romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. English and Serbo-Croatian illustrate the point. English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants (British and American English, and Serbian and Croatian, respectively), along with numerous other varieties. For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as "languages" or "dialects" yields inconsistent results: British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of Serbia and Croatia, which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by some linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. (The Serbo-Croatian language article deals with this topic much more fully.)

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with British English, what is the major variant of the English language?
A: American English', '
Q: What are the two major variants of Serbo-Croatian?
A: Serbian and Croatian', '
Q: Are British and American English regarded as distinct languages, or dialects of a single language?
A: dialects of a single language', '
Q: Do regional linguists treat Serbian and Croation as distinct languages or as dialects of a single language?
A: distinct languages', '
Q: Why are Serbian and Croatian often treated like distinct languages?
A: the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies']
Similar examples abound. Macedonian, although mutually intelligible with Bulgarian, certain dialects of Serbian and to a lesser extent the rest of the South Slavic dialect continuum, is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the contemporary international view and the view in the Republic of Macedonia, which regards it as a language in its own right. Nevertheless, before the establishment of a literary standard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian dialects.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with Serbian, with what language is Macedonian mutually intelligible?
A: Bulgarian', '
Q: What dialect continuum does Macedonian belong to?
A: South Slavic', '
Q: What do Bulgarian linguists regard the Macedonian language as?
A: a Bulgarian dialect', '
Q: In what year was a Macedonian literary standard established?
A: 1944', '
Q: In what country is Macedonian most commonly spoken?
A: Republic of Macedonia']
In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population considers "Lebanese" to be in some sense a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect. During the civil war Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic. All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Lebanese people of what religion sometimes consider Lebanese to be a distinct language?
A: Christian', '
Q: In what language are Lebanese laws written?
A: Arabic', '
Q: During the Lebanese Civil War, what language did Lebanese Christians sometimes use officially?
A: Lebanese Arabic', '
Q: What language is Lebanese closely related to?
A: Arabic', '
Q: What script did Lebanese Christians sometimes use to write Lebanese Arabic during the civil war?
A: Latin']
In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the Darijas (spoken North African languages) are sometimes considered more different from other Arabic dialects. Officially, North African countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic and conduct much of their political and religious life in it (adherence to Islam), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an. Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are occupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural life of these countries. Examples of cultural elements where Darijas' use became dominant include: theatre, film, music, television, advertisement, social media, folk-tale books and companies' names.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with Morocco and Tunisia, in what country are the Darijas spoken?
A: Algeria', '
Q: What is the liturgical language of Islam?
A: Literary Arabic', "
Q: In what language is the Qur'an written?
A: Literary Arabic", '
Q: What does the term Dariajs refer to?
A: spoken North African languages', '
Q: What is the dominant religion of North Africa?
A: Islam']
In the 19th century, the Tsarist Government of the Russian Empire claimed that Ukrainian was merely a dialect of Russian and not a language on its own. The differences were few and caused by the conquest of western Ukraine by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, the dialects in Ukraine eventually differed substantially from the dialects in Russia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what century did the Russian government claim that Ukrainian was a Russian dialect?
A: 19th', '
Q: What Russian government claimed that Ukrainian was not a distinct language?
A: the Tsarist Government', '
Q: The conquest of western Ukraine by what country altered the language of Ukraine?
A: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth']
The German Empire conquered Ukraine during World War I and was planning on either annexing it or installing a puppet king, but was defeated by the Entente, with major involvement by the Ukrainian Bolsheviks. After conquering the rest of Ukraine from the Whites, Ukraine joined the USSR and was enlarged (gaining Crimea and then Eastern Galicia), whence a process of Ukrainization was begun, with encouragement from Moscow.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What nation conquered Ukraine during the First World War?
A: The German Empire', '
Q: What alliance defeated the German Empire in World War I?
A: the Entente', '
Q: What Ukrainian political group was involved in the defeat of the German Empire?
A: Bolsheviks', '
Q: Who did the Ukrainian Bolsheviks conquer the Ukraine from?
A: Whites']
After World War II, due to Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers in an attempt to gain independence, Moscow changed its policy towards repression of the Ukrainian language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: After what war did Moscow begin to repress the Ukrainian language?
A: World War II', '
Q: Why did Moscow begin to repress the Ukrainian language?
A: Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers', '
Q: Why did Ukrainians collaborate with the Axis?
A: to gain independence']
Today the boundaries of the Ukrainian language to the Russian language are still not drawn clearly, with an intermediate dialect between them, called Surzhyk, developing in Ukraine.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what country is the Surzhyk dialect spoken?
A: Ukraine', '
Q: Surzhyk is a dialect intermediate between the Ukrainian language and what other language?
A: Russian']
There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes. One example is Moldovan. In 1996, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism", rejected a proposal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the president of Moldova in 1996?
A: Mircea Snegur', '
Q: In what year was a Moldovan-Romanian dictionary published?
A: 2003', "
Q: Fear of what caused the Moldovan parliament to reject changing the name of the country's language to Romanian in 1996?
A: Romanian expansionism", '
Q: Who was the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova?
A: Ion Bărbuţă']
Unlike most languages that use alphabets to indicate the pronunciation, Chinese characters have developed from logograms that do not always give hints to its pronunciation. Although the written characters remained relatively consistent for the last two thousand years, the pronunciation and grammar in different regions has developed to an extent that the varieties of the spoken language are often mutually unintelligible. As a series of migration to the south throughout the history, the regional languages of the south, including Xiang, Wu, Gan, Min, Yue (Cantonese), and Hakka often show traces of Old Chinese or Middle Chinese. From the Ming dynasty onward, Beijing has been the capital of China and the dialect spoken in Beijing has had the most prestige among other varieties. With the founding of the Republic of China, Standard Mandarin was designated as the official language, based on the spoken language of Beijing. Since then, other spoken varieties are regarded as fangyan (dialects). Cantonese is still the most commonly used language in Hong Kong, Macau and among some overseas Chinese communities, whereas Southern Min has been accepted in Taiwan as an important local language along with Mandarin.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From what did Chinese characters derive?
A: logograms', '
Q: What is another name for the Yue language?
A: Cantonese', '
Q: Hakka is a language from what geographic part of China?
A: the south', '
Q: From the time of the Ming dynasty, what city was the capital of China?
A: Beijing', '
Q: At its founding. what was the official language of the Republic of China?
A: Standard Mandarin']
Many historical linguists view any speech form as a dialect of the older medium of communication from which it developed.[citation needed] This point of view sees the modern Romance languages as dialects of Latin, modern Greek as a dialect of Ancient Greek, Tok Pisin as a dialect of English, and North Germanic as dialects of Old Norse. This paradigm is not entirely problem-free. It sees genetic relationships as paramount: the "dialects" of a "language" (which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet older language) may or may not be mutually intelligible. Moreover, a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From the perspective of historical linguists, what are Romance languages dialects of?
A: Latin', '
Q: What do many historical linguists consider modern Greek to be a dialect of?
A: Ancient Greek', '
Q: From what language is North Germanic derived?
A: Old Norse', '
Q: Tok Pisin might be regarded as a dialect of what language?
A: English']
This can give rise to the situation in which two dialects (defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily comprehensible than more closely related dialects. In one opinion, this pattern is clearly present among the modern Romance languages, with Italian and Spanish having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with French, despite some claiming that both languages are genetically closer to French than to each other:[citation needed] In fact, French-Italian and French-Spanish relative mutual incomprehensibility is due to French having undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonological change than have Spanish and Italian, not to real or imagined distance in genetic relationship. In fact, Italian and French share many more root words in common that do not even appear in Spanish.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Italian is significantly mutually comprehensible with what other Romance language?
A: Spanish', '
Q: With what romance language does Spanish not have a high degree of mutual comprehensibility?
A: French', '
Q: What is the reason for French and Italian not being very mutually comprehensible?
A: French having undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonological change']
For example, the Italian and French words for various foods, some family relationships, and body parts are very similar to each other, yet most of those words are completely different in Spanish. Italian "avere" and "essere" as auxiliaries for forming compound tenses are used similarly to French "avoir" and "être". Spanish only retains "haber" and has done away with "ser" in forming compound tenses. However, when it comes to phonological structures, Italian and Spanish have undergone less change than French, with the result that some native speakers of Italian and Spanish may attain a degree of mutual comprehension that permits extensive communication.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What Italian word is similar to the French word "avoir"?
A: avere', '
Q: What French word is similar to the Italian word "essere"?
A: être', '
Q: What two languages have the possibility for significant mutual intelligibility?
A: Italian and Spanish', '
Q: Along with foods and family relationships, what sorts of words are similar in French and Italian?
A: body parts', '
Q: When forming compound tenses in Spanish, what auxiliary is no longer used?
A: sere']
One language, Interlingua, was developed so that the languages of Western civilization would act as its dialects. Drawing from such concepts as the international scientific vocabulary and Standard Average European, linguists[who?] developed a theory that the modern Western languages were actually dialects of a hidden or latent language.[citation needed] Researchers at the International Auxiliary Language Association extracted words and affixes that they considered to be part of Interlingua's vocabulary. In theory, speakers of the Western languages would understand written or spoken Interlingua immediately, without prior study, since their own languages were its dialects. This has often turned out to be true, especially, but not solely, for speakers of the Romance languages and educated speakers of English. Interlingua has also been found to assist in the learning of other languages. In one study, Swedish high school students learning Interlingua were able to translate passages from Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian that students of those languages found too difficult to understand. It should be noted, however, that the vocabulary of Interlingua extends beyond the Western language families.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language could all Western languages be considered dialects of?
A: Interlingua', '
Q: Researchers at what organization study and develop Interlingua?
A: International Auxiliary Language Association', '
Q: What was the nationality of high school students who learned Interlingua in a notable linguistic experiment?
A: Swedish', '
Q: Along with Italian and Spanish, what language could Swedish Interlingua learners translate?
A: Portuguese', '
Q: Along with Standard Average European, from what concept was Interlingua derived?
A: the international scientific vocabulary']
Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical (religious) and secular music. While a similar term is also used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820 (the Classical period), this article is about the broad span of time from roughly the 11th century to the present day, which includes the Classical period and various other periods. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common practice period. The major time divisions of classical music are as follows: the early music period, which includes the Medieval (500–1400) and the Renaissance (1400–1600) eras; the Common practice period, which includes the Baroque (1600–1750), Classical (1750–1820), and Romantic eras (1804–1910); and the 20th century (1901–2000) which includes the modern (1890–1930) that overlaps from the late 19th-century, the high modern (mid 20th-century), and contemporary or postmodern (1975–2015) eras.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term is used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820?
A: the Classical period', '
Q: What years are termed the Renaissance period?
A: 1400–1600', '
Q: What years are termed the Baroque period? 
A: 1600–1750', '
Q: From 1804-1910 was called what era?
A: Romantic', '
Q: Classical music is rooted in what kind of tradition? 
A: Western music', '
Q: Classical music is rooted the the traditions of what kind of music?
A: Western', '
Q: What is the period from 1750 to 1820 called?
A: the Classical period', '
Q: What time period is known at the common practice period?
A: between 1550 and 1900', '
Q: When was the Renaissance era?
A: 1400–1600', '
Q: When was the modern era?
A: 1890–1930']
European art music is largely distinguished from many other non-European and popular musical forms by its system of staff notation, in use since about the 16th century. Western staff notation is used by composers to prescribe to the performer the pitches (e.g., melodies, basslines and/or chords), tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This leaves less room for practices such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation, which are frequently heard in non-European art music and in popular music  styles such as jazz and blues. Another difference is that whereas most popular styles lend themselves to the song form, classical music has been noted for its development of highly sophisticated forms of instrumental music such as the concerto, symphony, sonata, and mixed vocal and instrumental styles such as opera which, since they are written down, can attain a high level of complexity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is European art music distinguished from non-European and popular music?
A: its system of staff notation', '
Q: What method is used by composers to prescribe to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music?
A: Western staff notation', '
Q: What popular styles practice improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation?
A: jazz and blues', '
Q: Since it is written down, classical music can attain a high level of what? 
A: complexity', '
Q: How is European art music distinguished from many other musical forms?
A: its system of staff notation', '
Q: How long has the system of staff notation been in use?
A: since about the 16th century', '
Q: Jazz and blues use ad libitum and what other ornamentation? 
A: improvisation', '
Q: Classic music can a attain a high level of what?
A: complexity']
The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to distinctly canonize the period from Johann Sebastian Bach to Beethoven as a golden age. The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the term "classical music" appear? 
A: the early 19th century', '
Q: What period is referred to as a "golden age"?
A: the period from Johann Sebastian Bach to Beethoven', "
Q: What year is the earliest reference to 'classical music'?
A: 1836", "
Q: What book holds the earliest reference to 'classical music'?
A: Oxford English Dictionary", '
Q: What term did not appear until the early 19th century?
A: classical music', "
Q: What 'age' is the period from Johann Sebastian Bach to Beethoven referred to as?
A: golden age", '
Q: What year was the earliest reference to classical music?
A: 1836', '
Q: In what book was the earliest reference to classical music?
A: Oxford English Dictionary']
Given the wide range of styles in classical music, from Medieval plainchant sung by monks to Classical and Romantic symphonies for orchestra from the 1700s and 1800s to avant-garde atonal compositions for solo piano from the 1900s, it is difficult to list characteristics that can be attributed to all works of that type. However, there are characteristics that classical music contains that few or no other genres of music contain, such as the use of a printed score and the performance of very complex instrumental works (e.g., the fugue). As well, although the symphony did not exist through the entire classical music period, from the mid-1700s to the 2000s the symphony ensemble—and the works written for it—have become a defining feature of classical music.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who sang Medieval plainchant?
A: monks', '
Q: Avant-garde atonal compositions were written for what instrument?
A: solo piano', '
Q: What two characteristics of classical music can not be attributed to other genres?
A: use of a printed score and the performance of very complex instrumental works', '
Q: Through what period did the symphony not exist?
A: the entire classical music period', '
Q: What has become a defining feature of classical music?
A: the symphony ensemble', '
Q: What did not exist through the entire classical music period?
A: the symphony', '
Q: The use of a printed score and the performance of very complex instrumental works are characteristics of what?
A: classical music', '
Q: Who sang medieval plainchant?
A: monks']
The key characteristic of classical music that distinguishes it from popular music and folk music is that the repertoire tends to be written down in musical notation, creating a musical part or score. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians (whether singers or instrumentalists) are involved, how the various parts are coordinated. The written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them: J.S. Bach's fugues, for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines weaving in counterpoint yet creating a coherent harmonic logic that would be impossible in the heat of live improvisation. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works and enables Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago. Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music (the melodies, lyrics, forms, and rhythms) being reproduced.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: J.S. Bach's fugues create a coherent harmonic logic that would be impossible for what other style of music?
A: live improvisation", '
Q: The score determines how various parts are coordinated, pitch, and what other detail?
A: rhythm', '
Q: What has allowed Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago?
A: written notation', "
Q: Who's fugues achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines?
A: J.S. Bach's"]
That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work. Even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction (e.g., Allegro), we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. As well, in the Baroque era, many works that were designed for basso continuo accompaniment do not specify which instruments should play the accompaniment or exactly how the chordal instrument (harpsichord, lute, etc.) should play the chords, which are not notated in the part (only a figured bass symbol beneath the bass part is used to guide the chord-playing performer). The performer and/or the conductor have a range of options for musical expression and interpretation of a scored piece, including the phrasing of melodies, the time taken during fermatas (held notes) or pauses, and the use (or choice not to use) of effects such as vibrato or glissando (these effects are possible on various stringed, brass and woodwind instruments and with the human voice).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The score does not provide complete and exact instruction on how to do what?
A: perform a historical work', '
Q: In what era were many works designed for basso continuo accompaniment? 
A: the Baroque era', '
Q: Vibrato and glissando are possible on stringed, brass, woodwind and what other style instrument?
A: the human voice', '
Q: What are fermatas?
A: held notes']