romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Madaris were largely centred on the study of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The ijāzat al-tadrīs wa-al-iftāʼ ("licence to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system had its origins in the 9th century after the formation of the madhāhib (schools of jurisprudence). George Makdisi considers the ijāzah to be the origin of the European doctorate. However, in an earlier article, he considered the ijāzah to be of "fundamental difference" to the medieval doctorate, since the former was awarded by an individual teacher-scholar not obliged to follow any formal criteria, whereas the latter was conferred on the student by the collective authority of the faculty. To obtain an ijāzah, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose." These were scholarly exercises practised throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded ijazas giving them the status of faqīh 'scholar of jurisprudence', muftī 'scholar competent in issuing fatwās', and mudarris 'teacher'.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term refers to Islamic law?
A: fiqh', '
Q: When did Islamic law school begin?
A: 9th century', '
Q: How long did a student have to study law, in early Islamic law graduate schools, in order to graduate?
A: ten or more years', '
Q: What traditional schooling has been considered modeled after the traditional Islamic graduate schools?
A: European doctorate']
The Arabic term ijāzat al-tadrīs was awarded to Islamic scholars who were qualified to teach. According to Makdisi, the Latin title licentia docendi 'licence to teach' in the European university may have been a translation of the Arabic, but the underlying concept was very different. A significant difference between the ijāzat al-tadrīs and the licentia docendi was that the former was awarded by the individual scholar-teacher, while the latter was awarded by the chief official of the university, who represented the collective faculty, rather than the individual scholar-teacher.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did earning the ijazat al-tadris award students?
A: licence to teach', '
Q: Who awarded a teaching license in Islamic schools?
A: individual scholar-teacher', '
Q: Who awarded a teaching license in European schools?
A: chief official of the university', '
Q: What type of license is closely related to the ijazat al-tadris?
A: licentia docendi']
Much of the study in the madrasah college centred on examining whether certain opinions of law were orthodox. This scholarly process of "determining orthodoxy began with a question which the Muslim layman, called in that capacity mustaftī, presented to a jurisconsult, called mufti, soliciting from him a response, called fatwa, a legal opinion (the religious law of Islam covers civil as well as religious matters). The mufti (professor of legal opinions) took this question, studied it, researched it intensively in the sacred scriptures, in order to find a solution to it. This process of scholarly research was called ijtihād, literally, the exertion of one's efforts to the utmost limit."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What determination of the study of law was held to much debate?
A: whether certain opinions of law were orthodox', '
Q: What type of matters are covered through Islamic law?
A: civil as well as religious', '
Q: What is the Islamic term for issuing a legal opinion?
A: fatwa', '
Q: What is ijtihad?
A: process of scholarly research']
There is disagreement whether madaris ever became universities. Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Seyyed Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, some medieval Islamic madaris indeed became universities. George Makdisi and others, however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world. Darleen Pryds questions this view, pointing out that madaris and European universities in the Mediterranean region shared similar foundations by princely patrons and were intended to provide loyal administrators to further the rulers' agenda. Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did some madaris become considered like traditional colleges?
A: 10th century', '
Q: What class of people founded both European universities and Islamic madaris
A: princely patrons', "
Q: What was considered to be the underlying purpose of madaris?
A: further the rulers' agenda", '
Q: Who argued that European universities and Islamic madaris have very little in common?
A: George Makdisi']
al-Qarawīyīn University in Fez, Morocco is recognised by many historians as the oldest degree-granting university in the world, having been founded in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri. While the madrasa college could also issue degrees at all levels, the jāmiʻahs (such as al-Qarawīyīn and al-Azhar University) differed in the sense that they were larger institutions, more universal in terms of their complete source of studies, had individual faculties for different subjects, and could house a number of mosques, madaris, and other institutions within them. Such an institution has thus been described as an "Islamic university".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was al-Qarawiyin University founded?
A: 859', '
Q: Who founded al-Qarawiyin University?
A: Fatima al-Fihri', '
Q: What types of degrees were earned at al-Qarawiyin University?
A: all levels', '
Q: What religious buildings were housed inside al-Qarawiyin University?
A: mosques', '
Q: What types of teachers were at al-Qarawiyin University?
A: individual faculties for different subjects']
Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975 by the Ismaʻīlī Shīʻī Fatimid dynasty as a jāmiʻah, had individual faculties for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy and logic in Islamic philosophy. The postgraduate doctorate in law was only obtained after "an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose." ‘Abd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī also delivered lectures on Islamic medicine at al-Azhar, while Maimonides delivered lectures on medicine and astronomy there during the time of Saladin. Another early jāmiʻah was the Niẓāmīyah of Baghdād (founded 1091), which has been called the "largest university of the Medieval world." Mustansiriya University, established by the ʻAbbāsid caliph al-Mustanṣir in 1233, in addition to teaching the religious subjects, offered courses dealing with philosophy, mathematics and the natural sciences.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was Al-Azhar University founded?
A: 975', '
Q: Where is Al-Azhar University located?
A: Cairo, Egypt', '
Q: What was required to earn a law degree at Al-Azhar University?
A: an oral examination', '
Q: Who was an astronomy professor at Al-Azhar University?
A: Maimonides', '
Q: What is Nizamiyah of Baghdad most known for?
A: largest university of the Medieval world']
However, the classification of madaris as "universities" is disputed on the question of understanding of each institution on its own terms. In madaris, the ijāzahs were only issued in one field, the Islamic religious law of sharīʻah, and in no other field of learning. Other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were only treated "ancillary" to the study of the Sharia. For example, a natural science like astronomy was only studied (if at all) to supply religious needs, like the time for prayer. This is why Ptolemaic astronomy was considered adequate, and is still taught in some modern day madaris. The Islamic law undergraduate degree from al-Azhar, the most prestigious madrasa, was traditionally granted without final examinations, but on the basis of the students' attentive attendance to courses. In contrast to the medieval doctorate which was granted by the collective authority of the faculty, the Islamic degree was not granted by the teacher to the pupil based on any formal criteria, but remained a "personal matter, the sole prerogative of the person bestowing it; no one could force him to give one".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What field does the ijazah signify expertise in?
A: Islamic religious law of sharīʻah', '
Q: What was the purpose of studying natural sciences in madaris?
A: supply religious needs', '
Q: Who decided if a student earned a law degree in undergraduate madaris?
A: the teacher', '
Q: What scientific discipline is still taught in modern madaris?
A: Ptolemaic astronomy', '
Q: What is considered the most famous madrasa?
A: al-Azhar']
Medievalist specialists who define the university as a legally autonomous corporation disagree with the term "university" for the Islamic madaris and jāmi‘ahs because the medieval university (from Latin universitas) was structurally different, being a legally autonomous corporation rather than a waqf institution like the madrasa and jāmiʻah. Despite the many similarities, medieval specialists have coined the term "Islamic college" for madrasa and jāmiʻah to differentiate them from the legally autonomous corporations that the medieval European universities were. In a sense, the madrasa resembles a university college in that it has most of the features of a university, but lacks the corporate element. Toby Huff summarises the difference as follows:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who argues that madaris are not the same as traditional European universities?
A: Medievalist specialists', '
Q: What are two examples of waqfs?
A: madrasa and jāmiʻah', '
Q: What do scholars that specialize in the medieval period describe madaris as?
A: Islamic college', '
Q: What do scholars believe is missing from madaris that prevent them from being considered universities?
A: corporate element']
As Muslim institutions of higher learning, the madrasa had the legal designation of waqf. In central and eastern Islamic lands, the view that the madrasa, as a charitable endowment, will remain under the control of the donor (and their descendent), resulted in a "spurt" of establishment of madaris in the 11th and 12th centuries. However, in Western Islamic lands, where the Maliki views prohibited donors from controlling their endowment, madaris were not as popular. Unlike the corporate designation of Western institutions of higher learning, the waqf designation seemed to have led to the exclusion of non-orthodox religious subjects such a philosophy and natural science from the curricula. The madrasa of al-Qarawīyīn, one of the two surviving madaris that predate the founding of the earliest medieval universities and are thus claimed to be the "first universities" by some authors, has acquired official university status as late as 1947. The other, al-Azhar, did acquire this status in name and essence only in the course of numerous reforms during the 19th and 20th century, notably the one of 1961 which introduced non-religious subjects to its curriculum, such as economics, engineering, medicine, and agriculture. It should also be noted that many medieval universities were run for centuries as Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools prior to their formal establishment as universitas scholarium; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the university dates back to the 6th century AD, thus well preceding the earliest madaris. George Makdisi, who has published most extensively on the topic concludes in his comparison between the two institutions:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did more madaris begin to form more rapidly?
A: 11th and 12th centuries', '
Q: Where are madaris considered less desirable?
A: Western Islamic lands', '
Q: When did the al-Qarawiyin officially become a university?
A: 1947', '
Q: When the madaris are considered as a charity, who controls the school?
A: the donor', '
Q: What disciplines were introduced at al-Azhar in 1961?
A: economics, engineering, medicine, and agriculture']
Nevertheless, Makdisi has asserted that the European university borrowed many of its features from the Islamic madrasa, including the concepts of a degree and doctorate. Makdisi and Hugh Goddard have also highlighted other terms and concepts now used in modern universities which most likely have Islamic origins, including "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'Chair' of their subject" being based on the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him", the term 'academic circles' being derived from the way in which Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor", and terms such as "having 'fellows', 'reading' a subject, and obtaining 'degrees', can all be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of aṣḥāb ('companions, as of Muhammad'), qirāʼah ('reading aloud the Qur'an') and ijāzah ('licence [to teach]') respectively. Makdisi has listed eighteen such parallels in terminology which can be traced back to their roots in Islamic education. Some of the practices now common in modern universities which Makdisi and Goddard trace back to an Islamic root include "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of academic freedom are also modelled on Islamic custom." The Islamic scholarly system of fatwá and ijmāʻ, meaning opinion and consensus respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the West has practised in university scholarship from the Middle Ages down to the present day." According to Makdisi and Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was also "modelled on Islamic custom" as practised in the medieval Madrasa system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1224.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What institutions have been considered to take some its ideas from madaris?
A: European university', '
Q: How many corollaries dd Makdisi make between Islamic language and European educational practices?
A: eighteen', '
Q: What Eurpoean university practices are considered to be adapted from madaris?
A: degree and doctorate', '
Q: What freedom specifically did Makdisi believe European schools learned from Islamic traditions?
A: academic', '
Q: What clothing practice did Makdisi believe European schools learned from madaris?
A: wearing academic robes']
However, all of these facets of medieval university life are considered by standard scholarship to be independent medieval European developments with no tracable Islamic influence. Generally, some reviewers have pointed out the strong inclination of Makdisi of overstating his case by simply resting on "the accumulation of close parallels", but all the while failing to point to convincing channels of transmission between the Muslim and Christian world. Norman Daniel points out that the Arab equivalent of the Latin disputation, the taliqa, was reserved for the ruler's court, not the madrasa, and that the actual differences between Islamic fiqh and medieval European civil law were profound. The taliqa only reached Islamic Spain, the only likely point of transmission, after the establishment of the first medieval universities. In fact, there is no Latin translation of the taliqa and, most importantly, no evidence of Latin scholars ever showing awareness of Arab influence on the Latin method of disputation, something they would have certainly found noteworthy. Rather, it was the medieval reception of the Greek Organon which set the scholastic sic et non in motion. Daniel concludes that resemblances in method had more to with the two religions having "common problems: to reconcile the conflicting statements of their own authorities, and to safeguard the data of revelation from the impact of Greek philosophy"; thus Christian scholasticism and similar Arab concepts should be viewed in terms of a parallel occurrence, not of the transmission of ideas from one to the other, a view shared by Hugh Kennedy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What other religion was considered to share parallels in teaching styles with the Muslim faith?
A: Christian', '
Q: What was Makdisi accused of doing when evaluating the parallels between European and Islamic schools?
A: overstating his case', '
Q: What is the European version of fiqh?
A: civil law', '
Q: What do scholars believe is the reason for similarities between Islamic and European schools?
A: parallel occurrence']
Prior to the 12th century, women accounted for less than one percent of the world’s Islamic scholars. However, al-Sakhawi and Mohammad Akram Nadwi have since found evidence of over 8,000 female scholars since the 15th century. al-Sakhawi devotes an entire volume of his 12-volume biographical dictionary al-Ḍawʾ al-lāmiʻ to female scholars, giving information on 1,075 of them. More recently, the scholar Mohammad Akram Nadwi, currently a researcher from the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, has written 40 volumes on the muḥaddithāt (the women scholars of ḥadīth), and found at least 8,000 of them.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What percentage of Islamic women were educated before the 1200s?
A: less than one percent', '
Q: How many female Islamic scholars were on record after the 1400s?
A: over 8,000', '
Q: In what book was a section reserved for the study of Islamic female students?
A: al-Ḍawʾ al-lāmiʻ', "
Q: How many female students were discussed in the al-Daw' al-Iami?
A: 1,075"]
From around 750, during the Abbasid Caliphate, women “became renowned for their brains as well as their beauty”. In particular, many well known women of the time were trained from childhood in music, dancing and poetry. Mahbuba was one of these. Another feminine figure to be remembered for her achievements was Tawaddud, "a slave girl who was said to have been bought at great cost by Hārūn al-Rashīd because she had passed her examinations by the most eminent scholars in astronomy, medicine, law, philosophy, music, history, Arabic grammar, literature, theology and chess". Moreover, among the most prominent feminine figures was Shuhda who was known as "the Scholar" or "the Pride of Women" during the 12th century in Baghdad. Despite the recognition of women's aptitudes during the Abbasid dynasty, all these came to an end in Iraq with the sack of Baghdad in 1258.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What disciplines were women trained in during the first century?
A: music, dancing and poetry', '
Q: Who was the most well known female scholar in Islamic schools?
A: Shuhda', '
Q: Where did Shuhda attend school?
A: Baghdad', '
Q: When was formal education for Islamic women halted?
A: 1258', '
Q: During which Caliphate did Islamic women begin attending formal school?
A: Abbasid']
According to the Sunni scholar Ibn ʻAsākir in the 12th century, there were opportunities for female education in the medieval Islamic world, writing that women could study, earn ijazahs (academic degrees), and qualify as scholars and teachers. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters. Ibn ʻAsakir had himself studied under 80 different female teachers in his time. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by Muhammad's wives, such as Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. According to a hadith attributed to Muhammad, he praised the women of Medina because of their desire for religious knowledge:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What titles could women earn by going to Islamic schools?
A: scholars and teachers', '
Q: Who wanted to ensured that their daughters were educated in Islamic schools?
A: learned and scholarly families', '
Q: Why did the prophet Muhammad esteem women in Medina?
A: their desire for religious knowledge', "
Q: Who created a pathway for education for women in the Islamic world?
A: Muhammad's wives", "
Q: Which one of Muhammad's wives had a particular impact on his view of women and education?
A: Khadijah"]
"The first Ottoman Medrese was created in İznik in 1331 and most Ottoman medreses followed the traditions of Sunni Islam." "When an Ottoman sultan established a new medrese, he would invite scholars from the Islamic world—for example, Murad II brought scholars from Persia, such as ʻAlāʼ al-Dīn and Fakhr al-Dīn who helped enhance the reputation of the Ottoman medrese". This reveals that the Islamic world was interconnected in the early modern period as they travelled around to other Islamic states exchanging knowledge. This sense that the Ottoman Empire was becoming modernised through globalization is also recognised by Hamadeh who says: "Change in the eighteenth century as the beginning of a long and unilinear march toward westernisation reflects the two centuries of reformation in sovereign identity." İnalcık also mentions that while scholars from for example Persia travelled to the Ottomans in order to share their knowledge, Ottomans travelled as well to receive education from scholars of these Islamic lands, such as Egypt, Persia and Turkestan. Hence, this reveals that similar to today's modern world, individuals from the early modern society travelled abroad to receive education and share knowledge and that the world was more interconnected than it seems. Also, it reveals how the system of "schooling" was also similar to today's modern world where students travel abroad to different countries for studies. Examples of Ottoman madaris are the ones built by Mehmed the Conqueror. He built eight madaris that were built "on either side of the mosque where there were eight higher madaris for specialised studies and eight lower medreses, which prepared students for these." The fact that they were built around, or near mosques reveals the religious impulses behind madrasa building and it reveals the interconnectedness between institutions of learning and religion. The students who completed their education in the lower medreses became known as danismends. This reveals that similar to the education system today, the Ottomans' educational system involved different kinds of schools attached to different kinds of levels. For example, there were lower madaris and specialised ones, and for one to get into the specialised area meant that he had to complete the classes in the lower one in order to adequately prepare himself for higher learning.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who traveled abroad to get an education at madaris?
A: Ottomans', '
Q: How many madaris were started by Mehmed the Conqueror?
A: eight', '
Q: How would a student matriculate to the next level of schooling in the Ottoman Empire?
A: complete the classes in the lower one', '
Q: Where were Ottoman madaris built?
A: near mosques', '
Q: When was the first Ottoman madrasa built?
A: 1331']