romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Apart from the passing of noble titles or ranks, inheritance practices did not involve primogeniture; each son received an equal share of the family property. Unlike the practice in later dynasties, the father usually sent his adult married sons away with their portions of the family fortune. Daughters received a portion of the family fortune through their marriage dowries, though this was usually much less than the shares of sons. A different distribution of the remainder could be specified in a will, but it is unclear how common this was.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did daughters get their portion of the family fortune?
A: marriage dowries', '
Q: What type of title could be passed down?
A: noble', '
Q: What type of document could be produced to distribute some of an inheritance?
A: a will', "
Q: Was is guaranteed that a first born son would receive all of the family's fortune?
A: inheritance practices did not involve primogeniture", '
Q: Which family member commonly sent an adult married offspring away with their portion of the families fortune?
A: the father']
Women were expected to obey the will of their father, then their husband, and then their adult son in old age. However, it is known from contemporary sources that there were many deviations to this rule, especially in regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who ordered around and openly humiliated their fathers and brothers. Women were exempt from the annual corvée labor duties, but often engaged in a range of income-earning occupations aside from their domestic chores of cooking and cleaning.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which gender was exempt from performing the yearly corvee labor duties?
A: Women', '
Q: What emotional state would empresses commonly place their immediate family members in?
A: openly humiliated', '
Q: What type of occupation did women commonly take part in?
A: income-earning', '
Q: Who were women obligated to obey in their old age?
A: their adult son', '
Q: Which parental figures often avoided the common familial rules?
A: mothers']
The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of Legalism, Huang-Lao Daoism, and Confucianism in making state decisions and shaping government policy. However, the Han court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. He abolished all academic chairs or erudites (bóshì 博士) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics in 136 BC and encouraged nominees for office to receive a Confucian-based education at the Imperial University that he established in 124 BC. Unlike the original ideology espoused by Confucius, or Kongzi (551–479 BC), Han Confucianism in Emperor Wu's reign was the creation of Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BC). Dong was a scholar and minor official who aggregated the ethical Confucian ideas of ritual, filial piety, and harmonious relationships with five phases and yin-yang cosmologies. Much to the interest of the ruler, Dong's synthesis justified the imperial system of government within the natural order of the universe. The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century AD. A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools and private schools opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition payments.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What philosophy was given exclusivity in the court during the rule of Emperor Wu?
A: Confucianism', '
Q: Who put an end to all erudites?
A: Emperor Wu', '
Q: How many students were in the Imperial University by the second century?
A: over 30,000', '
Q: What type of philosophy was available for individuals at the commanderies?
A: Confucian', '
Q: Where did teachers make their money from at private schools?
A: tuition payments']
Some important texts were created and studied by scholars. Philosophical works written by Yang Xiong (53 BC – 18 AD), Huan Tan (43 BC – 28 AD), Wang Chong (27–100 AD), and Wang Fu (78–163 AD) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Tan (d. 110 BC) and his son Sima Qian (145–86 BC) established the standard model for all of imperial China's Standard Histories, such as the Book of Han written by Ban Biao (3–54 AD), his son Ban Gu (32–92 AD), and his daughter Ban Zhao (45–116 AD). There were dictionaries such as the Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen (c. 58 – c. 147 AD) and the Fangyan by Yang Xiong. Biographies on important figures were written by various gentrymen. Han dynasty poetry was dominated by the fu genre, which achieved its greatest prominence during the reign of Emperor Wu.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who had produced biographies of individuals of significant importance?
A: various gentrymen', '
Q: What type of poetry had much influence in the Han dynasty?
A: fu', '
Q: Who had written the dictionary Fangyan?
A: Yang Xiong', '
Q: Which person had authored the Book of Han?
A: Ban Biao', "
Q: What was the name of Ban Biao's female offspring?
A: Ban Zhao"]
Various cases for rape, physical abuse and murder were prosecuted in court. Women, although usually having fewer rights by custom, were allowed to level civil and criminal charges against men. While suspects were jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. Instead, punishments were commonly monetary fines, periods of forced hard labor for convicts, and the penalty of death by beheading. Early Han punishments of torturous mutilation were borrowed from Qin law. A series of reforms abolished mutilation punishments with progressively less-severe beatings by the bastinado.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of torture was acquired from Qin law?
A: mutilation', '
Q: What eventually replaced torturous mutilation as a type of punishment?
A: progressively less-severe beatings', '
Q: What could a criminal in this era expect not to happen if he was convicted of a crime?
A: criminals were never imprisoned', '
Q: What type of extreme punishment was likely to be laid upon those who committed the harshest of crimes?
A: death by beheading', '
Q: What did women commonly have less of?
A: rights']
The most common staple crops consumed during Han were wheat, barley, foxtail millet, proso millet, rice, and beans. Commonly eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons, apricots, strawberries, red bayberries, jujubes, calabash, bamboo shoots, mustard plant and taro. Domesticated animals that were also eaten included chickens, Mandarin ducks, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels and dogs (various types were bred specifically for food, while most were used as pets). Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. Commonly hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, sika deer, and Chinese bamboo partridge were consumed. Seasonings included sugar, honey, salt and soy sauce. Beer and wine were regularly consumed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of crop was rice considered to be during this period?
A: staple crops', '
Q: What were dogs in this era most likely to be considered?
A: pets', '
Q: What type of partridge was commonly consumed?
A: Chinese bamboo', '
Q: Where were turtles acquired from?
A: streams and lakes', '
Q: What was the color of the bayberries?
A: red']
Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and food to deities, spirits, and ancestors at temples and shrines, in the belief that these items could be utilized by those in the spiritual realm. It was thought that each person had a two-part soul: the spirit-soul (hun 魂) which journeyed to the afterlife paradise of immortals (xian), and the body-soul (po 魄) which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony. These tombs were commonly adorned with uniquely decorated hollow clay tiles that function also as a doorjamb to the tomb. Otherwise known as tomb tiles, these artifacts feature holes in the top and bottom of the tile allowing it to pivot. Similar tiles have been found in the Chengdu area of Sichuan province in south-central China.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What could be used to prevent a door from closing in a place of burial?
A: hollow clay tiles', '
Q: What type of decoration was often seen in tombs?
A: hollow clay tiles', '
Q: What was the afterlife of the immortals called during this period?
A: xian', '
Q: What is the commonly held notion regarding the dual nature of the soul called?
A: two-part soul', '
Q: What function did the holes in the top and bottom of the tomb tiles enable them to do?
A: allowing it to pivot']
In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to Heaven, the main deities known as the Five Powers, and the spirits (shen 神) of mountains and rivers. It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who made sacrifices to the main deities in this period?
A: the emperor', '
Q: What type of geological event was feared could be caused by the morals of the emperor?
A: earthquakes', '
Q: What is another term that could be used to label the main deities?
A: the Five Powers', '
Q: How many realms were commonly thought of as being linked by a natural cycle?
A: three realms', "
Q: What type of swarm was a concern because of the emperor's ethics?
A: locusts"]
It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West or Mount Penglai. Han-era Daoists assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques and use of medical elixirs. By the 2nd century AD, Daoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher Laozi (fl. 6th century BC) was a holy prophet who would offer salvation and good health if his devout followers would confess their sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat sacrifices and chant sections of the Daodejing.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the purpose of breathing exercises to a Daoist?
A: achieve immortality', '
Q: What could the prophet Laozi offer in return for the confession of sins?
A: salvation and good health', '
Q: What type of religion did the society of the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice practice?
A: Daoists', '
Q: What could be earned if an individual had reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West?
A: immortality', '
Q: What literal work were followers of Laozi expected to chant?
A: Daodejing']
Buddhism first entered China during the Eastern Han and was first mentioned in 65 AD. Liu Ying (d. 71 AD), a half-brother to Emperor Ming of Han (r. 57–75 AD), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents, although Chinese Buddhism at this point was heavily associated with Huang-Lao Daoism. China's first known Buddhist temple, the White Horse Temple, was erected during Ming's reign. Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century AD, including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters, Perfection of Wisdom, Shurangama Sutra, and Pratyutpanna Sutra.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During was era did Buddhism first appear in the region?
A: Eastern Han', "
Q: When did Emperor Ming of Han's reign end?
A: 75 AD", '
Q: What philosophical practice did Liu Ying believe in?
A: Buddhism', '
Q: What is believed to be the first Buddhist temple in this area?
A: the White Horse Temple', '
Q: During which century were important Buddhist notions translated to Chinese?
A: 2nd century AD']
In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a 600-dan salary-rank or higher. Theoretically, there were no limits to his power. However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (tingyi 廷議)—where ministers were convened to reach majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions. If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was responsible for nominations of local administrators in the government?
A: the emperor', '
Q: Was the emperor able to reject an opinion that was made by the court conference?
A: sometimes did reject the majority opinion', '
Q: What did the emperor risk if he did not accept the decisions of the court conference?
A: alienating his high ministers', '
Q: Who often placed pressure on the emperor in regards to local policies?
A: court conference', '
Q: Who was considered to be the supreme judge in Han government?
A: the emperor']
Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the Nine Ministers, who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars. The Minister of the Household was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot. The Minister of the Guards was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces. The Minister Coachman was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces. The Minister of Justice was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law. The Minister Herald was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests at the imperial court, such as nobles and foreign ambassadors. The Minister of the Imperial Clan oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles. The Minister of Finance was the treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for units of measurement. The Minister Steward served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which individual had a duty to maintain the imperial stables?
A: The Minister Coachman', '
Q: Which Minister had the responsibility to interpret laws in this period?
A: The Minister of Justice', '
Q: Which Minister could an honored guest of the court be expected to see?
A: The Minister Herald', '
Q: Who provided  the emperor with sustenance and medical aid?
A: The Minister Steward', "
Q: Which individual held the responsibility to oversee the interactions of the empire's nobles with the court?
A: The Minister of the Imperial Clan"]
A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an Administrator. He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defense, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system first established by Emperor Wu. The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called Chiefs, and both could be referred to as Magistrates. A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual corvée duties, repaired schools and supervised public works.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What individual was typically in charge of a commandery?
A: an Administrator', '
Q: Around how many households was a Prefect responsible for?
A: 10,000', '
Q: What individual was responsible for law and maintaining order in the county?
A: A Magistrate', '
Q: What Emperor initially created the quota system?
A: Emperor Wu', '
Q: Who was in charge of counties that had fewer than 10,000 people in them?
A: Chiefs']
At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into the military. The minimum age for the military draft was reduced to twenty after Emperor Zhao's (r. 87–74 BC) reign. Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was served in one of three branches of the armed forces: infantry, cavalry or navy. The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital. A small professional (paid) standing army was stationed near the capital.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What gender was expected to be conscripted into the military?
A: male', '
Q: At what age could a male common expect to be conscripted into the military?
A: twenty-three', '
Q: How long could a conscripted soldier expect to be in training for?
A: one year', "
Q: What was the lowest age a soldier could be conscripted after the end of Emperor Zhao's tenure?
A: twenty", '
Q: Which Minister could a conscripted soldier expect to serve under during his year of service?
A: Minister of the Guards']
During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a volunteer army. The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun 南軍), while the standing army stationed in and near the capital was the Northern Army (Beijun 北軍). Led by Colonels (Xiaowei 校尉), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers. When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops (buqu 部曲).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How could conscription into military service be avoided?
A: one paid a commutable tax', '
Q: What army was based near the capital?
A: Northern Army', '
Q: What army was considered to be the volunteer army?
A: Southern Army', '
Q: How many regiments were in the Northern Army?
A: five', '
Q: Around how many soldiers were in each regiment of the Northern Army?
A: several thousand soldiers']
The Han dynasty inherited the ban liang coin type from the Qin. In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu closed the government mint in favor of private minting of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BC by his widow Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC), who abolished private minting. In 182 BC, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread inflation that was not reduced until 175 BC when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely 2.6 g (0.09 oz) in weight.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where did the Han dynasty receive their coin type from?
A: the Qin', '
Q: Who closed the government mint?
A: Emperor Gaozu', '
Q: In what year was the decision reversing the closure of the government mint implemented?
A: 186 BC', "
Q: Who released new lighter coinage that caused significant amounts of inflation because of it's weight?
A: Lü Zhi", '
Q: In what year were private manufactures allowed to create coins that were exactly 2.6g in mass?
A: 175 BC']
In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin. Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wuzhu (五銖) coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz). The wuzhu became China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What coin replaced the ban liangs after only a year of distribution?
A: wuzhu', '
Q: Who introduced new coinage in the year of 120 BC?
A: Emperor Wu', '
Q: During what dynasty did the wuzhu stop being the standard coin?
A: Tang dynasty', '
Q: What was the mass of the wuzhu coin?
A: 3.2 g', '
Q: What interrupted the use of the wuzhu coin during the reign of Wang Mang?
A: several new currencies']
The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords. The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover from their debts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which group made up the bulk of the Han tax base?
A: landowner-cultivators', '
Q: Who made reductions in the taxes that landowner-cultivators were forced to pay?
A: The Han government', '
Q: During what period did a large number of peasants incur debt?
A: Eastern Han', '
Q: What type of housing did the Han government provide to landless indebted peasants?
A: temporary', '
Q: What did the Han government do to help out smaller landowners?
A: enacted reforms']
In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue. To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the monopolies. By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In which year did Emperor Wu monopolize several industries?
A: 117 BC', '
Q: Who allowed industrialists to become officials in the newly state sanctioned industries?
A: Emperor Wu', '
Q: During what period did the governmental monopolies become privatized once again?
A: Eastern Han', '
Q: What did Emperor Wu do to negate the influence of private entrepreneurs?
A: nationalized the salt and iron industries', '
Q: During what era could a wealthy iron industrialist be able to rival the treasury in funds?
A: Western Han']
Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every 0.2 L (0.05 gallons) was levied for those who traded it privately. By 110 BC Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government-stored grain at a lower price than demanded by merchants. Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What industry was monopolized by the government in 98 BC?
A: Liquor', '
Q: In what year did the liquor industry once again become privatized?
A: 81 BC', '
Q: What was mostly missing during the Eastern Han?
A: price control regulations', '
Q: What did Emperor Wu sell that offended the merchants?
A: grain', '
Q: What office did Emperor Ming create?
A: Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization']