romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni-1 cave complex. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was the oldest brain that was found?
A: Armenia', '
Q: How old was the oldest brain discovered thought to be?
A: over 5,000 years old', '
Q: The oldest known brain discovered was found in how old of a person?
A: 12 to 14-year-old', '
Q: The oldest brain found in a cave was from what gender of human?
A: girl']
Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The seal of the soul was debated to lie in what two organs of the body?
A: brain or heart.', '
Q: Aristotle thought the soul lied in what organ?
A: the heart', '
Q: Who invented the atomic theory of matter?
A: Democritus,', '
Q: The "father of medicine" is a name given to whom in history?
A: Hippocrates', '
Q: What philosopher in history argued for a three-part soul?
A: Democritus']
The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits". Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The physician Galen was from which country in history?
A: Roman', '
Q: What period in history was anatomical  studies of nerves greatly increased?
A: the Renaissance', '
Q: Who coined the term pneumata psychikon?
A: The Roman physician Galen', '
Q: Penumata psychikon is usually translated as what?
A: animal spirits']
The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of Camillo Golgi, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who found out that a shock of electricity to an exposed nerve of a dead frog caused contractions?
A: Luigi Galvani', '
Q: The tool that was invented to stain only a small fractions of neurons was called what?
A: the Golgi stain', '
Q: What nationality was santiago Ramon y Cajal?
A: Spanish']
In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Work in the first half the 20th century in electrical properties of nerve cells were by what two main scientists?
A: Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley']
In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "Decade of the Brain" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which decade in history was officially called the "Decade of the Brain"?
A: the 1990s']
In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including multielectrode recording, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time; genetic engineering, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally; genomics, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Multielectrode recording allows what?
A: the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;', '
Q: Genetic engineering allows what?
A: molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;', '
Q: What does genomics allow the study of?
A: variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.', '
Q: During what century was multielectrode recording invented?
A: the 21st century,', '
Q: Genetic engineering was first discovered in what century?
A: the 21st century,']
Near East (French: Proche-Orient) is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia. Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire. The term has fallen into disuse in English, and has been replaced by the term Middle East.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia?
A: Near East (French: Proche-Orient)', '
Q: The term near east was originally applies to the maximum extent of what empire?
A: Ottoman Empire', '
Q: The term Near East has fallen into disuses in what language?
A: English', '
Q: What has replaced the term Near East?
A: Middle East']
The Encyclopædia Britannica defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines the region similarly, but also includes Afghanistan while excluding the countries of North Africa and the Palestinian territories. According to the National Geographic Society, the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories and are 'generally accepted as comprising the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey'.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt. Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Isreal, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen?
A: The Encyclopædia Britannica', '
Q: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also includes what Country in the definition of Near East?
A: Afghanistan', '
Q: What group believes the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories?
A: the National Geographic Society']
At the beginning of the 19th century the Ottoman Empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain, but by 1914 had lost all of it except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace to the rise of Balkan nationalism, which saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria. Up until 1912 the Ottomans retained a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace, which were lost in the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain at the beginning of the 19th century?
A: the Ottoman Empire', "
Q: When did the Ottoman Empire lose all of it's empire except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace?
A: 1914", '
Q: The rise of what saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria?
A: the rise of Balkan nationalism', '
Q: Until what year did the Ottomans retain a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?
A: 1912', '
Q: When did the Ottomans lose the territory of Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?
A: the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13']
The Ottoman Empire, believed to be about to collapse, was portrayed in the press as the sick man of Europe". The Balkan states, with the partial exception of Bosnia and Albania, were primarily Christian. Starting in 1894 the Ottomans struck at the Armenians on the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people and as such were a potential threat to the Muslim empire within which they resided. The Hamidian Massacres aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world. In the United States the now aging Julia Ward Howe, author of the Battle Hymn of the Republic, leaped into the war of words and joined the Red Cross. Relations of minorities within the Ottoman Empire and the disposition of former Ottoman lands became known as the "Eastern Question," as the Ottomans were on the east of Europe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How was the Ottoman Empire portrayed in the press?
A: as the sick man of Europe', '
Q: The Balkan states were primarily what religion? 
A: Christian', '
Q: When did the Ottomans strike at the Armenians?
A: 1894', '
Q: What are the grounds on which the Ottomans struck at the Armenians?
A: the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people', '
Q: What aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world?
A: The Hamidian Massacres']
It now became relevant to define the east of the eastern question. In about the middle of the 19th century "Near East" came into use to describe that part of the east closest to Europe. The term "Far East" appeared contemporaneously meaning Japan, China, Korea, Indonesia and Viet Nam; in short, the East Indies. "Near East" applied to what had been mainly known as the Levant, which was in the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Porte, or government. Those who used the term had little choice about its meaning. They could not set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean from the Gulf of Sidra to Albania without permits from the Ottoman Empire.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did "Near East" come into use to describe the part of the east closest to Europe?
A: middle of the 19th century', '
Q: In short, the term Far East appeared to name this area
A: the East Indies', '
Q: "Near East" applied to this mainly known area
A: the Levant', '
Q: What was the jurisdiction of the Levant in? 
A: the Ottoman Porte', '
Q: What was needed to set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean? 
A: permits from the Ottoman Empire']
Some regions beyond the Ottoman Porte were included. One was North Africa west of Egypt. It was occupied by piratical kingdoms of the Barbary Coast, de facto independent since the 18th century. Formerly part of the empire at its apogee. Iran was included because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia. In the 1890s the term tended to focus on the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia. The demise of the sick man of Europe left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East". It is now generally used only in historical contexts, to describe the countries of Western Asia from the Mediterranean to (or including) Iran. There is, in short, no universally understood fixed inventory of nations, languages or historical assets defined to be in it.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was one region included that was occupied by piratical kingdoms?
A: North Africa west of Egypt', '
Q: Where were the piratical kingdoms from? 
A: Barbary Coast', '
Q: Why was Iran included in the collection of regions? 
A: because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia', '
Q: What did the term Near East focus on in the 1890s?
A: the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia', '
Q: The demise of what left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East" 
A: of the sick man of Europe']
The geographical terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies of the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and Germans, fit together as a pair based on the opposites of far and near, suggesting that they were innovated together. They appear together in the journals of the mid-19th century. Both terms were used before then with local British and American meanings: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies fit together as a pair based on what? 
A: the opposites of far and near', '
Q: When do the terms "Near East" and "Far East" appear together in journals? 
A: the mid-19th century', '
Q: The term Near East and Far East were used in British and American meanings when referring to what? 
A: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.']
There was a linguistic predisposition to use such terms. The Romans had used them in near Gaul / far Gaul, near Spain / far Spain and others. Before them the Greeks had the habit, which appears in Linear B, the oldest known script of Europe, referring to the near province and the far province of the kingdom of Pylos. Usually these terms were given with reference to a geographic feature, such as a mountain range or a river.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who used the terms near Gaul?
A: The Romans', '
Q: The appearance of what culture using the terms appears in Linear B?
A: the Greeks', '
Q: Usually the terms were given when referencing what?  
A: a geographic feature']
Ptolemy's Geography divided Asia on a similar basis. In the north is "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" and "Scythia beyond the Himalayas." To the south is "India on this side of the Ganges" and "India beyond the Ganges." Asia began on the coast of Anatolia ("land of the rising sun"). Beyond the Ganges and Himalayas (including the Tien Shan) were Serica and Serae (sections of China) and some other identifiable far eastern locations known to the voyagers and geographers but not to the general European public.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What divided Asia on a similar basis? 
A: Ptolemy's Geography", '
Q: "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" is located where? 
A: In the north', '
Q: "India on this side of the Ganges" is located where? 
A: To the south', '
Q: "Scythia beyond the Himalayas" is located where? 
A: In the north', '
Q: Where did Asia begin? 
A: on the coast of Anatolia']
By the time of John Seller's Atlas Maritima of 1670, "India Beyond the Ganges" had become "the East Indies" including China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific in a map that was every bit as distorted as Ptolemy's, despite the lapse of approximately 1500 years. That "east" in turn was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun," used since Roman times for "east." The world map of Jodocus Hondius of 1590 labels all of Asia from the Caspian to the Pacific as India Orientalis, shortly to appear in translation as the East Indies.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When was John Seller's Atlas Maritima?
A: 1670", '
Q: What had "India Beyond the Ganges" become? 
A: the East Indies', '
Q: China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific were included in what? 
A: "the East Indies"', '
Q: What was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun"?
A: "east"', '
Q: What year did Jodocus Hondius make his world map? 
A: 1590']
Elizabeth I of England, primarily interested in trade with the east, collaborated with English merchants to form the first trading companies to the far-flung regions, using their own jargon. Their goals were to obtain trading concessions by treaty. The queen chartered the Company of Merchants of the Levant, shortened to Levant Company, and soon known also as The Turkey Company, in 1581. In 1582, the ship The Great Susan transported the first ambassador, William Harebone, to the Ottoman Porte (government of the Ottoman Empire) at Constantinople. Compared to Anatolia, Levant also means "land of the rising sun," but where Anatolia always only meant the projection of land currently occupied by the Republic of Turkey, Levant meant anywhere in the domain ruled by the Ottoman Porte. The East India Company (short for a much longer formal name) was chartered in 1600 for trade to the East Indies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was Elizabeth I from?
A: England', '
Q: What was Elizabeth primarily interested in? 
A: trade with the east', '
Q: Who did Elizabeth I collaborate with?
A: English merchants', '
Q: What was the goal of the first trading companies?
A: obtain trading concessions by treaty', '
Q: What company was charted in 1600 for trade to the East Indies?
A: The East India Company']
It has pleased western historians to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire as though a stable and uncontested polity of that name once existed. The borders did expand and contract but they were always dynamic and always in "question" right from the beginning. The Ottoman Empire was created from the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire on the occasion of the latter's violent demise. The last Roman emperor died fighting hand-to-hand in the streets of his capital, Constantinople, overwhelmed by the Ottoman military, in May, 1453. The victors inherited his remaining territory in the Balkans.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has pleased western historians?
A: to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire', '
Q: What was always in question from the beginning of the Ottoman Empire? 
A: The borders', '
Q: What was the Ottoman Empire created from?
A: the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire', '
Q: How did the last Roman emperor die?
A: fighting hand-to-hand in the streets', "
Q: Where was the Roman emperor's capital?
A: Constantinople"]
The populations of those lands did not accept Turkish rule. The Turks to them were foreigners with completely different customs, way of life, and language. Intervals when there was no unrest were rare. The Hungarians had thrown off Turkish rule by 1688. Serbia was created by the Serbian Revolution, 1815–1833. The Greek War of Independence, 1821–1832, created modern Greece, which recovered most of the lands of ancient Greece, but could not gain Constantinople. The Ottoman Porte was continuously under attack from some quarter in its empire, primarily the Balkans. Also, on a number of occasions in the early 19th century, American and British warships had to attack the Barbary pirates to stop their piracy and recover thousands of enslaved Europeans and Americans.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The populations did not accept what?
A: Turkish rule', '
Q: The Hungarians had thrown off Turkish rule by what year? 
A: 1688', '
Q: What created Serbia?
A: the Serbian Revolution', '
Q: When was the Serbian Revolution?
A: 1815–1833', '
Q: When was the Greek War of Independence?
A: 1821–1832']
In 1853 the Russian Empire on behalf of the Slavic Balkan states began to question the very existence of the Ottoman Empire. The result was the Crimean War, 1853–1856, in which the British Empire and the French Empire supported the Ottoman Empire in its struggle against the incursions of the Russian Empire. Eventually, the Ottoman Empire lost control of the Balkan region.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Russian Empire begin to question the existence of the Ottoman Empire?
A: 1853', '
Q: When was the Crimean War?
A: 1853–1856', '
Q: During the Crimean War who did the British and French support?
A: the Ottoman Empire', "
Q: What was the Ottoman Empire's struggle against in the Crimean War?
A: the incursions of the Russian Empire", '
Q: The Ottoman Empire eventually lost control of what region?
A: the Balkan region']
Until about 1855 the words near east and far east did not refer to any particular region. The far East, a phrase containing a noun, East, qualified by an adjective, far, could be at any location in the "far east" of the speaker's home territory. The Ottoman Empire, for example, was the far East as much as the East Indies. The Crimean War brought a change in vocabulary with the introduction of terms more familiar to the late 19th century. The Russian Empire had entered a more aggressive phase, becoming militarily active against the Ottoman Empire and also against China, with territorial aggrandizement explicitly in mind. Rethinking its policy the British government decided that the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power. It therefore undertook to oppose the Russians in both places, one result being the Crimean War. During that war the administration of the British Empire began promulgating a new vocabulary, giving specific regional meaning to "the Near East," the Ottoman Empire, and "the Far East," the East Indies. The two terms were now compound nouns often shown hyphenated.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Until what year did the words near east and far east not refer to any particular region? 
A: 1855', '
Q: What brought a change in vocabulary?
A: The Crimean War', '
Q: The Russian Empire became more militarily active against who?
A: the Ottoman Empire', '
Q: Who decided the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power? 
A: the British government', '
Q: What empire began promulgating a new vocabulary?
A: the British Empire']
In 1855 a reprint of a letter earlier sent to The Times appeared in Littel's Living Age. Its author, an "official Chinese interpreter of 10 years' active service" and a member of the Oriental Club, Thomas Taylor Meadows, was replying to the suggestion by another interpreter that the British Empire was wasting its resources on a false threat from Russia against China. Toward the end of the letter he said:

Questions and answers:
["
Q: When was a reprint of a letter sent to The Times appear in Littel's Living Age?
A: 1855", '
Q: Who was the author of the letter sent to the Times?
A: Thomas Taylor Meadows', '
Q: What was Thomas Taylor Meadows replying to?
A: the suggestion by another interpreter']