romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Lossy audio compression is used in a wide range of applications. In addition to the direct applications (mp3 players or computers), digitally compressed audio streams are used in most video DVDs, digital television, streaming media on the internet, satellite and cable radio, and increasingly in terrestrial radio broadcasts. Lossy compression typically achieves far greater compression than lossless compression (data of 5 percent to 20 percent of the original stream, rather than 50 percent to 60 percent), by discarding less-critical data.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What compression is used in a lot of applications?
A: Lossy', '
Q: What is used in most video DVDs?
A: digitally compressed audio streams', '
Q: What compression usually achieves far greater compression then lossless? 
A: Lossy']
To determine what information in an audio signal is perceptually irrelevant, most lossy compression algorithms use transforms such as the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) to convert time domain sampled waveforms into a transform domain. Once transformed, typically into the frequency domain, component frequencies can be allocated bits according to how audible they are. Audibility of spectral components calculated using the absolute threshold of hearing and the principles of simultaneous masking—the phenomenon wherein a signal is masked by another signal separated by frequency—and, in some cases, temporal masking—where a signal is masked by another signal separated by time. Equal-loudness contours may also be used to weight the perceptual importance of components. Models of the human ear-brain combination incorporating such effects are often called psychoacoustic models.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What may be used to weight the importance of components?
A: Equal-loudness contours', '
Q: What are often called psychoacoustic models?
A: Models of the human ear-brain', '
Q: What is the process called when a signal is masked by another signal separated by time?
A: temporal masking']
Other types of lossy compressors, such as the linear predictive coding (LPC) used with speech, are source-based coders. These coders use a model of the sound's generator (such as the human vocal tract with LPC) to whiten the audio signal (i.e., flatten its spectrum) before quantization. LPC may be thought of as a basic perceptual coding technique: reconstruction of an audio signal using a linear predictor shapes the coder's quantization noise into the spectrum of the target signal, partially masking it.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the coding called that is used with speech?
A: linear predictive coding', '
Q: What is thought of as a basic perceptual coding technique?
A: linear predictive coding', "
Q: What uses a model of the sound's generator? 
A: source-based coders"]
Latency results from the methods used to encode and decode the data. Some codecs will analyze a longer segment of the data to optimize efficiency, and then code it in a manner that requires a larger segment of data at one time to decode. (Often codecs create segments called a "frame" to create discrete data segments for encoding and decoding.) The inherent latency of the coding algorithm can be critical; for example, when there is a two-way transmission of data, such as with a telephone conversation, significant delays may seriously degrade the perceived quality.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What results from methods used to encode and decode data?
A: Latency', '
Q: What analyzes a statement of data to boost performance?
A: codecs', '
Q: What creates segments called a "frame"?
A: codecs']
In contrast to the speed of compression, which is proportional to the number of operations required by the algorithm, here latency refers to the number of samples that must be analysed before a block of audio is processed. In the minimum case, latency is zero samples (e.g., if the coder/decoder simply reduces the number of bits used to quantize the signal). Time domain algorithms such as LPC also often have low latencies, hence their popularity in speech coding for telephony. In algorithms such as MP3, however, a large number of samples have to be analyzed to implement a psychoacoustic model in the frequency domain, and latency is on the order of 23 ms (46 ms for two-way communication)).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What refers to the number of samples that must be analysed before a block of audio is processed?
A: latency', '
Q: What has zero samples in a minimum case?
A: latency', '
Q: What often has low latencies?
A: LPC']
If the data to be compressed is analog (such as a voltage that varies with time), quantization is employed to digitize it into numbers (normally integers). This is referred to as analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion. If the integers generated by quantization are 8 bits each, then the entire range of the analog signal is divided into 256 intervals and all the signal values within an interval are quantized to the same number. If 16-bit integers are generated, then the range of the analog signal is divided into 65,536 intervals.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What varies with time?
A: voltage', '
Q: What has to be compressed in order to perform properly? 
A: data', '
Q: What does "A/D" stand for?
A: analog-to-digital']
A literature compendium for a large variety of audio coding systems was published in the IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications (JSAC), February 1988. While there were some papers from before that time, this collection documented an entire variety of finished, working audio coders, nearly all of them using perceptual (i.e. masking) techniques and some kind of frequency analysis and back-end noiseless coding. Several of these papers remarked on the difficulty of obtaining good, clean digital audio for research purposes. Most, if not all, of the authors in the JSAC edition were also active in the MPEG-1 Audio committee.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was published in the IEEE Journal in 1988?
A: literature compendium', '
Q: What did the literature compendium document?
A: finished, working audio coders', '
Q: Where were most of the authors in the JSAC edition?
A: MPEG-1 Audio committee']
The world's first commercial broadcast automation audio compression system was developed by Oscar Bonello, an engineering professor at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1983, using the psychoacoustic principle of the masking of critical bands first published in 1967, he started developing a practical application based on the recently developed IBM PC computer, and the broadcast automation system was launched in 1987 under the name Audicom. Twenty years later, almost all the radio stations in the world were using similar technology manufactured by a number of companies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who developed the first commercial broadcast automation audio compression system?
A: Oscar Bonello', '
Q: Who was an engineering professor at the University of Buenos Aires?
A: Oscar Bonello', '
Q: What was launched in 1987 under the name Audicom?
A: broadcast automation system']
The majority of video compression algorithms use lossy compression. Uncompressed video requires a very high data rate. Although lossless video compression codecs perform at a compression factor of 5-12, a typical MPEG-4 lossy compression video has a compression factor between 20 and 200. As in all lossy compression, there is a trade-off between video quality, cost of processing the compression and decompression, and system requirements. Highly compressed video may present visible or distracting artifacts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What all mostly use lossy compression?
A: video compression algorithms', '
Q: What requires a high data rate?
A: Uncompressed video', '
Q: What may present visible or distracting artifacts?
A: Highly compressed video']
Some video compression schemes typically operate on square-shaped groups of neighboring pixels, often called macroblocks. These pixel groups or blocks of pixels are compared from one frame to the next, and the video compression codec sends only the differences within those blocks. In areas of video with more motion, the compression must encode more data to keep up with the larger number of pixels that are changing. Commonly during explosions, flames, flocks of animals, and in some panning shots, the high-frequency detail leads to quality decreases or to increases in the variable bitrate.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What compression typically operate on square-shaped groups of pixels?
A: video', '
Q: What only sends the differences within those pixels and blocks?
A: macroblocks', '
Q: What does high-frequency detail lead to?
A: variable bitrate']
Video data may be represented as a series of still image frames. The sequence of frames contains spatial and temporal redundancy that video compression algorithms attempt to eliminate or code in a smaller size. Similarities can be encoded by only storing differences between frames, or by using perceptual features of human vision. For example, small differences in color are more difficult to perceive than are changes in brightness. Compression algorithms can average a color across these similar areas to reduce space, in a manner similar to those used in JPEG image compression. Some of these methods are inherently lossy while others may preserve all relevant information from the original, uncompressed video.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What may be represented as a series of still image frames?
A: Video data', '
Q: What can average a color across similar areas to reduce space?
A: Compression algorithms', '
Q: What is hard to tell with smaller differences involved?
A: color']
The most powerful used method works by comparing each frame in the video with the previous one. If the frame contains areas where nothing has moved, the system simply issues a short command that copies that part of the previous frame, bit-for-bit, into the next one. If sections of the frame move in a simple manner, the compressor emits a (slightly longer) command that tells the decompressor to shift, rotate, lighten, or darken the copy. This longer command still remains much shorter than intraframe compression. Interframe compression works well for programs that will simply be played back by the viewer, but can cause problems if the video sequence needs to be edited.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What still remains much shorter than intraframe compression?
A: longer command', '
Q: What happens when a frame contains areas where nothing has moved?
A: the system simply issues a short command', '
Q: What is a sequence that can be edited?
A: video']
Because interframe compression copies data from one frame to another, if the original frame is simply cut out (or lost in transmission), the following frames cannot be reconstructed properly. Some video formats, such as DV, compress each frame independently using intraframe compression. Making 'cuts' in intraframe-compressed video is almost as easy as editing uncompressed video: one finds the beginning and ending of each frame, and simply copies bit-for-bit each frame that one wants to keep, and discards the frames one doesn't want. Another difference between intraframe and interframe compression is that, with intraframe systems, each frame uses a similar amount of data. In most interframe systems, certain frames (such as "I frames" in MPEG-2) aren't allowed to copy data from other frames, so they require much more data than other frames nearby.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What copies data from one frame to another?
A: interframe compression', '
Q: What is a type of video format?
A: DV', "
Q: What is almost as easy as editing uncompressed video?
A: Making 'cuts'"]
Today, nearly all commonly used video compression methods (e.g., those in standards approved by the ITU-T or ISO) apply a discrete cosine transform (DCT) for spatial redundancy reduction. The DCT that is widely used in this regard was introduced by N. Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974. Other methods, such as fractal compression, matching pursuit and the use of a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) have been the subject of some research, but are typically not used in practical products (except for the use of wavelet coding as still-image coders without motion compensation). Interest in fractal compression seems to be waning, due to recent theoretical analysis showing a comparative lack of effectiveness of such methods.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do all commonly used video compression methods use?
A: discrete cosine transform', '
Q: What does a DCT do?
A: spatial redundancy reduction', '
Q: What is not used in practical products? 
A: fractal compression']
Genetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype. In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and in much faster time than the leading general-purpose compression utilities. For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset. Other algorithms in 2009 and 2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the latest generation of lossless algorithms? 
A: Genetics', '
Q: What encoding reduces the heterogeneity of a dataset by sorting SNPs?
A: MAFE', '
Q: What two algorithms have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold?
A: DNAZip and GenomeZip']
The Sun had the largest circulation of any daily newspaper in the United Kingdom, but in late 2013 slipped to second largest Saturday newspaper behind the Daily Mail. It had an average daily circulation of 2.2 million copies in March 2014. Between July and December 2013 the paper had an average daily readership of approximately 5.5 million, with approximately 31% of those falling into the ABC1 demographic and 68% in the C2DE demographic. Approximately 41% of readers are women. The Sun has been involved in many controversies in its history, including its coverage of the 1989 Hillsborough football stadium disaster. Regional editions of the newspaper for Scotland, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland are published in Glasgow (The Scottish Sun), Belfast (The Sun) and Dublin (The Irish Sun) respectively.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which newspaper overtook The Sun as largest Saturday UK newspaper?
A: Daily Mail', "
Q: What was the sun's circulation per day in March 2014?
A: 2.2 million copies", '
Q: What was the largest demographic for readers of The Sun?
A: C2DE demographic', '
Q: What is the percentage of The Sun readers who are women?
A: Approximately 41%', '
Q: What is one controversial event covered by The Sun?
A: 1989 Hillsborough football stadium disaster']
On 26 February 2012, The Sun on Sunday was launched to replace the closed News of the World, employing some of its former journalists. In late 2013, it was given a new look, with a new typeface. The average circulation for The Sun on Sunday in March 2014 was 1,686,840; but in May 2015 The Mail on Sunday sold more copies for the first time, an average of 28,650 over those of its rival: 1,497,855 to 1,469,195. Roy Greenslade issued some caveats over the May 2015 figures, but believes the weekday Daily Mail will overtake The Sun in circulation during 2016.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which newspaper did the The Sun on Sunday take the place of?
A: News of the World', "
Q: In what year was The Sun's look changed?
A: 2013", '
Q: What was the circulation of The Sun on Sunday in March 2014?
A: 1,686,840', '
Q: When did the Sunday Mail overtake The Sun in sales numbers?
A: May 2015', '
Q: When is the weekly Mail forecast to pass The Sun in terms of circulation?
A: during 2016']
Research commissioned by Cecil King from Mark Abrams of Sussex University, The Newspaper Reading Public of Tomorrow, identified demographic changes which suggested reasons why the Herald might be in decline. The new paper was intended to add a readership of 'social radicals' to the Herald's 'political radicals'. Launched with an advertising budget of £400,000 the brash new paper "burst forth with tremendous energy", according to The Times. Its initial print run of 3.5 million was attributed to 'curiosity' and the 'advantage of novelty', and had declined to the previous circulation of the Daily Herald (1.2 million) within a few weeks.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who ordered research on the Herald?
A: Cecil King from Mark Abrams of Sussex University', "
Q: What was named as a potential reason for the Herald's decline?
A: demographic changes", "
Q: What type of people was the new paper supposed to attract?
A: 'social radicals'", '
Q: What was the advertising budget of the new paper?
A: £400,000', '
Q: What was the number of papers in the first print run of the Times?
A: 3.5 million']
Seizing the opportunity to increase his presence on Fleet Street, he made an agreement with the print unions, promising fewer redundancies if he acquired the newspaper. He assured IPC that he would publish a "straightforward, honest newspaper" which would continue to support Labour. IPC, under pressure from the unions, rejected Maxwell's offer, and Murdoch bought the paper for £800,000, to be paid in instalments. He would later remark: "I am constantly amazed at the ease with which I entered British newspapers."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the prospective owner of the paper promise?
A: fewer redundancies', '
Q: How did the prospective publisher describe the newspaper he would produce?
A: a "straightforward, honest newspaper"', '
Q: Which party would the newspaper endorse?
A: Labour', '
Q: What was the price paid for the newspaper?
A: £800,000', "
Q: Whose offer to buy the paper was turned down?
A: Maxwell's offer"]
Murdoch found he had such a rapport with Larry Lamb over lunch that other potential recruits as editor were not interviewed and Lamb was appointed as the first editor of the new Sun. He was scathing in his opinion of the Mirror, where he had recently been employed as a senior sub-editor, and shared Murdoch's view that a paper's quality was best measured by its sales, and he regarded the Mirror as overstaffed, and primarily aimed at an ageing readership. Lamb hastily recruited a staff of about 125 reporters, who were mostly selected for their availability rather than their ability.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What position did Larry Lamb take with the Sun?
A: editor', '
Q: What type of view did Lamb have of the Mirror?
A: scathing', '
Q: What did Lamb and Murdoch believe to be the best indicator of newspaper quality?
A: its sales', '
Q: What position did Lamb formerly hold at the Mirror?
A: senior sub-editor', "
Q: How many reporters did Lamb hire for the Mirror's initial staff?
A: about 125"]
Sex was used as an important element in the content and marketing the paper from the start, which Lamb believed was the most important part of his readers' lives. The first topless Page 3 model appeared on 17 November 1970, German-born Stephanie Rahn; she was tagged as a "Birthday Suit Girl" to mark the first anniversary of the relaunched Sun. A topless Page 3 model gradually became a regular fixture, and with increasingly risqué poses. Both feminists and many cultural conservatives saw the pictures as pornographic and misogynistic. Lamb expressed some regret at introducing the feature, although denied it was sexist. A Conservative council in Sowerby Bridge, Yorkshire, was the first to ban the paper from its public library, shortly after Page 3 began, because of its excessive sexual content. This decision was reversed after a sustained campaign by the newspaper itself lasting 16 months, and the election of a Labour-led council in 1971.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Lamb employ as an important theme from the beginning of the paper?
A: Sex', '
Q: When did the first Page 3 model appear topless?
A: 17 November 1970', '
Q: Who was the first Page 3 topless model?
A: Stephanie Rahn', '
Q: Who was the first to prohibit the paper from being in its library?
A: A Conservative council in Sowerby Bridge, Yorkshire', '
Q: When was the library ban reversed?
A: 1971']
Politically, The Sun in the early Murdoch years, remained nominally Labour. It supported the Labour Party led by Harold Wilson in the 1970 General Election, with the headline "Why It Must Be Labour" but by February 1974 it was calling for a vote for the Conservative Party led by Edward Heath while suggesting that it might support a Labour Party led by James Callaghan or Roy Jenkins. In the October election an editorial asserted: "ALL our instincts are left rather than right and we would vote for any able politician who would describe himself as a Social Democrat."

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What were the Sun's political leanings early on under Murdoch?
A: nominally Labour", '
Q: Who led the Labour Party in the 1970 General Election?
A: Harold Wilson', '
Q: Who did the Sun support in 1974?
A: Edward Heath', '
Q: Who would the Sun consider supporting from the Labour Party in 1974?
A: James Callaghan or Roy Jenkins', '
Q: What type of politician did a Sun editorial state that it would support in October 1974?
A: any able politician who would describe himself as a Social Democrat']
The editor, Larry Lamb, was originally from a Labour background, with a socialist upbringing while his temporary replacement Bernard Shrimsley (1972–75) was a middle-class uncommitted Conservative. An extensive advertising campaign on the ITV network in this period, voiced by actor Christopher Timothy, may have helped The Sun to overtake the Daily Mirror's circulation in 1978. Despite the industrial relations of the 1970s – the so-called "Spanish practices" of the print unions – The Sun was very profitable, enabling Murdoch to expand his operations to the United States from 1973.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who temporarily replaced Larry Lamb?
A: Bernard Shrimsley', "
Q: What was Shrimsley's political background?
A: middle-class uncommitted Conservative.", '
Q: Who lent his voice to a campaign that aided The Sun in passing the Daily Mirror in 1978?
A: Christopher Timothy', '
Q: Where did Murdoch begin expanding?
A: United States', '
Q: When did Murdoch begin expanding into the U.S?
A: 1973']
The Daily Star had been launched in 1978 by Express Newspaper, and by 1981 had begun to affect sales of The Sun. Bingo was introduced as a marketing tool and a 2p drop in cover price removed the Daily Star's competitive advantage opening a new circulation battle which resulted in The Sun neutralising the threat of the new paper. The new editor of The Sun, Kelvin MacKenzie, took up his post in 1981 just after these developments, and "changed the British tabloid concept more profoundly than [Larry] Lamb did", according to Bruce Page, MacKenzie The paper became "more outrageous, opinionated and irreverent than anything ever produced in Britain".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What newspaper was founded by Express Newspaper?
A: The Daily Star', "
Q: By what year had The Daily Star started impacting The Sun's sales?
A: 1981", "
Q: What helped the Sun overcome the Daily Star's challenge?
A: Bingo was introduced as a marketing tool and a 2p drop in cover price", '
Q: Who became editor of the Sun in 1981?
A: Kelvin MacKenzie', '
Q: What impact was Mackenzie said to have?
A: changed the British tabloid concept more profoundly than [Larry] Lamb did"']