romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Sugar taken orally reduces the total crying time but not the duration of the first cry in newborns undergoing a painful procedure (a single lancing of the heel). It does not moderate the effect of pain on heart rate and a recent single study found that sugar did not significantly affect pain-related electrical activity in the brains of newborns one second after the heel lance procedure. Sweet oral liquid moderately reduces the incidence and duration of crying caused by immunization injection in children between one and twelve months of age.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What, when taken orally, can reduce total crying time of newsborns undergoing a painful procedure?
A: Sugar', "
Q: What doesn't sugar change the effect of pain on?
A: heart rate", "
Q: Sugar also doesn't measurably change what type of electrical activity in the brains of newborns a second after the heel lance procedure?
A: pain-related", '
Q: A sweet oral liquid does moderately reduce the incidence and duration of what?
A: crying']
A number of meta-analyses have found clinical hypnosis to be effective in controlling pain associated with diagnostic and surgical procedures in both adults and children, as well as pain associated with cancer and childbirth. A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain in some conditions, though the number of patients enrolled in the studies was low, bringing up issues of power to detect group differences, and most lacked credible controls for placebo and/or expectation. The authors concluded that "although the findings provide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic pain, considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Clinical hypnosis may be effective in doing what with pain associated with surgical procedures in adults and children?
A: controlling', '
Q: How many studies in 2007 found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain?
A: 13', '
Q: What did the studies regarding the effectiveness of hypnosis lack?
A: credible controls for placebo and/or expectation', '
Q: What is considerable more research needed to determine for different chronic pain conditions?
A: effects of hypnosis']
Pain is the most common reason for people to use complementary and alternative medicine. An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009, concluded there is little difference in the effect of real, sham and no acupuncture. However other reviews have found benefit. Additionally, there is tentative evidence for a few herbal medicine. There is interest in the relationship between vitamin D and pain, but the evidence so far from controlled trials for such a relationship, other than in osteomalacia, is unconvincing.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the most common reason people seek out alternative medicine?
A: Pain', '
Q: What did an analysis of the 13 studies of pain treatment conclude about the effect of real treament versus sham treatments?
A: little difference in the effect', '
Q: What medicine is there tentative evidence for the efficacy of?
A: herbal', '
Q: Some contradictory reviews of 13 high quality studies found actual what?
A: benefit', '
Q: Other than in osteomalacia, what is there no evidence of a relationship between pain and?
A: vitamin D']
Physical pain is an important political topic in relation to various issues, including pain management policy, drug control, animal rights or animal welfare, torture, and pain compliance. In various contexts, the deliberate infliction of pain in the form of corporal punishment is used as retribution for an offence, or for the purpose of disciplining or reforming a wrongdoer, or to deter attitudes or behaviour deemed unacceptable. In some cultures, extreme practices such as mortification of the flesh or painful rites of passage are highly regarded.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of topic is physical pain important in relation to many issues?
A: political', '
Q: Corporal punishment is a form of what type of pain?
A: deliberate infliction', '
Q: How does pain inform attitudes deemed unacceptable?
A: deter', '
Q: What kind of practices do some cultures highly regard?
A: extreme', '
Q: What is corporal punishment used as retribution for?
A: an offence']
The most reliable method for assessing pain in most humans is by asking a question: a person may report pain that cannot be detected by any known physiological measure. However, like infants (Latin infans meaning "unable to speak"), animals cannot answer questions about whether they feel pain; thus the defining criterion for pain in humans cannot be applied to them. Philosophers and scientists have responded to this difficulty in a variety of ways. René Descartes for example argued that animals lack consciousness and therefore do not experience pain and suffering in the way that humans do. Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. The ability of invertebrate species of animals, such as insects, to feel pain and suffering is also unclear.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the most reliable method of learning about pain in a human?
A: asking a question', "
Q: What can't animals answer?
A: whether they feel pain", '
Q: What did Descartes argue animals lack?
A: consciousness', '
Q: What university is Bernard Rollin associated with?
A: Colorado State University', '
Q: Can invertebrate species of animals like insects feel pain and suffering?
A: unclear']
The presence of pain in an animal cannot be known for certain, but it can be inferred through physical and behavioral reactions. Specialists currently believe that all vertebrates can feel pain, and that certain invertebrates, like the octopus, might too. As for other animals, plants, or other entities, their ability to feel physical pain is at present a question beyond scientific reach, since no mechanism is known by which they could have such a feeling. In particular, there are no known nociceptors in groups such as plants, fungi, and most insects, except for instance in fruit flies.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What about pain in an animal isn't able to be known with certainty?
A: presence", '
Q: An animals physical and behavioral reactions may be inferred to indicate the presence of what?
A: pain', '
Q: Who do specialists believe can feel pain?
A: vertebrates', '
Q: No mechanism is known by which what organisms would be able to have a feeling such as pain?
A: plants', '
Q: What do fungi and fruit flies seem to lack?
A: nociceptors']
A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, and IBM DB2. A database is not generally portable across different DBMSs, but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such as SQL and ODBC or JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS. Database management systems are often classified according to the database model that they support; the most popular database systems since the 1980s have all supported the relational model as represented by the SQL language.[disputed – discuss] Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a 'database'.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does DBMS stand for?
A: database management system', '
Q: What is the purpose of a DBMS?
A: to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases', '
Q: What is the most popular DBMS?
A: SQL language', '
Q: How are DBMSs classified?
A: according to the database model that they support']
Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to these data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is data accessed?
A: by a "database management system" (DBMS)', '
Q: How much data can a DBMS store?
A: large quantities', '
Q: A DBMS consists of what?
A: an integrated set of computer software']
Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. from databases before the inception of Structured Query Language (SQL). The data recovered was disparate, redundant and disorderly, since there was no proper method to fetch it and arrange it in a concrete structure.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do most database applications contain?
A: DBMSs', '
Q: What is used to recover data if disks suffer a failure?
A: RAID', '
Q: How can large quantities of data be accessed?
A: Hardware database accelerators', '
Q: What is required for a modern DBMS to function?
A: standard operating system']
A DBMS has evolved into a complex software system and its development typically requires thousands of human years of development effort.[a] Some general-purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s. General-purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity. However, the fact that their development cost can be spread over a large number of users means that they are often the most cost-effective approach. However, a general-purpose DBMS is not always the optimal solution: in some cases a general-purpose DBMS may introduce unnecessary overhead. Therefore, there are many examples of systems that use special-purpose databases. A common example is an email system that performs many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as the insertion and deletion of messages composed of various items of data or associating messages with a particular email address; but these functions are limited to what is required to handle email and don't provide the user with all of the functionality that would be available using a general-purpose DBMS.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long can it take to create a DBMS?
A: thousands of human years', '
Q: Name three DBMSs that have been used since the 1970s.
A: Adabas, Oracle and DB2', '
Q: How is the cost to create a DBMS distributed?
A: spread over a large number of users', '
Q: Name an example of a general-purpose DBMS.
A: an email system']
Many other databases have application software that accesses the database on behalf of end-users, without exposing the DBMS interface directly. Application programmers may use a wire protocol directly, or more likely through an application programming interface. Database designers and database administrators interact with the DBMS through dedicated interfaces to build and maintain the applications' databases, and thus need some more knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate and the DBMSs' external interfaces and tuning parameters.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How are many databases accessed?
A: application software', '
Q: How do administrators work with the DBMS?
A: through dedicated interfaces', '
Q: What is a way for programmers to use the DBMS?
A: wire protocol']
The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and as of 2015[update] they remain dominant : IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL and Microsoft SQL Server are the top DBMS. The dominant database language, standardised SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who created the relational model of DBMS?
A: Edgar F. Codd', '
Q: Instead of using links, how was information found in a relational model?
A: by content', '
Q: In what decade did computer hardware become able to handle a relational system?
A: 1980s', '
Q: What type of system in still prominent to this day?
A: relational systems', '
Q: What database language is the most prominent?
A: SQL']
As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the "Database Task Group" within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971 the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the "CODASYL approach", and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why was COBOL created?
A: Interest in a standard', '
Q: When were DBMSs first used commercially?
A: mid-1960s', '
Q: When was the standard protocol completed?
A: 1971', '
Q: What group discovered COBOL?
A: Database Task Group', '
Q: What was the standard protocol called?
A: CODASYL approach']
IBM also had their own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed, and Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation was The Programmer as Navigator. IMS is classified[by whom?] as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL database are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use as of 2014[update].

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the DBMS created by IBM called?
A: Information Management System (IMS)', '
Q: What was the purpose of the IBM DBMS?
A: the Apollo program', '
Q: What is the classification of IMS?
A: hierarchical database', "
Q: What was the name of Bachman's Turing Award presentation in 1973?
A: The Programmer as Navigator"]
In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to use a "table" of fixed-length records, with each table used for a different type of entity. A linked-list system would be very inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where some of the data for any one record could be left empty. The relational model solved this by splitting the data into a series of normalized tables (or relations), with optional elements being moved out of the main table to where they would take up room only if needed. Data may be freely inserted, deleted and edited in these tables, with the DBMS doing whatever maintenance needed to present a table view to the application/user.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who proposed using a table to store data?
A: Codd', '
Q: How is data accessed in a table?
A: A linked-list system', '
Q: What model solved the problem of databases where information was missing?
A: relational', '
Q: What system assists a user in seeing a table?
A: DBMS']
The relational model also allowed the content of the database to evolve without constant rewriting of links and pointers. The relational part comes from entities referencing other entities in what is known as one-to-many relationship, like a traditional hierarchical model, and many-to-many relationship, like a navigational (network) model. Thus, a relational model can express both hierarchical and navigational models, as well as its native tabular model, allowing for pure or combined modeling in terms of these three models, as the application requires.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How was the relational model able to improve over time?
A: without constant rewriting of links and pointers', '
Q: What is the relationship called in a hierarchical model?
A: one-to-many', '
Q: What is the relationship called in a navigational model?
A: many-to-many', '
Q: What is a third type of model that can be combined with heirarchical and navigation models?
A: tabular']
For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach all of this data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would simply not be placed in the database. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is information stored in a navigational system?
A: in a single record', '
Q: How is a database system frequently used?
A: to track information about users', '
Q: How is information stored in a relational system?
A: normalized into a user table', '
Q: What happens to blank data fields in a navigational system?
A: not be placed in the database']
Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the relational model, some bit of information was used as a "key", uniquely defining a particular record. When information was being collected about a user, information stored in the optional tables would be found by searching for this key. For instance, if the login name of a user is unique, addresses and phone numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as its key. This simple "re-linking" of related data back into a single collection is something that traditional computer languages are not designed for.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a key used for?
A: uniquely defining a particular record', '
Q: What technique is used to collect into one place?
A: re-linking', '
Q: How is information accessed in a relational model?
A: a "key"', '
Q: How is data in an optional table accessed?
A: by searching for this key']
Just as the navigational approach would require programs to loop in order to collect records, the relational approach would require loops to collect information about any one record. Codd's solution to the necessary looping was a set-oriented language, a suggestion that would later spawn the ubiquitous SQL. Using a branch of mathematics known as tuple calculus, he demonstrated that such a system could support all the operations of normal databases (inserting, updating etc.) as well as providing a simple system for finding and returning sets of data in a single operation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How does a program collect information using a navigational system?
A: require programs to loop', '
Q: What is used to solve the problem of looping?
A: a set-oriented language', '
Q: What computer language came about as a result of the looping problem?
A: SQL', '
Q: What type of math was used to create a system to find data sets?
A: tuple calculus', '
Q: Who used tuple calculus to show the functionality of databases?
A: Codd']
Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker. They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data access, known as QUEL. Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who used Codd's paper at Berkeley to improve a geographical database?
A: Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker", '
Q: What was the name of the project to create a geographical database?
A: INGRES', '
Q: When was INGRES first tested?
A: 1973', '
Q: What computer language was used in INGRES to access data?
A: QUEL', '
Q: Is QUEL still used to access data in INGRES?
A: INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard']
Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However this idea is still pursued for certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a CAFS accelerator?
A: a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities', '
Q: Did the CAFS accelerator work as planned?
A: efforts were generally unsuccessful', "
Q: How are today's database systems run?
A: general-purpose hardware", '
Q: Name a company that is still working on the CAFS accellerator?
A: Netezza and Oracle (Exadata)']
IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL[citation needed] – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2).

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is the system IBM created using Codd's research?
A: System R", "
Q: When was IBM's system released?
A: 1974/5", '
Q: What did System R work on to change the way data was stored?
A: multi-table systems', "
Q: When customers first tested IBM's system, what computer language had been added? 
A: SQL", '
Q: What was the name of the database product created by IBM?
A: SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2)']