romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003); Peter Goldie (1946–2011), a British philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; Nico Frijda (1927–2015), a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book The Emotions (1986).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What theory was developed by Arnold?
A: the appraisal theory of emotions', '
Q: When did Richard Lazarus die?
A: 2002', "
Q: Who wrote 'What Is An Emotion?'?
A: Robert C. Solomon", '
Q: Who published What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings?
A: Oxford', "
Q: What is Nico Frijda's nationality?
A: Dutch"]
The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion to replace passion. According to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language. The modern word emotion is heterogeneous In some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. On the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression). One line of research thus looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse. Another line of research asks about languages other than English, and one interesting finding is that many languages have a similar but not identical term

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the word emotion enter the English language?
A: 1579', '
Q: From what French word is emotion derived?
A: émouvoir', '
Q: What does émouvoir mean in English?
A: to stir up', '
Q: Prior to the introduction of the word emotion, what word was used in its place?
A: passion', '
Q: Along with anxiety, what is an example of directionless emotion?
A: depression']
Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the thalamus a part of?
A: the diencephalon', '
Q: Who argued that an emotional stimulus triggered experiential and physiological responses to emotions at the same time?
A: Cannon', '
Q: What creatures did Bard experiment on?
A: animals', '
Q: Along with sensory and motor information, what information had to pass through the diencephalon before being processed?
A: physiological']
There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view which response to what he has called the ‘standard objection’ to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion. The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life?
A: Robert C. Solomon', '
Q: In what year was The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life published?
A: 1993', '
Q: What does Solomon believe emotions to be?
A: judgments', '
Q: Whose theory discussed action tendencies?
A: Nico Frijda', "
Q: The idea that judgment can't be identified with emotion is an objection to what school of thought?
A: cognitivism"]
Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems. This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems (Kurt Kortschal 2013). These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring. In the five million years since the linages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified. This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In voles (Microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system (Hammock & Young 2005). Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language (Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005). Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans (Enard et al. 2002). Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who researched the role of emotional phenotype temperaments on social connectedness?
A: Kurt Kortschal', '
Q: From where do zygotes derive their genetic information?
A: their parental germ cells', '
Q: What percentage of difference is there between the genetic material of humans and the genetic material of chimpanzees?
A: 1.2%', '
Q: How many million years ago did the evolution of chimpanzees and humans diverge?
A: five', '
Q: About how long ago did modern human beings first come into existence?
A: 200,000 years']
Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of fear. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with mood, temperament, disposition and motivation, what is emotion often tied to?
A: personality', '
Q: What do some theories see as an important part of emotion?
A: cognition', '
Q: Along with sweating and muscle tension, what might be a physiological response to danger?
A: rapid heartbeat and breathing', '
Q: Sweating is a product of the arousal of what system?
A: nervous']
Emotions have been described by some theorists as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms. Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity. Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame. Emotions have also been described as biologically given and a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors. Moods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that often lack a contextual stimulus.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who described the concept of a continuum of intensity?
A: Michael C. Graham', "
Q: What is Michael Graham's profession?
A: Psychotherapist", '
Q: What is an example of an extreme form of fear?
A: terror', '
Q: What would be an example of mild shame?
A: embarrassment', '
Q: What are non-intense feelings that lack a contextual stimulus called?
A: Moods']
For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (e.g. disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who has argued that emotions are discrete?
A: Paul Ekman', '
Q: How many basic emotions did Ekman recognize?
A: six', "
Q: Along with anger, disgust, happiness, sadness and fear, what is one of Ekman's basic emotions?
A: surprise"]
Western philosophy regarded emotion in varying ways. In stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and therefore a hindrance to virtue. Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue. In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas in particular. There are also theories of emotions in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What school of thought saw emotion as an impediment to virtue?
A: stoic', '
Q: What thinker believed that emotions were necessary for virtue?
A: Aristotle', '
Q: What did the Aristotelians call emotions?
A: passions', '
Q: Who was a notable scholastic thinker?
A: Thomas Aquinas', '
Q: Along with Descartes, Machiavelli and Hume, what notable philosopher developed a theory of emotions?
A: Baruch Spinoza']
In his 1884 article William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion." To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote that exciting facts lead to emotions?
A: William James', '
Q: What did James believe a stimulus act upon to produce emotion?
A: the autonomic nervous system', '
Q: What did James believe emotion was synonymous with?
A: the perception of bodily changes', '
Q: Who developed a theory similar to that of James?
A: Carl Lange', '
Q: What was the profession of Lange?
A: psychologist']
The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example Schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyse the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural or political history perspectives. Others focus on the history of medicine, science or psychology. What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules. It is thus historically variable and open to change. Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain, Sweden and Australia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What historical school claims that sentiments and meta-emotions can be learned?
A: constructivist', '
Q: According to the constructivists, what is an example of a learned meta-emotion?
A: Schadenfreude', '
Q: Along with Germany, England, Spain and Australia, where has a research center on the history of emotions recently opened?
A: Sweden', '
Q: Along with class and race, what is regarded as an essential category of historical analysis?
A: gender']
Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Interestingly, Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear. With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Whose work did the theory of Stanley Schachter build on?
A: Gregorio Marañón', '
Q: What did Gregorio Marañón inject his patients with?
A: epinephrine', '
Q: What was the nationality of Gregorio Marañón?
A: Spanish', '
Q: Who was a notable student of  Stanley Schachter?
A: Jerome Singer', '
Q: In what year was the book Gut Reactions by Jesse Prinz published?
A: 2004']
In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992), pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991) conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990) developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what decade did sociologists focus on the social relevance of emotion?
A: 1990s', '
Q: What emotions did Cooley regard as of paramount social importance?
A: pride and shame', '
Q: Who studied rage and shame cycles in married couples?
A: Retzinger', '
Q: Who developed the social bond theory?
A: Scheff', '
Q: Along with Cooley, from whose work did Scheff derive social bond theory?
A: Goffman']
Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience. For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (e.g., trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.). Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the term for the strategies used by people to influence their emotional experiences?
A: Emotion regulation', '
Q: What type of strategy involves avoiding a situation where unwanted emotions might be experienced?
A: behavioral', '
Q: Rational emotive behavior therapy is an approach used by what psychotherapy schools?
A: Cognitively oriented schools', '
Q: What sort of therapy might examine emotions based on components of facial expressions?
A: Gestalt therapy']
Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What system was examined to develop the neurobiological explanation of human emotion?
A: limbic', '
Q: What classification of chemicals do dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline belong to?
A: neurochemicals', '
Q: What chemicals may mediate emotions?
A: pheromones', '
Q: Reactive responses are present in the brains of what animals?
A: reptiles', '
Q: The neurobiological explanation is specific to what types of brains?
A: mammalian']
Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What discipline studies the role of emotions in neural mechanisms?
A: Human sciences', '
Q: What fields studies the role of emotions in the treatment of human mental disorders?
A: psychiatry', '
Q: What profession studies the role of emotions in providing holistic health care?
A: Nursing', '
Q: What is affective neuroscience a sub-field of?
A: neuroscience', '
Q: What field studies the relationship between emotion and learning?
A: education']
Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004) formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who came up with the interaction ritual theory?
A: Randall Collins', "
Q: From what work of Durkheim's was interaction ritual theory derived?
A: totemic rituals", '
Q: In addition to Durkheim, whose work influenced the development of interaction ritual theory?
A: Goffman', '
Q: What is the term for a feeling of confidence to take action?
A: Emotional energy', '
Q: What is the term for the energy generated during group gatherings, such as totemic rituals?
A: collective effervescence']