romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian Edward Grant writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century], they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities". Also, contrary to common belief, David Lindberg writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is Edward Grant a historian of?
A: Science', '
Q: Who argued that scholars in the Middle Ages were rarely coerced by the Church?
A: David Lindberg', '
Q: According to Grant, the medieval use of reason was the forerunner the revolutionary rationalism of what century?
A: 18th']
The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat. This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere. Lindberg and Ronald Numbers, another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference". Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", or "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by current historical research.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what century was it first proposed that people in the Middle Ages thought the Earth was flat?
A: 19th', '
Q: Along with autopsies, what is it erroneously believed that the medieval Church forbade?
A: dissections', '
Q: According to a misconception, what did the rise of Christianity destroy?
A: ancient science', '
Q: According to another misconception, what field of study was the medieval Church opposed to?
A: natural philosophy', '
Q: Along with Lindberg, who is a notable scholar of the Middle Ages?
A: Ronald Numbers']
Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is phonology a branch of?
A: linguistics', '
Q: What kind of systems are the traditional focus of phonology? 
A: phonemes', '
Q: The study of sign language is a part of what?
A: Phonology']
The word phonology (as in the phonology of English) can also refer to the phonological system (sound system) of a given language. This is one of the fundamental systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax and its vocabulary.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What part of a language can phonology as a word also refer to?
A: the phonological system', '
Q: What is another term for phonological system?
A: sound system', '
Q: Aside from syntax and the phonological system, what else comprises a language?
A: vocabulary', '
Q: What sort of language system is phonology?
A: fundamental']
Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists, phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics, and phonology to theoretical linguistics, although establishing the phonological system of a language is necessarily an application of theoretical principles to analysis of phonetic evidence. Note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. Some subfields of modern phonology have a crossover with phonetics in descriptive disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory phonology or laboratory phonology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What branch of linguistics is phonology distinguished from?
A: phonetics', '
Q: What kind of linguistics is phonetics considered to be a part of?
A: descriptive', '
Q: Phonology is generally considered a part of the theoretical side of what discipline?
A: linguistics', "
Q: When was the phonome's modern concept developed?
A: mid 20th century", '
Q: What subfield of modern phonology other than phsycholinguistics crosses over with phonetics? 
A: speech perception']
The word phonology comes from the Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, "voice, sound," and the suffix -logy (which is from Greek λόγος, lógos, "word, speech, subject of discussion"). Definitions of the term vary. Nikolai Trubetzkoy in Grundzüge der Phonologie (1939) defines phonology as "the study of sound pertaining to the system of language," as opposed to phonetics, which is "the study of sound pertaining to the act of speech" (the distinction between language and speech being basically Saussure's distinction between langue and parole). More recently, Lass (1998) writes that phonology refers broadly to the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language, while in more narrow terms, "phonology proper is concerned with the function, behavior and organization of sounds as linguistic items." According to Clark et al. (2007), it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What language does phonology as a word come from?
A: Greek', '
Q: What Greek word is -logy derived from?
A: lógos', '
Q: Who in 1939 defined phonology?
A: Nikolai Trubetzkoy', '
Q: A distinction was drawn between language and what?
A: speech', '
Q: When did Lass write about phonology?
A: 1998']
The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, the Sanskrit grammar composed by Pāṇini in the 4th century BC. In particular the Shiva Sutras, an auxiliary text to the Ashtadhyayi, introduces what can be considered a list of the phonemes of the Sanskrit language, with a notational system for them that is used throughout the main text, which deals with matters of morphology, syntax and semantics.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of grammar was phonology first a part of?
A: Sanskrit', '
Q: What is the name of ancient Sanskrit grammar?
A: Ashtadhyayi', '
Q: Who first composed the Ashtadhyayi?
A: Pāṇini', '
Q: During what time period did Panini do his work?
A: 4th century BC', '
Q: What other text was related to the Ashtadhyayi?
A: the Shiva Sutras']
The Polish scholar Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (together with his former student Mikołaj Kruszewski) introduced the concept of the phoneme in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of phonetic alternations (what is now called allophony and morphophonology), and had a significant influence on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the phoneme as a concept introduced?
A: 1876', "
Q: Who was Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's student?
A: Mikołaj Kruszewski", '
Q: What nationality was de Courtenay?
A: Polish', "
Q: What was de Courtenay's profession?
A: scholar", '
Q: Who was influenced by  Jan Baudouin de Courtenay?
A: Ferdinand de Saussure']
An influential school of phonology in the interwar period was the Prague school. One of its leading members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie (Principles of Phonology), published posthumously in 1939, is among the most important works in the field from this period. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, although this concept had also been recognized by de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Nikolai Trubetzkoy's publication?
A: Principles of Phonology", '
Q: When was Principles of Phonology published?
A: 1939', '
Q: What is Trubetzkoy considered to have founded?
A: morphophonology', '
Q: What school was Trubetzkoy a member of?
A: the Prague school.', "
Q: What was Trubetzkoy's title?
A: Prince"]
In 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or −. There are at least two levels of representation: underlying representation and surface phonetic representation. Ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation (the so-called surface form). An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was The Sound Pattern of English published?
A: 1968', '
Q: Other than Chomsky who else published The Sound Pattern of English?
A: Morris Halle', "
Q: Besides the syllable what was downplayed as a result of SPE's influence on phonological theory?
A: emphasis on segments", '
Q: What other discipline was combined with phonology by the generativists?
A: morphophonology']
Natural phonology is a theory based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and (more explicitly) in 1979. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes that interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed is language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second most prominent natural phonologist is Patricia Donegan (Stampe's wife); there are many natural phonologists in Europe, and a few in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Nathan. The principles of natural phonology were extended to morphology by Wolfgang U. Dressler, who founded natural morphology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Whose publications started the theory of Natural phonology?
A: David Stampe', '
Q: According to Stampe what is phonology based on?
A: a set of universal phonological processes', '
Q: Aside from being active what other condition can the universal phonological processes exist in?
A: suppressed', '
Q: Who is the number two natural phonologist?  
A: Patricia Donegan', '
Q: Who was the founder of natural morphology?
A: Wolfgang U. Dressler']
In 1976 John Goldsmith introduced autosegmental phonology. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as operating on one linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as involving some parallel sequences of features which reside on multiple tiers. Autosegmental phonology later evolved into feature geometry, which became the standard theory of representation for theories of the organization of phonology as different as lexical phonology and optimality theory.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who founded autosegmental phonology?
A: John Goldsmith', '
Q: When did John Goldsmith share his work?
A: 1976', '
Q: What did Autosegmental phonology morph into?
A: feature geometry']
Government phonology, which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of principles and vary according to their selection of certain binary parameters. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures in this field include Jonathan Kaye, Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, Monik Charette, and John Harris.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was Government phonology first seen?
A: the early 1980s', '
Q: What is responsible for differences in surface realizations according to Government phonology?
A: restricted variation', '
Q: Jonathan Kaye is an important person in what form of phonology?
A: Government']
In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed optimality theory—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints ordered by importance; a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become a dominant trend in phonology. The appeal to phonetic grounding of constraints and representational elements (e.g. features) in various approaches has been criticized by proponents of 'substance-free phonology', especially Mark Hale and Charles Reiss.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did Prince and Smolensky develop their theory?
A: 1991', '
Q: Where was optimality theory created?
A: LSA summer institute', '
Q: Aside from Alan Prince who brought optimality theory to morphology?
A: John McCarthy', '
Q: Who were prominent critics of optimality theory?
A: Mark Hale and Charles Reiss']
Broadly speaking, government phonology (or its descendant, strict-CV phonology) has a greater following in the United Kingdom, whereas optimality theory is predominant in the United States.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What followed government phonology?
A: strict-CV phonology', '
Q: Where is government phonology popular?
A: the United Kingdom,', '
Q: What theory is seen more in the US?
A: optimality theory']
An integrated approach to phonological theory that combines synchronic and diachronic accounts to sound patterns was initiated with Evolutionary Phonology in recent years.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is Evolutionary Phonology an integrated approach to?
A: phonological theory', '
Q: What is combined to sound patterns by Evolutionary Phonology?
A: synchronic and diachronic accounts', '
Q: When did Evolutionary Phonology come into being?
A: recent years.', '
Q: What sort of approach did Evolutionary Phonology take?
A: integrated']
An important part of traditional, pre-generative schools of phonology is studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as phonemes. For example, in English, the "p" sound in pot is aspirated (pronounced [pʰ]) while that in spot is not aspirated (pronounced [p]). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations (allophones) of the same phonological category, that is of the phoneme /p/. (Traditionally, it would be argued that if an aspirated [pʰ] were interchanged with the unaspirated [p] in spot, native speakers of English would still hear the same words; that is, the two sounds are perceived as "the same" /p/.) In some other languages, however, these two sounds are perceived as different, and they are consequently assigned to different phonemes. For example, in Thai, Hindi, and Quechua, there are minimal pairs of words for which aspiration is the only contrasting feature (two words can have different meanings but with the only difference in pronunciation being that one has an aspirated sound where the other has an unaspirated one).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the units called that traditional phonology studies?
A: phonemes', '
Q: What is another word for variations?
A: allophones', '
Q: What is the opposite of aspirated?
A: unaspirated']
Part of the phonological study of a language therefore involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. The presence or absence of minimal pairs, as mentioned above, is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two sounds should be assigned to the same phoneme. However, other considerations often need to be taken into account as well.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of language study involves trying to deduce underlying phonomes?
A: phonological', '
Q: Aside from finding out what underlying phonemes are there what does the phonological study of a language try to find out about the language?
A: sound inventory', '
Q: What kind of speaker data does studying a language phonologically involve examining? 
A: native']
The particular contrasts which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, [f] and [v], two sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation and differ in voicing only, were allophones of the same phoneme in English, but later came to belong to separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in historical linguistics.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of linguistics describes how factors of languages change in history?
A: historical', '
Q: With the passage of time what particular things phonemic in a language are known to change?
A: contrasts', '
Q: In the past sounds that now belong to separate phonemes were allophones of what kind of phoneme in English?
A: the same phoneme']
The findings and insights of speech perception and articulation research complicate the traditional and somewhat intuitive idea of interchangeable allophones being perceived as the same phoneme. First, interchanged allophones of the same phoneme can result in unrecognizable words. Second, actual speech, even at a word level, is highly co-articulated, so it is problematic to expect to be able to splice words into simple segments without affecting speech perception.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How do speech perception and articulation findings and insights affect previous and more traditional ideas?
A: complicate', '
Q: How does interchanging allophones of the same pheneme render words?
A: unrecognizable', '
Q: What does splicing words affect?
A: speech perception']
Different linguists therefore take different approaches to the problem of assigning sounds to phonemes. For example, they differ in the extent to which they require allophones to be phonetically similar. There are also differing ideas as to whether this grouping of sounds is purely a tool for linguistic analysis, or reflects an actual process in the way the human brain processes a language.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are assigned to phonemes by different linguists?
A: sounds', '
Q: What part of a human does language processing?
A: brain', '
Q: The phonetical similarity of what thing causes disagreements between linguists?
A: allophones']
Since the early 1960s, theoretical linguists have moved away from the traditional concept of a phoneme, preferring to consider basic units at a more abstract level, as a component of morphemes; these units can be called morphophonemes, and analysis using this approach is called morphophonology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did theoretical linguists turn away traditional phoneme concepts?
A: early 1960s', '
Q: On what level do theoretical linguists consider basic units?
A: abstract', '
Q: What is a name for the basic morpheme unit?
A: morphophonemes', '
Q: What is the act of analyzing morphophones called?
A: morphophonology', '
Q: What kind of linguists are leaving the old methods behind?
A: theoretical']
In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, for example, syllable structure, stress, feature geometry, accent, and intonation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do phonemes differentiate? 
A: meaning', '
Q: Aside from phonemes what is studied by phonology?
A: how sounds alternate', '
Q: The study of syllable structure is part of what discipline?
A: phonology']
Phonology also includes topics such as phonotactics (the phonological constraints on what sounds can appear in what positions in a given language) and phonological alternation (how the pronunciation of a sound changes through the application of phonological rules, sometimes in a given order which can be feeding or bleeding,) as well as prosody, the study of suprasegmentals and topics such as stress and intonation.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Under what topic is suprasegmentals studied?
A: prosody', '
Q: Aside from bleeding what is an order of rules that define how pronunciation of a sound changes?
A: feeding', '
Q: Phonotactics, phonological alternation and prosody are topics contained in what discipline?
A: Phonology', '
Q: Stress and intonation are studied under what topic?
A: prosody']
The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. The same principles have been applied to the analysis of sign languages (see Phonemes in sign languages), even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Instead of being language-specific what kind of tools are the principles of phonological analysis designed to be?
A: general analytical tools', '
Q: What other types of language have the phonological analysis principles been applied to?
A: sign languages', '
Q: What are the principles of phonological analysis able to be applied separately from?
A: modality', '
Q: In sign languages what are not represented as instances of speech sounds?
A: sub-lexical units']
Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In computer terms, what does CPU stand for?
A: central processing unit', '
Q: What are the devices called that are from an external source?
A: Peripheral devices', '
Q: What are two things that a computer always has?
A: (CPU), and some form of memory']