romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
While highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of norepinephrine[clarification needed] and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant and marketed by Eli Lilly as an oral treatment for asthma. Following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of exhilaration and palpitations. Amphetamine was developed by Smith, Kline and French as a nasal decongestant under the trade name Benzedrine Inhaler. Amphetamine was eventually developed for the treatment of narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications. It received approval as a New and Nonofficial Remedy from the American Medical Association for these uses in 1937 and remained in common use for depression until the development of tricyclic antidepressants in the 1960s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who developed Amphetamine?
A: Smith, Kline and French', '
Q: Who synthesized Amphetamine for asthma?
A: Gordon Alles', '
Q: What are common side effects of Amphetamine?
A: sensations of exhilaration and palpitations', '
Q: When were tricyclic antidepressants developed?
A: 1960s', '
Q: What were some uses for Amphetamine?
A: narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications', '
Q: Ephedrine was used as an oral medicine for what illness?
A: asthma', '
Q: In what year was amphetamine first tested on asthma patients?
A: 1929', '
Q: What was the trade name of amphetamine as a nasal decongestant?
A: Benzedrine Inhaler', '
Q: In what year did the American Medical Association approve amphetamine for medical use?
A: 1937', '
Q: In what decade were tricyclic antidepressants created?
A: 1960s']
A series of experiments performed from the late 1800s to the early 1900s revealed that diabetes is caused by the absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas. In 1869, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering found that diabetes could be induced in dogs by surgical removal of the pancreas. In 1921, Canadian professor Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best repeated this study, and found that injections of pancreatic extract reversed the symptoms produced by pancreas removal. Soon, the extract was demonstrated to work in people, but development of insulin therapy as a routine medical procedure was delayed by difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity. The researchers sought assistance from industrial collaborators at Eli Lilly and Co. based on the company's experience with large scale purification of biological materials. Chemist George Walden of Eli Lilly and Company found that careful adjustment of the pH of the extract allowed a relatively pure grade of insulin to be produced. Under pressure from Toronto University and a potential patent challenge by academic scientists who had independently developed a similar purification method, an agreement was reached for non-exclusive production of insulin by multiple companies. Prior to the discovery and widespread availability of insulin therapy the life expectancy of diabetics was only a few months.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is diabetes caused from?
A: absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas', '
Q: Why was insulin therapy delayed?
A: difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity', '
Q: How can diabetes be induced in dogs?
A: surgical removal of the pancreas', '
Q: Before insulin, what was the life expectancy of diabetics?
A: only a few months', '
Q: Who discovered that pancreatic extract reversed symptoms of pancreas removal?
A: Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best', '
Q: Diabetes is caused by the removal of what organ?
A: pancreas', '
Q: Left untreated, how long were diabetic patients were expected to live?
A: a few months', '
Q: What could be adjusted in a sample of pancreatic extract to produce purer insulin?
A: pH', '
Q: To purify insulin, Banting and Best sought the assistance of what company?
A: Eli Lilly and Co.', '
Q: Minkowski and von Mering did surgical tests on what animal?
A: dogs']
In 1903 Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering disclosed their discovery that diethylbarbituric acid, formed from the reaction of diethylmalonic acid, phosphorus oxychloride and urea, induces sleep in dogs. The discovery was patented and licensed to Bayer pharmaceuticals, which marketed the compound under the trade name Veronal as a sleep aid beginning in 1904. Systematic investigations of the effect of structural changes on potency and duration of action led to the discovery of phenobarbital at Bayer in 1911 and the discovery of its potent anti-epileptic activity in 1912. Phenobarbital was among the most widely used drugs for the treatment of epilepsy through the 1970s, and as of 2014, remains on the World Health Organizations list of essential medications. The 1950s and 1960s saw increased awareness of the addictive properties and abuse potential of barbiturates and amphetamines and led to increasing restrictions on their use and growing government oversight of prescribers. Today, amphetamine is largely restricted to use in the treatment of attention deficit disorder and phenobarbital in the treatment of epilepsy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is phenobarbital used for?
A: epilepsy', '
Q: Who discovered a reaction that induced sleep in dogs?
A: Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering', '
Q: What sleep aid was marketed in 1904?
A: Veronal', '
Q: What is amphetamine used for today?
A: attention deficit disorder', '
Q: Why was barbiturates and amphetamines restricted?
A: addictive properties and abuse potential', '
Q: What compound was discovered to induce sleep?
A: diethylbarbituric acid', '
Q: What was the first trade name of diethylbarbituric acid?
A: Veronal', '
Q: What is phenobarbital mainly used to treat today?
A: epilepsy', '
Q: In what year was phenobarbital discovered?
A: 1911', '
Q: What was Veronal used for when Bayer put it on the market?
A: sleep aid']
In 1911 arsphenamine, the first synthetic anti-infective drug, was developed by Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim of the Institute of Experimental Therapy in Berlin. The drug was given the commercial name Salvarsan. Ehrlich, noting both the general toxicity of arsenic and the selective absorption of certain dyes by bacteria, hypothesized that an arsenic-containing dye with similar selective absorption properties could be used to treat bacterial infections. Arsphenamine was prepared as part of a campaign to synthesize a series of such compounds, and found to exhibit partially selective toxicity. Arsphenamine proved to be the first effective treatment for syphilis, a disease which prior to that time was incurable and led inexorably to severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who developed Arsphenamine?
A: Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim', '
Q: What was the first effective treatment for Syphilis?
A: Arsphenamine', '
Q: What complications are associated with Syphilis?
A: severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death', "
Q: What is Amphetamine's market name?
A: Institute of Experimental Therapy", '
Q: Where is the Institute of Experimental Therapy located?
A: Berlin', '
Q: Bacterial infections could be treated with medicines containing what kind of dye?
A: arsenic', '
Q: What was the name of the first synthetic bacterial drug?
A: arsphenamine', '
Q: Arsphenamine became the first treatment for what previously incurable disease?
A: syphilis', '
Q: In what year was arsphenamine discovered?
A: 1911', '
Q: What was the commercial name of arsphenamine?
A: Salvarsan']
The modern pharmaceutical industry traces its roots to two sources. The first of these were local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid 1800s. Rational drug discovery from plants started particularly with the isolation of morphine, analgesic and sleep-inducing agent from opium, by the German apothecary assistant Friedrich Sertürner, who named the compound after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus. Multinational corporations including Merck, Hoffman-La Roche, Burroughs-Wellcome (now part of Glaxo Smith Kline), Abbott Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Upjohn (now part of Pfizer) began as local apothecary shops in the mid-1800s. By the late 1880s, German dye manufacturers had perfected the purification of individual organic compounds from coal tar and other mineral sources and had also established rudimentary methods in organic chemical synthesis. The development of synthetic chemical methods allowed scientists to systematically vary the structure of chemical substances, and growth in the emerging science of pharmacology expanded their ability to evaluate the biological effects of these structural changes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was Morphine and Quinine first available?
A: mid 1800s', '
Q: Who was the compound named after?
A: Morpheus', '
Q: Who came up with the name Morphine?
A: Friedrich Sertürner', '
Q: Where were was Morphine extracted from?
A: opium', '
Q: Who is responsible for purification of compounds found in mineral sources?
A: German dye manufacturers', '
Q: Morphine was named after what Greek god?
A: Morpheus', '
Q: Burroughs-Wellcome is now part of what medical company?
A: Glaxo Smith Kline', '
Q: Who discovered morphine?
A: Friedrich Sertürner', '
Q: What is the name of the plant that produces morphine?
A: opium']
Ehrlich’s approach of systematically varying the chemical structure of synthetic compounds and measuring the effects of these changes on biological activity was pursued broadly by industrial scientists, including Bayer scientists Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk. This work, also based in the testing of compounds available from the German dye industry, led to the development of Prontosil, the first representative of the sulfonamide class of antibiotics. Compared to arsphenamine, the sulfonamides had a broader spectrum of activity and were far less toxic, rendering them useful for infections caused by pathogens such as streptococci. In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery. Nonetheless, the dramatic decrease in deaths from infectious diseases that occurred prior to World War II was primarily the result of improved public health measures such as clean water and less crowded housing, and the impact of anti-infective drugs and vaccines was significant mainly after World War II.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1939?
A: Gerhard Domagk', '
Q: Prontosil is in what drug class?
A: antibiotics', '
Q: Who is responsible for creating Prontosil?
A: Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk', '
Q: What causes Streptococci?
A: pathogens', '
Q: Many deaths occurred before World War II due to what?
A: infectious diseases', '
Q: What was the name of the first sulfonamine antibiotic?
A: Prontosil', '
Q: What award did Domagk receive in 1939?
A: Nobel Prize in Medicine', '
Q: Anti-infective drugs became more prominent after what war?
A: World War II', '
Q: Were sulfonamides more or less toxic than arsphenamine?
A: less', '
Q: Streptococci and other pathogens could be treated by what type of antibiotics?
A: sulfonamides']
Early progress toward the development of vaccines occurred throughout this period, primarily in the form of academic and government-funded basic research directed toward the identification of the pathogens responsible for common communicable diseases. In 1885 Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux created the first rabies vaccine. The first diphtheria vaccines were produced in 1914 from a mixture of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin (produced from the serum of an inoculated animal), but the safety of the inoculation was marginal and it was not widely used. The United States recorded 206,000 cases of diphtheria in 1921 resulting in 15,520 deaths. In 1923 parallel efforts by Gaston Ramon at the Pasteur Institute and Alexander Glenny at the Wellcome Research Laboratories (later part of GlaxoSmithKline) led to the discovery that a safer vaccine could be produced by treating diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde. In 1944, Maurice Hilleman of Squibb Pharmaceuticals developed the first vaccine against Japanese encephelitis. Hilleman would later move to Merck where he would play a key role in the development of vaccines against measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and meningitis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who created the first rabies vaccine?
A: Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux', '
Q: How many cases of Diphtheria were there in 1921?
A: 206,000', '
Q: In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat Diphtheria Toxin?
A: formaldehyde', '
Q: Who created a vaccine to treat Japanese Encephalitis?
A: Maurice Hilleman', '
Q: How many deaths occurred due to Diphtheria?
A: 15,520', '
Q: The rabies vaccine was created in what year?
A: 1885', '
Q: In what year was the diphtheria vaccine made?
A: 1914', '
Q: What compound made the diphtheria vaccine safer to use?
A: formaldehyde', '
Q: Who developed the first encephalitis vaccine? 
A: Maurice Hilleman', '
Q: What company did Hilleman later work for?
A: Merck']
In 1937 over 100 people died after ingesting "Elixir Sulfanilamide" manufactured by S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee. The product was formulated in diethylene glycol, a highly toxic solvent that is now widely used as antifreeze. Under the laws extant at that time, prosecution of the manufacturer was possible only under the technicality that the product had been called an "elixir", which literally implied a solution in ethanol. In response to this episode, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which for the first time required pre-market demonstration of safety before a drug could be sold, and explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who manufactured "Elixir Sulfanilamide"?
A: S.E. Massengill Company', '
Q: What was one of the things the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act do?
A: explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims', '
Q: What year did Congress pass the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act?
A: 1938', '
Q: What drug killed 100 people in 1937?
A: Elixir Sulfanilamide', '
Q: What is Diethylene Glycol commonly used for now?
A: antifreeze', '
Q: What company manufactured Elixir Sulfanilamide? 
A: S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee', '
Q: What drug killed over 100 people in 1937?
A: Elixir Sulfanilamide', '
Q: Diethylene glycol is mainly used today as what liquid?
A: antifreeze', '
Q: What law did Congress pass following the Elixir Sulfanilamide incident?
A: Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938', '
Q: The name "elixir" implied a solution in what liquid?
A: ethanol']
The aftermath of World War II saw an explosion in the discovery of new classes of antibacterial drugs including the cephalosporins (developed by Eli Lilly based on the seminal work of Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham), streptomycin (discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory), the tetracyclines (discovered at Lederle Laboratories, now a part of Pfizer), erythromycin (discovered at Eli Lilly and Co.) and their extension to an increasingly wide range of bacterial pathogens. Streptomycin, discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory at Rutgers in 1943, became the first effective treatment for tuberculosis. At the time of its discovery, sanitoriums for the isolation of tuberculosis-infected people were an ubiquitous feature of cities in developed countries, with 50% dying within 5 years of admission.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the first effective treatment for Tuberculosis discovered?
A: 1943', '
Q: 50% of tuberculosis-infected people died within 5 years where?
A: cities in developed countries', '
Q: What drug effectively treated Tuberculosis?
A: Streptomycin', "
Q: Who was Eli Lilly's work based off of?
A: Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham", '
Q: Where was Tetracyclines discovered?
A: Lederle Laboratories', '
Q: What was the first treatment for tuberculosis?
A: Streptomycin', '
Q: What percentage of patients infected with tuberculosis died within 5 years?
A: 50%', '
Q: In what year was streptomycin discovered?
A: 1943', '
Q: Many more antibiotics were made following the end of what war?
A: World War II', '
Q: What company funded the research that led to the discovery of streptomycin?
A: Merck']
During the years 1940-1955, the rate of decline in the U.S. death rate accelerated from 2% per year to 8% per year, then returned to the historical rate of 2% per year. The dramatic decline in the immediate post-war years has been attributed to the rapid development of new treatments and vaccines for infectious disease that occurred during these years. Vaccine development continued to accelerate, with the most notable achievement of the period being Jonas Salk's 1954 development of the polio vaccine under the funding of the non-profit National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. The vaccine process was never patented, but was instead given to pharmaceutical companies to manufacture as a low-cost generic. In 1960 Maurice Hilleman of Merck Sharp & Dohme identified the SV40 virus, which was later shown to cause tumors in many mammalian species. It was later determined that SV40 was present as a contaminant in polio vaccine lots that had been administered to 90% of the children in the United States. The contamination appears to have originated both in the original cell stock and in monkey tissue used for production. In 2004 the United States Cancer Institute announced that it had concluded that SV40 is not associated with cancer in people.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Polio vaccine created?
A: 1954', '
Q: Who announced that SV40 was not associated with cancer?
A: United States Cancer Institute', '
Q: Who identified the SV40 virus?
A: Maurice Hilleman', '
Q: What was a complication of the SV40 virus?
A: cause tumors', '
Q: Who funded the Polio vaccine?
A: National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis', '
Q: In what year was the polio vaccine created?
A: 1954', '
Q: Who created the polio vaccine?
A: Jonas Salk', '
Q: What virus caused tumors in most mammals?
A: SV40', '
Q: Who identified the SV40 virus?
A: Maurice Hilleman', '
Q: SV40 was present in what vaccine?
A: polio']
On 2 July 2012, GlaxoSmithKline pleaded guilty to criminal charges and agreed to a $3 billion settlement of the largest health-care fraud case in the U.S. and the largest payment by a drug company. The settlement is related to the company's illegal promotion of prescription drugs, its failure to report safety data, bribing doctors, and promoting medicines for uses for which they were not licensed. The drugs involved were Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran for off-label, non-covered uses. Those and the drugs Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex were involved in the kickback scheme.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How much was the settlement GlaxoSmithKline agree to?
A: $3 billion', '
Q: What was one of the causes of the health-care fraud case?
A: illegal promotion of prescription drugs', '
Q: When did GlaxoSmithKline plead guilty?
A: 2 July 2012', '
Q: What drugs were related to a kickback scheme?
A: Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex', '
Q: What drugs were used for off-label uses?
A: Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran', '
Q: In what year did GlaxoSmithKline pay a $3 billion dollar settlement?
A: 2012', '
Q: How much was the largest healthcare fraud case in the US settled for?
A: $3 billion', '
Q: What company was sued for promoting medicines for unlicensed uses and bribing doctors?
A: GlaxoSmithKline']
In the US, starting in 2013, under the Physician Financial Transparency Reports (part of the Sunshine Act), the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services has to collect information from applicable manufacturers and group purchasing organizations in order to report information about their financial relationships with physicians and hospitals. Data are made public in the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website. The expectation is that relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the speculation of the relationship between doctors and the drug industry?
A: become fully transparent.', '
Q: What is the Physician Financial Transparency Report part of?
A: Sunshine Act', '
Q: Where can you obtain information about the Sunshine Act?
A: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website', '
Q: What information is collected by Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services?
A: financial relationships with physicians and hospitals.', '
Q: When did Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services have to start collecting information?
A: starting in 2013', '
Q: The Physician Financial Transparency Reports was part of what other act?
A: Sunshine Act', '
Q: In what year were Medicaid and Medicare required to disclose information about their relationships with doctors and hospitals?
A: 2013', '
Q: Where can financial relationships between Medicaid, Medicare and pharmaceutical companies be found?
A: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website', '
Q: What is expected when the relationships are made public?
A: relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent']
A Federal Trade Commission report issued in 1958 attempted to quantify the effect of antibiotic development on American public health. The report found that over the period 1946-1955, there was a 42% drop in the incidence of diseases for which antibiotics were effective and only a 20% drop in those for which antibiotics were not effective. The report concluded that "it appears that the use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors have limited the epidemic spread and thus the number of these diseases which have occurred". The study further examined mortality rates for eight common diseases for which antibiotics offered effective therapy (syphilis, tuberculosis, dysentery, scarlet fever, whooping cough, meningococcal infections, and pneumonia), and found a 56% decline over the same period. Notable among these was a 75% decline in deaths due to tuberculosis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What disease had the biggest decline of deaths?
A: tuberculosis', '
Q: What was responsible for the decline in spreading diseases?
A: use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors', '
Q: What period was the report issued in 1958 cover?
A: 1946-1955', '
Q: Who issued the report in 1958?
A: Federal Trade Commission', '
Q: What were eight diseases examined for?
A: mortality rates', '
Q: How much did the mortality rate of common bacterial infections decline between 1946-1955?
A: 56%', '
Q: How much did the mortality rate of tuberculosis drop between 1946-1955?
A: 75%', '
Q: Who issued a report describing the effects of antibiotic developments?
A: Federal Trade Commission', "
Q: In what year was the FTC's report issued?
A: 1958"]