romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the two types of digestion?
A: internal and external digestion', '
Q: When did external digestion develop?
A: earlier in evolutionary history', '
Q: What still uses the external digestion system?
A: most fungi', '
Q: What is the name of the tube that helps add in animal digestion?
A: gastrointestinal tract', '
Q: Why is internal digection better than external?
A: more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled']
The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What elements can transfer to plant cells?
A: Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids', '
Q: Where do transferred genes enter?
A: the plant cell nucleus', '
Q: What do bacteria use as carbon and energy sources?
A: opines', '
Q: What happens to infected plant cells?
A: end', '
Q: What are endosymbionts of the bacteria?
A: The Ti and Ri plasmids']
Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where are teeth found?
A: in the jaws (or mouths)', '
Q: What are teeth used for?
A: to tear, scrape, milk and chew food', '
Q: What are teeth made out of?
A: enamel, dentine and cementum', '
Q: What in human teeth enables proprioception?
A: a blood and nerve supply', '
Q: What happens when you bite something you cant chew?
A: our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.']
The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants?
A: The abomasum', '
Q: What is the abomasums close equivalent?
A: a monogastric stomach', '
Q: What does this site serve primarily as?
A: a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine.', '
Q: What happens to digesta when it moves to the small intestine?
A: the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs', '
Q: What is also digested in the small intestine?
A: Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine']
An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does a earthworms digestive systme consist of?
A: a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine.', '
Q: What does an earthworm eat?
A: dead grass, leaves, and weeds', '
Q: What helps the earthworm grab grass leaves and weeds?
A: The mouth is surrounded by strong lips', '
Q: What is the food coated with for easier passage?
A: mucus', '
Q: What part of the earthworm helps churn and mix the dirt and food?
A: The powerful muscles of the gizzard']
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where does the digestions of some fats start?
A: in the mouth', '
Q: Where are fats mainly digested?
A: the small intestine', '
Q: What happens when there is a presence of fat in the small intestine?
A: produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver', '
Q: What does bile from the liver help do?
A: helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids', '
Q: What is one molecule of fat?
A: a triglyceride']
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is digestion?
A: the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma', '
Q: In some organisms, how are these molecules absorbed?
A: these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream', '
Q: What are the two ways that food is broken down?
A: mechanical and chemical digestion', '
Q: What is mechanical digestion?
A: the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes', '
Q: What is chemical digestion?
A: enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use']
Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase , gastric phase, and intestinal phase. The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin. The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine. The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are three digestions phases?
A: the cephalic phase , gastric phase, and intestinal phase', '
Q: Where does the cephalic phase occur?
A: at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex', '
Q: Where are taste and smell stimuli sent to?
A: the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata', '
Q: How long does the gastric phase take?
A: 3 to 4 hours', '
Q: How is the gastric phase stimulated to start?
A: by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH']
In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP)[specify]. This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 - 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What happens in a chennel transupport system? 
A: several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria', '
Q: What three protien subunites are in the chennel transupport system?
A: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP)[specify]', '
Q: What does this secretion system transport?
A: various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes']
In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram-negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What other method does Gram-negative bacters use to release material?
A: the formation of outer membrane vesicles', '
Q: What happens with the pinch off part of the outer membrane?
A: , forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials', '
Q: What does the release of vesicles seem to demenstrate?
A: response to stress conditions', '
Q: What virulence factors do some bacterial species have?
A: some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells']
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What muscle movements are used for digestion?
A: swallowing and peristalsis', '
Q: What does every stpe of digestion require?
A: energy', '
Q: What does needing energy to digest impose?
A: an "overhead charge"', '
Q: Over head charges influence what?
A: lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures']
Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where does digestion begin?
A: in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes', '
Q: What is food formed into before it is swallowed?
A: a bolus', '
Q: Where does food go after the esophagus?
A: the stomach', '
Q: What is the action of food being moved into the stomach?
A: peristalsis', '
Q: What does gastric juice consist of?
A: hydrochloric acid and pepsin']
Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is lactase?
A: an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts', '
Q: What are lactoses component parts?
A: glucose and galactose', '
Q: Where are glucose and galactose absorbed?
A: small intestine', '
Q: What percent of the population are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods?
A: Approximately 65 percent', '
Q: What is knon as when you are  unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods?
A: lactose intolerance']
After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats),[citation needed] the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K2MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the resulting thick liquid called?
A: chyme', '
Q: What does chyme mix with in the duodenum?
A: digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver', '
Q: Where does hyme go after the duodenum?
A: the small intestine', '
Q: Where is chyme absorbed into?
A: blood', '
Q: Where does 95% of absobtion of nutrients occur?
A: the small intestine']
In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the firs phase in preparation for digestion  in mammals?
A: the cephalic phase', '
Q: What is the cephalic phase?
A: saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach', '
Q: What digestions begin in the mouth?
A: Mechanical and chemical digestion', '
Q: What happens in the stomach after the food is chewed and mixed with starches?
A: The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes', '
Q: Where does absorption occur?
A: in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract']
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where does protein digestion occur?
A: in the stomach and duodenum', '
Q: What are the three main enzymes that break down food?
A: pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin', '
Q: What are digestive enzymes mostly secreted as?
A: inactive precursors, the zymogens', '
Q: What are dipeptidases broken down into?
A: amino acids', '
Q: What organ secretes chymotrypsin?
A: the pancreas']
Hoover began using wiretapping in the 1920s during Prohibition to arrest bootleggers. In the 1927 case Olmstead v. United States, in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping, the United States Supreme Court ruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate the Fourth Amendment as unlawful search and seizure, as long as the FBI did not break into a person's home to complete the tapping. After Prohibition's repeal, Congress passed the Communications Act of 1934, which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but allowed bugging. In the 1939 case Nardone v. United States, the court ruled that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court. After the 1967 case Katz v. United States overturned the 1927 case that had allowed bugging, Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control Act, allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations as long as they obtain a warrant beforehand.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What tool did Hoover use to find bootleggers?
A: wiretapping', '
Q: In what supreme court case was it ruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate the Fourth Amendment?
A: Olmstead v. United States', '
Q: What Act did Congress pass to outlaw non-consensual phone tapping?
A: Communications Act of 1934', '
Q: In what case was it ruled that evidence obtained by the FBI via wiretapping was inadmissible in court?
A: Nardone v. United States', "
Q: What is now necessary to tap someone's telephone?
A: a warrant", '
Q: Which president was the first to use wiretaps to find bootleggers?
A: Hoover', '
Q: What case centered around a bootlegger caught through phone tapping?
A: Olmstead v. United States', '
Q: What did Congress pass to outlaw phone tapping?
A: Communications Act of 1934', '
Q: What is now required to wire tap a citizen?
A: a warrant', '
Q: Is a warrant required before or after a wiretap?
A: beforehand']
In March 1971, the residential office of an FBI agent in Media, Pennsylvania was burglarized by a group calling itself the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI. Numerous files were taken and distributed to a range of newspapers, including The Harvard Crimson. The files detailed the FBI's extensive COINTELPRO program, which included investigations into lives of ordinary citizens—including a black student group at a Pennsylvania military college and the daughter of Congressman Henry Reuss of Wisconsin. The country was "jolted" by the revelations, which included assassinations of political activists, and the actions were denounced by members of Congress, including House Majority Leader Hale Boggs. The phones of some members of Congress, including Boggs, had allegedly been tapped.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Which group broke into an FBI office in Media, Pennsylvania?
A: Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI", "
Q: Did the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI take files?
A: Numerous files were taken", "
Q: What files was the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI's raid mainly focused on?
A: COINTELPRO program", '
Q: What did the files about COINTELPRO reveal?
A: investigations into lives of ordinary citizens', '
Q: How did the US react to these discoveries?
A: The country was "jolted"']
From the end of the 1980s to the early 1990s, the FBI reassigned more than 300 agents from foreign counter-intelligence duties to violent crime, and made violent crime the sixth national priority. With reduced cuts to other well-established departments, and because terrorism was no longer considered a threat after the end of the Cold War, the FBI assisted local and state police forces in tracking fugitives who had crossed state lines, which is a federal offense. The FBI Laboratory helped develop DNA testing, continuing its pioneering role in identification that began with its fingerprinting system in 1924.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Did the FBI reassign agents from counter-intelligence to violent crime?
A: the FBI reassigned more than 300 agents from foreign counter-intelligence duties to violent crime', '
Q: What priority were violent crimes in the 1990s, according to the FBI?
A: sixth national priority', '
Q: Did the new priorities of the FBI mean cutting other departments?
A: With reduced cuts to other well-established departments', '
Q: Was terrorism considered a threat after the cold war?
A: terrorism was no longer considered a threat', '
Q: What agency pioneered DNA testing?
A: The FBI']