A: Middle Low German']
Like Finnish and Hungarian, Estonian is a somewhat agglutinative language, but unlike them, it has lost vowel harmony, the front vowels occurring exclusively on the first or stressed syllable, although in older texts the vowel harmony can still be recognized. Furthermore, the apocope of word-final sounds is extensive and has contributed to a shift from a purely agglutinative to a fusional language.[citation needed] The basic word order is subject–verb–object.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of harmony has Estonian lost?
A: vowel', '
Q: What language feature does Estonian, Finish and Hungarian share? 
A: agglutinative', '
Q: In what order are words put in sentences in the Estonian language?
A: subject–verb–object']
The two different historical Estonian languages (sometimes considered dialects), the North and South Estonian languages, are based on the ancestors of modern Estonians' migration into the territory of Estonia in at least two different waves, both groups speaking considerably different Finnic vernaculars. Modern standard Estonian has evolved on the basis of the dialects of Northern Estonia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the minimum number of waves through which modern Estonians migrated into Estonia?
A: two', '
Q: What are the names of the two separate Estonian languages?
A: North and South Estonian languages']
The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Russia delayed indigenous literacy in Estonia.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Northern Crusades happen?
A: 13th century to 1918', '
Q: Which countries took part in the Northern Crusades?
A: Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Russia', '
Q: Following the crusades which country was dominated?
A: Estonia', '
Q: What did the aftermath of the crusades end up delaying in Estonia?
A: indigenous literacy']
The oldest written records of the Finnic languages of Estonia date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: How far back do the first written records of Estonia's Finnic languages go?
A: 13th century", '
Q: Where can records of Estonian place names be found?
A: Originates Livoniae', '
Q: Which Chronicle contains the Originates Livoniae?
A: Chronicle of Henry of Livonia', '
Q: Aside from place names what else from the Estonian language can be found in the Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia?
A: words and fragments of sentences.']
The earliest extant samples of connected (north) Estonian are the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528. In 1525 the first book published in the Estonian language was printed. The book was a Lutheran manuscript, which never reached the reader and was destroyed immediately after publication.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first Estonian language book to be published?
A: a Lutheran manuscript', '
Q: When were the Kallamaa prayers written?
A: 1524 and 1528', '
Q: What was the fate of the Lutheran manuscript printed in 1525?
A: destroyed', '
Q: At what point in its existence was the Lutheran manuscript destroyed?
A: immediately after publication']
The first extant Estonian book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S. Wanradt and J. Koell dating to 1535, during the Protestant Reformation period. An Estonian grammar book to be used by priests was printed in German in 1637. The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715). The two languages were united based on northern Estonian by Anton thor Helle.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What two people are responsible for the first still in existence book in the Estonian Language?
A: S. Wanradt and J. Koell', "
Q: In what year was S. Wanradt and J. Koell's book written?
A: 1535", '
Q: What type of book was it?
A: bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism', '
Q: What book specifically for the use of priests was printed in Estonian?
A: An Estonian grammar book', "
Q: What year was the priests' grammar book put into print?
A: 1637"]
The birth of native Estonian literature was in 1810 to 1820 when the patriotic and philosophical poems by Kristjan Jaak Peterson were published. Peterson, who was the first student at the then German-language University of Dorpat to acknowledge his Estonian origin, is commonly regarded as a herald of Estonian national literature and considered the founder of modern Estonian poetry. His birthday on March 14 is celebrated in Estonia as the Mother Tongue Day. A fragment from Peterson's poem "Kuu" expresses the claim reestablishing the birthright of the Estonian language:

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Which Estonian poet's works were printed from 1810 to 1820?
A: Kristjan Jaak Peterson", '
Q: What subjects were Kristjan Jaak Peterson poems on?
A: patriotic and philosophical', '
Q: When was Peterson born?
A: March 14', "
Q: What is another name given for Peterson's birthday?
A: Mother Tongue Day", '
Q: What university did Peterson attend?
A: German-language University of Dorpat']
From 1525 to 1917 14,503 titles were published in Estonian, as opposed to the 23,868 titles which were published between 1918 and 1940.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In the years between 1918 and 1940 how many Estonian language books were printed?
A: 23,868', '
Q: In the roughly four centuries previous to 1918 how many Estonian language books were printed?
A: 14,503', '
Q: In what language were 14,503 books published prior to 1918?
A: Estonian']
Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century with the spread of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840). Although Baltic Germans at large regarded the future of Estonians as being a fusion with themselves, the Estophile educated class admired the ancient culture of the Estonians and their era of freedom before the conquests by Danes and Germans in the 13th century.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What Age's ideas allowed Estonian writings to gain significance?
A: Age of Enlightenment", '
Q: Who thought their future would be fused with Estonians?
A: Baltic Germans', '
Q: Who had admiration for the ancient Estonian culture?
A: Estophile educated class', '
Q: Who conquered the ancient Estonians?
A: Danes and Germans', '
Q: When did the ancient Estonian era of freedom come to an end?
A: 13th century']
After the Estonian War of Independence in 1919, the Estonian language became the state language of the newly independent country. In 1945, 97.3% of Estonia considered itself ethnic Estonian and spoke the language.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What year did Estonia's War of Independence take place?
A: 1919", '
Q: After Estonia achieved independence what was made their state language?
A: Estonian', "
Q: What percentage of Estonians thought of themselves as ethnic Estonian's in 1945?
A: 97.3%", '
Q: What language was spoken by ethnic Estonians?
A: Estonian']
When Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in World War II, the status of the Estonian language changed to the first of two official languages (Russian being the other one). As with Latvia many immigrants entered Estonia under Soviet encouragement. In the second half of the 1970s, the pressure of bilingualism (for Estonians) intensified, resulting in widespread knowledge of Russian throughout the country. The Russian language was termed as ‘the language of friendship of nations’ and was taught to Estonian children, sometimes as early as in kindergarten. Although teaching Estonian to non-Estonians in schools was compulsory, in practice learning the language was often considered unnecessary.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What happened to Estonia during WWII?
A: invaded and occupied', '
Q: Who invaded Estonia?
A: Soviet Union', '
Q: After the Soviet invasion what other language became the second official Estonian language?
A: Russian', '
Q: What was another country with similar immigration patterns to post Soviet Estonia?
A: Latvia', "
Q: What became more intense in the 1970's in Estonia?
A: pressure of bilingualism"]
During the Perestroika era, The Law on the Status of the Estonian Language was adopted in January 1989. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the restoration of Republic of Estonia's independence. Estonian went back to being the only state language in Estonia which in practice meant that use of Estonian was promoted while the use of Russian was discouraged.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What historical event once again freed Estonia?
A: collapse of the Soviet Union', '
Q: Following the Soviet collapse what became the only official Estonian Language?
A: Estonian', "
Q: What language was no longer promoted as one of Estonia's main languages?
A: Russian", '
Q: What came into being in January 1989?
A: The Law on the Status of the Estonian Language']
The return of Soviet immigrants to their countries of origin has brought the proportion of Estonians in Estonia back above 70%. And again as in Latvia, today many of the remnant non-Estonians in Estonia have adopted the Estonian language; about 40% at the 2000 census.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Following the departure of the Soviet immigrants what was the percentage of Estonians in Estonia?
A: above 70%']
The Estonian dialects are divided into two groups – the northern and southern dialects, historically associated with the cities of Tallinn in the north and Tartu in the south, in addition to a distinct kirderanniku dialect, that of the northeastern coast of Estonia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many groups of Estonian dialects are there?
A: two', '
Q: What are the names of the Estonian dialect groups?
A: the northern and southern dialects', '
Q: What is the northern city to which the northern dialect is associated?
A: Tallinn', '
Q: Where is the kirderanniku dialect spoken?
A: the northeastern coast of Estonia', '
Q: What is the city where the southern dialect was historically spoken?
A: Tartu']
The northern group consists of the keskmurre or central dialect that is also the basis for the standard language, the läänemurre or western dialect, roughly corresponding to Läänemaa and Pärnumaa, the saarte murre (islands') dialect of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa and the idamurre or eastern dialect on the northwestern shore of Lake Peipsi.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What dialect is also known as the central dialect?
A: the keskmurre', '
Q: What is the dialect from Lake Peipsi?
A: the idamurre or eastern dialect', '
Q: What dialects of the northern group are spoken on the saarte murre?
A: Saaremaa and Hiiumaa', "
Q: What is another name for Estonian's northern group's western dialect?
A: the läänemurre"]
The southern group (South Estonian language) consists of the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects. These are sometimes considered either variants of a South Estonian language, or separate languages altogether. Also, Seto and Võro distinguish themselves from each other less by language and more by their culture and their respective Christian confession.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What dialects comprise the southern group?
A: the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects', '
Q: More importantly than their language aspect how do the Seto and Võro dialects set themselves apart from each other?
A: their culture', "
Q: Aside from being thought of as variants of Estonian's southern group what else are the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects sometimes considered?
A: separate languages altogether", '
Q: What religion is associated with Seto and Võro?
A: Christian']
Like Finnish, Estonian employs the Latin script as the basis for its alphabet, which adds the letters ä, ö, ü, and õ, plus the later additions š and ž. The letters c, q, w, x and y are limited to proper names of foreign origin, and f, z, š, and ž appear in loanwords and foreign names only. Ö and ü are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in Swedish and German. Unlike in standard German but like Finnish and Swedish (when followed by 'r'), Ä is pronounced [æ], as in English mat. The vowels Ä, Ö and Ü are clearly separate phonemes and inherent in Estonian, although the letter shapes come from German. The letter õ denotes /ɤ/, unrounded /o/, or a close-mid back unrounded vowel. It is almost identical to the Bulgarian ъ /ɤ̞/ and the Vietnamese ơ, and is used to transcribe the Russian ы.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From what script does the Estonian language get its alphabet?
A: Latin', '
Q: What is another language that uses Latin for its alphabet?
A: Finnish', '
Q: In the Estonian language how is the letter A pronounced?
A: [æ], as in English mat']