romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Davies' and Gribbin's objections are shared by proponents of digital physics who view information rather than matter to be fundamental. Their objections were also shared by some founders of quantum theory, such as Max Planck, who wrote:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Digital physicists consider what to be more important than matter?
A: information']
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1907-1912, materialism, defined as "a philosophical system which regards matter as the only reality in the world [...] denies the existence of God and the soul". Materialism, in this view, therefore becomes incompatible with most world religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. In such a context one can conflate materialism with atheism. Most of Hinduism and transcendentalism regards all matter as an illusion called Maya, blinding humans from knowing "the truth". Maya is the limited, purely physical and mental reality in which our everyday consciousness has become entangled. Maya gets destroyed for a person when s/he perceives Brahman with transcendental knowledge.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Based on the above definition, materialism is not consistent with what?
A: religions']
In contrast, Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, taught: "There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter." This spirit element has always existed; it is co-eternal with God. It is also called "intelligence" or "the light of truth", which like all observable matter "was not created or made, neither indeed can be". Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints view the revelations of Joseph Smith as a restoration of original Christian doctrine, which they believe post-apostolic theologians began to corrupt in the centuries after Christ. The writings of many[quantify] of these theologians indicate a clear influence of Greek metaphysical philosophies such as Neoplatonism, which characterized divinity as an utterly simple, immaterial, formless, substance/essence (ousia) that transcended all that was physical. Despite strong opposition from many Christians, this metaphysical depiction of God eventually became incorporated into the doctrine of the Christian church, displacing the original Judeo-Christian concept of a physical, corporeal God who created humans in His image and likeness.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Neoplatonism describes divinity as what?
A: simple, immaterial, formless, substance/essence (ousia) that transcended all that was physical', '
Q: Which religious group strongly opposed the idea of Neoplatonism?
A: Christians']
An argument for idealism, such as those of Hegel and Berkeley, is ipso facto an argument against materialism. Matter can be argued to be redundant, as in bundle theory, and mind-independent properties can in turn be reduced to subjective percepts. Berkeley presents an example of the latter by pointing out that it is impossible to gather direct evidence of matter, as there is no direct experience of matter; all that is experienced is perception, whether internal or external. As such, the existence of matter can only be assumed from the apparent (perceived) stability of perceptions; it finds absolutely no evidence in direct experience.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: If you believe in idealism, you are disbeliving in what?
A: materialism']
If matter and energy are seen as necessary to explain the physical world, but incapable of explaining mind, dualism results. Emergence, holism, and process philosophy seek to ameliorate the perceived shortcomings of traditional (especially mechanistic) materialism without abandoning materialism entirely.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What 3 types of philosophies attempt to correct the problem with matter and energy without removing every belief about materialism?
A: Emergence, holism, and process philosophy']
Some critics object to materialism as part of an overly skeptical, narrow or reductivist approach to theorizing, rather than to the ontological claim that matter is the only substance. Particle physicist and Anglican theologian John Polkinghorne objects to what he calls promissory materialism — claims that materialistic science will eventually succeed in explaining phenomena it has not so far been able to explain. Polkinghorne prefers "dual-aspect monism" to faith in materialism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Instead of faith, John Polkinghorne relies on what when it comes to the theory of materialism?
A: dual-aspect monism']
The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), for supremacy in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II, enabled by captured German rocket technology and personnel. The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, unmanned space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon. The competition began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year, by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957 orbiting of Sputnik 1, and later beat the US to the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, on April 12, 1961. The Space Race peaked with the July 20, 1969 US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed manned lunar missions, and eventually cancelled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations. A period of détente followed with the April 1972 agreement on a co-operative Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, resulting in the July 1975 rendezvous in Earth orbit of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet cosmonaut crew.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Whose technology enabled the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the united States?
A: German rocket technology', '
Q: Who was able to launch the first orbiting satellite?
A: the Soviet Union', '
Q: Who was the first human in space?
A: Yuri Gagarin', '
Q: When did Apollo 11 land on the moon?
A: July 20, 1969', '
Q: On what date did the Space Race begin?
A: August 2, 1955', '
Q: Sputnik 1 started orbiting on what date?
A: October 4, 1957', '
Q: Who was the first person in space?
A: Yuri Gagarin', '
Q: What was the date that the first human reached space?
A: April 12, 1961']
The Space Race can trace its origins to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during World War II when Nazi Germany researched and built operational ballistic missiles. Starting in the early 1930s, during the last stages of the Weimar Republic, German aerospace engineers experimented with liquid-fueled rockets, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long distances. The head of the German Army's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker, gathered a small team of engineers that included Walter Dornberger and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets as long-range artillery in order to get around the Treaty of Versailles' ban on research and development of long-range cannons. Wernher von Braun, a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at Kummersdorf-West in 1932. Von Braun had dreams about conquering outer space with rockets, and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where were the actual origin of the Space Race?
A: Germany', "
Q: What were German aerospace engineers experimenting with in the 1930's?
A: liquid-fueled rockets", '
Q: What engineer was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret program?
A: Wernher von Braun', '
Q: Which war in history did the Space Race begin to take root?
A: World War II', '
Q: A secretive army installation began in Kummersdorf-West in what year?
A: 1932']
During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army's rocket program, Zanssen became the commandant of the Peenemünde army rocket centre, and von Braun was the technical director of the ballistic missile program. They would lead the team that built the Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket, which became the first vehicle to reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943. By 1943, Germany began mass-producing the A-4 as the Vergeltungswaffe 2 ("Vengeance Weapon" 2, or more commonly, V2), a ballistic missile with a 320 kilometers (200 mi) range carrying a 1,130 kilograms (2,490 lb) warhead at 4,000 kilometers per hour (2,500 mph). Its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and radar detection provided little warning. Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945. After the war, the V-2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was von Braun's role in the army's rocket program during during World War II?
A: technical director of the ballistic missile program", '
Q: What was the name of the first vehicle to reach outer space?
A: the Aggregate-4', "
Q: During WWII, who was in charge of the German army's rocket program?
A: General Dornberger", '
Q: What was the first object to enter space?
A: Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket', '
Q: When did the Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket reach space?
A: 1942 and 1943']
At war's end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture Germany's rocket engineers along with the German rockets themselves and the designs on which they were based. Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited the most with Operation Paperclip, recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs. The United States also acquired a large number of complete V2 rockets.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: After World War II what did the American, English and Soviet allies want to capture?
A: Germany's rocket engineers", '
Q: What military operation allowed the US to recruit the German engineer, Von Braun?
A: Operation Paperclip', '
Q: The US had captured what type of missiles during Operation Paperclip?
A: V2 rockets']
The German rocket center in Peenemünde was located in the eastern part of Germany, which became the Soviet zone of occupation. On Stalin's orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see what they could salvage for future weapons systems. The Soviet rocket engineers were led by Sergei Korolev. He had been involved in space clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s, but was arrested in 1938 during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge and imprisoned for six years in Siberia. After the war, he became the USSR's chief rocket and spacecraft engineer, essentially the Soviet counterpart to von Braun. His identity was kept a state secret throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as "the Chief Designer." In the West, his name was only officially revealed when he died in 1966.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who led the Soviet rocket engineers
A: Sergei Korolev', '
Q: Where was Sergei Korolev imprisoned for six years?
A: Siberia', '
Q: What was his "secret" title after World War II?
A: the Chief Designer', '
Q: The German rocket center was located in what city?
A: Peenemünde', '
Q: Who was in charge of the Soviet rocket engineer team that went into Germany?
A: Sergei Korolev', '
Q: What year was Sergei Korolev arrested?
A: 1938', '
Q: Sergei Korolev died in what year?
A: 1966', "
Q: After the war, Sergei Korolev was known under what title?
A: USSR's chief rocket and spacecraft engineer"]
After almost a year in the area around Peenemünde, Soviet officials moved most of the captured German rocket specialists to Gorodomlya Island on Lake Seliger, about 240 kilometers (150 mi) northwest of Moscow. They were not allowed to participate in Soviet missile design, but were used as problem-solving consultants to the Soviet engineers. They helped in the following areas: the creation of a Soviet version of the A-4; work on "organizational schemes"; research in improving the A-4 main engine; development of a 100-ton engine; assistance in the "layout" of plant production rooms; and preparation of rocket assembly using German components. With their help, particularly Helmut Groettrup's group, Korolev reverse-engineered the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the R-1, in 1948. Later, he developed his own distinct designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Groettrup Group's G4-R10 design from 1949. The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951–53.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year was the R1 rocket born?
A: 1948']
The American professor Robert H. Goddard had worked on developing solid-fuel rockets since 1914, and demonstrated a light battlefield rocket to the US Army Signal Corps only five days before the signing of the armistice that ended World War I. He also started developing liquid-fueled rockets in 1921; yet he had not been taken seriously by the public, and was not sponsored by the government as part of the post-WW II rocket development effort. Von Braun, himself inspired by Goddard's work, was bemused by this when debriefed by his American handlers, asking them, "Why didn't you just ask Dr. Goddard?"[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What professor began working on solid-fuel rockets since 1914?
A: Robert H. Goddard', '
Q: Liquid-fueled rockets were developed in what year?
A: 1921']
Von Braun and his team were sent to the United States Army's White Sands Proving Ground, located in New Mexico, in 1945. They set about assembling the captured V2s and began a program of launching them and instructing American engineers in their operation. These tests led to the first rocket to take photos from outer space, and the first two-stage rocket, the WAC Corporal-V2 combination, in 1949. The German rocket team was moved from Fort Bliss to the Army's new Redstone Arsenal, located in Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950. From here, von Braun and his team would develop the Army's first operational medium-range ballistic missile, the Redstone rocket, that would, in slightly modified versions, launch both America's first satellite, and the first piloted Mercury space missions. It became the basis for both the Jupiter and Saturn family of rockets.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: The  United States Army's White Sands Proving Ground is located where?
A: New Mexico", "
Q: Von Braun and his associates were sent to  United States Army's White Sands Proving Ground in what year?
A: 1945", '
Q: The first two-stage rocket was developed in what year?
A: 1949', "
Q: The Army's new Redstone Arsenal is located in what city and state?
A: Huntsville, Alabama", '
Q: What year was the German rocket team moved to Alabama?
A: 1950']
In simple terms, the Cold War could be viewed as an expression of the ideological struggle between communism and capitalism. The United States faced a new uncertainty beginning in September 1949, when it lost its monopoly on the atomic bomb. American intelligence agencies discovered that the Soviet Union had exploded its first atomic bomb, with the consequence that the United States potentially could face a future nuclear war that, for the first time, might devastate its cities. Given this new danger, the United States participated in an arms race with the Soviet Union that included development of the hydrogen bomb, as well as intercontinental strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) capable of delivering nuclear weapons. A new fear of communism and its sympathizers swept the United States during the 1950s, which devolved into paranoid McCarthyism. With communism spreading in China, Korea, and Eastern Europe, Americans came to feel so threatened that popular and political culture condoned extensive "witch-hunts" to expose communist spies. Part of the American reaction to the Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb tests included maintaining a large Air Force, under the control of the Strategic Air Command (SAC). SAC employed intercontinental strategic bombers, as well as medium-bombers based close to Soviet airspace (in western Europe and in Turkey) that were capable of delivering nuclear payloads.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year did the US lose its monopoly to the atomic bomb?
A: 1949', '
Q: What type of bomb was first developed during the Cold War?
A: the hydrogen bomb', '
Q: ICBMs is an abbreviation for what?
A: intercontinental strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles', '
Q: The SAC is an abbreviation for what US force?
A: Strategic Air Command', '
Q: During what decade, did a fear of communism oversweep the US?
A: 1950s']
For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941, the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste its cities and military centers. Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many casualties did the Soviet Union have during WWII?
A: 27 million', '
Q: The Soviet Union was first invaded by Nazi controlled Germany in what year?
A: 1941', '
Q: Until what year, was the US the sole possessor of the atomic bomb?
A: 1949', '
Q: In what year did Stalin order the development of ICBMs?
A: 1947', '
Q: What type of military force did the US possess a much larger fleet than the Soviet Union?
A: air force']
In 1953, Korolev was given the go-ahead to develop the R-7 Semyorka rocket, which represented a major advance from the German design. Although some of its components (notably boosters) still resembled the German G-4, the new rocket incorporated staged design, a completely new control system, and a new fuel. It was successfully tested on August 21, 1957 and became the world's first fully operational ICBM the following month. It would later be used to launch the first satellite into space, and derivatives would launch all piloted Soviet spacecraft.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who began developing the  R-7 Semyorka rocket?
A: Korolev', '
Q:  R-7 Semyorka rocket resembled closely to what other missile?
A: German G-4', '
Q: When was the R-7 Semyorka rocket tested successfully?
A: August 21, 1957', '
Q: The first satellite launched into space used what rocket?
A: R-7 Semyorka rocket']
The United States had multiple rocket programs divided among the different branches of the American armed services, which meant that each force developed its own ICBM program. The Air Force initiated ICBM research in 1945 with the MX-774. However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches were conducted in 1947. In 1950, von Braun began testing the Air Force PGM-11 Redstone rocket family at Cape Canaveral. In 1951, the Air Force began a new ICBM program called MX-1593, and by 1955 this program was receiving top-priority funding. The MX-1593 program evolved to become the Atlas-A, with its maiden launch occurring June 11, 1957, becoming the first successful American ICBM. Its upgraded version, the Atlas-D rocket, would later serve as an operational nuclear ICBM and as the orbital launch vehicle for Project Mercury and the remote-controlled Agena Target Vehicle used in Project Gemini.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The US Air Force began research of ICBMs in what year?
A: 1945', '
Q: What type of rocket was first researched by the Air Force?
A: MX-774', '
Q: The MX-774 was tested in what year?
A: 1947', '
Q: The Air Force PGM-11 Redstone rocket family was tested where?
A: Cape Canaveral', '
Q: The Atlas-A first launched on what date?
A: June 11, 1957']
In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch objects into space, the "starting line" was drawn for the Space Race. In separate announcements, just four days apart, both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958. On July 29, 1955, James C. Hagerty, president Dwight D. Eisenhower's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites" between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of their contribution to the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Four days later, at the Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and announced his country's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future". On August 30, 1955, Korolev managed to get the Soviet Academy of Sciences to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into Earth orbit: this was the de facto start date for the Space Race. The Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union began a policy of treating development of its space program as a classified state secret.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who was president Dwight D. Eisenhower's press secretary?
A: James C. Hagerty", '
Q: The starting date for the Space Race was which date?
A: August 30, 1955']
Initially, President Eisenhower was worried that a satellite passing above a nation at over 100 kilometers (62 mi), might be construed as violating that nation's sovereign airspace. He was concerned that the Soviet Union would accuse the Americans of an illegal overflight, thereby scoring a propaganda victory at his expense. Eisenhower and his advisors believed that a nation's airspace sovereignty did not extend into outer space, acknowledged as the Kármán line, and he used the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year launches to establish this principle in international law. Eisenhower also feared that he might cause an international incident and be called a "warmonger" if he were to use military missiles as launchers. Therefore, he selected the untried Naval Research Laboratory's Vanguard rocket, which was a research-only booster. This meant that von Braun's team was not allowed to put a satellite into orbit with their Jupiter-C rocket, because of its intended use as a future military vehicle. On September 20, 1956, von Braun and his team did launch a Jupiter-C that was capable of putting a satellite into orbit, but the launch was used only as a suborbital test of nose cone reentry technology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: A Jupiter-C was launched by Von Braum on what date?
A: September 20, 1956']