romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly Musca domestica, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is on each side of a thoracic segment?
A: ganglion', '
Q: How many ganglia are on each side of a thoracic segment?
A: one', '
Q: Ganglia are connected into a what?
A: a pair', '
Q: How many pairs of ganglia are in a segment?
A: one pair', '
Q: What other location on an insect are ganglia located?
A: abdomen']
At least a few insects have nociceptors, cells that detect and transmit sensations of pain. This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of larvae of the common fruitfly Drosophila to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one. The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe. Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects, there is no consensus that insects feel pain consciously

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many insects have nociceptors?
A: a few', '
Q: Cells that detect and transmit pain are called what?
A: nociceptors', '
Q: When were nociceptors discovered?
A: 2003', '
Q: Nociceptors were discovered by studying the common what?
A: fruitfly Drosophila', '
Q: Which probe did the larvae react to?
A: the heated probe']
The salivary glands (element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source.:31 The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What produces saliva in an insects mouth?
A: salivary glands', '
Q: What leads from the salivary glands to the reservoirs?
A: salivary ducts', '
Q: What is an opening through the head called?
A: salivarium', '
Q: Where is the salivarium located?
A: behind the hypopharynx', "
Q: Where does an insect's digestion happen?
A: The gut"]
Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the midgut (element 13 in numbered diagram), also known as the mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut. In some insects, the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary. For example, specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut, and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut.:32

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another name for mesenteron?
A: midgut', '
Q: Food goes in to the midgut after leaving where?
A: the crop', '
Q: The majority of an insects digestion happens where?
A: the mesenteron', '
Q: What kind of projections are in the midgut wall?
A: Microscopic', '
Q: What are microscopic projections called?
A: microvilli']
In the hindgut (element 16 in numbered diagram), or proctodaeum, undigested food particles are joined by uric acid to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs 90% of the water in these fecal pellets, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus (element 17), completing the process of digestion. The uric acid is formed using hemolymph waste products diffused from the Malpighian tubules (element 20). It is then emptied directly into the alimentary canal, at the junction between the midgut and hindgut. The number of Malpighian tubules possessed by a given insect varies between species, ranging from only two tubules in some insects to over 100 tubules in others.:71–72, 78–80

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a proctodaeum?
A: the hindgut', '
Q: What kind of food particles have uric acid?
A: undigested', '
Q: What kind of acid forms fecal pellets?
A: uric acid', '
Q: An insects rectum absorbs how much water?
A: 90%', '
Q: Where is an insects dry pellet discarded through?
A: the anus']
The reproductive system of female insects consist of a pair of ovaries, accessory glands, one or more spermathecae, and ducts connecting these parts. The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes, called ovarioles, which vary in size and number by species. The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can be develop being also influenced by ovariole design. Female insects are able make eggs, receive and store sperm, manipulate sperm from different males, and lay eggs. Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance, transport and fertilization, as well as for protection of eggs. They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called oothecae. Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized.:880

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Female insects reproductive system contain a pair of what?
A: ovaries', "
Q: What kind of glands are in a female insect's reproductive system?
A: accessory glands", "
Q: What connects the parts inside a female insect's reproductive system?
A: ducts", '
Q: Where are egg tubes are found inside of an insect?
A: ovaries', '
Q: What are egg tubes called?
A: ovarioles']
For males, the reproductive system is the testis, suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body. Most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside. A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle, which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female. The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm. The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and, as a result, has a cuticular lining. The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to form the intromittent organ, the aedeagus. The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm, except for the germ cells, or spermatogonia, which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis.:885

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the male reproductive system called? 
A: testis', '
Q: Where is tracheae located?
A: the body cavity', '
Q: Most make insects contain a pair of what?
A: testes', '
Q: What are inside male testes?
A: sperm tubes', "
Q: Follicles inside a male insect's reproductive system connect to what?
A: the vas deferens"]
Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea (element 8 in numbered diagram). Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system has no veins or arteries, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube which pulses peristaltically. Toward the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) divides into chambers and acts like the insect's heart. The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the hemolymph, arthropods' fluid analog of blood, inside the body cavity.:61–65 Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called spiracles.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Respiration for insects happens without what?
A: lungs', "
Q: Insect's respiratory system contains sacs, and what else?
A: internal tubes", "
Q: What gets diffused or actively pumped through an insect's respiratory system?
A: gases", "
Q: What gets delivered to tissues in an insect's respiratory system?
A: oxygen", "
Q: Which system inside an insect's respiratory system does not carry oxygen?
A: circulatory system"]
There are many different patterns of gas exchange demonstrated by different groups of insects. Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and diffusive ventilation, to discontinuous gas exchange.:65–68 During continuous gas exchange, oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released in a continuous cycle. In discontinuous gas exchange, however, the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest. Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by diffusion rather than physically taking in the oxygen. Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration. As larvae, many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water, while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies which may be held or trapped in special structures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of exchange is demonstrated by different insects?
A: gas exchange', '
Q: Gas exchange patterns can contain what kind of ventilation?
A: diffusive ventilation', '
Q: Carbon dioxide is released continuously in what kind of gas exchange?
A: continuous gas exchange', '
Q: What gas exchanges does carbon dioxide release when the insect is resting?
A: discontinuous gas exchange', '
Q: Diffusive ventilation occurs by what?
A: diffusion']
The majority of insects hatch from eggs. The fertilization and development takes place inside the egg, enclosed by a shell (chorion) that consists of maternal tissue. In contrast to eggs of other arthropods, most insect eggs are drought resistant. This is because inside the chorion two additional membranes develop from embryonic tissue, the amnion and the serosa. This serosa secretes a cuticle rich in chitin that protects the embryo against desiccation. In Schizophora however the serosa does not develop, but these flies lay their eggs in damp places, such as rotting matter. Some species of insects, like the cockroach Blaptica dubia, as well as juvenile aphids and tsetse flies, are ovoviviparous. The eggs of ovoviviparous animals develop entirely inside the female, and then hatch immediately upon being laid. Some other species, such as those in the genus of cockroaches known as Diploptera, are viviparous, and thus gestate inside the mother and are born alive.:129, 131, 134–135 Some insects, like parasitic wasps, show polyembryony, where a single fertilized egg divides into many and in some cases thousands of separate embryos.:136–137 Insects may be univoltine, bivoltine or multivoltine, i.e. they may have one, two or many broods (generations) in a year.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where are insects hatched from?
A: eggs.', '
Q: Fertilization happens where?
A: inside the egg', '
Q: Fertilization and what else happens inside the egg?
A: development', '
Q: Chorion is another word for what?
A: shell', '
Q: Broods is another term for what word?
A: generations']
Other developmental and reproductive variations include haplodiploidy, polymorphism, paedomorphosis or peramorphosis, sexual dimorphism, parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism.:143 In haplodiploidy, which is a type of sex-determination system, the offspring's sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives. This system is typical in bees and wasps. Polymorphism is where a species may have different morphs or forms, as in the oblong winged katydid, which has four different varieties: green, pink and yellow or tan. Some insects may retain phenotypes that are normally only seen in juveniles; this is called paedomorphosis. In peramorphosis, an opposite sort of phenomenon, insects take on previously unseen traits after they have matured into adults. Many insects display sexual dimorphism, in which males and females have notably different appearances, such as the moth Orgyia recens as an exemplar of sexual dimorphism in insects.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Polymophism is a developmental and reproductive what?
A: variations', '
Q: Haplodiploidy is what type of system?
A: sex-determination system', "
Q: The number of chromosome sets determines the offspring's what?
A: sex", '
Q: The sex-determination system is found in which insects?
A: bees and wasps', '
Q: Polymophism species have different forms or what else?
A: morphs']
Some insects use parthenogenesis, a process in which the female can reproduce and give birth without having the eggs fertilized by a male. Many aphids undergo a form of parthenogenesis, called cyclical parthenogenesis, in which they alternate between one or many generations of asexual and sexual reproduction. In summer, aphids are generally female and parthenogenetic; in the autumn, males may be produced for sexual reproduction. Other insects produced by parthenogenesis are bees, wasps and ants, in which they spawn males. However, overall, most individuals are female, which are produced by fertilization. The males are haploid and the females are diploid. More rarely, some insects display hermaphroditism, in which a given individual has both male and female reproductive organs.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many insects use parthenogenesis?
A: Some', '
Q: GIving birth without fertilized eggs is called what?
A: parthenogenesis', '
Q: What usually partakes in a form of parthenogenesis?
A: aphids', '
Q: Aphis have asexual and sexual what?
A: reproduction', '
Q: Aphis are usually female and what else during the summer?
A: parthenogenetic']
Hemimetabolous insects, those with incomplete metamorphosis, change gradually by undergoing a series of molts. An insect molts when it outgrows its exoskeleton, which does not stretch and would otherwise restrict the insect's growth. The molting process begins as the insect's epidermis secretes a new epicuticle inside the old one. After this new epicuticle is secreted, the epidermis releases a mixture of enzymes that digests the endocuticle and thus detaches the old cuticle. When this stage is complete, the insect makes its body swell by taking in a large quantity of water or air, which makes the old cuticle split along predefined weaknesses where the old exocuticle was thinnest.:142

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Incomplete metamorphosis insects are called?
A: Hemimetabolous', '
Q: What kind of metamorphosis do hemimetabolous insects undergo?
A: incomplete', '
Q: Do hemimetabolous insects change quickly or gradually?
A: gradually', '
Q: Hemimetabolous insects gradually change by a series of what?
A: molts', "
Q: Insect's molt when they outgrow what?
A: exoskeleton"]
Holometabolism, or complete metamorphosis, is where the insect changes in four stages, an egg or embryo, a larva, a pupa and the adult or imago. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a larva, which is generally worm-like in form. This worm-like form can be one of several varieties: eruciform (caterpillar-like), scarabaeiform (grub-like), campodeiform (elongated, flattened and active), elateriform (wireworm-like) or vermiform (maggot-like). The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa, a stage marked by reduced movement and often sealed within a cocoon. There are three types of pupae: obtect, exarate or coarctate. Obtect pupae are compact, with the legs and other appendages enclosed. Exarate pupae have their legs and other appendages free and extended. Coarctate pupae develop inside the larval skin.:151 Insects undergo considerable change in form during the pupal stage, and emerge as adults. Butterflies are a well-known example of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, although most insects use this life cycle. Some insects have evolved this system to hypermetamorphosis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a complete metamorphosis called?
A: Holometabolism', '
Q: How many stages happen in complete metamorphosis?
A: four stages', '
Q: What is another word for egg?
A: embryo', '
Q: What is an imago?
A: the adult', '
Q: Name an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis?
A: Butterflies']
Many insects possess very sensitive and, or specialized organs of perception. Some insects such as bees can perceive ultraviolet wavelengths, or detect polarized light, while the antennae of male moths can detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers. The yellow paper wasp (Polistes versicolor) is known for its wagging movements as a form of communication within the colony; it can waggle with a frequency of 10.6±2.1 Hz (n=190). These wagging movements can signal the arrival of new material into the nest and aggression between workers can be used to stimulate others to increase foraging expeditions. There is a pronounced tendency for there to be a trade-off between visual acuity and chemical or tactile acuity, such that most insects with well-developed eyes have reduced or simple antennae, and vice versa. There are a variety of different mechanisms by which insects perceive sound, while the patterns are not universal, insects can generally hear sound if they can produce it. Different insect species can have varying hearing, though most insects can hear only a narrow range of frequencies related to the frequency of the sounds they can produce. Mosquitoes have been found to hear up to 2 kHz., and some grasshoppers can hear up to 50 kHz. Certain predatory and parasitic insects can detect the characteristic sounds made by their prey or hosts, respectively. For instance, some nocturnal moths can perceive the ultrasonic emissions of bats, which helps them avoid predation.:87–94 Insects that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to home in on their hosts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Insects have specialized organs of what kind?
A: perception', '
Q: Insect organs are described as sensitive and what?
A: specialized', '
Q: What kind of insect can detect ultraviolet wavelengths?
A: bees', '
Q: Bees can detect what kind of light?
A: polarized light', '
Q: What is a Polistes versicolor?
A: yellow paper wasp']
Some insects display a rudimentary sense of numbers, such as the solitary wasps that prey upon a single species. The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched. Some species of wasp always provide five, others twelve, and others as high as twenty-four caterpillars per cell. The number of caterpillars is different among species, but always the same for each sex of larva. The male solitary wasp in the genus Eumenes is smaller than the female, so the mother of one species supplies him with only five caterpillars; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Insects have what kind of sense of numbers?
A: rudimentary', '
Q: Which insect displays a rudimentary sense of numbers?
A: solitary wasps', '
Q: What kind of species does a solitary wasp prey upon?
A: single', '
Q: What does the mother wasp provide for her eggs when they hatch?
A: caterpillars', '
Q: Is the male solitary wasp bigger or smaller than the female solitary wasp?
A: smaller']
A few insects, such as members of the families Poduridae and Onychiuridae (Collembola), Mycetophilidae (Diptera) and the beetle families Lampyridae, Phengodidae, Elateridae and Staphylinidae are bioluminescent. The most familiar group are the fireflies, beetles of the family Lampyridae. Some species are able to control this light generation to produce flashes. The function varies with some species using them to attract mates, while others use them to lure prey. Cave dwelling larvae of Arachnocampa (Mycetophilidae, Fungus gnats) glow to lure small flying insects into sticky strands of silk. Some fireflies of the genus Photuris mimic the flashing of female Photinus species to attract males of that species, which are then captured and devoured. The colors of emitted light vary from dull blue (Orfelia fultoni, Mycetophilidae) to the familiar greens and the rare reds (Phrixothrix tiemanni, Phengodidae).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another name for Colleobola?
A: Onychiuridae', '
Q: Mycetophilldae is another name for what?
A: Diptera', '
Q: Phengodidae is party of what insect family?
A: beetle', '
Q: Elateridae and Staphylinidae are what kind of luminescent?
A: bioluminescent', '
Q: What kind of fly mimics the flashing of female Photinus to attract males?
A: fireflies']
Most insects, except some species of cave crickets, are able to perceive light and dark. Many species have acute vision capable of detecting minute movements. The eyes may include simple eyes or ocelli as well as compound eyes of varying sizes. Many species are able to detect light in the infrared, ultraviolet and the visible light wavelengths. Color vision has been demonstrated in many species and phylogenetic analysis suggests that UV-green-blue trichromacy existed from at least the Devonian period between 416 and 359 million years ago.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Most insects are able to perceive darkness and what else?
A: light', '
Q: What insect is not abel to perceive light and dark?
A: cave crickets', '
Q: Most insects have what kind of vision?
A: acute', '
Q: Insects notice what type of movement?
A: minute', '
Q: Many insects are able to see visible light, ultraviolet, and what other kind of light?
A: infrared']
Insects were the earliest organisms to produce and sense sounds. Insects make sounds mostly by mechanical action of appendages. In grasshoppers and crickets, this is achieved by stridulation. Cicadas make the loudest sounds among the insects by producing and amplifying sounds with special modifications to their body and musculature. The African cicada Brevisana brevis has been measured at 106.7 decibels at a distance of 50 cm (20 in). Some insects, such as the Helicoverpa zeamoths, hawk moths and Hedylid butterflies, can hear ultrasound and take evasive action when they sense that they have been detected by bats. Some moths produce ultrasonic clicks that were once thought to have a role in jamming bat echolocation. The ultrasonic clicks were subsequently found to be produced mostly by unpalatable moths to warn bats, just as warning colorations are used against predators that hunt by sight. Some otherwise palatable moths have evolved to mimic these calls. More recently, the claim that some moths can jam bat sonar has been revisited. Ultrasonic recording and high-speed infrared videography of bat-moth interactions suggest the palatable tiger moth really does defend against attacking big brown bats using ultrasonic clicks that jam bat sonar.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What were the earliest organisms to produce sound?
A: Insects', '
Q: Insects can sense what?
A: sounds', '
Q: Insect sounds come from what kind of action?
A: mechanical', '
Q: The mechanical action of what allows insects t make sound?
A: appendages', '
Q: Moths create what kind of click sounds?
A: ultrasonic']