romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. Examples include diverse microbiomes, rhizobia, nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called Frankia, which live in alder tree root nodules; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do bacterial endosymbionts give necessary nutrition to?
A: insects', '
Q: What is the name of a bacteria inside of tree roots?
A: Frankia', '
Q: What endosymbionts live in coral? 
A: algae']
Ectosymbiosis, also referred to as exosymbiosis, is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands. Examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice, commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles that attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales, and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What organisms are described as living on the surface of whales?
A: barnacles', '
Q: Name a parasitic ectosymbiont.
A: lice', '
Q: What is another name for ectosymbiosis?
A: exosymbiosis']
Mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is a relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals benefit. In general, only lifelong interactions involving close physical and biochemical contact can properly be considered symbiotic. Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both. Many biologists restrict the definition of symbiosis to close mutualist relationships.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another term for mutualism?
A: interspecies reciprocal altruism', '
Q: Of what duration are symbiotic relationships?
A: lifelong']
A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines. Coral reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them. Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants, which fix carbon from the air, and mycorrhyzal fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of relationship do herbivores have with the bacteria in their intestines?
A: mutualistic', '
Q: What do coral and algae produce together?
A: Coral reefs', '
Q: How do plants contribute to terrestrial ecosystems?
A: fix carbon from the air', '
Q: What type of fungus draws liquid and minerals out of the earth?
A: mycorrhyzal']
An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators. A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What lives with Ritteri sea anemones?
A: ocellaris clownfish', '
Q: What prevents the clownfish from being stung?
A: A special mucus', '
Q: What type of relationship do the clownfish and anemone have?
A: mutual symbiosis']
A further example is the goby fish, which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when outside its burrow. In case of danger the goby fish touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby fish quickly retreat into the burrow. Different species of gobies (Elacatinus spp.) also exhibit mutualistic behavior through cleaning up ectoparasites in other fish.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What species does this shrimp have a relationship with?
A: the goby fish', '
Q: What part of the fish is used to signal danger?
A: its tail']
Another non-obligate symbiosis is known from encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs that live in a close relationship. The bryozoan colony (Acanthodesia commensale) develops a cirumrotatory growth and offers the crab (Pseudopagurus granulimanus) a helicospiral-tubular extension of its living chamber that initially was situated within a gastropod shell.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of symbiosis seen between bryozoans and hermit crabs?
A: non-obligate']
One of the most spectacular examples of obligate mutualism is between the siboglinid tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane, which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When were the worms found?
A: the late 1980s', '
Q: What does the bacteria give the worm?
A: nutrition', "
Q: What land is near the worms' first known location?
A: the Galapagos Islands"]
During mutualistic symbioses, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients, which are provided by the endosymbiont. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensuring that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission (heredity).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is given to the host cell?
A: nutrients', '
Q: What does the host make that affect its genes?
A: specialized cells', '
Q: In what manner are the described genetic alternations given to future generations?
A: vertical transmission']
Adaptation of the endosymbiont to the host's lifestyle leads to many changes in the endosymbiont–the foremost being drastic reduction in its genome size. This is due to many genes being lost during the process of metabolism, and DNA repair and recombination. While important genes participating in the DNA to RNA transcription, protein translation and DNA/RNA replication are retained. That is, a decrease in genome size is due to loss of protein coding genes and not due to lessening of inter-genic regions or open reading frame (ORF) size. Thus, species that are naturally evolving and contain reduced sizes of genes can be accounted for an increased number of noticeable differences between them, thereby leading to changes in their evolutionary rates. As the endosymbiotic bacteria related with these insects are passed on to the offspring strictly via vertical genetic transmission, intracellular bacteria goes through many hurdles during the process, resulting in the decrease in effective population sizes when compared to the free living bacteria. This incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate its wild type phenotype via a recombination process is called as Muller's ratchet phenomenon. Muller's ratchet phenomenon together with less effective population sizes has led to an accretion of deleterious mutations in the non-essential genes of the intracellular bacteria. This could have been due to lack of selection mechanisms prevailing in the rich environment of the host.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the main alteration in an endosymbiont when it adapts to a host?
A: drastic reduction in its genome size', "
Q: What is the term that describes the way the endosymbiont can't go back to its original phenotype?
A: Muller's ratchet phenomenon", '
Q: What does the article say could be the reason for the buildup of harmful mutations?
A: lack of selection mechanisms']
Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word commensal used of human social interaction. The word derives from the medieval Latin word, formed from com- and mensa, meaning "sharing a table".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language do the roots of "commensal" come from?
A: Latin', "
Q: What type of symbiotic relationship helps one organism and doesn't have a major affect on the other?
A: Commensalism"]
Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (phoresy) or for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (metabiosis). Examples of metabiosis are hermit crabs using gastropod shells to protect their bodies and spiders building their webs on plants.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the term for a relationship where one organism provides a dwelling for the other?
A: inquilinism', '
Q: What type of relationship is it when arachnids attach webs to dead plants?
A: metabiosis', '
Q: In what type of relationship does an organism travel by means of another?
A: phoresy']
A parasitic relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmed. This is also known as antagonistic or antipathetic symbiosis. Parasitic symbioses take many forms, from endoparasites that live within the host's body to ectoparasites that live on its surface. In addition, parasites may be necrotrophic, which is to say they kill their host, or biotrophic, meaning they rely on their host's surviving. Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life. Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite taxa. An example of a biotrophic relationship would be a tick feeding on the blood of its host.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Antagonistic or antipathetic symbiosis are alternate names for what?
A: A parasitic relationship', '
Q: What is it called when organisms are lethal to their host?
A: necrotrophic', '
Q: What is it called when parasites need their host to live?
A: biotrophic', '
Q: What proportion of animals go through a parasitic stage?
A: as many as half', '
Q: Name a biotrophic organism.
A: a tick']
Amensalism is the type of relationship that exists where one species is inhibited or completely obliterated and one is unaffected. This type of symbiosis is relatively uncommon in rudimentary reference texts, but is omnipresent in the natural world.[citation needed] There are two types of amensalism, competition and antibiosis. Competition is where a larger or stronger organisms deprives a smaller or weaker one from a resource. Antibiosis occurs when one organism is damaged or killed by another through a chemical secretion. An example of competition is a sapling growing under the shadow of a mature tree. The mature tree can begin to rob the sapling of necessary sunlight and, if the mature tree is very large, it can take up rainwater and deplete soil nutrients. Throughout the process the mature tree is unaffected. Indeed, if the sapling dies, the mature tree gains nutrients from the decaying sapling. Note that these nutrients become available because of the sapling's decomposition, rather than from the living sapling, which would be a case of parasitism.[citation needed] An example of antibiosis is Juglans nigra (black walnut), secreting juglone, a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name for the kind of symbiosis in which one organism is seriously harmed and there is no affect on the other?
A: Amensalism', '
Q: What kinds of amensalism are there?
A: competition and antibiosis', '
Q: When a large tree takes the resources a young tree needs, what type of amensalism is it?
A: competition', '
Q: What does the black walnut give out that kills plants?
A: juglone']
Amensalism is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by the other. A clear case of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass. Whilst the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the animal's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed. Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as has been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What organisms is the ibex in an amensalistic relationship with?
A: weevils', '
Q: What does the Spanish ibex eat?
A: shrub', '
Q: What type of relationship is it when large animals crush small plants?
A: Amensalism']
Synnecrosis is a rare type of symbiosis in which the interaction between species is detrimental to both organisms involved. It is a short-lived condition, as the interaction eventually causes death. Because of this, evolution selects against synnecrosis and it is uncommon in nature. An example of this is the relationship between some species of bees and victims of the bee sting. Species of bees who die after stinging their prey inflict pain on themselves (albeit to protect the hive) as well as on the victim. This term is rarely used.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of relationship harms both organisms?
A: Synnecrosis', '
Q: What is the ultimate result of synnecrosis?
A: death', '
Q: How common is synnecrosis in the natural world?
A: uncommon', '
Q: Why do bees sting even though it will kill them?
A: to protect the hive']
While historically, symbiosis has received less attention than other interactions such as predation or competition, it is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution, with many species having a long history of interdependent co-evolution. In fact, the evolution of all eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, and protists) is believed under the endosymbiotic theory to have resulted from a symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria. This theory is supported by certain organelles dividing independently of the cell, and the observation that some organelles seem to have their own nucleic acid.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What far-reaching result do scientists think has come about from symbiosis with bacteria?
A: the evolution of all eukaryotes', '
Q: What are eukaryotes?
A: plants, animals, fungi, and protists']
The biologist Lynn Margulis, famous for her work on endosymbiosis, contends that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution. She considers Darwin's notion of evolution, driven by competition, to be incomplete and claims that evolution is strongly based on co-operation, interaction, and mutual dependence among organisms. According to Margulis and Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does Margulis think is the main driver of evolution?
A: symbiosis', "
Q: Who agrees with Margulis' cooperative view of evolution?
A: Dorion Sagan"]
Symbiosis played a major role in the co-evolution of flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them. Many plants that are pollinated by insects, bats, or birds have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is also correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent, where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How big a part did symbiosis have in the development of flowering plants and their pollinators?
A: a major role', '
Q: What did some plants produce when flowers became less simple?
A: nectar and large sticky pollen', '
Q: What is the word for the kind of relationship in which a plant depend on a single type of insect?
A: dependent']
The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF; French: Forces armées canadiennes, FAC), or Canadian Forces (CF) (French: les Forces canadiennes, FC), is the unified armed force of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the French name of the Canadian Armed Forces?
A: Forces armées canadiennes', '
Q: What law constitutes the CAF?
A: the National Defence Act', '
Q: Who are the CAF supposed to protect?
A: Her Majesty', '
Q: What does CF stand for in this context?
A: Forces canadiennes']
This unified institution consists of sea, land, and air elements referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Personnel may belong to either the Regular Force or the Reserve Force, which has four sub-components: the Primary Reserve, Supplementary Reserve, Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service, and the Canadian Rangers. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces are an entity separate and distinct from the Department of National Defence (the federal government department responsible for administration and formation of defence policy), which also exists as the civilian support system for the Forces.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many sub components are there?
A: four', '
Q: What act defines the CAF?
A: the National Defence Act']
The Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the reigning Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General of Canada. The Canadian Armed Forces is led by the Chief of the Defence Staff, who is advised and assisted by the Armed Forces Council.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who currently is the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces?
A: Queen Elizabeth II', '
Q: Who represents Queen Elizabeth II?
A: the Governor General of Canada', '
Q: Who leads the CAF?
A: the Chief of the Defence Staff', '
Q: Who advises the Chief of the Defence?
A: the Armed Forces Council.']
During the Cold War, a principal focus of Canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of Europe in the face of the Soviet military threat. Toward that end, Canadian ground and air forces were based in Europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What war were the CAF involved in?
A: Cold War', '
Q: What was the goal of the CAF during the cold war?
A: the security of Europe', '
Q: What military thread did the CAF protect against in Europe?
A: the Soviet military threat', '
Q: Apprimately since what year was the CAF stationed in Europe?
A: the early 1950s', '
Q: What year did the CAF leave Europe?
A: the early 1990s']
However, since the end of the Cold War, as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has moved much of its defence focus "out of area", the Canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world – most notably in Afghanistan since 2002.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Treaty is the CAF part of?
A: the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)', '
Q: What type of operation is the Canadian Military involved in?
A: international security operations', '
Q: What country has the Canadian Military worked in the last years?
A: Afghanistan', '
Q: What year did the Canadian Military operation in Afghanistan start?
A: 2002', '
Q: Where is the current focus of the Canadian Military set?
A: out of area']
Canadian defence policy today is based on the Canada First Defence Strategy, introduced in 2008. Based on that strategy, the Canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within Canada, in North America and globally. Specifically, the Canadian Armed Forces are tasked with having the capacity to:

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is Canada's defense policy based on?
A: Canada First Defence Strategy", '
Q: When was the Canada First Defence Strategy introduced?
A: 2008', '
Q: How many missions are carried out internally in Canada?
A: six core missions', '
Q: What other location does the Canada First Defence Strategy Cover?
A: North America']
Consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above, the Canadian Armed Forces also contribute to the conduct of Canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities, including the deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés, participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums (e.g. the System of Cooperation Among the American Air Forces), ship and aircraft visits, military training and cooperation, and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What other priority do the Canadian Armed Forces also contribute too?
A: conduct of Canadian defence diplomacy', '
Q: What is an example of another activity that the CAF performs?
A: deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés', '
Q: What other air force does the CAF cooperate with?
A: the American Air Forces', '
Q: What is one of the activities the CAF works on with other countries?
A: military training', "
Q: What diplomatic effort does the CAF perform as part of it's duties?
A: relationship-building efforts"]
Prior to Confederation in 1867, residents of the colonies in what is now Canada served as regular members of French and British forces and in local militia groups. The latter aided in the defence of their respective territories against attacks by other European powers, Aboriginal peoples, and later American forces during the American Revolutionary War and War of 1812, as well as in the Fenian raids, Red River Rebellion, and North-West Rebellion. Consequently, the lineages of some Canadian army units stretch back to the early 19th century, when militia units were formed to assist in the defence of British North America against invasion by the United States.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year was Canada united in a confederation?
A: 1867', '
Q: The forces of what countries did people serve before the unification?
A: French and British forces', '
Q: What is one of the threats that faced them?
A: European powers', '
Q: What American war threatened Canada?
A: the American Revolutionary War', '
Q: Early on, what did they defend against with the British?
A: invasion by the United States']
The responsibility for military command remained with the British Crown-in-Council, with a commander-in-chief for North America stationed at Halifax until the final withdrawal of British Army and Royal Navy units from that city in 1906. Thereafter, the Royal Canadian Navy was formed, and, with the advent of military aviation, the Royal Canadian Air Force. These forces were organised under the Department of Militia and Defence, and split into the Permanent and Non-Permanent Active Militias—frequently shortened to simply The Militia. By 1923, the department was merged into the Department of National Defence, but land forces in Canada were not referred to as the Canadian Army until November 1940.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who initially had military command?
A: the British Crown-in-Council', '
Q: Where was the commander-in-chief stationed?
A: Halifax', '
Q: When did the British Army and Royal Navy withdraw from Halifax?
A: 1906', '
Q: The Canadian Armed Forces were initially organized under what department?
A: the Department of Militia and Defence', '
Q: When did the unification complete of all the Canadian forces to be called the Canadian Army?
A: November 1940']