romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Periodically "clean slate" decrees were signed by rulers which cancelled all the rural (but not commercial) debt and allowed bondservants to return to their homes. Customarily rulers did it at the beginning of the first full year of their reign, but they could also be proclaimed at times of military conflict or crop failure. The first known ones were made by Enmetena and Urukagina of Lagash in 2400-2350 BC. According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened fighting force which could happen if peasants lost the subsistence land or became bondservants due to the inability to repay the debt.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of debt did "clean slate" decrees cancel?
A: rural', '
Q: When did rulers typically proclaim "clean slate" decrees?
A: the first full year of their reign', '
Q: Why were the clean slate decrees useful to the rulers of Sumer?
A: to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened fighting force', "
Q: What would happen if peasants couldn't repay their debts?
A: lost the subsistence land or became bondservants", '
Q: Who made the first known clean slate decrees?
A: Enmetena and Urukagina']
The almost constant wars among the Sumerian city-states for 2000 years helped to develop the military technology and techniques of Sumer to a high level. The first war recorded in any detail was between Lagash and Umma in c. 2525 BC on a stele called the Stele of the Vultures. It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of infantry. The infantrymen carried spears, wore copper helmets, and carried rectangular shields. The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the phalanx formation, which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have made use of professional soldiers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What contributed to developing military technology for Sumer?
A: almost constant wars', '
Q: How many years were the Sumerian city-states at war?
A: 2000 years', '
Q: Who was the first war between in 2525 BC?
A: Lagash and Umma', "
Q: What did the king of Lagash's army mostly consist of?
A: infantry", '
Q: What shape were the shields of the infantry of Lagash?
A: rectangular']
Evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared in the mid 4th millennium BC, near-simultaneously in Mesopotamia, the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe. The wheel initially took the form of the potter's wheel. The new concept quickly led to wheeled vehicles and mill wheels. The Sumerians' cuneiform writing system is the oldest (or second oldest after the Egyptian hieroglyphs) which has been deciphered (the status of even older inscriptions such as the Jiahu symbols and Tartaria tablets is controversial). The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the stars into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and were also recognized by the ancient Greeks. They were also aware of the five planets that are easily visible to the naked eye.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did evidence of wheeled vehicles appear throughout the world?
A: mid 4th millennium BC', "
Q: What form did wheels initially take?
A: potter's wheel", "
Q: The writing system of the Sumerian's is the second oldest to have what done to it?
A: been deciphered", '
Q: What did the Sumerians map stars into?
A: sets of constellations', '
Q: How many planets were the Sumerians aware of?
A: five']
They invented and developed arithmetic by using several different number systems including a mixed radix system with an alternating base 10 and base 6. This sexagesimal system became the standard number system in Sumer and Babylonia. They may have invented military formations and introduced the basic divisions between infantry, cavalry, and archers. They developed the first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete with courts, jails, and government records. The first true city-states arose in Sumer, roughly contemporaneously with similar entities in what are now Syria and Lebanon. Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expanded beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BC, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits. Conjointly with the spread of writing, the first formal schools were established, usually under the auspices of a city-state's primary temple.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Sumerians used number systems which included what alternating bases?
A: base 10 and base 6', '
Q: What type of number system was standard in Sumer and Babylonia?
A: sexagesimal', '
Q: What type of formations is it possible Sumerians invented?
A: military', '
Q: What systems did the Sumerians develop which remain the first known these types to this day?
A: legal and administrative', "
Q: In Sumerian society, who oversaw the operation of the first formal schools?
A: a city-state's primary temple"]
Tuvalu (i/tuːˈvɑːluː/ too-VAH-loo or /ˈtuːvəluː/ TOO-və-loo), formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is a Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean, midway between Hawaii and Australia. It comprises three reef islands and six true atolls spread out between the latitude of 5° to 10° south and longitude of 176° to 180°, west of the International Date Line. Its nearest neighbours are Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa and Fiji. Tuvalu has a population of 10,640 (2012 census). The total land area of the islands of Tuvalu is 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the previous name of Tuvalu?
A: Ellice Islands', '
Q: In which ocean is Tuvalu found?
A: Pacific Ocean', '
Q: Between what land areas is Tuvalu located?
A: Hawaii and Australia', '
Q: According the the 2012 census, how many people live on the Tuvalu islands?
A: 10,640', '
Q: What originally formed the Tuvalu islands?
A: reef']
In 1568, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the archipelago, sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis. In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice's Island; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay. The islands came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British Protectorate by Captain Gibson of HMS Curacoa between 9 and 16 October 1892. The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and then as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was Tuvalu discovered by a European?
A: 1568', '
Q: Who was the discoverer of Tuvalu?
A: Álvaro de Mendaña', '
Q: What land mass was de Mendana actually seeking?
A: Terra Australis', '
Q: What was Tuvalu named in 1819?
A: Ellice Islands', '
Q: By what means did the British govern Tuvalu?
A: British protectorate']
The origins of the people of Tuvalu are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the nearer islands including Samoa and Tonga. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means "eight standing together" in Tuvaluan (compare to *walo meaning "eight" in Proto-Austronesian). Possible evidence of fire in the Caves of Nanumanga may indicate human occupation for thousands of years.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many years ago did migrations of people happen in the Pacific area?
A: 3000 years', '
Q: By what means did locale people travel between Pacific islands?
A: canoe', '
Q: How many islands are in the Tuvalu group?
A: nine islands', "
Q: On how many of Tuvalu's islands did people live?
A: Eight", '
Q: What is the native language meaning of Tuvalu?
A: eight standing together']
An important creation myth of the islands of Tuvalu is the story of the te Pusi mo te Ali (the Eel and the Flounder) who created the islands of Tuvalu; te Ali (the flounder) is believed to be the origin of the flat atolls of Tuvalu and the te Pusin (the Eel) is the model for the coconut palms that are important in the lives of Tuvaluans. The stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. On Niutao, Funafuti and Vaitupu the founding ancestor is described as being from Samoa; whereas on Nanumea the founding ancestor is described as being from Tonga.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the creation myth of Tuvalu?
A: te Pusi mo te Ali', '
Q: What does the flounder of the Tuvalu myth represent?
A: flat atolls', '
Q: What does the eel of the Tuvalu creation myth represent?
A: coconut palms', '
Q: From what land did the people of Niutao believe they came?
A: Samoa', '
Q: From where did the people of the island of Nanumea think they came?
A: Tonga']
Captain John Byron passed through the islands of Tuvalu in 1764 during his circumnavigation of the globe as captain of the Dolphin (1751). Byron charted the atolls as Lagoon Islands. Keith S. Chambers and Doug Munro (1980) identified Niutao as the island that Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa sailed past on 5 May 1781, thus solving what Europeans had called The Mystery of Gran Cocal. Mourelle's map and journal named the island El Gran Cocal ('The Great Coconut Plantation'); however, the latitude and longitude was uncertain. Longitude could only be reckoned crudely as accurate chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What explorer traveled through the Tuvalu islands in 1764?
A: Captain John Byron', '
Q: What was Captain Byron doing when he visited Tuvalu?
A: circumnavigation of the globe', '
Q: Which island of Tuvalu was identified as the one that Mourelle sailed past in 1781?
A: Niutao', '
Q: How did Byron name the Tuvalu islands?
A: Lagoon Islands', '
Q: When were chronometers available for accurate location charting? 
A: late 18th']
The next European to visit was Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armed brigantine or privateer Rebecca, sailing under British colours, which passed through the southern Tuvaluan waters in May 1819; de Peyster sighted Nukufetau and Funafuti, which he named Ellice's Island after an English Politician, Edward Ellice, the Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of the Rebecca's cargo. The name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Arent Schuyler de Peyster visit Tuvalu?
A: May 1819', '
Q: Which of the Tuvalu isalnds did de Peyster see?
A: Nukufetau and Funafuti', "
Q: What name did de Peyster give the Tuvalu islands?
A: Ellice's Island", "
Q: For whom did de Peyster name Ellice's Island?
A: Edward Ellice", "
Q: After Findlay's charting how many islands of the group were named Ellice?
A: all nine islands"]
For less than a year between 1862–63, Peruvian ships, engaged in what became to be called the "blackbirding" trade, combed the smaller islands of Polynesia from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific to Tuvalu and the southern atolls of the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati), seeking recruits to fill the extreme labour shortage in Peru. While some islanders were voluntary recruits the "blackbirders" were notorious for enticing islanders on to ships with tricks, such as pretending to be Christian missionaries, as well as kidnapping islanders at gun point. The Rev. A. W. Murray, the earliest European missionary in Tuvalu, reported that in 1863 about 170 people were taken from Funafuti and about 250 were taken from Nukulaelae, as there were fewer than 100 of the 300 recorded in 1861 as living on Nukulaelae.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what years did Peruvian ships seek laborers in the Polynesian islands?
A: 1862–63', '
Q: What was the name applied to the trade of dealing with labor hunters?
A: blackbirding', '
Q: Who was the earliest missionary to Tuvalu?
A: Rev. A. W. Murray', '
Q: By what means did Blackbirders often get islanders aboard their ships?
A: tricks', '
Q: When did Murray report people missing because of Blackbirders?
A: 1863']
Christianity came to Tuvalu in 1861 when Elekana, a deacon of a Congregational church in Manihiki, Cook Islands became caught in a storm and drifted for 8 weeks before landing at Nukulaelae on 10 May 1861. Elekana began proselytising Christianity. He was trained at Malua Theological College, a London Missionary Society (LMS) school in Samoa, before beginning his work in establishing the Church of Tuvalu. In 1865 the Rev. A. W. Murray of the LMS – a Protestant congregationalist missionary society – arrived as the first European missionary where he too proselytised among the inhabitants of Tuvalu. By 1878 Protestantism was well established with preachers on each island. In the later 19th and early 20th centuries the ministers of what became the Church of Tuvalu (Te Ekalesia Kelisiano Tuvalu) were predominantly Samoans, who influenced the development of the Tuvaluan language and the music of Tuvalu.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Christianity arrive in Tuvalu?
A: 1861', '
Q: What church deacon was washed ashore on Nukulaelae?
A: Elekana', '
Q: What missionary was the first European missionary to come to Tuvalu?
A: Rev. A. W. Murray', '
Q: Of what nationality were most of the ministers of the Church of Tuvalu?
A: Samoans']
Trading companies became active in Tuvalu in the mid-19th century; the trading companies engaged palagi traders who lived on the islands. John (also known as Jack) O'Brien was the first European to settle in Tuvalu, he became a trader on Funafuti in the 1850s. He married Salai, the daughter of the paramount chief of Funafuti. Louis Becke, who later found success as a writer, was a trader on Nanumanga from April 1880 until the trading-station was destroyed later that year in a cyclone. He then became a trader on Nukufetau.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what century did trading companies arrive in Tuvalu?
A: mid-19th', '
Q: What type of traders did the trading companies employ on Tuvalu?
A: palagi traders', "
Q: Who was the first European to permanently settle on Tuvalu?
A: John (also known as Jack) O'Brien", "
Q: Which native did O'Brien marry?
A: Salai", '
Q: What trader turned author established a post on Tuvalu?
A: Louis Becke']
In 1892 Captain Davis of the HMS Royalist reported on trading activities and traders on each of the islands visited. Captain Davis identified the following traders in the Ellice Group: Edmund Duffy (Nanumea); Jack Buckland (Niutao); Harry Nitz (Vaitupu); John (also known as Jack) O'Brien (Funafuti); Alfred Restieaux and Emile Fenisot (Nukufetau); and Martin Kleis (Nui). During this time, the greatest number of palagi traders lived on the atolls, acting as agents for the trading companies. Some islands would have competing traders while dryer islands might only have a single trader.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What sea captain reported on the Tuvalu trading in 1892?
A: Captain Davis', "
Q: What was the name of Davis's ship?
A: HMS Royalist", '
Q: What did palagi traders act as for the trading companies?
A: agents', '
Q: How many traders did some islands have?
A: competing', '
Q: What type of islands in the Tuvalu group have few traders? 
A: dryer']
In the later 1890s and into first decade of the 20th century, structural changes occurred in the operation of the Pacific trading companies; they moved from a practice of having traders resident on each island to instead becoming a business operation where the supercargo (the cargo manager of a trading ship) would deal directly with the islanders when a ship visited an island. From 1900 the numbers of palagi traders in Tuvalu declined and the last of the palagi traders were Fred Whibley on Niutao, Alfred Restieaux on Nukufetau, and Martin Kleis on Nui. By 1909 there were no more resident palagi traders representing the trading companies, although both Whibley and Restieaux remained in the islands until their deaths.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What operational changes caused a decline in the numbers of palagi traders in Tuvalu?
A: structural changes', '
Q: What type of traders did the Pacific trading companies cease to use?
A: resident', '
Q: How did the trading companies begin to trade with islanders?
A: deal directly', '
Q: By what year were there no more palagi traders on Tuvalu?
A: 1909', "
Q: What is the term for a ship's cargo manager?
A: supercargo"]
In 1890 Robert Louis Stevenson, his wife Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson and her son Lloyd Osbourne sailed on the Janet Nicoll, a trading steamer owned by Henderson and Macfarlane of Auckland, New Zealand, which operated between Sydney and Auckland and into the central Pacific. The Janet Nicoll visited three of the Ellice Islands; while Fanny records that they made landfall at Funafuti, Niutao and Nanumea, Jane Resture suggests that it was more likely they landed at Nukufetau rather than Funafuti. An account of this voyage was written by Fanny Stevenson and published under the title The Cruise of the Janet Nichol, together with photographs taken by Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Robert Louis Stevenson sail on the ship Janet Nicoll?
A: 1890', '
Q: Who recorded the trip aboard the Janet Nicoll?
A: Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson', '
Q: What type of ship was the Janet Nicoll?
A: trading steamer', '
Q: What writer visited the Tuvalu Islands in 1890?
A: Robert Louis Stevenson', '
Q: What was the title of the travel book written by Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson?
A: The Cruise of the Janet Nichol']
The boreholes on Funafuti, at the site now called Darwin's Drill, are the result of drilling conducted by the Royal Society of London for the purpose of investigating the formation of coral reefs to determine whether traces of shallow water organisms could be found at depth in the coral of Pacific atolls. This investigation followed the work on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs conducted by Charles Darwin in the Pacific. Drilling occurred in 1896, 1897 and 1898. Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney was a member of the 1896 "Funafuti Coral Reef Boring Expedition of the Royal Society", under Professor William Sollas and lead the expedition in 1897. Photographers on these trips recorded people, communities, and scenes at Funafuti.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What are the boreholes on Funafuti called?
A: Darwin's Drill", '
Q: What group conducted a study of coral on Funafuti?
A: Royal Society of London', '
Q: What formations was the Royal Society studying?
A: coral reefs', "
Q: Who's basic work in the area of coral reefs did the Royal Society's investigations follow?
A: Charles Darwin", "
Q: What was Darwin's work on coral reefs titled?
A: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs"]
Charles Hedley, a naturalist at the Australian Museum, accompanied the 1896 expedition and during his stay on Funafuti collected invertebrate and ethnological objects. The descriptions of these were published in Memoir III of the Australian Museum Sydney between 1896 and 1900. Hedley also wrote the General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti, The Ethnology of Funafuti, and The Mollusca of Funafuti. Edgar Waite was also part of the 1896 expedition and published an account of The mammals, reptiles, and fishes of Funafuti. William Rainbow described the spiders and insects collected at Funafuti in The insect fauna of Funafuti.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What naturalist was on the 1896 expedition to Funafuti?
A: Charles Hedley', '
Q: What type of objects did Hedley collect on Funafuti
A: invertebrate and ethnological']
During the Pacific War Funafuti was used as a base to prepare for the subsequent seaborn attacks on the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati) that were occupied by Japanese forces. The United States Marine Corps landed on Funafuti on 2 October 1942 and on Nanumea and Nukufetau in August 1943. The Japanese had already occupied Tarawa and other islands in what is now Kiribati, but were delayed by the losses at the Battle of the Coral Sea. The islanders assisted the American forces to build airfields on Funafuti, Nanumea and Nukufetau and to unload supplies from ships. On Funafuti the islanders shifted to the smaller islets so as to allow the American forces to build the airfield and to build naval bases and port facilities on Fongafale. A Naval Construction Battalion (Seabees) built a sea plane ramp on the lagoon side of Fongafale islet for seaplane operations by both short and long range seaplanes and a compacted coral runway was also constructed on Fongafale, with runways also constructed to create Nanumea Airfield and Nukufetau Airfield. USN Patrol Torpedo Boats (PTs) were based at Funafuti from 2 November 1942 to 11 May 1944.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: For what purpose was Funafuti used during the Pacific War? 
A: a base', '
Q: What group occupied the Gilbert Islands?
A: Japanese forces', '
Q: What action delayed the Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands?
A: Battle of the Coral Sea', '
Q: From what time span were USN Torpedo Boats stationed at Funafuti?
A: 2 November 1942 to 11 May 1944', '
Q: On what islet did US forces build a seaplane ramp?
A: Fongafale']
In 1974 ministerial government was introduced to the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony through a change to the Constitution. In that year a general election was held; and a referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration. As a consequence of the referendum, separation occurred in two stages. The Tuvaluan Order 1975, which took effect on 1 October 1975, recognised Tuvalu as a separate British dependency with its own government. The second stage occurred on 1 January 1976 when separate administrations were created out of the civil service of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was ministerial government started in the Gilbert and Ellice islands?
A: 1974', '
Q: When was a referendum held to determine the government of Ellice?
A: December 1974', '
Q: What document was changed to cause a change in government?
A: Constitution', '
Q: What was the determination of the referendum?
A: separation', '
Q: What did the Tuvaluan Order 1976 recognize Tuvalu to be?
A: British dependency']
From 1974 (the creation of the British colony of Tuvalu) until independence, the legislative body of Tuvalu was called the House of the Assembly or Fale I Fono. Following independence in October 1978 the House of the Assembly was renamed the Parliament of Tuvalu or Palamene o Tuvalu. The unicameral Parliament has 15 members with elections held every four years. The members of parliament select the Prime Minister (who is the head of government) and the Speaker of Parliament. The ministers that form the Cabinet are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Tuvalu acquire independence?
A: October 1978', '
Q: What was formed in 1974?
A: British colony of Tuvalu', '
Q: After independence, what was the Assembly on Tuvalu  named? 
A: Parliament of Tuvalu', '
Q: What type of parliament does Tuvalu have?
A: unicameral', '
Q: In Tuvalu government, what group elect the Prime Minster?
A: members of parliament']