romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When did New Zealand's Supreme Court come into being?
A: 2004", "
Q: What is the role of New Zealand's highest court?
A: purely appellate", "
Q: What court's decisions may be appealed to New Zealand's supreme court?
A: Court of Appeal of New Zealand", "
Q: New Zealand's second ranking court is known as what?
A: the High Court", '
Q: Local decisions by what judicial body may remain within the jurisdiction of local courts?
A: the District Court']
With respect to Pakistan's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are some of the territories within Pakistan?
A: FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)', "
Q: What type of cases may Pakistan's Supreme Court hear from FATA?
A: appeals only of a constitutional nature", "
Q: What Pakistani territory's own courts retain supremacy?
A: Azad Kashmir", "
Q: What is the relationship between Pakistan's Constitution and Azad Kashmir?
A: does not apply to it"]
The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom holds Supremacy in what jurisdictions?
A: England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland', '
Q: What is the high court in Scotland that has supremacy on criminal matters?
A: the High Court of Justiciary', '
Q: What legislation established the Supremacy of the Supreme Court of the UK?
A: Constitutional Reform Act 2005', '
Q: When did this act go into affect?
A: 1 October 2009', '
Q: What body previously had judicial supremacy in the UK prior to this?
A: House of Lords']
The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court"; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What may cause some confusion in the US regarding state supreme courts?
A: titles of state supreme court vary', '
Q: The Court of Appeals is the high court in which US States or territories?
A: New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia', "
Q: What is West Virginia's highest court called?
A: Supreme Court of Appeals", "
Q: What state's supreme court is the oldest appellate court body in the western hemisphere?
A: Massachusetts", '
Q: Supreme Courts in New York serve what function?
A: trial courts of general jurisdiction']
In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria's system of "ordinary courts" (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What document established judicial oversight of legislation in Austria?
A: the Austrian Constitution of 1920', '
Q: What court is charged with the responsibility of deciding the constitutionality of laws in Austria?
A: Constitutional Court', '
Q: What is the German word for this constitutional high court?
A: Verfassungsgerichtshof', "
Q: What is the Constitutional Court's power over the executive branch of Austrian government?
A: the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights", '
Q: The Supreme Court of Austria is known by what German name?
A: Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)']
In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the highest court in Brazil?
A: Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal)', '
Q: What are the two areas this court has supremacy over?
A: cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases', '
Q: Which legislative bodies does this court sit in cases over?
A: cases involving members of congress, senators', "
Q: What other government officials are subject to judgments of Brazil's highest court?
A: ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic", "
Q: What is Brazil's high court for labor law?
A: The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho)"]
Final interpretation of and amendments to the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, if it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is Germany's constitution called?
A: the Grundgesetz", '
Q: What German high court has the responsibility for interpreting this document?
A: Bundesverfassungsgericht', '
Q: The english translation of this court and its duties is what?
A: Federal Constitutional Court', '
Q: What unique electoral power does this German high court possess?
A: the power and authority to outlaw political parties', '
Q: Under what circumstances may the court enact this responsibility?
A: it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution']
When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht for administrative law. The so-called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad-hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court. As the courts have well-defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The German high court has jurisdiction over what two areas of law?
A: civil and criminal cases', '
Q: What court has supremacy for matters of social security?
A: Bundessozialgericht', '
Q: What court sits in supremacy for cases related to employment and labor law in Germany?
A: Bundesarbeitsgericht', "
Q: Germany's Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts is also known by what name?
A: Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe"]
In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest. Its decisions, known as "arresten", are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States-General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Decisions of the Dutch Supreme Court are called what?
A: arresten', '
Q: The Supreme Court of the Netherlands cannot interpret what?
A: legislation against the constitution', '
Q: What areas of interpretative oversight does the supreme court have?
A: legislation against some treaties', "
Q: Holland's regular court system does not handle cases related to what area of law?
A: administrative law", '
Q: The high court for administrative law is also known as what?
A: Council of State (Raad van State)']
While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land", belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of legal system is the Philippines officially?
A: a civil law nation', '
Q: The high court in The Philippines is modeled after what judicial body?
A: the American Supreme Court', '
Q: What document grants the Philippines Supreme Court the right of judicial review?
A: 1987 Philippine Constitution', '
Q: How many justices make up the Philippines Supreme Court?
A: 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices', '
Q: When all judges of a court hear a case at once it is called?
A: en banc']
Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution).
In Spain, high courts cannot create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court.
Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Spanish Supreme Court hears all cases related to law in what areas?
A: private and public', "
Q: What types of cases can be appealed to Spain's Constitutional Court?
A: those cases related to human rights", '
Q: What is the other power of this latter court?
A: decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution', '
Q: High courts in Spain do not establish what for lower court rulings?
A: binding precedents', '
Q: In practicality, how do lower courts typically view the rulings of higher courts?
A: lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations']
In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Sweden's two high courts are what?
A: the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court", '
Q: What is a type of case heard by the Supreme Administrative Court?
A: cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs', '
Q: The Supreme Court hears what?
A: all other cases', "
Q: How are judges placed on Sweden's high courts?
A: appointed by the Government", "
Q: The ability to appeal a case provided by Sweden's court system is called what?
A: prövningstillstånd"]
In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common-law and civil-law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2/3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka created?
A: 1972', "
Q: The Sri Lankan Supreme Court's decisions override what?
A: all lower Courts", '
Q: Sri Lankan law mixes what two categories of jurisprudence?
A: common-law and civil-law', '
Q: What majority is necessary in the Sri Lankan Parliament to dismiss a president and the Court?
A: 2/3']
In South Africa, a "two apex" system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: South Africa used what type of system to determine it\'s high courts until 2013?
A: "two apex"', '
Q: When was the Supreme Court of Appeal created?
A: 1994', '
Q: What court in South Africa has authority over the SCA?
A: the Constitutional Court', '
Q: When did the Constitutional Court become the highest court in South Africa in all matters?
A: August 2013']
In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. In the People's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese-based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What nation's model gives the power of the high court to the legistlature?
A: Soviet Union", "
Q: What is the name of China's high court which sits as a legislative committee?
A: Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC)", '
Q: Current decisions by the NPCSC do not affect what?
A: cases which have already been decided', "
Q: Hong Kong's legal system was traditionally based on what?
A: common law", "
Q: Macau's legal system comes from what tradition?
A: Portuguese-based legal system"]
Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants in either manuscripts or printed books. Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand. Given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic might seek to reconstruct the original text (the archetype or autograph) as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate versions, or recensions, of a document's transcription history. The ultimate objective of the textual critic's work is the production of a "critical edition" containing a scholarly curated text.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of documents does a textual critic usually analyze?
A: a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document', '
Q: What is the goal of the textual critic?
A: the production of a "critical edition" containing a scholarly curated text.', '
Q: What is the proper name for textual scholarship?
A: philology', '
Q: Why are there differences in ancient copies of the same text?
A: Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand', '
Q: What do textual critics call a revised edition of a text?
A: recensions']
Many ancient works, such as the Bible and the Greek tragedies,[citation needed] survive in hundreds of copies, and the relationship of each copy to the original may be unclear. Textual scholars have debated for centuries which sources are most closely derived from the original, hence which readings in those sources are correct.[citation needed] Although biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original, the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed. Interest in applying textual criticism to the Qur'an has also developed after the discovery of the Sana'a manuscripts in 1972, which possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Interest in an analysis of what text has arose in the early 1970's?
A: Qur'an", '
Q: Why are scholars concerned with analysis of the Gospels over the letters?
A: biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original', '
Q: Why is it important for textual critics to analyze the Gospels?
A: the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed', "
Q: What manuscripts prompted a textual analysis of the Qur'an
A: Sana'a manuscripts", "
Q: When were the Sana'a manuscripts probably written?
A: possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries."]
In the English language, the works of Shakespeare have been a particularly fertile ground for textual criticism—both because the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation, and because the effort and expense of producing superior editions of his works have always been widely viewed as worthwhile. The principles of textual criticism, although originally developed and refined for works of antiquity, the Bible, and Shakespeare, have been applied to many works, extending backwards from the present to the earliest known written documents, in Mesopotamia and Egypt—a period of about five millennia. However, the application of textual criticism to non-religious works does not antedate the invention of printing. While Christianity has been relatively receptive to textual criticism, application of it to the Jewish (Masoretic) Torah and the Qur'an is, to the devout, taboo.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is one reasons Shakespeare is a good place to focus on textual criticism?
A: the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation,', '
Q: Name two of the oldest civilizations that textual criticism has focused on.
A: Mesopotamia and Egypt', '
Q: Why is there opposition to textual criticism of Jewish and Muslim religious books?
A: is, to the devout, taboo.', '
Q: Aside from Shakespeare, what is another book that is a major focus of textual criticism?
A: Bible', '
Q: Over approximately what expanse of time can textual criticism be applied to written works?
A: a period of about five millennia']
Maas comments further that "A dictation revised by the author must be regarded as equivalent to an autograph manuscript". The lack of autograph manuscripts applies to many cultures other than Greek and Roman. In such a situation, a key objective becomes the identification of the first exemplar before any split in the tradition. That exemplar is known as the archetype. "If we succeed in establishing the text of [the archetype], the constitutio (reconstruction of the original) is considerably advanced.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the first goal when attempting to analyze a new text?
A: identification of the first exemplar', '
Q: Why is finding the first exemplar important in textual criticism?
A: split in the tradition', '
Q: The exemplar is otherwise known as what?
A: the archetype', '
Q: The final product of reconstruction is known as what?
A: the constitutio']