romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The concept of emissivity is important in understanding the infrared emissions of objects. This is a property of a surface that describes how its thermal emissions deviate from the ideal of a black body. To further explain, two objects at the same physical temperature will not show the same infrared image if they have differing emissivity. For example, for any pre-set emissivity value, objects with higher emissivity will appear hotter, and those with a lower emissivity will appear cooler. For that reason, incorrect selection of emissivity will give inaccurate results when using infrared cameras and pyrometers.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is the term for the property that describes how a surface's thermal emissions deviate from the ideal of a black body?
A: emissivity", '
Q: How will the infrared image of an object with a higher emissivity appear in relation to one with lower emissivity?
A: hotter', '
Q: Along with pyrometers, what devices can receive inaccurate results if emissivity is not set correctly?
A: infrared cameras']
Infrared vibrational spectroscopy (see also near-infrared spectroscopy) is a technique that can be used to identify molecules by analysis of their constituent bonds. Each chemical bond in a molecule vibrates at a frequency characteristic of that bond. A group of atoms in a molecule (e.g., CH2) may have multiple modes of oscillation caused by the stretching and bending motions of the group as a whole. If an oscillation leads to a change in dipole in the molecule then it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency. The vibrational frequencies of most molecules correspond to the frequencies of infrared light. Typically, the technique is used to study organic compounds using light radiation from 4000–400 cm−1, the mid-infrared. A spectrum of all the frequencies of absorption in a sample is recorded. This can be used to gain information about the sample composition in terms of chemical groups present and also its purity (for example, a wet sample will show a broad O-H absorption around 3200 cm−1).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the technique that analyzes the constituent bonds of molecules to identify them?
A: Infrared vibrational spectroscopy', '
Q: What happens to a molecule if an oscillation results in a dipole being changed?
A: it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency', '
Q: What do the vibrational frequencies of molecules usually correspond to?
A: the frequencies of infrared light', '
Q: What is the term for light radiation in the 4000–400 cm−1 spectrum?
A: the mid-infrared']
In infrared photography, infrared filters are used to capture the near-infrared spectrum. Digital cameras often use infrared blockers. Cheaper digital cameras and camera phones have less effective filters and can "see" intense near-infrared, appearing as a bright purple-white color. This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near IR-bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image. There is also a technique called 'T-ray' imaging, which is imaging using far-infrared or terahertz radiation. Lack of bright sources can make terahertz photography more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques. Recently T-ray imaging has been of considerable interest due to a number of new developments such as terahertz time-domain spectroscopy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is used in infrared photography to capture the near-infrared spectrum?
A: infrared filters', '
Q: What devices are often equipped with infrared blockers?
A: Digital cameras', "
Q: What is the technique that involves imaging with terahertz radiation?
A: 'T-ray' imaging", '
Q: What is another name for terahertz radiation?
A: far-infrared', '
Q: What is a notable recent development in T-ray imaging?
A: terahertz time-domain spectroscopy']
Infrared reflectography (fr; it; es), as called by art conservators, can be applied to paintings to reveal underlying layers in a completely non-destructive manner, in particular the underdrawing or outline drawn by the artist as a guide. This often reveals the artist's use of carbon black, which shows up well in reflectograms, as long as it has not also been used in the ground underlying the whole painting. Art conservators are looking to see whether the visible layers of paint differ from the underdrawing or layers in between – such alterations are called pentimenti when made by the original artist. This is very useful information in deciding whether a painting is the prime version by the original artist or a copy, and whether it has been altered by over-enthusiastic restoration work. In general, the more pentimenti the more likely a painting is to be the prime version. It also gives useful insights into working practices.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What technique is used in art to examine underlying layers of a painting without damaging it?
A: Infrared reflectography', '
Q: What shows up particularly well in reflectograms?
A: carbon black', '
Q: What is the term for differences in the painting and underdrawing made by the original artist?
A: pentimenti']
The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer. He was surprised at the result and called them "Calorific Rays". The term 'Infrared' did not appear until late in the 19th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who discovered infrared radiation?
A: William Herschel', '
Q: To whom did Herschel present his work on infrared radiation?
A: the Royal Society of London', '
Q: In what year did Herschel publish his work on infrared radiation?
A: 1800', '
Q: What device did Herschel use to discover the infrared?
A: a prism', '
Q: What did Herschel call the infrared spectrum?
A: Calorific Rays']
Infrared radiation is popularly known as "heat radiation"[citation needed], but light and electromagnetic waves of any frequency will heat surfaces that absorb them. Infrared light from the Sun accounts for 49% of the heating of Earth, with the rest being caused by visible light that is absorbed then re-radiated at longer wavelengths. Visible light or ultraviolet-emitting lasers can char paper and incandescently hot objects emit visible radiation. Objects at room temperature will emit radiation concentrated mostly in the 8 to 25 µm band, but this is not distinct from the emission of visible light by incandescent objects and ultraviolet by even hotter objects (see black body and Wien's displacement law).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a commonly used term for infrared radiation?
A: heat radiation', "
Q: What percentage of the Earth's heat is derived from the Sun's infrared light?
A: 49%", '
Q: What is the common range of emitted radiation of room temperature objects, in micrometers? 
A: 8 to 25', '
Q: Other than infrared light, what type of light is responsible for heating the Earth?
A: visible']
Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system, which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track it. Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines, and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another term for infrared homing?
A: Infrared tracking', '
Q: What devices make use of infrared homing?
A: Missiles', '
Q: What is a common name for missiles that make use of infrared seeking?
A: heat-seekers', '
Q: Along with aircraft and people, what objects notably create and retain heat?
A: vehicle engines', '
Q: What does IR stand for?
A: infrared']
High, cold ice clouds such as Cirrus or Cumulonimbus show up bright white, lower warmer clouds such as Stratus or Stratocumulus show up as grey with intermediate clouds shaded accordingly. Hot land surfaces will show up as dark-grey or black. One disadvantage of infrared imagery is that low cloud such as stratus or fog can be a similar temperature to the surrounding land or sea surface and does not show up. However, using the difference in brightness of the IR4 channel (10.3–11.5 µm) and the near-infrared channel (1.58–1.64 µm), low cloud can be distinguished, producing a fog satellite picture. The main advantage of infrared is that images can be produced at night, allowing a continuous sequence of weather to be studied.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with Cirrus, what types of clouds are cold and high?
A: Cumulonimbus', '
Q: What color do Cirrus clouds appear in infrared?
A: white', '
Q: Along with Stratus, what clouds are lower and warmer?
A: Stratocumulus', '
Q: What color are Strarus clouds in infrared?
A: grey', '
Q: What is the range of the near-infrared channel in micrometers?
A: 1.58–1.64']
The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of selected atmospheric windows. This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for infrared astronomy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What limits the sensitivity of infrared telescopes on Earth?
A: water vapor in the atmosphere', '
Q: To somewhat avoid the water vapor in the atmosphere, where can an observatory be sited?
A: at a high altitude', '
Q: Along with aircraft, what object can be used to carry a telescope aloft?
A: balloon', "
Q: What sorts of telescopes completely avoid water vapor in Earth's atmosphere?
A: Space telescopes"]
Near-infrared is the region closest in wavelength to the radiation detectable by the human eye, mid- and far-infrared are progressively further from the visible spectrum. Other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (the common silicon detectors are sensitive to about 1,050 nm, while InGaAs's sensitivity starts around 950 nm and ends between 1,700 and 2,600 nm, depending on the specific configuration). Unfortunately, international standards for these specifications are not currently available.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the nearest wavelength to the radiation that a human eye can see?
A: Near-infrared', '
Q: Along with the emission peaks and vs. bands mechanisms, what other physical mechanism is used to define near-infrared?
A: water absorption', '
Q: In micrometers, when do common silicon detectors cease to be sensitive?
A: 1,050', '
Q: What is the lowest level of sensitivity, in micrometers, for InGaAs?
A: 950']
Heat is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that is associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiations are associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (i.e., the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the term for transit energy flowing as a result of differences in temperature?
A: Heat', '
Q: What type of heat transmission can propagate through a vacuum?
A: thermal radiation', '
Q: What object emits thermal radiation in the X-ray spectrum?
A: the solar corona', '
Q: The visible, ultraviolet and X-ray spectra are all above what spectrum?
A: infrared']
Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14 μm) and produce images of that radiation. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperatures, according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to "see" one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature, therefore thermography allows one to see variations in temperature (hence the name).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the range of the electromagnetic spectrum in micrometers?
A: 0.9–14', "
Q: In nanometers, what is the electromagnetic spectrum's range?
A: 900–14,000", '
Q: What law states that infrared radiation is emitted by objects based on temperature?
A: the black body radiation law', '
Q: What happens to the amount of radiation an object emits as temperature increases?
A: increases', '
Q: What type of cameras see infrared radiation?
A: Thermographic']
The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.)

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What irradiates clouds of gas in the galaxy and makes them glow?
A: imbedded stars', '
Q: What can be detected via infrared prior to their emitting visible light?
A: protostars', '
Q: What objects emit less of their energy as infrared light versus visible light?
A: Stars']
Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What sort of equipment uses the infrared spectrum in the absence of sufficient visible light?
A: night vision', '
Q: What do night vision devices convert ambient light photons into?
A: electrons', '
Q: Along with a chemical process, what type of process is used by night vision devices to convert infrared into visible light?
A: electrical']
IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation that is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to encode the data. The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances. Infrared remote control protocols like RC-5, SIRC, are used to communicate with infrared.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the IrDA?
A: the Infrared Data Association', '
Q: What does the acronym LEDs stand for?
A: light-emitting diodes', '
Q: What is a term for when something is switched on and off?
A: modulated', '
Q: What device is used to transform infrared radiation into an electric current?
A: silicon photodiode', '
Q: Why does infrared not cause trouble for devices in adjacent rooms?
A: IR does not penetrate walls']
In the semiconductor industry, infrared light can be used to characterize materials such as thin films and periodic trench structures. By measuring the reflectance of light from the surface of a semiconductor wafer, the index of refraction (n) and the extinction Coefficient (k) can be determined via the Forouhi-Bloomer dispersion equations. The reflectance from the infrared light can also be used to determine the critical dimension, depth, and sidewall angle of high aspect ratio trench structures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What letter represents the index of refraction?
A: n', '
Q: What letter represents the extinction Coefficient?
A: k', '
Q: What equations are used to figure out the index of refraction and extinction Coefficient?
A: Forouhi-Bloomer dispersion', '
Q: Along with critical dimension and depth, what can the infrared light reflectance be used to determine in regard to high aspect ratio trench structures?
A: sidewall angle', "
Q: What reflectance is measured from a semiconductor wafer's surface to determine the index of refraction?
A: light"]
Infrared cleaning is a technique used by some Motion picture film scanner, film scanners and flatbed scanners to reduce or remove the effect of dust and scratches upon the finished scan. It works by collecting an additional infrared channel from the scan at the same position and resolution as the three visible color channels (red, green, and blue). The infrared channel, in combination with the other channels, is used to detect the location of scratches and dust. Once located, those defects can be corrected by scaling or replaced by inpainting.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name of the technique used in scanners to minimize the effects of dust and scratches?
A: Infrared cleaning', '
Q: Along with red and blue, what is the third visible color channel?
A: green', '
Q: Along with replacement via inpainting, what procedure is used in infrared cleaning to remove the effect of scratches and dust?
A: scaling', '
Q: Along with the visible light channels, what channel is used to locate scratches and dust in scanners?
A: infrared']
Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation from the sun and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to atmosphere. Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and water vapor, but also carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons, absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the greenhouse effect keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with the surface of the Earth, what objects absorb radiation from the sun?
A: clouds', "
Q: After Earth surface's absorbs radiation, in what spectrum is much of it re-emitted?
A: infrared", '
Q: Along with water vapor, what atmospheric substance primarily absorbs the infrared emitted by the Earth?
A: cloud droplets', '
Q: What notable warming effect does the presence of infrared absorbers contribute to?
A: greenhouse']
Biodiversity, a contraction of "biological diversity," generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species, between species, and between ecosystems. It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is richest in the tropics. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term refers to  the variety and variability of life on Earth?
A: Biodiversity', '
Q: What types of variations does Biodiversity refer to?
A: genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation', '
Q: What type of biodiversity happens near the equator?
A: Terrestrial biodiversity', '
Q: Where on Earth is biodiversity the most abundnant?
A: It is richest in the tropics.', '
Q: Where is sea surface temperature the highest?
A: along coasts in the Western Pacific']
This multilevel construct is consistent with Dasmann and Lovejoy. An explicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the 1982 World National Parks Conference. Wilcox's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and ecosystem)...". The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". This definition is used in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is the author of the biodiversity research paper?
A: Bruce A. Wilcox', '
Q: Who commissioned the biodiversity research paper?
A: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)', '
Q: At what event was the biodiversity research paper presented?
A: 1982 World National Parks Conference', '
Q: What year did the United Nations Earth Summit define "biological diversity"?
A: 1992']
On the other hand, changes through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used in population biology, demography and macrosociology, as well as fossil biodiversity) than with exponential and logistic models. The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth arises from a second-order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth. The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity. The similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend with cyclical and stochastic dynamics.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What model correlates much better than the hyperbolic model?
A: the Phanerozoic', '
Q: What model is widely used in macrosociology?
A: hyperbolic model', '
Q: What models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback?
A: exponential and logistic models', '
Q: What model implies a second-order positive feedback?
A: Hyperbolic model', '
Q: What can be accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity?
A: The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth']