romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
For decades, it was the official policy of the Soviet Union to deny the existence of the secret protocol to the Soviet–German Pact. At the behest of Mikhail Gorbachev, Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev headed a commission investigating the existence of such a protocol. In December 1989, the commission concluded that the protocol had existed and revealed its findings to the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union. As a result, the Congress passed the declaration confirming the existence of the secret protocols, condemning and denouncing them. Both successor-states of the pact parties have declared the secret protocols to be invalid from the moment they were signed. The Federal Republic of Germany declared this on September 1, 1989 and the Soviet Union on December 24, 1989, following an examination of the microfilmed copy of the German originals.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who created an investigation into whether or not the Soviet-German Pact happened?
A: Mikhail Gorbachev, Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev', '
Q: Which states have argued that the Soviet-German Pact was invalid from the inception?
A: Both successor-states of the pact parties', "
Q: Which government agency received the news that the Soviet-German Pact had existed?
A: Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union"]
Regarding the timing of German rapprochement, many historians agree that the dismissal of Maxim Litvinov, whose Jewish ethnicity was viewed unfavorably by Nazi Germany, removed an obstacle to negotiations with Germany. Stalin immediately directed Molotov to "purge the ministry of Jews." Given Litvinov's prior attempts to create an anti-fascist coalition, association with the doctrine of collective security with France and Britain, and pro-Western orientation by the standards of the Kremlin, his dismissal indicated the existence of a Soviet option of rapprochement with Germany.[f] Likewise, Molotov's appointment served as a signal to Germany that the USSR was open to offers. The dismissal also signaled to France and Britain the existence of a potential negotiation option with Germany. One British official wrote that Litvinov's disappearance also meant the loss of an admirable technician or shock-absorber, while Molotov's "modus operandi" was "more truly Bolshevik than diplomatic or cosmopolitan." Carr argued that the Soviet Union's replacement of Foreign Minister Litvinov with Molotov on May 3, 1939 indicated not an irrevocable shift towards alignment with Germany, but rather was Stalin's way of engaging in hard bargaining with the British and the French by appointing a proverbial hard man, namely Molotov, to the Foreign Commissariat. Historian Albert Resis stated that the Litvinov dismissal gave the Soviets freedom to pursue faster-paced German negotiations, but that they did not abandon British–French talks. Derek Watson argued that Molotov could get the best deal with Britain and France because he was not encumbered with the baggage of collective security and could negotiate with Germany. Geoffrey Roberts argued that Litvinov's dismissal helped the Soviets with British–French talks, because Litvinov doubted or maybe even opposed such discussions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was ordered to remove the Jews from the Ministry?
A: Molotov', '
Q: Who gave the order to remove the Jews from the Ministry?
A: Stalin', '
Q: Who believed that the firing of Litvinov allowed the Soviets to quicker negotiations with Germany?
A: Derek Watson', '
Q: Who believed that the hiring of Molotov would result in a better deal with the western countries?
A: Geoffrey Roberts']
Edward Hallett Carr, a frequent defender of Soviet policy, stated: "In return for 'non-intervention' Stalin secured a breathing space of immunity from German attack."[page needed] According to Carr, the "bastion" created by means of the Pact, "was and could only be, a line of defense against potential German attack."[page needed] According to Carr, an important advantage was that "if Soviet Russia had eventually to fight Hitler, the Western Powers would already be involved."[page needed] However, during the last decades, this view has been disputed. Historian Werner Maser stated that "the claim that the Soviet Union was at the time threatened by Hitler, as Stalin supposed ... is a legend, to whose creators Stalin himself belonged. In Maser's view, "neither Germany nor Japan were in a situation [of] invading the USSR even with the least perspective  [sic] of success," and this could not have been unknown to Stalin. Carr further stated that, for a long time, the primary motive of Stalin's sudden change of course was assumed to be the fear of German aggressive intentions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Edward Carr believes that in a war between Germany and the Soviet Union, who else would have been participating?
A: the Western Powers would already be involved', '
Q: Who believes that the Soviet Unions was afraid of Germany?
A: Historian Werner Maser', '
Q: The pact according to Edward Carr’s view was to provide what between Germany and the Soviet Union?
A: a line of defense against']
Some critics of Stalin's policy, such as the popular writer Viktor Suvorov, claim that Stalin's primary motive for signing the Soviet–German non-aggression treaty was his calculation that such a pact could result in a conflict between the capitalist countries of Western Europe.[citation needed] This idea is supported by Albert L. Weeks.[page needed] Claims by Suvorov that Stalin planned to invade Germany in 1941 are debated by historians with, for example, David Glantz opposing such claims, while Mikhail Meltyukhov supports them.[citation needed] The authors of The Black Book of Communism consider the pact a crime against peace and a "conspiracy to conduct war of aggression."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was skeptical of Stalin’s policies?
A: Viktor Suvorov', '
Q: What is the claim the pact promoted, purported by the The Black Book of Communism?
A: a "conspiracy to conduct war of aggression."', '
Q: Who doesn’t believe that Joseph Stalin had plans to invade Germany?
A: David Glantz']
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was a capacitor originally known as?
A: a condenser', '
Q: How many electrical conductors, or plates, do all capacitors contain at a minimum?
A: two electrical conductors', '
Q: What is the name of the insulator in all capacitors that can store energy by becoming polarized?
A: a dielectric', '
Q: In what form does a capacitor store energy?
A: the form of an electrostatic field', '
Q: Where is the energy stored by a capacitor located?
A: between its plates']
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When does an electric field develop across the dielectric?
A: When there is a potential difference across the conductors', '
Q: Under what condition can a displacement current flow in a capacitor?
A: if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads', '
Q: What is an example of when there exists a potential difference across the conductors? 
A: when a capacitor is attached across a battery', '
Q: What happens to the current when a battery has been attached to a capacitor for an adequate amount of time?
A: no current can flow through the capacitor', '
Q: How do charges accumulate on each plate of a capacitor after an electric field has developed across the dielectric?
A: positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other']
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that charge could be stored by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric (although details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked. He also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who first discovered the basic properties of capacitors?
A: Ewald Georg von Kleist', '
Q: When were the basic properties of capacitors first discovered?
A: In October 1745', '
Q: In the original experiment in which the properties of capacitors were discovered, what component acted as the dielectric? 
A: a hand-held glass jar', "
Q: Besides the scientist's hand, what other component of the experiment in which the basic properties of capacitors were discovered acted as the second conductor?
A: the water acted as conductors", '
Q: What was the name of the Dutch physicist who invented the Leyden Jar?
A: Pieter van Musschenbroek']
Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the charge storage capacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and came to the conclusion that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term "battery", (denoting the increasing of power with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon), subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical cells. Leyden jars were later made by coating the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing between the foils.[citation needed] The earliest unit of capacitance was the jar, equivalent to about 1.11 nanofarads.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first person to connect several Leyden jars in parallel?
A: Daniel Gralath', '
Q: Where did Benjamin Franklin believe the charge was stored in Leyden jars?
A: stored on the glass', '
Q: Who coined the term "battery"?
A: Benjamin Franklin', '
Q: How many nanofarads did the earliest unit of capacitance equate to? 
A: 1.11 nanofarads', '
Q: Why was a gap left at the mouth of Leyden jars?
A: to prevent arcing between the foils']
Since the beginning of the study of electricity non conductive materials like glass, porcelain, paper and mica have been used as insulators. These materials some decades later were also well-suited for further use as the dielectric for the first capacitors. Paper capacitors made by sandwiching a strip of impregnated paper between strips of metal, and rolling the result into a cylinder were commonly used in the late 19century; their manufacture started in 1876, and they were used from the early 20th century as decoupling capacitors in telecommunications (telephony).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Besides porcelain, paper and mica, what other non conductive material was used as an insulator? 
A: glass', '
Q: For what use were non conductive materials used in the first capacitors?
A: as the dielectric', '
Q: What was layered between strips of metal in order to create paper capacitors?
A: strip of impregnated paper', '
Q: When were paper capacitors first manufactured?
A: in 1876', '
Q: What other use did paper capacitors serve in the telecommunications industry?
A: as decoupling capacitors']
Charles Pollak (born Karol Pollak), the inventor of the first electrolytic capacitors, found out that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or alkaline electrolyte, even when the power was switched off. In 1896 he filed a patent for an "Electric liquid capacitor with aluminum electrodes." Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s as a miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly invented transistor.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who invented the first electrolytic capacitor?
A: Charles Pollak', '
Q: In what sort of electrolyte does the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remain stable?
A: a neutral or alkaline electrolyte', '
Q: In what year was the patent filed for an electric liquid capacitor?
A: In 1896', "
Q: What sort of capacitors were created by Bell Labs in the 1950's?
A: Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors", '
Q: Why did Bell labs create their new type of capacitor?
A: to complement their newly invented transistor']
Last but not least the electric double-layer capacitor (now Supercapacitors) were invented. In 1957 H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes". He believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his capacitor as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity.".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are electric double-layer capacitors called today?
A: Supercapacitors', '
Q: When were low voltage electrolytic capacitors with porous carbon electrodes invented?
A: In 1957', '
Q: Who invented low voltage electrolytic capacitors with porous carbon electrodes?
A: H. Becker', '
Q: In what part of the capacitor did Becker believe the charge was being stored?
A: in the carbon pores', '
Q: In what component of electrolytic capacitors did Becker believe was similar to the porous carbon electrodes?
A: the pores of the etched foils']
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of area is between the two conductors in a capacitor?
A: a non-conductive region', '
Q: What is the name given to the area between two conductors in a capacitor?
A: the dielectric', '
Q: What net electric charge are capacitors assumed to have?
A: no net electric charge', '
Q: What type of charges do conductors hold on their facing surfaces?
A: equal and opposite charges', '
Q: What region within a capacitor develops an electric field?
A: the dielectric']
The current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge Q(t) passing through it, but actual charges—electrons—cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, one electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage V(t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the definition of the current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit?
A: the rate of flow of a charge Q(t) passing through it', '
Q: For each electron that departs the positive plate, how many electrons build up on the negative plate?
A: one electron accumulates on the negative plate', '
Q: To what is the charge on the electrodes of a capacitor equal to?
A: the integral of the current', '
Q: To what is the charge on the electrodes of a capacitor proportional to?
A: proportional to the voltage', '
Q: When calculating the integral to determine the charge on the electrodes of a capacitor, what does the constant of integration that must be added represent?
A: the initial voltage V(t0)']
The simplest model capacitor consists of two thin parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric with permittivity ε . This model may also be used to make qualitative predictions for other device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge density ±ρ = ±Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the length and width of the plates are much greater than their separation d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the magnitude E = ρ/ε. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field between the plates

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In an ideal model of a capacitor, what is the value that describes the permittivity of the dielectric?
A: permittivity ε', '
Q: What equation describes the charge density for an ideal model of a capacitor?
A: ±ρ = ±Q/A', '
Q: In an ideal model of a capacitor, what must be assumed about the size of the plates?
A: much greater than their separation d', '
Q: Close to the middle of the capacitor, what equation describes the magnitude of the electric field?
A: E = ρ/ε', '
Q: What does the line integral of the electric field between the plates of a capacitor represent?
A: The voltage']
The maximum energy is a function of dielectric volume, permittivity, and dielectric strength. Changing the plate area and the separation between the plates while maintaining the same volume causes no change of the maximum amount of energy that the capacitor can store, so long as the distance between plates remains much smaller than both the length and width of the plates. In addition, these equations assume that the electric field is entirely concentrated in the dielectric between the plates. In reality there are fringing fields outside the dielectric, for example between the sides of the capacitor plates, which will increase the effective capacitance of the capacitor. This is sometimes called parasitic capacitance. For some simple capacitor geometries this additional capacitance term can be calculated analytically. It becomes negligibly small when the ratios of plate width to separation and length to separation are large.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a function of the amount of dielectric, the strength of dielectric and its permittivity?
A: The maximum energy', '
Q: If the plate area and separation distance are altered while keeping the amount of dielectric the same, what effect is had on the maximum energy of the capacitor? 
A: no change of the maximum amount of energy', '
Q: In a realistic model of a capacitor, where else besides between the dielectric between the conductors might an electric field be found?
A: fringing fields outside the dielectric', '
Q: When an electric field exists between the sides of the plates as well as in within the dielectric, what effect is had on the effective capacitance of the capacitor?
A: will increase the effective capacitance', '
Q: When the ratios of plate length and width to separation distance are large, what size is the parasitic capacitance?
A: negligibly small']
Capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in a number of ways. Some of these, such as leakage current and parasitic effects are linear, or can be assumed to be linear, and can be dealt with by adding virtual components to the equivalent circuit of the capacitor. The usual methods of network analysis can then be applied. In other cases, such as with breakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and normal (i.e., linear) network analysis cannot be used, the effect must be dealt with separately. There is yet another group, which may be linear but invalidate the assumption in the analysis that capacitance is a constant. Such an example is temperature dependence. Finally, combined parasitic effects such as inherent inductance, resistance, or dielectric losses can exhibit non-uniform behavior at variable frequencies of operation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What characteristic can leakage current and parasitic effects be assumed to have in the equation for a realistic capacitor?
A: can be assumed to be linear', '
Q: What sort of components can be added to the equivalent circuit of a capacitor in order to deal with leakage current and parasitic effects?
A: virtual components', '
Q: Upon dealing with leakage current and parasitic effects in a realistic model of a capacitor, what sort of methods can then be applied?
A: The usual methods of network analysis', '
Q: What sort of analysis cannot be used in cases of voltage breakdown in modelling a capacitor?
A: normal (i.e., linear) network analysis cannot be used', '
Q: What causes the assumption of constant capacitance to fail even if the effect is linear in nature?
A: temperature dependence']
For air dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength is of the order 2 to 5 MV/m; for mica the breakdown is 100 to 300 MV/m; for oil, 15 to 25 MV/m; it can be much less when other materials are used for the dielectric. The dielectric is used in very thin layers and so absolute breakdown voltage of capacitors is limited. Typical ratings for capacitors used for general electronics applications range from a few volts to 1 kV. As the voltage increases, the dielectric must be thicker, making high-voltage capacitors larger per capacitance than those rated for lower voltages. The breakdown voltage is critically affected by factors such as the geometry of the capacitor conductive parts; sharp edges or points increase the electric field strength at that point and can lead to a local breakdown. Once this starts to happen, the breakdown quickly tracks through the dielectric until it reaches the opposite plate, leaving carbon behind and causing a short (or relatively low resistance) circuit. The results can be explosive as the short in the capacitor draws current from the surrounding circuitry and dissipates the energy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What order is the breakdown field strength for air dielectric capacitors of?
A: of the order 2 to 5 MV/m', '
Q: Of what order is the breakdown field strength for mica dielectric capacitors?
A: 100 to 300 MV/m', '
Q: In what way is the dielectric used in order to cause the absolute breakdown voltage of capacitors to be limited?
A: The dielectric is used in very thin layers', '
Q: What is one factor that critically affects the breakdown voltage of the capacitor?
A: the geometry of the capacitor conductive parts', '
Q: What is the difference in the physical attributes of the dielectric used in high voltage capacitors compared to low voltage capacitors?
A: the dielectric must be thicker']