romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation, Dirac equation or even the Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. The most complicated treatments allow for the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization. In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum at all—an illustration of how the "planetary orbit" conception of electron motion differs from reality.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of movement does the electron not have in ground state?
A: angular']
There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state with a molecular spin quantum number of 1 (1⁄2+1⁄2); in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a singlet with a molecular spin quantum number of 0 (1⁄2–1⁄2). At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form, also known as the "normal form". The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature, but because the ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the para form, it is unstable and cannot be purified. At very low temperatures, the equilibrium state is composed almost exclusively of the para form. The liquid and gas phase thermal properties of pure parahydrogen differ significantly from those of the normal form because of differences in rotational heat capacities, as discussed more fully in spin isomers of hydrogen. The ortho/para distinction also occurs in other hydrogen-containing molecules or functional groups, such as water and methylene, but is of little significance for their thermal properties.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many different spin isomers exist?
A: 2', '
Q: What state are the protons in when in the orthohydrogen form?
A: triplet state', '
Q: When hydrogen gas is in standard temperature and pressure, what form is it considered in>
A: normal', '
Q: What percent of para form does hydrogen gas contain?
A: 25%', '
Q: What percent of ortho form does hydrogen gas contain?
A: 75%']
The uncatalyzed interconversion between para and ortho H2 increases with increasing temperature; thus rapidly condensed H2 contains large quantities of the high-energy ortho form that converts to the para form very slowly. The ortho/para ratio in condensed H2 is an important consideration in the preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen: the conversion from ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate some of the hydrogen liquid, leading to loss of liquefied material. Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such as ferric oxide, activated carbon, platinized asbestos, rare earth metals, uranium compounds, chromic oxide, or some nickel compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are some catalysts used in hydrogen cooling
A: ferric oxide, activated carbon, platinized asbestos, rare earth metals, uranium compounds, chromic oxide, or some nickel compounds']
While H2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I), or oxygen; in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge. When bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding with other similar molecules between their hydrogens called hydrogen bonding, which is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as the metals and metalloids, in which it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What ind of charge does hydrogen take when mixed with electronegative particles?
A: positive charge', '
Q: What type of charge does hydrogen take when combined with a metal?
A: negative', '
Q: When hydrogen forms with a metal, what is the compound called?
A: hydrides', '
Q: Is H2 reactive in standard conditions?
A: not']
Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon called the hydrocarbons, and an even vaster array with heteroatoms that, because of their general association with living things, are called organic compounds. The study of their properties is known as organic chemistry and their study in the context of living organisms is known as biochemistry. By some definitions, "organic" compounds are only required to contain carbon. However, most of them also contain hydrogen, and because it is the carbon-hydrogen bond which gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word "organic" in chemistry. Millions of hydrocarbons are known, and they are usually formed by complicated synthetic pathways, which seldom involve elementary hydrogen.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the form of hydrogen and carbon called?
A: hydrocarbons', '
Q: What is the form of hydrogen and heteroatoms called?
A: organic compounds', '
Q: What is the study of organic compounds properties known as?
A: organic chemistry', '
Q: What is the study of living organisms known as?
A: biochemistry', '
Q: Organic compounds are only required to conatin what?
A: carbon']
Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The term "hydride" suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H−, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group I and II salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), producing a stoichiometry quantity of hydrogen at the anode. For hydrides other than group I and II metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group II hydrides is BeH
2, which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride, the AlH−
4 anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III).

Questions and answers:
['
Q:  Who suggested that hydride anions existed?character does the H atom have in a hydride?
A: Gilbert N. Lewis', '
Q: What group of hydrides is BEH considered polymeric?
A: group II']
Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements, the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, there are over 100 binary borane hydrides known, but only one binary aluminium hydride. Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many binary borane hydrides are known?
A: over 100', '
Q: How many binary aluminum hydrides are there?
A: 1']
In inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex. This function is particularly common in group 13 elements, especially in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in clustered carboranes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What chemistry do hydrides serve as bridging ligands?
A: inorganic chemistry', '
Q: What do hydrides that are bridging ligands link up?
A: link two metal centers', '
Q: What group is briging ligands most common in?
A: group 13']
Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H+, which contains no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H+ is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When hydrogen oxidates, what is it removing?
A: electrons', '
Q: When hydrogen oxidates, what does it end up giving?
A: H+', '
Q: What theory suggests that acids are proton donors?
A: Bronsted-Lowry']
A bare proton, H+, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals, because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted "H+" without any implication that any single protons exist freely as a species.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another term for a bare proton?
A: H+']
To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the "hydronium ion" (H
3O+). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are more realistically conceived as being organized into clusters that form species closer to H
9O+
4. Other oxonium ions are found when water is in acidic solution with other solvents.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where can oxonium ions be found?
A: in acidic solution with other solvents', '
Q: What other term is a solvated protons referred as?
A: hydronium ion']
Although exotic on Earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H+
3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of molecular hydrogen is the H+3 knows as?
A: protonated', '
Q: What kind of cation is the H+3 knowns as?
A: trihydrogen cation']
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H, 2H and 3H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4H to 7H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many natural isotopes does hydrogen have>
A: 3H', '
Q: What are the names of these isotopes?
A: denoted 1H, 2H and 3H', '
Q: Which isotopes have unstable nuclei?
A: 4H to 7H']
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today. During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given their own names, but such names are no longer used, except for deuterium and tritium. The symbols D and T (instead of 2H and 3H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the corresponding symbol for protium, P, is already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium. In its nomenclatural guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry allows any of D, T, 2H, and 3H to be used, although 2H and 3H are preferred.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which element is the only that has different names for its isotopes?
A: Hydrogen', '
Q: What are the only two names still used for radioactive isotopes?
A: deuterium and tritium', '
Q: What are the symbols used for deuterium and tritium?
A: D and T', '
Q: What does the symbol P represent?
A: phosphorus', '
Q: What are the preferred symbols for deuterium and tritium?
A: 2H and 3H']
In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction "flammable air". He speculated that "flammable air" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called "phlogiston" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek ὑδρο- hydro meaning "water" and -γενής genes meaning "creator") when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year was the discovery of hydrogen gas?
A: 1671', '
Q: Who discovered Hydrogen gas?
A: Robert Boyle', '
Q: Who recognized hydrogen gas as a discreet substance?
A: Henry Cavendish', '
Q: In what year did Henry Cavendish recognize hydrogen gas as a discreet substance?
A: 1766', '
Q: What does gas produce when burned?
A: water']
Lavoisier produced hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire. Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following reactions:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Lavoisier produce hydrogen for his experiments?
A: reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire']
Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask. He produced solid hydrogen the next year. Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey, and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck. Heavy water, which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's group in 1932. François Isaac de Rivaz built the first de Rivaz engine, an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first to liquidize hydrogen?
A: James Dewar', '
Q: In what year Did James Dewar first liquidize hydrogen?
A: 1898', '
Q: What year was Deuterium discovered?
A: 1931', '
Q: Who was the first to discover deuterium?
A: Harold Urey', '
Q: What year was tritium discovered?
A: 1934']
The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783. Hydrogen provided the lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard. German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900. Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who invented the hydrogen filled balloons?
A: Jacques Charles', '
Q: What year was hydrogen filled balloons invented?
A: 1783', '
Q: what were the hydrogen lifted airships called?
A: Zeppelins', '
Q: In what year did the first zeppelin make flight?
A: 1900']
The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose. Therefore, H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on 6 May 1937. The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity. But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who made the first non stop transatlantic crossing?
A: the British', '
Q: What year was this done?
A: 1919', '
Q: What year did the airship get destroyed?
A: 1937', '
Q: What city was the ship over when it caught fire?
A: New Jersey']
In the same year the first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, by the Dayton Power & Light Co.; because of the thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas, this is the most common type in its field today.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year did the first hydrogen cooled turbogenerator go into service?
A: 1937', '
Q: What state is the Dayton Power and light Company located?
A: Ohio']
The nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2). For example, the ISS, Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. In the dark part of its orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope is also powered by nickel-hydrogen batteries, which were finally replaced in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch, and 13 years over their design life.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year was the first nickel hydrogen battery used?
A: 1977', '
Q: In what year did the hubble space telescope finally get the nickel hydrogen battery?
A: 2009']
Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H+
2 allowed fuller understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the hydrogen atom made up of?
A: a proton and an electron', '
Q: What theory is the hydrogen atom a big part of?
A: atomic structure', '
Q: When was the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom developed?
A: 1920s']
One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H2 unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H2 because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who observed the specific heat capacity of H2?
A: Maxwell', '
Q: What cause H2 to resemble monatomic gas?
A: spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels', '
Q: What theory supports this?
A: quantum theory']
Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms (most of the mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy). This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton-proton reaction and the CNO cycle nuclear fusion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What percent of normal matter is hydrogen?
A: 75%', '
Q: What percent of atoms is hydrogen?
A: 90%', '
Q: What 2 forms of mass is most of the universe consisted of?
A: dark matter and dark energy', '
Q: Clouds of H2 form what?
A: stars']
Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift z=4.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what states is hydrogen mostly found in the universe?
A: atomic and plasma', '
Q: Hydrogens electron and proton are not bound together in what state?
A: plasma', '
Q: in the interstellar medium, what state is hydrogen in?
A: neutral atomic state', '
Q: The neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems dominates what?
A: cosmological baryonic density of the Universe']
Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2. However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface, mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water. Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus, as is methane, itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How abundant is hydrogen on the earths surface?
A: third most abundant', '
Q: what produces hydrogen gas?
A: bacteria and algae']
A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen (H+
3) is found in the interstellar medium, where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays. This charged ion has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. The ion is relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density. H+
3 is one of the most abundant ions in the Universe, and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium. Neutral triatomic hydrogen H3 can only exist in an excited form and is unstable. By contrast, the positive hydrogen molecular ion (H+
2) is a rare molecule in the universe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What molecular form is found in the interstellar medium?
A: protonated molecular hydrogen', '
Q: What generates protonated molecular hydrogen?
A: ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays', '
Q: On what planet can you find  protonated molecular hydrogen?
A: Jupiter', '
Q: In what way can Neutral triatomic hydrogen exist?
A: excited form']
H
2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How does nature produce H2?
A: expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions', '
Q: How do labs produce H2?
A: by-product of other reactions']
The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is in the range 80–94%.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is an easy way to produce hydrogen?
A: electrolysis of water', '
Q: Where does the gaseous oxygen form at?
A: anode', '
Q: Where does the gaseous hydrogen form at?
A: cathode']