romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The law of the United States comprises many levels of codified and uncodified forms of law, of which the most important is the United States Constitution, the foundation of the federal government of the United States. The Constitution sets out the boundaries of federal law, which consists of acts of Congress, treaties ratified by the Senate, regulations promulgated by the executive branch, and case law originating from the federal judiciary. The United States Code is the official compilation and codification of general and permanent federal statutory law.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the foundation of the United States federal government?
A: United States Constitution', '
Q: In the Unites States what sets out the boundaries of federal law?
A: The Constitution', '
Q: What is defined as the official codification of federal statutory law?
A: The United States Code', '
Q: What is compromised of many levels of codified and uncodified forms of law?
A: law of the United States', '
Q: The constitution set boundaries for case law that originates from where?
A: federal judiciary', '
Q: What is the foundation of the U.S. federal government?
A: the United States Constitution', '
Q: What sets out the boundries of federal law?
A: The Constitution', '
Q: What two forms of law make up the laws of the United States?
A: codified and uncodified', '
Q: What is th eofficial compilation of federal statutory law called?
A: The United States Code', '
Q: What different kinds of law make up the laws of the United States?
A: codified and uncodified', '
Q: What is the most important document in the US, setting the boundries for all other laws?
A: the United States Constitution', '
Q: What branch of gevernment is responsible for ratifing treaties?
A: Senate', '
Q: With branch of government deals with new regulations?
A: the executive branch', "
Q: Who's responsibility is case law?
A: the federal judiciary"]
Federal law and treaties, so long as they are in accordance with the Constitution, preempt conflicting state and territorial laws in the 50 U.S. states and in the territories. However, the scope of federal preemption is limited because the scope of federal power is not universal. In the dual-sovereign system of American federalism (actually tripartite because of the presence of Indian reservations), states are the plenary sovereigns, each with their own constitution, while the federal sovereign possesses only the limited supreme authority enumerated in the Constitution. Indeed, states may grant their citizens broader rights than the federal Constitution as long as they do not infringe on any federal constitutional rights. Thus, most U.S. law (especially the actual "living law" of contract, tort, property, criminal, and family law experienced by the majority of citizens on a day-to-day basis) consists primarily of state law, which can and does vary greatly from one state to the next.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What comes before state and territorial laws in the 50 U.S states?
A: Federal law and treaties', '
Q: Federal sovereign only possess authority if it is stated in what?
A: the Constitution', '
Q: States may grant their citizens border rights as long as they do not infringe on what?
A: federal constitutional rights', '
Q: Most U.S law, the kind of law we live everyday, consists of what kind of law?
A: state law', '
Q: Does every state have the same laws?
A: vary greatly from one state to the next.', '
Q: Federal law overrides what laws?
A: conflicting state and territorial laws', '
Q: The scope of federal power is not what?
A: universal', '
Q: What type of system is American Federalism?
A: dual-sovereign system', '
Q: American Federalism can also be considered tripartite because of the presence of what?
A: Indian reservations', '
Q: States can grant their people broader rights than those granted in what document?
A: the federal Constitution', '
Q: Is there anything that trumps state law?
A: Federal law and treaties', '
Q: How many state make up the United States?
A: 50', '
Q: Can states grant rights to citizens that are not defined by the constitution?
A: as long as they do not infringe on any federal constitutional rights', '
Q: What is day-to-day, operational law considered?
A: "living law"', '
Q: What is living law mostly made up of?
A: state law']
Notably, a statute does not disappear automatically merely because it has been found unconstitutional; it must be deleted by a subsequent statute. Many federal and state statutes have remained on the books for decades after they were ruled to be unconstitutional. However, under the principle of stare decisis, no sensible lower court will enforce an unconstitutional statute, and any court that does so will be reversed by the Supreme Court. Conversely, any court that refuses to enforce a constitutional statute (where such constitutionality has been expressly established in prior cases) will risk reversal by the Supreme Court.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In order for a unconstitutional statue to disappear, it has to be deleted by?  
A: a subsequent statute', '
Q: What has remained on the books after they were ruled unconstitutional? 
A: federal and state statutes', '
Q: What principle  states no lower court will enforce an unconstitutional statue? 
A: stare decisis', '
Q: Who can reverse an unconstitutional court ruling?
A: the Supreme Court', '
Q: What must happen to a statute for it to become unconstitutional?
A: it must be deleted', '
Q: What can delete a statute and make it unconstitutional?
A: a subsequent statute', '
Q: Some federal and state statutes remain on the books for how long after they are ruled unconstitutional?
A: decades', '
Q: What decisis states that no lower court will enforce an unconstitutional statute?
A: the principle of stare decisis', '
Q: Any court that enforces an unconstitutional statute will be overturned by what court?
A: the Supreme Court', '
Q: If a statute is unconstitutional, how is it removed?
A: deleted by a subsequent statute', '
Q: What happens when an unconstitutional statute remains on the books?
A: no sensible lower court will enforce', '
Q: What would happen if a lower court tried to enforce an unconstitutional statute?
A: reversed by the Supreme Court', '
Q: What must happen before the Supreme Court will reverse a decision by a lower court refusing to uphold a constitutional law?
A: constitutionality has been expressly established in prior cases', '
Q: What would happen if a lower court refused to uphold a constitutional law?
A: risk reversal by the Supreme Court']
Notably, the most broadly influential innovation of 20th-century American tort law was the rule of strict liability for defective products, which originated with judicial glosses on the law of warranty. In 1963, Roger J. Traynor of the Supreme Court of California threw away legal fictions based on warranties and imposed strict liability for defective products as a matter of public policy in the landmark case of Greenman v. Yuba Power Products. The American Law Institute subsequently adopted a slightly different version of the Greenman rule in Section 402A of the Restatement (Second) of Torts, which was published in 1964 and was very influential throughout the United States. Outside the U.S., the rule was adopted by the European Economic Community in the Product Liability Directive of July 1985 by Australia in July 1992 and by Japan in June 1994.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The rule of liability for defective products originated from what law?
A: law of warranty', '
Q: In what case did the supreme court of California, throw away warranties and strictly impose liability for defective products?
A: Greenman v. Yuba Power Products', '
Q: What was most influential American 20th century tort law?
A: rule of strict liability for defective products', '
Q: What year was the case Greenman v. Yuba Power products?
A: 1963', '
Q: What is one of the most influential changes to tort law?
A: rule of strict liability for defective products', '
Q: Who was at the forefront of the fight to change the laws on defective products?
A: Roger J. Traynor', '
Q: When was the Greenman rule in Section 402A of the Restatement (Second) of Torts published?
A: 1964', '
Q: What case was fundamental in the fight to change warranty laws?
A: Greenman v. Yuba Power Products', '
Q: When was the Restatement (Second) of Torts beginning to be adopted outside of the United States?
A: 1985']
Tort law covers the entire imaginable spectrum of wrongs which humans can inflict upon each other, and of course, partially overlaps with wrongs also punishable by criminal law. Although the American Law Institute has attempted to standardize tort law through the development of several versions of the Restatement of Torts, many states have chosen to adopt only certain sections of the Restatements and to reject others. Thus, because of its immense size and diversity, American tort law cannot be easily summarized.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What law covers wrongs which humans can inflict upon each other?
A: Tort law', '
Q: Why can American tort law not be easily summarized?
A: because of its immense size and diversity', '
Q: While attempting to standardize tort law, multiple versions of tort law have come about, what are there versions called?
A: Restatement of Torts', '
Q: What covers crimes of human against human?
A: Tort law', '
Q: What does tort law overlap with?
A: wrongs also punishable by criminal law', '
Q: What is attempting to standardize the tort law system?
A: Restatement of Torts', '
Q: What is the Restatement of Torts not successfull as a whole yet?
A: many states have chosen to adopt only certain sections', '
Q: Why is tort law hard to standardize?
A: immense size and diversity']
However, it is important to understand that despite the presence of reception statutes, much of contemporary American common law has diverged significantly from English common law. The reason is that although the courts of the various Commonwealth nations are often influenced by each other's rulings, American courts rarely follow post-Revolution Commonwealth rulings unless there is no American ruling on point, the facts and law at issue are nearly identical, and the reasoning is strongly persuasive.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: A lot of American common law diverged from where?
A: English common law', '
Q: When would American courts follow post-revolution commonwealth rulings?
A: there is no American ruling on point', "
Q: Courts in commonwealth nations are often influenced by what?
A: by each other's rulings", '
Q: Most modern American common law came from what kind of law?
A: English common law', "
Q: Couts of commonwealth nations are often influenced by who's rulings?
A: each other's", '
Q: What rulings do American courts rarely follow?
A: post-Revolution Commonwealth rulings', '
Q: What is one reason American courts may follow a post Revolutionary Commonwealth ruling under what circumstances?
A: there is no American ruling on point', '
Q: How close is current American law to English law?
A: diverged significantly', '
Q: What differs about American and English law?
A: American courts rarely follow post-Revolution Commonwealth rulings', '
Q: When would American law be more likely to follow English law?
A: no American ruling on point', '
Q: How close do the issues have to be in order for an English law to be used?
A: nearly identical']
The actual substance of English law was formally "received" into the United States in several ways. First, all U.S. states except Louisiana have enacted "reception statutes" which generally state that the common law of England (particularly judge-made law) is the law of the state to the extent that it is not repugnant to domestic law or indigenous conditions. Some reception statutes impose a specific cutoff date for reception, such as the date of a colony's founding, while others are deliberately vague. Thus, contemporary U.S. courts often cite pre-Revolution cases when discussing the evolution of an ancient judge-made common law principle into its modern form, such as the heightened duty of care traditionally imposed upon common carriers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Reception statues are generally the same as what law?
A: the common law of England', '
Q: Who sites pre-revolution cases when discussion evolution of judge-made law? 
A: contemporary U.S. courts', '
Q: Which US State did not  enact reception statues? 
A: Louisiana', '
Q: What do reception statutes state is the law of the state?
A: common law of England', '
Q: What is the only state to not enact reception statutes?
A: Louisiana', '
Q: Some reception statutes impose what?
A: a specific cutoff date', '
Q: Modern courts often cite which period in history cases when discussing changes in law?
A: pre-Revolution', '
Q: What are reception statutes?
A: the common law of England (particularly judge-made law) is the law of the state', '
Q: When are reception statutes invaild?
A: repugnant to domestic law or indigenous conditions', "
Q: Where did the bulk of the US's starting laws come from?
A: English law", '
Q: Which is the only stste without reception statutes?
A: Louisiana', '
Q: What kind of case would a contemporary lawyer discuss when talking about an ancient judge-made common law principle?
A: pre-Revolution']
Early on, American courts, even after the Revolution, often did cite contemporary English cases. This was because appellate decisions from many American courts were not regularly reported until the mid-19th century; lawyers and judges, as creatures of habit, used English legal materials to fill the gap. But citations to English decisions gradually disappeared during the 19th century as American courts developed their own principles to resolve the legal problems of the American people. The number of published volumes of American reports soared from eighteen in 1810 to over 8,000 by 1910. By 1879 one of the delegates to the California constitutional convention was already complaining: "Now, when we require them to state the reasons for a decision, we do not mean they shall write a hundred pages of detail. We [do] not mean that they shall include the small cases, and impose on the country all this fine judicial literature, for the Lord knows we have got enough of that already."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: early on American courts cited what cases?
A: contemporary English', '
Q: What century were apellate decisions regularly reported?
A: 19th century', '
Q: When did cotations to English decisions gradually disappear?
A: 19th century', '
Q: How many published reports of American volumes existed in 1810?
A: eighteen', '
Q: How many published reports of American volumes existed in 1910?
A: over 8,000', '
Q: When did Americans really begin to establish their own laws independent of the English?
A: mid-19th century', '
Q: How many published volumes of American reports were released in 1810?
A: eighteen', '
Q: By 1910, how many volumes of American reports were there?
A: 8,000', '
Q: What did the lawmakers think of the increase in reports?
A: By 1879 one of the delegates to the California constitutional convention was already complaining', '
Q: What were the lawmakers beginning to drown in?
A: judicial literature']
Federal law originates with the Constitution, which gives Congress the power to enact statutes for certain limited purposes like regulating interstate commerce. The United States Code is the official compilation and codification of the general and permanent federal statutes. Many statutes give executive branch agencies the power to create regulations, which are published in the Federal Register and codified into the Code of Federal Regulations. Regulations generally also carry the force of law under the Chevron doctrine. Many lawsuits turn on the meaning of a federal statute or regulation, and judicial interpretations of such meaning carry legal force under the principle of stare decisis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does federal law come from?
A: the Constitution', '
Q: What gives Congress limited power to enact statutes?
A: the Constitution', '
Q: What do you call the official compilation and codification of federal statutes?
A: The United States Code', '
Q: Where are regulations published?
A: in the Federal Register', '
Q: Where are regulations codified into?
A: Code of Federal Regulations', '
Q: Where does federal law begin?
A: the Constitution', '
Q: Who has the power and right to enact statutes for interstate dealings?
A: Congress', '
Q: What is the compilation and codification of all federal statutes?
A: The United States Code', '
Q: Who do the statutes give the power of creating regulations?
A: executive branch agencies', '
Q: Where are the regulations from executive branch agencies found?
A: the Code of Federal Regulations']
During the 18th and 19th centuries, federal law traditionally focused on areas where there was an express grant of power to the federal government in the federal Constitution, like the military, money, foreign relations (especially international treaties), tariffs, intellectual property (specifically patents and copyrights), and mail. Since the start of the 20th century, broad interpretations of the Commerce and Spending Clauses of the Constitution have enabled federal law to expand into areas like aviation, telecommunications, railroads, pharmaceuticals, antitrust, and trademarks. In some areas, like aviation and railroads, the federal government has developed a comprehensive scheme that preempts virtually all state law, while in others, like family law, a relatively small number of federal statutes (generally covering interstate and international situations) interacts with a much larger body of state law. In areas like antitrust, trademark, and employment law, there are powerful laws at both the federal and state levels that coexist with each other. In a handful of areas like insurance, Congress has enacted laws expressly refusing to regulate them as long as the states have laws regulating them (see, e.g., the McCarran-Ferguson Act).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What areas of the Constitution deal with issuses such as aviation, railroads, and trademarks?
A: Commerce and Spending Clauses', '
Q: In areas of law such as insurance, there are laws refusing to regulate them as long as states have laws doing what?
A: regulating them', '
Q: What type of property are trademarks and copyrights?
A: intellectual property', '
Q: What governs things such as military, money, foreign relations, etc.?
A: federal law', '
Q: What enabled federal law to begin expanding into other areas such as avaition, telecommunications, railroads, etc.?
A: Commerce and Spending Clauses of the Constitution', '
Q: When did the Commerce and Spending Clauses of the Constitution allow federal power to begin expanding?
A: start of the 20th century', '
Q: What is a law enacted by Congress that states that it refuses to regulate some industries as long as the states have regulations in place already?
A: McCarran-Ferguson Act', '
Q: What happens when both the federal and state governments have regulations that overlap?
A: coexist with each other']
After the President signs a bill into law (or Congress enacts it over his veto), it is delivered to the Office of the Federal Register (OFR) of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) where it is assigned a law number, and prepared for publication as a slip law. Public laws, but not private laws, are also given legal statutory citation by the OFR. At the end of each session of Congress, the slip laws are compiled into bound volumes called the United States Statutes at Large, and they are known as session laws. The Statutes at Large present a chronological arrangement of the laws in the exact order that they have been enacted.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who signs a bill into a law?
A: the President', '
Q: Where does a bill go after it is signed?
A: Office of the Federal Register (OFR) of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA)', '
Q: What is a new law given at the OFR of the NARA?
A: a law number', '
Q: After being given a law number, a new law is prepared for publication as what?
A: a slip law', '
Q: What kind of laws are not given statutory citation by the OFR?
A: private laws', '
Q: Where does a bill go once the President signs it into effect?
A: delivered to the Office of the Federal Register (OFR) of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA)', '
Q: What happens after a bill is delivered to the OFR?
A: assigned a law number', '
Q: After a bill is assigned a number, what is it made ready for?
A: publication as a slip law', '
Q: Once the slip laws are placed into the United States Statutes at Large, what are they called?
A: session laws', '
Q: What is the United States Statutes at Large?
A: a chronological arrangement of the laws in the exact order that they have been enacted']
Congress often enacts statutes that grant broad rulemaking authority to federal agencies. Often, Congress is simply too gridlocked to draft detailed statutes that explain how the agency should react to every possible situation, or Congress believes the agency's technical specialists are best equipped to deal with particular fact situations as they arise. Therefore, federal agencies are authorized to promulgate regulations. Under the principle of Chevron deference, regulations normally carry the force of law as long as they are based on a reasonable interpretation of the relevant statutes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does congress often grant to give rulemaking authority to federal agencies?
A: statutes', '
Q: Federal agencies are authorized to make what public?
A: regulations', '
Q: Regulations normally carry the force of what?
A: law', '
Q: Regualtions carry force of law when based on reasonable interpretation of what?
A: relevant statutes', '
Q: What power is granted to federal agencies by Congress?
A: broad rulemaking authority', '
Q: Why does Congress give generalized powers to federal agencies?
A: too gridlocked to draft detailed statutes that explain how the agency should react to every possible situation', '
Q: What gives regulations imposed by federal agencies the right to enforce their regulations?
A: the principle of Chevron', '
Q: What does the Principle of Chevron provide for?
A: regulations normally carry the force of law as long as they are based on a reasonable interpretation of the relevant statutes']
The difficult question is whether federal judicial power extends to formulating binding precedent through strict adherence to the rule of stare decisis. This is where the act of deciding a case becomes a limited form of lawmaking in itself, in that an appellate court's rulings will thereby bind itself and lower courts in future cases (and therefore also impliedly binds all persons within the court's jurisdiction). Prior to a major change to federal court rules in 2007, about one-fifth of federal appellate cases were published and thereby became binding precedents, while the rest were unpublished and bound only the parties to each case.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is used to determine whether federal judicial power extends to formulating binding precedent?
A: stare decisis', '
Q: What is stare decisis?
A: the act of deciding a case becomes a limited form of lawmaking in itself', "
Q: Why is stare decisis a limited form of lawmaking?
A: an appellate court's rulings will thereby bind itself and lower courts in future cases", "
Q: Who else does stare decisis affect?
A: impliedly binds all persons within the court's jurisdiction"]