romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Most former British colonies and protectorates are among the 53 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. Sixteen Commonwealth realms voluntarily continue to share the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as their head of state. These sixteen nations are distinct and equal legal entities – the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many Commonwealth nations are there?
A: 53', '
Q: What is the population of the Commonwealth?
A: 2.2 billion', '
Q: How many Commonwealth nations still consider the British Queen their head of state?
A: Sixteen', '
Q: Who is the British Queen?
A: Elizabeth II']
Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was also responsible for large migrations of peoples. Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland. Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland. Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Indians emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean. The demographics of Britain itself was changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which countries did the British Isles provide most of the founding settlers?
A: the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand', '
Q: Where did many Indians move to?
A: Malaysia and Fiji', '
Q: Many people of which ethnicity moved to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean?
A: Chinese', "
Q: When did many former colonies' citizens begin immigrating into Britain?
A: after the Second World War"]
Botany, also called plant science(s) or plant biology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specializes in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη (botanē) meaning "pasture", "grass", or "fodder"; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν (boskein), "to feed" or "to graze". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 400,000 species of living organisms of which some 260,000 species are vascular plants and about 248,000 are flowering plants.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is botany?
A: science of plant life', '
Q: What does the word botany mean?
A: "to feed" or "to graze"', '
Q: What is  a plant scientist called?
A: A botanist', '
Q: Does botany only study plants?
A: included the study of fungi and algae']
Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest branches of science. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance. They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, and led in 1753 to the binomial system of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What science led to botany?
A: herbalism', '
Q: What kind of plants did monasteries cultivate?
A: plants of medical importance', '
Q: When did universities start growing gardens?
A: 1540s onwards', '
Q: Why did universities have these gardens?
A: facilitated the academic study of plants', '
Q: Why was plant taxonomy developed?
A: to catalogue and describe their collections']
Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is are the main themes of present-day botany?
A: molecular genetics and epigenetics', '
Q: How can botany be applied to combating world hunger?
A: providing staple foods', '
Q: How can botany be applied to the construction industry?
A: synthesis of chemicals and raw materials', '
Q: Is botany a narrow science?
A: a broad, multidisciplinary subject']
Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De Materia Medica, a five-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years. Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī's (828–896) the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassal's The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the name of an ancient Greek work impacting botany?
A: De Materia Medica', '
Q: What was the De Materia Medica written about?
A: herbal medicine', '
Q: What was the profession of the man who wrote De Materia Medica?
A: physician and pharmacologist', '
Q: Besides the Greeks, what other culture contributed to the study of botany?
A: medieval Muslim world', '
Q: How long a book is the De Materia Medica?
A: five-volume']
In the mid-16th century, "botanical gardens" were founded in a number of Italian universities – the Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location. These gardens continued the practical value of earlier "physic gardens", often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject. Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621. Throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first botanical garden at an Italian university?
A: Padua', '
Q: Where is the Padua garden?
A: its original location', '
Q: Why did monasteries have gardens?
A: for medical use', '
Q: What science was botany considered to be a part of?
A: medicine', '
Q: Where was the first European botany garden at a university?
A: University of Oxford']
Physician Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner (1516–1565) and herbalist John Gerard (1545–c. 1611) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells, a term he coined, in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote Historia Plantarum in 1544?
A: Physician Valerius Cordus', '
Q: What herbalist wrote about medicinal plants in the 16th century?
A: John Gerard', '
Q: Who is considered the father of natural history?
A: Ulisse Aldrovandi', '
Q: Who coined the term cells?
A: Robert Hooke', '
Q: In what plant were cells first discovered by microscope?
A: cork']
During the 18th century, systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys, where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups (e.g. family, genus and species) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters. The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys. By the 18th century, new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide. In 1753 Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus) published his Species Plantarum, a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature. This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus. For the purposes of identification, Linnaeus's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs. The 24th group, Cryptogamia, included all plants with concealed reproductive parts, mosses, liverworts, ferns, algae and fungi.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the meaning of dichotomous keys?
A: choices between pairs', '
Q: What is the term for keys used for identification?
A: diagnostic keys', '
Q: Why were new plants arriving in Europe in the 18th century?
A: newly discovered countries', '
Q: What book is still used for nomenclature?
A: Species Plantarum', '
Q: How are the plants classified?
A: number of their male sexual organs']
Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus had indicated. Adanson (1763), de Jussieu (1789), and Candolle (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed. The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later classification by Bentham and Hooker, which was influential until the mid-19th century, was influenced by Candolle's approach. Darwin's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What led scientists to believe that plants should be classified according to something other than just sexual system?
A: Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy', '
Q: In what year to Candolle introduce the Candollean system?
A: 1819', '
Q: On what did Candolle base his classification system?
A: morphological complexity', '
Q: What did Darwin introduce that changed classification systems?
A: concept of common descent']
Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first "modern" text book, Matthias Schleiden's Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik, published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany. Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co-founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831. In 1855, Adolf Fick formulated Fick's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the first modern text book?
A: Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik', "
Q: What was Schleiden's profession?
A: microscopist", "
Q: What do Fick's laws do?
A: calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion", '
Q: What theory did Schleiden co-found?
A: cell theory']
The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today. The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements. Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) produced accounts of the biogeography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Warming believe that plants can do?
A: form communities', '
Q: What is the term for the most complex plant life in a specific environment?
A: climax vegetation', '
Q: Who created the concept of ecosystems?
A: Arthur Tansley', '
Q: Whose earlier work did Nicholas Vavilov build upon?
A: Alphonse de Candolle', '
Q: What history did Vavilov write about?
A: history of economic plants']
Particularly since the mid-1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration (the transport of water within plant tissues), the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures. These developments, coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures, and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere. Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher, Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research. The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals. Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones. The synthetic auxin 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is transpiration?
A: the transport of water within plant tissues', '
Q: What influences water evaporation on leaves?
A: temperature', '
Q: What influences the rate of gas produced by plants?
A: rate of photosynthesis', '
Q: What enables the regulation of plant growth?
A: auxin plant hormones', '
Q: What can auxin plant hormones also be used as?
A: herbicides']
20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis. With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics, the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis. The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait, or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed. These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What enables scientists to better study plants now?
A: modern techniques of organic chemical analysis', '
Q: What opened the door to plant genetic engineering?
A: all plant cells are totipotent', '
Q: Who introduced the idea that cells could be grown in vitro?
A: Gottlieb Haberlandt']
Modern morphology recognizes a continuum between the major morphological categories of root, stem (caulome), leaf (phyllome) and trichome. Furthermore, it emphasizes structural dynamics. Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants. Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters, relying on DNA sequences as data. Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants, answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species. The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of relationships does systematics aim to discover?
A: phylogenetic', '
Q: What does phylogenetics use to determine plant categories?
A: DNA sequences', '
Q: What did the Angiosperm Phylogeny group use determine a phylogeny of flowering plants?
A: Molecular analysis of DNA', '
Q: Modern Morphology recognizes the structural dynamics of what?
A: the major morphological categories']
The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, medicine, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why are plants important to human life?
A: oxygen and food', '
Q: What is the process that converts sunlight to energy?
A: photosynthesis', '
Q: What is used to rebuild cells?
A: organic molecules', '
Q: What vital element is a byproduct of photosynthesis?
A: oxygen', '
Q: What do plant roots prevent?
A: soil erosion']
The strictest definition of "plant" includes only the "land plants" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses. Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis. They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases. The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte. Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria (now studied in bacteriology), fungi (mycology) – including lichen-forming fungi (lichenology), non-chlorophyte algae (phycology), and viruses (virology). However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi (including lichens) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the scientific name for seed plants?
A: gymnosperms', '
Q: What is the study of algae called?
A: phycology', '
Q: What two phases are included in the life cycles of embryophytes?
A: haploid and diploid']
Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants. Cyanobacteria, the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells. The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria, changing the ancient oxygen-free, reducing, atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the study of ancient, fossilized plants?
A: Paleobotanists', '
Q: What organism is credited with starting the oxygen-rich atmosphere on Earth?
A: cyanobacteria', '
Q: What can scientists learn from the fossil record?
A: evolutionary history of plants', '
Q: What was the first organism to produce oxygen through photosynthesis?
A: Cyanobacteria']
Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals. This is what ecologists call the first trophic level. The modern forms of the major staple foods, such as maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, pulses, bananas and plantains, as well as flax and cotton grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics. Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields, for example through plant breeding, making their work important to mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations. Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why do food chains start with plants?
A: energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil', '
Q: What do ecologists call the start of the food chain?
A: first trophic level', '
Q: How can the yield of food plants be increased?
A: plant breeding', '
Q: Why would botanists study weeds?
A: problem in agriculture']