romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern domesticated flower species were formerly simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long has flower evolution occurred? 
A: present day', '
Q: What heritage do many modern domesticated flower species have?
A: formerly simple weeds', '
Q: Humans have effected some flowers so much they can no longer do what in nature?
A: pollinated', '
Q: Why did weeds grow with human crops?
A: symbiotic companion plant relationships', '
Q: What feature helped flowers not get plucked?
A: prettiest']
The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales. The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. Among the rest, the relationship between the three broadest of these groups (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots) remains unclear. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots. Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What three groups were the first to diverge from angiosperm?
A: Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales', '
Q: What term refers to the first three groups to diverge from angiosperm?
A: basal', '
Q: How clear is the relationship between the broadest of the three non-basal angiosperm groups?
A: unclear', '
Q: What group do some analyses seem to indicate diverged first?
A: magnoliids']
The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek αγγείον, angeíon (bottle, vessel) and σπέρμα, (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carl Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name Gymnosperms.[citation needed] From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term did Paul Hermann come up with in 1690?
A: Angiosperm', '
Q: What did Hermann use the term angiosperm a primary division of in the plant kingdom?
A: primary', '
Q: Who restricted the application of the angiosperm term?
A: Carl Linnaeus', '
Q: What did Robert Brown establish the existence of in Cycadeae and Coniferae?
A: naked ovules', '
Q: What is the group-name angiosperm has been used for by botanical writers?
A: other dicotyledonous plants']
In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003 and 2009 revisions, treat the flowering plants as a clade called angiosperms without a formal botanical name. However, a formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants form the Subclass Magnoliidae.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In taxonomies, what type of group are flowering plants treated?
A: coherent', '
Q: What does anthophyta mean?
A: flowering plants', '
Q: What do the Wettstein and Engler systems use at the assigned rank of subdivision?
A: Angiospermae', '
Q: How does the APG system of 1998, with its 2003 and 2009 revisions, treat flowering plants?
A: a clade called angiosperms', '
Q: What formal subclass classification were flowering plants given in 2009?
A: Magnoliidae']
The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as APG II in 2003 and as APG III in 2009.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What consensus is the AGP trying to reach?
A: how the flowering plants should be arranged', '
Q: What internal component has undergone considerable revision?
A: classification', '
Q: What system did Arthur Cronquist put forth in 1968, but not publish in full form until 1981?
A: The Cronquist system', '
Q: Who published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998?
A: APG']
Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (clade) but that the dicots do not (they are paraphyletic). Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species do form a monophyletic group, called the eudicots or tricolpates. Of the remaining dicot species, most belong to a third major clade known as the magnoliids, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of primitive species known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of groups do monocots form, based on a recent APG studies?
A: monophyletic', '
Q: Eudicots or tricolpates are part of a monophyletic group formed by what species?
A: dicot', '
Q: What third major clade can many dicot species be found in?
A: magnoliids', '
Q: How many species dicot species are magnoliids?
A: about 9,000', '
Q: Basal angiosperms are what type of grouping of primitive species?
A: paraphyletic']
The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss or 11,000 species of pteridophytes, showing that the flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the estimated range for the number of flowering plants?
A: 250,000 to 400,000', '
Q: How many species of moss is there?
A: 12,000', '
Q: What does the large number of flowering plant species indicate is true of them in general?
A: diverse', '
Q: What are the minimum number of families in the APG system?
A: 402', '
Q: How many families are in AGP III?
A: 415']
In the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What shape are the bundles in the young stem of dicotyledons arranged in?
A: an open ring', '
Q: What does the cambium separate?
A: xylem and phloem', '
Q: What is a layer of meristem or formative tissue known as?
A: cambium', '
Q: What results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside?
A: increase in thickness', "
Q: What's another name for the concentric rings in trees?
A: annual rings"]
The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the defining feature of angiosperms?
A: flower', '
Q: What characteristic flowers show variation in?
A: form and elaboration', '
Q: What do flowers provide the best external feature for doing?
A: establishing relationships among angiosperm species', '
Q: What is it the function of the flower to ensure fertilization of?
A: the ovule', '
Q: What is the name of a branch system?
A: inflorescence']
The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is a willow's flower comprised of?
A: only a few stamens or two carpels", '
Q: What have some structures evolved to protect?
A: the sporophylls', '
Q: What appearance are calyx of sepals typically?
A: green and leaf-like', '
Q: Individual members of enveloping structures are known by what terms?
A: sepals and petals', '
Q: The features of flowers which attract pollinators also attract what other creature?
A: humans']
While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What sexual feature do a majority of flowers demonstrate?
A: hermaphrodite', '
Q: Why did flowering plants develop numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms?
A: reduce or prevent self-fertilization', "
Q: Why are a heteromorphic flower's carpels and stamens different lengths?
A: so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil", '
Q: What type of mechanism might homomorphic flowers use to tell the difference between foreign and self pollen grains?
A: biochemical', '
Q: How are some male and female parts separated for some species?
A: different flowers']
Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into fruit and the ovule will develop into seed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What process does double fertilization refer to?
A: two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary', '
Q: What does a pollen grain adhere to, to start the process of double fertilization?
A: the stigma of the pistil', "
Q: What type of cell travels down the pollen tube while it's growing?
A: haploid generative", '
Q: Where does the pollen tube release its sperm cells?
A: one of the synergids', "
Q: What serves as the embryo's food supply?
A: endosperm"]
The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The appearance of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of what?
A: the fruit', '
Q: What does the seed coat protect?
A: embryo', '
Q: What does the fruit of the flower secure?
A: dissemination', "
Q: How developed is the seed coat when it's used for dissemination?
A: slightly"]
Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn — maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: On what is agriculture almost completely dependent?
A: angiosperms', '
Q: What family of plants is most important for human sustenance?
A: Poaceae', '
Q: What is the more common name of the Fabaceae?
A: legume', '
Q: What family do potatoes, tomatoes and peppers belong to?
A: Solanaceae', '
Q: What family would you find cherries in?
A: Rosaceae']
Hyderabad (i/ˈhaɪdərəˌbæd/ HY-dər-ə-bad; often /ˈhaɪdrəˌbæd/) is the capital of the southern Indian state of Telangana and de jure capital of Andhra Pradesh.[A] Occupying 650 square kilometres (250 sq mi) along the banks of the Musi River, it has a population of about 6.7 million and a metropolitan population of about 7.75 million, making it the fourth most populous city and sixth most populous urban agglomeration in India. At an average altitude of 542 metres (1,778 ft), much of Hyderabad is situated on hilly terrain around artificial lakes, including Hussain Sagar—predating the city's founding—north of the city centre.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which city is the capital of Telangana?
A: Hyderabad (i/ˈhaɪdərəˌbæd/ HY-dər-ə-bad; often /ˈhaɪdrəˌbæd/) is the capital of the southern Indian state of Telangana', '
Q: How many square miles does Hyderabad cover?
A: 250 sq mi', '
Q: What river is Hyderabad next to?
A: the Musi River', '
Q: What is the population of Hyderabad?
A: about 6.7 million', '
Q: At what altitude is Hyderabad, in meters?
A: an average altitude of 542 metres']
Established in 1591 by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Hyderabad remained under the rule of the Qutb Shahi dynasty for nearly a century before the Mughals captured the region. In 1724, Mughal viceroy Asif Jah I declared his sovereignty and created his own dynasty, known as the Nizams of Hyderabad. The Nizam's dominions became a princely state during the British Raj, and remained so for 150 years, with the city serving as its capital. The Nizami influence can still be seen in the culture of the Hyderabadi Muslims. The city continued as the capital of Hyderabad State after it was brought into the Indian Union in 1948, and became the capital of Andhra Pradesh after the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. Since 1956, Rashtrapati Nilayam in the city has been the winter office of the President of India. In 2014, the newly formed state of Telangana split from Andhra Pradesh and the city became joint capital of the two states, a transitional arrangement scheduled to end by 2025.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was Hyderabad established?
A: Established in 1591', '
Q: Who is the person that established Hyderabad?
A: Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah', '
Q: What dynasty controlled Hyderabad until the early 18th century?
A: the Qutb Shahi dynasty', '
Q: Which Mughal viceroy created a dynasty in early 18th century Hyderabad?
A: Mughal viceroy Asif Jah I declared his sovereignty and created his own dynasty', '
Q: Which dynasty did Asif Jah I create?
A: Nizams of Hyderabad']
Relics of Qutb Shahi and Nizam rule remain visible today, with the Charminar—commissioned by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah—coming to symbolise Hyderabad. Golconda fort is another major landmark. The influence of Mughlai culture is also evident in the city's distinctive cuisine, which includes Hyderabadi biryani and Hyderabadi haleem. The Qutb Shahis and Nizams established Hyderabad as a cultural hub, attracting men of letters from different parts of the world. Hyderabad emerged as the foremost centre of culture in India with the decline of the Mughal Empire in the mid-19th century, with artists migrating to the city from the rest of the Indian subcontinent. While Hyderabad is losing its cultural pre-eminence, it is today, due to the Telugu film industry, the country's second-largest producer of motion pictures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which individual commissioned Chaminar?
A: Muhammad Quli Qutb', '
Q: When did Hyderabad become important culturally in India?
A: the mid-19th century', '
Q: Which two groups had an influence in making Hyderabad a cultural center?
A: The Qutb Shahis and Nizams', '
Q: What culture is most represented in the food of Hyderabad?
A: Mughlai culture', "
Q: Hyderabad has India's second biggest film production industry, what is it called?
A: Telugu film industry"]
Hyderabad was historically known as a pearl and diamond trading centre, and it continues to be known as the City of Pearls. Many of the city's traditional bazaars, including Laad Bazaar, Begum Bazaar and Sultan Bazaar, have remained open for centuries. However, industrialisation throughout the 20th century attracted major Indian manufacturing, research and financial institutions, including Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, the National Geophysical Research Institute and the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology. Special economic zones dedicated to information technology have encouraged companies from across India and around the world to set up operations and the emergence of pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries in the 1990s led to the area's naming as India's "Genome Valley". With an output of US$74 billion, Hyderabad is the fifth-largest contributor to India's overall gross domestic product.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What items had been historically traded in Hyderabad?
A: pearl and diamond', '
Q: What is a nickname for Hyderabad?
A: City of Pearls', '
Q: What are three historic bazaars in Hyderabad?
A: Laad Bazaar, Begum Bazaar and Sultan Bazaar', '
Q: What is the economic output of Hyderabad?
A: US$74 billion', "
Q: What is the rank of Hyderabad among cities contributing to India's GDP?
A: fifth-largest"]
According to John Everett-Heath, the author of Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place Names, Hyderabad means "Haydar's city" or "lion city", from haydar (lion) and ābād (city). It was named to honour the Caliph Ali Ibn Abi Talib, who was also known as Haydar because of his lion-like valour in battles. Andrew Petersen, a scholar of Islamic architecture, says the city was originally called Baghnagar (city of gardens). One popular theory suggests that Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the founder of the city, named it "Bhagyanagar" or "Bhāgnagar" after Bhagmati, a local nautch (dancing) girl with whom he had fallen in love. She converted to Islam and adopted the title Hyder Mahal. The city was renamed Hyderabad in her honour. According to another source, the city was named after Haidar, the son of Quli Qutb Shah.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place Names say Hyderabad means?
A: "Haydar\'s city" or "lion city"', '
Q: Hyderabad was named in honor of someone, who was it?
A: Caliph Ali Ibn Abi Talib', '
Q: What does Andrew Petersen say that Hyderabad was originally known as?
A: Baghnagar (city of gardens).', '
Q: Who founded what came to be known Hyderabad?
A: Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah', '
Q: What person is Hyderabad said to have been renamed for?
A: "Bhagyanagar" or "Bhāgnagar" after Bhagmati, a local nautch (dancing) girl']