romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries. The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas?
A: Human interference', '
Q: What are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries?
A: forests of deciduous trees', '
Q: What has changed since the second half of the 20th century?
A: The vegetation', '
Q: The practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed what?
A: the underlying tundra']
The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many species of wildlife habitat the Alps?
A: 30,000 species', '
Q: What have the wildlife done to survive the harsh conditions of the Alps?
A: made adaptations', '
Q: Some species of wildlife can only survive in what specific environment?
A: directly above or below the snow line']
The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft). The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses. Classified as antelopes, chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range. Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes?
A: alpine ibex', '
Q: How high have the Alpine Ibex been sighted?
A: as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft)', '
Q: Where do the ibex live?
A: in caves', '
Q: What animal that live in the Alps are classified as antelopes?
A: chamois', '
Q: What year was the last brown bear recorded to have been killed?
A: 1792']
Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft). They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth, and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures. Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of 2,400 m (7,874 ft). The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or at the Jungfraujoch, a high altitude tourist destination.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where do many rodents live?
A: underground', '
Q: Where do Marmots live?
A: almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft)', '
Q: Where do marmots build their colonies?
A: beneath the alpine pastures', '
Q: What is the most common bird found in the Alps?
A: the alpine chough']
Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges. The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line. Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why do reptiles only live up to the snow line?
A: they cannot bear the cold temperatures', '
Q: What do reptiles due since they cannot bear the cold temperatures?
A: they hibernate underground', '
Q: How have the Alpine salamanders adapted to living above the snow line?
A: by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs', '
Q: What can be found in the streams up to the snow line?
A: Brown trout']
A number of species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue moths can commonly be seen drinking from the snow melt; some species of blue moths fly as high as 1,800 m (5,906 ft). The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to 1,800 m (5,906 ft). Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is the Rosalia alpina. Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m (1,312 ft). Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long have some species of moths believed to have evolved from the same habitat?
A: 120 million years', '
Q: What can be commonly seen drinking from the snow melt?
A: Blue moths', '
Q: The swallowtail Parnassius family of butterfly habitat ranges up to how much?
A: 1,800 m (5,906 ft)', '
Q: What species of beetles are were collected for their colors before being protected?
A: Rosalia alpina']
Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Emosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Some species of moths and insects show evidence of what?
A: having been indigenous to the area', '
Q: How long ago does the evidence show moths and insects to have been indigenous?
A: the Alpine orogeny', '
Q: Where is Emosson located?
A: Valais, Switzerland', '
Q: When were dinosaur tracks found in Emosson?
A: the 1970s']
About 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the last glacial period, late Paleolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy. The rock drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When were late Paleolithic communities established along the lake shores?
A: About 10,000 years ago', '
Q: What has been found in caves near Vercors?
A: Evidence of human habitation', '
Q: Why were houses built on piles?
A: to keep them dry', '
Q: What have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy?
A: Standing stones', '
Q: How old are rock drawings in Valcamonica?
A: more than 5000 years old']
In 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death - an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder - suggests he was travelling from one place to another. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named K1ö for Ötzi.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was Otzi the Iceman?
A: a mummy of a neolithic body', '
Q: When was Otzi the Iceman found?
A: In 1991', '
Q: Where was Otzi the Iceman discovered?
A: the Similaun glacier']
Celtic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1000 to 1500 BC. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhone valley and in Savoy. Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century. By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region, and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewelry. The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes—they had warriors that were strong, tall and fair skinned skilled with iron weapons, which gave them an advantage in warfare.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Celtic tribes settle in Switzerland? 
A: between 1000 to 1500 BC', '
Q: The Raetians lived in what region?
A: the eastern regions', '
Q: The Helvetii occupied which region?
A: the west', '
Q: What did the Celtic tribes mine?
A: salt', '
Q: Which were the most widespread of the mountain tribes?
A: The Celts']
During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing. The Romans, however, had built roads along the mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the Second Punic War?
A: 218 BC', '
Q: Who was the Carthaginian general?
A: Hannibal', '
Q: What did the Romans build along the mountain passes?
A: roads', '
Q: What can still be found on the mountain passes?
A: Roman road markers']
The Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii. The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes. The Romans built settlements in the Alps; towns such as Aosta (named for Augustus) in Italy, Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland, and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths, villas, arenas and temples. Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes, (Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks) from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What brought the defeat of the Allobrogi?
A: The Roman expansion', '
Q: When were the Allobrogi defeated?
A: in 121 BC', '
Q: When did Julius Caesar overcome the Helvetii?
A: 58 BC', '
Q: What tribes settled much of the Alpine region?
A: Germanic tribes']
Christianity was established in the region by the Romans, and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions. The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy, still has intricate frescoes, excellent examples of Gothic art, in a tower room. In Switzerland, Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who established Christianity in the region?
A: Romans', '
Q: What did the Frankish expansion and the Bavarian expansion introduce?
A: feudalism', '
Q: What area still has intricate frescoes?
A: Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy', '
Q: What is preserved as an example of medieval architecture?
A: Château de Chillon']
Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia. In 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century Switzerland was well-established as a separate state.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Much of the medieval period was a time of what?
A: power struggles', '
Q: Where were the Visconti from?
A: northern Italy', '
Q: What dynastie was from Austria and Slovenia?
A: the House of Habsburg', '
Q: What Country was a well-established separate state by the 16th century?
A: Switzerland']
During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798 he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What wars took place during the late 18th century and early 19th century?
A: the Napoleonic Wars', '
Q: Who annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys?
A: Napoleon', '
Q: When was the Helvetic Republic established?
A: 1798', '
Q: Where was the Helvetic Republic established?
A: Switzerland']
After the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley in order to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by, Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombarts. The later indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte. The Barrière de l'Esseillon is a serie of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view on the valley, a gorge on one side and steep mountains on the other side.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did many alpine countries develop heavy protection to prevent new invasion?
A: After the fall of Napoléon', '
Q: Who built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley?
A: Savoy', '
Q: Why were a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley built?
A: to protect the major alpine passes', '
Q: Who ordered the construction of a paved road?
A: Napoléon Bonaparte']
In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travelers and as places of pilgrimage, became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance; and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the center of Interlaken, Switzerland. The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was shelter for travelers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What became tourist destinations during the 19th century?
A: the monasteries built in the high Alps', '
Q: Who built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland and Oberammergau?
A: The Benedictines', '
Q: Who had abbeys in the Savor and one in the center of Interlaken?
A: the Augustinians', '
Q: When was the Great St. Bernard Hospice built?
A: the 9th or 10th centuries']
Radiocarbon dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people. The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys. The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes. The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How old was the charcoal placed in the Drachloch cave?
A: 50,000 years', "
Q: What does the finding of charcoal in Dragon's Hole prove?
A: the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people", '
Q: What may have been buried by the same prehistoric people?
A: Seven bear skulls', '
Q: People blindfolded themselves to cross what?
A: Alpine passes']
Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice. In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying." Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude. In the 18th century four Chamonix man almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was Charles VII from?
A: France', '
Q: What was Charles VII chamberlain ordered to do?
A: climb Mont Aiguille', '
Q: What did the knight leave at the summit of Rocciamelone?
A: a bronze triptych of three crosses', '
Q: When did Antioine de Ville climb Mont Aiguille?
A: 1492', '
Q: When did four Chamonix men almost reach the summit of Mont Blanc?
A: 18th century']
Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord". By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks; they were followed by artists, writers and painters. Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833). Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamored with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and the geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval. Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains?
A: Conrad Gessner', '
Q: Where was Horace-Benedict de Saussure born?
A: Geneva', '
Q: Who was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc?
A: Saussure']
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, banishing the prevalent conception of the mountains as a hellish wasteland inhabited by demons. Rousseau's conception of alpine purity was later emphasized with the publication of Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen that described the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Late in the 18th century the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery; Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude. Schiller later wrote the play William Tell romanticising Swiss independence. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians, as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty?
A: Jean-Jacques Rousseau', '
Q: Who wrote the poem Die Alpen?
A: Albrecht von Haller', '
Q: When did the Alpine countries see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians?
A: After the end of the Napoleonic Wars', '
Q: What did the visitors come to experience in the Alpine countries?
A: the sublime effects of monumental nature']
In 1816 Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings. During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem Manfred, and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva in the midst of a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers, "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders". By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Percy and Mary Shelley were inspired by what region's scenery?
A: Geneva", '
Q: What poem did Shelley write during the visits to Geneva?
A: Mont Blanc', '
Q: When did scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the Alpine region?
A: the mid-19th century']
Austrian-born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden. His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life. At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where was Adolf Hitler born?
A: Austrian', '
Q: What did Adolf Hitler have a lifelong romantic fascination with? 
A: the Alps', '
Q: Where did Adolf Hitler establish a home in the 1930s?
A: the Obersalzberg region', '
Q: When was Adolf Hitlers first visit to the Alps?
A: 1923']
By 1940 the Third Reich had occupied many of the Alpine countries. Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. Switzerland was the only country to luckily avoid invasion. The Swiss Confederate mobilized its troops—the country follows the doctrine of "armed neutrality" with all males required to have military training—a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850,000. The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country, and threatening to destroy bridges, railway tunnels and passes in the event of a Nazi invasion, and then they retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks where conditions were harsher and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: By 1940 who occupied many of the Alpine countries?
A: the Third Reich', '
Q: What country underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich?
A: Austria', '
Q: What was the only country that avoided invasion from the Third Reich?
A: Switzerland', '
Q: Who wired the infrastructure leading into Switzerland?
A: The Swiss commanders']
Ski troops were trained for the war, and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy, where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945. At the end of the war, a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria, where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close. The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area, where American troops found 75 kilos of gold coins stored in a single mine, were used to store looted art, jewels, and currency; vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who were trained for the war?
A: Ski troops', '
Q: Where was the battle at Riva Ridge?
A: Italy', '
Q: Where was a substantial amount of Nazi plunder found at the end of the war?
A: Austria', '
Q: Where did American troops find 75 kilos of gold coins?
A: The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area']