romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who pioneered parsimony?
A: William of Ockham', "
Q: What theory is based off of projectiles' motion?
A: impetus", '
Q: What theory did impetus pave the way for?
A: inertia', '
Q: What did the Oxford Calculators measure?
A: the kinematics of motion']
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What year did the Black Death occur?
A: 1348', '
Q: What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars?
A: the Fall of Constantinople in 1453', '
Q: The invention of printing improved which society?
A: European', '
Q: Printed word enabled what?
A: a faster propagation of new ideas', '
Q: What type of mathematics aided in developing European science?
A: Algebra']
The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The focus on learning in the 12th century is referred to as what?
A: Scholasticism', '
Q: What began at the same time Scholasticism ended?
A: the Black Death', '
Q: Which era came after Scholasticism?
A: Italian Renaissance', '
Q: What was the focus of the Northern Renaissance?
A: chemistry and the biological sciences', '
Q: Which scientist was known for working on human cadavers?
A: Vesalius']
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the Scientific Revolution?
A: a period of major scientific advancements', '
Q: What year is considered to be the beginning of the Scientific Revolution?
A: 1543', '
Q: What book by Andreas Vesalius was published in 1543?
A: De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)', '
Q: What was the focus of De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus?
A: the Earth moved around the Sun', '
Q: What book was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
A: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica']
The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century "Age of Reason" opened the avenues to the decisive steps towards modern science, which took place during the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), epitomized in the appearance of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie between 1751 and 1772. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire), the French Revolution of 1789 setting a bloody cesura indicating the beginning of political modernity[citation needed]. The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Age of Reason made way for which movement?
A: Age of Enlightenment', '
Q: What event is considered to be the start of political modernity?
A: the French Revolution of 1789', '
Q: What book did Denis Diderot write?
A: Encyclopédie']
The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which movement took place during the 19th century?
A: The Romantic Movement', '
Q: What theory did Darwin introduce?
A: theory of evolution', '
Q: Which physics subject was affected by The Romantic Movement?
A: electromagnetism', '
Q: What caused Romanticism to end?
A: Positivism', '
Q: What year did Positivism end?
A: 1880']
The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which movement is considered to be a dividing line between ancient thought and classical physics?
A: The scientific revolution', '
Q: Who made the heliocentric model popular?
A: Nicolaus Copernicus', '
Q: Johannes Kepler created a model of what?
A: planetary motion', "
Q: What did Johannes Kepler's model suggest about the planets?
A: the planets follow elliptical orbits", "
Q: What was Galileo's nickname?
A: Father of Modern Physics"]
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What work was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
A: the Principia Mathematica', '
Q: How many theories were included within the Principia Mathematica?
A: two', '
Q: What concept did the Law of Gravitation deal with?
A: the fundamental force of gravity', "
Q: What are Maxwell's equations about?
A: electromagnetism"]
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What science subject explains anomalous results?
A: quantum theories', '
Q: What year did Einstein discover the theory of general relativity?
A: 1915', '
Q: Quantum theories became which subject in 1925?
A: quantum mechanics', '
Q: Which scientist noticed the relationship between the speed and distance of galaxies?
A: Edwin Hubble', "
Q: Edwin Hubble's discovery about galaxies allowed for which theory by Georges Lemaitre?
A: the Big Bang theory"]
In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who discovered nuclear fission?
A: Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann', '
Q: Who edited the first paper about nuclear fission?
A: Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler', '
Q: What event was going on during the creation of the atomic bomb?
A: World War II', '
Q: The atomic bomb was a part of which movement?
A: Big Science', '
Q: What is the problem with general relativity and quantum mechanics?
A: inconsistent with each other']
Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when 'chymistry' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did modern chemistry come into existence?
A: the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries', '
Q: Who decided that chemistry and alchemy were different?
A: Robert Boyle', '
Q: What book was written by Robert Boyle in 1661?
A: The Sceptical Chymist', "
Q: What was Antoine Lavoisier's nickname?
A: Father of Modern Chemistry", '
Q: Which theory did the law of conservation of mass disagree with?
A: phlogiston theory']
The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What scientific act is Friedrich Wohler known for?
A: The synthesis of urea', '
Q: What scientific field did Wohler discover?
A: organic chemistry', "
Q: Late 19th century is marked by what event?
A: the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals", '
Q: Mixing organic chemistry with living organisms created what early form of biochemistry?
A: physiological chemistry', '
Q: Who wrote The Nature of the Chemical Bond?
A: Linus Pauling']
Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the work of Theophrastus on rocks called?
A: Peri lithōn', "
Q: When were Theophrastus' ideas about fossils proven false?
A: the Scientific Revolution", '
Q: When did Shen Kua live?
A: 1031–1095', '
Q: What science did Shen Kua observe?
A: land formation']
Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What happened to geology during the Scientific Revolution?
A: individual theorists made important contributions', '
Q: What did Robert Hooke study?
A: earthquakes', '
Q: What theory did Nicholas Steno discover?
A: the theory of superposition', '
Q: What book did Thomas Burnet right in 1681?
A: Sacred Theory of the Earth', '
Q: What text did Burnet base his work off of?
A: the Bible']
Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How old did biblical scholars think the Earth was?
A: 6,000 years', '
Q: Jean-Etienne Guettard and NIcolas Desmarest went to France and recorded what?
A: the first geological maps', '
Q: In the 18th century, what changed geology drastically?
A: comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals', '
Q: What are used to create geological maps?
A: index fossils', '
Q: What geological theory was applied to the Paris Basin?
A: layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained']
Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What changed about the way geology was implemented during the 19th century?
A: shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed', '
Q: The idea of an ice-age that completely covered a continent was suggested by whom?
A: Louis Agassiz', '
Q: What group did Andrew Crombie Ramsay belong to?
A: fluvialists', '
Q: What did Ramsay believe about river valleys?
A: were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them', '
Q: What happened after radioactivity was realized?
A: radiometric dating methods were developed']
In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What was Ignac Fulop Semmelweis' profession?
A: physician", '
Q: How did Semmelweis reduce puerperal fever?
A: requiring physicians to wash their hands', '
Q: What came after the realization that physicians should was their hands before childbirth?
A: the germ theory of disease', '
Q: What did Joseph Lister prove?
A: antisepsis', '
Q: Who did Joseph Lister base his work off of?
A: Louis Pasteur']