romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and, because of their size, might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs - rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which venue created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life could gather and share ideas?
A: Coffeehouses', '
Q: Coffehouses were criticized by which group of people, fearing the possiblity of an environmentin which class was disregarded?
A: nobles', '
Q: Which societal group believed they held a divine right to rule and resented the idea of their subjects convening to discuss political matters?
A: Monarchs', '
Q: What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?
A: Monarchs']
A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by M D Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes?
A: upper', '
Q: Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy?
A: natural history', '
Q: Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes?
A: René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur']
Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent?
A: 1730s', "
Q: The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities?
A: British", '
Q: Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles?
A: the Parisian lodge', '
Q: Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"?
A: British', '
Q: What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe?
A: Grand Architect']
Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities?
A: Coffeehouses', '
Q: Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery?
A: the Enlightenment', '
Q: In what year was The Spectator published?
A: 1711', '
Q: Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters?
A: The Spectator']
The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the major opponent to Freemasonry?
A: Roman Catholic Church', '
Q: Which countries had a large Catholic element and therefore had confrontation with Freemasons?
A: France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico', '
Q: Do American historians downplay or attribute the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution?
A: downplay', '
Q: Who was the political enemy of the Patriots?
A: the Loyalists', '
Q: Were the Masons political or non-political in the American Revolution?
A: non-political']
The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and ending the abuses of the church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the principle of absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How was the Enlightenment known in French?
A: Siècle des Lumières', '
Q: Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?
A: The Enlightenment', '
Q: In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?
A: individual liberty and religious tolerance', '
Q: The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?
A: Roman Catholic Church']
In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries, and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?
A: Paris', "
Q: Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?
A: Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau", '
Q: Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?
A: reason', '
Q: Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?
A: Montesquieu', "
Q: Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?
A: the United States Constitution"]
The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire; Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); and Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an opposing intellectual movement known as Romanticism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?
A: the Encyclopédie', '
Q: The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?
A: thirty-five', '
Q: Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?
A: 1733', "
Q: When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?
A: 1754", '
Q: What year did the French Revolution begin?
A: 1789']
There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority; and a second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith. Both lines of thought were opposed by the conservative Counter-Enlightenment.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?
A: Counter-Enlightenment.', '
Q: The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?
A: Spinoza', '
Q: Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?
A: Spinoza', '
Q: Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?
A: René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others']
The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is credited with the concept of separating church and state?
A: John Locke', '
Q: Which term describes John Locke\'s movement to seperate church and state?
A: The "Radical Enlightenment"', '
Q: In what year was John Locke born?
A: 1632', '
Q: In what realm did John Locke feel the government lacked authority?
A: the realm of individual conscience']
A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the Deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note that, "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law, and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647–1706) observed that in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion].". He believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism?
A: the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source', '
Q: Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men?
A: Pierre Bayle', '
Q: Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined?
A: Voltaire', '
Q: Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society?
A: Voltaire']
The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude," and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude". Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere?
A: women and the lower classes', '
Q: Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation?
A: coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges', '
Q: Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what?
A: "the opinion of the multitude,"', '
Q: d\'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom?
A: "the blind and noisy multitude"']
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial, and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France at least, the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment?
A: reading materials', '
Q: Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices?
A: the Industrial Revolution', '
Q: In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for?
A: demand for information', '
Q: In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century?
A: France', '
Q: The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage?
A: just one-tenth of the total']
As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Whose incomes did public concerts help support?
A: performers' and composers'", '
Q: Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work?
A: operas and oratorios', '
Q: Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals?
A: Haydn and Mozart', '
Q: What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share?
A: Viennese Classical']
The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines, and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens". Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership; although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people". For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year was the Academy of Science in France founded?
A: 1635', '
Q: Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?"
A: scientists', '
Q: What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science?
A: 13 percent', '
Q: The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group?
A: elite Parisian scholars', '
Q: How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves?
A: interpreters of the sciences for the people']
Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located?
A: northern Europe', '
Q: Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe?
A: Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh', '
Q: Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies?
A: Edinburgh', "
Q: Which of  France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment?
A: the medical university at Montpellier"]
The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How can associationism be defined?
A: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines', '
Q: What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward?
A: associationism,', '
Q: Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period?
A: the Renaissance']