romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem. They include mosses, liverworts and hornworts. Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian. Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day. By the end of the Devonian period, several groups, including the lycopods, sphenophylls and progymnosperms, had independently evolved "megaspory" – their spores were of two distinct sizes, larger megaspores and smaller microspores. Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory. Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers (integuments). The young sporophyte develops within the seed, which on germination splits to release it. The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage. Following the evolution of the seed habit, seed plants diversified, giving rise to a number of now-extinct groups, including seed ferns, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce "naked seeds" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary. Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What makes mosses different from other land plants?
A: lack the vascular tissues', '
Q: What protects the young plant in the seed?
A: one or two sheathing layers', '
Q: How does the plant escape the seed?
A: splits to release it', '
Q: What is the term for plants whose seeds do not have a protective ovary?
A: Gymnosperms', '
Q: What event led to the diversification of seed plants?
A: evolution of the seed habit']
Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life. Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism. The energy of sunlight, captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration, is the basis of almost all life. Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis. Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues. Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the plant use for internal processes?
A: Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water', '
Q: Where do plants get their energy?
A: sunlight', '
Q: How do animals use plants?
A: in the construction of cells and tissues', '
Q: Is respiration in animals similar to photosynthesis in plants?
A: opposite of photosynthesis', '
Q: What is the basis of plant physiology?
A: internal chemical and physical activities']
Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales. Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes. Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream. Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur. Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. In vascular plants, these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem. Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is water transported into plants?
A: from roots', '
Q: IN what form are mineral acquired by the roots?
A: as soluble ions', '
Q: From where does the plant get the required minerals?
A: chemical breakdown of soil', '
Q: Where is sucrose produced in a plant?
A: the leaves', '
Q: How are hormones moved around a plant?
A: by a variety of processes']
The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century. Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity, and concluded "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements". About the same time, the role of auxins (from the Greek auxein, to grow) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went. The first known auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which promotes cell growth, was only isolated from plants about 50 years later. This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity. The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA, followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the theory of plant hormones introduced?
A: late 19th century', '
Q: To what did Darwin compare the top of the plant radical?
A: the brain of one of the lower animals', '
Q: Why did Darwin feel plants had something comparable to a brain?
A: movements of plant shoots', '
Q: What do auxins do?
A: promotes cell growth', '
Q: What can plant callus be coaxed into doing?
A: form roots and shoots']
Cytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division or cytokinesis. The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine. Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division, bud development, and the greening of chloroplasts. The gibberelins, such as Gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway. They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering. Abscisic acid (ABA) occurs in all land plants except liverworts, and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids. It inhibits cell division, promotes seed maturation, and dormancy, and promotes stomatal closure. It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission. Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine. It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission, and it, or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene, are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton, pineapples and other climacteric crops.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are cytokinins responsible for in plants?
A: control of cell division', '
Q: Where are cytokinins produced?
A: in roots', '
Q: How is bud development determined?
A: cytokinesis', '
Q: How is the height of a plant determined?
A: gibberelins', '
Q: What acid slows or stops cell division?
A: Abscisic']
Plant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues, whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form. All plants are multicellular eukaryotes, their DNA stored in nuclei. The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin,  larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts. Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (amyloplasts) or lipids (elaioplasts). Uniquely, streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the study of the inside of plants?
A: Plant anatomy', '
Q: What is the study of the outside of plants?
A: plant morphology', '
Q: How are plants different from animals?
A: primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose', '
Q: Where do plants store their DNA?
A: in nuclei', '
Q: Are the vacuoles of plant cells larger or smaller than animal cells?
A: larger']
The bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses, ferns and seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems. The shoots consist of stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves and reproductive structures. The underground vascularised roots bear root hairs at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll. Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis. The sporophyte generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What makes up the bodies of vascular plants?
A: stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves', '
Q: Do roots contain chlorophyll?
A: generally lack chlorophyll', '
Q: What makes a plant non-vascular?
A: do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots', '
Q: How much of a non-vascular plant is involved in photosynthesis?
A: most of the plant', '
Q: How are sporophytes generated in liverworts?
A: nonphotosynthetic']
The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food, and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system. Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots. Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots. Roots that spread out close to the surface, such as those of willows, can produce shoots and ultimately new plants. In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it. In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with Saintpaulia, or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant. In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots. Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch, as in sugar beets and carrots.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Do the roots and shoots need each other?
A: interdependent', '
Q: What do the roots get from the shoots?
A: food', '
Q: What are roots used for in beets and carrots?
A: to store food', '
Q: What happens if a plant looses roots or its shoots?
A: can often regrow it', '
Q: What do the shoots get from the roots?
A: water and minerals']
Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures, but can store water in succulent plants such as cacti, food as in potato tubers, or reproduce vegetatively as in the stolons of strawberry plants or in the process of layering. Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis. Large, flat, flexible, green leaves are called foliage leaves. Gymnosperms, such as conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes are seed-producing plants with open seeds. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds. Woody plants, such as azaleas and oaks, undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues: wood (secondary xylem) and bark (secondary phloem and cork). All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants. Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the stems used for in cacti?
A: store water', '
Q: For what are leaves used?
A: gather sunlight', '
Q: What are angiosperms?
A: plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds', '
Q: What kind of plants are gymnosperms?
A: woody plants', '
Q: What kind of leaves are large and flat?
A: foliage leaves']
Systematic botany is part of systematic biology, which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships, particularly as determined by their evolutionary history. It involves, or is related to, biological classification, scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics. Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species. Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy. Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics. While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so. The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Linnaeus group organisms?
A: shared physical characteristics', '
Q: How did Darwin change the grouping pioneered by Linnaeus?
A: by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics', '
Q: How are grouping determined currently?
A: DNA sequences', '
Q: Who maintains a standard of grouping for naming purposes?
A: International Botanical Congress.']
Kingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukarya and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Kingdom; Phylum (or Division); Class; Order; Family; Genus (plural genera); Species. The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single world-wide name for each organism. For example, the tiger lily is Lilium columbianum. Lilium is the genus, and columbianum the specific epithet. The combination is the name of the species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term is ordinarily italicised (or underlined when italics are not available).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the main grouping of a plant know as?
A: Kingdom', '
Q: What is the most narrow grouping of a plant?
A: Species', '
Q: Do different countries refer to plants by different names?
A: single world-wide name', '
Q: What part of the name is always capitalized?
A: the genus', '
Q: How is the entire name usually presented in scientific texts?
A: italicised']
The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny. Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies. The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships. As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves. They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an Echinocactus. However, both Pereskia and Echinocactus have spines produced from areoles (highly specialised pad-like structures) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the phylogeny of a group represent?
A: relationships and heredity', '
Q: How are the relationships within the group determined?
A: shared inheritance', '
Q: What would be an indication of a shared inheritance in two cacti?
A: spines produced from areoles', '
Q: What are areoles?
A: pad-like structures']
Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently. Some euphorbias have leafless, rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti, but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related. The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters, distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups (homoplasies) or those left over from ancestors (plesiomorphies) – and derived characters, which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor (apomorphies). Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor. The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms: tree-like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why might two plants be similar but not actually be in the same group?
A: convergent evolution', '
Q: How can two different plants acquire the same traits?
A: arisen independently', '
Q: What traits show a shared ancestry?
A: derived characters', '
Q: How are common ancestries represented for plant families?
A: tree-like diagrams']
From the 1990s onwards, the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been molecular phylogenetics, which uses molecular characters, particularly DNA sequences, rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles. The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to. Clive Stace describes this as having "direct access to the genetic basis of evolution." As a simple example, prior to the use of genetic evidence, fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals. Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is used now to group plants?
A: DNA sequences', '
Q: What was previously used to group plants?
A: morphological characters', '
Q: How is DNA grouping superior?
A: genetic code itself is used', '
Q: Are fungi more like plants or animals?
A: closely related to animals', '
Q: When was DNA sequencing first used for grouping plants?
A: 1990s']
In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, many questions, such as which families represent the earliest branches of angiosperms, have now been answered. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants. Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa. Technological developments such as computers and electron microscopes have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first plant grouping based on DNA sequencing?
A: flowering plants', '
Q: What can be learned from DNA sequencing of plants?
A: evolution in plants', '
Q: How has technology improved the study of botany?
A: greatly increased the level of detail', '
Q: What have scientists learned about angiosperms from DNA sequencing?
A: which families represent the earliest branches']
Madonna Louise Ciccone (/tʃɪˈkoʊni/; Italian: [tʃikˈkoːne]; born August 16, 1958) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and businesswoman. She achieved popularity by pushing the boundaries of lyrical content in mainstream popular music and imagery in her music videos, which became a fixture on MTV. Madonna is known for reinventing both her music and image, and for maintaining her autonomy within the recording industry. Music critics have acclaimed her musical productions, which have generated some controversy. Often referred to as the "Queen of Pop", she is often cited as an influence by other artists.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is Madonna's real name?
A: Madonna Louise Ciccone", '
Q: When was Madonna born?
A: August 16, 1958', '
Q: Which is the other name that Madonna is always referred as?
A: Queen of Pop', '
Q: Madonna became a fixture on which TV channel?
A: MTV', '
Q: Who is known for maintaining her autonomy and reinventing her image in the music industry?
A: Madonna']
Born in Bay City, Michigan, Madonna moved to New York City in 1977 to pursue a career in modern dance. After performing in the music groups Breakfast Club and Emmy, she signed with Sire Records (an auxiliary label of Warner Bros. Records) in 1982 and released her self-titled debut album the following year. She followed it with a series of commercially and critcally successful albums, including the Grammy Award winners Ray of Light (1998) and Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005). Throughout her career, Madonna has written and produced most of her songs, with many of them reaching number one on the record charts, including "Like a Virgin", "Into the Groove", "Papa Don't Preach", "Like a Prayer", "Vogue", "Frozen", "Music", "Hung Up", and "4 Minutes".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was Madonna born?
A: Bay City, Michigan', '
Q: In which year did Madonna move to New York City?
A: 1977', '
Q: Which record label did Madonna sign with in 1982?
A: Sire Records', '
Q: What was the name of the album she released in 1983?
A: Madonna', "
Q: Name Madonna's Grammy award album in 1998?
A: Ray of Light"]
Madonna's popularity was further enhanced by her film roles, including Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), Dick Tracy (1990), and Evita (1996); the latter earned her a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress. However, most of her other films have been panned by critics. Her other ventures include fashion design, writing children's books, and filmmaking. She has been acclaimed as a businesswoman, particularly after she founded entertainment company Maverick (including the label Maverick Records). In 2007 she signed an unprecedented US $120 million 360 deal with Live Nation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Name a film role that Madonna acted in.
A: Desperately Seeking Susan', '
Q: Which movie earned Madonna a Golden Globe Award?
A: Evita', "
Q: Name one of Madonna's other business ventures?
A: fashion design", '
Q: What is the name of the entertainment company that Madonna founded?
A: Maverick', '
Q: Which year did Madonna sign a $120 million deal with Live Nation?
A: 2007']