romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The 2nd edition (1787) contained a Refutation of Idealism to distinguish his transcendental idealism from Descartes's Sceptical Idealism and Berkeley's anti-realist strain of Subjective Idealism. The section Paralogisms of Pure Reason is an implicit critique of Descartes' idealism. Kant says that it is not possible to infer the 'I' as an object (Descartes' cogito ergo sum) purely from "the spontaneity of thought". Kant focused on ideas drawn from British philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley and Hume but distinguished his transcendental or critical idealism from previous varieties;

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What school of thought did Berkeley belong to?
A: Subjective Idealism', '
Q: What sort of idealist was Descartes?
A: Sceptical', '
Q: In what section was Descartes criticized?
A: Paralogisms of Pure Reason', '
Q: In what edition was there a Refutation of Idealism?
A: 2nd', '
Q: When was the second edition published?
A: 1787']
In the first volume of his Parerga and Paralipomena, Schopenhauer wrote his "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective knowledge. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own consciousness. The world that appears is only a representation or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our mind. He offered a history of the concept of the "ideal" as "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote Parerga and Paralipomena?
A: Schopenhauer', '
Q: What type of knowledge did Schopenhauer believe the ideal to be?
A: subjective', '
Q: According to Schopenhauer, to what can the ideal be attributed?
A: our own minds', '
Q: What did Schopenhauer believe we were restricted to?
A: our own consciousness', '
Q: What did Schopenhauer believe were the only things we could know?
A: representations']
Friedrich Nietzsche argued that Kant commits an agnostic tautology and does not offer a satisfactory answer as to the source of a philosophical right to such-or-other metaphysical claims; he ridicules his pride in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics." The famous "thing-in-itself" was called a product of philosophical habit, which seeks to introduce a grammatical subject: because wherever there is cognition, there must be a thing that is cognized and allegedly it must be added to ontology as a being (whereas, to Nietzsche, only the world as ever changing appearances can be assumed). Yet he attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and Descartes with an argument similar to Kant's critique of the latter (see above).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who censured Kant for his agnostic tautology?
A: Friedrich Nietzsche', '
Q: Along with Schopenhauer, whose idealism did Nietzsche attack?
A: Descartes', "
Q: Nietzsche's attack on Schopenhauer used an argument similar to Kant's attack on who?
A: Descartes"]
Absolute idealism is G. W. F. Hegel's account of how existence is comprehensible as an all-inclusive whole. Hegel called his philosophy "absolute" idealism in contrast to the "subjective idealism" of Berkeley and the "transcendental idealism" of Kant and Fichte, which were not based on a critique of the finite and a dialectical philosophy of history as Hegel's idealism was. The exercise of reason and intellect enables the philosopher to know ultimate historical reality, the phenomenological constitution of self-determination, the dialectical development of self-awareness and personality in the realm of History.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: According to Hegel, what sort of idealist was Fichte?
A: transcendental', '
Q: Who did Hegel see as a subjective idealist?
A: Berkeley', '
Q: What sort of idealist did Hegel define himself as?
A: Absolute', '
Q: How did Hegel believe historical reality to be knowable to a philosopher?
A: exercise of reason and intellect']
In his Science of Logic (1812–1814) Hegel argues that finite qualities are not fully "real" because they depend on other finite qualities to determine them. Qualitative infinity, on the other hand, would be more self-determining and hence more fully real. Similarly finite natural things are less "real"—because they are less self-determining—than spiritual things like morally responsible people, ethical communities and God. So any doctrine, such as materialism, that asserts that finite qualities or natural objects are fully real is mistaken.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was Science of Logic written?
A: 1812–1814', '
Q: Who was the author of Science of Logic?
A: Hegel', '
Q: Why did Hegel believe natural things are less real than spiritual things?
A: less self-determining', '
Q: Along with God and morally responsible people, what is an example of a spiritual thing to Hegel?
A: ethical communities', '
Q: What is an example of a school of thought Hegel believed to be wrong?
A: materialism']
Hegel certainly intends to preserve what he takes to be true of German idealism, in particular Kant's insistence that ethical reason can and does go beyond finite inclinations. For Hegel there must be some identity of thought and being for the "subject" (any human observer)) to be able to know any observed "object" (any external entity, possibly even another human) at all. Under Hegel's concept of "subject-object identity," subject and object both have Spirit (Hegel's ersatz, redefined, nonsupernatural "God") as their conceptual (not metaphysical) inner reality—and in that sense are identical. But until Spirit's "self-realization" occurs and Spirit graduates from Spirit to Absolute Spirit status, subject (a human mind) mistakenly thinks every "object" it observes is something "alien," meaning something separate or apart from "subject." In Hegel's words, "The object is revealed to it [to "subject"] by [as] something alien, and it does not recognize itself." Self-realization occurs when Hegel (part of Spirit's nonsupernatural Mind, which is the collective mind of all humans) arrives on the scene and realizes that every "object" is himself, because both subject and object are essentially Spirit. When self-realization occurs and Spirit becomes Absolute Spirit, the "finite" (man, human) becomes the "infinite" ("God," divine), replacing the imaginary or "picture-thinking" supernatural God of theism: man becomes God. Tucker puts it this way: "Hegelianism . . . is a religion of self-worship whose fundamental theme is given in Hegel's image of the man who aspires to be God himself, who demands 'something more, namely infinity.'" The picture Hegel presents is "a picture of a self-glorifying humanity striving compulsively, and at the end successfully, to rise to divinity."

Questions and answers:
["
Q: In Hegel's thought, what inner reality is possessed by both subject and object?
A: Spirit", '
Q: What is another term for Hegel\'s "subject"?
A: any human observer', '
Q: What does Spirit turn into when a person arrives at self-realization?
A: Absolute Spirit', '
Q: What does Hegel mean by "object"?
A: any external entity', "
Q: Who did Tucker argue that Hegel's philosophy involved the worship of?
A: self"]
Kierkegaard criticised Hegel's idealist philosophy in several of his works, particularly his claim to a comprehensive system that could explain the whole of reality. Where Hegel argues that an ultimate understanding of the logical structure of the world is an understanding of the logical structure of God's mind, Kierkegaard asserting that for God reality can be a system but it cannot be so for any human individual because both reality and humans are incomplete and all philosophical systems imply completeness. A logical system is possible but an existential system is not. "What is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational". Hegel's absolute idealism blurs the distinction between existence and thought: our mortal nature places limits on our understanding of reality;

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was a notable critic of Hegel?
A: Kierkegaard', '
Q: For whom did Kierkegaard argue reality cannot be a system?
A: human', "
Q: According to Kierkegaard, why can't reality be a system for human beings?
A: humans are incomplete", '
Q: Even though Kierkegaard does not believe in the possibility of an existential system of reality, what sort of system can exist?
A: logical']
A major concern of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) and of the philosophy of Spirit that he lays out in his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817–1830) is the interrelation between individual humans, which he conceives in terms of "mutual recognition." However, what Climacus means by the aforementioned statement, is that Hegel, in the Philosophy of Right, believed the best solution was to surrender one's individuality to the customs of the State, identifying right and wrong in view of the prevailing bourgeois morality. Individual human will ought, at the State's highest level of development, to properly coincide with the will of the State. Climacus rejects Hegel's suppression of individuality by pointing out it is impossible to create a valid set of rules or system in any society which can adequately describe existence for any one individual. Submitting one's will to the State denies personal freedom, choice, and responsibility.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences?
A: Hegel', '
Q: When was Phenomenology of Spirit published?
A: 1807', '
Q: What trait did Climacus believe that Hegel suppressed?
A: individuality', '
Q: Whose will did Hegel believe should prevail over that of the individual?
A: State', '
Q: What conception of right and wrong did Climacus believe Hegel endorsed?
A: bourgeois']
In addition, Hegel does believe we can know the structure of God's mind, or ultimate reality. Hegel agrees with Kierkegaard that both reality and humans are incomplete, inasmuch as we are in time, and reality develops through time. But the relation between time and eternity is outside time and this is the "logical structure" that Hegel thinks we can know. Kierkegaard disputes this assertion, because it eliminates the clear distinction between ontology and epistemology. Existence and thought are not identical and one cannot possibly think existence. Thought is always a form of abstraction, and thus not only is pure existence impossible to think, but all forms in existence are unthinkable; thought depends on language, which merely abstracts from experience, thus separating us from lived experience and the living essence of all beings. In addition, because we are finite beings, we cannot possibly know or understand anything that is universal or infinite such as God, so we cannot know God exists, since that which transcends time simultaneously transcends human understanding.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What sort of reality did Hegel perceive God's mind to be?
A: ultimate", '
Q: Along with Hegel, who also argued for human incompleteness?
A: Kierkegaard', '
Q: According to Hegel, what form does thought necessarily take?
A: abstraction', '
Q: Why does Hegel believe we cannot know God?
A: we are finite beings', '
Q: If something transcends time, what does it, according to Hegel, also transcend?
A: human understanding']
Bradley was the apparent target of G. E. Moore's radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. The 1903 article The Refutation of Idealism is one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis. He examines each of the three terms in the Berkeleian aphorism esse est percipi, "to be is to be perceived", finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are necessarily connected so that "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are identical - "to be yellow" is "to be experienced as yellow". But it also seems there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" and "that esse is held to be percipi, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors, or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley. This argument did not show that the GEM (in post–Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote The Refutation of Idealism?
A: Moore', '
Q: In his rejection of idealism, whose thought did Moore attack?
A: Bradley', "
Q: Who originated the saying 'esse est percipi'?
A: Berkeley"]
Pluralistic idealism such as that of Gottfried Leibniz takes the view that there are many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world and make possible the existence of the physical universe. Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or "Absolute". Leibniz' form of idealism, known as Panpsychism, views "monads" as the true atoms of the universe and as entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being",elemental, individual, subject to their own laws, non-interacting, each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force, which is substance while space, matter and motion are phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. There is a pre-established harmony established by God, the central monad, between the world in the minds of the monads and the external world of objects. Leibniz's cosmology embraced traditional Christian Theism. The English psychologist and philosopher James Ward inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism. According to Ward the universe is composed of "psychic monads" of different levels, interacting for mutual self- betterment.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is a notable exponent of pluralistic idealism?
A: Gottfried Leibniz', '
Q: What is the term for the type of idealism preached by Leibniz?
A: Panpsychism', '
Q: What did Leibniz believe the universe is fundamentally composed of?
A: monads', '
Q: Who was a notable disciple of Leibniz?
A: James Ward', '
Q: What does Ward see as the purpose of interaction between monads?
A: self- betterment']
Howison's personal idealism  was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?
A: Bowne', '
Q: What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?
A: California Personalism', '
Q: Who is a notable realistic personal theist?
A: Saint Thomas Aquinas', '
Q: What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?
A: dependence upon an infinite personal God', '
Q: What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?
A: moral']
J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are unreal. In The Unreality of Time he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. The Nature of Existence (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it". For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?

Questions and answers:
['
Q: With what university is J.M.E. McTaggart affiliated?
A: Cambridge', '
Q: In what year was The Nature of Existence published?
A: 1927', '
Q: According to McTaggart, what are the only things that have real existence?
A: minds', '
Q: What does McTaggart believe space and time to be?
A: unreal', '
Q: How does McTaggart believe minds relate to one another?
A: love']
Thomas Davidson taught a philosophy called "apeirotheism", a "form of pluralistic idealism...coupled with a stern ethical rigorism" which he defined as "a theory of Gods infinite in number." The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and nous, rational thought, reflection and understanding. Although a perennial source of controversy, Aristotle arguably views the latter as both eternal and immaterial in nature, as exemplified in his theology of unmoved movers. Identifying Aristotle's God with rational thought, Davidson argued, contrary to Aristotle, that just as the soul cannot exist apart from the body, God cannot exist apart from the world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the name of the philosophy preached by Thomas Davidson?
A: apeirotheism', "
Q: What type of idealism was Thomas Davidson's philosophy?
A: pluralistic", '
Q: According to Davidson, how many gods are there?
A: infinite', '
Q: By whose philosophy was Davidson influenced?
A: Aristotle', '
Q: What did Davidson believe the God of Aristotle is synonymous with?
A: rational thought']
Idealist notions took a strong hold among physicists of the early 20th century confronted with the paradoxes of quantum physics and the theory of relativity. In The Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements[citation needed]. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more consciousness than an external world."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Among what twentieth century scientists was idealism popular?
A: physicists', '
Q: Along with quantum physics generally, what scientific doctrine caused some physicists to embrace idealism?
A: relativity', '
Q: In what year was the second edition of The Grammar of Science published?
A: 1900', '
Q: What did Pearson claim that science classifies?
A: contents of the mind', '
Q: Who is claimed to have been influenced by The Grammar of Science?
A: Einstein']
"The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness.... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How do receive information from the physical world?
A: messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness', '
Q: What type of consciousness is similar but not identical to consciousness itself?
A: subconsciousness', '
Q: What is the nature of the fundamental character of reality?
A: mental', '
Q: According to the author, who would have particular trouble in accepting that reality is fundamentally mental?
A: physicist', '
Q: What is the main thing that we experience?
A: mind']
Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What makes up Education?
A: knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits', '
Q: What methods make up Education?
A: storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research', '
Q: Where does education usually take place under?
A: the guidance of educators']
After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What occurred after the Fall of Rome with literature?
A: Catholic Church became the sole preserver', '
Q: What happened with education  during the Early Middle Ages?
A: church established cathedral schools', '
Q: What did these early schools during the Middle Ages evolve into?
A: medieval universities', '
Q: What was the name of the famous school during the high middle ages?
A: Chartres Cathedral School']
Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces (e.g. classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where does formal education take place?
A: school environment', '
Q: What are some of the sets or ideals most school systems follow?
A: student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size,', '
Q: Who guides the students in a formal environment?
A: certified teacher']