romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: A simple model is also referred to as what?
A: transmission model', '
Q: What kind of message is sent in a simple model?
A: a message in natural language', '
Q: In what form is the information or content sent in a simple model?
A: spoken language', '
Q: How is information sent through a simple model?
A: from an emisor/ sender/ encoder', '
Q: What are the strengths of the simple model?
A: simplicity, generality, and quantifiability']
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a codebook, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How are the sender and receiver connected in a slightly more complex form of communication model?
A: reciprocally', '
Q: What is the model of communication in which the sender and receiver are connected reciprocally called?
A: constitutive model or constructionist view', '
Q: What is communication viewed as?
A: a conduit', '
Q: What is something that may alter the intended meaning of a message?
A: different regional traditions', '
Q: What is something that may cause the reception and decoding of the content of a message to be faulty?
A: communication noise']
Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil. These interactions are governed by syntactic, pragmatic, and semantic rules,[citation needed] and are possible because of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants. The original meaning of the word "neuron" in Greek is "vegetable fiber" and recent research has shown that most of the microorganism plant communication processes are neuron-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles when exposed to herbivory attack behavior, thus warning neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In stress situations plants can overwrite the genomes they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is a form of communication observed within plants?
A: between plant cells', '
Q: What part of a plant communicates with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil?
A: roots', '
Q: What is the meaning of the word neuron in Greek?
A: vegetable fiber', '
Q: How do plants communicate to warn nearby plants of danger?
A: via volatiles', '
Q: How are the plant roots able to communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil?
A: the decentralized "nervous system" of plants']
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What describes communication as creative and dynamic rather than discrete?
A: Theories of coregulation', '
Q: What ancient civilization did Harold Innis use as an example of his theory?
A: Egypt', '
Q: Who theorized that the types of media people use to communicate will offer different possibilities for the shape of society?
A: Harold Innis', '
Q: What did Harold Innis call papyrus?
A: Space Binding', '
Q: What did Space Binding make possible for the ancient Egyptian civilizations?
A: transmission of written orders across space, empires']
Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications. Since it is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills, communications professionals often specialize in one or two of these areas but usually have at least a working knowledge of most of them. By far, the most important qualifications communications professionals can possess are excellent writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the capacity to think critically and strategically.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why do communications professionals typically specialize in only one or two areas of communication?
A: it is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills', '
Q: Good people skills is a qualification that is important to what profession?
A: communications', '
Q: What kind of companies may engage in only a few types of communications?
A: Companies with limited resources', '
Q: What is one of the most important qualifications for a communications professional to have?
A: excellent writing ability']
Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes. Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What color are white grapes?
A: green', '
Q: What gene makes grapes purple?
A: anthocyanins', '
Q: What shape do grapes usually resemble?
A: prolate spheroid', '
Q: What type of food are grapes?
A: fruit', '
Q: How many grapes are generally in a cluster?
A: 15 to 300']
The cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia. The oldest winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC.[citation needed] By the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine.[citation needed] Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes,[citation needed] and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians, and Romans growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production[citation needed]. The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, as well as North Africa, and eventually in North America.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How long ago were grapes first cultivated?
A: 6,000–8,000 years ago', '
Q: What microorganisms are naturally found on a grapes skin?
A: Yeast', '
Q: Where is the oldest know winery located?
A: Armenia', '
Q: What city is Syrah red wine believed to have been named after?
A: Shiraz', '
Q: How do we know that wine was made in ancient Egypt?
A: hieroglyphics']
Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France. This phenomenon has been termed the French paradox, and is thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation, polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do people in France eat more of that in most western countries?
A: animal fat', '
Q: What kind of the wine is regularly consumed by the French?
A: red wine', '
Q: What is the phenomenon that shows that the French have less heart disease, even though they eat more animal fat?
A: the French paradox', '
Q: What is a potential health benefit from drinking alcohol?
A: vasodilation']
Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made into wine, brandy, or vinegar. Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7–23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "must". In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes, while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What juice is made when grapes are crushed and blended?
A: Grape juice', '
Q: What kind of grapes are made into vinegar?
A: fermented', '
Q: What is the most common grape used to make juice in North America?
A: Concord grapes', '
Q: What are Sultana grapes known as in California?
A: Thompson Seedless', '
Q: What types of grapes are commonly used to make white grape juice?
A: Niagara grapes']
Red wine may offer health benefits more so than white because potentially beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content. Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L, depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of wine is fermented with grape skin?
A: red wine', '
Q: What type of wine is fermented after the grapes skin has been removed?
A: white wine', '
Q: What substance is absorbed by wine when grapes are fermented with their skins?
A: resveratrol', '
Q: What type of wine is believed to have more health benefits?
A: Red wine']
Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are grapes that are eaten raw classified as?
A: table grapes', '
Q: What are grapes that are used to make wine classified as?
A: wine grapes', '
Q: What specie are table grapes and wine grapes?
A: Vitis vinifera', '
Q: What Classification of grapes are typically large and seedless?
A: Table grape', '
Q: What percentage of a wine grape is sugar when it is harvested?
A: approximately 24%']
In the Bible, grapes are first mentioned when Noah grows them on his farm (Genesis 9:20–21). Instructions concerning wine are given in the book of Proverbs and in the book of Isaiah, such as in Proverbs 20:1 and Isaiah 5:20–25. Deuteronomy 18:3–5,14:22–27,16:13–15 tell of the use of wine during Jewish feasts. Grapes were also significant to both the Greeks and Romans, and their god of agriculture, Dionysus, was linked to grapes and wine, being frequently portrayed with grape leaves on his head. Grapes are especially significant for Christians, who since the Early Church have used wine in their celebration of the Eucharist. Views on the significance of the wine vary between denominations. In Christian art, grapes often represent the blood of Christ, such as the grape leaves in Caravaggio’s John the Baptist.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When are grapes first mentioned in the Bible?
A: Genesis 9:20–21', '
Q: Who was the Greek and Roman god of agriculture?
A: Dionysus', '
Q: Whose blood do grapes usually represent in Christian art?
A: Christ', '
Q: Which book of the Bible talks about the use of wine during Jewish feasts?
A: Deuteronomy', '
Q: Who in the Bible first grew grapes on their farm?
A: Noah']
There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes, Reliance, and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern Ontario.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many seedless grape sources are there for commercial cultivators? 
A: three', '
Q: How many varieties of seedless grapes are there? 
A: more than a dozen', '
Q: What species of grape are grown by Thompson Seedless? 
A: Vitis vinifera', "
Q: What type of climate are Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes specifically cultivated for? 
A: cold", '
Q: What species of grape are grown by Black Monukka?
A: Vitis vinifera']
Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (i.e. catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties. Total phenolic content, a laboratory index of antioxidant strength, is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health. Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the most abundant polyphenolics in purple grapes?
A: Anthocyanins', '
Q: What is the laboratory index of antioxidant strength in grapes known as? 
A: Total phenolic content', '
Q: What content of a grapes skin can be affected by soil composition, climate, and cultivation practices? 
A: Phenolic content', '
Q: Why causes antioxidant strength to be higher in purple grapes?
A: anthocyanins', '
Q: What is the main phenolic in white grapes?
A: flavan-3-ols']
The Catholic Church uses wine in the celebration of the Eucharist because it is part of the tradition passed down through the ages starting with Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, where Catholics believe the consecrated bread and wine literally become the body and blood of Jesus Christ, a dogma known as transubstantiation. Wine is used (not grape juice) both due to its strong Scriptural roots, and also to follow the tradition set by the early Christian Church. The Code of Canon Law of the Catholic Church (1983), Canon 924 says that the wine used must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt. In some circumstances, a priest may obtain special permission to use grape juice for the consecration, however this is extremely rare and typically requires sufficient impetus to warrant such a dispensation, such as personal health of the priest.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What church uses wine to celebrate the Eucharist?
A: The Catholic Church', '
Q: When was Jesus Christ known to have used wine in celebration? 
A: the Last Supper', '
Q: Where in the Code of Canon Law does it say that wine must be natural and not corrupt?
A: Canon 924', '
Q: What may a priest use in place of wine for consecration for health reasons?
A: grape juice', '
Q: What is the Catholic dogma known as that believes that consecrated bread and wine from the Last Supper literally became the body and blood of Jesus Christ?
A: transubstantiation']
Computer security, also known as cybersecurity or IT security, is the protection of information systems from theft or damage to the hardware, the software, and to the information on them, as well as from disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. It includes controlling physical access to the hardware, as well as protecting against harm that may come via network access, data and code injection, and due to malpractice by operators, whether intentional, accidental, or due to them being tricked into deviating from secure procedures.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What must an operator deviate from to harm the computer?
A: secure procedures', '
Q: What is computer security also known as?
A: cybersecurity or IT security', '
Q: What is the protection of information systems?
A: Computer security', '
Q: What are the ways an operator can malpractice?
A: intentional, accidental, or due to them being tricked', '
Q: What is the practice that includes controlling physical access to hardware?
A: Computer security']
Denial of service attacks are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points – and defending is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet, but a range of other techniques are possible including reflection and amplification attacks, where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are attacks designed to make a machine or network unavailable to its intended users?
A: Denial of service attacks', '
Q: What does deliberately entering the wrong password enough consecutive times cause?
A: the victim account to be locked', '
Q: What are attacks where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victom called?
A: reflection and amplification attacks', '
Q: What does DDoS stand for?
A: Distributed denial of service', '
Q: How can a network attack from a single IP address be blocked?
A: by adding a new firewall rule']
If access is gained to a car's internal controller area network, it is possible to disable the brakes and turn the steering wheel. Computerized engine timing, cruise control, anti-lock brakes, seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver assistance systems make these disruptions possible, and self-driving cars go even further. Connected cars may use wifi and bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices, and the cell phone network to contact concierge and emergency assistance services or get navigational or entertainment information; each of these networks is a potential entry point for malware or an attacker. Researchers in 2011 were even able to use a malicious compact disc in a car's stereo system as a successful attack vector, and cars with built-in voice recognition or remote assistance features have onboard microphones which could be used for eavesdropping.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What were researchers in 2011 able to use as a successful attack vector?
A: a malicious compact disc in a car's stereo system", '
Q: In cars with built-in voice recognition features, what can the onboard microphones be used for?
A: eavesdropping', '
Q: Wifi, bluetooth, and cell phone networks are examples of what?
A: a potential entry point for malware or an attacker', "
Q: Assuming access has been gained to the car's internal controller area network, what is it possible to do?
A: disable the brakes and turn the steering wheel", '
Q: What network is used to contact concierge and emergency assitance services as well as getting navigational and entetainment information?
A: the cell phone network']
However, relatively few organisations maintain computer systems with effective detection systems, and fewer still have organised response mechanisms in place. As result, as Reuters points out: "Companies for the first time report they are losing more through electronic theft of data than physical stealing of assets". The primary obstacle to effective eradication of cyber crime could be traced to excessive reliance on firewalls and other automated "detection" systems. Yet it is basic evidence gathering by using packet capture appliances that puts criminals behind bars.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many organisations are estimated to maintain computer systems with effective detection systems?
A: relatively few', '
Q: What is the basic evidence gathered by that puts criminals behind bars?
A: packet capture appliances', '
Q: The primary obstacle to the eradication of cyber crime is the excessive reliance on what?
A: firewalls and other automated "detection" systems', '
Q: What is the source of the quote?
A: Reuters', '
Q: Electronic theft of data is causing more loss than what? 
A: physical stealing of assets']