romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a 'science of man', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The basis of classical liberalism comes from whose philosophical concepts?
A: Hume', '
Q: Whose philosophical concepts directly influenceed James Madison and thus the U.S. Constitution?
A: Hume', "
Q: Who popularised Hume's philosophical concepts?
A: Dugald Stewart"]
Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law; in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature, both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agree was necessary for a man to live in civil society?
A: social contract', '
Q: Who wrote Discourse on Inequality?
A: Rousseau', '
Q: Which theorist wrote Two Treatises of Government?
A: Locke', '
Q: For what reason did Rousseau feel people joined into civil society?
A: to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom', '
Q: From which state does Locke believe it is virtually improssible to break free?
A: state of war']
In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year as the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Leaders of the Enlightenment that helped design laws and programs to reform the court system are called what by historians?
A: enlightened despots', '
Q: Which enlightened despot was so over-enthusiastic that revolts broke out and nearly all of his programs were reversed?
A: Joseph II of Austria', '
Q: In what country was the model constitution of 1791 in effect for only one year?
A: Poland', '
Q: From what country was Enlightenment leader Catherine the Great?
A: Russia']
Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g. disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Did Mendelssohn and Spinoza judge religion on its moral fruits or logic of its theology??
A: moral fruits', '
Q: What did Enlightenment scholars seek to curtail and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war?
A: organized religion', '
Q: Spinoza was determined to remove what from contemporary and historical theology?
A: politics', '
Q: Did Moses Mendelssohn advise to follow a specific organized religion, or to whatever one found most convincing?
A: what they found most convincing']
In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who did Voltaire say that France looked to for ideas of civilization?
A: Scotland', '
Q: What was the profession of James Anderson?
A: agronomist', '
Q: Who was the first modern geologist?
A: James Hutton', '
Q: William Cullen and Joseph Black shared what two occupations?
A: physicist and chemist']
The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term 'Lumières' (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?") the German term became 'Aufklärung' (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like "les Lumières" (French), "illuminismo" (Italian), "ilustración" (Spanish) and "Aufklärung" (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was the French term Lumieres first used?
A: 1733', '
Q: What term became the German equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
A: Aufklärung', '
Q: In what century did the term Enlightenment emerge in English?
A: 19th', '
Q: What is the Italian equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
A: illuminismo', '
Q: Did the terms, Enlightenment, Lumieres, Aufklarung and illuminismo refer to distinct or overlapping movements?
A: overlapping']
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century"." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods?
A: lowered', '
Q: Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution?
A: increased', '
Q: The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution?
A: Industrial Revolution']
As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers, and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members?
A: musicians', '
Q: Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews?
A: middle', '
Q: Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially?
A: keyboard', '
Q: Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for?
A: keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble']
In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors". These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who, in any case, were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: By what century in France had the men of letters fused with the elites?
A: mid-18th century', '
Q: What was the term for the oppositional literary sphere of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be-authors"?
A: Grub Street', '
Q: Could the London market support the large numbers of writers that were emerging?
A: not', '
Q: Were men travelling to London to become authors paid well or poorly by the publishing-bookselling guilds?
A: very poorly']
The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market – such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese – found journal success more difficult, and more often than not, a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During which movement were the first scientific and literary journals established?
A: the Enlightenment', '
Q: What was the title of the first scientific and literary journal?
A: the Parisian Journal des Sçavans', '
Q: In what year did the first scientific and literary journal appear?
A: 1665', '
Q: Which two languages were the most dominant languages of scientific and literary publications?
A: French and Latin', '
Q: Where were the vast majority of French language periodicals produced?
A: Holland']
In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon, and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine, while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which work published in 1712 explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education?
A: The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon', '
Q: In the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) how many colums of text were dedicated to wine?
A: over five', '
Q: Was the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) more dedicated to technical subjects or scientific theory?
A: technical subjects', '
Q: In what year was the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica published?
A: 1771', '
Q: The Encyclopaedia Britannica was modelled along the same lines as a work from which country?
A: Germany']
More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary, and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays, and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated – and won – the competitions. Of a total of 2300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 – perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What enforced contest rule guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging?
A: anonymity', '
Q: Were the vast majority of contest participants from the wealthier strata of society or the popular classes?
A: wealthier strata of society', "
Q: Women's education common stressed which literary genre?
A: poetry", '
Q: How many prize competitions did women win out of the 2300 in France?
A: 49', '
Q: What literary genre were the majority of female winning contest entries?
A: poetry']
The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686; by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was the Cafe Procope established in 1686?
A: Paris', '
Q: By the 1720s. how many cafes were in Paris?
A: around 400', '
Q: In which Cafe was the Encyclopedie created?
A: The Café Procope', '
Q: Were bruits or newspapers allegedly a better source of information?
A: bruits']
During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. they promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment, and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – "liberty, fraternity, and equality" Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the "Illuminati" founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did Freemasonry originate?
A: Scotland', '
Q: Where did Freemasonry first spread?
A: England', '
Q: In what country was Freemaonry particularly prevalent?
A: France', '
Q: What was the most popular of all Enlightenment associations?
A: Freemasonry', '
Q: Which group was copied from the Freemasons and founded in Bavaria in 1776?
A: Illuminati']
Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property", and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn". Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property"?
A: Locke', '
Q: Locke believed that the natural right to property is derived from what?
A: labor', "
Q: Locke's theory of natural rights influenced what French document?
A: French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen"]
Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which king of Prussia saw himself as the leader of the Enlightenment?
A: Frederick the Great', '
Q: Which Enlightenment theorist was extended an invitation to live at the palace after being iprisoned by the French government?
A: Voltaire', '
Q: Who was the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786?
A: Frederick the Great,']
Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?
A: Benjamin Franklin', '
Q: Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?
A: both directions', '
Q: As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?
A: John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733)', '
Q: All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?
A: The Age of Reason', '
Q: Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?
A: science and religion']
The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters, and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself". Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. More importantly, according to Darnton, the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term was given to the writers of Grub Street?
A: the Grub Street Hacks', '
Q: Libelles were generally written in what form?
A: pamphlets', '
Q: Which group inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, according to Darnton?
A: the Grub Street hacks', '
Q: Which works by the Grub Street Hacks "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."?
A: the libelles']