romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are also among the longest-distance migrants; sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (8,700 mi) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway. Some Manx shearwaters Puffinus puffinus do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km (5 million miles) during its over-50 year lifespan.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which species are great wanderers?
A: pelagic', "
Q: How far did a Manx shearwater fly over it's lifespan?
A: 8 million km", "
Q: Which bird broke a record in how far it flew over it's life?
A: Manx shearwater", '
Q: How long did the Manx shearwater live?
A: 50 year', '
Q: How far will Puffinus griseus migrate each year?
A: 14,000 km']
Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles, and buzzards, but also storks. These birds migrate in the daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as the Strait of Messina, Gibraltar, Falsterbo, and the Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants. This is a notable factor in the Central American migratory bottleneck. Batumi bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth. Avoiding flying over the Black Sea surface and across high mountains, hundreds of thousands of soaring birds funnel through an area around the city of Batumi, Georgia. Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20% of their weight during migration, which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons, hawks and harriers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do some large broad-winged birds rely on to help them soar?
A: thermal columns of rising hot air', '
Q: When do large birds of pray migrate?
A: daytime', '
Q: What is one of the heaviest migratory funnels?
A: Batumi bottleneck', '
Q: How much of their body weight do honey buzzards lose during migration?
A: 10 to 20%', '
Q: How many birds funnel through Batumi, Georgia each year?
A: hundreds of thousands']
Many of the smaller insectivorous birds including the warblers, hummingbirds and flycatchers migrate large distances, usually at night. They land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. The birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for short durations between the origin and destination.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When do many insectivorous birds migrate?
A: usually at night', '
Q: Which kinds of birds land for a few days before resuming migration?
A: smaller insectivorous birds', '
Q: What are smaller insectivorous birds referred to?
A: passage migrants', '
Q: How long do passage migrants stop and feed before resuming migration?
A: a few days']
Nocturnal migrants minimize predation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a benefit of nocturnal migration?
A: minimize predation', '
Q: What is a cost of nocturnal migration?
A: loss of sleep', '
Q: How do nocturnal migrants compensate for loss of sleep?
A: Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep', '
Q: What is another benefit of nocturnal migration?
A: avoid overheating']
Many long-distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length. Species that move short distances, however, may not need such a timing mechanism, instead moving in response to local weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria and white-throated dipper Cinclus cinclus, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as merlin Falco columbarius and Eurasian skylark Alauda arvensis move further, to the coast or towards the south. Species like the chaffinch are much less migratory in Britain than those of continental Europe, mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are many long distance migrants genetically programmed to do?
A: respond to changing day length', '
Q: How do species that move short distances know when to migrate?
A: response to local weather conditions', '
Q: Why do mountain and moorland breeders move only altitudinally?
A: to escape the cold higher ground', '
Q: Where do the merlin Falco columbarius migrate to?
A: the coast or towards the south', '
Q: How far do British chaffinch more in their lives?
A: 5 km']
Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those that have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita, are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in the northern hemisphere.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many evolutionary origins do short distance passerine migrants have?
A: two', '
Q: Which species have long-distance migrants in the same family?
A: the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita', '
Q: Why have some specied progressively shortened their return migration?
A: to stay in the northern hemisphere']
Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings Bombycilla, are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What species has no long-distance migratory relatives?
A: the waxwings Bombycilla', '
Q: What are the waxwings Bombycilla moving in response to?
A: winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food', '
Q: Why are the waxwing Bombycilla not migrating for?
A: enhanced breeding opportunities']
In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where is there little variation in the length of day throughout the year?
A: In the tropics', '
Q: Why does altitudinal migration occur in some tropical birds?
A: to obtain more of their preferred foods', '
Q: What are tropical birds preferred foods?
A: fruits', '
Q: Where is it always warm enough for food supply?
A: In the tropics']
Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: For what reason would birds mor far beyond the normal range?
A: a good breeding season followed by a food source failure', '
Q: How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain in the nineteeth century?
A: five', '
Q: How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain between 1937 and 200?
A: 18', '
Q: What years did Red crossbills invade England?
A: 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791']
Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon. This is because land birds in high northern latitudes, where food becomes scarce in winter, leave for areas further south (including the Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter, and because the continental landmass is much larger in the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which hemisphere does bird migration primarily happen?
A: Northern', '
Q: Where do birds from high northern latitutes migrate to?
A: south', '
Q: Why do birds migrate south in winter?
A: food becomes scarce', '
Q: Which species of seabirds are more likely to migrate?
A: species of the Southern Hemisphere', '
Q: Why are seabirds from the southern hemisphere more likely to migrate?
A: there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere']
The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What controls a birds migration?
A: a primitive trait', '
Q: How do birds navigate and orient themselves during migration?
A: endogenous programs as well as learning', '
Q: What is a primitive trait present even in non migrating birds?
A: migration', '
Q: What is a complex phenomenon in regards to migration?
A: The ability to navigate']
The primary physiological cue for migration are the changes in the day length. These changes are also related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe (German: migratory restlessness), first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the primary cue for migration?
A: changes in the day length', '
Q: How do birds act in the period before migration?
A: higher activity', '
Q: What does Zugunruhe mean in English?
A: migratory restlessness', '
Q: What do caged birds display that corresponds with migratory direction in nature?
A: preferential flight direction', '
Q: When do caged birds change their preferential direction?
A: the same time their wild conspecifics change course']
In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism, males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is it called when males return earlier to the breeding sites than females?
A: protandry', '
Q: What happens in polygynous species with sexual dimophism?
A: males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites', '
Q: Why do males in polygynous species return before the females?
A: sexual dimorphism']
Navigation is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has also been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields (magnetoception), use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is navigation based on?
A: a variety of senses', '
Q: What do many birds use as a compass?
A: sun', '
Q: What does using the sun for direction involve?
A: the need for making compensation based on the time', '
Q: What else is navigation based on?
A: use visual landmarks', '
Q: What is magnetoception?
A: the ability to detect magnetic fields']
Long distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favourite wintering sites. Once the site attachment is made they show high site-fidelity, visiting the same wintering sites year after year.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When do long distance migrants disperse?
A: as young birds', '
Q: What do young birds form attachments to?
A: potential breeding sites', '
Q: What else do young birds form attachments to?
A: wintering sites', '
Q: What happens when the site attachment is made?
A: they show high site-fidelity', '
Q: Where do migrating birds visit?
A: the same wintering sites year after year']
The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps. Satellite tracking of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are older migrating birds better at?
A: making corrections for wind drift', '
Q: How was the migrating of ospretys and honey buzzards tracked?
A: Satellite', '
Q: What do the birds do to successfully perform long distance migration?
A: recognize habitats and form mental maps', '
Q: What are examples of day migrating raptors?
A: ospreys and honey buzzards']
Migratory birds may use two electromagnetic tools to find their destinations: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to long wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the sun in any way. At this stage the bird is in the position of a boy scout with a compass but no map, until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other capabilities to use. With experience it learns various landmarks and this "mapping" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination. There is a neural connection between the eye and "Cluster N", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to see the magnetic field of the earth.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What two electromagnetic tools do birds use to find their destinations?
A: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience', '
Q: Where is the neural connection that is active during migration located?
A: between the eye and "Cluster N"', '
Q: What is Cluster N?
A: the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation', "
Q: What is a young bird on it's first migration compared to?
A: a boy scout with a compass but no map", '
Q: How does the magnetic field help the bird at different latitudes?
A: let it know when it has reached its destination']
Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How can migrating birds lose their way?
A: flying past their destinations', '
Q: What is flying past their destinations called?
A: spring overshoot', '
Q: What location has become famous for bird overshooters?
A: Point Pelee National Park', '
Q: What other location is famous for spring overshoot?
A: Spurn in England', '
Q: Where do bird overshooters end up?
A: further north than intended']
Reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly, can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is it called when the genetic programing of young birds fail?
A: Reverse migration', '
Q: What is reverse migration?
A: where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly', '
Q: What does reverse migration lead to?
A: rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range', '
Q: How far out of range can rarities get?
A: thousands of kilometres']
A related phenomenon called "abmigration" involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population. This is especially common in some waterfowl, which shift from one flyway to another.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is it called when birds from one region join birds from a different region?
A: abmigration', '
Q: What kind of bird is most likely to abmigrate?
A: waterfowl', '
Q: Who do abmigrating birds return with?
A: the new population']
It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada geese Branta canadensis, microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes Grus americana.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a re-introduction scheme?
A: to teach a migration route to a flock of birds', '
Q: What did they use to teach birds a migration route?
A: microlight aircraft', '
Q: Which birds did they reintroduce to the US?
A: whooping cranes', '
Q: Which birds did they use as a trial run?
A: Canada geese']
Birds need to alter their metabolism in order to meet the demands of migration. The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations. In addition, the feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear and require to be molted. The timing of this molt - usually once a year but sometimes twice - varies with some species molting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds. Apart from physiological adaptations, migration sometimes requires behavioural changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do birds need to change to meet the demands of migration?
A: their metabolism', '
Q: How often do birds molt?
A: usually once a year', '
Q: How do birds store energy?
A: through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep', '
Q: Why do birds need to molt?
A: feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear', '
Q: When do birds molt?
A: varies with some species']
Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages. While it is agreed that the behavioral and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control, some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behavior to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behavior exists in nearly all avian lineages. This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behavior after the most recent glacial maximum.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How was migration developed?
A: independently', '
Q: What is highly labile?
A: Migration in birds', '
Q: What causes the behavioral adaptations necessary for migration?
A: genetic control', '
Q: What exists in nearly all avian lineages?
A: genetic framework for migratory behavior']
Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What percentage increase in flight distance will often be adaptive?
A: 20%', '
Q: What kind of bird flies less efficiently?
A: a bird that loads itself with food', "
Q: What type of bird show circuitous migratory routes?
A: Swainson's thrush", "
Q: Where do Swainson's thrush fly from?
A: far east across North America"]
Large scale climatic changes, as have been experienced in the past, are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration. Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration, breeding as well as population variations.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is expected to have an effect on migration timing?
A: climatic changes', '
Q: What have studies shown regarding climate change?
A: timing changes in migration', '
Q: What else is climate change been shown to change?
A: breeding as well as population variations']
The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species, including those of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice, which in turn may carry micro-organisms including those of concern to human health. Due to the global spread of avian influenza, bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission, but it has been found not to present a special risk; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat. Some viruses that are maintained in birds without lethal effects, such as the West Nile Virus may however be spread by migrating birds. Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What other species does migration help?
A: ectoparasites such as ticks and lice', '
Q: What is a greater threat of disease transmission?
A: import of pet and domestic birds', '
Q: What has been studied as a mechanism of disease transmission?
A: bird migration', '
Q: What has a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton?
A: Birds', '
Q: What virus is maintained in birds without lethal effects?
A: West Nile Virus']
Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines. Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who takes advantage of migrating birds?
A: Greater noctule bats', '
Q: What do greater noctule bats feed on?
A: nocturnal migrating passerines', '
Q: What do some birds of prey specialize on?
A: migrating waders']