romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
In physics, Whitehead's thought has had some influence. He articulated a view that might perhaps be regarded as dual to Einstein's general relativity, see Whitehead's theory of gravitation. It has been severely criticized. Yutaka Tanaka, who suggests that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings, proposes that Einstein's work does not actually refute Whitehead's formulation. Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of gravitational waves. They are phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes. Consequently, Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation, and his assumption of a uniform spatio-temporal geometry, Minkowskian in particular, as an often-locally-adequate approximation. An exact replacement of Whitehead's cosmology would need to admit a Riemannian geometry. Also, although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory, his metaphysics of processes has proved attractive to some physicists in that field. Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: How was Whitehead's theory of gravitation received?
A: It has been severely criticized", '
Q: What physicists in the field of quantum theory have been influenced by Whitehead?
A: Henry Stapp and David Bohm', "
Q: What affect  did the discovery of gravitational waves have on Whitehead's theory?
A: Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of gravitational waves", '
Q: What are gravitational waves?
A: phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes', "
Q: How must Whiteheads cosmology now be considered?
A: Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation"]
This work has been pioneered by John B. Cobb, Jr., whose book Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology (1971) was the first single-authored book in environmental ethics. Cobb also co-authored a book with economist Herman Daly entitled For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (1989), which applied Whitehead's thought to economics, and received the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order. Cobb followed this with a second book, Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy (1994), which aimed to challenge "economists' zealous faith in the great god of growth."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What award did Cobb and Daly receive for the book?
A: Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order', '
Q: What was the first book on environmental ethics by an individual author?
A: Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology', '
Q: On which economics book did Cobb collaborate with Herman Daly?
A: For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future', '
Q: What other economics book did Cobb go on to author?
A: Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy', '
Q: What was the goal of Cobb\'s second book on economics?
A: to challenge "economists\' zealous faith in the great god of growth."']
Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China. "FEELS" stands for five things in curriculum and education: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher. It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to "help a person become whole." This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who established the FEELS model in China?
A: Xie Bangxiu', '
Q: What does "FEELS" stand for?
A: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher', '
Q: What is the purpose of the FEELS model?
A: It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to "help a person become whole."', '
Q: What entities are working together to promote the FEELS model?
A: Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China']
Whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of business administration and organizational theory. This has led in part to a focus on identifying and investigating the effect of temporal events (as opposed to static things) within organizations through an “organization studies” discourse that accommodates a variety of 'weak' and 'strong' process perspectives from a number of philosophers. One of the leading figures having an explicitly Whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is Mark Dibben, who works in what he calls "applied process thought" to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics. For Dibben, this allows "a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening." Dibben has published two books on applied process thought, Applied Process Thought I: Initial Explorations in Theory and Research (2008), and Applied Process Thought II: Following a Trail Ablaze (2009), as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and business ethics.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What prominent business professor has been heavily influenced by Whitehead?
A: Mark Dibben', '
Q: What does Dibben call his philosophy on management and business administration?
A: "applied process thought"', '
Q: In what fields has Dibben published two books and other papers?
A: philosophy of management and business ethics', '
Q: What business fields has Whitehead influenced?
A: philosophy of business administration and organizational theory', '
Q: According to Dibben, what are the benefits of applying process metaphysics to examining management and business administration as a component of social science?
A: this allows "a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening."']
Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics. He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy. Whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects, and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes, thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another. Today Whitehead's philosophical works – particularly Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: During which decade did Whitehead's focus start shifting away from mathematics?
A: 1910s", '
Q: After moving away from mathematics, what subjects did Whitehead explore?
A: philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics', '
Q: As opposed to physical objects, what did Whitehead believe reality is composed of?
A: processes', '
Q: What was the predominant theory of reality that Whitehead opposed?
A: reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another', "
Q: What book of Whitehead's is now considered a primary source of process philosophy?
A: Process and Reality", '
Q: What did Whitehead first study?
A: mathematics', "
Q: What was Whitehead's second area of study?
A: philosophy", "
Q: What was Whitehead's final area of study?
A: metaphysics", '
Q: What type of system did he develop?
A: metaphysical', '
Q: What did Whitehead argue reality consists of?
A: processes']
Alfred North Whitehead was born in Ramsgate, Kent, England, in 1861. His father, Alfred Whitehead, was a minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy, a successful school for boys established by Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather. Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful schoolmasters, but that his grandfather was the more extraordinary man. Whitehead's mother was Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster. Whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother, as he never mentioned her in any of his writings, and there is evidence that Whitehead's wife, Evelyn, had a low opinion of her.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was Alfred North Whitehead born?
A: Ramsgate, Kent, England', '
Q: In what year was Whitehead born?
A: 1861', "
Q: Who founded Chatham House Academy?
A: Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather", "
Q: What was Whitehead's father's profession?
A: minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy", "
Q: Who was Whitehead's mother?
A: Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster", '
Q: Where was Alfred North Whitehead born? 
A: Ramsgate, Kent, England', '
Q: What year was Whitehead born?
A: 1861', "
Q: What was Whitehead's father's profession?
A: minister and schoolmaster", "
Q: What was Whitehead's mother's name?
A: Maria Sarah Whitehead,", "
Q: What was Whitehead's wife's name?
A: Evelyn"]
In 1918 Whitehead's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the University of London system, of which Imperial College London was a member at the time. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 (a post he held for four years), a member of the University of London's Senate in 1919, and chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council in 1920, a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924. Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department, help establish a Bachelor of Science degree (previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered), and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which educational system was Whitehead employed in the late 1910s?
A: University of London system', "
Q: What was Whitehead's title at the University of London in late 1918?
A: Dean of the Faculty of Science", "
Q: What was Whitehead's last position before he traveled to America?
A: chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council", '
Q: In which year did Whitehead relocate to America?
A: 1924', '
Q: What degree program did Whitehead contribute to establishing at University of London?
A: Bachelor of Science', '
Q: When did Whitehead accept administrative positions?
A: 1918', '
Q: What was he elected at the University of London?
A: Dean of the Faculty of Science', '
Q: Where did Whitehead accept administrative positions?
A: University of London', '
Q: When did Whitehead go to America?
A: 1924']
The two volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead. However, many details of Whitehead's life remain obscure because he left no Nachlass; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death. Additionally, Whitehead was known for his "almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy", and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life. This led to Lowe himself remarking on the first page of Whitehead's biography, "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who authored Whitehead's biography that is considered to be the most reliable description of Whitehead's life?
A: Victor Lowe", "
Q: Why was no Nachlass left behind after Whitehead's death?
A: his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death", "
Q: What was Whitehead's opinion on privacy?
A: almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy", '
Q: What did the author of Whitehead\'s biography comment on the first page regarding the difficulty of obtaining information about Whitehead?
A: "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."', '
Q: How many volumes is the biography of Whitehead?
A: two', '
Q: Who wrote the biography of Whitehead?
A: Victor Lowe', "
Q: What was Whitehead's wish upon his death for his family?
A: all of his papers be destroyed after his death.", '
Q: What did Whitehead believe in so profusely that it was difficult to write a biography on him?
A: right to privacy']
In addition to numerous articles on mathematics, Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject: A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), Principia Mathematica (co-written with Bertrand Russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913), and An Introduction to Mathematics (1911). The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians, while the latter book was intended for a larger audience, covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations. Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Whitehead's first published book on mathematics?
A: A Treatise on Universal Algebra", '
Q: With what mathematician and philosopher did Whitehead collaborate to write Principia Mathematica?
A: Bertrand Russell', "
Q: Who was the intended audience of Whitehead's first two mathematics books?
A: professional mathematicians", "
Q: What was Whitehead's final book on mathematics?
A: An Introduction to Mathematics", '
Q: What is the significance of Principia Mathematica currently?
A: regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century', '
Q: What did Whitehead publish numerous articles about?
A: mathematics', '
Q: How many books on mathematics did Whitehead write?
A: three', '
Q: Who co-wrote Principia Mathematica with Whitehead?
A: Bertrand Russell', "
Q: Which of Whitehead's books is known as one of the most important works in mathematical logical?
A: Principia Mathematica", '
Q: When did Whitehead write his first book? 
A: 1898']
At the time structures such as Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class. In a review Alexander Macfarlane wrote: "The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods, nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them, but rather the comparative study of their several structures." In a separate review, G. B. Mathews wrote, "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions demonstrate a need for?
A: the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class', '
Q: How did Alexander Macfarlane summarize the relationship between different methods in "A Treatise on Algebra" in his review?
A: comparative study of their several structures', '
Q: What was G.B. Matthew\'s opinion of "A Treatise on Algebra"?
A: "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."', '
Q: Lie algebras and hypobolic quanternions drew attention to the need for what?
A: expand algebraic structures', '
Q: What did reviewer GB Mathews say algebraic structures possessed? 
A: unity of design', '
Q: Reviewer Alexander Macfarlane believed that the main idea of the work is a comparative study of what?
A: several structures']
Whitehead and Russell had thought originally that Principia Mathematica would take a year to complete; it ended up taking them ten years. To add insult to injury, when it came time for publication, the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians) that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds, 300 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell themselves. Despite the initial loss, today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long did Whitehead and Russell expect to spend creating Principia Mathematica?
A: a year', '
Q: How long did it actually take to complete Principia Mathematica? 
A: ten years', '
Q: Why was there a funding shortfall for the publishing of Princpia Mathematica? 
A: the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians)', '
Q: Who supplied the funding to cover the shortfall?
A: 00 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell', '
Q: How prevalent is Principia Mathematica today?
A: today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica', '
Q: How long did Whitehead and Russell think it would take them to complete Principia Mathematica?
A: a year', '
Q: How long did it actually take Whitehead and Russell to complete Principia Mathematica?
A: ten years', '
Q: How many volumes was Principia Mathematica?
A: three', '
Q: How many pages was Principia Mathematica?
A: 2,000', '
Q: Who paid to publish Principia Mathematica?
A: Cambridge University Press']
This is not to say that Whitehead's thought was widely accepted or even well-understood. His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon. Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead's writings. One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead's philosophy centers around the delivery of Whitehead's Gifford lectures in 1927–28 – following Arthur Eddington's lectures of the year previous – which Whitehead would later publish as Process and Reality:

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is the general opinion of the difficulty level of Whitehead's work in philosophy?
A: generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon", '
Q: What lectures did Whitehead present in 1927-28?
A: Gifford lectures', '
Q: Under what name were those lectures later published?
A: Process and Reality', "
Q: Who also struggled to follow Whitehead's writings?
A: professional philosophers", "
Q: Following Arthur Eddington's lectures, what did Whitehead  publish?
A: Process and Reality", '
Q: When did Whitehead delivery the Gifford lectures?
A: 1927–28', "
Q: In all of the western canon, what is Whitehead's work considered?
A: the most difficult to understand"]
However, Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest. In fact, there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications. In 1927 they invited one of America's only Whitehead experts – Henry Nelson Wieman – to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead's thought. Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years, and for at least thirty years afterward Chicago's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead's thought.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What affect did Matthews' opinion of the difficulty of Whitehead's works have on his interest in them?
A: Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest", "
Q: How did many philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School view Whitehead's work?
A: perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications", "
Q: What expert on Whitehead delivered a lecture at the school to explain Whitehead's ideas?
A: Henry Nelson Wieman", "
Q: What was the result of that lecture?
A: Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years", "
Q: Who was frustrated in Whitehead's books but still interested?
A: Mathews", "
Q: What school recognized the importance of Whitehead's work?
A: Chicago's Divinity School", '
Q: When was Henry Nelson Wieman invited to the Chicago Divinity school?
A: 1927', "
Q: Who was invited to the Chicago Divinity school as one of Whitehead's only experts?
A: Henry Nelson Wieman", '
Q: What happened after Henry Nelson Wieman gave a lecture about Whitehead?
A: hired']
Wieman's words proved prophetic. Though Process and Reality has been called "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century," it has been little-read and little-understood, partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus." Whitehead questioned western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works, but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How has "Process and Reality" been described? 
A: "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century,"', '
Q: What did Isabelle Stengers say is the reason that "Process and Reality" is not commonly read and understood?
A: it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus."', '
Q: What effect did Whitehead have on the future of metaphysics?
A: he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.', '
Q: Which publication is considered the most impressive metaphysical text?
A: Process and Reality', '
Q: Who thought Process and Reality was little-read because the reader has to separate them from normal thought?
A: Isabelle Stengers', '
Q: What philosophy in the west was challenged by Whitehead?
A: how the universe works', "
Q: What was Whitehead's philosophy able to anticipate for the 21st century?
A: scientific and philosophical problems", '
Q: What was the outcome of anticipating the scientific and philosophical problems Whitehead proposed?
A: novel solutions']
It must be emphasized, however, that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them. For Whitehead, creativity is the absolute principle of existence, and every entity (whether it is a human being, a tree, or an electron) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws. Of course, most entities do not have consciousness. As a human being's actions cannot always be predicted, the same can be said of where a tree's roots will grow, or how an electron will move, or whether it will rain tomorrow. Moreover, inability to predict an electron's movement (for instance) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology; rather, the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Whitehead believe regarding creativity?
A: creativity is the absolute principle of existence', '
Q: An entity is a sum of relations, a valuation of them and what else?
A: reaction to them.', '
Q: Most entities do not have what?
A: consciousness', '
Q: All entities, being unable to predict behavior, are because of what?
A: the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities', '
Q: Not being able to predict what any entity is going to do is what principle b Whitehead?
A: creativity is the absolute principle of existence', '
Q: Other than the combination of its relations, what else defines an entity?
A: an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them', "
Q: What did Whitehead believe about an entity's relation to other entities?
A: has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws"]