romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
There is some evidence, in the form of ice cores drilled to about 400 m (1,300 ft) above the water line, that Lake Vostok's waters may contain microbial life. The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Jupiter's moon, Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, it would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa. On 7 February 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly alkaline waters. If found, these resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What lake is thought to contain microbial life?
A: Lake Vostok', '
Q: To what does the frozen surface of Lake Vostok resemble?
A: Europa', "
Q: With what is Europa associated??
A: Jupiter's moon", '
Q: When did NASA go on an expedition to Lake Untersee?
A: 7 February 2008', '
Q: For what was NASA searching?
A: extremophiles']
Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic, around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). By the end of the Cretaceous, about 66 Ma, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a subtropical climate and flora, complete with a marsupial fauna. In the Eocene epoch, about 40 Ma Australia-New Guinea separated from Antarctica, so that latitudinal currents could isolate Antarctica from Australia, and the first ice began to appear. During the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago, CO2 levels have been found to be about 760 ppm and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what period did Africa beak off from Antarctica?
A: Jurassic', '
Q: When was Antarctica still joined to Australia?
A: end of the Cretaceous', '
Q: What type of climate did Antarctica have in the Cretaceous period?
A: subtropical', '
Q: When did Australia separate from Antarctica?
A: Eocene epoch', '
Q: After the division from Australia, what began to appear?
A: ice']
Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for three reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation in the troposphere. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica. Third, the Earth is at aphelion in July (i.e., the Earth is farthest from the Sun in the Antarctic winter), and the Earth is at perihelion in January (i.e., the Earth is closest to the Sun in the Antarctic summer). The orbital distance contributes to a colder Antarctic winter (and a warmer Antarctic summer) but the first two effects have more impact.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which of the the poles is colder?
A: Antarctica', '
Q: How high is the continent of Antarctica above sea level?
A: 3,000 m', '
Q: How does the Arctic Ocean warm the Arctic?
A: warmth is transferred', '
Q: What contributes to the Antarctic cold?
A: orbital distance', '
Q: What does temperature do with elevation?
A: decreases']
Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60th parallel south (the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty), as well as the first one born on the Antarctic mainland, in 1978 at Base Esperanza, on the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine government to determine if the continent was suitable for family life. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station. As of 2009, eleven children were born in Antarctica (south of the 60th parallel south): eight at the Argentine Esperanza Base and three at the Chilean Frei Montalva Station.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first person born south of the 60th parallel?
A: Emilio Marcos Palma', '
Q: Where is the continental limit of Antarctica?
A: 60th parallel south', '
Q: When was Palma born?
A: 1978', '
Q: What was the Palma family sent to Antarctica to determine?
A: suitable for family life']
About 1150 species of fungi have been recorded from Antarctica, of which about 750 are non-lichen-forming and 400 are lichen-forming. Some of these species are cryptoendoliths as a result of evolution under extreme conditions, and have significantly contributed to shaping the impressive rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges. The apparently simple morphology, scarcely differentiated structures, metabolic systems and enzymes still active at very low temperatures, and reduced life cycles shown by such fungi make them particularly suited to harsh environments such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys. In particular, their thick-walled and strongly melanized cells make them resistant to UV light. Those features can also be observed in algae and cyanobacteria, suggesting that these are adaptations to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica. This has led to speculation that, if life ever occurred on Mars, it might have looked similar to Antarctic fungi such as Cryomyces minteri. Some of these fungi are also apparently endemic to Antarctica. Endemic Antarctic fungi also include certain dung-inhabiting species which have had to evolve in response to the double challenge of extreme cold while growing on dung, and the need to survive passage through the gut of warm-blooded animals.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many species of fungi have been found on Antarctica?
A: 1150', '
Q: What type of fungi help shape rock formations in Antarctica?
A: cryptoendoliths', '
Q: How many of the extant fungi in Antarctica are lichen-forming?
A: 400', '
Q: What has the study of fungi in Antarctica shown about these organisms?
A: adaptations', '
Q: How is it postulated that Mars life might have evolved?
A: similar to Antarctic']
The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap, and have caused friction. On 18 December 2012, the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office named a previously unnamed area Queen Elizabeth Land in tribute to Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee. On 22 December 2012, the UK ambassador to Argentina, John Freeman, was summoned to the Argentine government as protest against the claim. Argentine–UK relations had previously been damaged throughout 2012 due to disputes over the sovereignty of the nearby Falkland Islands, and the 30th anniversary of the Falklands War.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the British claim in 2012?
A: Queen Elizabeth Land', "
Q: To what was the claim of land in tribute?
A: Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee", '
Q: What was the response of the Argentine response to the British land claim?
A: protest', '
Q: When did the British claim Queen Elizabeth Land in Antarctica?
A: 18 December 2012', '
Q: Of what war was 2012 the anniversary?
A: Falklands War']
There has been some concern over the potential adverse environmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx of visitors. Some environmentalists and scientists have made a call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota. The primary response by Antarctic Treaty Parties has been to develop, through their Committee for Environmental Protection and in partnership with IAATO, "site use guidelines" setting landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites. Antarctic sightseeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 on Mount Erebus, which killed all 257 aboard. Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The entry of whom has caused some worry about the welfare of Antarctica?
A: visitors', '
Q: What do environmentalists want enacted?
A: stricter regulations', '
Q: What kind of tourist limit has been asked for by environmentalists?
A: tourism quota', '
Q: What have the authorities produced in response to these requests?
A: site use guidelines', '
Q: When did an Air New Zealand crash on Mount Erebus?
A: 1979']
Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. Geologists tend to study plate tectonics, meteorites from outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. Astrophysicists at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere; low temperature, which minimizes the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere; and absence of light pollution, thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world, built 2 km (1.2 mi) below Amundsen–Scott station.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What group of scientists study tectonics?
A: Geologists', '
Q: Who is interested in the effects of harsh environment on humans?
A: Biologists', '
Q: Which science is concerned with the study of the dynamics of ice?
A: Glaciologists', '
Q: What kind of observations use  the high elevations and thin atmosphere for viewing space?
A: astronomical', '
Q: Where is the largest neutrino telescope on Earth?
A: Amundsen–Scott station.']
According to the apocryphal Gospel of James, Mary was the daughter of Saint Joachim and Saint Anne. Before Mary's conception, Anne had been barren and was far advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a consecrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old, much like Hannah took Samuel to the Tabernacle as recorded in the Old Testament. Some apocryphal accounts state that at the time of her betrothal to Joseph, Mary was 12–14 years old, and he was thirty years old, but such accounts are unreliable.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who were Mary's parents?
A: Saint Joachim and Saint Anne", '
Q: How old was Mary when she was consecrated as a virgin?
A: three years old', '
Q: Who was Mary betrothed to?
A: Joseph', '
Q: When she was betrothed to Joseph, approximately how old was Mary?
A: 12–14 years old', '
Q: Where was Mary consecrated as a virgin?
A: the Temple in Jerusalem']
The Gospel of Luke begins its account of Mary's life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to gospel accounts, Mary was present at the Crucifixion of Jesus and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to Apocryphal writings, at some time soon after her death, her incorrupt body was assumed directly into Heaven, to be reunited with her soul, and the apostles thereupon found the tomb empty; this is known in Christian teaching as the Assumption.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which angel appeared to Mary?
A: Gabriel', "
Q: What happened to Mary's body at death?
A: assumed directly into Heaven", '
Q: What did Gabriel announce to Mary at the Annunciation?
A: her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus', '
Q: How was Mary related to Jesus?
A: mother of Jesus', '
Q: Which goespel begins its story of Mary with the Annunciation?
A: Gospel of Luke']
The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary relate to her death and bodily assumption to Heaven. The Roman Catholic Church has dogmaically defined the doctrine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 by Pope Pius XII in Munificentissimus Deus. Whether the Virgin Mary died or not is not defined dogmatically, however, although a reference to the death of Mary are made in Munificentissimus Deus. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is believed, and celebrated with her Dormition, where they believe she died.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Assumption dogmatically define by the Catholic Church?
A: 1950', '
Q: In which papal document was the dogma of the Assumption defined?
A: Munificentissimus Deus', '
Q: Which pope authored Munifentissimus Deus?
A: Pope Pius XII', '
Q: Other than the Roman Catholic Church, which church holds the doctrine of the Assumption to be true?
A: Eastern Orthodox Church', '
Q: What is another name for the Assumption of Mary?
A: Dormition']
After Mary continued in the "blood of her purifying" another 33 days for a total of 40 days, she brought her burnt offering and sin offering to the Temple in Jerusalem,[Luke 2:22] so the priest could make atonement for her sins, being cleansed from her blood.[Leviticus 12:1-8] They also presented Jesus –  "As it is written in the law of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23other verses). After the prophecies of Simeon and the prophetess Anna in Luke 2:25-38 concluded, Joseph and Mary took Jesus and "returned into Galilee, to their own city Nazareth".[Luke 2:39]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long in total was the "blood of her purifying" for Mary?
A: 40 days', '
Q: Where did Mary bring a burnt offering and sin offering?
A: the Temple in Jerusalem', '
Q: Who was presented at the Temple in Jerusalem?
A: Jesus', '
Q: Who prophesized in Luke 2:25-38?
A: Simeon and the prophetess Anna in', '
Q: To which Galilean city did Joseph and Mary take Jesus?
A: Nazareth']
According to the writer of Luke, Mary was a relative of Elizabeth, wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of Abijah, who was herself part of the lineage of Aaron and so of the tribe of Levi.[Luke 1:5;1:36] Some of those who consider that the relationship with Elizabeth was on the maternal side, consider that Mary, like Joseph, to whom she was betrothed, was of the House of David and so of the Tribe of Judah, and that the genealogy of Jesus presented in Luke 3 from Nathan, third son of David and Bathsheba, is in fact the genealogy of Mary,[need quotation to verify] while the genealogy from Solomon given in Matthew 1 is that of Joseph. (Aaron's wife Elisheba was of the tribe of Judah, so all their descendants are from both Levi and Judah.)[Num.1:7 & Ex.6:23]

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Zechariah's occupation?
A: priest", '
Q: Which tribe did Elizabeth belong to?
A: Levi', "
Q: Who was Aaron's wife?
A: Elisheba", '
Q: Which tribe did Elisheba belong to?
A: Judah', '
Q: Who was the third son of David and Bathsheba?
A: Nathan']
Mary is also depicted as being present among the women at the crucifixion during the crucifixion standing near "the disciple whom Jesus loved" along with Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene,[Jn 19:25-26] to which list Matthew 27:56 adds "the mother of the sons of Zebedee", presumably the Salome mentioned in Mark 15:40. This representation is called a Stabat Mater. While not recorded in the Gospel accounts, Mary cradling the dead body of her son is a common motif in art, called a "pietà" or "pity".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Name the two women present with Mary at the Crucifixion of Jesus?
A: Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene', '
Q: In art, what is the name for the motif of Mary cradling the body of Jesus?
A: pietà', '
Q: In Matthew, who else besides Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene are with Mary at the Crucifixion?
A: Salome', '
Q: What does pieta mean?
A: pity', '
Q: What is a representation of Mary at the Crucifixion called?
A: a Stabat Mater']
The adoption of the mother of Jesus as a virtual goddess may represent a reintroduction of aspects of the worship of Isis. "When looking at images of the Egyptian goddess Isis and those of the Virgin Mary, one may initially observe iconographic similarities. These parallels have led many scholars to suggest that there is a distinct iconographic relationship between Isis and Mary. In fact, some scholars have gone even further, and have suggested, on the basis of this relationship, a direct link between the cult of Mary and that of Isis."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Egyptian goddess do some scholars ascribe similarities to?
A: Isis', '
Q: What type of goddess is Isis?
A: Egyptian', '
Q: What kind of relationship do some scholars believe exists between Isis and Mary?
A: iconographic']
In the 19th century, a house near Ephesus in Turkey was found, based on the visions of Anne Catherine Emmerich, an Augustinian nun in Germany. It has since been visited as the House of the Virgin Mary by Roman Catholic pilgrims who consider it the place where Mary lived until her assumption. The Gospel of John states that Mary went to live with the Disciple whom Jesus loved,[Jn 19:27] identified as John the Evangelist.[citation needed] Irenaeus and Eusebius of Caesarea wrote in their histories that John later went to Ephesus, which may provide the basis for the early belief that Mary also lived in Ephesus with John.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which country is Ephesus?
A: Turkey', '
Q: Whose visions led to the identification of the House of the Virgin Mary?
A: Anne Catherine Emmerich', '
Q: Which disciple is known as "the Disciple whom Jesus loved?"
A: John the Evangelist', '
Q: With whom is it believed that Mary lived with in Ephesus?
A: John', '
Q: In which century was the House of the Virgin Mary found?
A: 19th']
Devotions to artistic depictions of Mary vary among Christian traditions. There is a long tradition of Roman Catholic Marian art and no image permeates Catholic art as does the image of Madonna and Child. The icon of the Virgin Theotokos with Christ is without doubt the most venerated icon in the Orthodox Church. Both Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians venerate images and icons of Mary, given that the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 permitted their veneration with the understanding that those who venerate the image are venerating the reality of the person it represents, and the 842 Synod of Constantinople confirming the same. According to Orthodox piety and traditional practice, however, believers ought to pray before and venerate only flat, two-dimensional icons, and not three-dimensional statues.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which year was the Second Council of Nicea?
A: 787', '
Q: In which year did the Synod of Constantinople confirm the veneration of images of Mary?
A: 842', '
Q: Which icon is most venerated in the Orthodox Church?
A: icon of the Virgin Theotokos', '
Q: What is the name given to artistic depictions of Mary?
A: Marian art', '
Q: In the Orthodox church, what types of icons are allowed to be venerated and prayed before?
A: flat, two-dimensional icons']
Ephesus is a cultic centre of Mary, the site of the first Church dedicated to her and the rumoured place of her death. Ephesus was previously a centre for worship of Artemis a virgin goddess. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus being regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World The cult of Mary was furthered by Queen Theodora in the 6th Century. According to William E. Phipps, in the book Survivals of Roman Religion "Gordon Laing argues convincingly that the worship of Artemis as both virgin and mother at the grand Ephesian temple contributed to the veneration of Mary."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where is the site of the first Church dedicated to Mary?
A: Ephesus', '
Q: Which goddess was worshipped in Ephesus before Mary?
A: Artemis', '
Q: Who was the author of the book, "Survivals of Roman Religion?"
A: William E. Phipps', '
Q: Which Queen furthered the cult of Mary in the 6th Century?
A: Queen Theodora', '
Q: Where was Mary rumored to have died?
A: Ephesus']
Some titles have a Biblical basis, for instance the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, who was sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" due to his lineage of King David. The biblical basis for the term Queen can be seen in the Gospel of Luke 1:32 and the Book of Isaiah 9:6, and Queen Mother from 1 Kings 2:19-20 and Jeremiah 13:18-19. Other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary, e.g., Our Lady of Good Counsel, Our Lady of Navigators or Our Lady of Ransom who protects captives.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Jesus was known as the "King of Kings" because of his lieage from who?
A: King David', '
Q: Which name is given to Mary because of her role as a protector of captives?
A: Our Lady of Ransom', '
Q: Who was the mother of Jesus?
A: Mary', '
Q: Which New Testament book provides a basis for the term Queen when referring to Mary?
A: Luke']
Despite Martin Luther's harsh polemics against his Roman Catholic opponents over issues concerning Mary and the saints, theologians appear to agree that Luther adhered to the Marian decrees of the ecumenical councils and dogmas of the church. He held fast to the belief that Mary was a perpetual virgin and the Theotokos or Mother of God. Special attention is given to the assertion that Luther, some three-hundred years before the dogmatization of the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854, was a firm adherent of that view. Others maintain that Luther in later years changed his position on the Immaculate Conception, which, at that time was undefined in the Church, maintaining however the sinlessness of Mary throughout her life. For Luther, early in his life, the Assumption of Mary was an understood fact, although he later stated that the Bible did not say anything about it and stopped celebrating its feast. Important to him was the belief that Mary and the saints do live on after death. "Throughout his career as a priest-professor-reformer, Luther preached, taught, and argued about the veneration of Mary with a verbosity that ranged from childlike piety to sophisticated polemics. His views are intimately linked to his Christocentric theology and its consequences for liturgy and piety." Luther, while revering Mary, came to criticize the "Papists" for blurring the line, between high admiration of the grace of God wherever it is seen in a human being, and religious service given to another creature. He considered the Roman Catholic practice of celebrating saints' days and making intercessory requests addressed especially to Mary and other departed saints to be idolatry. His final thoughts on Marian devotion and veneration are preserved in a sermon preached at Wittenberg only a month before his death:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote polemics regarding Roman Catholic beliefs about Mary?
A: Martin Luther', '
Q: In which year was the Immaculate Conception dogmatized?
A: 1854', '
Q: Which pope was responsible for the dogmatization of the Immaculate Conception?
A: Pope Pius IX', '
Q: What does Theotokos mean?
A: Mother of God', '
Q: Where did Martin Luther preach a sermon on Marian devotion a month before his death?
A: Wittenberg']