romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain after the conclusion of Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The goal of developing Bursa and Istanbul was an intentional act to create what?
A: commercial and industrial centres', "
Q: Who was Mehmed's successor?
A: Bayezid", '
Q: Who did Mehmed and Bayezid encourage to come to Istanbul?
A: the Jews from different parts of Europe', '
Q: What group were Jews being persecuted by in Europe?
A: their Christian counterparts', '
Q: Persecution of Jews in Spain occurred after what event concluded?
A: the conclusion of Reconquista']
The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: The economic goal of the state was to serve as what for the ruler?
A: consolidation and extension of the ruler's power", '
Q: In what regions concepts was the Ottoman economic system based on?
A: the Middle East', '
Q: What was a way to reach the economic goals of the Ottoman economic system?
A: making the productive classes prosperous', '
Q: What was the final goal of the state economic system?
A: to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects', '
Q: What did the state economic system hope to avoid?
A: the emergence of social disorder']
The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Two of the most developed economic organizations under the Ottoman Empire were what?
A: the treasury and chancery', '
Q: What were the scribes of the chancery known as?
A: men of the pen', '
Q: Part of the scribal bureaucracy were trained what?
A: ulama', '
Q: What did the scribal bureaucracy become?
A: a professional body', '
Q: The Ottoman Empire had the most developed economic organizations among Islamic Governments until which century?
A: the 17th century']
The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Vasco da Gama bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in 1498, and Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What serviced as the foundation for the structure of the economy of the Ottoman empire?
A: its geopolitical structure', '
Q: The Ottoman Empire caused navigators from which two nations to find another route to the Orient?
A: Spanish and Portuguese', '
Q: Who once used the spice route that the Ottoman Empire controlled?
A: Marco Polo', '
Q: When were direct trade links established with India?
A: 1498', '
Q: When did Christopher Columbus sail to the Bahamas?
A: 1492']
Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is believed to have caused the opening of new sea routes during the Ottoman Empire?
A: change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe', '
Q: The formation of sea routes bypassing the Middle East may have led to the decline of what?
A: the Ottoman Empire itself', '
Q: What is another name for the Treaty of Balta Liman?
A: The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty', '
Q: What did the Treaty of Balta Liman do for Ottoman markets?
A: opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors', '
Q: In what direction did land routes lose their importance?
A: East']
By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The development of what caused people to expand areas of cultivation in the Ottoman Empire?
A: commercial centres and routes', '
Q: What dominated all economic and political interests?
A: interests of the state', '
Q: What were the types of economies that were being developed in western Europe?
A: capitalist and mercantile economies', '
Q: The expansion of international trade through the Empire was the result of what?
A: developing commercial centres and routes']
The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. Some regions conversely had population falls – Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The rise of ports caused what in populations?
A: the clustering of populations', '
Q: Steamships and railroads rose with what else?
A: The rise of port cities', '
Q: In what year did urbanization in the Ottoman empire begin to increase?
A: 1700', '
Q: What were two improvements that made cities more desirable to live in?
A: Improvements in health and sanitation', '
Q: What was the population of Salonica in 1800?
A: 55,000']
Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees – 200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja. Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Empire, at least 3.8 million of whom were from Russia. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g. Turkey and Bulgaria) whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted with the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers and agriculturists. Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The annexation of what two regions resulted in large groups of Muslim refugees coming into the empire?
A: the Crimean and Balkan regions', '
Q: Muslims representing 200,000 of what group fled to Dobruja?
A: Crimean Tartars', '
Q: How many refugees fled Russia to the Ottoman Empire from 1783 to 1913?
A: 3.8 million', '
Q: What are the people from the Balkans who emigrated to Turkey called?
A: Muhacir', '
Q: In what year did the Ottoman Empire end?
A: 1922']
Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except in Albania and Bosnia; Persian, only spoken by the educated; Arabic, spoken mainly in Arabia, North Africa, Iraq, Kuwait, the Levant and parts of the Horn of Africa; and Somali throughout the Horn of Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated, while Arabic was used for religious rites.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the official language of the Ottoman Empire?
A: Ottoman Turkish', '
Q: What were the main influences of the official language of the Empire?
A: Persian and Arabic', '
Q: What language was spoken by most people in Anatolia?
A: Turkish', '
Q: Which languages influenced by the empire was spoken in Iraq?
A: Arabic', '
Q: What language was used for religious uses in the Empire?
A: Arabic']
Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century),[citation needed] ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government. The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.). In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was the public's literacy rate in leading up to the early 19th century in the empire?
A: about 2–3%", '
Q: At the end of the 19th century what was the literacy rate for the public in the Empire believed to be?
A: 15%', '
Q: What did people resort to when they needed to communicate with the government?
A: people had to hire scribes', '
Q: What were hired scribes known as?
A: "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis)', "
Q: What was the second language of those that weren't ethnically Turkish?
A: Turkish"]
Until the second half of the 15th century the empire had a Christian majority, under the rule of a Muslim minority. In the late 19th century, the non-Muslim population of the empire began to fall considerably, not only due to secession, but also because of migratory movements. The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and then to 76% in the 1890s. By 1914, only 19.1% of the empire's population was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Christian Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians, and Jews.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Empire had a Christian majority until what time?
A: the second half of the 15th century', '
Q: What group ruled the empire until the 15th century?
A: a Muslim minority', '
Q: What group began to decline within the Empire in the late 19th century?
A: the non-Muslim population', '
Q: Muslims accounted for what amount of the population of the Empire in the 1820s?
A: 60%', "
Q: In 1914 what portion of the Empire weren't Muslims?
A: 19.1%"]
Muslim sects regarded as heretical, such as the Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites, ranked below Jews and Christians. In 1514, Sultan Selim I, nicknamed "the Grim" because of his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered heretics, reportedly proclaiming that "the killing of one Alevi had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[page needed] Selim was also responsible for an unprecedented and rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East, especially through his conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, which included much of the region. With these conquests, Selim further solidified the Ottoman claim for being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the 14th century starting with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389). The caliphate would remain held by Ottoman sultans for the rest of the office's duration, which ended with its abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Muslim sect known as the Druze is considered what?
A: heretical', "
Q: What was Sultan Selim I's nickname?
A: the Grim", '
Q: In what year did Sultan Selim I order the massacre of 40,000 people whom he considered heretics?
A: 1514', '
Q: What group did Sultan Selim I consider heretics and subsequently slaughter?
A: Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash)', '
Q: Under Sultan Selim I the empire swallowed what sultanate in Egypt?
A: Mamluk Sultanate']
Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, and had to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What system deemed non-Muslims subjects of the empire but unbound by Muslim law?
A: the millet system', "
Q: What code had been active for 900 years in the Byzantine empire?
A: Justinian's Code", '
Q: What were non-Muslims also known as in the Islamic Ottoman State?
A: zimmi', '
Q: Being a non-muslim in the Empire resulted in what as it related to taxes?
A: higher taxes', "
Q: What millet was subject to Justinian's Code?
A: The Orthodox millet"]
The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered, and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who elaborated them into new forms, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Despite newer added amalgamations, the Ottoman dynasty, like their predecessors in the Sultanate of Rum and the Seljuk Empire, were thoroughly Persianised in their culture, language, habits and customs, and therefore, the empire has been described as a Persianate empire. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was clear.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Ottoman dynasty was preceded by what sultanate?
A: Sultanate of Rum', '
Q: What is one way that the Empire was described as it related to culture?
A: Persianate empire', '
Q: When the Ottoman empire conquered a region what also became a part of the empire?
A: some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures', '
Q: The Seljuk Empire was influenced by the cultures of others resulting in it being referred to as what?
A: Persianised']
Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzûlî and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of Ottoman poetry is ritualized?
A: Divan poetry', '
Q: What kind of poetry inspired Ottoman Divan Poetry?
A: Persian poetry', '
Q: What type of framework was Divan poetry based on?
A: a strict metrical framework', '
Q: What was the romance genre of Divan poetry known as?
A: mesnevî', '
Q: What make up the largest portion of Divan poetry?
A: gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes.']
Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose, a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' and which prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though exclusively non-fictional in nature. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât ("Fancies") by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was by an Armenian named Vartan Pasha. Published in 1851, the novel was entitled The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi) and was written in Turkish but with Armenian script.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Prose in the Ottoman empire did not develop to a higher level until which century?
A: the 19th century', '
Q: What rules did Ottoman prose have to follow?
A: the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose', '
Q: What did the rules of sec require?
A: between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme', '
Q: Who wrote Muhayyelât?
A: Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi', '
Q: When was Muhayyelât written?
A: 1796']
Due to historically close ties with France, French literature came to constitute the major Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their Ottoman equivalents: in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, it was the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements that became paramount.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the biggest influence from the west on Ottoman literature?
A: French literature', '
Q: During what time period was Ottoman literate most influenced by the west?
A: the latter half of the 19th century', '
Q: During the Tanzimat what western influence could be seen?
A: the influence of Romanticism', '
Q: The poetic tradition had its biggest influence on what Ottoman literary movements?
A: the Symbolist and Parnassian movements', '
Q: Romanticism, and Realism were two movements from the west that influenced the Ottoman literary scene, what was the third?
A: Naturalist']
Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namik Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh ("Awakening"), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" ("The Poet's Marriage"). An earlier play, a farce entitled "Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed" ("The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed"), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there remains some doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; "Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery"), Realism (Henüz On Yedi Yaşında, 1881; "Just Seventeen Years Old"), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; "Observations"). This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What 1876 Novel did Namik Kemal write?
A: İntibâh ("Awakening")', '
Q: What did İbrahim Şinasi write in 1860?
A: the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" ("The Poet\'s Marriage").', '
Q: Who wrote Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr?
A: Ahmed Midhat Efendi', '
Q: What Realist novel did Ahmed Midhat Efendi write in 1881?
A: Henüz On Yedi Yaşında', '
Q: What did writers of the Tanzimat period hope to accomplish with their publications?
A: contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures']
Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Ottoman artists mixed Chinese art with the art of what else?
A: traditional Byzantine art', '
Q: The ottoman empire built structures in Romania that included Mosques, and Bridges, what else was built?
A: fountains and schools', '
Q: Why did the art of the Ottoman empire develop the way it did?
A: the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire', '
Q: Beside Edirne, Istanbul, and Egypt what other locations can one find the influence of the Ottoman classical period?
A: Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania']