romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical analog computers were used for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first electronic digital computers were developed. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What were analog computers originally used for?
A: astronomical calculations', '
Q: During what war were computers first used for military applications?
A: World War II,', '
Q: In computer terms, what does PC stand for?
A: personal computers', '
Q: During what war were the first digital computers invented?
A: World War II']
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are generally considered as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from electronic toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Computers in today's age are based on what that make them much faster than earlier computers?
A: integrated circuits", '
Q: How much more powerful are modern computers versus early computers?
A: millions to billions of times']
The first known use of the word "computer" was in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: "I haue read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number." It referred to a person who carried out calculations, or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the first known use of the word "computer"?
A: 1613', '
Q: In which book, was the term "computer" first used?
A: The Yong Mans Gleanings', '
Q: Who was the author of the book, The Yong Mans Gleanings?
A: Richard Braithwait', '
Q: From the end of what century, did the word "computer" take its well known meaning of today?
A: 19th century']
Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The earliest device to help count was what?
A: a form of tally stick', '
Q: Calculi during the Fertile Crescent refers to what?
A: (clay spheres, cones, etc.)']
The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the abacus first used for?
A: arithmetic tasks', '
Q: When was the Roman abacus first used?
A: 2400 BC', '
Q: Where was the Roman abacus first used?
A: Babylonia', '
Q: In medieval Europe was was placed on a table to help count money?
A: a checkered cloth', '
Q: A checkered cloth on a table was used in medieval Europe to help count what?
A: sums of money']
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer", according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is thought to be the first mechanical analog computer?
A: The Antikythera mechanism', '
Q: When was the Antikythera mechanism discovered?
A: 1901', '
Q: Where was the Antikythera mechanism found in 1901?
A: Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera', '
Q: Where is the Greek Island of Antikythera located between?
A: Kythera and Crete', '
Q: The Antikythera mechanism was thought to be the first computer according to whom?
A: Derek J. de Solla Price.']
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear-wheels, circa 1000 AD.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who invented the planisphere?
A: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī', '
Q: Who is thought to have invented the astrolabe in history?
A: Hipparchus', '
Q: The astrolabe was a combination of what two devices in history?
A: the planisphere and dioptra', '
Q: The first astrolabe with gear-wheels was invented when?
A: 1235', '
Q: The first astrolabe with a mechanical calendar was invented where?
A: Persia']
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The sector, a calculating instrument, was invented during what century?
A: 16th century']
The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time–distance problems in light aircraft. To save space and for ease of reading, these are typically circular devices rather than the classic linear slide rule shape. A popular example is the E6B.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the slide rule first invented?
A: 1620–1630', '
Q: What is the slide rule used for?
A: doing multiplication and division.', '
Q: What industry are slide rules still used today?
A: Aviation']
In the 1770s Pierre Jaquet-Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automata) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the profession of Pierre Jaquet-Droz?
A: a Swiss watchmaker', '
Q: When did Pierre Jaquet-Droz build a mechanical doll that could hold a pen?
A: In the 1770s', "
Q: Where is the doll Pierre Jaquet-Droz built today?
A: Musée d'Art et d'Histoire", "
Q: Where is the Musee d-Art et d'Histoire located?
A: Neuchâtel, Switzerland"]
The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson invented?
A: 1872', '
Q: Who invented the first tide-predicting machine in 1872?
A: Sir William Thomson', "
Q: What did Sir William Thomson's tide-predicting machine use to function?
A: system of pulleys and wires"]
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of mechanisms did the differential analyzer use?
A: wheel-and-disc', '
Q: In 1876 who lobbied for the construction of the differential analyzers?
A: Lord Kelvin', '
Q: During what decade were mechanical differential analyzers developed?
A: 1920s', '
Q: In the 1920s, who was the person who developed mechanical differential analyzers?
A: Vannevar Bush']
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who invented the concept of a programmable computer?
A: Charles Babbage', '
Q: Who is considered the "father of the computer"?
A: Charles Babbage', '
Q: During what century was the first mechanical computer invented by Charles Babbage?
A: early 19th century', '
Q: What year did Charles Babbage find out that An Analytical Engine was possible?
A: 1833']
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who was Charles Babbage's son?
A: Henry Babbage", "
Q: Who created a simple version of the analytical engine's computing unit?
A: Henry Babbage", '
Q: When was the mill created by Henry Babbage?
A: 1888', '
Q: When was a demonstration by Henry Babbage of the mill given?
A: 1906']
The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who invented the first analog computer in the form of a tide-predicting machine?
A: Sir William Thomson', '
Q: When was the first analog computer in the form of a tide-predicting machine created?
A: 1872', '
Q: Who created the idea of the differential analyzer in 1876?
A: James Thomson', '
Q: James Thomson was the brother of what famous figure?
A: Lord Kelvin']
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was the differential analyzer built by H.L. Hazen?
A: MIT', '
Q: The differential analyzer by H.L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush was first being built in what year?
A: 1927', '
Q: The torque amplifiers of the differential analyzer were created by whom?
A: H. W. Nieman']
By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remain in use in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: By what decade were analog computing devices rendered obsolete?
A: 50s', '
Q: Analog computers remain in use in what industries?
A: education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).']
The principle of the modern computer was first described by mathematician and pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper, On Computable Numbers. Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote the paper "On Computable Numbers"?
A: Alan Turing', '
Q: When did Alan Turing write the paper, "On Computable Numbers"?
A: 1936', '
Q: Who did Turing revise the results on the limits of proof and computation in 1931?
A: Kurt Gödel']
He also introduced the notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a Universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: A Universal Machine is known as what today?
A: Universal Turing machine']
By 1938 the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What part of the US military developed an electromechanical analog computer to use on a submarine?
A: the United States Navy', '
Q: When did the US Navy invent an electromechanical computer to use on a submarine?
A: 1938', '
Q: What type of math did the Torpedo Data computer use to fire a torpedo at a moving target?
A: trigonometry']
Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who created the relay computer, the Z2?
A: Konrad Zuse', '
Q: When did Konrad Zuse invent the Z2?
A: 1939', '
Q: What is one of the first electromechanical relay computers?
A: The Z2', '
Q: Konrad Zuse was an engineer with what nationality?
A: German']
In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz. Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was Turing complete.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Konrad Zuse create the Z3 computer?
A: 1941', '
Q: What was the first automatic, digital, programmable computer created by Konrad Zuse?
A: the Z3', '
Q: How many relays did the Z3 contain?
A: 2000', '
Q: What did the Z3 operate for a clock frequency?
A: about 5–10 Hz', '
Q: How many words of memory could be stored with the Z3?
A: 64']
Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes. In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer". This design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did the engineer Tommy Flowers work at during the 1930s?
A: Post Office Research Station', '
Q: In what city did Tommy Flowers work in the 1930s?
A: London', '
Q: The Atanasoff-Berry computer was invented in what year?
A: 1942', '
Q: How many vacuum tubes did the Atanasoff-Berry computer use?
A: about 300', '
Q: At what school did John Vincent Atansoff and Clifford E. Berry work?
A: Iowa State University']
During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes. To crack the more sophisticated German Lorenz SZ 40/42 machine, used for high-level Army communications, Max Newman and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the Colossus. He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus. After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who built the first Colossus in 1943?
A: Flowers', '
Q: When was the Colossus sent to Bletchley Park?
A: 18 January 1944', '
Q: Who achieved success at cracking secret German military communications during World War II?
A: , the British', '
Q: Where did the British crack secret German military communications during World War II?
A: Bletchley Park']
Colossus was the world's first electronic digital programmable computer. It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark 1, greatly speeding the decoding process.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first electronic digital programmable computer in the world?
A: Colossus', '
Q: How many vacuum tubes did the Colossus Mark I contain?
A: 1500 thermionic valves (tubes)', '
Q: How many tubes did Colossus Mark II contain?
A: 2400']
The US-built ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus it was much faster and more flexible. It was unambiguously a Turing-complete device and could compute any problem that would fit into its memory. Like the Colossus, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The US-buils ENIAC stands for what?
A: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)', '
Q: What was the first electronic programmable computer built in the United States?
A: ENIAC']
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many times could it add or subtract a second?
A: 5000', '
Q: What was the limit of its high speed memory?
A: ENIAC', '
Q: ENIAC was constructed by whom?
A: John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert', '
Q: Where did John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert build the ENIAC?
A: University of Pennsylvania', '
Q: When was ENIAC fully operational?
A: 1945']