romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
An alloy of aluminium and gallium in pellet form added to water can be used to generate hydrogen. The process also produces alumina, but the expensive gallium, which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be re-used. This has important potential implications for a hydrogen economy, as hydrogen can be produced on-site and does not need to be transported.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When you combine an alloy of alluminum and gallium to water, what do you get?
A: hydrogen', '
Q: What else can it produce?
A: alumina', '
Q: What can be reused after the formation?
A: the expensive gallium']
Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas. At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H
2.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The most economical way to prepare hydrogen involves removing it from what?
A: hydrocarbons', '
Q: What temperature is needed for steam to react with methane?
A: 1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F']
This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0  MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure H
2 is the most marketable product and Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) purification systems work better at higher pressures. The product mixture is known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: At what pressure does PSA work best in?
A: high pressures', '
Q: What is synthesis gas used for?
A: production of methanol', '
Q: Besides methane, what else can be used to produce synthesis gas?
A: Hydrocarbons']
Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H
2O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How can it be recovered through steam?
A: use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction']
Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without being separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is generated from natural gas. Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co-product.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When hydrogen is generated from natural gas, what des it produce?
A: ammonia', '
Q: How is hydrogen produced as a co product?
A: Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine']
There are more than 200 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting, around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. A number of laboratories (including in France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA) are developing thermochemical methods to produce hydrogen from solar energy and water.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What are the thermochemical cycyles in a testing phase for?
A: produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity', '
Q: What are labs trying to produce hydrogen from?
A: solar energy and water', '
Q: What countries are testing this?
A: France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA']
Under anaerobic conditions, iron and steel alloys are slowly oxidized by the protons of water concomitantly reduced in molecular hydrogen (H
2). The anaerobic corrosion of iron leads first to the formation of ferrous hydroxide (green rust) and can be described by the following reaction:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What condition is iron and steel alloys slowly oxidized?
A: anaerobic', '
Q: What does the anaerobic corrosion of iron lead to?
A: formation of ferrous hydroxide', '
Q: What is another name for formation of ferrous hydroxide?
A: green rust']
In its turn, under anaerobic conditions, the ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)
2 ) can be oxidized by the protons of water to form magnetite and molecular hydrogen. This process is described by the Schikorr reaction:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Under what condition can ferrous hydroxide be oxidized?
A: anaerobic', '
Q: What does this process form?
A: magnetite and molecular hydrogen', '
Q: What reaction describes this process?
A: Schikorr reaction']
In the absence of atmospheric oxygen (O
2), in deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth atmosphere, hydrogen (H
2) is produced during the process of serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation by the water protons (H+) of the ferrous (Fe2+) silicate present in the crystal lattice of the fayalite (Fe
2SiO
4, the olivine iron-endmember). The corresponding reaction leading to the formation of magnetite (Fe
3O
4), quartz (SiO
2) and hydrogen (H
2) is the following:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is hydrogen produced when there is no atmospheric oxygen?
A: serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation', '
Q: Where do you find silicate?
A: crystal lattice of the fayalite']
From all the fault gases formed in power transformers, hydrogen is the most common and is generated under most fault conditions; thus, formation of hydrogen is an early indication of serious problems in the transformer's life cycle.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the most common gas found in power tranformers?
A: hydrogen']
Large quantities of H
2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest application of H
2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production of ammonia. The key consumers of H
2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H
2 has several other important uses. H
2 is used as a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol. It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H
2 is also used as a reducing agent of metallic ores.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where are large quantities of H2 needed?
A: petroleum and chemical industries', '
Q: What are the consumers of H2 in petrochemical plant?
A: hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking']
Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals. Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice. These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where is hydrogen highly soluble?
A: rare earth and transition metals', '
Q: Where can you find soluble hydrogen?
A: nanocrystalline and amorphous metals', '
Q: What influences hydrogens solubility in metals?
A: local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice', '
Q: When are these useful?
A: when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks', "
Q: When is it damaging?
A: gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks"]
Apart from its use as a reactant, H
2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding. H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. Because H
2 is lighter than air, having a little more than 1⁄14 of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Where else is H2 applied?
A: in physics and engineering', '
Q: How is H2 used in electrical generators at power stations?
A: as the rotor coolant', '
Q: Why is it used as the rotor coolant?
A: it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas', '
Q: What research uses liquid H2?
A: cryogenic']
In more recent applications, hydrogen is used pure or mixed with nitrogen (sometimes called forming gas) as a tracer gas for minute leak detection. Applications can be found in the automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications industries. Hydrogen is an authorized food additive (E 949) that allows food package leak testing among other anti-oxidizing properties.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why would one use hydrogen mixed with nitrogen?
A: as a tracer gas for minute leak detection', '
Q: What industries can you find these applications?
A: automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications', '
Q: How is hydrogen used as a food additive?
A: allows food package leak testing']
Hydrogen's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects. Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous paints.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What isotope is used in nuclear fission?
A: Deuterium', '
Q: Where is tritium produced?
A: nuclear reactors', '
Q: What is tritium used for?
A: production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous paints']
Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators due to a number of favorable properties that are a direct result of its light diatomic molecules. These include low density, low viscosity, and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How is hydrogen used at power stations?
A: as a coolant in generators', '
Q: Why is it used as a coolant?
A: favorable properties that are a direct result of its light diatomic molecules', '
Q: What are these properties?
A: low density, low viscosity, and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases']
Hydrogen is not an energy resource, except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from development. The Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth. Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources require more energy to make it than is obtained by burning it, so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a battery. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), but these sources are unsustainable.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Is Hydrogen considered an energy resource?
A: not', '
Q: Where does the sun get its energy from?
A: nuclear fusion of hydrogen', '
Q: How does hydrogen function when it s burned?
A: energy carrier']
The energy density per unit volume of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources, although the energy density per unit fuel mass is higher. Nevertheless, elemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible future carrier of energy on an economy-wide scale. For example, CO
2 sequestration followed by carbon capture and storage could be conducted at the point of H
2 production from fossil fuels. Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NOx emissions, but without carbon emissions. However, the infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial. Fuel cells can convert hydrogen and oxygen directly to electricity more efficiently than internal combustion engines.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What form of hydrogen has been discussed as a ussage for fuel?
A: elemental']
Hydrogen is employed to saturate broken ("dangling") bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties. It is also a potential electron donor in various oxide materials, including ZnO, SnO2, CdO, MgO, ZrO2, HfO2, La2O3, Y2O3, TiO2, SrTiO3, LaAlO3, SiO2, Al2O3, ZrSiO4, HfSiO4, and SrZrO3.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Why is hydrogen employed?
A: to saturate broken ("dangling") bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties', '
Q: How is hydrogen used in oxide materials?
A: a potential electron donor', '
Q: What oxide materials use hydrogen as an electron donor?
A: ZnO, SnO2, CdO, MgO, ZrO2, HfO2, La2O3, Y2O3, TiO2, SrTiO3, LaAlO3, SiO2, Al2O3, ZrSiO4, HfSiO4, and SrZrO3']
H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water. The natural cycle of hydrogen production and consumption by organisms is called the hydrogen cycle.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What enzymes are used to produce H2?
A: hydrogenases', '
Q: When does hydrogen gas occur?
A: in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water', '
Q: What is the natural cycle of hydrogen production and consumption by organisms called?
A: hydrogen cycle']
Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such organisms, including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria, have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H2 gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast. Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2 gas even in the presence of oxygen. Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactor.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the decomposition of water into its components called?
A: Water splitting', '
Q: Where does water splitting occur?
A: in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms', '
Q: What organisms can form H2 gas?
A: alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria', '
Q: How are these gases formed?
A: by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast']
Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxiant in its pure, oxygen-free form. In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with very cold liquids. Hydrogen dissolves in many metals, and, in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen embrittlement, leading to cracks and explosions. Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite. Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What threats can hydrogen cause to human saftey?
A: potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxiant in its pure, oxygen-free form', '
Q: What can hydrogen embrittlement lead to?
A: cracks and explosions']
Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given). Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on?
A: the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio', '
Q: How long can it take to reach the equilibrium ratio?
A: days or weeks', '
Q: What do Hydrogen detonation parameters depend on?
A: container geometry']
A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI/URL) and may be a web page, image, video or other piece of content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do people typically call a web browser?
A: browser', '
Q: What platform is a browser used on?
A: World Wide Web', '
Q: What does URL mean?
A: Uniform Resource Identifier', '
Q: What allows a person to direct their browser to a resource?
A: Hyperlinks']
Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The primary function of a browser is to use what?
A: the World Wide Web', '
Q: In addition to accessing the Internet, browsers can also access info that is put there by web servers in what?
A: private networks', '
Q: A browser can also access files where?
A: file systems']
The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which oversees the Web's continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the first browser created?
A: 1990', '
Q: Who invented the first browser?
A: Sir Tim Berners-Lee', '
Q: What was Berners-Lee a director of?
A: the World Wide Web Consortium', '
Q: What organization did Berners-Lee create?
A: World Wide Web Foundation']
In 1993, browser software was further innovated by Marc Andreessen with the release of Mosaic, "the world's first popular browser", which made the World Wide Web system easy to use and more accessible to the average person. Andreesen's browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use. Andreessen, the leader of the Mosaic team at National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), soon started his own company, named Netscape, and released the Mosaic-influenced Netscape Navigator in 1994, which quickly became the world's most popular browser, accounting for 90% of all web use at its peak (see usage share of web browsers).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who released Mosaic?
A: Marc Andreessen', '
Q: When was Mosaic released?
A: 1993', '
Q: When Andreessen left the company he worked for, what new company did he start?
A: Netscape', '
Q: What browser did Andreessen release in 1994?
A: Netscape Navigator']
Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industry's first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market; Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who released the Internet Explorer browser?
A: Microsoft', '
Q: When did Microsoft release Internet Explorer?
A: 1995', '
Q: The release of Internet Explorer started the first what?
A: browser war', '
Q: What was bundled with Internet Explorer?
A: Windows']
Opera debuted in 1996; it has never achieved widespread use, having less than 2% browser usage share as of February 2012 according to Net Applications. Its Opera-mini version has an additive share, in April 2011 amounting to 1.1% of overall browser use, but focused on the fast-growing mobile phone web browser market, being preinstalled on over 40 million phones. It is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendo's Wii video game console.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Opera was introduced in what year?
A: 1996', '
Q: What accounted for 1.1% of browser use in April 2011?
A: Opera-mini version', '
Q: Opera focused on which quickly growing market?
A: mobile phone web browser', "
Q: Opera is also available on which video game console?
A: Nintendo's Wii"]
In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model. That browser would eventually evolve into Firefox, which developed a respectable following while still in the beta stage of development; shortly after the release of Firefox 1.0 in late 2004, Firefox (all versions) accounted for 7% of browser use. As of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did Netscape launch in 1998?
A: Mozilla Foundation', '
Q: Netscape wanted to have a competitive browser using what?
A: open source software model', '
Q: What was the resulting browser for the Mozilla Foundation?
A: Firefox', '
Q: When was Firefox released?
A: late 2004']
Apple's Safari had its first beta release in January 2003; as of April 2011, it had a dominant share of Apple-based web browsing, accounting for just over 7% of the entire browser market.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the first beta release for Safari?
A: January 2003', '
Q: Who created Safari?
A: Apple']
The most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chrome's take-up has increased significantly year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, whose share has tended to decrease from month to month. In December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chrome's user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chrome's usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined. By April 2014, Chrome's usage had hit 45%.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which browser is the newest to enter the field?
A: Chrome', '
Q: When was Chrome released?
A: September 2008', '
Q: As Chrome usage increases, which browser usage has continued to decrease?
A: Internet Explorer', '
Q: When did Chrome become more used than all versions of Internet Explorer?
A: May 2012']
Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system (and was also downloadable free), and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac. It is likely that releasing IE for the Mac was part of Microsoft's overall strategy to fight threats to its quasi-monopoly platform dominance - threats such as web standards and Java - by making some web developers, or at least their managers, assume that there was "no need" to develop for anything other than Internet Explorer. In this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through "lock-in" to Microsoft's browser.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was bundled for free with the Windows OS?
A: Internet Explorer', '
Q: Internet Explorer was partially funded in what two ways?
A: sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users', '
Q: What other OS could use Internet Explorer?
A: Mac']