romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
A standard dialect (also known as a standardized dialect or "standard language") is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a correct spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a single language. For example, Standard American English, Standard British English, Standard Canadian English, Standard Indian English, Standard Australian English, and Standard Philippine English may all be said to be standard dialects of the English language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another term for a standard or standardized dialect?
A: standard language', '
Q: The support of what groups results in a dialect being standardized?
A: institutions', '
Q: Along with grammars and dictionaries, what publications help a dialect to become standardized?
A: textbooks', '
Q: Standard Philippine English is a standard dialect of of what language?
A: English', '
Q: Recognition from what body may help a dialect to become standardized?
A: government']
A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support. Examples of a nonstandard English dialect are Southern American English, Western Australian English, Scouse and Tyke. The Dialect Test was designed by Joseph Wright to compare different English dialects with each other.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does a nonstandard dialect usually not have compared to a standard dialect?
A: institutional support', '
Q: What language is Scouse a dialect of?
A: English', '
Q: What was created for the sake of comparing English dialects?
A: The Dialect Test', '
Q: Who came up with the Dialect Test?
A: Joseph Wright', '
Q: Along with a syntax and grammar, what attribute does a dialect possess?
A: vocabulary']
There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of the same language. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. The distinction is therefore subjective and depends on the user's frame of reference. For example, there is discussion about if the Limón Creole English must be considered as "a kind" of English or a different language. This creole is spoken in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendant of Jamaican people. The position that Costa Rican linguists support depends on the University they belong.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what country is Limón Creole English spoken?
A: Costa Rica', '
Q: On what coast of Costa Rica is Limón Creole English spoken?
A: Caribbean', '
Q: Speakers of Limón Creole English are descended from people of what nationality?
A: Jamaican']
The most common, and most purely linguistic, criterion is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other; otherwise, they are said to be different languages. However, this definition becomes problematic in the case of dialect continua, in which it may be the case that dialect B is mutually intelligible with both dialect A and dialect C but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible with each other. In this case the criterion of mutual intelligibility makes it impossible to decide whether A and C are dialects of the same language or not. Cases may also arise in which a speaker of dialect X can understand a speaker of dialect Y, but not vice versa; the mutual intelligibility criterion flounders here as well.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What trait is the most common way of determining if languages are dialects?
A: mutual intelligibility', '
Q: What is the term for when dialects A and B are mutually intelligible, dialect B and C are mutually intelligible, but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible?
A: dialect continua', '
Q: What is the definition of mutual intelligibility?
A: if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other']
Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is that of linguistic authority, a more sociolinguistic notion. According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of the same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language. For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Bavarian German and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject. By way of contrast, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the "Middle High German" group of languages, a Yiddish speaker would not consult a German dictionary to determine the word to use in such a case.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term refers to another way in which dialects are distinguished from languages?
A: linguistic authority', '
Q: Under the linguistic authority criteria, what is a dialect of German along with Bavarian German?
A: East Franconian German', '
Q: Of what group of languages is Yiddish a member?
A: Middle High German', '
Q: Why is Yiddish not a dialect of German?
A: a Yiddish speaker would not consult a German dictionary']
By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: According to most linguistics, who speaks a dialect?
A: everybody']
A framework was developed in 1967 by Heinz Kloss, abstand and ausbau languages, to describe speech communities, that while unified politically and/or culturally, include multiple dialects which though closely related genetically may be divergent to the point of inter-dialect unintelligibility.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who developed the abstand and ausbau languages framework?
A: Heinz Kloss', '
Q: In what year was the abstand and ausbau framework developed?
A: 1967', '
Q: What sort of unification in speech communities did the abstand and ausbau framework discuss?
A: politically and/or culturally']
The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive: There is nothing contradictory in the statement "the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of what language?
A: German']
There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "variety"; "lect" is another. A more general term is "languoid", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term avoids distinguishing between languages and dialects?
A: languoid', "
Q: What is the most common way of referring to a language without making the determination of whether it's a dialect or independent language?
A: variety", '
Q: Along with variety and languoid, what is another term used for a language without determining its independent status?
A: lect']
In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction, and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status. In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: With what social class it the standard dialect commonly associated?
A: the elite class', '
Q: What social status is the term "dialect" sometimes associated with?
A: low', '
Q: What is another term for language varieties?
A: dialects']
The status of "language" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What non-linguistic developments influence the status of a language?
A: historical and political', '
Q: What dialect is the language Romansh similar to?
A: Lombardic alpine', '
Q: What language are Mandarin and Cantonese sometimes considered dialects of?
A: Chinese', '
Q: Why might Mandarin and Cantonese not be regarded as dialects?
A: mutual unintelligibility']
Modern Nationalism, as developed especially since the French Revolution, has made the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of great political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" is often seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" tends to be seen not as "a people" in its own right, but as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy.[citation needed] The distinction between language and dialect is thus inevitably made at least as much on a political basis as on a linguistic one, and can lead to great political controversy, or even armed conflict.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What event is regarded as a landmark in the development of modern nationalism?
A: the French Revolution', '
Q: If possessing a language leads to a group being regarded as a separate people, what political arrangement presumably follows?
A: its own independent state', '
Q: What political arrangement is associated with being a dialect-speaking sub-group?
A: regional autonomy', '
Q: Along with political controversy, what can the distinction between a language and dialect sometimes lead to?
A: armed conflict']
The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot ("אַ שפּראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט"‎: "A language is a dialect with an army and navy") in YIVO Bleter 25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Max Weinreich is a linguist of what language?
A: Yiddish', '
Q: What does "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot" mean in English?
A: A language is a dialect with an army and navy', '
Q: When did Max Weinrich write "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot"?
A: 1945']
When talking about the German language, the term German dialects is only used for the traditional regional varieties. That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When is the term 'German dialects' used in regard to the German language?
A: traditional regional varieties", '
Q: What are traditional region varieties of German distinguished from?
A: the regional varieties of modern standard German']
The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation. Most of them are not mutually intelligible. German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: After what entities are German dialects traditionally named?
A: Germanic tribes']
The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than on the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects more common?
A: South', '
Q: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects less frequently seen?
A: Northern Germany', '
Q: Dialects are more frequently seen in the countryside as compared to what population centers?
A: cities', '
Q: In what environment are dialects less common?
A: public', '
Q: In what environment are dialects more frequently heard?
A: familiar']
The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is seldom spoken. Some Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What dialect of German is spoken in Switzerland?
A: Swiss German', '
Q: What dialect of German is rarely heard in Switzerland?
A: standard German', '
Q: Aside from Switzerland, what country speaks a dialect related to Swiss German?
A: Liechtenstein']
The Low German varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects. This reflects the modern situation where they are roofed by standard German. This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of language was Low German in the Middle Ages?
A: an ausbau language', '
Q: Why are Low German varieties regarded as dialects of standard German?
A: they are roofed by standard German']
Italy is home to a vast array of native regional minority languages, most of which are Romance-based and have their own local variants. These regional languages are often referred to colloquially or in non-linguistic circles as Italian "dialects," or dialetti (standard Italian for "dialects"). However, the majority of the regional languages in Italy are in fact not actually "dialects" of standard Italian in the strict linguistic sense, as they are not derived from modern standard Italian but instead evolved locally from Vulgar Latin independent of standard Italian, with little to no influence from what is now known as "standard Italian." They are therefore better classified as individual languages rather than "dialects."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are Italian dialects termed in the Italian language?
A: dialetti', '
Q: What language are many Italian dialects derived from?
A: Vulgar Latin', "
Q: What does 'dialetti' mean in Italian?
A: dialects", '
Q: Why might Italian dialects be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of standard Italian?
A: they are not derived from modern standard Italian']
In addition to having evolved, for the most part, separately from one another and with distinct individual histories, the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy are also better classified as separate languages rather than true "dialects" due to the often high degree in which they lack mutual intelligibility. Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which the regional Italian languages are mutual unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages, with some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum being more or less mutually intelligible. For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely standard Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a speaker of a pure Sicilian language variant. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with a Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than a standard Italian or Sicilian language speaker. Meanwhile, a Sicilian language speaker would have an greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a major reason why the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy should be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of each other?
A: they lack mutual intelligibility', '
Q: From what region of Italy does the Eastern Lombard dialect hail?
A: Lombardy', '
Q: What language family does Eastern Lombard belong to?
A: Gallo-Italic', '
Q: What type of language is Sicilian?
A: Neapolitan', '
Q: What language was spoken by Lombard immigrants to Sicily?
A: Sicilian Gallo-Italic']
Modern standard Italian itself is heavily based on the Latin-derived Florentine Tuscan language. The Tuscan-based language that would eventually become modern standard Italian had been used in poetry and literature since at least the 12th century, and it first became widely known in Italy through the works of authors such as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Petrarch. Dante's Florentine-Tuscan literary Italian thus became the language of the literate and upper class in Italy, and it spread throughout the peninsula as the lingua franca among the Italian educated class as well as Italian traveling merchants. The economic prowess and cultural and artistic importance of Tuscany in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance further encouraged the diffusion of the Florentine-Tuscan Italian throughout Italy and among the educated and powerful, though local and regional languages remained the main languages of the common people.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language is modern standard Italian derived from?
A: Florentine Tuscan', '
Q: What language is Florentine Tuscan based on?
A: Latin', '
Q: During what century did Florentine Tuscan begin to be used in poetry?
A: 12th', "
Q: What socioeconomic class used the Florentine Tuscan language in Dante's time?
A: upper class", '
Q: From what region of Italy did Florentine Tuscan derive?
A: Tuscany']
During the Risorgimento, proponents of Italian republicanism and Italian nationalism, such as Alessandro Manzoni, stressed the importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity. With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, standard Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the various unofficial regional languages of Italy gradually became regarded as subordinate "dialects" to Italian, increasingly associated negatively with lack of education or provincialism. However, at the time of the Italian Unification, standard Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak standard Italian.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Italian nationalist spoke of the importance of a national Italian language?
A: Alessandro Manzoni', '
Q: During what period was the importance of having an Italian national language raised?
A: the Risorgimento', '
Q: In what decade was Italy unified?
A: 1860s', '
Q: What percentage of Italians spoke standard Italian when Italy was first unified?
A: 2.5%', '
Q: When Italy was unified, what was named the official national language?
A: standard Italian']
In the early 20th century, the vast conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with facilitating the diffusion of standard Italian among less educated Italian men, as these men from various regions with various regional languages were forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military. With the eventual spread of the radio and television throughout Italy and the establishment of public education, Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to standard Italian, while literacy rates among all social classes improved. Today, the majority of Italians are able to speak standard Italian, though many Italians still speak their regional language regularly or as their primary day-to-day language, especially at home with family or when communicating with Italians from the same town or region. However, to some Italians, speaking a regional language, especially in a formal setting or outside of one's region, may carry a stigma or negative connotations associated with being lower class, uneducated, boorish, or overly informal.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what war did a large number of Italian men first learn standard Italian?
A: World War I', '
Q: Along with radio and public education, what invention helped to diffuse standard Italian among the Italian population?
A: television', '
Q: In modern Italy, what class of people are regional languages sometimes associated with?
A: lower', "
Q: Along with formal settings, where do some Italians avoid speaking their regional language?
A: outside of one's region", "
Q: Aside from when they're speaking to Italians from their same town or region, where is a common place where Italians speak their regional language?
A: at home with family"]
Italians in different regions today may also speak regional varieties of standard Italian, or regional Italian dialects, which, unlike the majority of languages of Italy, are actually dialects of standard Italian rather than separate languages. A regional Italian dialect is generally standard Italian that has been heavily influenced or mixed with local or regional native languages and accents.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Regional Italian dialects are often influenced by regional languages and what other language?
A: standard Italian']
The languages of Italy are primarily Latin-based Romance languages, with the most widely spoken languages falling within the Italo-Dalmatian language family. This wide category includes:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language family do most of the languages of Italy belong to?
A: Italo-Dalmatian', '
Q: What language are most languages of Italy derived from?
A: Latin', '
Q: Aside from Italo-Dalmatian, what is another term for the group that Italian languages belong to?
A: Romance']
The Sardinian language is considered to be its own Romance language family, separate not only from standard Italian but also the wider Italo-Dalmatian family, and it includes the Campidanese Sardinian and Logudorese Sardinian variants. However, Gallurese, Sassarese, and Corsican are also spoken in Sardinia, and these languages are considered closely related or derived from the Italian Tuscan language and thus are Italo-Dalmatian languages. Furthermore, the Gallo-Romance language of Ligurian and the Catalan Algherese dialect are also spoken in Sardinia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Campidanese Sardinian is a variant of what language?
A: The Sardinian language', '
Q: What language is Sassarese closely related to?
A: Italian Tuscan', '
Q: What language family does Gallurese belong to?
A: Italo-Dalmatian', '
Q: What language family does Ligurian belong to?
A: Gallo-Romance', '
Q: Where is the Catalan Algherese dialect spoken?
A: Sardinian']