romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
These critics of the modern separation of church and state also note the official establishment of religion in several of the states at the time of ratification, to suggest that the modern incorporation of the Establishment Clause as to state governments goes against the original constitutional intent.[citation needed] The issue is complex, however, as the incorporation ultimately bases on the passage of the 14th Amendment in 1868, at which point the first amendment's application to the state government was recognized. Many of these constitutional debates relate to the competing interpretive theories of originalism versus modern, progressivist theories such as the doctrine of the Living Constitution. Other debates center on the principle of the law of the land in America being defined not just by the Constitution's Supremacy Clause, but also by legal precedence, making an accurate reading of the Constitution subject to the mores and values of a given era, and rendering the concept of historical revisionism irrelevant when discussing the Constitution.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Critics of modern separation of church and state note there was official establishment of what in several states at the time of ratification?
A: religion', '
Q: When was the passage of the 14th Amendment?
A: 1868', "
Q: What was recognized by the time the 14th Amendment passed?
A: first amendment's application to the state government", '
Q: What kind of theory is the doctrine of the Living Constitution?
A: progressivist', "
Q: What do some debates center on the law of the land not being just defined by the Constitution's Supremacy Clause but also by what?
A: legal precedence"]
The "religious test" clause has been interpreted to cover both elected officials and appointed ones, career civil servants as well as political appointees. Religious beliefs or the lack of them have therefore not been permissible tests or qualifications with regard to federal employees since the ratification of the Constitution. Seven states, however, have language included in their Bill of Rights, Declaration of Rights, or in the body of their constitutions that require state office-holders to have particular religious beliefs, though some of these have been successfully challenged in court. These states are Texas, Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Tennessee.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What clause are both elected officials and appointed ones covered by?
A: religious test', '
Q: What type of beliefs are not an allowed job qualification test for federal employees?
A: Religious', '
Q: How many states violate the religious test clause with language somewhere in their official policies?
A: Seven', '
Q: What do states violate the clause require state office-holders to possess?
A: particular religious beliefs']
The required beliefs of these clauses include belief in a Supreme Being and belief in a future state of rewards and punishments. (Tennessee Constitution Article IX, Section 2 is one such example.) Some of these same states specify that the oath of office include the words "so help me God." In some cases these beliefs (or oaths) were historically required of jurors and witnesses in court. At one time, such restrictions were allowed under the doctrine of states' rights; today they are deemed to be in violation of the federal First Amendment, as applied to the states via the 14th amendment, and hence unconstitutional and unenforceable.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do the non-permissible clauses require a belief in?
A: a Supreme Being', "
Q: What's one example in Tennessee's constitution?
A: Article IX, Section 2", '
Q: What language do some of the same states specify the oath of office include?
A: so help me God', '
Q: Requiring oaths invoking God are today deemed to be in violation of what?
A: federal First Amendment', "
Q: Because such oaths are in violation of the First Amendment, they're what?
A: unconstitutional and unenforceable"]
Relaxed zoning rules and special parking privileges for churches, the tax-free status of church property, the fact that Christmas is a federal holiday, etc., have also been questioned, but have been considered examples of the governmental prerogative in deciding practical and beneficial arrangements for the society. The national motto "In God We Trust" has been challenged as a violation, but the Supreme Court has ruled that ceremonial deism is not religious in nature. A circuit court ruling affirmed Ohio's right to use as its motto a passage from the Bible, "With God, all things are possible", because it displayed no preference for a particular religion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why have perks like relaxed zoning rules and special parking privileges been allowed for churches?
A: beneficial arrangements for the society', '
Q: What is the national motto "In God We Trust" officially known as?
A: ceremonial deism', '
Q: What has the Supreme Court ruled about ceremonial deism?
A: not religious in nature', '
Q: What state uses as a motto a passage from the Bible?
A: Ohio', '
Q: Why was Ohio allowed to use a biblical passage as its motto?
A: because it displayed no preference for a particular religion']
Jeffries and Ryan (2001) argue that the modern concept of separation of church and state dates from the mid-twentieth century rulings of the Supreme Court. The central point, they argue, was a constitutional ban against aid to religious schools, followed by a later ban on religious observance in public education. Jeffries and Ryan argue that these two propositions—that public aid should not go to religious schools and that public schools should not be religious—make up the separationist position of the modern Establishment Clause.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When do Jeffries and Ryan that the modern concept of separation of church and state dates from?
A: mid-twentieth century', "
Q: What was the central point of the rulings of the Supreme Court's rulings?
A: constitutional ban against aid to religious schools", '
Q: What was later banned in public education?
A: religious observance', '
Q: How many propositions make up the separationist position on the Establishment Clause?
A: two']
Jeffries and Ryan argue that no-aid position drew support from a coalition of separationist opinion. Most important was "the pervasive secularism that came to dominate American public life," which sought to confine religion to a private sphere. Further, the ban against government aid to religious schools was supported before 1970 by most Protestants (and most Jews), who opposed aid to religious schools, which were mostly Catholic at the time. After 1980, however, anti-Catholic sentiment has diminished among mainline Protestants, and the crucial coalition of public secularists and Protestant churches has collapsed. While mainline Protestant denominations are more inclined towards strict separation of church and state, much evangelical opinion has now largely deserted that position. As a consequence, strict separationism is opposed today by members of many Protestant faiths, even perhaps eclipsing the opposition of Roman Catholics.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What position do Jeffries and Ryan argue was the reason for support from a coalition of separationists?
A: no-aid', '
Q: What type of secularism came to dominate American public life?
A: pervasive', '
Q: Who supported the ban against government aid to religious schools before 1970?
A: most Protestants (and most Jews)', '
Q: What diminished after 1980?
A: anti-Catholic sentiment', '
Q: What is opposed today by members of many Protestant faiths?
A: strict separationism']
Critics of the modern concept of the "separation of church and state" argue that it is untethered to anything in the text of the constitution and is contrary to the conception of the phrase as the Founding Fathers understood it. Philip Hamburger, Columbia Law school professor and prominent critic of the modern understanding of the concept, maintains that the modern concept, which deviates from the constitutional establishment clause jurisprudence, is rooted in American anti-Catholicism and Nativism.[citation needed] Briefs before the Supreme Court, including by the U.S. government, have argued that some state constitutional amendments relating to the modern conception of separation of church and state (Blaine Amendments) were motivated by and intended to enact anti-Catholicism.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What do critics of the concept of separation of church and state argue it's untethered to?
A: anything in the text of the constitution", '
Q: What is the profession of Philip Hamburger?
A: professor', '
Q: What school is Philip Hamburger associated with?
A: Columbia Law school', '
Q: What does Hamburger feel the modern concept of separation of church and state is rooted in?
A: American anti-Catholicism', '
Q: What are state constitutional amendments relating to separation of church and state known as?
A: Blaine Amendments']
J. Brent Walker, Executive Director of the Baptist Joint Committee, responded to Hamburger's claims noting; "The fact that the separation of church and state has been supported by some who exhibited an anti-Catholic animus or a secularist bent does not impugn the validity of the principle. Champions of religious liberty have argued for the separation of church and state for reasons having nothing to do with anti-Catholicism or desire for a secular culture. Of course, separationists have opposed the Catholic Church when it has sought to tap into the public till to support its parochial schools or to argue for on-campus released time in the public schools. But that principled debate on the issues does not support a charge of religious bigotry"

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is the Executive Director of the Baptist Joint Committee?
A: J. Brent Walker', '
Q: What does Walker feel does not impugn the validity of the principle of separation of church and state?
A: supported by some who exhibited an anti-Catholic animus or a secularist bent', '
Q: Who have argued for the separation of church and state for reasons having nothing to do with a desire for a secular culture?
A: Champions of religious liberty', '
Q: Separationists opposed the Catholic church when it sought to do what?
A: tap into the public till to support its parochial schools', '
Q: What does a principled debate on the issues not support a charge of?
A: religious bigotry']
Steven Waldman notes that; "The evangelicals provided the political muscle for the efforts of Madison and Jefferson, not merely because they wanted to block official churches but because they wanted to keep the spiritual and secular worlds apart." "Religious freedom resulted from an alliance of unlikely partners," writes the historian Frank Lambert in his book The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America. "New Light evangelicals such as Isaac Bachus and John Leland joined forces with Deists and skeptics such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson to fight for a complete separation of church and state."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did evangelicals want to keep apart?
A: the spiritual and secular worlds', '
Q: What did religious freedom result from?
A: an alliance of unlikely partners', '
Q: What profession does Frank Lambert have?
A: historian', "
Q: What is the name of Lambert's book?
A: The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America", '
Q: What did Deists and skeptics join together to fight for?
A: a complete separation of church and state']
Robert N. Bellah has in his writings that although the separation of church and state is grounded firmly in the constitution of the United States, this does not mean that there is no religious dimension in the political society of the United States. He used the term "Civil Religion" to describe the specific relation between politics and religion in the United States. His 1967 article analyzes the inaugural speech of John F. Kennedy: "Considering the separation of church and state, how is a president justified in using the word 'God' at all? The answer is that the separation of church and state has not denied the political realm a religious dimension."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does Bellah say the separation of church and state is grounded firmly in?
A: constitution of the United States', "
Q: Whose speech does Bellah's 1967 article analyze?
A: John F. Kennedy", '
Q: What does Bellah use the term "civil religion\' to describe?
A: the specific relation between politics and religion', '
Q: What word does Bellah ask how a President is justified to use?
A: God', '
Q: What has the separation of church and state failed to deny the political realm of?
A: a religious dimension']
Robert S. Wood has argued that the United States is a model for the world in terms of how a separation of church and state—no state-run or state-established church—is good for both the church and the state, allowing a variety of religions to flourish. Speaking at the Toronto-based Center for New Religions, Wood said that the freedom of conscience and assembly allowed under such a system has led to a "remarkable religiosity" in the United States that isn't present in other industrialized nations. Wood believes that the U.S. operates on "a sort of civic religion," which includes a generally-shared belief in a creator who "expects better of us." Beyond that, individuals are free to decide how they want to believe and fill in their own creeds and express their conscience. He calls this approach the "genius of religious sentiment in the United States."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does having no state-run or state-established allow a variety of religions to do?
A: flourish', '
Q: Who has argued the United States is a model for the world in separation of church and state is a good thing?
A: Robert S. Wood', '
Q: Where is the Center for New Religions located?
A: Toronto', '
Q: What does Wood believe the U.S. operates on?
A: a sort of civic religion', '
Q: What does Wood call the approach of allowing individuals the freedom to decide what they want to believe?
A: genius of religious sentiment in the United States']
Protestantism is a form of Christian faith and practice which originated with the Protestant Reformation,[a] a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three major divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Anglicanism is sometimes considered to be independent from Protestantism.[b] The term derives from the letter of protestation from Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of faith is Protestantism?
A: Christian', '
Q: Whose teachings were once considered to be heretical?
A: Martin Luther', '
Q: Other than Protestantism, what are the other two divisions of Christianity?
A: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy', '
Q: Who wrote a letter protesting the condemnation of Martin Luther?
A: Lutheran princes', '
Q: What was the name of the movement that started Protestantism?
A: the Protestant Reformation']
All Protestant denominations reject the notion of papal supremacy over the Church universal and generally deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but they disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The various denominations generally emphasize the priesthood of all believers, the doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide) rather than by or with good works, and a belief in the Bible alone (rather than with Catholic tradition) as the highest authority in matters of faith and morals (sola scriptura). The "Five solae" summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church of the day.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do all Protestantism denominations reject?
A: the notion of papal supremacy over the Church universal', '
Q: What Catholic doctrine is usually denied in Protestantism?
A: transubstantiation,', '
Q: What is the term to describe using only faith for justification?
A: sola fide', '
Q: What is the highest authority in Protestantism for morals?
A: the Bible', '
Q: What is the term to describe the differences between Protestantism and Catholicism?
A: Five solae']
Protestantism spread in Europe during the 16th century. Lutheranism spread from Germany into its surrounding areas,[c] Denmark,[d] Norway,[e] Sweden,[f] Finland,[g] Prussia,[h] Latvia,[i], Estonia,[j] and Iceland,[k] as well as other smaller territories. Reformed churches were founded primarily in Germany and its adjacent regions,[l] Hungary,[m] the Netherlands,[n] Scotland,[o] Switzerland,[p] and France[q] by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Knox. Arminianism[r] gained supporters in the Netherlands and parts of Germany. In 1534, King Henry VIII put an end to all papal jurisdiction in England[s] after the Pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon; this opened the door to reformational ideas, notably during the following reign of Edward VI, through Thomas Cranmer, Richard Hooker, Matthew Parker and other theologians. There were also reformational efforts throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation—a response to perceived corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the expanding Magisterial Reformation led by Luther and various other reformers—which gave rise to Anabaptist, Moravian, and other Pietistic movements. In later centuries, Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and other fields.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did Lutheranism begin?
A: Germany', '
Q: Name three early Protestant reformers.
A: John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Knox', '
Q: Where did Arminianism take hold?
A: the Netherlands and parts of Germany', '
Q: Who ended Catholic supremecy in England?
A: King Henry VIII', '
Q: Who made large contributions in the sciences in latter centuries?
A: Protestants']
Collectively encompassing more than 900 million adherents, or nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide, Protestantism is present on all populated continents.[t] The movement is more divided theologically and ecclesiastically than either Eastern Orthodoxy or Roman Catholicism, lacking both structural unity and central human authority. Some Protestant churches do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership (notably, the Anglican Communion), while others are confined to a single country, or even are solitary church bodies or congregations (such as the former Prussian Union of churches). Nondenominational, evangelical, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What percentage of Christians are Protestant?
A: nearly forty percent', '
Q: Which continents have some form of Protestantism?
A: all populated continents', '
Q: What types of Protestantism are increasing?
A: Nondenominational, evangelical, independent and other churches', '
Q: What Protestant church has members around the world?
A: the Anglican Communion', '
Q: How many people are considered Protestant?
A: more than 900 million']
During the Reformation, the term was hardly used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical (German: evangelisch), which refers to the gospel, was much more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations, above all the ones in the German-speaking area such as the EKD. The German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and therefore not to Protestantism as a whole. It traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. The word reformatorisch is used as an alternative for evangelisch in German, and is different from English reformed (German: reformiert), which refers to churches shaped by ideas of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and other Reformed theologians.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From what language does the term evangelical originate?
A: German', '
Q: What German word refers to the gospel or being Protestant?
A: evangelisch', '
Q: What English word for a church began with the Puritans in England?
A: evangelical', '
Q: Name two contributors to Reformed churches.
A: John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli', '
Q: Who brought Evangelicalism to the U.S.?
A: the Puritans']
The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching principle of sola scriptura (by scripture alone). This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the term for teaching by only scripture?
A: sola scriptura', '
Q: How many primary doctrines are focused on the Bible?
A: four', '
Q: What is the term that means all in the Bible is true?
A: inerrancy', '
Q: What power can help someone overcome sin?
A: the Holy Spirit', '
Q: What is the term for needing the Bible for salvation?
A: necessity']
The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with ecclesiology (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which ideas had little criticism for the most part?
A: necessity and inerrancy', '
Q: What is the term for how the church as a whole works?
A: ecclesiology', '
Q: What group believes that some in the church have a special status to understand the bible?
A: Catholics', '
Q: At what period was inerrancy debated?
A: the Enlightenment', '
Q: What item could be learned to gain salvation?
A: the Bible']
The second main principle, sola fide (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to sola scriptura, this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because sola scriptura placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, sola fide epitomises the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Luther's main principle?
A: sola fide (by faith alone)", '
Q: What principle made the Bible the one source for teaching?
A: sola scriptura', '
Q: What did reformers considered their beliefs to be, in terms of focus?
A: Christocentric', '
Q: What is the second principle of Protestantism?
A: sola fide (by faith alone)', '
Q: Faith can bring what eternal benefit?
A: salvation']