romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Polytechnics were tertiary education teaching institutions in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Since 1970 UK Polytechnics operated under the binary system of education along with universities. Polytechnics offered diplomas and degrees (bachelor's, master's, PhD) validated at the national level by the UK Council for National Academic Awards CNAA. They particularly excelled in engineering and applied science degree courses similar to technological universities in the USA and continental Europe. The comparable institutions in Scotland were collectively referred to as Central Institutions. Britain's first Polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution later known as the Polytechnic of Central London (now the University of Westminster) was established in 1838 at Regent Street in London and its goal was to educate and popularize engineering and scientific knowledge and inventions in Victorian Britain "at little expense." The London Polytechnic led a mass movement to create numerous Polytechnic institutes across the UK in the late 19th Century. Most Polytechnic institutes were established at the centre of major metropolitan cities and their focus was on engineering, applied science and technology education.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year did UK polytechnics start functioning in a binary education system?
A: 1970', '
Q: What organization validates degrees received from polytechnic schools?
A: the UK Council for National Academic Awards', '
Q: What two-word term does Scotland use to describe their technological universities?
A: Central Institutions', '
Q: What was the first polytechnic in Britain originally named?
A: Royal Polytechnic Institution']
In 1956, some colleges of technology received the designation College of Advanced Technology. They became universities in the 1960s meaning they could award their own degrees. The designation "Institute of Technology" was occasionally used by polytechnics (Bolton), Central Institutions (Dundee, Robert Gordon's), and postgraduate universities, (Cranfield and Wessex), most of which later adopted the designation University, and there were two "Institutes of Science and Technology": UMIST and UWIST, part of the University of Wales. Loughborough University was called Loughborough University of Technology from 1966 to 1996, the only institution in the UK to have had such a designation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many Institutes of Science and Technology were affiliated with the University of Wales?
A: two', '
Q: What was the name Loughborough University was known by from 1966 to 1996?
A: Loughborough University of Technology', '
Q: In what decade did colleges of technology gain the University designation?
A: 1960s']
Polytechnics were granted university status under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. This meant that Polytechnics could confer degrees without the oversight of the national CNAA organization. These institutions are sometimes referred to as post-1992 universities.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What act allowed polytechnic schools to become universities?
A: the Further and Higher Education Act 1992', "
Q: The Further and Higher Education Act 1992 allows polytechnics to award degrees without what organization's approval?
A: CNAA"]
Schools called "technical institute" or "technical school" that were formed in the early 20th century provided further education between high school and University or Polytechnic. Most technical institutes have been merged into regional colleges and some have been designated university colleges if they are associated with a local university.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: If a technical institute is affiliated with a local university, what does its designation become?
A: university colleges', '
Q: What century brought the advent of technical schools or technical institutes?
A: 20th century', '
Q: A student would attend a technical institute before a university or polytechnic but after what?
A: high school']
Polytechnic Institutes are technological universities, many dating back to the mid-19th century. A handful of world-renowned Elite American universities include the phrases "Institute of Technology", "Polytechnic Institute", "Polytechnic University", or similar phrasing in their names; these are generally research-intensive universities with a focus on engineering, science and technology. The earliest and most famous of these institutions are, respectively, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI, 1824), New York University Tandon School of Engineering (1854) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, 1861). Conversely, schools dubbed "technical colleges" or "technical institutes" generally provide post-secondary training in technical and mechanical fields, focusing on training vocational skills primarily at a community college level—parallel and sometimes equivalent to the first two years at a bachelor's degree-granting institution.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what year was Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute founded?
A: 1824', '
Q: Which of the three earliest technological universities was founded most recently, in 1861?
A: Massachusetts Institute of Technology']
Institutes of technology in Venezuela were developed in the 1950s as an option for post-secondary education in technical and scientific courses, after the polytechnic French concepts. At that time, technical education was considered essential for the development of a sound middle class economy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of economy was technical education in Venezuela intended to support?
A: middle class', '
Q: When did Venezuela begin to create institutes of technology?
A: 1950s']
Most of these institutes award diplomas after three or three and a half years of education. The Institute of technology implementation (IUT from Instituto universitario de tecnologia on Spanish) began with the creation of the first IUT at Caracas, capital city of Venezuela, called IUT. Dr. Federico Rivero Palacio adopted the French "Institut Universitaire de Technologie"s system, using French personnel and study system based on three-year periods, with research and engineering facilities at the same level as the main national universities to obtain French equivalent degrees. This IUT is the first and only one in Venezuela having French equivalent degrees accepted, implementing this system and observing the high-level degrees some other IUT's were created in Venezuela, regardless of this the term IUT was not used appropriately resulting in some institutions with mediocre quality and no equivalent degree in France. Later, some private institutions sprang up using IUT in their names, but they are not regulated by the original French system and award lower quality degrees.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What city in Venezuela had the first IUT?
A: Caracas', '
Q: Who pioneered using the French system of technological education?
A: Dr. Federico Rivero Palacio']
The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web and other information on the Internet created by the Internet Archive, a nonprofit organization, based in San Francisco, California, United States. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet. The service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a "three dimensional index."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where does the information stored on the Wayback Machine come from?
A: World Wide Web', '
Q: Which company made the Wayback Machine?
A: Internet Archive', '
Q: Where is Internet Archive headquartered?
A: San Francisco', '
Q: What individuals founded Internet Archive?
A: Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat', '
Q: What is the term used by Internet Archive to describe the Wayback Machine?
A: three dimensional index']
Since 1996, they have been archiving cached pages of web sites onto their large cluster of Linux nodes. They revisit sites every few weeks or months and archive a new version if the content has changed. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who are offered a link to do so. The intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. Their grand vision is to archive the entire Internet.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What operating system is used on Wayback Machine's servers?
A: Linux", '
Q: When does Wayback Machine save a copy of a website?
A: if the content has changed', '
Q: What is the ultimate aim of the Wayback Machine?
A: to archive the entire Internet']
The name Wayback Machine was chosen as a droll reference to a plot device in an animated cartoon series, The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. In one of the animated cartoon's component segments, Peabody's Improbable History, lead characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman routinely used a time machine called the "WABAC machine" (pronounced way-back) to witness, participate in, and, more often than not, alter famous events in history.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What TV show served as inspiration for the Wayback Machine's name?
A: The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show", '
Q: Which characters on The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show used a device that allowed them to travel through time?
A: Mr. Peabody and Sherman', '
Q: What was the machine used by Mr. Peabody and Sherman named?
A: WABAC machine']
In 1996 Brewster Kahle, with Bruce Gilliat, developed software to crawl and download all publicly accessible World Wide Web pages, the Gopher hierarchy, the Netnews (Usenet) bulletin board system, and downloadable software. The information collected by these "crawlers" does not include all the information available on the Internet, since much of the data is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible. These "crawlers" also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached. To overcome inconsistencies in partially cached web sites, Archive-It.org was developed in 2005 by the Internet Archive as a means of allowing institutions and content creators to voluntarily harvest and preserve collections of digital content, and create digital archives.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the program necessary to crawl and archive the web created?
A: 1996', '
Q: What is a term used for programs that automatically visit websites and record the data they find?
A: crawlers', '
Q: What rule do crawlers abide by when determining which sites to record?
A: robots exclusion standard', '
Q: What site was created to mitigate issues with incomplete copies of websites?
A: Archive-It.org']
Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the clunky database. When the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What medium was originally used to keep Internet Archive's data?
A: digital tape", "
Q: Who were sometimes permitted to use the Archive's database?
A: researchers and scientists", '
Q: At what milestone was the archive made public?
A: fifth anniversary', '
Q: Where was the event launching the publicly-available archive held?
A: University of California, Berkeley']
Snapshots usually become available more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later; it can take twenty-four months or longer.  The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked web site updates are recorded. Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the saved versions of a site called?
A: Snapshots', '
Q: What is the minimum amount of time that elapses before most snapshots are released for viewing?
A: six months', '
Q: What term characterizes the rate at which snapshots are made of websites?
A: variable']
After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. According to Jeff Kaplan of the Internet Archive in November 2010, other sites were still being archived, but more recent captures would become visible only after the next major indexing, an infrequent operation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did it become a requirement for websites to appear on Open Directory for inclusion in the Archive?
A: After August 2008', '
Q: Who stated that sites not on Open Directory were still being saved but would not be released until the Archive was reindexed?
A: Jeff Kaplan', '
Q: When did Kaplan make comments about the status of non-Open Directory sites?
A: November 2010']
As of 2009[update], the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month; the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month. The data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In 2009, what size did the data saved by Wayback Machine reach?
A: three petabytes', '
Q: As of 2003, what was the rate of increase in the amount of data recorded by the Wayback Machine?
A: 12 terabytes/month', '
Q: Where does Wayback Machine keep its information stored?
A: PetaBox rack systems', '
Q: Who makes PetaBox rack systems?
A: Capricorn Technologies']
In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, and hosts a new data center in a Sun Modular Datacenter on Sun Microsystems' California campus.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Internet Archive chance its platform for data storage?
A: 2009', '
Q: Which platform did Internet Archive adopt in 2009?
A: Sun Open Storage', "
Q: Where does Internet archive run a datacenter?
A: Sun Microsystems' California campus"]
In 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was an upgrade of the Wayback Machine released for testing?
A: 2011']
In March 2011, it was said on the Wayback Machine forum that "The Beta of the new Wayback Machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010, and will continue to be updated regularly. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a little bit of material past 2008, and no further index updates are planned, as it will be phased out this year".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When were details of the test version of the updated Wayback Machine released?
A: March 2011', '
Q: The older version of Wayback Machine did not have much new data past what year?
A: 2008', '
Q: The newer version of the Wayback Machine included date up to and including what year?
A: 2010']
In October 2013, the company announced the "Save a Page" feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the functionality called that gave users the ability to save a snapshot of a site?
A: Save a Page', '
Q: When was Save a Page made available?
A: October 2013']
In a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc., defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its web site that was causing the Wayback Machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from Nebula's site, pages that Chordiant believed would support its case.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What 2009 court battle involved the Wayback Machine?
A: Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc.', '
Q: Which company thought that Wayback Machine data was important for its argument?
A: Chordiant', "
Q: What did Chordiant request that the court deactivate on Netbula's website?
A: the robots.txt file"]
Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbula's web site and that they should have subpoenaed Internet Archive for the pages directly. An employee of Internet Archive filed a sworn statement supporting Chordiant's motion, however, stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means "without considerable burden, expense and disruption to its operations."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who did Netbula believe was the entity that should be responsible for the availability of its snapshots?
A: Internet Archive', '
Q: Which party did Internet Archive side with?
A: Chordiant']
Magistrate Judge Howard Lloyd in the Northern District of California, San Jose Division, rejected Netbula's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow Chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which judge presided over the Netbula v. Chordiant case?
A: Magistrate Judge Howard Lloyd', '
Q: In what jurisdiction was the Netbula v. Chordiant case tried?
A: Northern District of California, San Jose Division', "
Q: Which party won its argument regarding Netbula's robots.txt file?
A: Chordiant"]
In an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No. 02 C 3293, 65 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. 673 (N.D. Ill. Oct. 15, 2004), a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, perhaps for the first time. Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network. Prior to the trial proceedings, EchoStar indicated that it intended to offer Wayback Machine snapshots as proof of the past content of Telewizja Polska's web site. Telewizja Polska brought a motion in limine to suppress the snapshots on the grounds of hearsay and unauthenticated source, but Magistrate Judge Arlander Keys rejected Telewizja Polska's assertion of hearsay and denied TVP's motion in limine to exclude the evidence at trial. At the trial, however, district Court Judge Ronald Guzman, the trial judge, overruled Magistrate Keys' findings,[citation needed] and held that neither the affidavit of the Internet Archive employee nor the underlying pages (i.e., the Telewizja Polska website) were admissible as evidence. Judge Guzman reasoned that the employee's affidavit contained both hearsay and inconclusive supporting statements, and the purported web page printouts were not self-authenticating.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does Telewizja Polska operate?
A: TVP Polonia', "
Q: What is EchoStar's platform?
A: the Dish Network", "
Q: Which judge denied Telewizja Polska's attempt to block the use of Internet Archive contents as evidence?
A: Magistrate Judge Arlander Keys", "
Q: Which judge overturned Keys' ruling?
A: district Court Judge Ronald Guzman"]
Provided some additional requirements are met (e.g. providing an authoritative statement of the archivist), the United States patent office and the European Patent Office will accept date stamps from the Internet Archive as evidence of when a given Web page was accessible to the public. These dates are used to determine if a Web page is available as prior art for instance in examining a patent application.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When are Internet Archive timestamps useful for patent offices?
A: in examining a patent application', '
Q: What is an example of a condition that must be met for the Internet Archive data to be considered acceptable for submission to patent offices in the US and Europe?
A: authoritative statement of the archivist']
There are technical limitations to archiving a web site, and as a consequence, it is possible for opposing parties in litigation to misuse the results provided by web site archives. This problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screen shots of web pages in complaints, answers, or expert witness reports, when the underlying links are not exposed and therefore, can contain errors. For example, archives such as the Wayback Machine do not fill out forms and therefore, do not include the contents of non-RESTful e-commerce databases in their archives.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of limitations exist in keeping copies of a website?
A: technical', '
Q: The omission of what element in screenshots can make them unreliable as evidence?
A: underlying links', '
Q: What elements of webpages are not used by Wayback Machine?
A: forms', '
Q: What kind of sites contain information that the Wayback Machine does not record?
A: e-commerce']
In Europe the Wayback Machine could be interpreted as violating copyright laws. Only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated, so the Archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator. The exclusion policies for the Wayback Machine may be found in the FAQ section of the site. The Wayback Machine also retroactively respects robots.txt files, i.e., pages that currently are blocked to robots on the live web temporarily will be made unavailable from the archives as well.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kinds of laws could the Wayback Machine be viewed as breaking in Europe?
A: copyright laws', '
Q: What would the Internet Archive have to do if requested by someone whose content is available on Wayback Machine?
A: delete pages from its system', "
Q: In what part of the website are Wayback Machine's rules regarding removing content?
A: FAQ"]
In late 2002, the Internet Archive removed various sites that were critical of Scientology from the Wayback Machine. An error message stated that this was in response to a "request by the site owner." Later, it was clarified that lawyers from the Church of Scientology had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Web pages that contained content critical of what religous movement were taken off of the Internet Archive in 2002?
A: Scientology', '
Q: Who was mistakenly credited for having the sites with criticism of Scientology removed from the Internet Archive?
A: the site owner', '
Q: Who was the actual party that requested the critical sites be taken down?
A: Church of Scientology']
In 2003, Harding Earley Follmer & Frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the Archive's Wayback Machine. The attorneys were able to demonstrate that the claims made by the plaintiff were invalid, based on the content of their web site from several years prior. The plaintiff, Healthcare Advocates, then amended their complaint to include the Internet Archive, accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the DMCA and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Healthcare Advocates claimed that, since they had installed a robots.txt file on their web site, even if after the initial lawsuit was filed, the Archive should have removed all previous copies of the plaintiff web site from the Wayback Machine. The lawsuit was settled out of court.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which law firm leveraged Wayback Machine to protect their client in 2003?
A: Harding Earley Follmer & Frailey', "
Q: Which company filed suit against Harding, Earley, Follmer & Frailey's client?
A: Healthcare Advocates", '
Q: Who did Healthcare advocates change their case to include as a defendant?
A: Internet Archive', '
Q: What laws did Healthcare Advocates accuse Internet Archive of having broken?
A: the DMCA and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act']
Robots.txt is used as part of the Robots Exclusion Standard, a voluntary protocol the Internet Archive respects that disallows bots from indexing certain pages delineated by its creator as off-limits. As a result, the Internet Archive has rendered unavailable a number of web sites that now are inaccessible through the Wayback Machine. Currently, the Internet Archive applies robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocks the Internet Archive, such as Healthcare Advocates, any previously archived pages from the domain are rendered unavailable as well. In cases of blocked sites, only the robots.txt file is archived.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of protocol is the Robots Exclusion Standard?
A: voluntary', '
Q: What file is utilized to exercise the rights promoted by the Robots Exclusion Standard?
A: Robots.txt', '
Q: If a site prevents Internet Archive from recording it, what file is still saved?
A: Robots.txt']