romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The meaning of federalism, as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context.[citation needed] Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends.[citation needed] For example, at the time those nations were being established, factions known as "federalists" in the United States and Australia advocated the formation of strong central government. Similarly, in European Union politics, federalists mostly seek greater EU integration. In contrast, in Spain and in post-war Germany, federal movements have sought decentralisation: the transfer of power from central authorities to local units. In Canada, where Quebec separatism has been a political force for several decades, the "federalist" impulse aims to keep Quebec inside Canada.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What is the meaning of federalism?
A: as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context", '
Q: What types of movements are associated with federalism?
A: Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends.', '
Q: What countries advocate for a strong central government?
A: United States and Australia']
From 1938 until 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court did not invalidate any federal statute as exceeding Congress' power under the Commerce Clause. Most actions by the federal government can find some legal support among the express powers, such as the Commerce Clause, whose applicability has been narrowed by the Supreme Court in recent years. In 1995 the Supreme Court rejected the Gun-Free School Zones Act in the Lopez decision, and also rejected the civil remedy portion of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 in the United States v. Morrison decision. Recently, the Commerce Clause was interpreted to include marijuana laws in the Gonzales v. Raich decision.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What happened between 1938 to 1995?
A: the U.S. Supreme Court did not invalidate any federal statute as exceeding Congress' power under the Commerce Clause.", '
Q: What are most actions in the federal government known as?
A: Commerce Clause', '
Q: What did the court reject in 1995?
A: the Supreme Court rejected the Gun-Free School Zones Act in the Lopez decision', '
Q: What did the court reject in 1994?
A: rejected the civil remedy portion of the Violence Against Women Act', '
Q: What does the commerce clause include?
A: include marijuana laws in the Gonzales v. Raich decision']
On one hand, this means that the Belgian political landscape, generally speaking, consists of only two components: the Dutch-speaking population represented by Dutch-language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels, represented by their French-speaking parties. The Brussels region emerges as a third component. This specific dual form of federalism, with the special position of Brussels, consequently has a number of political issues—even minor ones—that are being fought out over the Dutch/French-language political division. With such issues, a final decision is possible only in the form of a compromise. This tendency gives this dual federalism model a number of traits that generally are ascribed to confederalism, and makes the future of Belgian federalism contentious.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many components does the Belgian political landscape include?
A: two components', '
Q: What are the two components in the Belgian political landscape?
A: the Dutch-speaking population represented by Dutch-language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels', '
Q: What component is the Brussel Region?
A: third component', '
Q: What happens with the Brussels special position?
A: consequently has a number of political issues']
Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state. The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent. In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states. Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces. The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The US Constitution says what to amendments? 
A: provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent', '
Q: What happens when certain constitutional amendments cannot occur?
A: cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state', '
Q: Any amendment in the Canadian constitution that needs to be modified, needs to do what first?
A: would require unanimous consent of the provinces.', '
Q: What is the German basic law?
A: provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system.']
Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'. Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do. This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions. In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the "coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history. However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federalism, but a decentralized administrative organization of the state.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does every component state of federation possess?
A: the same powers', '
Q: Asymmetric federalism exist when?
A: where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do', '
Q: What cities in Spain are in the historic movement?
A: Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians', '
Q: Is Spain apart of federalism?
A: Spain is not a federalism, but a decentralized administrative organization of the state.']
Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does federations have for amendments of the constitution? 
A: special procedures', '
Q: What may guarantee the self-governing status of the competent states?
A: federal structure', '
Q: What needs to be done in order to amend the Australia and Switzerland Constitution?
A: required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole']
The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does the structures of the federal government incorporate?
A: mechanisms to protect the rights of component states', '
Q: What is one method to protect the rights of the component states?
A: intrastate federalism', '
Q: What is intrastate federalism?
A: is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions', '
Q: What is a bicameral legislature?
A: the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole']
Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves. For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No. 39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both. In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..." This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent. This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does federations often employ?
A: union of states', '
Q: What is federalist paper no. 39?
A: that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both', '
Q: What is the foundation for federalist paper no. 39?
A: it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..', '
Q: What is the 10th Amendment in the United States?
A: which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people.']
Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities. Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government. Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" (lei orgânica). Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions. Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states. However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When is a federation formed?
A: two levels', '
Q: What two levels equal a federation?
A: the central government and the regions', '
Q: Why is Brazil an exception?
A: because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite', '
Q: What is each state divided into?
A: municipalities', '
Q: What does each state have their own of?
A: with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito']
China is the largest unitary state in the world by both population and land area. Although China has had long periods of central rule for centuries, it is often argued that the unitary structure of the Chinese government is far too unwieldy to effectively and equitably manage the country's affairs. On the other hand, Chinese nationalists are suspicious of decentralization as a form of secessionism and a backdoor for national disunity; still others argue that the degree of autonomy given to provincial-level officials in the People's Republic of China amounts to a de facto federalism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: China is the largest what?
A: China is the largest unitary state in the world by both population and land area', '
Q: What are Chinese nationalist suspicious of?
A: decentralization', "
Q: Why is China's government similar to unity structure?
A: Chinese government is far too unwieldy to effectively and equitably manage the country's affairs", '
Q: How long has China been with centralized power?
A: centuries']
The Philippines is a unitary state with some powers devolved to Local Government Units (LGUs) under the terms of the Local Government Code. There is also one autonomous region, the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao. Over the years various modifications have been proposed to the Constitution of the Philippines, including possible transition to a federal system as part of a shift to a parliamentary system. In 2004, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo established the Consultative Commission which suggested such a Charter Change but no action was taken by the Philippine Congress to amend the 1987 Constitution.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of state is the Philippines?
A: unitary state', '
Q: What types of powers does the Philippines have?
A: some powers devolved to Local Government Units (LGUs) under the terms of the Local Government Code', '
Q: What type of modifications been added to the Philippines Constitution? 
A: possible transition to a federal system as part of a shift to a parliamentary system.', '
Q: What did President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo establish?
A: the Consultative Commission']
Spain is a unitary state with a high level of decentralisation, often regarded as a federal system in all but name or a "federation without federalism". The country has been quoted as being "an extraordinarily decentralized country", with the central government accounting for just 18% of public spending, 38% for the regional governments, 13% for the local councils, and the remaining 31% for the social security system. The current Spanish constitution has been implemented in such a way that, in many respects, Spain can be compared to countries which are undeniably federal.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of state is Spain?
A: unitary state', '
Q: What type of federalism system does Spain have?
A: unitary state with a high level of decentralisation, often regarded as a federal system in all but name or a "federation without federalism"', '
Q: What type of government does Spain have?
A: central government', "
Q: What does Spain's government accounts for?
A: 8% of public spending, 38% for the regional governments, 13% for the local councils, and the remaining 31% for the social security system"]
The United Kingdom has traditionally been governed as a unitary state by the Westminster Parliament in London. Instead of adopting a federal model, the UK has relied on gradual devolution to decentralise political power. Devolution in the UK began with the Government of Ireland Act 1914 which granted home rule to Ireland as a constituent country of the former United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland in 1921 which saw the creation of the sovereign Irish Free State (which eventually evolved into the modern day Republic of Ireland), Northern Ireland retained its devolved government through the Parliament of Northern Ireland, the only part of the UK to have such a body at this time. This body was suspended in 1972 and Northern Ireland was governed by direct rule during the period of conflict known as The Troubles.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How has United Kingdom been governed?
A: unitary state', '
Q: Instead of the UK adopting the federalist model, what did they do?
A: UK has relied on gradual devolution to decentralise political power', '
Q: When did devolution in the UK begin?
A: 1914', '
Q: What is Ireland Act 1914?
A: which granted home rule to Ireland as a constituent country of the former United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland', '
Q: What is Irish Free State?
A: eventually evolved into the modern day Republic of Ireland']
In modern times, a process of devolution in the United Kingdom has decentralised power once again. Since the 1997 referendums in Scotland and Wales and the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland, three of the four constituent countries of the UK now have some level of autonomy. Government has been devolved to the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Assembly. England does not have its own parliament and English affairs continue to be decided by the Westminster Parliament. In 1998 a set of eight unelected Regional assemblies, or chambers, was created to support the English Regional Development Agencies, but these were abolished between 2008 and 2010. The Regions of England continue to be used in certain governmental administrative functions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has the process of devolution in the UK did?
A: decentralised power once again', '
Q: What happened since 1997?
A: referendums in Scotland and Wales and the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland', '
Q: Does England have its own Parliament?
A: England does not have its own parliament and English affairs continue to be decided by the Westminster Parliament', '
Q: What does the region of England continue to use?
A: certain governmental administrative functions']
Federalism also finds expression in ecclesiology (the doctrine of the church). For example, presbyterian church governance resembles parliamentary republicanism (a form of political federalism) to a large extent. In Presbyterian denominations, the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to presbyteries and further to a general assembly. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in political federalism, in presbyterian ecclesiology there is shared sovereignty.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is ecclesiology?
A: the doctrine of the church', '
Q: What happens in Presbyterian denominations?
A: the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial.', '
Q: In political federalism what does Presbyterian ecclesiology do?
A: shared sovereignty', '
Q: What does each greater level of assembly have?
A: authority over its constituent members']
Some Christians argue that the earliest source of political federalism (or federalism in human institutions; in contrast to theological federalism) is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible. They point to the structure of the early Christian Church as described (and prescribed, as believed by many) in the New Testament. In their arguments, this is particularly demonstrated in the Council of Jerusalem, described in Acts chapter 15, where the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church; the Apostles being representatives of the universal Church, and elders being such for the local church. To this day, elements of federalism can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the earliest source of political federalism according to Christians?
A: is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible.', '
Q: What was the structure that the early Christian church described?
A: in the New Testament', '
Q: What happens in the council of Jerusalem?
A: the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church', '
Q: Where can the elements of federalism can be found?
A: can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others.']
In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers. Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871. Beyond this the precise division of power varies from one nation to another. The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states. The Constitution of some countries like Canada and India, on the other hand, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial governments are retained by the federal government. Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility. Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of European competence or shared between EU and state as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent states.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In nearly all federalism countries, central powers enjoy what?
A: the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers', '
Q: Per the UN definition, what is federalism?
A: federation would not be a single sovereign state', '
Q: What is the German Empire?
A: Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level,', '
Q: What is the libson treaty?
A: powers which are not either exclusively of European competence or shared between EU and state as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent states.']
Galicia (English i/ɡəˈlɪsiə/, /ɡəˈlɪʃə/; Galician: [ɡaˈliθja] ( listen), [ħaˈliθja], or [ħaˈlisja]; Spanish: [ɡaˈliθja]; Galician and Portuguese: Galiza, [ɡaˈliθa] ( listen), [ħaˈliθa] or [ħaˈlisa]) is an autonomous community of Spain and historic nationality under Spanish law. Located in the North-West of the Iberian Peninsula, it comprises the provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense and Pontevedra, being bordered by Portugal to the south, the Spanish autonomous communities of Castile and León and Asturias to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the north. It had a population of 2,765,940 in 2013 and has a total area of 29,574 km2 (11,419 sq mi). Galicia has over 1,660 km (1,030 mi) of coastline, including its offshore islands and islets, among them Cíes Islands, Ons, Sálvora, Cortegada, and—the largest and most populated—A Illa de Arousa.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which country is Galicia in?
A: Spain', '
Q: Where is its geographic location?
A: North-West of the Iberian Peninsula', '
Q: Which large body of water does Galicia border?
A: Atlantic Ocean', '
Q: What is its largest island?
A: Arousa']