romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytics usually display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 μF). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting of three numeric digits and a letter, where the digits indicate the capacitance in pF (calculated as XY × 10Z for digits XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for ±5%, ±10% and ±20% respectively).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How do larger capacitors present their electrical characteristics?
A: display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 μF)', '
Q: What does the abbreviated electrical characteristics of smaller capacitors consist of?
A: three numeric digits and a letter', '
Q: What part of the electrical characteristics of smaller capacitors do the digits of the abbreviated notation represent ?
A: the digits indicate the capacitance', '
Q: What does the letter of the abbreviated notation for the electrical characteristics of smaller capacitors represent?
A: the letter indicates the tolerance', '
Q: In what SI unit is the capacitance reported on smaller capacitors?
A: in pF']
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why are capacitors connected in parallel with the power circuits of many devices and large systems?
A: to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits', '
Q: How do the capacitors connected in parallel act with currents from the power supply?
A: as a local reserve for the DC power source', '
Q: What is one value a stiffening capacitor accounts for when used in for car audio purposes?
A: the inductance', '
Q: What is another value a stiffening capacitor accounts for when used in for car audio purposes?
A: resistance', '
Q: What do parallel capacitors do to fluctuating current in order to deliver "clean" power for control circuits?
A: conceal current fluctuations']
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (var). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what scenario are capacitors used for power factor correction?
A: In electric power distribution', '
Q: How are capacitors used for for power factor correction prepared?
A: as three capacitors connected as a three phase load', '
Q: In what what unit is the capacitance reported for capacitors used in power factor correction?
A: reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (var)', '
Q: What is the reason for using capacitors in power factor correction?
A: to counteract inductive loading', '
Q: How are power factor correction capacitors sometimes installed?
A: at a load center within a building']
When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still radiate undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What happens to the current when an inductive circuit is opened?
A: the current through the inductance collapses quickly', '
Q: What happens to the voltage when an inductive circuit is opened?
A: a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch', '
Q: What type of capacitor is used to make a path to bypass the contact points?
A: A snubber capacitor', '
Q: What is a typical system in which a snubber capacitor is found?
A: contact breaker ignition systems', '
Q: What type of capacitor absorbs radio frequency interference?
A: a filter capacitor']
In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary winding within the motor housing is not capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start the motor, a secondary "start" winding has a series non-polarized starting capacitor to introduce a lead in the sinusoidal current. When the secondary (start) winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary (run) winding, a rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or current-sensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These are called capacitor-start motors, that have relatively high starting torque. Typically they can have up-to four times as much starting torque than a split-phase motor and are used on applications such as compressors, pressure washers and any small device requiring high starting torques.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the main winding on a squirrel cage motor capable of withstanding?
A: a rotational motion on the rotor', '
Q: What sort of capacitors are used on the second winding of a squirrel cage motor?
A: series non-polarized starting capacitor', '
Q: What does the capacitor on the second winding of a squirrel cage motor do?
A: introduce a lead in the sinusoidal current', '
Q: What does the centrifugal switch do the capacitor when the rotor achieves operating speed?
A: disconnects the capacitor', '
Q: Where is the start capacitor commonly mounted?
A: to the side of the motor housing']
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable-camera flash unit, powered by a 1.5 volt AA battery, has a capacitor which may contain over 15 joules of energy and be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors, for instance using a Brinkley stick. Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption or from transient voltages the capacitor may pick up from static charges or passing weather events.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How much energy could a capacitor in a disposable camera contain?
A: over 15 joules of energy', '
Q: To what voltage could a capacitor from a disposable camera be charged to?
A: over 300 volts', '
Q: What device can be used to discharge large voltage capacitors?
A: a Brinkley stick', '
Q: How are the terminals of high voltage capacitors stored?
A: with the terminals shorted', '
Q: What type of charge could a capacitor pick up a transient charge from?
A: from static charges']
Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes the dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What could cause the failure of a capacitor?
A: when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating', '
Q: What can happen to capacitors used in high current applications?
A: overheat', '
Q: What can happen to capacitors used in high energy capacitor banks?
A: violently explode', '
Q: What type of capacitors can generate soft x-rays?
A: High voltage vacuum capacitors', '
Q: What is one way to help minimize capacitor dangers?
A: preventive maintenance']
The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural sciences and social sciences. (The history of the arts and humanities is termed as the history of scholarship.) Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, often draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are natural and social sciences a subcategory of?
A: The history of science', '
Q: What is the history of arts and humanities called?
A: the history of scholarship', '
Q: What kind of phenomena does science study?
A: real world', '
Q: Intellectual history and social history are used in what?
A: Historiography of science']
The English word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers. While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales, Aristotle, and others), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is often traced back to the early modern period and in particular to the scientific revolution that took place in 16th- and 17th-century Europe. Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who coined the word "scientist"?
A: William Whewell', '
Q: When was the word "scientist" created?
A: 19th century', '
Q: What are people who study nature called?
A: natural philosophers', '
Q: Ibn al-Haytham and Roger Bacon were scientists in which time period?
A: the Middle Ages', '
Q: When was the beginning of modern science considered to be?
A: the scientific revolution']
From the 18th century through late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was often presented in a progressive narrative in which true theories replaced false beliefs. More recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the history of science in different terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What replaced false beliefs?
A: true theories', '
Q: Who depicts the history of science in a wider matrix?
A: Thomas Kuhn', '
Q: What time period did the history of science begin to take a progressive narrative?
A: the 18th century', '
Q: Thomas Kuhn used conceptual systems and what other term to define the history of science?
A: competing paradigms']
The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the development of agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time and effort could be devoted to tasks (other than food production) than hunter-gatherers or early subsistence farmers had available. This surplus allowed a community to support individuals who did things other than work towards bare survival. These other tasks included systematic studies of nature, study of written information gathered and recorded by others, and often of adding to that body of information.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The advancement of agriculture made what possible?
A: a surplus of food', '
Q: Having a surplus of food allowed farmers and hunter-gatherers to spend less time working on what?
A: food production', '
Q: Before agriculture advancements, what were farmers having to do?
A: work towards bare survival', '
Q: What advancement aided in spreading knowledge across generations?
A: The development of writing', '
Q: Who was able to support the people who were adding to the written knowledge of nature?
A: community']
Ancient Egypt made significant advances in astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Their development of geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of thumb were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean.The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyse the brain: it might be seen as the very beginnings of modern neuroscience. However, while Egyptian medicine had some effective practices, it was not without its ineffective and sometimes harmful practices. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Nevertheless, it applies the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and according to G. E. R. Lloyd played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which civilization advanced in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine?
A: Ancient Egypt', '
Q: What did Egyptians use to better organize their farmland?
A: geometry', '
Q: What theory did the Egyptians use to build rectilinear structures?
A: The 3-4-5 right triangle', '
Q: What research was Egypt known for?
A: alchemy', '
Q: What is the name of the earliest medical document?
A: The Edwin Smith papyrus']
From their beginnings in Sumer (now Iraq) around 3500 BC, the Mesopotamian people began to attempt to record some observations of the world with numerical data. But their observations and measurements were seemingly taken for purposes other than for elucidating scientific laws. A concrete instance of Pythagoras' law was recorded, as early as the 18th century BC: the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13). ..., dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before Pythagoras,  but an abstract formulation of the Pythagorean theorem was not.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did the Mesopotamian people originate from?
A: Sumer', '
Q: How far back do the Mesopotamian people go?
A: 3500 BC', '
Q: What did the Mesopotamian use to record data about the world around them?
A: numerical data', "
Q: What was the earliest recording of Pythagoras' law?
A: 18th century BC", '
Q: Which tablet had Pythagorean triplets on it?
A: Plimpton 322']
In Babylonian astronomy, records of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month. Using these data they developed arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of Kidinnu, a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote on the clay tablets in Babylonian astronomy?
A: scribes', '
Q: Where are Mesopotamian astronomical periods still used?
A: in Western calendars', '
Q: Who was Kidinnu?
A: a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician', '
Q: Who believes that the Hellenistic world relies on Babylonian astronomy?
A: A. Aaboe', "
Q: Where can Kidinnu's solar year be found in use?
A: today's calendars"]
In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which era was marked by investigating the universe?
A: Classical Antiquity', '
Q: What type of science are making a calendar and finding cures for diseases a part of?
A: natural philosophy', '
Q: What is an example of skilled professionals?
A: physicians', '
Q: What is an example of religious devotee?
A: temple healers', '
Q: What would the first scientists have been considered?
A: natural philosophers']
The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640-546 BC), dubbed the "father of science", was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena, for example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BC) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded by his pupil Democritus.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are early Greek philosophers known as?
A: pre-Socratics', '
Q: What question were Greek philosophers trying to answer?
A: How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?', '
Q: Who was named "the father of science"?
A: Thales', '
Q: Which religious deity did Thales undermine with his scientific theories?
A: Poseidon', '
Q: Who was the first person to determine that the Earth is round?
A: Samos']
Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BC, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here", and turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced empiricism and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced many biological writings that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the Scientific Revolution.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Plato and Aristotle are known for systematically discussing what?
A: natural philosophy', '
Q: What discussion technique are Plato and Aristotle responsible for?
A: deductive reasoning', '
Q: What year was the Platonic Academy founded?
A: 387 BC', '
Q: Aristotle introduced what theory?
A: empiricism', '
Q: How many species of animals were classified by Aristotle?
A: 540']
The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. According to Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Anatomy, zoology, geography, and studies like them are considered what?
A: factual knowledge', '
Q: What era utilized Greek theories?
A: the Hellenistic age', '
Q: What scientific theory was created by the Greeks?
A: the Socratic method', '
Q: Who employed logic, geometry, and natural sciences?
A: the Ancient Greeks', '
Q: Greek thought is predominately applying mathematics and what other method?
A: deliberate empirical research']