romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Though many of the events were outside the traditional time-period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the Protestant Reformation), was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the medieval period. The Catholic Church had long fought against heretic movements, but during the Late Middle Ages, it started to experience demands for reform from within. The first of these came from Oxford professor John Wycliffe in England. Wycliffe held that the Bible should be the only authority in religious questions, and he spoke out against transubstantiation, celibacy and indulgences. In spite of influential supporters among the English aristocracy, such as John of Gaunt, the movement was not allowed to survive. Though Wycliffe himself was left unmolested, his supporters, the Lollards, were eventually suppressed in England.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Oxford professor believed that the Bible should be the sole authority in religious questions?
A: John Wycliffe', "
Q: What were Jon Wycliffe's supporters called?
A: the Lollards", '
Q: What was the event that ended religious unity in the Western Church?
A: the Protestant Reformation', '
Q: Which Catholic practices did Wycliffe speak out against?
A: transubstantiation, celibacy and indulgences', '
Q: Who was one of the English aristocrats who supported the Lollard movement?
A: John of Gaunt']
The marriage of Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland. The teachings of the Czech priest Jan Hus were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the Hussites, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards. Hus gained a great following in Bohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause. When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands. The subsequent Hussite Wars fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the Czechs, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was Jan Hus burned at the stake?
A: 1415', '
Q: Who did Richard II of England marry?
A: Anne of Bohemia', '
Q: Whose teachings did Jan Hus base his own on?
A: John Wycliffe', '
Q: What were the followers of Jan Hus called?
A: Hussites', '
Q: What conflict resulted from death of Jan Hus?
A: Hussite Wars']
Martin Luther, a German monk, started the German Reformation by posting 95 theses on the castle church of Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. The immediate provocation spurring this act was Pope Leo X’s renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new St. Peter's Basilica in 1514. Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at the Diet of Worms in 1521. When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire by Charles V. Receiving the protection of Frederick the Wise, he was then able to translate the Bible into German.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Into what language did Martin Luther translate the Bible?
A: German', '
Q: What did Martin Luther post on the castle church of Wittenberg?
A: 95 theses', '
Q: In what year did Martin Luther post his 95 theses?
A: 1517', "
Q: What was Martin Luther's response when challenged to recant his heresy?
A: he refused", '
Q: Who acted as protector to Martin Luther when he was under the ban of the Empire?
A: Frederick the Wise']
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a 'commercial revolution'. Among the innovations of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury, and eliminated the dangers of carrying bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What new form of accounting was created during the late 13th and early 14th centuries?
A: double-entry bookkeeping', "
Q: In which country did the so-called 'commercial revolution' primarily take place?
A: Italy", '
Q: What was the main benefit of the creation of new forms of partnerships during the commercial revolution?
A: reducing the risk of commercial ventures', '
Q: Laws against what lending practice were addressed by the creation of bills of exchange?
A: usury', '
Q: What were the benefits of the new system of double-entry bookkeeping?
A: better oversight and accuracy']
With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of guilds, while on a national level special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like the English wool Staple. The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England, and individuals like Jacques Coeur in France would help finance the wars of kings, and achieve great political influence in the process.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What privilege was granted to companies on a national level?
A: monopolies', '
Q: Which families financed the wars of kings?
A: the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England', '
Q: Which economic associations gained power in the towns?
A: guilds', '
Q: Where was Jacques Couer from?
A: France']
Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population. While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called 'depression of the Renaissance'. In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What caused the decrease in commerce and production in the 14th century?
A: demographic crisis', '
Q: What is the alternative to the theory that the Renaissance was a time of great opulence?
A: depression of the Renaissance', '
Q: What type of evidence is too incomplete for a decision to be made between the two theories of the Renaissance?
A: statistical', '
Q: What is posited as the cause of increased artistic output during the Renaissance?
A: greater opulence']
The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the Thomistic reconciliation of the teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology. The Condemnation of 1277, enacted at the University of Paris, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical; restrictions that had implication for Aristotelian thought. An alternative was presented by William of Ockham, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or Occam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one, and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which philosophy attempted to reconcile Aristotelian teachings and Christian theology in the 13th century?
A: Thomistic', '
Q: Where was the Condemnation of 1277 enacted?
A: University of Paris', '
Q: Which philosopher believed that reason and faith were to be kept separate?
A: William of Ockham', "
Q: What is the common name for William of Ockham's principle of parsimony?
A: Occam's razor", '
Q: On what types of ideas did the Condemnation of 1277 place restrictions?
A: heretical']
This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science, and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of motion great advances were made, when such scholars as Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme and the Oxford Calculators challenged the work of Aristotle. Buridan developed the theory of impetus as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of inertia. The works of these scholars anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Nicolaus Copernicus.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Jean Buridan create to explain the motion of projectiles?
A: the theory of impetus', '
Q: What school of scientific thought was challenged by Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme?
A: Aristotelian', '
Q: What scientist is most associated with the heliocentric worldview?
A: Nicolaus Copernicus', '
Q: Which scholars made great advances in the theories of motion?
A: Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme and the Oxford Calculators', "
Q: Buridan's theory of impetus led to what modern concept?
A: inertia"]
Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of Arab or Chinese origin, or unique European innovations – were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particular gunpowder, the printing press and the compass. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle affected not only military organisation, but helped advance the nation state. Gutenberg's movable type printing press made possible not only the Reformation, but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. The compass, along with other innovations such as the cross-staff, the mariner's astrolabe, and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans, and the early phases of colonialism. Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who invented the movable printing press?
A: Gutenberg', '
Q: What religious movement was spurred by the invention of the printing press?
A: the Reformation', '
Q: Which inventions of the period had a great impact on everyday life?
A: eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock', '
Q: Which invention with military applications helped bring about the nation state?
A: gunpowder', '
Q: Advances in what construction trade helped to increase global navigation?
A: shipbuilding']
The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio, and later described by Brunelleschi. Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello. This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models. As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who championed the scientific study of anatomy for the benefit of art?
A: Donatello', '
Q: Which artistic principle was innovated by Brunelleschi?
A: linear perspective', '
Q: Along with da Vinci, who were two other artists regarded as masters of the High Renaissance?
A: Michelangelo and Raphael', '
Q: What was achieved though the use of the scientific study of anatomy in the field of art?
A: Greater realism', '
Q: What did Donatello study that inspired sculptures?
A: classical models']
The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries. Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium, and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail. The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the focus of paintings in Italy?
A: idealized compositions', '
Q: Where was the focus of paintings on textures and surfaces?
A: the Netherlands', '
Q: What painter was an early champion of oil as a medium in painting?
A: Jan van Eyck', "
Q: Jan van Eyck's paintings are known for what characteristics?
A: great realism and minute detail"]
Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval world view with classical ideals. Another promoter of the Italian language was Boccaccio with his Decameron. The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later (whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern lyric poems). Together the three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote the Divine Comedy?
A: Dante Alighieri', '
Q: In what languages did Dante and Boccaccio create their works?
A: Latin as well as Italian', '
Q: Which dialect became the norm for the modern Italian language?
A: Tuscan', "
Q: What is one of Boccaccio's works that helped promote the Italian language?
A: Decameron", '
Q: Whose work, Canzoniere, is considered to be the first example of modern lyric poetry?
A: Petrarch']
Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts. From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the motet; a composition with text in several parts. From the 1330s and onwards, emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices. Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the Provençal troubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What style of sacred musical form emerged in the 1330s?
A: polyphonic', '
Q: Polyphony was common in the secular music of which French region?
A: Provençal', '
Q: What is the term for the four subjects that comprised the liberal arts in medieval universities?
A: the quadrivium', '
Q: What was the dominant sacred musical form in the early 13th century?
A: the motet']
The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as ars nova as opposed to the ars antiqua, were the composers Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of trecento, and the leading composers were Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini. Prominent reformer of Orthodox Church music from the first half of 14th century was John Kukuzelis; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the Balkans in the following centuries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who introduced a system of musical notation used in the Balkans in the 14th century?
A: John Kukuzelis', '
Q: What was the name of the new musical style introduced in the Late Middle Ages?
A: ars nova', '
Q: Which musical style did ars nova replace in the 14th century?
A: ars antiqua', '
Q: Who were the leading composers of the trecento period?
A: Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini', '
Q: Kukuzelis reformed the music of which religion?
A: Orthodox Church']
Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most interesting morality play is The Castle of Perseverance which depicts mankind's progress from birth to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known medieval drama is Everyman. Everyman receives Death's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred, Goods, and Fellowship - only Good Deeds goes with him to the grave.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the most famous morality play from the medieval period?
A: Everyman', '
Q: Which dramatic form was created around 1400?
A: Morality plays', '
Q: What goes to the grave with Everyman in the morality play?
A: Good Deeds', "
Q: Which morality play depicted mankind's progress from birth to death?
A: The Castle of Perseverance", '
Q: In the morality play, who summoned Everyman?
A: Death']
At the end of the Late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the Great Hall of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were Mummers' plays, performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a House of Revels built and an Office of Revels established in 1545.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Late Middle Age English kings kept their own troupes of professional actors?
A: Richard III and Henry VII', '
Q: Who performed the seasonal Christmas plays?
A: Mummers', '
Q: In what year did Henry VIII establish an Office of Revels?
A: 1545', '
Q: What did Henry VIII build in 1545 for the benefit of the theatrical arts?
A: House of Revels', "
Q: In what part of a nobleman's house were plays performed?
A: the Great Hall"]
The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the Catholic Church, the Protestant Reformation and the banning of religious plays in many countries. Elizabeth I forbid all religious plays in 1558 and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the Netherlands in 1539, the Papal States in 1547 and in Paris in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in Greek and Roman theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was banned that led to the demise of medieval drama?
A: religious plays', '
Q: In what year did Elizabeth I ban religious plays?
A: 1558', '
Q: In what year were religious plays banned in the Netherlands?
A: 1539', '
Q: What types of subjects did dramatists turn to when religious plays were banned?
A: secular', '
Q: Where were religious plays banned in 1548?
A: Paris']
After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the Renaissance would spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin an era of world discovery. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus’s travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with the invention of printing, and the associated dissemination of the printed word, what other factor is believed to have led to the Protestant Reformation?
A: democratized learning', '
Q: Which continents did Vasco da Gama circumnavigate in 1498?
A: Africa and India', '
Q: What effect did the discoveries of Columbus and da Gama have on European nations?
A: strengthened the economy and power', '
Q: What historical era is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern Era?
A: the Renaissance', "
Q: What was discovered as the result of both Columbus' and da Gama's voyages?
A: new trading routes"]
At the end of the 15th century the Ottoman Empire advanced all over Southeastern Europe, eventually conquering the Byzantine Empire and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the tragic death of the young king Vladislaus I of Hungary during the Battle of Varna in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of count John Hunyadi, who became Hungary's regent-governor (1446–1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: Pope Pius II awarded him the title of Athleta Christi or Champion of Christ for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which empire completed its conquest of the Byzantines at the end of the 15th century?
A: Ottoman', '
Q: In what year did the Battle of Varna take place?
A: 1444', '
Q: Which Hungarian ruler was killed at the Battle of Varna?
A: Vladislaus I', '
Q: Who was appointed regent-governor of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1446?
A: count John Hunyadi', '
Q: Who gave the title of Champion of Christ to John Hyundai?
A: Pope Pius II']
Hunyadi succeeded during the Siege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real Crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan monk Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating Holy War. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian Lord left Pannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as King of Hungary by the nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Franciscan monk motivated the peasants to fight against Muslims at the Siege of Belgrade?
A: Saint John of Capistrano', '
Q: In what year was the Siege of Belgrade fought?
A: 1456', '
Q: Who did the Hungarian nobility elect as King of Hungary?
A: Matthias', '
Q: Which country did Saint Francis of Capistrano come from?
A: Italy', '
Q: When John Hunyadi died, which province was left in chaos?
A: Pannonia']
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the Pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the Black Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of Medieval times.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Louis II of Hungary die?
A: drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape', '
Q: Who was the leader of the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács?
A: Pál Tomori', '
Q: In what years did Matthias Corvinus reign as King of Hungary?
A: 1458–1490', '
Q: Who did Matthias defeat to conquer Bohemia?
A: Hussite Protestants', '
Q: Who opposed the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács?
A: the forces of the Ottoman Empire']