romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to the Chinese tradition.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When it comes to translation, what is less commonly used today?
A: earlier approaches', '
Q: When do earlier approaches to translation still have relevance for historians?
A: when historians view ancient or medieval records', '
Q: What do historians try to piece together from pre-Western environments?
A: events', '
Q: What do Chinese and related translations retain unique to their tradition?
A: theories and philosophies']
Translation of material into Arabic expanded after the creation of Arabic script in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of Islam and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the Al-Karaouine (Fes, Morocco), Al-Azhar (Cairo, Egypt), and the Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did translation of material into Arabic begin to increase?
A: 5th century', '
Q: What allowed the expansion of Arabic translations during the 5th century?
A: creation of Arabic script', '
Q: What material was initial Arab translations primarily focused on?
A: politics', "
Q: What cultures' classical works were later translated into Arabic?
A: Greek and Persian", '
Q: What type of translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions?
A: Arabic']
Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the Renaissance, Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic and, to a lesser degree, Persian became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why are Arabic translation efforts important to Western translation traditions?
A: centuries of close contacts and exchanges', '
Q: When did Europeans begin more intense studying of Arabic translations of classical works?
A: after the Renaissance', '
Q: What did Arabic, and to a less extent Persian, become to Europeans?
A: important sources of material', '
Q: What helped revitalize Western translation traditions from Arabic?
A: techniques', '
Q: What would Western traditions eventually do?
A: overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions']
The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized civil service expressed skepticism, writes Christopher de Bellaigue, "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today.... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the neologisms that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was "darwiniya", or "Darwinism".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What transformed Arabic languages?
A: movement to translate English and European texts', '
Q: What came to be valued over previous convolutions?
A: new words, simplified syntax, and directness', '
Q: Who expressed skepticism regarding the transformation of Arabic?
A: Educated Arabs and Turks', '
Q: What was legitimate knowledge no longer defined by?
A: texts in the religious schools', '
Q: What was a neologism expressing the introduction of new ideas via translation?
A: Darwinism']
After World War I, when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the Sykes-Picot agreement—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the Muslim Brotherhood emerged in Egypt, the House of Saud took over the Hijaz, and regimes led by army officers came to power in Iran and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes de Bellaigne, "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western empire-builders." As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as Muhammad Abduh, largely had to yield to retrograde currents.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What two countries divvied up the Middle East's countries after WWI?
A: Britain and France", '
Q: What was the dividing up of the Middle Eastern countries in violation of?
A: solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy', "
Q: A reaction to Britain and France's actions was the emergence of what group in Egypt?
A: Muslim Brotherhood", '
Q: de Bellaigne attributed the growth of Islamism and militarism to what Western catalyst?
A: empire-builders', "
Q: What did the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators find themselves yielding to?
A: retrograde currents"]
Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from German Romanticism, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where do many non-transparent translation theories delve for concepts?
A: German Romanticism', '
Q: What nationality was Friedrich Schleiermacher?
A: German', '
Q: When did Schleiermacher publish his lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation"?
A: 1813', '
Q: Moving the writer toward the reader would be an example of what type of translation method?
A: transparency', '
Q: What method of translation did Schleiermacher favor?
A: extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text']
Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable. Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is sometimes used to check the accuracy of a translation?
A: Comparison of a back-translation with the original text', '
Q: How are mathematical operations checked?
A: by reversing the operation', '
Q: What operations are results from not always completely reliable?
A: reverse-translation operations', '
Q: What symbol set has a defining property of ambiguity?
A: linguistic', '
Q: What symbol set has the property of being intentionally unequivocal?
A: mathematical']
Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who provided a humorous example of the unreliability of back-translation? 
A: Mark Twain', "
Q: When was Twain's back-translation published?
A: 1903", '
Q: For what language did Twain create a back-translation?
A: French', '
Q: What include a synopsized adaptation of Twain\'s story?
A: "Private History of the \'Jumping Frog\' Story"', '
Q: What had been thought for a while to be an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain\'s story?
A: "The Athenian and the Frog"']
When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation that was made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki’s Polish version.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do researchers use back-translation to try to reconstruct when a document survives only in translation?
A: the original text', '
Q: Who was Jan Potocki?
A: Polish aristocrat', '
Q: What language was The Saragossa Manuscript originally written in?
A: French', '
Q: When had Edmund Chojecki translated portions of the Saragossa Manuscript into Polish from French?
A: 1847', '
Q: What fragments were the complete Saragossa Manuscripts now produced based on?
A: French-language']
Translation has served as a school of writing for many authors. Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has served as a school of writing for many authors?
A: Translation', '
Q: Who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia?
A: monks', '
Q: What did translators shape in the course of their work?
A: languages', '
Q: What have translators acted as by conveying knowledge between cultures?
A: bridges', '
Q: Where were idioms and vocabulary imported from?
A: source languages']
Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and Doña Marina, an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to Hernán Cortés.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What roles have interpreters occasionally played in history?
A: crucial', '
Q: Where were the slave-traders La Malinche was sold or given to from?
A: Xicalango', '
Q: What region did La Malinche hail from?
A: Mexican Gulf Coast', '
Q: What was La Malinche essential to?
A: Spanish conquest of Mexico', '
Q: In addition to being an interpreter and adviser, what function did La Malinche serve for Hernán Cortés?
A: lover']
Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available. With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing, translation-memory techniques, and internet applications, translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to businesses, individuals, and enterprises.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of translation is favored by those wanting more accurate translations?
A: Web-based human translation', '
Q: What reputation does machine translations have?
A: frequent inaccuracy', '
Q: What type of translation is still the most accurate and reliable?
A: human', '
Q: Because of crowdsourcing, what type of translation are agencies able to provide?
A: on-demand human-translation services', '
Q: Who purchases the services of translation agencies?
A: businesses, individuals, and enterprises']
Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Unedited machine translation will miss what crucial aspect of human language?
A: context-embedded', '
Q: What does it take a person to be able to do?
A: comprehend the context of the original text', '
Q: What can even translations completely done by a human still be prone to?
A: error', '
Q: How must machine translations be transformed by a human?
A: reviewed and edited']
In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did Buddhism spread?
A: Asia', "
Q: Buddhism's spread led to what large-scale effort?
A: translation", '
Q: How long did the translation effort take?
A: well over a thousand years', '
Q: What Empire was especially good at translation?
A: The Tangut Empire', '
Q: What were the Tanguts able to do in only decades that took the Chinese centuries?
A: translate volumes']
The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain. King Alfonso X el Sabio (Alphonse the Wise) of Castille in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who attempted a large-scale effort at translation?
A: Arabs', '
Q: What did the Arabs create Arabic versions of?
A: philosophical and scientific works', '
Q: When were some of the Arabic translations of earlier sentences translated into Latin?
A: Middle Ages', '
Q: What is Schola Traductorum in English?
A: School of Translation', '
Q: Latin translations indirectly advanced whose science and culture?
A: European']
The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first great English translation?
A: Wycliffe Bible', '
Q: When was the Wycliffe Bible translated?
A: 1382', '
Q: When did the age of great English prose translation begin?
A: end of the 15th century', '
Q: What adaptation of Arthurian romances took so many liberties with the source material that it could hardly be called a translation?
A: Le Morte Darthur', '
Q: The Tyndale New Testament was one of the first great translations from what style?
A: Tudor']
Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Whose court did Pletho arrive in and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?
A: Cosimo de' Medici", '
Q: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho carry?
A: Byzantine scholar', '
Q: When did Constantinople fall to the Turks?
A: 1453', "
Q: Who undertook translating Plato's works to Latin?
A: Marsilio Ficino", '
Q: What did religious beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?
A: the exact words']
Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the guiding ideal of translators throughout the 18th century?
A: ease of reading', "
Q: If a translator didn't understand something in a text or thought it too boring to present to readers, what did they do with it?
A: omitted", '
Q: What did translators of this time assume was better than the actual text they were translating?
A: their own style of expression', '
Q: How much did the translators care about scholarship?
A: no more than had their predecessors', '
Q: What did James Macpherson "translate" from?
A: own composition']
The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What new standards of translation came with the 19th century?
A: accuracy and style', '
Q: Who observed that the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text"?
A: J.M. Cohen', '
Q: What sort of passages were still left out of the supposed "whole" text?
A: bawdy', '
Q: What did the Victorians aim to remind the reader of their translations?
A: that they were reading a foreign classic', '
Q: How did the translation of Rubaiyat achieve an Oriental flavor?
A: by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes']
Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language—sometimes called "singing translation"—is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the translation of text that is sung closely linked to?
A: poetry', '
Q: What is most vocal music set to in Western tradition?
A: verse', '
Q: What type of forms does popular music tend to retain?
A: stanzaic', '
Q: What type of example an be found of translating poetry for singing?
A: church hymns', '
Q: Who translated German chorales into English?
A: Catherine Winkworth']
Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is translation of sung texts different than translations of poetry?
A: more restrictive', '
Q: Why is the translation of sung texts more restrictive?
A: little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation', '
Q: What places a great challenge on someone trying to translate music from one language to another?
A: assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical', '
Q: How can a syllable be added or deleted in prose sung texts?
A: by subdividing or combining notes']