romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The International Development Law Organization (IDLO) is an intergovernmental organization with a joint focus on the promotion of rule of law and development. It works to empower people and communities to claim their rights, and provides governments with the know-how to realize them. It supports emerging economies and middle-income countries to strengthen their legal capacity and rule of law framework for sustainable development and economic opportunity. It is the only intergovernmental organization with an exclusive mandate to promote the rule of law and has experience working in more than 170 countries around the world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What organization works to further the understanding and adherence to the rule of law?
A: The International Development Law Organization', '
Q: What types of economies does the IDLO focus on helping?
A: emerging economies and middle-income', '
Q: With how many countries does the IDLO work?
A: more than 170']
One important aspect of the rule-of-law initiatives is the study and analysis of the rule of law’s impact on economic development. The rule-of-law movement cannot be fully successful in transitional and developing countries without an answer to the question: does the rule of law matter for economic development or not? Constitutional economics is the study of the compatibility of economic and financial decisions within existing constitutional law frameworks, and such a framework includes government spending on the judiciary, which, in many transitional and developing countries, is completely controlled by the executive. It is useful to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary: corruption by the executive branch, in contrast to corruption by private actors.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The impact of the rule of law on what is closely studied?
A: economic development', '
Q: What doctrine seeks to study rules and their relationship with the economy?
A: Constitutional economics', '
Q: In what branch of government is corruption examined?
A: executive branch', '
Q: In developing countries, who makes most of the spending decisions?
A: the executive', '
Q: What is the term for corruption by individuals?
A: corruption by private actors']
The Rule of Law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. To date, the term “rule of law” has been used primarily in the English-speaking countries, and it is not yet fully clarified even with regard to such well-established democracies as, for instance, Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan. A common language between lawyers of common law and civil law countries as well as between legal communities of developed and developing countries is critically important for research of links between the rule of law and real economy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language is spoken in most rule of law countries?
A: English', '
Q: In non English speaking countries, what is the rule of law referred to as?
A: not yet fully clarified', '
Q: In what types of countries is the rule of law important to the economy?
A: developing and transitional', '
Q: What other countries have successful democracies?
A: Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan', '
Q: What is critically important for discussion of rules, laws, and the economy?
A: common language']
The economist F. A. Hayek analyzed how the Rule of Law might be beneficial to the free market. Hayek proposed that under the Rule of Law individuals would be able to make wise investments and future plans with some confidence in a successful return on investment when he stated: "under the Rule of Law the government is prevented from stultifying individual efforts by ad hoc action. Within the known rules of the game the individual is free to pursue his personal ends and desires, certain that the powers of government will not be used deliberately to frustrate his efforts."

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is F.A. Hayek's profession?
A: economist", '
Q: According to Hayek, with the rule of law in place what will help people make more wise investments?
A: confidence in a successful return on investment', '
Q: According to Hayek, limited governemnt power through the rule of law does not do what to people?
A: frustrate his efforts', '
Q: According to Hayek, people are free to do what within the rule of law?
A: pursue his personal ends and desires']
Tibet (i/tᵻˈbɛt/; Wylie: Bod, pronounced [pʰø̀ʔ]; Chinese: 西藏; pinyin: Xīzàng) is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Qiang and Lhoba peoples and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han Chinese and Hui people. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an average elevation of 4,900 metres (16,000 ft). The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, earth's highest mountain rising 8,848 m (29,029 ft) above sea level.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the highest elevation in Tibet?
A: Mount Everest', '
Q: Which continent contains Tibet?
A: Asia', '
Q: What is the average elevation of Tibet, in feet?
A: 16,000', "
Q: How many feet above sea level does earth's highest mountain rise?
A: 29,029", '
Q: Where is the traditional homeland of Monpa, Qiang, and Lhoba peoples?
A: Tibet']
The Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The bulk of western and central Tibet (Ü-Tsang) was often at least nominally unified under a series of Tibetan governments in Lhasa, Shigatse, or nearby locations; these governments were at various times under Mongol and Chinese overlordship. The eastern regions of Kham and Amdo often maintained a more decentralized indigenous political structure, being divided among a number of small principalities and tribal groups, while also often falling more directly under Chinese rule after the Battle of Chamdo; most of this area was eventually incorporated into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Qinghai. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When were the current borders of Tibet established?
A: 18th century', '
Q: When did the Tibetan empire emerge?
A: 7th century', '
Q: Which Chinese provinces used to be the eastern part of Tibet?
A: Sichuan and Qinghai', '
Q: Which battle left parts of Tibet under Chinese rule?
A: Battle of Chamdo']
Following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area (Ü-Tsang). The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government. Later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. The region maintained its autonomy until 1951 when, following the Battle of Chamdo, Tibet became incorporated into the People's Republic of China, and the previous Tibetan government was abolished in 1959 after a failed uprising. Today, China governs western and central Tibet as the Tibet Autonomous Region while the eastern areas are now mostly ethnic autonomous prefectures within Sichuan, Qinghai and other neighbouring provinces. There are tensions regarding Tibet's political status and dissident groups that are active in exile. It is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was the Tibetan government abolished?
A: 1959', '
Q: In what year did Xinhai revolt against the Qing dynasty?
A: 1912', '
Q: Where is the Tibet Autonomous Region?
A: western and central Tibet', "
Q: Which battle led to Tibet's incorporation into the People's Republic of China?
A: Battle of Chamdo"]
The economy of Tibet is dominated by subsistence agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism; in addition there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism, and there are also Tibetan Muslims and Christian minorities. Tibetan Buddhism is a primary influence on the art, music, and festivals of the region. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences. Staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the economy of Tibet dominated by?
A: subsistence agriculture', '
Q: What has recently become a growing industry in Tibet?
A: tourism', '
Q: What is the dominant religion in Tibet?
A: Tibetan Buddhism', '
Q: What is a staple food in Tibet?
A: yak meat', '
Q: Which two cultures does Tibetan architecture reflect?
A: Chinese and Indian']
The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means "Tibet" or "Tibetan Plateau", although it originally meant the central region around Lhasa, now known in Tibetan as Ü. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, [pʰøʔ˨˧˨], is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Some scholars believe the first written reference to Bod "Tibet" was the ancient Bautai people recorded in the Egyptian Greek works Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) and Geographia (Ptolemy, 2nd century CE), itself from the Sanskrit form Bhauṭṭa of the Indian geographical tradition.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the Tibetan name for the area?
A: Bod', '
Q: Which ancient people were mentioned in the first written reference to Bod "Tibet"?
A: Bautai', '
Q: What area did Bod originally refer to?
A: central region around Lhasa']
The modern Standard Chinese exonym for the ethnic Tibetan region is Zangqu (Chinese: 藏区; pinyin: Zàngqū), which derives by metonymy from the Tsang region around Shigatse plus the addition of a Chinese suffix, 区 qū, which means "area, district, region, ward". Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang (Chinese: 藏; pinyin: Zàng) although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor (1796–1820) through the addition of a prefix meaning "west" (西 xī) to Zang.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is the ethnic Tibetan region referred to as a modern Standard Chinese exonym?
A: Zangqu', '
Q: How do the Chinese refer to Tibetan people, language, and culture?
A: Zang', '
Q: During which dynasty was the term Xizang first used?
A: Qing', '
Q: Which Chinese suffix means "area, district, region, ward"?
A: qū']
The best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo (Chinese: 吐蕃 also written as 土蕃 or 土番; pinyin: Tǔbō or Tǔfān). This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century (Li Tai) and as 吐蕃 in the 10th-century (Old Book of Tang describing 608–609 emissaries from Tibetan King Namri Songtsen to Emperor Yang of Sui). In the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon (with the x representing tone).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet?
A: Tubo', '
Q: When did the name for Tibet, Tubo, first appear in Chinese characters?
A: 7th century', '
Q: Who reconstructed Middle Chinese spoken from the 7th century to the 10th century?
A: William H. Baxter']
Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo (Chinese: 烏斯國; pinyin: Wūsīguó; cf. Tibetan dbus, Ü, [wyʔ˨˧˨]), Wusizang (Chinese: 烏斯藏; pinyin: wūsīzàng, cf. Tibetan dbus-gtsang, Ü-Tsang), Tubote (Chinese: 圖伯特; pinyin: Túbótè), and Tanggute (Chinese: 唐古忒; pinyin: Tánggǔtè, cf. Tangut). American Tibetologist Elliot Sperling has argued in favor of a recent tendency by some authors writing in Chinese to revive the term Tubote (simplified Chinese: 图伯特; traditional Chinese: 圖伯特; pinyin: Túbótè) for modern use in place of Xizang, on the grounds that Tubote more clearly includes the entire Tibetan plateau rather than simply the Tibet Autonomous Region.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is an American Tibetologist?
A: Elliot Sperling', '
Q: What name for Tibet most clearly includes the entire Tibetan plateau?
A: Tubote', '
Q: What is another pre-modern Chinese name for Tibet?
A: Wusiguo']
The language has numerous regional dialects which are generally not mutually intelligible. It is employed throughout the Tibetan plateau and Bhutan and is also spoken in parts of Nepal and northern India, such as Sikkim. In general, the dialects of central Tibet (including Lhasa), Kham, Amdo and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularly Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Sherpa, and Ladakhi, are considered by their speakers, largely for political reasons, to be separate languages. However, if the latter group of Tibetan-type languages are included in the calculation, then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by approximately 6 million people across the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan is also spoken by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: How many people across the Tibetan Plateau speak 'greater Tibetan'?
A: approximately 6 million", '
Q: How many people who have fled modern-day Tibet are considered to be exile speakers of Tibetan?
A: approximately 150,000', '
Q: Why are Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Sherpa, and Ladakhi considered to be separate languages?
A: political reasons']
Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language, based on Classical Tibetan, is consistent throughout. This is probably due to the long-standing influence of the Tibetan empire, whose rule embraced (and extended at times far beyond) the present Tibetan linguistic area, which runs from northern Pakistan in the west to Yunnan and Sichuan in the east, and from north of Qinghai Lake south as far as Bhutan. The Tibetan language has its own script which it shares with Ladakhi and Dzongkha, and which is derived from the ancient Indian Brāhmī script.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is written Tibetan base on?
A: Classical Tibetan', '
Q: What influenced the consistency of the written Tibetan language?
A: Tibetan empire', "
Q: From what was the Tibetan language's script derived?
A: ancient Indian Brāhmī script"]
The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify the Zhang Zhung culture as a people who migrated from the Amdo region into what is now the region of Guge in western Tibet. Zhang Zhung is considered to be the original home of the Bön religion. By the 1st century BCE, a neighboring kingdom arose in the Yarlung valley, and the Yarlung king, Drigum Tsenpo, attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bön priests from Yarlung. He was assassinated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region until it was annexed by Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Prior to Songtsän Gampo, the kings of Tibet were more mythological than factual, and there is insufficient evidence of their existence.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did the Zhang Zhung people migrate from?
A: Amdo region', '
Q: Where did the Zhang Zhung people migrate to?
A: western Tibet', '
Q: What is considered to be the original home of the Bon religion?
A: Zhang Zhung', '
Q: Which Yarlung king attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung?
A: Drigum Tsenpo', '
Q: Who was the first factual king of Tibet?
A: Songtsän Gampo']
The history of a unified Tibet begins with the rule of Songtsän Gampo (604–650 CE), who united parts of the Yarlung River Valley and founded the Tibetan Empire. He also brought in many reforms, and Tibetan power spread rapidly, creating a large and powerful empire. It is traditionally considered that his first wife was the Princess of Nepal, Bhrikuti, and that she played a great role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. In 640 he married Princess Wencheng, the niece of the powerful Chinese emperor Taizong of Tang China.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who founded the Tibetan Empire?
A: Songtsän Gampo', '
Q: Who did Songtsan Gampo marry in 640?
A: Princess Wencheng', "
Q: Who was Songtsan Gampo's first wife?
A: Princess of Nepal, Bhrikuti", '
Q: What did Songtsan Gampo unite?
A: parts of the Yarlung River Valley']
In 821/822 CE Tibet and China signed a peace treaty. A bilingual account of this treaty, including details of the borders between the two countries, is inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa. Tibet continued as a Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century, when a civil war over succession led to the collapse of imperial Tibet. The period that followed is known traditionally as the Era of Fragmentation, when political control over Tibet became divided between regional warlords and tribes with no dominant centralized authority.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Tibet and China sign a peace treaty?
A: 821/822 CE', "
Q: Where does a bilingual account of Tibet and China's peace treaty exist?
A: Jokhang temple in Lhasa", '
Q: When did a civil war over succession lead to the collapse of imperial Tibet?
A: mid-9th century', '
Q: What followed the collapse of imperial Tibet?
A: Era of Fragmentation', '
Q: What was divided between warlords and tribes with no dominant centralized authority?
A: political control over Tibet']
The Mongol Yuan dynasty, through the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs, or Xuanzheng Yuan, ruled Tibet through a top-level administrative department. One of the department's purposes was to select a dpon-chen ('great administrator'), usually appointed by the lama and confirmed by the Mongol emperor in Beijing. The Sakya lama retained a degree of autonomy, acting as the political authority of the region, while the dpon-chen held administrative and military power. Mongol rule of Tibet remained separate from the main provinces of China, but the region existed under the administration of the Yuan dynasty. If the Sakya lama ever came into conflict with the dpon-chen, the dpon-chen had the authority to send Chinese troops into the region.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which dynasty ruled Tibet through a top-level administrative department?
A: Mongol Yuan', '
Q: What was a dpon-chen?
A: great administrator', '
Q: Who confirmed the dpon-chen?
A: Mongol emperor', '
Q: Who was the political authority of the region?
A: Sakya lama', '
Q: Who held administrative and military power?
A: dpon-chen']
Tibet retained nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols managed a structural and administrative rule over the region, reinforced by the rare military intervention. This existed as a "diarchic structure" under the Yuan emperor, with power primarily in favor of the Mongols. Mongolian prince Khuden gained temporal power in Tibet in the 1240s and sponsored Sakya Pandita, whose seat became the capital of Tibet. Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, Sakya Pandita's nephew became Imperial Preceptor of Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who managed religious and regional political affairs?
A: Tibet', '
Q: Who managed structural and administrative rule?
A: Mongols', '
Q: Who gained temporal power in Tibet in the 1240s?
A: Mongolian prince Khuden', '
Q: Who founded the Yuan dynasty?
A: Imperial Preceptor of Kublai Khan']
Between 1346 and 1354, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen toppled the Sakya and founded the Phagmodrupa Dynasty. The following 80 years saw the founding of the Gelug school (also known as Yellow Hats) by the disciples of Je Tsongkhapa, and the founding of the important Ganden, Drepung and Sera monasteries near Lhasa. However, internal strife within the dynasty and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family Rinpungpa, based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565 they were overthrown by the Tsangpa Dynasty of Shigatse which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Phagmodrupa Dynasty founded?
A: Between 1346 and 1354', '
Q: Who founded the Gelug school?
A: disciples of Je Tsongkhapa', '
Q: Who dominated politics after 1435?
A: minister family Rinpungpa', '
Q: What sect did the Tsangpa Dynasty of Shigatse favor?
A: Karma Kagyu']
The 5th Dalai Lama is known for unifying the Tibetan heartland under the control of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, after defeating the rival Kagyu and Jonang sects and the secular ruler, the Tsangpa prince, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid from Güshi Khan, the Oirat leader of the Khoshut Khanate. With Güshi Khan as a largely uninvolved overlord, the 5th Dalai Lama and his intimates established a civil administration which is referred to by historians as the Lhasa state. This Tibetan regime or government is also referred to as the Ganden Phodrang.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is known for unifying the Tibetan heartland?
A: 5th Dalai Lama', '
Q: Who helped the 5th Dalai Lama?
A: Güshi Khan', '
Q: What did the 5th Dalai Lama and his intimates establish?
A: Lhasa state', '
Q: What is the Tibetan goverment referred to as?
A: Ganden Phodrang']
Qing dynasty rule in Tibet began with their 1720 expedition to the country when they expelled the invading Dzungars. Amdo came under Qing control in 1724, and eastern Kham was incorporated into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728. Meanwhile, the Qing government sent resident commissioners called Ambans to Lhasa. In 1750 the Ambans and the majority of the Han Chinese and Manchus living in Lhasa were killed in a riot, and Qing troops arrived quickly and suppressed the rebels in the next year. Like the preceding Yuan dynasty, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control of the region, while granting it a degree of political autonomy. The Qing commander publicly executed a number of supporters of the rebels and, as in 1723 and 1728, made changes in the political structure and drew up a formal organization plan. The Qing now restored the Dalai Lama as ruler, leading the governing council called Kashag, but elevated the role of Ambans to include more direct involvement in Tibetan internal affairs. At the same time the Qing took steps to counterbalance the power of the aristocracy by adding officials recruited from the clergy to key posts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Qing dynasty begin to rule in Tibet?
A: 1720', '
Q: When did Amdo come under Qing control?
A: 1724', '
Q: When was Kham incorporated into neighboring Chinese provinces?
A: 1728', '
Q: Who restored the Dalai Lama as a ruler?
A: Qing', '
Q: What was the governing councel called?
A: Kashag']
For several decades, peace reigned in Tibet, but in 1792 the Qing Qianlong Emperor sent a large Chinese army into Tibet to push the invading Nepalese out. This prompted yet another Qing reorganization of the Tibetan government, this time through a written plan called the "Twenty-Nine Regulations for Better Government in Tibet". Qing military garrisons staffed with Qing troops were now also established near the Nepalese border. Tibet was dominated by the Manchus in various stages in the 18th century, and the years immediately following the 1792 regulations were the peak of the Qing imperial commissioners' authority; but there was no attempt to make Tibet a Chinese province.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Qing Qianlong Emperor send a large Chinese army into Tibet?
A: 1792', '
Q: Why did the Qing Qianlong Emperor send a large Chinese army into Tibet?
A: push the invading Nepalese out', '
Q: What was the Qing reorganization of the Tibetan called?
A: Twenty-Nine Regulations for Better Government in Tibet', '
Q: When was Tibet dominated by the Manchus?
A: 18th century']