romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Evidence suggests that blast furnaces, that convert raw iron ore into pig iron, which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron by means of a cold blast and hot blast, were operational in China by the late Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC). The bloomery was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing decarburization. Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a fining process.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of furnace was functional in China in 722 BC?
A: blast', '
Q: What element was used in the production of wrought iron?
A: oxygen', '
Q: What type of iron could pig iron be converted into?
A: wrought', '
Q: What type of process was used to convert various metals into steel?
A: fining', '
Q: What can iron ore be converted into in a blast furnace?
A: pig iron']
The Han-era Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and domestic wares. A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron seed drill, invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of casting seeds out by hand. The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man to control it, two oxen to pull it. It had three plowshares, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m2 (11.3 acres) of land in a single day.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was an invention that allowed farmers to place their crops into rows?
A: The three-legged iron seed drill', '
Q: How many animals were neccessary to pull an iron plow?
A: two oxen', '
Q: How many acres of land could succesfully be sowed with a seed box in a day?
A: 11.3 acres', '
Q: How many persons were necessary to operate an iron plow?
A: one man', '
Q: What methodology allowed the production of new agricultural tools?
A: improved iron-smelting techniques']
To protect crops from wind and drought, the Grain Intendant Zhao Guo (趙過) created the alternating fields system (daitianfa 代田法) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons. Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it. Han farmers also used the pit field system (aotian 凹田) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain. In southern and small parts of central Han-era China, paddy fields were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the Huai River used transplantation methods of rice production.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What helped insure the safety of crops from wind?
A: the alternating fields system', '
Q: What was the name of the system that for growing crops that did not require plows?
A: pit field system', '
Q: What were paddy fields used for primarily to grow in smaller areas?
A: rice', '
Q: What system did the government recommend the usage of?
A: alternating fields system', '
Q: What was the name of the Grain Intendant?
A: Zhao Guo']
Timber was the chief building material during the Han dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls and single-story houses. Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles. The oldest surviving wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archaeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Han architecture.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What building material was used primarily during the Han dynasty?
A: Timber', '
Q: What dynasty can the oldest wooden buildings in China be dated to?
A: Tang', '
Q: What is considered to be the last year of the Tang dynasty?
A: 907 AD', "
Q: What type of object is the only evidence of Han's wooden constructions?
A: ceramic roof tiles", '
Q: What was the primary component of a palace hall during the Han dynasty?
A: Timber']
Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han-dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and rammed earth remain intact. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb chambers, rammed-earth city walls, rammed-earth and brick beacon towers, rammed-earth sections of the Great Wall, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth castles in Gansu. The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their drainage systems of brick arches, ditches, and ceramic water pipes. Monumental stone pillar-gates, twenty-nine of which survive from the Han period, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and tomb sites. These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and balustrades.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many stone pillar-gates survive from the Han era?
A: twenty-nine', '
Q: What architectural feature contained an imitation of a balustrade?
A: stone pillar-gates', '
Q: What building material were tomb chambers constructed with?
A: brick', '
Q: What were the walls that encompassed the city of Luoyang comprised of?
A: rammed-earth', '
Q: What type of system used ceramic water pipes?
A: drainage systems']
Evidence of Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes disinterested Confucian scholars. Professional artisan-engineers (jiang 匠) did not leave behind detailed records of their work. Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described. Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. For example, in 15 BC the philosopher Yang Xiong described the invention of the belt drive for a quilling machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing. The inventions of the artisan-engineer Ding Huan (丁緩) are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital. Around 180 AD, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within palace buildings. Ding also used gimbals as pivotal supports for one of his incense burners and invented the world's first known zoetrope lamp.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of scholars have provided proof that mechanical engineering was prominent during the Han period?
A: Confucian', '
Q: Which philosopher described the invention of a belt drive?
A: Yang Xiong', '
Q: Which engineer was responsible for first inventing the zoetrope lamp?
A: Ding Huan', '
Q: What can be used as a support structure in incense burners?
A: gimbals', '
Q: What type of invention was used to provide air conditioning for the palace buildings?
A: rotary fan']
Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the crank handle was used to operate the fans of winnowing machines that separated grain from chaff. The odometer cart, invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled. This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century AD, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century AD. Modern archaeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal calipers used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During which period was the odometer cart first created?
A: Han', '
Q: What item was used to make very small measurements during this era?
A: sliding metal calipers', '
Q: What has allowed us to discover long lost inventions of the Han era?
A: artwork', '
Q: What was used to separate parts of grain?
A: winnowing machines', '
Q: What use did the odometer cart provide?
A: measured journey lengths']
The waterwheel appeared in Chinese records during the Han. As mentioned by Huan Tan in about 20 AD, they were used to turn gears that lifted iron trip hammers, and were used in pounding, threshing and polishing grain. However, there is no sufficient evidence for the watermill in China until about the 5th century. The Nanyang Commandery Administrator Du Shi (d. 38 AD) created a waterwheel-powered reciprocator that worked the bellows for the smelting of iron. Waterwheels were also used to power chain pumps that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century-AD Balanced Discourse.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was used to power chain pumps to raise water to irrigation ditches?
A: Waterwheels', '
Q: What commandery was the creator of the waterwheel-powered reciprocator from?
A: Nanyang', '
Q: Who was the author of the essay entitled Balance Discourse?
A: Wang Chong', '
Q: During what century is it likely that the watermill made an appearance in China?
A: about the 5th century', '
Q: During what era did the waterwheel first appear in recordings?
A: Han']
The armillary sphere, a three-dimensional representation of the movements in the celestial sphere, was invented in Han China by the 1st century BC. Using a water clock, waterwheel and a series of gears, the Court Astronomer Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere. To address the problem of slowed timekeeping in the pressure head of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel. Zhang also invented a seismometer (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪) in 132 AD to detect the exact cardinal or ordinal direction of earthquakes from hundreds of kilometers away. This employed an inverted pendulum that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was responsible for the invention of the seismometer?
A: Zhang Heng', '
Q: In what year was the seismometer first invented?
A: 132 AD', "
Q: How many dragons were represented in Zhang Heng's invention of the seismometer?
A: eight", '
Q: What invention included an inverted pendulum?
A: seismometer', '
Q: What was exchanged from mouth to mouth in the usage of the seismometer?
A: metal ball']
Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are the Book on Numbers and Computation, the Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Han-era mathematical achievements include solving problems with right-angle triangles, square roots, cube roots, and matrix methods, finding more accurate approximations for pi, providing mathematical proof of the Pythagorean theorem, use of the decimal fraction, Gaussian elimination to solve linear equations, and continued fractions to find the roots of equations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of treatise is the Book on Numbers and Computation considered to be?
A: mathematical', '
Q: How many mathematical treatises have still managed to survive to this day?
A: Three', '
Q: What achievement of the Han era can be used to help solve linear equations?
A: Gaussian elimination', '
Q: During what era was the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art from?
A: Han', '
Q: What can be used to help find the roots of equations?
A: continued fractions']
One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements was the world's first use of negative numbers. Negative numbers first appeared in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art as black counting rods, where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods. Negative numbers are used in the Bakhshali manuscript of ancient India, but its exact date of compilation is unknown. Negative numbers were also used by the Greek mathematician Diophantus in about 275 AD, but were not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century AD.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what treatise did negative numbers first appear?
A: the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art', '
Q: How were negative numbers first described during the Han period?
A: as black counting rods', '
Q: In what century were negative numbers more commonly accepted in Europe?
A: 16th century AD', '
Q: What Indian manuscript also contains the useage of negative numbers?
A: Bakhshali', '
Q: What were positive numbers portayed as in the treatise of the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art?
A: red counting rods']
Han-era astronomers adopted a geocentric model of the universe, theorizing that it was shaped like a sphere surrounding the earth in the center. They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that lunar eclipses occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth. Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the water cycle of the evaporation of water into clouds.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what era was a geocentric view of the universe adopted?
A: Han', '
Q: Who was able to describe the process of evaporation?
A: Wang Chong', '
Q: What object was assumed to block sunlight during a lunar eclipse?
A: the Earth', '
Q: What did astronomers believe the shape of the Sun to be during this era?
A: spherical', '
Q: What did astronomers during this area believe to be the center of the universe?
A: the earth']
Evidence found in Chinese literature, and archaeological evidence, show that cartography existed in China before the Han. Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the Mawangdui Silk Texts in a 2nd-century-BC tomb. The general Ma Yuan created the world's first known raised-relief map from rice in the 1st century AD. This date could be revised if the tomb of Qin Shi Huang is excavated and the account in the Records of the Grand Historian concerning a model map of the empire is proven to be true.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What textile were some of the early Han maps made from?
A: silk', '
Q: In what type of building were silken maps found?
A: tomb', '
Q: Which individual created the very first raised relief map?
A: Ma Yuan', '
Q: What food stable was the first raised relief map created from?
A: rice']
The Han-era Chinese sailed in a variety of ships differing from those of previous eras, such as the tower ship. The junk design was developed and realized during Han. Junks featured a square-ended bow and stern, a flat-bottomed hull or carvel-shaped hull with no keel or sternpost, and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of structural ribs found in Western vessels. Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a rudder at the stern, in contrast to the simpler steering oar used for riverine transport, allowing them to sail on the high seas.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of boat design was first invented during the Han era?
A: The junk design', '
Q: In what areas were Han ships able to be sailed in part due to the stern rudder?
A: high seas', '
Q: What ship design contained a flat-bottomed hull?
A: Junks', '
Q: What type of transport was the steering oar most likely to be used during?
A: riverine transport']
Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. Each organ of the body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that qi or "vital energy" channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance. For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase. To this end, the physician Zhang Zhongjing (c. 150–c. 219 AD) prescribed regulated diets rich in certain foods that were thought to cure specific illnesses. These are now known to be nutrition disorders caused by the lack of certain vitamins consumed in one's diet. Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed moxibustion, acupuncture, and calisthenics as methods of maintaining one's health. When surgery was performed by the physician Hua Tuo (d. 208 AD), he used anesthesia to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped the process of healing surgical wounds.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who believed that the same forces that controlled the universe also controlled the human body?
A: Han-era medical physicians', '
Q: What was used during surgery to relieve patients of their pain?
A: anesthesia', '
Q: What profession was the individual Zhang Zhongjing involved in?
A: physician', '
Q: How did Zhang Zhongjing attempt to cure various illnesses?
A: prescribed regulated diets', '
Q: When did Hua Tuo die?
A: 208 AD']
Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, but the Greek people have always been centered around the Aegean and Ionian seas, where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age. Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, Cappadocia in central Anatolia, Egypt, the Balkans, Cyprus, and Constantinople. Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization. The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens, Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, and Constantinople at various periods.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which two seas have been most central to Greek history?
A: Aegean and Ionian seas', '
Q: During which prehistoric age was the Greek language invented?
A: Bronze', '
Q: Which city in modern Turkey was once a major center of Greek culture?
A: Constantinople', '
Q: Which area of North Africa has hosted Greek communities in the past? 
A: Egypt', "
Q: What eleventh century empire had roughly the same extent as ancient Greece's?
A: Byzantine Empire", '
Q: Where are Greek States believed to have been settled ?
A: Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea', '
Q: Which two bodies of water are believed to be central to the establishment of the Greek society ?
A: Greek people have always been centered around the Aegean and Ionian seas', '
Q: When was the emergence of the Greek spoken dialect believed to have started ?
A: the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age.', '
Q: What other culture did the Greek states share boarders with ?
A: these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century', '
Q: Where have the centers of culture been located for the Grecian world historically ?
A: The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens, Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, and Constantinople at various periods.']
The evolution of Proto-Greek should be considered within the context of an early Paleo-Balkan sprachbund that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages. The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared, for one, by the Armenian language, which also seems to share some other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek; this has led some linguists to propose a hypothetical closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, although evidence remains scant.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What progression coincided with the the early Greek states that makes it difficult to give credit for the language and differences ? 
A: Paleo-Balkan sprachbund that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages.', '
Q: What is commonly seen in the Greek language that is not a constant ?
A: The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels', '
Q: What other language has this same trait ?
A: word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared, for one, by the Armenian language', '
Q: What other things do the two languages seem to have in common ?
A: phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek; this has led some linguists to propose a hypothetical closer relationship between Greek and Armenian', '
Q: How much evidence of the link between the languages is currently available ?
A: linguists to propose a hypothetical closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, although evidence remains scant.']
Around 1200 BC, the Dorians, another Greek-speaking people, followed from Epirus. Traditionally, historians have believed that the Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, but it is likely the main attack was made by seafaring raiders (sea peoples) who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC. The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages, but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What group of people came with others who left the geographical and historical region in southeastern Europe, now a mutual  region between Greece and Albania ?
A: the Dorians', '
Q: When did these groups make the migration ?
A: Around 1200 BC', '
Q: What civilization is the group credited with putting an end to ?
A: the Mycenaean civilization,', '
Q: Is it believed that they truly are responsible in full for the collapse ? 
A: it is likely the main attack was made by seafaring raiders (sea peoples)', '
Q: What areas were being explored by others in  by sea faring vessels and when are they believed to have arrived  ?
A: seafaring raiders (sea peoples) who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC']
The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth. The Homeric Epics (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the 19th century that scholars began to question Homer's historicity. As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades) became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did the Greeks look upon their forebears ?
A: Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors', '
Q: How did they believe their forebears lived ?
A: Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth', '
Q: What literary events were believed to be a fact of truth ?
A: The Homeric Epics (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past', '
Q: Who was the author of these tales ?
A: Homer', '
Q: What were the names of some of the figures for the established religion that are based on ancestral ties ? 
A: Zeus, Poseidon and Hades']