romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are required to create an Endangered Species Recovery Plan outlining the goals, tasks required, likely costs, and estimated timeline to recover endangered species (i.e., increase their numbers and improve their management to the point where they can be removed from the endangered list). The ESA does not specify when a recovery plan must be completed. The FWS has a policy specifying completion within three years of the species being listed, but the average time to completion is approximately six years. The annual rate of recovery plan completion increased steadily from the Ford administration (4) through Carter (9), Reagan (30), Bush I (44), and Clinton (72), but declined under Bush II (16 per year as of 9/1/06).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What four topics are required in an Endangered Species Recovery Plan?
A: goals, tasks required, likely costs, and estimated timeline to recover endangered species', '
Q: What is the time limit for completing an Endangered Species Recovery Plan?
A: The ESA does not specify when a recovery plan must be completed.', '
Q: What Recovery Plan duration the does Fish and Wildlife Service plan for in their policies?
A: completion within three years', '
Q: What is the average time of completion of an Endangered Species Recovery Plan?
A: approximately six years', '
Q: Which president had the most completed Recovery Plans during their administration?
A: Clinton (72)']
The question to be answered is whether a listed species will be harmed by the action and, if so, how the harm can be minimized. If harm cannot be avoided, the project agency can seek an exemption from the Endangered Species Committee, an ad hoc panel composed of members from the executive branch and at least one appointee from the state where the project is to occur. Five of the seven committee members must vote for the exemption to allow taking (to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or significant habitat modification, or to attempt to engage in any such conduct) of listed species.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the primary consideration for determining if projects may be carried out in areas with endangered species?
A: whether a listed species will be harmed by the action and, if so, how the harm can be minimized', '
Q: If a species may be harmed, who holds final say on whether the project may proceed?
A: the Endangered Species Committee', '
Q: How many members are on the ad hoc panel that allows project exemptions for cases where a species may harmed?
A: seven', '
Q: How many votes must be in favor of the exemption in order to award the exemption?
A: Five', '
Q: What is one specific requirement regarding the make-up of the exmeption panel?
A: at least one appointee from the state where the project is to occur']
Long before the exemption is considered by the Endangered Species Committee, the Forest Service, and either the FWS or the NMFS will have consulted on the biological implications of the timber harvest. The consultation can be informal, to determine if harm may occur; and then formal if the harm is believed to be likely. The questions to be answered in these consultations are whether the species will be harmed, whether the habitat will be harmed and if the action will aid or hinder the recovery of the listed species.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who reviews exemption considerations before the Endangered Species committee?
A: the Forest Service, and either the FWS or the NMFS', '
Q: During informal consultation, what is the goal?
A: to determine if harm may occur', '
Q: What prompts the need for formal consultation?
A: if the harm is believed to be likely', '
Q: What considerations are weighed during the consultations?
A: whether the species will be harmed, whether the habitat will be harmed and if the action will aid or hinder the recovery']
There have been six instances as of 2009 in which the exemption process was initiated. Of these six, one was granted, one was partially granted, one was denied and three were withdrawn. Donald Baur, in The Endangered Species Act: law, policy, and perspectives, concluded," ... the exemption provision is basically a nonfactor in the administration of the ESA. A major reason, of course, is that so few consultations result in jeopardy opinions, and those that do almost always result in the identification of reasonable and prudent alternatives to avoid jeopardy."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many times has the exemption process been used, as of 2009?
A: six', '
Q: What were the results of those exemption petitions?
A: one was granted, one was partially granted, one was denied and three were withdrawn', '
Q: Why is this exemption provision often considered a nonfactor?
A: few consultations result in jeopardy opinions', '
Q: How can jeopardy opinions be dissuaded?
A: in the identification of reasonable and prudent alternatives to avoid jeopardy.']
More than half of habitat for listed species is on non-federal property, owned by citizens, states, local governments, tribal governments and private organizations. Before the law was amended in 1982, a listed species could be taken only for scientific or research purposes. The amendment created a permit process to circumvent the take prohibition called a Habitat Conservation Plan or HCP to give incentives to non-federal land managers and private landowners to help protect listed and unlisted species, while allowing economic development that may harm ("take") the species.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who owns the majority of critical habitat?
A: non-federal property, owned by citizens, states, local governments, tribal governments and private organizations', '
Q: What program gives incentives to private landowners to protect species on their land?
A: Habitat Conservation Plan', '
Q: Before the amendment in 1982, under what situations could a listed species be displaced?
A: only for scientific or research purposes']
The person or organization submits a HCP and if approved by the agency (FWS or NMFS), will be issued an Incidental Take Permit (ITP) which allows a certain number of "takes" of the listed species. The permit may be revoked at any time and can allow incidental takes for varying amounts of time. For instance, the San Bruno Habitat Conservation Plan/ Incidental Take Permit is good for 30 years and the Wal-Mart store (in Florida) permit expires after one year. Because the permit is issued by a federal agency to a private party, it is a federal action-which means other federal laws can apply, such as the National Environmental Policy Act or NEPA. A notice of the permit application action is published in the Federal Register and a public comment period of 30 to 90 days begins.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: An approved HCP results in what being issued for the species?
A: an Incidental Take Permit (ITP)', '
Q: How long do ITPs last?
A: allow incidental takes for varying amounts of time', '
Q: How is the public made aware of ITP applications?
A: A notice of the permit application action is published in the Federal Register', '
Q: How long does the public have to comment on ITP applications?
A: 30 to 90 days']
The US Congress was urged to create the exemption by proponents of a conservation plan on San Bruno Mountain, California that was drafted in the early 1980s and is the first HCP in the nation. In the conference report on the 1982 amendments, Congress specified that it intended the San Bruno plan to act "as a model" for future conservation plans developed under the incidental take exemption provision and that "the adequacy of similar conservation plans should be measured against the San Bruno plan". Congress further noted that the San Bruno plan was based on "an independent exhaustive biological study" and protected at least 87% of the habitat of the listed butterflies that led to the development of the HCP.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What location held the first HCP?
A: San Bruno Mountain, California', '
Q: What percentage of the critical habitat was protected for the area that received the first HCP?
A: 87%', '
Q: What type of animal was being protected in the area that received the first HCP?
A: butterflies']
Growing scientific recognition of the role of private lands for endangered species recovery and the landmark 1981 court decision in Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources both contributed to making Habitat Conservation Plans/ Incidental Take Permits "a major force for wildlife conservation and a major headache to the development community", wrote Robert D.Thornton in the 1991 Environmental Law article, Searching for Consensus and Predictability: Habitat Conservation Planning under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What 1981 court decision added to the power of HCPs and ITPs for conservation?
A: Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources', '
Q: Who wrote the article "Searching for Consensus and Predictability: Habitat Conservation Planning under the Endangered Species Act of 1973."
A: Robert D.Thornton', '
Q: What did Thornton compare the scientific and legal advances to, from the viewpoint of the development community?
A: a major headache']
The "No Surprises" rule is meant to protect the landowner if "unforeseen circumstances" occur which make the landowner's efforts to prevent or mitigate harm to the species fall short. The "No Surprises" policy may be the most controversial of the recent reforms of the law, because once an Incidental Take Permit is granted, the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) loses much ability to further protect a species if the mitigation measures by the landowner prove insufficient. The landowner or permittee would not be required to set aside additional land or pay more in conservation money. The federal government would have to pay for additional protection measures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name of the rule that protects the landowner if their conservation efforts fall short?
A: The "No Surprises" rule', '
Q: Why is this particular rule so controversial?
A: the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) loses much ability to further protect a species if the mitigation measures by the landowner prove insufficient.', '
Q: If the landowner fails to adequately protect the species, what penalties do they face with the "No Surprises" rule?
A: The landowner or permittee would not be required to set aside additional land or pay more in conservation money', "
Q: Who covers the cost of additional efforts if the ITP holder's efforts fall short?
A: The federal government would have to pay for additional protection measures"]
The "Safe Harbor" agreement is a voluntary agreement between the private landowner and FWS. The landowner agrees to alter the property to benefit or even attract a listed or proposed species in exchange for assurances that the FWS will permit future "takes" above a pre-determined level. The policy relies on the "enhancement of survival" provision of Section §1539(a)(1)(A). A landowner can have either a "Safe Harbor" agreement or an Incidental Take Permit, or both. The policy was developed by the Clinton Administration in 1999.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What two groups are bound by a "Safe Harbor" agreement?
A: the private landowner and FWS', '
Q: In exchange for altering the property to a more beneficial state, what does the landowner gain from the Safe Harbor agreement?
A: assurances that the FWS will permit future "takes" above a pre-determined level', '
Q: Which presidential administration developed Safe Harbor policy?
A: the Clinton Administration', '
Q: Are Safe Harbor agreements and ITPs mutually exclusive?
A: A landowner can have either a "Safe Harbor" agreement or an Incidental Take Permit, or both.']
The Candidate Conservation Agreement is closely related to the "Safe Harbor" agreement, the main difference is that the Candidate Conservation Agreements With Assurances(CCA) are meant to protect unlisted species by providing incentives to private landowners and land managing agencies to restore, enhance or maintain habitat of unlisted species which are declining and have the potential to become threatened or endangered if critical habitat is not protected. The FWS will then assure that if, in the future the unlisted species becomes listed, the landowner will not be required to do more than already agreed upon in the CCA.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How do Candidate Conservation Agreements differ from Safe Harbor agreements?
A: Candidate Conservation Agreements With Assurances(CCA) are meant to protect unlisted species', '
Q: How does a CCA help protect a private landowner?
A: if, in the future the unlisted species becomes listed, the landowner will not be required to do more than already agreed upon in the CCA.', '
Q: How does a CCA impact unlisted species?
A: enhance or maintain habitat of unlisted species which are declining and have the potential to become threatened or endangered']
Two examples of animal species recently delisted are: the Virginia northern flying squirrel (subspecies) on August, 2008, which had been listed since 1985, and the gray wolf (Northern Rocky Mountain DPS). On April 15, 2011, President Obama signed the Department of Defense and Full-Year Appropriations Act of 2011. A section of that Appropriations Act directed the Secretary of the Interior to reissue within 60 days of enactment the final rule published on April 2, 2009, that identified the Northern Rocky Mountain population of gray wolf (Canis lupus) as a distinct population segment (DPS) and to revise the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife by removing most of the gray wolves in the DPS.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What animal species was delisted in August 2008?
A: the Virginia northern flying squirrel', '
Q: How long had the squirrel been listed as endangered?
A: listed since 1985', '
Q: Which president signed an Act directing the delisting of the Northern Rocky Mountain population of gray wolf?
A: President Obama']
As of September 2012, fifty-six species have been delisted; twenty-eight due to recovery, ten due to extinction (seven of which are believed to have been extinct prior to being listed), ten due to changes in taxonomic classification practices, six due to discovery of new populations, one due to an error in the listing rule, and one due to an amendment to the Endangered Species Act specifically requiring the species delisting. Twenty-five others have been down listed from "endangered" to "threatened" status.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: As of September 2012, how many species had been delisted due to recovery?
A: twenty-eight', '
Q: Of the ten species removed due to extinction, how many are believe to have already been extinct when listed?
A: seven', '
Q: How many species have been downgraded from endangered to threatened status?
A: Twenty-five', '
Q: How many species were delisted due to discoveries of new populations?
A: six']
Opponents of the Endangered Species Act argue that with over 2,000 endangered species listed, and only 28 delisted due to recovery, the success rate of 1% over nearly three decades proves that there needs to be serious reform in their methods to actually help the endangered animals and plants. Others argue that the ESA may encourage preemptive habitat destruction by landowners who fear losing the use of their land because of the presence of an endangered species; known colloquially as "Shoot, Shovel and Shut-Up." One example of such perverse incentives is the case of a forest owner who, in response to ESA listing of the red-cockaded woodpecker, increased harvesting and shortened the age at which he harvests his trees to ensure that they do not become old enough to become suitable habitat. While no studies have shown that the Act's negative effects, in total, exceed the positive effects, many economists believe that finding a way to reduce such perverse incentives would lead to more effective protection of endangered species.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did a land owner impact the protected red-cockaded woodpecker species?
A: increased harvesting and shortened the age at which he harvests his trees to ensure that they do not become old enough to become suitable habitat', '
Q: What is the success rate of the list and the Endangered Species Act initiatives?
A: 1%', '
Q: What is the name given to the act of pre-emptive habitat destruction by landowners fearing a protected species?
A: "Shoot, Shovel and Shut-Up."', '
Q: How many species are currently listed?
A: over 2,000']
According to research published in 1999 by Alan Green and the Center for Public Integrity (CPI), loopholes in the ESA are commonly exploited in the exotic pet trade. Although the legislation prohibits interstate and foreign transactions for list species, no provisions are made for in-state commerce, allowing these animals to be sold to roadside zoos and private collectors. Additionally, the ESA allows listed species to be shipped across state lines as long as they are not sold. According to Green and the CPI, this allows dealers to "donate" listed species through supposed "breeding loans" to anyone, and in return they can legally receive a reciprocal monetary "donation" from the receiving party. Furthermore, an interview with an endangered species specialist at the US Fish and Wildlife Service revealed that the agency does not have sufficient staff to perform undercover investigations, which would catch these false "donations" and other mislabeled transactions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is one particular industry that exploits Endangered Species Act loopholes?
A: exotic pet trade', '
Q: What is one particular loophole that aids roadside zoos and private collectors?
A: no provisions are made for in-state commerce', '
Q: What allows exploitation of interstate commerce regulations?
A: the ESA allows listed species to be shipped across state lines as long as they are not sold', '
Q: How can fake breeding loans be used to sell wildlife?
A: in return they can legally receive a reciprocal monetary "donation" from the receiving party.', '
Q: Why are there not more arrests from undercover investigations of interstate wildlife commerce?
A: the US Fish and Wildlife Service revealed that the agency does not have sufficient staff to perform undercover investigations']
Green and the CPI further noted another exploit of the ESA in their discussion of the critically endangered cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Not only had they found documentation that 151 of these primates had inadvertently made their way from the Harvard-affiliated New England Regional Primate Research Center into the exotic pet trade through the aforementioned loophole, but in October 1976, over 800 cotton-top tamarins were imported into the United States in order to beat the official listing of the species under the ESA.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Center for Public Integrity found that 151 of what primate were moved from the New England Primate Research Center into exotic pet trade?
A: cotton-top tamarin', "
Q: What happened in 1976 that impacted this primate's classification as Endanger?
A: over 800 cotton-top tamarins were imported into the United States", '
Q: What school is affiliated with the New England Primate Research Center?
A: Harvard']
Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act provided funding for development of programs for management of threatened and endangered species by state wildlife agencies. Subsequently, lists of endangered and threatened species within their boundaries have been prepared by each state. These state lists often include species which are considered endangered or threatened within a specific state but not within all states, and which therefore are not included on the national list of endangered and threatened species. Examples include Florida, Minnesota, Maine, and California.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act provided funding for what purpose?
A: development of programs for management of threatened and endangered species by state wildlife agencies', '
Q: What is one notable drawback with state wildlife agencies creating their own lists?
A: These state lists often include species which are considered endangered or threatened within a specific state but not within all states', '
Q: What states are listing species that are endangered in their own state, but that are not endangered in all other states?
A: Florida, Minnesota, Maine, and California']
A reward will be paid to any person who furnishes information which leads to an arrest, conviction, or revocation of a license, so long as they are not a local, state, or federal employee in the performance of official duties. The Secretary may also provide reasonable and necessary costs incurred for the care of fish, wildlife, and forest service or plant pending the violation caused by the criminal. If the balance ever exceeds $500,000 the Secretary of the Treasury is required to deposit an amount equal to the excess into the cooperative endangered species conservation fund.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Is the public given incentive to report Endangered Species Act violations?
A: A reward will be paid to any person who furnishes information which leads to an arrest, conviction, or revocation of a license', '
Q: Given that a violator caused wildlife harm, who may provide financial assistance for the care of the harmed wildlife?
A: The Secretary', '
Q: Costs over what balance lead to the Secretary of the Treasury depositing money into the cooperative endangered species conservation fund?
A: $500,000']
Vacuum is space void of matter. The word stems from the Latin adjective vacuus for "vacant" or "void". An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. Physicists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they sometimes simply call "vacuum" or free space, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to an actual imperfect vacuum as one might have in a laboratory or in space. In engineering and applied physics on the other hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object as being in what would otherwise be a vacuum.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The word Vacuum stems from what Latin adjective?
A: vacuus', '
Q: What does the term used by Physicists, partial vacuum, refer to?
A: imperfect vacuum', '
Q: What is a vacuum?
A: space void of matter', '
Q: What type of pressure is less than atmospheric pressure in a vacuum?
A: gaseous', '
Q: What Latin term is used to describe an object in a vacuum?
A: in vacuo']
The quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum. For example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. Much higher-quality vacuums are possible. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth (10−12) of atmospheric pressure (100 nPa), and can reach around 100 particles/cm3. Outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average. According to modern understanding, even if all matter could be removed from a volume, it would still not be "empty" due to vacuum fluctuations, dark energy, transiting gamma rays, cosmic rays, neutrinos, and other phenomena in quantum physics. In the electromagnetism in the 19th century, vacuum was thought to be filled with a medium called aether. In modern particle physics, the vacuum state is considered the ground state of matter.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Vacuum state is considered what?
A: the ground state of matter.', '
Q: A typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to do what to air pressure?
A: reduce air pressure by around 20%', '
Q: The quality of a partial vacuum refers to what?
A: how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum', '
Q: Outer space has a high quality vacuum with what equivalent?
A: a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter', '
Q: If all matter is removed from a vacuum, would it be empty space?
A: it would still not be "empty"']