romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Shramana-movement formed, from which originated Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period the first Upanishads were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called "Second urbanization" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain. The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BC[web 1] during the so-called "Second urbanization".[note 3] It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BC was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar". In this region the Shramanic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What philosophical movement appeared during 800-200 BCE?
A: Shramana-movement', '
Q: What was the origins of the Shramana movement?
A: Jainism and Buddhism', '
Q: During what time were the first Upanishads written?
A: between 800 and 200 BCE', '
Q: What period started after 500 BCE?
A: Second urbanization', '
Q: Where was the central location of the Muayan Empire?
A: Central Ganges Plain']
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 500 BCE. sixteen monarchies and "republics" known as the Mahajanapadas—Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya (or Machcha), Shurasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja—stretched across the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharashtra. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: By what age had many small states covered the subcontinent?
A: later Vedic Age', '
Q: How many small states covered the Ganges Plain of India?
A: sixteen monarchies', '
Q: What were the sixteen kingdoms called?
A: Mahajanapadas', '
Q: What second period did the rise of the small kingdoms show?
A: urbanism', '
Q: What was the first major urbanization in India?
A: Indus Valley Civilisation']
Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. Early "republics" such as the Vajji (or Vriji) confederation centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The Life of Gautam Budhha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was the Vajji confederation located?
A: Vaishali', '
Q: How early did the small republic states exist in India?
A: 6th century BCE', '
Q: Until what century did the republic states endure in India?
A: 4th century CE', '
Q: In what language did the educated Indian speak?
A: Sanskrit', "
Q: What was the general population's common language ?
A: Prakrits"]
The 7th and 6th centuries BC witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads. Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When were the earliest Upanishads composed?
A: 7th and 6th centuries BC', '
Q: Of what philosophical system do the Upanishads form the basis?
A: Hinduism', '
Q: What are the Upanishads called in Hinduism?
A: Vedanta', '
Q: What part of the Hinduism belief system did the Upanishads attack?
A: ritual', '
Q: What worship system is central to Hinduism?
A: Self']
Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira (c. 549–477 BC), proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the shramana movements challenge?
A: orthodoxy of rituals', '
Q: Who was the founder of Jainism?
A: Mahavira', '
Q: What prominent icon founded Buddhism? 
A: Buddha', '
Q: What path did Buddha find to soothe the strictness of Sramana religions?
A: Middle Way', '
Q: What belief system taught the idea of samsara?
A: Shramana']
Magadha (Sanskrit: मगध) formed one of the sixteen Mahā-Janapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries") or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas. A state of Magadha, possibly a tribal kingdom, is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600 BC. Magadha Empire had great rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatshatru.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Of what was Magadha one of sixteen?
A: Mahā-Janapadas', '
Q: How does the Sanskrit translate Maha-Janapadas?
A: Great Countries', '
Q: Where was the center of Magadha?
A: Bihar', '
Q: Where were there early records of the Magadha kingdom?
A: Vedic texts', '
Q: What time do the texts locating Magadha kingdom predate?
A: 600 BC.']
The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where is the earliest mention of Magadha people?
A: Atharva-Veda', '
Q: In the development of which religions did Magadha participate?
A: Jainism and Buddhism', '
Q: Where was the location origin of the Maurya and Gupta empires?
A: Magadha', '
Q: Due to advances in science and culture, what are the Magadha region empires considered to represent?
A: Golden Age', "
Q: What were local villages' assemblies called in the Magadha kingdoms?
A: Gramakas"]
In 530 BC Cyrus the Great, King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan). By 520 BC, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the northwestern subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries. During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Persian king wanted tribute from the tribes of northern India?
A: Cyrus the Great', '
Q: By 520 BC what empire ruled the northwestern Indian subcontinent?
A: Persian Achaemenid Empire', '
Q: What king ruled Persia in 520 BC?
A: Darius I of Persia', '
Q: How long did the Persian empire control the northern India subcontinent?
A: two centuries', '
Q: What did India supply to the Persian war efforts against Greece?
A: mercenaries']
By 326 BC, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, and learning about the might of Nanda Empire, was convinced that it was better to return.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Alexander the Great reach India?
A: 326 BC', '
Q: Who did Alexander defeat in the area now Pakistan?
A: King Porus', '
Q: At what battle did Alexander beat King Porus?
A: Battle of the Hydaspes', "
Q: Where did Alexander's army finally mutiny?
A: Hyphasis", "
Q: The strength of what empire's army pushed Alexander to retreat?
A: Nanda Empire"]
The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda Dynasty. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BC. By the time he died in c. 272 BC, a large part of the subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first empire to unify India?
A: Maurya Empire', '
Q: What was the time span of the Mauryan Empire?
A: 322–185 BCE', '
Q: Who formed the Maurya Empire in Magadha?
A: Chandragupta Maurya', '
Q: What dynasty did Chandragupta Maurya defeat?
A: Nanda Dynasty', "
Q: In what year did Chandraguta's son come to the throne?
A: 297 BC"]
The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the basic written records of the Mauryans?
A: Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka', '
Q: What is the archaeological period of the Mauryan Empire?
A: Northern Black Polished Ware', '
Q: What metal was developed in south India during the time of the Mauryan Empire?
A: Wootz steel', '
Q: To where was wootz steel exported?
A: China and Arabia', '
Q: What organization closely monitored business dealings in the Mauryan Empire? 
A: government']
During the Sangam period Tamil literateure flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During this period the 3 Tamil Dynasties Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan Dynasty ruled parts of southern India. The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars and culture of the Tamil people of this period. The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns. Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite few of them were even women.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what period did Tamil literature thrive?
A: Sangam period', '
Q: How many Tamil dynasties ruled during the Sangam period?
A: 3', '
Q: What was the extent of the Sangam period?
A: 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE', '
Q: In what part of India did the Tamil dynasties rule?
A: southern India', '
Q: How were Tamil writers different from earlier Sanskrit writers?
A: non-Brahmins']
The Śātavāhana Empire was a royal Indian dynasty based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of India from 230 BCE onward. Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. The Sātavāhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect a huge part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What empire covered most of India from 230 BCE?
A: Śātavāhana Empire', '
Q: Of what were the Satavahanas patrons?
A: Hinduism and Buddhism', "
Q: What did the Satavahanas issue embossed with their king's head?
A: coins", '
Q: When was the Satavahana Empire divided into smaller states?
A: 3rd century CE', '
Q: From what did the Satavahana Empire protect much of India?
A: foreign invaders']
The Shunga Empire or Shunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar, modern Vidisha in Eastern Malwa. Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras. Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the time span of the Shunga Empire?
A: 187 to 78 BCE', '
Q: Who founded the Shuga empire after the fall of the Maurya empire?
A: Pushyamitra Shunga', '
Q: How long did Pushyamitra Shunga rule?
A: 36 years', '
Q: What script variant was used to write the Sanskrit language?
A: Brahmi', '
Q: What tradition did Shunga rulers help begin?
A: sponsorship of learning and art']
During the reign of Khārabēḷa, the Chedi dynasty of Kaḷinga ascended to eminence and restored the lost power and glory of Kaḷinga, which had been subdued since the devastating war with Ashoka. Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa: under Khārabēḷa's generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then-Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Malaysia, Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led many successful campaigns against the states of Magadha, Anga, Satavahanas till the southern most regions of Pandyan Empire (modern Tamil Nadu).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Kalingan ruler brought the Chedi dynasty back into power?
A: Khārabēḷa', '
Q: What power had previously defeated the Kalingans? 
A: Ashoka', '
Q: In what arena was Kalinga a formidable power?
A: maritime', '
Q: What maritime advantage did the Kalingans have?
A: trade routes', '
Q: What militaristic leader restored might to the Kalinga empire?
A: Khārabēḷa']
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. They came of an Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe called the Yuezhi, a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka, they had conquered most of northern India, at least as far as Saketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges Valley, and probably as far as the Bay of Bengal.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From what area did the Kushan Empire come?
A: Afghanistan', '
Q: Who was the first ruler of the Kushan empire?
A: Kujula Kadphises', '
Q: In the middle o what century did the Kushan empire begin?
A: 1st century CE', '
Q: What was the language base of the Kushans?
A: Indo-European', '
Q: What had the Kushans conquered much of by the time of Kanishka
A: northern India']
Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE). This period has been called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. The Hindu-Arabic numerals, a positional numeral system, originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: By what is India under the Gupta Empire referered?
A: Classical India', '
Q: What was the time span of the Gupta Empire?
A: c. 320–550 CE', '
Q: What is the period of the Gupta Empire called?
A: Golden Age of India', '
Q: What philosophy  formed at the time of the Gupta Empire?
A: Hindu culture', '
Q: What numeral system originated in India?
A: Hindu-Arabic']
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II - brought much of India under their leadership. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina. For these reasons, historian Dr.Barnett remarked:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the Guptas promote in their reigns?
A: Indian culture', '
Q: Besides the Vedic practices, what other religion did the Guptas patronize?
A: Buddhism', '
Q: What Guptas brought much of India under Gupta rule?
A: first three rulers', '
Q: What business activity made the Gupta Empire prominent in India?
A: Strong trade ties', '
Q: What did the Gupta Empires trade ties influence?
A: nearby kingdoms']
Kadamba (345 – 525 CE) was an ancient royal dynasty of Karnataka, India that ruled northern Karnataka and the Konkan from Banavasi in present-day Uttara Kannada district. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, the Kadambas of Banavasi ruled large parts of modern Karnataka state. The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties known as the Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what time did Kadamba rule northern Karnataka?
A: 345 – 525 CE', '
Q: Where did the Kadamba dynasty originate?
A: Karnataka, India', '
Q: What ruler ruled at the peak of Kadamba power?
A: King Kakushtavarma', '
Q: Who founded the Kamdamba dynasty?
A: Mayurasharma', '
Q: What dynasty made military alliances with the Kamdamba?
A: Gupta Dynasty']
The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the White Huns, were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity period. The White Huns established themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader Toramana, they overran the northern region of Pakistan and North India. Toramana's son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu, moved up to near Pataliputra to the east and Gwalior to the central India. Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned. The Huns were defeated by the Indian kings Yasodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of trib were the Hephthalites?
A: nomadic confederation', '
Q: Where did the White Huns roam?
A: Central Asia', '
Q: In what country did the White Huns settle?
A: Afghanistan', '
Q: What lands did the White Huns take in the 5th century? 
A: Pakistan and North India']