romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Whitehead did not begin his career as a philosopher. In fact, he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education. Early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics, but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur. In one letter to his friend and former student Bertrand Russell, after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive, he wrote: "This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter." Ironically, in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was the extent of Whitehead's education in philosophy?
A: he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education", '
Q: What was Whitehead\'s opinion of his own knowledge of metaphysics in that correspondence?
A: "This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter."', "
Q: How did Whitehead eventually become regarded in the field of metaphysics?
A: in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians", '
Q: With what friend and former student did Whitehead correspond regarding the goals of science?
A: Bertrand Russell', '
Q: What is the highest Whitehead was trained in philosophy? 
A: undergraduate', '
Q: What is the relationship between Whitehead and Russell?
A: friend and former student', '
Q: What did Whitehead consider himself as a philosopher? 
A: rank amateur', "
Q: What was Whitehead considered as a metaphysician?
A: one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians."]
Whitehead was unimpressed by this objection. In the notes of one his students for a 1927 class, Whitehead was quoted as saying: "Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized." In Whitehead's view, scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time, but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned. While Whitehead acknowledged that "philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles," he argued that people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress, even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic. For this reason Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What quotation of Whitehead\'s was noted by a student in 1927?
A: "Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized."', "
Q: What was Whitehead's opinion of basic assumptions in metaphysics?
A: such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned", '
Q: What did Whitehead feel was necessary regarding basic assumptions in metaphysics?
A: people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress', "
Q: What was Whitehead's opinion of metaphysical investigations?
A: Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy", "
Q: What do philosophers do, in Whitehead's view?
A: make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works", '
Q: Assumptions of how the universe works are difficult to see precisely because of what?
A: they remain unexamined and unquestioned', '
Q: What did Whitehead ask people to reimagine in order for philosophy to make progress?
A: basic assumptions about how the universe works', '
Q: What did Whitehead regard as essential to good science and good philosophy?
A: metaphysical investigations']
Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the Cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another, which he rejected in favor of an event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another. He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential, indeed that everything is constituted by its experience. He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience. In this, he went against Descartes' separation of two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental. Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as "philosophy of organism", but it would become known more widely as "process philosophy."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Cartesian concept did Whitehead believe to be erroneous?
A: reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another', '
Q: What theory did Whitehead prefer to the Cartesian concept?
A: event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another', '
Q: How did whitehead define "experience"?
A: He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience', "
Q: How did Descartes' distinguish types of existence?
A: two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental", '
Q: How did Whitehead identify his system of metaphysics?
A: "philosophy of organism"', '
Q: What idea states that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter?
A: Cartesian idea', '
Q: Whitehead rejected the Cartesian idea in favor of what?
A: an event-based or "process" ontology', '
Q: Whitehead believed instead of matter existing independently of each other, it did what?
A: interrelated and dependent', '
Q: Whitehead believed that reality should be regarded as what?
A: experiential', '
Q: Whitehead\'s system as "philosophy of organism" became widely known as what term?
A: process philosophy']
In Whitehead's view, then, concepts such as "quality", "matter", and "form" are problematic. These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world. They are useful abstractions, but are not the world's basic building blocks. What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person, for instance, is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events. After all, people change all the time, if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience. These occasions of experience are logically distinct, but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a "society" of events. By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete (what Whitehead calls the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness").

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Whitehead define the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness"?
A: By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete', '
Q: What basic concepts did Whitehead believe were questionable?
A: "quality", "matter", and "form"', '
Q: Why did he believe those concepts were inaccurate?
A: These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world.', '
Q: How did Whitehead classify what is usually seen as an individual person?
A: a continuum of overlapping events', '
Q: How did Whitehead refer to the combination of a person\'s separate experiences?
A: a "society" of events', '
Q: What are the concepts quality, matter, and form considered?
A: "classical" concepts', '
Q: Concepts such as quality, matter, and form fail to account for what?
A: change', '
Q: What concepts overlook the experiential nature of basic elements?
A: quality", "matter", and "form"', '
Q: What does Whitehead call experiences that are progressively connected?
A: society', '
Q: Instead of being a single person, what does Whitehead view a person as?
A: continuum of overlapping events']
To put it another way, a thing or person is often seen as having a "defining essence" or a "core identity" that is unchanging, and describes what the thing or person really is. In this way of thinking, things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time, with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity (e.g. "Mark's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older, but he is still the same person"). But in Whitehead's cosmology, the only fundamentally existent things are discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing. On the other hand, what ordinary thinking often regards as "the essence of a thing" or "the identity/core of a person" is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing's most important or salient features across time. Identities do not define people, people define identities. Everything changes from moment to moment, and to think of anything as having an "enduring essence" misses the fact that "all things flow", though it is often a useful way of speaking.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Whitehead believe were essentially the only things that truly exist?
A: discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing', '
Q: Regarding the idea that individuals or objects don\'t fundamentally change, what terms can be used to describe what an object or individual actually is?
A: "defining essence" or a "core identity"', '
Q: In that line of thinking, how are changes described?
A: qualitative and secondary to their core identity', '
Q: The idea that people are unchanging and stay the same even through changes is considered what?
A: defining essence', "
Q: In Whitehead's cosmology, what are the only things that fundamentally exist?
A: occasions of experience", '
Q: Where do occasions of experience overlap?
A: time and space', '
Q: Instead of having an enduring essence, what does Whitehead believe?
A: all things flow"', "
Q: In Whitehead's view, identities do not define people, but what?
A: people define identities"]
Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking, and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech. After all, each moment of each person's life can hardly be given a different proper name, and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things, rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago. Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular, concrete processes. No one questions that a ten-year-old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old, and in many ways is not the same person at all; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why did Whitehead think people continued to subscribe to materialistic thinking?
A: it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things', '
Q: What did Whitehead believe regarding factors that limit people\'s understanding of his concepts?
A: should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum', '
Q: What did Whitehead believe was one of the biggest reasons materialistic thinking endured?
A: limitations of language', '
Q: What did Whitehead state about the belief that a person is exactly the same from moment to moment?
A: it is not philosophically or ontologically sound', "
Q: Why couldn't each moment of each person's life be given a different proper name?
A: limitations of language", '
Q: What did Whitehead believe was a culprit in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking?
A: limitations of language', "
Q: Whitehead's main philosophy on humans changing is what?
A: each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago"]
A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations. It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects. Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things. The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything. But in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves. A student taking notes in one of Whitehead's fall 1924 classes wrote that:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the general materialistic view of an object?
A: Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things', '
Q: How the fundamental concept of matter influence people to view objects?
A: The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything', "
Q: What is Whitehead's belief regarding the importance of relations?
A: in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves", '
Q: What is the materialistic view of matter in relation to other objects?
A: It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects.', '
Q: What is another issue that Whitehead had with materialism?
A: it obscures the importance of relations', '
Q: What obscures the importance of relations according to Whitehead?
A: materialism', '
Q: What does Materialism see each object as?
A: distinct and discrete', '
Q: How is each object related to other things?
A: externally']
In fact, Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it. A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it; that is to say, if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist. Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How does Whitehead characterize anything that exists?
A: in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it', '
Q: How does he describe what makes something real?
A: A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it', "
Q: In Whitehead's thinking, what could be said about something that has no effect on any other person or object?
A: if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist", '
Q: What did Whitehead believe about the concept of relations in the context of defining an entity?
A: Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.', '
Q: Whitehead believes any entity is in some sense what?
A: nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities', '
Q: If an object made no difference to any other entity, what could be said about it?
A: not be said to really exist.', '
Q: If relations are not secondary to what a thing is, what is it?
A: they are what the thing is', '
Q: What makes up the sum of relations to an entity?
A: rld around it', '
Q: A real object forces the universe to do what?
A: in some way conform to it']
Isabelle Stengers wrote that "Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians, and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons, from ecology to feminism, practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education." Indeed, in recent decades attention to Whitehead's work has become more widespread, with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China, and coming from such diverse fields as ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology. One of the first theologians to attempt to interact with Whitehead's thought was the future Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple. In Temple's Gifford Lectures of 1932-1934 (subsequently published as "Nature, Man and God"), Whitehead is one of a number of philosophers of the emergent evolution approach Temple interacts with. However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of philosophers and theologians, primarily Americans, and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: In what areas of the world has interest in Whitehead's work spread in recent decades?
A: Europe and China", "
Q: Who was one of the first theologians to try to interact with Whitehead's ideas?
A: William Temple", '
Q: What was the basis for "Nature, Man and God"?
A: Temple\'s Gifford Lectures of 1932-1934', "
Q: According to Isabelle Stengers, what are unifying factors in diverse practices (like ecology and feminism) that have become interested in Whitehead's work?
A: practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education", "
Q: What other fields have shown more recent interest in Whitehead's work?
A: ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology"]
Early followers of Whitehead were found primarily at the University of Chicago's Divinity School, where Henry Nelson Wieman initiated an interest in Whitehead's work that would last for about thirty years. Professors such as Wieman, Charles Hartshorne, Bernard Loomer, Bernard Meland, and Daniel Day Williams made Whitehead's philosophy arguably the most important intellectual thread running through the Divinity School. They taught generations of Whitehead scholars, the most notable of which is John B. Cobb, Jr.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Where were the first followers mainly found?
A: at the University of Chicago's Divinity School", "
Q: Who began the interest in Whitehead at Chicago's Divinity School?
A: Henry Nelson Wieman", '
Q: Who id the most well-known Whitehead scholar?
A: John B. Cobb', "
Q: What professors established the importance of Whitehead's work?
A: Wieman, Charles Hartshorne, Bernard Loomer, Bernard Meland, and Daniel Day Williams"]
But while Claremont remains the most concentrated hub of Whiteheadian activity, the place where Whitehead's thought currently seems to be growing the most quickly is in China. In order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization, China has begun to blend traditions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism with Whitehead's "constructive post-modern" philosophy in order to create an "ecological civilization." To date, the Chinese government has encouraged the building of twenty-three university-based centers for the study of Whitehead's philosophy, and books by process philosophers John Cobb and David Ray Griffin are becoming required reading for Chinese graduate students. Cobb has attributed China's interest in process philosophy partly to Whitehead's stress on the mutual interdependence of humanity and nature, as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Where is interest in Whitehead's work growing the fastest today?
A: China", "
Q: What challenges are China using Whitehead's ideas to help manage?
A: modernization and industrialization", '
Q: What types of traditions are China blending with Whitehead\'s "constructive post-modern" philosophy?
A: traditions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism', "
Q: What philosphers' writings are becoming required reading for graduate students in China?
A: John Cobb and David Ray Griffin", '
Q: Why does John Cobb believe China has become interested in process philosophy?
A: interdependence of humanity and nature, as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts']
Deleuze's and Latour's opinions, however, are minority ones, as Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools. It is impossible to say exactly why Whitehead's influence has not been more widespread, but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter-intuitive (such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction), or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy, or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé, or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: what is an example of Whitehead's ideas being counter-intuitive?
A: his assertion that matter is an abstraction", "
Q: Why do some people believe Whitehead's writings may have restricted his influence?
A: the sheer difficulty and density of his prose", '
Q: What is a common opinion of metaphysics?
A: perception of metaphysics itself as passé', '
Q: What is the general opinion of Whitehead in most philosophical schools?
A: Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools']
One philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is American pragmatism. Whitehead himself thought highly of William James and John Dewey, and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to Process and Reality. Charles Hartshorne (along with Paul Weiss) edited the collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, one of the founders of pragmatism. Noted neopragmatist Richard Rorty was in turn a student of Hartshorne. Today, Nicholas Rescher is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What philosophy is closely related to process philosophy?
A: American pragmatism', '
Q: What pragmatists did Whitehead acknowledge in the preface to "Process and Reality"?
A: William James and John Dewey', '
Q: Who is a philosopher that promotes process philosophy and pragmatism currently?
A: Nicholas Rescher', "
Q: What founder of pragmatism's collected papers did Charles Hartshorne ans Paul Weiss edit?
A: Charles Sanders Peirce", "
Q: What important neopragmatist was Harthorne's student?
A: Richard Rorty"]