romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Early during the Taiping Rebellion, Qing forces suffered a series of disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city of Nanjing in 1853. Shortly thereafter, a Taiping expeditionary force penetrated as far north as the suburbs of Tianjin, the imperial heartlands. In desperation the Qing court ordered a Chinese official, Zeng Guofan, to organize regional and village militias into an emergency army called tuanlian. Zeng Guofan's strategy was to rely on local gentry to raise a new type of military organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly threatened. This new force became known as the Xiang Army, named after the Hunan region where it was raised. The Xiang Army was a hybrid of local militia and a standing army. It was given professional training, but was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders — mostly members of the Chinese gentry — could muster. The Xiang Army and its successor, the Huai Army, created by Zeng Guofan's colleague and mentee Li Hongzhang, were collectively called the "Yong Ying" (Brave Camp).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What caused the Qing armies to lose many battles?
A: Taiping Rebellion', '
Q: What city did the Qing lose in 1853?
A: Nanjing', '
Q: What was Zeng Guofan?
A: Xiang Army', '
Q: Who created a new type of army to thwart the Taiping rebels?
A: Zeng Guofan', '
Q: What was the Xiang Army named after?
A: Hunan region where it was raised']
Zeng Guofan had no prior military experience. Being a classically educated official, he took his blueprint for the Xiang Army from the Ming general Qi Jiguang, who, because of the weakness of regular Ming troops, had decided to form his own "private" army to repel raiding Japanese pirates in the mid-16th century. Qi Jiguang's doctrine was based on Neo-Confucian ideas of binding troops' loyalty to their immediate superiors and also to the regions in which they were raised. Zeng Guofan's original intention for the Xiang Army was simply to eradicate the Taiping rebels. However, the success of the Yongying system led to its becoming a permanent regional force within the Qing military, which in the long run created problems for the beleaguered central government.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who inspired Zeng Guofan in creating his army?
A: Qi Jiguang', "
Q: What did Qi Jiguang's private army do?
A: repel raiding Japanese pirates", '
Q: What was the original plan for the Xiang Army?
A: eradicate the Taiping rebels']
First, the Yongying system signaled the end of Manchu dominance in Qing military establishment. Although the Banners and Green Standard armies lingered on as a drain on resources, henceforth the Yongying corps became the Qing government's de facto first-line troops. Second, the Yongying corps were financed through provincial coffers and were led by regional commanders, weakening central government's grip on the whole country. Finally, the nature of Yongying command structure fostered nepotism and cronyism amongst its commanders, who laid the seeds of regional warlordism in the first half of the 20th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What entity became the main Qing troops?
A: Yongying corps', '
Q: Who paid for the Yongying?
A: provincial coffers', '
Q: Who led the Yongying?
A: regional commanders']
By the late 19th century, the most conservative elements within the Qing court could no longer ignore China's military weakness. In 1860, during the Second Opium War, the capital Beijing was captured and the Summer Palace sacked by a relatively small Anglo-French coalition force numbering 25,000. The advent of modern weaponry resulting from the European Industrial Revolution had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete. The government attempts to modernize during the Self-Strengthening Movement were initially successful, but yielded few lasting results because of the central government's lack of funds, lack of political will, and unwillingness to depart from tradition.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Second Opium War?
A: 1860', '
Q: How big was the French-British army?
A: 25,000', '
Q: What was the Qing governments attempt to create a modern socity called?
A: Self-Strengthening Movement', '
Q: What happened to the Summer Palace?
A: sacked']
Losing the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 was a watershed. Japan, a country long regarded by the Chinese as little more than an upstart nation of pirates, annihilated the Qing government's modernized Beiyang Fleet, then deemed to be the strongest naval force in Asia. The Japanese victory occurred a mere three decades after the Meiji Restoration set a feudal Japan on course to emulate the Western nations in their economic and technological achievements. Finally, in December 1894, the Qing government took concrete steps to reform military institutions and to re-train selected units in westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were collectively called the New Army. The most successful of these was the Beiyang Army under the overall supervision and control of a former Huai Army commander, General Yuan Shikai, who used his position to build networks of loyal officers and eventually become President of the Republic of China.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who beat the Chinese in the First Sino-Japanese War?
A: Japan', '
Q: Which fleet did the Japanese destroy?
A: Beiyang Fleet', '
Q: When did the Qing decide to modernize their military?
A: 1894', '
Q: What was the new modern army called?
A: the New Army', '
Q: Who became the President of the Republic of China?
A: General Yuan Shikai']
The most significant fact of early and mid-Qing social history was population growth. The population doubled during the 18th century. People in this period were also remarkably on the move. There is evidence suggesting that the empire's rapidly expanding population was geographically mobile on a scale, which, in term of its volume and its protracted and routinized nature, was unprecedented in Chinese history. Indeed, the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it. Migration took several different forms, though might be divided in two varieties: permanent migration for resettlement, and relocation conceived by the party (in theory at least) as a temporary sojourn. Parties to the latter would include the empire's increasingly large and mobile manual workforce, as well as its densely overlapping internal diaspora of local-origin-based merchant groups. It would also included the patterned movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to Southeastern Asia, in search of trade and other economic opportunities.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What happened in early and middle Qing history?
A: population growth', '
Q: How much did the population grow during the 18th century?
A: doubled', '
Q: What were the 2 types of migration during the 18th century?
A: permanent migration for resettlement, and relocation conceived by the party (in theory at least) as a temporary sojourn']
According to statute, Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates, of which in most general terms there were five. Apart from the estates of the officials, the comparatively minuscule aristocracy, and the degree-holding literati, there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status. They were divided into two categories: one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people. The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as liangmin, a legal term meaning good people, as opposed to jianmin meaning the mean (or ignoble) people. Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional four occupational groups of scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants were "good", or having a status of commoners. On the other hand, slaves or bondservants, entertainers (including prostitutes and actors), and those low-level employees of government officials were the "mean people". Mean people were considered legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments, forbidden to take the imperial examination.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many estates were there in Qing society?
A: five', '
Q: What 2 groups were normal Chinese broken into?
A: the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people', '
Q: What was the legal term for commoner?
A: liangmin']
By the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the devastation caused by the wars in which the Ming dynasty were overthrown, and the resulting breakdown of order. In the following century, markets continued to expand as in the late Ming period, but with more trade between regions, a greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population. After the re-opening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, foreign trade was quickly re-established, and was expanding at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century. China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures, creating a large, favorable trade balance with the West. The resulting inflow of silver expanded the money supply, facilitating the growth of competitive and stable markets.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did China export?
A: tea, silk and manufactures', '
Q: What did the Chinese get paid for their goods?
A: silver', '
Q: When did the Chinese economy finally recover after the wars with the Mings?
A: end of the 17th century']
The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax. To give people more incentives to participate in the market, they reduced the tax burden in comparison with the late Ming, and replaced the corvée system with a head tax used to hire laborers. The administration of the Grand Canal was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants. A system of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise slowly and smoothly through the 18th century. Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing rulers limited their trading licenses and usually refused them permission to open new mines, except in poor areas. These restrictions on domestic resource exploration, as well as on foreign trade, are held by some scholars as a cause of the Great Divergence, by which the Western world overtook China economically.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the Qing do to reform land ownership?
A: reduced the tax burden', '
Q: What happened to the price of rice during the 18th century?
A: rise slowly and smoothly', '
Q: What was the Great Divergence?
A: Western world overtook China economically']
By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 150 million during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was due to several reasons, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice from Southeast Asia led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized literature, theater and the arts. Textile and handicraft production boomed.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was China's population at the end of the 18th century?
A: 300 million", '
Q: What were the reasons for the population explosion during the 18th century?
A: peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops', '
Q: What crops were imported?
A: peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice']
The Qing emperors were generally adept at poetry and often skilled in painting, and offered their patronage to Confucian culture. The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the Peiwen Yunfu, a rhyme dictionary published in 1711, and the Kangxi Dictionary published in 1716, which remains to this day an authoritative reference. The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the Siku Quanshu, completed in 1782. Court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece, Zhang Zeduan's Along the River During the Qingming Festival whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The emperors undertook tours of the south and commissioned monumental scrolls to depict the grandeur of the occasion. Imperial patronage also encouraged the industrial production of ceramics and Chinese export porcelain.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What arts were the Qing emperors good at?
A: poetry and often skilled in painting', '
Q: What was the rhyme dictionary called that was published by Kangxi?
A: Peiwen Yunfu', '
Q: When was the Kangxi Dictionary published?
A: 1716', '
Q: When was the Siku Quanshu finished?
A: 1782']
Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite. Calligraphy and painting remained a central interest to both court painters and scholar-gentry who considered the Four Arts part of their cultural identity and social standing. The painting of the early years of the dynasty included such painters as the orthodox Four Wangs and the individualists Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707). The nineteenth century saw such innovations as the Shanghai School and the Lingnan School which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Name three painters?
A: Four Wangs and the individualists Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707)', '
Q: What two schools of art were created in the 19th century?
A: Shanghai School and the Lingnan School', '
Q: Name two arts of the Four Arts?
A: Calligraphy and painting']
Literature grew to new heights in the Qing period. Poetry continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger and larger numbers and poets came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the poetry of the Ming dynasty) for its association with Chinese opera, developmental trends of Classical Chinese poetry, the transition to a greater role for vernacular language, and for poetry by women in Chinese culture. The Qing dynasty was a period of much literary collection and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the Quantangshi and the Three Hundred Tang Poems. Pu Songling brought the short story form to a new level in his Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, published in the mid-18th century, and Shen Fu demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as Wu Jingzi's The Scholars (1750) and Li Ruzhen's Flowers in the Mirror (1827).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the sign of a gentleman?
A: Poetry', '
Q: Who started writing poety during the Qing dynasty?
A: women', "
Q: What was the name of Pu Songling's collection of short stories?
A: Strange Stories", '
Q: Who wrote the novel Dream of the Red Chamber?
A: Cao Xueqin', "
Q: What was the name of Shen Fu's memoir?
A: Six Chapters of a Floating Life"]
Cuisine aroused a cultural pride in the accumulated richness of a long and varied past. The gentleman gourmet, such as Yuan Mei, applied aesthetic standards to the art of cooking, eating, and appreciation of tea at a time when New World crops and products entered everyday life. The Suiyuan Shidan written by him, detailed the culinary esthetics and theory, along with a wide range of recipes from the ruling period of Qianlong during Qing Dynasty. The Manchu Han Imperial Feast originated at the court. Although this banquet was probably never common, it reflected an appreciation by Han Chinese for Manchu culinary customs. Nevertheless, culinary traditionalists such as Yuan Mei lambasted the opulent culinary rituals of the Manchu Han Imperial Feast, saying that it is cause in part by "...the vulgar habits of bad chefs" and that "Display this trite are useful only for welcoming new relations through one’s gates or when the boss comes to visit." (皆惡廚陋習。只可用之於新親上門，上司入境)

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote the Suiyuan Shidan?
A: Yuan Mei', '
Q: What was the Suiyaun Shidan about?
A: recipes', '
Q: What was the Manchu Han Imperial Feast?
A: appreciation by Han Chinese for Manchu culinary customs']
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the descendants of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas. Pueblos indígenas (indigenous peoples) is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries. Aborigen (aboriginal/native) is used in Argentina, whereas "Amerindian" is used in Quebec, The Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean. Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who are the indigenous people of the Americas descended from?
A: pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas', '
Q: What is a common term in Spanish speaking countries for the indigenous peoples?
A: Pueblos indígenas', '
Q: In Quebec, The Guianas and places in the Caribbean where English is spoken, what is the preferred term for the indigenous people of the Americas?
A: Amerindian', '
Q: What term is used in Argentina to refer to the original peoples of a continent?
A: Aborigen', '
Q: How are the indigenous people most commonly referred to by citizens of the U.S.?
A: Native Americans']
According to the prevailing theories of the settlement of the Americas, migrations of humans from Asia (in particular North Asia) to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The majority of experts agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration via Beringia took place at least 13,500 years ago, with disputed evidence that people had migrated into the Americas much earlier, up to 40,000 years ago. These early Paleo-Indians spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of creation myths.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where do most theories today attribute the settlement of the Americas as originating from?
A: Asia', '
Q: What was Beringia?
A: a land bridge which connected the two continents', '
Q: How did humans cross over to the Americas from Asia?
A: Beringia', '
Q: Most experts can at least agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration took place when?
A: 13,500 years ago', '
Q: How do the indigenous peoples explain how they came to live in the Americas?
A: a wide range of creation myths']
Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. The Americas came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the names "Indies" and "Indian", which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the aboriginal peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by indigenous peoples but has been embraced by many over the last two centuries.[citation needed] Even though the term "Indian" does not include the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, these groups are considered indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What incorrect term for the indigenous population originated with Christopher Columbus? 
A: Indian', '
Q: Where did Columbus believe he had arrived?
A: East Indies', "
Q: Because of Columbus' mistake, the Americas came to be known as what?
A: West Indies", '
Q: What is implied by the global term of "Indian"?
A: some kind of racial or cultural unity', '
Q: Despite fitting under the umbrella label of "Indian", Aleuts, Inuit and Yupik peoples are still considered to be what to the Americas?
A: indigenous']
Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in Amazonia, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What were many of the indigenous people of the Americas traditionally?
A: hunter-gatherers', '
Q: What remains as a testament to the time and work the indigenous people spent cultivating the flora of the Americas?
A: agricultural endowment', '
Q: What did many of the societies practice a mix of?
A: farming, hunting, and gathering', '
Q: Large cities, chiefdoms, monuments and empires were just some of the things created by which peoples?
A: indigenous', '
Q: What did many segments of the indigenous population also practice?
A: aquaculture and agriculture']
Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples; some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, but also cater to modern needs. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Belize, Chile and Greenland are just some countries with sizable populations of what peoples?
A: indigenous', '
Q: Where are there still populations of indigenous peoples?
A: Many parts of the Americas', '
Q: How many different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas?
A: At least a thousand', '
Q: What do many indigenous cultures still practice to different extends to this day?
A: religion, social organization, and subsistence practices', '
Q: What have some indigenous peoples managed to remain in relative isolation from?
A: Western culture']