romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the island. Of these, Northumbria south of the Tyne, and most of Mercia, were overrun by the Vikings during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of Kent, were then integrated into Wessex under Alfred the Great. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with Northumbria, what kingdom was invaded by the Vikings?
A: Mercia', '
Q: Along with the part of Mercia not conquered by the Vikings, what other kingdom was combined with Wessex by Alfred?
A: Kent', "
Q: What is the modern name for the West Saxon dialect of Alfred's time?
A: Early West Saxon", '
Q: From what language was literature notably translated into West Saxon?
A: Latin', '
Q: North of what river in Northumbria was the kingdom not overrun by the Vikings?
A: Tyne']
Another source of loanwords was Old Norse, which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the Danelaw from the late 9th century, and during the rule of Cnut and other Danish kings in the early 11th century. Many place-names in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the West Saxon dialect, away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in Middle English texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains a great many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse influence.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what century did Cnut rule?
A: 11th', "
Q: What was Cnut's nationality?
A: Danish", '
Q: During what century did Scandinavians begin to settle in England?
A: 9th', '
Q: What language was a source for English loanwords that are still used today?
A: Old Norse', '
Q: Along with eastern England, what part of England contains many place names of Scandinavian origin?
A: northern']
Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including ⟨g⟩ in place of the insular G, ⟨s⟩ for long S, and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably ⟨e⟩, ⟨f⟩ and ⟨r⟩. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an acute accent mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between velar and palatal ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ by placing dots above the palatals: ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩. The letter wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ is usually replaced with ⟨w⟩, but æsc, eth and thorn are normally retained (except when eth is replaced by thorn).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What form of c, when written, contains a dot over the letter?
A: palatal', '
Q: What conventional letter from the Latin alphabet typically replaces the wynn from Old English?
A: w', '
Q: What letter from the Latin alphabet replaces the Old English insular G?
A: g', '
Q: What Latin letter is used in place of the Old English long S?
A: s', '
Q: When eth is replaced, what is it replaced by?
A: thorn']
Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Anglo-Saxon literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include Alistair Campbell and J. R. R. Tolkien. A number of websites devoted to Neo-Paganism and Historical re-enactment offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. By far the most ambitious project[peacock term] is the Old English Wikipedia, but most of the Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical model and are riddled with very basic grammatical mistakes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What modern religion sometimes uses Old English?
A: Neo-Paganism', '
Q: What hobby champions the use of Old English?
A: Historical re-enactment', '
Q: Along with Tolkien, what modern scholar notably made use of Old English?
A: Alistair Campbell', '
Q: What Wikipedia project makes use of the Old English language?
A: the Old English Wikipedia', '
Q: What is a term for modern texts written in Old English?
A: Neo-Old English']
A fleet carrier is intended to operate with the main fleet and usually provides an offensive capability. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds. By comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried. Most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were carriers that were fast enough to operate with the fleet but of smaller size with reduced aircraft capacity. Soviet aircraft carriers now in use by Russia are actually called heavy aviation cruisers, these ships while sized in the range of large fleet carriers were designed to deploy alone or with escorts and provide both strong defensive weaponry and heavy offensive missiles equivalent to a guided missile cruiser in addition to supporting fighters and helicopters.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of carrier is the largest?
A: fleet carrier', '
Q: What capability does a fleet carrier offer?
A: offensive', '
Q: What purpose were excort carriers developed for?
A: to provide defense for convoys of ships', '
Q: What were most escort carriers built from?
A: mercantile hulls', '
Q: What are the soviet aircraft carriers used by Russia actually called?
A: heavy aviation cruisers']
This new-found importance of naval aviation forced nations to create a number of carriers, in efforts to provide air superiority cover for every major fleet in order to ward off enemy aircraft. This extensive usage required the construction of several new 'light' carriers. Escort aircraft carriers, such as USS Bogue, were sometimes purpose-built, but most were converted from merchant ships as a stop-gap measure to provide anti-submarine air support for convoys and amphibious invasions. Following this concept, light aircraft carriers built by the US, such as USS Independence, represented a larger, more "militarized" version of the escort carrier. Although with similar complement to Escort carriers, they had the advantage of speed from their converted cruiser hulls. The UK 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier was designed for building quickly by civilian shipyards and with an expected service life of about 3 years. They served the Royal Navy during the war and was the hull design chosen for nearly all aircraft carrier equipped navies after the war until the 1980s. Emergencies also spurred the creation or conversion of highly unconventional aircraft carriers. CAM ships, were cargo-carrying merchant ships that could launch (but not retrieve) a single fighter aircraft from a catapult to defend the convoy from long range German aircraft.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of aircraft carrier was the USS Bogue?
A: Escort', '
Q: What type of aircraft was the USS Independence?
A: light', '
Q: What advantage did light carriers have over escort carriers?
A: speed', '
Q: What was the expected serice life of the UK 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier?
A: 3 years', '
Q: Who did the UK 1941 Design Light Fleet Carriers serve during the war?
A: Royal Navy']
Speaking in St. Petersburg, Russia on 30 June 2011, the head of Russia's United Shipbuilding Corporation said his company expected to begin design work for a new carrier in 2016, with a goal of beginning construction in 2018 and having the carrier achieve initial operational capability by 2023. Several months later, on 3 November 2011 the Russian newspaper Izvestiya reported that the naval building plan now included (first) the construction of a new shipyard capable of building large hull ships, after which Moscow will build two (80,000 tons full load each) nuclear-powered aircraft carriers by 2027. The spokesperson said one carrier would be assigned to the Russian Navy's Northern Fleet at Murmansk, and the second would be stationed with the Pacific Fleet at Vladivostok.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When did Russia's United Shipbuilding Corporation expect to begin design work for a new carrier?
A: 2016", "
Q: What year was the goal for Russia's new carrier to achieve initial operational capability?
A: 2023", '
Q: What was Izvestiya?
A: Russian newspaper', '
Q: Where was the Northern Fleets nuclear-powered aircraft carrier supposed to be stationed?
A: Murmansk', '
Q: Where was the Pacific Fleets nuclear-powered aircraft carrier supposed to be stationed?
A: Vladivostok']
As "runways at sea", aircraft carriers have a flat-top flight deck, which launches and recovers aircraft. Aircraft launch forward, into the wind, and are recovered from astern. The flight deck is where the most notable differences between a carrier and a land runway are found. Creating such a surface at sea poses constraints on the carrier – for example, the fact that it is a ship means that a full-length runway would be costly to construct and maintain. This affects take-off procedure, as a shorter runway length of the deck requires that aircraft accelerate more quickly to gain lift. This either requires a thrust boost, a vertical component to its velocity, or a reduced take-off load (to lower mass). The differing types of deck configuration, as above, influence the structure of the flight deck. The form of launch assistance a carrier provides is strongly related to the types of aircraft embarked and the design of the carrier itself.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are typically regarded as "runways at sea"?
A: aircraft carriers', '
Q: What design feature do aircraft carriers feature to aid in launching and recovering aircraft?
A: flat-top flight deck', '
Q: Where are the most notable differences between a carrier and a land runway found?
A: The flight deck', '
Q: What is a primary reason that ships have shorter runways than land runways have?
A: a full-length runway would be costly to construct and maintain', '
Q: What do aircraft need to do when using shorter runway lengths?
A: accelerate more quickly to gain lift']
Since the early 1950s on conventional carriers it has been the practice to recover aircraft at an angle to port of the axial line of the ship. The primary function of this angled deck is to allow aircraft that miss the arresting wires, referred to as a bolter, to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked forward. The angled deck allows the installation of one or two "waist" catapults in addition to the two bow cats. An angled deck also improves launch and recovery cycle flexibility with the option of simultaneous launching and recovery of aircraft.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did conventional carriers start recovering aircraft at an angle to port of the axial line of the ship?
A: early 1950s', '
Q: What risk is avoided by aircraft by using an angled deck?
A: hitting aircraft parked forward', '
Q: How many "waist" catapults can be installed with an angled deck?
A: one or two', '
Q: How man bow cats can be installed with an angled deck?
A: two', '
Q: What aircraft design feature improves launch and recovery cycle flexibilty?
A: An angled deck']
Another deck structure that can be seen is a ski-jump ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was first developed to help launch STOVL aircraft take off at far higher weights than is possible with a vertical or rolling takeoff on flat decks. Originally developed by the Royal Navy, it since has been adopted by many navies for smaller carriers. A ski-jump ramp works by converting some of the forward rolling movement of the aircraft into vertical velocity and is sometimes combined with the aiming of jet thrust partly downwards. This allows heavily loaded and fueled aircraft a few more precious seconds to attain sufficient air velocity and lift to sustain normal flight. Without a ski-jump launching fully loaded and fueled aircraft such as the Harrier would not be possible on a smaller flat deck ship before either stalling out or crashing directly into the sea.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where are ski-jump ramps located on aircraft carriers?
A: the forward end of the flight deck', "
Q: What did ski-jump ramps allow STOVL aircraft to do that they couldn't do with a flat deck??
A: take off at far higher weights", '
Q: Who originally developed the ski-jump ramp?
A: the Royal Navy', '
Q: What does a ski-jump ramp convert in order to be successful?
A: some of the forward rolling movement of the aircraft into vertical velocity', '
Q: What does the ski-jump ramp prevent a fully loaded and fueled aircraft from doing?
A: either stalling out or crashing directly into the sea']
An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets. Aircraft carriers have evolved from converted cruisers to nuclear-powered warships that carry numerous fighter planes, strike aircraft, helicopters, and other types of aircraft.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of flight decks are aircraft carriers equipped with?
A: full-length', '
Q: What purpose do aircraft carriers serve for aircraft?
A: carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering', '
Q: Typically, what is the capital ship of any fleet?
A: An aircraft carrier', '
Q: What have the old converted cruiser aircraft carriers evolved into?
A: nuclear-powered warships', '
Q: What do aircraft carriers allow naval forces to accomplish?
A: project air power worldwide without depending on local bases']
The 1903 advent of heavier-than-air fixed-wing aircraft was closely followed in 1910 by the first experimental take-off of an airplane, made from the deck of a United States Navy vessel (cruiser USS Birmingham), and the first experimental landings were conducted in 1911. On 9 May 1912 the first airplane take-off from a ship underway was made from the deck of the British Royal Navy's HMS Hibernia. Seaplane tender support ships came next, with the French Foudre of 1911. In September 1914 the Imperial Japanese Navy Wakamiya conducted the world's first successful ship-launched air raid: on 6 September 1914 a Farman aircraft launched by Wakamiya attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth and the German gunboat Jaguar in Kiaochow Bay off Tsingtao; neither was hit. The first carrier-launched airstrike was the Tondern Raid in July 1918. Seven Sopwith Camels launched from the converted battlecruiser HMS Furious damaged the German airbase at Tønder and destroyed two zeppelins.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was the advent of heavier-than-air fixed-wing aircraft?
A: 1903', '
Q: In what year was the first experimental take-off of an airplane?
A: 1910', '
Q: In what year were the first experimental landings of an airplane?
A: 1911', '
Q: What was the first carrier-launched airstrike?
A: the Tondern Raid in July 1918', "
Q: What did the Imperial Japanese Navy Wakamiya conduct in September 1914?
A: the world's first successful ship-launched air raid"]
Modern navies that operate such aircraft carriers treat them as the capital ship of the fleet, a role previously held by the battleship. This change took place during World War II in response to air power becoming a significant factor in warfare, driven by the superior range, flexibility and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance. Supercarriers, displacing 75,000 tonnes or greater, have become the pinnacle of carrier development. Some are powered by nuclear reactors and form the core of a fleet designed to operate far from home. Amphibious assault ships, such as USS Tarawa and HMS Ocean, serve the purpose of carrying and landing Marines, and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as "commando carriers" or "helicopter carriers", many have the capability to operate VSTOL aircraft.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which ship was originally known as being the capital ship of the fleet?
A: the battleship', '
Q: When did aircraft carriers begin being know as the capital ship of the fleet?
A: World War II', '
Q: What type of carrier is capable of displacing 75,000 tonnes or greater?
A: Supercarriers', '
Q: Which ships are used for carrying and landing Marines?
A: Amphibious assault ships', '
Q: What do Amphibious assalut ships need a large contingent of for carrying Marines?
A: helicopters']
The Royal Australian Navy is in the process of procuring two Canberra-class LHD's, the first of which was commissioned in November 2015, while the second is expected to enter service in 2016. The ships will be the largest in Australian naval history. Their primary roles are to embark, transport and deploy an embarked force and to carry out or support humanitarian assistance missions. The LHD is capable of launching multiple helicopters at one time while maintaining an amphibious capability of 1,000 troops and their supporting vehicles (tanks, armoured personnel carriers etc.). The Australian Defence Minister has publicly raised the possibility of procuring F-35B STOVL aircraft for the carrier, stating that it "has been on the table since day one and stating the LHD's are "STOVL capable".

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who is in the process of procuring two Canbera-class LHD's?
A: The Royal Australian Navy", "
Q: How large will the two Canbera-class LDH's be?
A: the largest in Australian naval history", '
Q: How many troops can be maintained on a Canbera-class LHD?
A: 1,000 troops and their supporting vehicles', '
Q: What is one primary role of the Canbera-class LDH?
A: to embark, transport and deploy an embarked force', '
Q: How many helicopters is the LHD capable of launching?
A: multiple helicopters at one time']
The British Royal Navy is constructing two new larger STOVL aircraft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth class, to replace the three Invincible-class carriers. The ships will be named HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales. They will be able to operate up to 40 aircraft in peace time with a tailored group of up to 50, and will have a displacement of 70,600 tonnes. The ships are due to become operational from 2020. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of F-35B Lightning IIs, and their ship's company will number around 680 with the total complement rising to about 1,600 when the air group is embarked. Defensive weapons will include the Phalanx Close-In Weapons System for anti-aircraft and anti-missile defence; also 30 mm Automated Small Calibre Guns and miniguns for use against fast attack craft. The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the British Navy constructing to replace their three Invincible-class carriers?
A: two new larger STOVL aircraft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth class', '
Q: What will the 2 Queen Elizabeth class ships be named?
A: HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales', '
Q: When are the 2 Queen Elizabeth class ships due to become operational?
A: 2020', '
Q: How many tonnes can the Queen Elizabeth class ships displace?
A: 70,600', '
Q: How large will the two Queen Elizabeth ships be?
A: the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy']
The constraints of constructing a flight deck affect the role of a given carrier strongly, as they influence the weight, type, and configuration of the aircraft that may be launched. For example, assisted launch mechanisms are used primarily for heavy aircraft, especially those loaded with air-to-ground weapons. CATOBAR is most commonly used on USN supercarriers as it allows the deployment of heavy jets with full loadouts, especially on ground-attack missions. STOVL is used by other navies because it is cheaper to operate and still provides good deployment capability for fighter aircraft.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why do the constraints of constructing a flight deck affect the role of a carrier?
A: they influence the weight, type, and configuration of the aircraft that may be launched', '
Q: What are assisted launch mechanisms primarily used for?
A: heavy aircraft', '
Q: What does CATOBAR allow for?
A: deployment of heavy jets with full loadouts', '
Q: Why is STOVL used by other navies?
A: it is cheaper to operate']
On the recovery side of the flight deck, the adaptation to the aircraft loadout is mirrored. Non-VTOL or conventional aircraft cannot decelerate on their own, and almost all carriers using them must have arrested-recovery systems (-BAR, e.g. CATOBAR or STOBAR) to recover their aircraft. Aircraft that are landing extend a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring themselves to a stop in a short distance. Post-WWII Royal Navy research on safer CATOBAR recovery eventually led to universal adoption of a landing area angled off axis to allow aircraft who missed the arresting wires to "bolt" and safely return to flight for another landing attempt rather than crashing into aircraft on the forward deck.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why do almost all carriers using conventional aircraft have arrested-recovery systems?
A: conventional aircraft cannot decelerate on their own', '
Q: What is the purpose of an arrested-recovery system?
A: to recover their aircraft', '
Q: What do aircraft do when landing in order to stop on a short distance?
A: extend a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck', '
Q: What does a landing area angles off access allow an aircraft to do if if misses the arresting wires?
A: bolt', '
Q: What can a "bolt" prevent an aircraft from doing?
A: crashing into aircraft on the forward deck']
Key personnel involved in the flight deck include the shooters, the handler, and the air boss. Shooters are naval aviators or Naval Flight Officers and are responsible for launching aircraft. The handler works just inside the island from the flight deck and is responsible for the movement of aircraft before launching and after recovery. The "air boss" (usually a commander) occupies the top bridge (Primary Flight Control, also called primary or the tower) and has the overall responsibility for controlling launch, recovery and "those aircraft in the air near the ship, and the movement of planes on the flight deck, which itself resembles a well-choreographed ballet." The captain of the ship spends most of his time one level below primary on the Navigation Bridge. Below this is the Flag Bridge, designated for the embarked admiral and his staff.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are 3 key personnel involved in the flight deck?
A: the shooters, the handler, and the air boss', '
Q: What are shooters responsible for?
A: launching aircraft', '
Q: What is the handler responsible for?
A: the movement of aircraft before launching and after recovery', '
Q: Where does the captain of the ship spend most of his time?
A: on the Navigation Bridge', '
Q: Who is the Flag Bridge area of the ship designated for?
A: the embarked admiral and his staff']