romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which scientist championed the idea of evolution?
A: Charles Darwin', '
Q: What was the name of the book that Darwin wrote about evolution?
A: On the Origin of Species', "
Q: What was the reception of Darwin's ideas about evolution?
A: both opposition and support from different parts of society", '
Q: Who rediscovered the laws of inheritance?
A: Moravian monk Gregor Mendel', '
Q: What was the major break through for the study of genetics?
A: the basic structure of DNA']
The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The discipline of ecology is a combination of what two subjects?
A: Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography', '
Q: What did the work of Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn focus on?
A: the cycle of life concept', '
Q: Who came up with the word "ecology"?
A: Ernst Haeckel', '
Q: When was the Gaia hypothesis discovered?
A: in the 1960s', '
Q: What movement occurred during the 1970s?
A: Deep Ecology']
Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences[citation needed]. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What larger group does political science belong to?
A: social sciences', '
Q: Where did the ideas of political science begin?
A: prehistory', '
Q: In history, where could you find someone studying politics?
A: in almost every geographic area']
In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did studying politics originate?
A: Ancient Greece', '
Q: What did Plato study?
A: political systems', '
Q: What method did Plato use to understand political systems?
A: philosophy', "
Q: What did Aristotle add to Plato's work?
A: historical empirical evidence"]
An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–-283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who are Kautilya and Vishnugupta usually grouped with?
A: Chāṇakya', '
Q: What did the Arthasastra say a king must use?
A: brutal measures', '
Q: When was Chanakya alive?
A: 350–-283 BCE']
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action[citation needed]. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What allowed political studies to spread?
A: the fall of the Western Roman Empire', '
Q: What new idea caused politics to cover a larger spectrum?
A: monotheism', '
Q: Where did politics touch in the Middle Ages?
A: churches and courts', '
Q: Who wrote The City of God?
A: Augustine of Hippo', '
Q: What did The City of God change?
A: the borders between what was religious and what was political']
Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What new subject surface at the end of the 18th century?
A: Historical linguistics', '
Q: Who realized that languages like Sanskrit, Persian, and Greek share the same foundation?
A: Sir William Jones', '
Q: What did Sir William Jones do to document his work?
A: catalog all languages of the world', '
Q: What did Noam Chomsky add to the study of linguistics?
A: the development of generative linguistics', '
Q: What method did Chomsky use to develop generative linguistics?
A: a mathematical model of language']
The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations?
A: Adam Smith', "
Q: What did Adam Smith's work cover?
A: The basis for classical economics", '
Q: What idea did Adam Smith disagree with?
A: mercantilism', '
Q: What idea did Adam Smith propose?
A: an "invisible hand"', '
Q: Who is Marxian economics named after?
A: Karl Marx']
In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did John Maynard Keynes want to separate?
A: microeconomics and macroeconomics', '
Q: What concept did Milton Friedman propose after World War II?
A: monetarism', '
Q: How did monaterism aim to control the economy?
A: using the supply and demand of money', '
Q: In the 1970s, what did monaterism turn into?
A: supply-side economics', '
Q: How did supply-side economics try to increase the amount of money in the market?
A: reducing taxes']
The above "history of economics" reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the to "Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.[clarification needed] It is played down that this "invisible hand" acts only "frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the individual's] intentions" because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his" invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry" is cleansed—often without indication that part of the citation is truncated. The opening passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's message is never mentioned as it cannot be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was Wealth of Nations written?
A: 1776', "
Q: How present was Smith's invisible hand intended to be?
A: frequently", '
Q: What happens in a market when there is competition?
A: lower prices', '
Q: What is the most important part of "Wealth"?
A: the division of labour']
The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the beginning of psychology classified as?
A: a scientific enterprise', '
Q: What year is most commonly referred to as the beginning of psychology?
A: 1879', '
Q: Who has the first lab completely dedicated to psychology?
A: Wilhelm Wundt', '
Q: What did Hermann Ebbinghaus study?
A: memory studies', '
Q: What was Ivan Pavlov known for?
A: classical conditioning']
The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the group that human psychology belongs to?
A: cognitive science', '
Q: What is investigated in cognitive science?
A: the mind', '
Q: What inventions advanced the study of cognitive science?
A: PET scans and CAT scans', '
Q: What new technology could be created as a result of studying cognitive science?
A: artificial intelligence']
Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Ibn Khaldun's profession?
A: scientific systematic sociologist", '
Q: When did modern sociology surface?
A: early 19th century', '
Q: What is the main goal of sociology?
A: understanding the cohesion of social groups', '
Q: How did Max Weber view rationalization?
A: he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage"']
American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the major proponent of American sociology?
A: Talcott Parsons', '
Q: What did Parsons believe made a functional society?
A: structural integration', '
Q: What was the problem with the views of Parsons?
A: inequalities present in the status quo', '
Q: What idea from Karl Marx was used to combat the problems with structural integration?
A: conflict theory', '
Q: What is the main belief of conflict theory?
A: different groups compete for control over resources']
Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What science is based on linguistics, mathematics, and engineering?
A: Computer science', '
Q: How has computer science helped science as a whole?
A: by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data', "
Q: What is the differing characteristic of contemporary computer science?
A: emphasising mathematical 'theory'"]
As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What text is the foundation of the study of the history of science?
A: History of the Inductive Sciences', "
Q: Who wrote a more professional version of History of the Inductive Sciences?
A: George Sarton's", '
Q: What was the history of science during the 20th century?
A: the history of great men and great ideas', "
Q: How could Sarton's ideas be described?
A: Whiggish", '
Q: Who studied the history of science?
A: interested scientists and physicians']
Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the large question that the history of science answers?
A: what science is', '
Q: What did sociology in science explain?
A: the ways in which scientists work', '
Q: What was the most popular method in the 1960s regarding science studies?
A: to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge']
Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals. It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Humboldtian science aim to do?
A: combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals', '
Q: Who was the model for Humboldtian science?
A: Alexander von Humboldt', '
Q: What idea did positivism provide?
A: the only valid knowledge is scientific']
The mid 20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific."

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Where did the social aspect of science originate?
A: Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962", '
Q: What idea did social science add to science as a whole?
A: positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science', '
Q: How did Kuhn view the history of science?
A: competing paradigms or conceptual systems']