romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics?
A: US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance', '
Q: Which agencies control this task force?
A: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH)', '
Q: When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics?
A: 2002']
The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth?
A: 2003', '
Q: What report caused the UK to worry about resistance?
A: Swann report 1969', '
Q: What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals?
A: American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)', '
Q: Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production?
A: S.742 and H.R. 2562', "
Q: What 3 medical associations supported the bills?
A: American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA)"]
There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What besides sick people are antibiotics used for?
A: animal husbandry', '
Q: When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals?
A: 1977', '
Q: When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals?
A: March 2012']
Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections?
A: medicinal folklore', '
Q: When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used?
A: over 2000 years ago', '
Q: What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use?
A: mold and plant materials and extracts', '
Q: What does antibiosis mean?
A: against life', '
Q: Who came up with the term antibiosis?
A: Jean Paul Vuillemin']
The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections?
A: mold', '
Q: Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold?
A: Alexander Fleming', '
Q: What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties?
A: penicillin', '
Q: What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it?
A: chemotherapy']
The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first available antibiotic?
A: Prontosil', '
Q: What company developed Prontosil?
A: IG Farben', '
Q: Who led the team that came up with Prontosil?
A: Gerhard Domagk', '
Q: What prize did Domagk get for his work?
A: 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine']
In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first antibiotic developed from nature?
A: tyrothricin', '
Q: When was tyrothricin created?
A: 1939', '
Q: What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin?
A: start of World War II,', '
Q: Who discovered tyrothricin?
A: Rene Dubos', '
Q: What was tyrothricin used for during the war?
A: wounds and ulcers']
Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was penicillin G first purified?
A: 1942', '
Q: When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?
A: 1945', '
Q: Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?
A: Norman Heatley', '
Q: When was the chemical make-up of penicillin discovered?
A: 1945', '
Q: Who discovered the chemical structure of penicillin?
A: Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin']
Vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do vaccines need to work?
A: immune modulation or augmentation', '
Q: What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives?
A: Antibacterial vaccines', '
Q: What types of vaccines have been phased out?
A: Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates']
Phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bacterial viruses that infect bacteria by disrupting pathogenic bacterium lytic cycles. By disrupting the lytic cycles of bacterium, phages destroy their metabolism, which eventually results in the cell's death. Phages will insert their DNA into the bacterium, allowing their DNA to be transcribed. Once their DNA is transcribed the cell will proceed to make new phages and as soon as they are ready to be released, the cell will lyse. One of the worries about using phages to fight pathogens is that the phages will infect "good" bacteria, or the bacteria that are important in the everyday function of human beings. However, studies have proven that phages are very specific when they target bacteria, which makes researchers confident that bacteriophage therapy is the definite route to defeating antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria?
A: Phage therapy', '
Q: How have researchers been doing this?
A: infecting pathogenic bacteria', '
Q: What is a worry of using phages?
A: phages will infect "good" bacteria']
In April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines continuously. The report identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of resistance of GNB. Some of these antibiotics are combination of existent treatments:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years?
A: 2', '
Q: How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB?
A: seven', '
Q: What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production of new antibiotics does not keep up with resistance?
A: 2013']
Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who regulates antibiotic approval?
A: FDA', '
Q: What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics?
A: economic incentives', '
Q: What are resistant bacteria called in the media?
A: superbugs', '
Q: Who is a director at the Pew Charitable Trusts?
A: Allan Coukell,']
Frédéric François Chopin (/ˈʃoʊpæn/; French pronunciation: ​[fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃]; 22 February or 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849), born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin,[n 1] was a Polish and French (by citizenship and birth of father) composer and a virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, who wrote primarily for the solo piano. He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as one of the leading musicians of his era, whose "poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation." Chopin was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, and grew up in Warsaw, which after 1815 became part of Congress Poland. A child prodigy, he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Frédéric's nationalities?
A: Polish and French", '
Q: In what era was Frédéric active in?
A: Romantic era', '
Q: For what instrument did Frédéric write primarily for?
A: solo piano', '
Q: In what area was Frédéric born in?
A: Duchy of Warsaw', '
Q: At what age did Frédéric depart from Poland?
A: 20', '
Q: What year was Chopin born?
A: 1810', '
Q: What era was Chopin active during?
A: Romantic era', '
Q: Where did Chopin grow up?
A: Warsaw', '
Q: What instrument did he mostly compose for?
A: solo piano', '
Q: At what age did Chopin  leave Poland?
A: 20', '
Q: When did Chopin die?
A: 17 October 1849', "
Q: What was Chopin's full name?
A: Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin", "
Q: The majority of Chopin's compositions were for what instrument?
A: solo piano", '
Q: Chopin was active during what era?
A: Romantic era', '
Q: In what year was Chopin born?
A: 1810', '
Q: In what city was Chopin born and raised?
A: Warsaw', '
Q: How old was Chopin when he left Poland?
A: 20', '
Q: In what era of music did Chopin compose?
A: Romantic', '
Q: What year did Chopin die?
A: 1849']
At the age of 21 he settled in Paris. Thereafter, during the last 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano, for which he was in high demand. Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries, including Robert Schumann. In 1835 he obtained French citizenship. After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska, from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand. A brief and unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 1838–39 was one of his most productive periods of composition. In his last years, he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling, who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848. Through most of his life, Chopin suffered from poor health. He died in Paris in 1849, probably of tuberculosis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: At what age did Frédéric move to Paris?
A: 21', '
Q: How many public performances was Frédéric estimated to have given during the remainder of his life?
A: 30', '
Q: In what year did Frédéric obtain citizenship in France?
A: 1835', "
Q: In what area had Frédéric's most productive period of composition taken place?
A: Majorca", "
Q: What was Frédéric's most likely cause of death?
A: tuberculosis", '
Q: Where did he end up living when he was 21?
A: Paris', '
Q: How many public shows did he perform during the last years of his life?
A: 30', '
Q: What other composer did Chopin develop a friendship with?
A: Franz Liszt', '
Q: What year did he gain citizenship in France?
A: 1835', '
Q: What is the name of the woman he had a relationship with from 1837-847?
A: Maria Wodzińska', '
Q: At what age did Chopin move to Paris?
A: 21', '
Q: During the last 18 years he lived about how many times did Chopin perform in public?
A: 30', '
Q: What year did Chopin become a citizen of France?
A: 1835', '
Q: In the last years of his life who was the person that supported him financially?
A: Jane Stirling', '
Q: In what year did Chopin become a French citizen?
A: 1835', '
Q: Who gave Chopin money in the last years of his life?
A: Jane Stirling', '
Q: What was the likely cause of death for Chopin?
A: tuberculosis']
All of Chopin's compositions include the piano. Most are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces, and some songs to Polish lyrics. His keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity. Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade. His major piano works also include mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, études, impromptus, scherzos, preludes and sonatas, some published only after his death. Influences on his compositional style include Polish folk music, the classical tradition of J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert, the music of all of whom he admired, as well as the Paris salons where he was a frequent guest. His innovations in style, musical form, and harmony, and his association of music with nationalism, were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What instrument did every composition by Frédéric include?
A: piano', '
Q: What concept was Frédéric credited with creating?
A: instrumental ballade', '
Q: Whose music did Frédéric admire the most and thus provide influence on his work?
A: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert', "
Q: What features marked Frédéric's performance style and made them unique?
A: nuance and sensitivity", '
Q: What establishments did Frédéric frequently visit in Paris that influenced his career?
A: Paris salons', '
Q: Which instrument do every one of his compositions include?
A: piano', '
Q: What concept did Chopin create?
A: instrumental ballade', "
Q: What are two things Chopin's performances were known for?
A: nuance and sensitivity", "
Q: What three composers influenced Chopin's work?
A: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert", '
Q: Chopin wrote some music to lyrics, what language were the lyrics?
A: Polish', "
Q: What instrument is involved in all of Chopin's work?
A: piano", '
Q: Chopin composed several songs to lyrics of what language?
A: Polish', "
Q: Chopin's performances were known for what?
A: nuance and sensitivity", '
Q: What three composers did Chopin take inspiration from?
A: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert', "
Q: What instrument was all of Chopin's compositions written for?
A: piano", '
Q: What language were some songs written in that Chopin wrote music for?
A: Polish', '
Q: Of what venue was Chopin an often invited guest?
A: Paris salons']
In his native Poland, in France, where he composed most of his works, and beyond, Chopin's music, his status as one of music's earliest superstars, his association (if only indirect) with political insurrection, his love life and his early death have made him, in the public consciousness, a leading symbol of the Romantic era. His works remain popular, and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was the degree of Frédéric's association with political insurrection?
A: indirect", "
Q: What parts of Frédéric's personal life influenced his legacy as a leading symbol of the era?
A: his love life and his early death", '
Q: In which era was Frédéric leave a legacy of as a leading symbol?
A: Romantic era', '
Q: In what forms of media has Frédéric been the subject of?
A: films and biographies', '
Q: Where did Chopin create the majority of his compositions?
A: France', '
Q: Chopin is a native of what country?
A: Poland', '
Q: He had a non-direct association with what?
A: political insurrection', '
Q: Chopin is closely associated with what era?
A: Romantic era', '
Q: Where did Chopin create most of his works?
A: France', '
Q: Chopin was indirectly related to what?
A: political insurrection', '
Q: Chopin is considered a prominent symbol of what?
A: Romantic era']