romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Antarctica is the coldest of Earth's continents. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Soviet (now Russian) Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. For comparison, this is 10.7 °C (20 °F) colder than subliming dry ice at one atmosphere of partial pressure, but since CO2 only makes up 0.039% of air, temperatures of less than −150 °C (−238 °F) would be needed to produce dry ice snow in Antarctica. Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it. Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was the coldest temperature recorded on Earth?
A: Antarctica', '
Q: What was the coldest temperature ever recorded?
A: −89.2 °C', "
Q: On what date was the Earth's coldest temperature recorded?
A: 21 July 1983", '
Q: What is Antarctica topographically ?
A: frozen desert', '
Q: What light caused condition is a serious problem for humans in Antarctica?
A: Sunburn']
Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c. 350 B.C. Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A.D. The Roman authors Hyginus and Apuleius (1–2 centuries A.D.) used for the South Pole the romanized Greek name polus antarcticus, from which derived the Old French pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English pol antartik in a 1391 technical treatise by Geoffrey Chaucer (modern Antarctic Pole).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote a book describing a cold region in 350 B.C.?
A: Aristotle', '
Q: What did authors Hyginus and Apuleious call the South Pole?
A: polus antarcticus', '
Q: What map maker used the name Antarctica in his map of the 2nd century A.D.?
A: Marinus of Tyre', '
Q: What did Chaucer call the area in 1391?
A: pol antartik', '
Q: What was the old French words for the Antarctic?
A: pole antartike']
Some scientific studies suggest that ozone depletion may have a dominant role in governing climatic change in Antarctica (and a wider area of the Southern Hemisphere). Ozone absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Ozone depletion over Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 °C in the local stratosphere. This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent (the polar vortex) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole. As a result, the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures, and the peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subject to higher temperatures, which promote accelerated melting. Models also suggest that the ozone depletion/enhanced polar vortex effect also accounts for the recent increase in sea ice just offshore of the continent.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what do some scientists believe ozone depletion may have a role ?
A: climatic change', '
Q: How much cooling can ozone depletion cause over Antarctica?
A: 6 °C', '
Q: What light does ozone absorb?
A: ultraviolet radiation', '
Q: What can the wind changes due to cooling cause in the Antarctic ice?
A: accelerated melting', '
Q: What does ozone depletion cause in the southern atmosphere?
A: enhanced polar vortex']
Several governments maintain permanent manned research stations on the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer, giving it a population density between 70 and 350 inhabitants per million square kilometres (180 and 900 per million square miles) at these times. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church—Trinity Church, opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station—is manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who has research stations in Antarctica?
A: Several governments', '
Q: What is the span of population density per million square kilometers of researchers in Antarctica?
A: between 70 and 350', '
Q: About long long do researchers stay when researching in Antarctica?
A: one-year', '
Q: What station has an Orthodox church representative?
A: Bellingshausen Station', '
Q: When did the Trinity Church begin its posting at Bellinshausen station?
A: 2004']
Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. It covers more than 14,000,000 km2 (5,400,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the southern most continent?
A: Antarctica', '
Q: What is the size of Antarctica in square miles?
A: 5,400,000', "
Q: What is Antarctica's ranking among the continents?
A: fifth-largest", "
Q: How many miles long is Antarctica's coast line?
A: 11,165"]
Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins, and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What sea plankton doe many sea creatures rely on to live?
A: phytoplankton', '
Q: During what season does the emperor penguin breed?
A: winter', '
Q: What breed of penguin lives in Antarctica?
A: emperor penguin', '
Q: What feature does the rockhopper penguin have around its eyes?
A: feathers', '
Q: Which penguin breeds the furterest south of all the penguin breeds?
A: Adélie']
Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. Antarctica contains many other mountains, on both the main continent and the surrounding islands. Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's southernmost active volcano. Another well-known volcano is found on Deception Island, which is famous for a giant eruption in 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active. In 2004, a potentially active underwater volcano was found in the Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the highest peak in Antarctica?
A: Vinson Massif', '
Q: How high is the Antarctic mountain Vinson Massif?
A: 4,892 m', '
Q: In what mountainous area of Antarctica is Vinson Massif?
A: Ellsworth Mountains', '
Q: What type of volcano was located in 2004 by researchers?
A: underwater', "
Q: What is the Earth's most southern volcano?
A: Mount Erebus"]
In 1983, the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining in Antarctica. A coalition of international organizations launched a public pressure campaign to prevent any minerals development in the region, led largely by Greenpeace International, which established its own scientific station—World Park Base—in the Ross Sea region and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental effects of humans on Antarctica. In 1988, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted. The following year, however, Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes. They proposed instead that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the "Madrid Protocol") was negotiated as other countries followed suit and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force. The Madrid Protocol bans all mining in Antarctica, designating Antarctica a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did negotiations start to regulate mining in Antarctica?
A: 1983', '
Q: When was the treaty to regulate mining agreed upon?
A: 1988', '
Q: What group led the fight to prevent mineral development in Antarctica?
A: Greenpeace International,', '
Q: Which two countries refused to ratify the treaty to regulate mineral use in Antarctica?
A: Australia and France', '
Q: What was the alternate treaty offered by Australia and France?
A: Madrid Protocol']
As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In Eastern Antarctica, seed ferns or pteridosperms became abundant and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. Synapsids, commonly known as "mammal-like reptiles", were common in Antarctica during the Early Triassic and included forms such as Lystrosaurus. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206–146 Ma), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. Ginkgo trees, conifers, bennettites, horsetails, ferns and cycads were plentiful during this period. In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146–66 Ma), though southern beech became more prominent towards the end of this period. Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only three Antarctic dinosaur genera (Cryolophosaurus and Glacialisaurus, from the Hanson Formation, and Antarctopelta) have been described to date. It was during this era that Gondwana began to break up.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did most of Gondwana become when the polar ice melted?
A: desert', '
Q: What plants were abundant during this time?
A: pteridosperms', '
Q: What type of reptiles were common during the early Triassic?
A: Synapsids', '
Q: When did the Antarctic peninsula form?
A: Jurassic period', '
Q: During what period did Gondwana begin to break apart?
A: Cretaceous']
Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the solar system; most are thought to come from asteroids, but some may have originated on larger planets. The first meteorite was found in 1912, and named the Adelie Land meteorite. In 1969, a Japanese expedition discovered nine meteorites. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are well-preserved.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What astronomical study is important research for Antarctica?
A: Meteorites', '
Q: What is the supposed source of most Antarctica meteorites?
A: asteroids', '
Q: When was the first meteorite found in Antarctica?
A: 1912', '
Q: What expedition found nine meteorites in 1969?
A: Japanese', '
Q: What is it about Antarctic meteorites that is different form meteorites found in other places?
A: well-preserved.']
Due to its location at the South Pole, Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation. This means that it is a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice. Precipitation is low (most of Antarctica is a desert) and almost always in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms a giant ice sheet which covers the land. Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams, which flow towards the edges of the continent. Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves. These are floating extensions of outflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass. Offshore, temperatures are also low enough that ice is formed from seawater through most of the year. It is important to understand the various types of Antarctic ice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global cooling.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What location means that Antarctica get little solar radiation?
A: South Pole', '
Q: In what condition is most water in the Antarctica?
A: ice', '
Q: What is the usual condition of precipitation in the Antarctic?
A: snow', '
Q: What does the massed snow in Antarctica produce?
A: giant ice sheet', '
Q: What are ice streams otherwise called?
A: glaciers']
The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, King Edward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did the first semi-permanent residents of the Antarctic area live?
A: South Georgia', '
Q: In what year did the sealers start staying on South Georgia?
A: 1786', '
Q: What was the profession of the residents of South Georgia?
A: sealers', '
Q: What was the nationality of most whalers?
A: Norwegian', '
Q: When did explorer Carl Anton Larsen become a British citizen?
A: 1910']
Some of Antarctica has been warming up; particularly strong warming has been noted on the Antarctic Peninsula. A study by Eric Steig published in 2009 noted for the first time that the continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is slightly positive at >0.05 °C (0.09 °F) per decade from 1957 to 2006. This study also noted that West Antarctica has warmed by more than 0.1 °C (0.2 °F) per decade in the last 50 years, and this warming is strongest in winter and spring. This is partly offset by autumn cooling in East Antarctica. There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions, but this remains ambiguous. The amount of surface warming in West Antarctica, while large, has not led to appreciable melting at the surface, and is not directly affecting the West Antarctic Ice Sheet's contribution to sea level. Instead the recent increases in glacier outflow are believed to be due to an inflow of warm water from the deep ocean, just off the continental shelf. The net contribution to sea level from the Antarctic Peninsula is more likely to be a direct result of the much greater atmospheric warming there.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where in Antarctica has warming been noticed?
A: Antarctic Peninsula', '
Q: What do some researchers believe to be that cause of this warming?
A: carbon dioxide emissions', '
Q: How much has west Antarctica warmed per decade in the last 5o years?
A: 0.1 °C', '
Q: What is thought to be the cause of glacier outflow?
A: inflow of warm water', '
Q: What is the thinking of the cause  of the Antarctic Peninsula sea level.
A: atmospheric warming']
The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregate in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What animal was greatly hunted during the 18th and 19th centuries?
A: Antarctic fur seal', '
Q: What did  Sir James Weddell command?
A: British sealing expeditions', '
Q: For whom is the Weddell seal named ?
A: Sir James Weddell', '
Q: What is a very important species in the Southern Ocean?
A: Antarctic krill', '
Q: Why is the krill so important to the Antarctic area?
A: important food']
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (also known as the Environmental Protocol or Madrid Protocol) came into force in 1998, and is the main instrument concerned with conservation and management of biodiversity in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting is advised on environmental and conservation issues in Antarctica by the Committee for Environmental Protection. A major concern within this committee is the risk to Antarctica from unintentional introduction of non-native species from outside the region.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Environmental Protocol become effective?
A: 1998', '
Q: What is the main concern of the Protocol?
A: conservation', '
Q: What is seen as a major risk to Antarctica?
A: non-native species', '
Q: What group advises the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting?
A: Committee for Environmental Protection', "
Q: Besides conservation, what is the Environmental Protocol's goal to manage?
A: biodiversity"]
Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they have not been in large enough quantities to exploit. The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached to place an indefinite ban on mining, to be reviewed in 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary economic activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000–01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the Protocol on Environmental Protection seek to regulate?
A: resources', '
Q: In what year was an agreement reached to ban mining in Antarctica?
A: 1998', '
Q: When will the mining ban be reviewed?
A: 2048', '
Q: What is the major economic activity near Antarctica?
A: trading of fish', '
Q: How many tonnes of fish were reported caught in 2000-01?
A: 112,934 tonnes']
This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How do the meteorites found in Antarctica add to knowledge about the solar system?
A: better understanding', '
Q: From where in the solar system could the meteorites have come?
A: Moon', '
Q: Beside rare types of meteorites, what other types of meteorites have been found in Antarctica?
A: New types', '
Q: About what nearby planet could the Antarctic meteorites hold data?
A: Mars', '
Q: What do meteorites absorb that can be used to understand how old the meteorite is?
A: cosmic radiation']
In 2002 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed. Between 28 February and 8 March 2008, about 570 km2 (220 sq mi) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) of the ice shelf at risk. The ice was being held back by a "thread" of ice about 6 km (4 mi) wide, prior to its collapse on 5 April 2009. According to NASA, the most widespread Antarctic surface melting of the past 30 years occurred in 2005, when an area of ice comparable in size to California briefly melted and refroze; this may have resulted from temperatures rising to as high as 5 °C (41 °F).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Larsen-B ice shelf collapse?
A: 2002', '
Q: What Antarctic ice shelf collapsed in 2008?
A: Wilkins Ice Shelf', '
Q: How large was the ice chunk that melted and refroze?
A: California', '
Q: When did the most widespread melting of ice occur?
A: 2005', '
Q: How high could the temperatures have risen to cause the melting?
A: 5 °C']
Antarctica has no indigenous population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. However, belief in the existence of a Terra Australis—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa—had existed since the times of Ptolemy (1st century AD), who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of all known landmasses in the world. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the first time humans visited Antarctica?
A: 19th century', '
Q: What was Antarctica presumed to be by the ancient thinkers?
A: balance', '
Q: What did Ptolemy suggest that a southern land mass would do to preserve? 
A: symmetry', '
Q: Of what did early explores think Australia and South America were part?
A: Antarctica', '
Q: Early geographers thought that Antarctica was what in size?
A: larger']
About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, a sheet of ice averaging at least 1.6 km (1.0 mi) thick. The continent has about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby about 70% of the world's fresh water). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 60 m (200 ft). In most of the interior of the continent, precipitation is very low, down to 20 mm (0.8 in) per year; in a few "blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys, the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How much of Antarctica is covered by ice?
A: 98%', "
Q: How much of Earth's ice is in Antarctica?
A: 90%", '
Q: How thick is the ice that covers Antarctica?
A: 1.6 km', "
Q: How much of the Earth's fresh water is held in Antarctica?
A: 70%", '
Q: What is the amount of precipitation per year in the interior of Antarctica?
A: 20 mm']