romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450–1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What percentage of scientists from 1450–1650 in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were taught in a university?
A: more than 80%', '
Q: On the part of universities what was their reaction to giving up the Aristotelian system?
A: considerable reluctance', '
Q: What university was Melancthon from?
A: University of Wittenberg', '
Q: The acceptance of new concepts and sciences by universities brought these ideas what?
A: legitimacy and respectability', '
Q: What type of epistemology was adopted for a short period of time in European universities?
A: Cartesian']
Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of epistemology served as the foundation of knowledge constructions and  training scholars in universities?
A: Aristotelian', '
Q: The scientific revolution contributed to what, in terms of science?
A: autonomy', '
Q: There was disagreement between universities and scientists over schools focusing on science, and the idea of what?
A: a general scholar', '
Q: A hierarchy of scientific disciplines came out of what?
A: the scientific revolution', '
Q: Where did students after the scientific revolution put science on the scale of importance?
A: first']
Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the scientific revolution. Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The study of humanism among those studying math, astronomy and medicine is said to have caused what?
A: the scientific revolution', '
Q: Resisting what caused many scientists to court private benefactors?
A: changes in science', '
Q: Where might a scientist find a friendly private benefactor?
A: princely courts', '
Q: Which historian argues that traditionalism in a university system hindered attempts to form new views on knowledge and nature?
A: Richard S. Westfall']
The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to separation of church and state in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials might also serve as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became pontifex maximus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The members of what class were priests in ancient Rome?
A: elite', '
Q: Which God exemplified just rule for the Romans?
A: Jupiter', '
Q: What was the time span of the Roman Republic?
A: 509–27 BC', '
Q: What kind of political separation did not exist in Rome? 
A: church and state', '
Q: As a result of what war were many new temples built by victorious generals?
A: Punic Wars']
Roman religion was thus practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What characteristics were not inherent in Roman religious practice?
A: faith or dogma', '
Q: What was brought forth by religion in Rome?
A: social order', '
Q: What religious feature did each Roman home have?
A: household shrine', '
Q: What type of celebrations made up the Roman calendar?
A: religious observances', "
Q: What religious group was in charge of Rome's sacred flame?
A: Vestals"]
The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists. The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How deities did the Romans have?
A: great number', '
Q: What group was an influence to Roman culture?
A: Greeks', "
Q: What sort  of practices did the Greeks offer to Rome's culture?
A: religious", '
Q: What myths did the Romans adapt to their needs?
A: Greek', '
Q: What religion influenced augury for the Romans?
A: Etruscan']
Imported mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiratorial (coniuratio), or subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity, as with the senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the practice of religion to the Romans?
A: personal choice', '
Q: What was the standard practice in Roman religious life?
A: public religion', '
Q: What part of Roman religious practice involved secrecy?
A: mysteries', '
Q: What group viewed the mysteries as suspicious or subversive?
A: conservative Romans', '
Q: What did the mysteries seem to threaten that made the Romans occasionally attempt to ban them?
A: morality and unity']
As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability. One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona, and gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems. The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. For example, religious disputes helped cause the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: To the Romans what did them think promoted social stability?
A: preserving tradition', '
Q: What did the Romans tend to do with local religions and deities in conquered areas? 
A: absorb', '
Q: What facet of religion was not an issue for Roman?
A: tolerance', '
Q: To what areas of the Roman empire did the Romans take their deities?
A: remote provinces', '
Q: What facet of a foreign people did Rome add to itself to promote order?
A: religious heritage']
In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways in which Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Rejection of the state religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: After the Republic collapsed,  what addition was made to the religions of Rome?
A: emperors', '
Q: Who was the first Roman emperor?
A: Augustus', '
Q: For whose well being were public vows made in the empire?
A: emperor', '
Q: What did the Romans use as a means of expanding their rule throughout the empire?
A: Imperial cult', '
Q: As what during the time of the Roman empire  was rejection of the state religion viewed?
A: treason']
Rome had a semi-divine ancestor in the Trojan refugee Aeneas, son of Venus, who was said to have established the nucleus of Roman religion when he brought the Palladium, Lares and Penates from Troy to Italy. These objects were believed in historical times to remain in the keeping of the Vestals, Rome's female priesthood. Aeneas had been given refuge by King Evander, a Greek exile from Arcadia, to whom were attributed other religious foundations: he established the Ara Maxima, "Greatest Altar," to Hercules at the site that would become the Forum Boarium, and he was the first to celebrate the Lupercalia, an archaic festival in February that was celebrated as late as the 5th century of the Christian era.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What mythical figure did the Romans consider to be semi-divine?
A: Aeneas', '
Q: Of what did Aeneas establish the central feature?
A: Roman religion', "
Q: Who were the keepers of Aeneas's sacred objects?
A: Vestals", '
Q: What ancient festival was celebrated until the 5th century?
A: Lupercalia', '
Q: To whom did Aeneas set up an alter in Rome?
A: Hercules']
The myth of a Trojan founding with Greek influence was reconciled through an elaborate genealogy (the Latin kings of Alba Longa) with the well-known legend of Rome's founding by Romulus and Remus. The most common version of the twins' story displays several aspects of hero myth. Their mother, Rhea Silvia, had been ordered by her uncle the king to remain a virgin, in order to preserve the throne he had usurped from her father. Through divine intervention, the rightful line was restored when Rhea Silvia was impregnated by the god Mars. She gave birth to twins, who were duly exposed by order of the king but saved through a series of miraculous events.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What mythical characters were involved in the founding of Rome?
A: Romulus and Remus', '
Q: What type of story was the Romulus and Remus tale?
A: hero myth', '
Q: Who was the mother of Romulus and Remus?
A: Rhea Silvia', '
Q: What god was the father of Romulus and Remus?
A: Mars', '
Q: What type of events saved the twins of Roman myth?
A: miraculous']
Romulus was credited with several religious institutions. He founded the Consualia festival, inviting the neighbouring Sabines to participate; the ensuing rape of the Sabine women by Romulus's men further embedded both violence and cultural assimilation in Rome's myth of origins. As a successful general, Romulus is also supposed to have founded Rome's first temple to Jupiter Feretrius and offered the spolia opima, the prime spoils taken in war, in the celebration of the first Roman triumph. Spared a mortal's death, Romulus was mysteriously spirited away and deified.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of organization did Romulus establish?
A: religious', "
Q: According to myth, what god's temple did Romulus found?
A: Jupiter", '
Q: What did Romulus offer to Jupiter in the first Roman Triumph?
A: spoils taken in war', '
Q: What religious festival did Romulus found?
A: Consualia', '
Q: Instead of death, what happened to Romulus?
A: deified']
Each of Rome's legendary or semi-legendary kings was associated with one or more religious institutions still known to the later Republic. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius instituted the fetial priests. The first "outsider" Etruscan king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, founded a Capitoline temple to the triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva which served as the model for the highest official cult throughout the Roman world. The benevolent, divinely fathered Servius Tullius established the Latin League, its Aventine Temple to Diana, and the Compitalia to mark his social reforms. Servius Tullius was murdered and succeeded by the arrogant Tarquinius Superbus, whose expulsion marked the beginning of Rome as a republic with annually elected magistrates.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: To what were the first kings of Rome associated?
A: religious institutions', '
Q: To what group of deities did Lucius Tarquinius Priscus  establish a temple?
A: Jupiter, Juno and Minerva', '
Q: The removal of whom marked the beginning of the Roman Republic?
A: Tarquinius Superbus', '
Q: Where was the temple to the triad gods established?
A: Capitoline', '
Q: What organization did Servius Tullius found?
A: Latin League,']
Rome offers no native creation myth, and little mythography to explain the character of its deities, their mutual relationships or their interactions with the human world, but Roman theology acknowledged that di immortales (immortal gods) ruled all realms of the heavens and earth. There were gods of the upper heavens, gods of the underworld and a myriad of lesser deities between. Some evidently favoured Rome because Rome honoured them, but none were intrinsically, irredeemably foreign or alien. The political, cultural and religious coherence of an emergent Roman super-state required a broad, inclusive and flexible network of lawful cults. At different times and in different places, the sphere of influence, character and functions of a divine being could expand, overlap with those of others, and be redefined as Roman. Change was embedded within existing traditions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of myth did Rome not have?
A: creation', '
Q: To the Romans who ruled all aspects of heaven and earth?
A: immortal gods', '
Q: What did the Romans do for those deities that favored Rome? 
A: Rome honoured them', '
Q: What did Rome make the myriad various cults?
A: lawful', '
Q: What was basic facet of Roman religious experience?
A: Change']
Several versions of a semi-official, structured pantheon were developed during the political, social and religious instability of the Late Republican era. Jupiter, the most powerful of all gods and "the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested", consistently personified the divine authority of Rome's highest offices, internal organization and external relations. During the archaic and early Republican eras, he shared his temple, some aspects of cult and several divine characteristics with Mars and Quirinus, who were later replaced by Juno and Minerva. A conceptual tendency toward triads may be indicated by the later agricultural or plebeian triad of Ceres, Liber and Libera, and by some of the complementary threefold deity-groupings of Imperial cult. Other major and minor deities could be single, coupled, or linked retrospectively through myths of divine marriage and sexual adventure. These later Roman pantheistic hierarchies are part literary and mythographic, part philosophical creations, and often Greek in origin. The Hellenization of Latin literature and culture supplied literary and artistic models for reinterpreting Roman deities in light of the Greek Olympians, and promoted a sense that the two cultures had a shared heritage.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: To the Romans who was the most powerful of the gods?
A: Jupiter', "
Q: What did Jupiter personify in regards to Rome's highest offices?
A: divine authority", '
Q: What gods did Juno and Minerva replace in Roman religious practice?
A: Mars and Quirinus', '
Q: From where does the practice of linking various gods into grouping come?
A: Greek in origin', '
Q: Of what did the linking of Greek and Roman deities promote a feeling? 
A: heritage']
The impressive, costly, and centralised rites to the deities of the Roman state were vastly outnumbered in everyday life by commonplace religious observances pertaining to an individual's domestic and personal deities, the patron divinities of Rome's various neighborhoods and communities, and the often idiosyncratic blends of official, unofficial, local and personal cults that characterised lawful Roman religion. In this spirit, a provincial Roman citizen who made the long journey from Bordeaux to Italy to consult the Sibyl at Tibur did not neglect his devotion to his own goddess from home:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of religious practices outnumbered the state observances?
A: commonplace', '
Q: To what did the mixture of official and individual religious practices  pertain? 
A: lawful Roman', '
Q: What were the characteristics of state religious observances?
A: impressive, costly, and centralised', '
Q: Who made the choices of personal religious practices in Rome? 
A: individual', '
Q: What type of deities did Roman communities have?
A: patron']
Roman calendars show roughly forty annual religious festivals. Some lasted several days, others a single day or less: sacred days (dies fasti) outnumbered "non-sacred" days (dies nefasti). A comparison of surviving Roman religious calendars suggests that official festivals were organized according to broad seasonal groups that allowed for different local traditions. Some of the most ancient and popular festivals incorporated ludi ("games," such as chariot races and theatrical performances), with examples including those held at Palestrina in honour of Fortuna Primigenia during Compitalia, and the Ludi Romani in honour of Liber. Other festivals may have required only the presence and rites of their priests and acolytes, or particular groups, such as women at the Bona Dea rites.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many religious celebrations did Rome have?
A: forty', '
Q:  What type of day were there more of in Rome?
A: sacred days', '
Q: With what were Roman festivals organized in accordance?
A: seasonal', '
Q: What traditions did the seasonal festivals incorporate?
A: local', '
Q: Instead of the public, what did some religious rites only require?
A: particular groups']