romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant?"

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems describe the scientific community as?
A: a social construct', '
Q: What was the era called when scientists were rejecting the notion of objectivity of science?
A: The Science wars', '
Q: What was positivism called after it was revived?
A: scientism', '
Q: What did scientism aim to do?
A: settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies']
Czech (/ˈtʃɛk/; čeština Czech pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃɛʃcɪna]), formerly known as Bohemian (/boʊˈhiːmiən, bə-/; lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German language, spoken by over 10 million people and it is the official language of the Czech Republic. Czech's closest relative is Slovak, with which it is mutually intelligible. It is closely related to other West Slavic languages, such as Silesian and Polish. Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages, many loanwords (most associated with high culture) have been adopted in recent years.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many people speak Czech?
A: 10 million', '
Q: Which two languages strongly influenced Czech?
A: Latin and German', '
Q: In which country is Czech the official language?
A: Czech Republic', '
Q: Which language is closest to Czech?
A: Slovak', '
Q: What name was the Czech language formerly known as?
A: Bohemian', '
Q: What was Czech formerly known as?
A: Bohemian', '
Q: What languages strongly influenced Czech?
A: Latin and German', '
Q: Over how many million people speak Czech?
A: 10', '
Q: What vocabulary associated with higher classed culture have been adopted over the years?
A: loanwords', '
Q: What is the official language of the Czech republic?
A: Czech']
The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo-Croatian. However, most Slavic languages (including Czech) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union (which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968). Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum, with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects. (See "Dialects" below.)

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?
A: 1968', '
Q: What language forms a dialect continuum with Czech?
A: Slovak', '
Q: Name three Serbo-Croatian languages that have made a point of establishing their own unique linguistic identities.
A: Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian', '
Q: Why have many Slavic languages sought to separate themselves from Russian influence?
A: widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union', '
Q: What deliberate action has been done to some languages in the name of nationalism?
A: highlighting of minor linguistic differences', '
Q: What language family is Czech?
A: Slavic', '
Q: Why did many Slavic languages distance themselves from Russian influences?
A: resentment against the former Soviet Union', '
Q: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?
A: 1968', '
Q: What language does Czech form a dialect continuum with?
A: Slovak']
One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation; Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How much do the lexicons of Czech and Slovak differ, according to on study?
A: by 80 percent', '
Q: What was the high percentage of differing lexicons found to derive from?
A: differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation', '
Q: When is Slovak morphology more regular than Czech?
A: when changing from the nominative to the locative case', '
Q: The most differences between Czech and Slovak can be found in colloquial vocabulary as well as what?
A: some scientific terminology', '
Q: What does Slovak have slightly more of than Czech?
A: borrowed words']
The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (Čechoslováci), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and (to a lesser extent) Hungarians and other Slavs. During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II) literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech. Since then, "Czechoslovak" refers to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who called themselves "Czechoslavs"?
A: a group of 19th-century scholars', '
Q: Why did the Czechoslavs consider Czech and Slovak to be a single language?
A: The similarities', '
Q: When was the first Czechoslovak Republic?
A: 1918–1938', '
Q: What was standard written Slovak partially modeled on?
A: literary Czech', '
Q: When was the Prague Spring?
A: 1968']
Around the sixth century AD, a tribe of Slavs arrived in a portion of Central Europe. According to legend they were led by a hero named Čech, from whom the word "Czech" derives. The ninth century brought the state of Great Moravia, whose first ruler (Rastislav of Moravia) invited Byzantine ruler Michael III to send missionaries in an attempt to reduce the influence of East Francia on religious and political life in his country. These missionaries, Constantine and Methodius, helped to convert the Czechs from traditional Slavic paganism to Christianity and established a church system. They also brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the West Slavs, whose language was previously unwritten. This language, later known as Proto-Czech, was beginning to separate from its fellow West Slavic hatchlings Proto-Slovak, Proto-Polish and Proto-Sorbian. Among other features, Proto-Czech was marked by its ephemeral use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did a tribe of Slavs arrive in Central Europe?
A: sixth century AD', '
Q: Who was the hero who led the Slavs to their new home, according to legend?
A: Čech', '
Q: What did the ninth century bring?
A: state of Great Moravia', '
Q: Whose influence was Rastislav eager to reduce, when he invited  Michael III to send missionaries? 
A: East Francia', '
Q: What alphabet did the missionaries bring to the West Slavs?
A: Glagolitic']
The Czechs' language separated from other Slavic tongues into what would later be called Old Czech by the thirteenth century, a classification extending through the sixteenth century. Its use of cases differed from the modern language; although Old Czech did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction, declension for its six cases and three genders rapidly became complicated (partially to differentiate homophones) and its declension patterns resembled those of Lithuanian (its Balto-Slavic cousin).

Questions and answers:
["
Q: How did Old Czech's use of cases differ from modern usage?
A: did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction", "
Q: What other language did Old Czech's declension patterns resemble?
A: Lithuanian", '
Q: How many cases did Old Czech have?
A: six', '
Q: How long was the precursor to Czech classified as Old Czech?
A: through the sixteenth century', '
Q: By the thirteenth century, what had the Czech language separated from?
A: other Slavic tongues']
While Old Czech had a basic alphabet from which a general set of orthographical correspondences was drawn, it did not have a standard orthography. It also contained a number of sound clusters which no longer exist; allowing ě (/jɛ/) after soft consonants, which has since shifted to e (/ɛ/), and allowing complex consonant clusters to be pronounced all at once rather than syllabically. A phonological phenomenon, Havlik's law (which began in Proto-Slavic and took various forms in other Slavic languages), appeared in Old Czech; counting backwards from the end of a clause, every odd-numbered yer was vocalized as a vowel, while the other yers disappeared.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of orthography did Old Czech lack?
A: standard', "
Q: Why aren't some sound clusters used in modern Czech?
A: no longer exist", '
Q: How did old Czech allow some complex consonant clusters to be pronounced?
A: all at once', "
Q: What type of phenomenon is Havlik's law?
A: phonological", '
Q: Which "yer"s were vocalized as vowels?
A: every odd-numbered']
Bohemia (as Czech civilization was known by then) increased in power over the centuries, as its language did in regional importance. This growth was expedited during the fourteenth century by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, who founded Charles University in Prague in 1348. Here, early Czech literature (a biblical translation, hymns and hagiography) flourished. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well. Later in the century Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was Czech civilization called back in the day?
A: Bohemia', '
Q: What Holy Roman Emperor expedited the growth of Bohemia in the 14th century?
A: Charles IV', '
Q: When was Charles University founded in Prague?
A: 1348', '
Q: Who contributed heavily to the effort to standardize Czech orthography?
A: Jan Hus', '
Q: What did Jan Hus advocate for among the Czech commoners?
A: widespread literacy']
Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance for hundreds of years, and has been a literary language in the Slovak lands since the early fifteenth century. A biblical translation, the Kralice Bible, was published during the late sixteenth century (around the time of the King James and Luther versions) which was more linguistically conservative than either. The publication of the Kralice Bible spawned widespread nationalism, and in 1615 the government of Bohemia ruled that only Czech-speaking residents would be allowed to become full citizens or inherit goods or land. This, and the conversion of the Czech upper classes from the Habsburg Empire's Catholicism to Protestantism, angered the Habsburgs and helped trigger the Thirty Years' War (where the Czechs were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain). The Czechs became serfs; Bohemia's printing industry (and its linguistic and political rights) were dismembered, removing official regulation and support from its language. German quickly became the dominant language in Bohemia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many years as Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance?
A: hundreds', '
Q: When was the Kralice Bible published?
A: late sixteenth century', '
Q: What did the publication of the Kralice Bible spawn?
A: widespread nationalism', "
Q: In what war were the Czechs defeated at the Battle of White Mountain?
A: Thirty Years' War", "
Q: What language became dominant in Bohemia after the Czech's defeat?
A: German"]
The consensus among linguists is that modern, standard Czech originated during the eighteenth century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. Changes include the morphological shift of í to ej and é to í (although é survives for some uses) and the merging of í and the former ejí. Sometime before the eighteenth century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When do linguists agree modern Czech originated?
A: the eighteenth century', '
Q: What had Czech developed by the 18th century?
A: literary tradition', '
Q: Journals from the 18th century have no substantial differences from what?
A: modern standard Czech', '
Q: How much difficulty do contemporary Czechs have in understanding material from the 18th century?
A: little', '
Q: What did the Czech language abandon which survives in Slovak?
A: a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/']
The Czech people gained widespread national pride during the mid-eighteenth century, inspired by the Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier. Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (which had denigrated Czech and other non-Latin languages). Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts, advocating the return of the language to high culture. This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renascence).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the Czechs as a people gain during the mid-18th century?
A: widespread national pride', "
Q: What inspired the Czech's national pride?
A: Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier", '
Q: What did Czech historians emphasize about their countrymen?
A: accomplishments', '
Q: What did Czech philologists advocate?
A: the return of the language to high culture', '
Q: What is the period during the mid-eighteenth century also remembered as?
A: Czech National Revival']
During the revival, in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German-language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache (Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language). Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive, and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language. However, Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival. Changes during this time included spelling reform (notably, í in place of the former j and j in place of g), the use of t (rather than ti) to end infinitive verbs and the non-capitalization of nouns (which had been a late borrowing from German). These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak. Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the professions of Joseph Dobrovský?
A: linguist and historian', "
Q: What didn't Dobrovský think Czech had a chance of returning as?
A: a major language", '
Q: What year did Joseph Dobrovský release a German-language grammar of Old Czech?
A: 1809', '
Q: What did Josef Jungmann advocate for?
A: a Czech linguistic revival', '
Q: Who disagree about whether the revivalists were motivated by nationalism or if they considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal use?
A: Modern scholars']
Czech, the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the European Union since 2004), is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia. Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages. The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic (98.77 percent), Slovakia (24.86 percent), Portugal (1.93 percent), Poland (0.98 percent) and Germany (0.47 percent).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the official language of the Czech republic?
A: Czech', '
Q: How long has the Czech Republic been a member of the European Union?
A: since 2004', '
Q: What distinction does Czech have in Slovakia?
A: foreign language most often used', '
Q: Who collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages?
A: Jonathan van Parys', '
Q: Of the five countries with the greatest use of Czech, which country had the lowest percent of use?
A: Germany']
Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin. In the 2000 United States Census, Czech was reported as the most-common language spoken at home (besides English) in Valley, Butler and Saunders Counties, Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas. With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most-common home language in over a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota. As of 2009, 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, behind Turkish and ahead of Swedish).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Czechs immigrated from Europe to the U.S. primary from 1848 to when?
A: 1914', '
Q: What kind of language is Czech in U.S. schools?
A: a Less Commonly Taught Language', '
Q: What states have large communities of Czech Americans?
A: Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin', '
Q: What is the most commonly spoken non-English language at homes nationwide in the U.S.?
A: Spanish', '
Q: How many Americans spoke Czech as their first language as of 2009?
A: 70,500']
In addition to a spoken standard and a closely related written standard, Czech has several regional dialects primarily used in rural areas by speakers less proficient in other dialects or standard Czech. During the second half of the twentieth century, Czech dialect use began to weaken. By the early 1990s dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) standard Czech. Although Czech has received considerable scholarly interest for a Slavic language, this interest has focused primarily on modern standard Czech and ancient texts rather than dialects. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many regional dialects does Czech have?
A: several', '
Q: Where are dialects of Czech commonly found?
A: rural areas', '
Q: What is dialect use associated with and thus stigmatized because of?
A: lower class', '
Q: What kind of scholarly interest has Czech received?
A: considerable', '
Q: What Czech dialect is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media?
A: Common']
The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian (moravština). In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others). Of the Czech dialects, only Moravian is distinguished in nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office. As of 2011, 62,908 Czech citizens spoke Moravian as their first language and 45,561 were diglossal (speaking Moravian and standard Czech as first languages).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia known as?
A: Moravian', '
Q: Where could citizens register "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak\' as being their spoken language?
A: the Austro-Hungarian Empire', '
Q: Which of the Czech dialects is the only one distinguished in the nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office?
A: Moravian', '
Q: How many Czechs spoke Moravian as their first language as of 2011?
A: 62,908', '
Q: How many Czechs spoke both Moravian and standard Czech as first languages in 2011?
A: 45,561']
Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes, and three more found only in loanwords. They are /a/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /o/, and /u/, their long counterparts /aː/, /ɛː/, /iː/, /oː/ and /uː/, and three diphthongs, /ou̯/, /au̯/ and /ɛu̯/. The latter two diphthongs and the long /oː/ are exclusive to loanwords. Vowels are never reduced to schwa sounds when unstressed. Each word usually has primary stress on its first syllable, except for enclitics (minor, monosyllabic, unstressed syllables). In all words of more than two syllables, every odd-numbered syllable receives secondary stress. Stress is unrelated to vowel length, and the possibility of stressed short vowels and unstressed long vowels can be confusing to students whose native language combines the features (such as English).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many basic vowel phonemes does Czech contain?
A: ten', '
Q: Where are three additional vowel phonemes found in Czech?
A: loanwords', '
Q: What are vowel sounds never reduced to when unstressed?
A: schwa sounds', '
Q: What is stress unrelated to in Czech?
A: vowel length', '
Q: What a few exceptions where is the primary word stress in Czech?
A: first syllable']
Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture. During the nineteenth century, words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots; "music" is muzyka in Polish and музыка (muzyka) in Russian, but in Czech it is hudba. Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into English and other languages—for example, robot (from robota, "labor") and polka (from polka, "Polish woman" or from "půlka" "half").

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In Czech, what are loanwords from other languages associated with?
A: high culture', '
Q: What word roots in the 19th century were rejected in favor of words with more common Slavic roots?
A: Greek and Latin', '
Q: How does one say the word "music" in Czech?
A: hudba', '
Q: What Czech word did the English "robot" derive from?
A: robota', '
Q: What is the meaning of the Czech word "robota"?
A: labor']