romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Yale has produced alumni distinguished in their respective fields. Among the best-known are U.S. Presidents William Howard Taft, Gerald Ford, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush; royals Crown Princess Victoria Bernadotte, Prince Rostislav Romanov and Prince Akiiki Hosea Nyabongo; heads of state, including Italian prime minister Mario Monti, Turkish prime minister Tansu Çiller, Mexican president Ernesto Zedillo, German president Karl Carstens, and Philippines president José Paciano Laurel; U.S. Supreme Court Justices Sonia Sotomayor, Samuel Alito and Clarence Thomas; U.S. Secretaries of State John Kerry, Hillary Clinton, Cyrus Vance, and Dean Acheson; authors Sinclair Lewis, Stephen Vincent Benét, and Tom Wolfe; lexicographer Noah Webster; inventors Samuel F. B. Morse and Eli Whitney; patriot and "first spy" Nathan Hale; theologian Jonathan Edwards; actors, directors and producers Paul Newman, Henry Winkler, Vincent Price, Meryl Streep, Sigourney Weaver, Jodie Foster, Angela Bassett, Patricia Clarkson, Courtney Vance, Frances McDormand, Elia Kazan, George Roy Hill, Edward Norton, Lupita Nyong'o, Allison Williams, Oliver Stone, Sam Waterston, and Michael Cimino; "Father of American football" Walter Camp, James Franco, "The perfect oarsman" Rusty Wailes; baseball players Ron Darling, Bill Hutchinson, and Craig Breslow; basketball player Chris Dudley; football players Gary Fencik, and Calvin Hill; hockey players Chris Higgins and Mike Richter; figure skater Sarah Hughes; swimmer Don Schollander; skier Ryan Max Riley; runner Frank Shorter; composers Charles Ives, Douglas Moore and Cole Porter; Peace Corps founder Sargent Shriver; child psychologist Benjamin Spock; architects Eero Saarinen and Norman Foster; sculptor Richard Serra; film critic Gene Siskel; television commentators Dick Cavett and Anderson Cooper; New York Times journalist David Gonzalez; pundits William F. Buckley, Jr., and Fareed Zakaria; economists Irving Fischer, Mahbub ul Haq, and Paul Krugman; cyclotron inventor and Nobel laureate in Physics, Ernest Lawrence; Human Genome Project director Francis S. Collins; mathematician and chemist Josiah Willard Gibbs; and businesspeople, including Time Magazine co-founder Henry Luce, Morgan Stanley founder Harold Stanley, Boeing CEO James McNerney, FedEx founder Frederick W. Smith, Time Warner president Jeffrey Bewkes, Electronic Arts co-founder Bing Gordon, and investor/philanthropist Sir John Templeton; pioneer in electrical applications Austin Cornelius Dunham.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What royalty has attended Yale?
A: Crown Princess Victoria Bernadotte, Prince Rostislav Romanov and Prince Akiiki Hosea Nyabongo', '
Q: What Italian Prime Minister attended Yale?
A: Mario Monti', '
Q: What Mexican president attended Yale?
A: Ernesto Zedillo', '
Q: Who was the father of American football?
A: Walter Camp', '
Q: What Time magazine founder attended Yale?
A: Henry Luce']
Yale University, one of the oldest universities in the United States, is a cultural referent as an institution that produces some of the most elite members of society and its grounds, alumni, and students have been prominently portrayed in fiction and U.S. popular culture. For example, Owen Johnson's novel, Stover at Yale, follows the college career of Dink Stover and Frank Merriwell, the model for all later juvenile sports fiction, plays football, baseball, crew, and track at Yale while solving mysteries and righting wrongs. Yale University also is featured in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel "The Great Gatsby". The narrator, Nick Carraway, wrote a series of editorials for the Yale News, and Tom Buchanan was "one of the most powerful ends that ever played football" for Yale.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who were the main characters in Stover at Yale?
A: Dink Stover and Frank Merriwell', '
Q: What F. Scott Fitzgerald novel is Yale a part of?
A: The Great Gatsby', '
Q: What character in The Great Gatsby wrote editorials for the Yale News?
A: Nick Carraway', '
Q: What football playing character in The Great Gatsby played for Yale?
A: Tom Buchanan', '
Q: Who wrote the novel Stover at Yale?
A: Owen Johnson']
Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants' Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict in the Hundred Years' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What shattered the unity of the Catholic Church?
A: the Western Schism', '
Q: What are the series of events that ended centuries of prosperity in Europe, starting around 1300, known as?
A: the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages', '
Q: In what years was the Great Famine?
A: 1315–1317', '
Q: Which two countries experienced peasant uprisings?
A: France and England', "
Q: What major conflict occurred in Europe during the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages?
A: Hundred Years' War"]
Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, the Italian Renaissance began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before the Renaissance of the 12th century through contact with Arabs during the Crusades, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: An interest in texts from which two ancient civilizations sparked the Italian Renaissance?
A: Greek and Roman', '
Q: Which conflicts brought Europeans into contact with Arabs prior to the 12th century?
A: the Crusades', '
Q: Which city was captured by the Ottoman Turks, resulting in the fleeing of scholars to Western Europe?
A: Constantinople', '
Q: Who captured Constantinople?
A: Ottoman Turks', '
Q: What kind of texts did Byzantine scholars take with them when they fled Constantinople?
A: Greek']
Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would later lead to the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began (Age of Discovery). The rise of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, eroded the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire and cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the expedition of Columbus to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which invention resulted in more widespread use of the printed word?
A: printing', '
Q: In what year did Constantinople fall?
A: 1453', '
Q: In what year did Vasco da Gama sail around India and Africa?
A: 1498', "
Q: In what year was Columbus' expedition to the Americas?
A: 1492", '
Q: The Protestant Reformation is attributed to what two developments that resulted from the invention of printing?
A: dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning']
The term "Late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period (1683).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with the Late Middle Ages, what are the other two period of the Middle Ages?
A: Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages', '
Q: When was Leonardo Bruni\'s "History of the Florentine People" published?
A: 1442', '
Q: What is the name for the division of the periods of history introduced by Bruni?
A: tripartite periodization', '
Q: Who was the author of "Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire
A: Flavio Biondo', '
Q: What 1683 work resulted in the standard use of tripartite periodization?
A: Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period']
As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. Belgian historian Henri Pirenne continued the subdivision of Early, High, and Late Middle Ages in the years around World War I. Yet it was his Dutch colleague, Johan Huizinga, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the Late Middle Ages, with his book The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919). To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the Low Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What methods, applied to the study of history, led to the perception of the Middle Ages as a time of recession and crisis?
A: economic and demographic', '
Q: Which author popularized a pessimistic view of the Late Middle Ages in his 1919 book?
A: Johan Huizinga', "
Q: What was the title of Huizinga's 1919 book on the Middle Ages?
A: The Autumn of the Middle Ages", "
Q: Which countries were the focus of Huizinga's research?
A: France and the Low Countries", '
Q: What was the nationality of historian Henri Pirenne?
A: Belgian']
Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now (generally) acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and "Late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography. The term "Renaissance" is still considered useful for describing certain intellectual, cultural, or artistic developments, but not as the defining feature of an entire European historical epoch. The period from the early 14th century up until – and sometimes including – the 16th century, is rather seen as characterised by other trends: demographic and economic decline followed by recovery, the end of western religious unity and the subsequent emergence of the nation state, and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What geopolitical entity emerged from the Late Middle Ages?
A: the nation state', '
Q: Which mountain range is seen as a dividing line when considering conditions during the Middle Ages?
A: the Alps', '
Q: The Renaissance is generally used to describe developments in what areas of life in the Middle Ages?
A: intellectual, cultural, or artistic', '
Q: Which centuries are considered to be part of the Late Middle Ages?
A: early 14th century up until – and sometimes including – the 16th century', '
Q: What was the general effect of the Late Middle Ages on religion?
A: the end of western religious unity']
After the failed union of Sweden and Norway of 1319–1365, the pan-Scandinavian Kalmar Union was instituted in 1397. The Swedes were reluctant members of the Danish-dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King Christian II of Denmark had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the Stockholm Bloodbath of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523. Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Kalmar Union formed?
A: 1397', '
Q: Which Danish King was responsible for the Stockholm Bloodbath?
A: King Christian II', '
Q: In what year did Sweden break away from the Kalmar Union?
A: 1523', '
Q: Denmark and Norway remained in the Kalmar Union until what year?
A: 1814', '
Q: In what year did the Stockholm Bloodbath take place?
A: 1520']
Bohemia prospered in the 14th century, and the Golden Bull of 1356 made the king of Bohemia first among the imperial electors, but the Hussite revolution threw the country into crisis. The Holy Roman Empire passed to the Habsburgs in 1438, where it remained until its dissolution in 1806. Yet in spite of the extensive territories held by the Habsburgs, the Empire itself remained fragmented, and much real power and influence lay with the individual principalities. In addition, financial institutions, such as the Hanseatic League and the Fugger family, held great power, on both economic and a political levels.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was the Holy Roman Empire dissolved?
A: 1806', '
Q: In what year did a Golden Bull make the king of Bohemia first among the imperial electors?
A: 1356', '
Q: The Hanseatic League was what type of institution?
A: financial', '
Q: In 1438, control of the Holy Roman Empire passed to what dynasty?
A: the Habsburgs']
Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince Sigismund of Luxemburg, who was 11 years old. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, and were considered the richest of the time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but he was kept busy fighting the Hussites and the Ottoman Empire, which was becoming a menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did Louis die?
A: 1382', '
Q: Who did Louis name as his heir?
A: Sigismund of Luxemburg', '
Q: How old was Sigismund of Luxemburg when he was named heir?
A: 11', '
Q: Upon taking the throne of Hungary where did Sigismund establish his court?
A: Buda and Visegrád', "
Q: What was the result of the Hungarian nobility's refusal to accept Sigismund claim as Louis' heir?
A: internal war"]
The Bulgarian Empire was in decline by the 14th century, and the ascendancy of Serbia was marked by the Serbian victory over the Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbazhd in 1330. By 1346, the Serbian king Stefan Dušan had been proclaimed emperor. Yet Serbian dominance was short-lived; the Serbian army led by the Lazar Hrebljevanovic was defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, where most of the Serbian nobility was killed and the south of the country came under Ottoman occupation, as much of southern Bulgaria had become Ottoman territory in 1371. Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death of Skanderbeg. Belgrade, an Hungarian domain at the time, was the last large Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule, in 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by, or became vassal to, the Ottomans.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did Belgrade fall to the Ottomans?
A: 1521', '
Q: Who led led the Serbian Army at the Battle of Kosovo?
A: Lazar Hrebljevanovic', '
Q: In what year was the Battle of Kosovo?
A: 1389', '
Q: What event resulted in the triumph of Serbia over Bulgaria in 1330?
A: Battle of Velbazhd', '
Q: Which country was conquered by the Ottomans in 1479?
A: Albania']
Avignon was the seat of the papacy from 1309 to 1376. With the return of the Pope to Rome in 1378, the Papal State developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy of Alexander VI. Florence grew to prominence amongst the Italian city-states through financial business, and the dominant Medici family became important promoters of the Renaissance through their patronage of the arts. Other city states in northern Italy also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily Milan and Venice. The War of the Sicilian Vespers had by the early 14th century divided southern Italy into an Aragon Kingdom of Sicily and an Anjou Kingdom of Naples. In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What city was the seat of the papacy for most of the 14th century?
A: Avignon', '
Q: In what year did the papacy return to Rome?
A: 1378', '
Q: What 14th century conflict resulted in the division of southern Italy into two kingdoms?
A: The War of the Sicilian Vespers', '
Q: What were the names of the two kingdoms into which southern Italy was divided?
A: Aragon Kingdom of Sicily and an Anjou Kingdom of Naples', '
Q: In what year were the two southern Italian kingdoms re-united?
A: 1442']
The 1469 marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon and the 1479 death of John II of Aragon led to the creation of modern-day Spain. In 1492, Granada was captured from the Moors, thereby completing the Reconquista. Portugal had during the 15th century – particularly under Henry the Navigator – gradually explored the coast of Africa, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India. The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing the expedition of Christopher Columbus to find a western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of the Americas in 1492.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year were Isabel I and Ferdinand II married?
A: 1469', '
Q: When was modern-day Spain created?
A: 1492', '
Q: The capture of which city finalized the Reconquista?
A: Granada', '
Q: Which explorer discovered a sea-route to India?
A: Vasco da Gama', '
Q: In what year did Christopher Columbus discover the Americas?
A: 1492']
Around 1300–1350 the Medieval Warm Period gave way to the Little Ice Age. The colder climate resulted in agricultural crises, the first of which is known as the Great Famine of 1315-1317. The demographic consequences of this famine, however, were not as severe as the plagues that occurred later in the century, particularly the Black Death. Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent. By around 1420, the accumulated effect of recurring plagues and famines had reduced the population of Europe to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier. The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during the Hundred Years' War.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which climactic epoch followed the Medieval Warm Period?
A: the Little Ice Age', '
Q: What was the high end of the estimated death rate of the Black Plague?
A: sixty percent', "
Q: What major conflict rocked France during the 13th and 14th centuries?
A: Hundred Years' War", '
Q: When did the Medieval Warm Period end?
A: Around 1300–1350', '
Q: What was the effect of the Little Ice Age?
A: agricultural crises']
As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour consequently more expensive. Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351 Statute of Laborers, were doomed to fail. These efforts resulted in nothing more than fostering resentment among the peasantry, leading to rebellions such as the French Jacquerie in 1358 and the English Peasants' Revolt in 1381. The long-term effect was the virtual end of serfdom in Western Europe. In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the French Jacquerie take place?
A: 1358', '
Q: What English law was enacted in order to forcibly reduce wages?
A: Statute of Laborers', '
Q: In what year was the Statute of Laborers enacted?
A: 1351', '
Q: Which economic system was ultimately ended by the upheavals of the 14th century?
A: serfdom', "
Q: In what year did the English Peasants' Revolt occur?
A: 1381"]
Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing urbanisation. Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce and government ensured continued growth. By 1500, Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris and Constantinople each probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants. Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, the Low Countries, plus London in England.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which European cities likely had populations greater than 100,000 in 1500?
A: Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris and Constantinople', '
Q: What event decimated urban populations in the 14th century?
A: the Black Death', '
Q: How many other cities had populations larger than 40,000 by 1500?
A: Twenty-two', '
Q: Which English city had a population greater than 40,000 in 1500?
A: London']
Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the national or feudal levy was gradually replaced by paid troops of domestic retinues or foreign mercenaries. The practice was associated with Edward III of England and the condottieri of the Italian city-states. All over Europe, Swiss soldiers were in particularly high demand. At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was in Valois France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Which conflict in France resulted in the establishment of permanent armies?
A: Hundred Years' War", '
Q: The use of paid mercenaries and domestic retinues replaced which method of raising troops?
A: national or feudal levy', '
Q: Which soldiers were in high demand under the mercenary system?
A: Swiss', '
Q: Which English king is associated with the use of mercenaries in the 14th century?
A: Edward III']
Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaborate chivalric code of conduct for the warrior class. This new-found ethos can be seen as a response to the diminishing military role of the aristocracy, and gradually it became almost entirely detached from its military origin. The spirit of chivalry was given expression through the new (secular) type of chivalric orders; the first of these was the Order of St. George, founded by Charles I of Hungary in 1325, while the best known was probably the English Order of the Garter, founded by Edward III in 1348.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the chivalric order established by Edward III in 1348?
A: Order of the Garter', '
Q: Who founded the Order of St. George?
A: Charles I of Hungary', '
Q: In what year was the Order of St. George founded?
A: 1325', '
Q: What was the code of conduct of the military orders called?
A: chivalry', '
Q: In what year was the Order of the Garter established?
A: 1348']
The French crown's increasing dominance over the Papacy culminated in the transference of the Holy See to Avignon in 1309. When the Pope returned to Rome in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in the Papal Schism (1378–1417). The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the Pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia and most of the German princes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the result of the election of two popes at the same time?
A: Papal Schism', '
Q: Where was the Holy See transferred to in 1309?
A: Avignon', '
Q: In what year did the Pope return to Rome from Avignon?
A: 1377', '
Q: What was the time frame of the Papal Schism?
A: 1378–1417', '
Q: Who were the supporters of the Avignon Papacy?
A: France, her ally Scotland and the Spanish kingdoms']