romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail, and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?
A: universal encyclopedias', '
Q: What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?
A: to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work', '
Q: Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?
A: Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers', '
Q: In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?
A: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot', "
Q: Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?
A: d'Alembert's"]
Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology are all studies of which subject?
A: natural history', '
Q: Who criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier?
A: Rousseau', '
Q: Who replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development during the Enlightenment?
A: scientific societies and academies', '
Q: Which century is considered by some as a "drab" period, however saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics, the development of biological taxonomy, a new understanding of magnetism, and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline?
A: the 18th century', '
Q: Voltaire and Emilie du Chatelet populatized which scientific philosophy?
A: Newtonianism']
Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of what?
A: the development of free speech and thought', '
Q: Who discovered carbon dioxide or fixed air?
A: chemist Joseph Black', '
Q: Who created the argument for deep time?
A: geologist James Hutton', '
Q: Who invented the steam engine?
A: James Watt', '
Q: Who launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon in November 1783?
A: the Montgolfier Brothers']
Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples, and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?
A: Crimes and Punishments (1764)', "
Q: Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?
A: 22", '
Q: Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?
A: Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787)', '
Q: In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?
A: 1783']
Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities. However, contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge, while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members, and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?
A: transmission of knowledge', '
Q: Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?
A: to create knowledge', '
Q: By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?
A: 1789', '
Q: Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?
A: Bernard de Fontenelle']
The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?
A: 1789', '
Q: Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?
A: Locke', '
Q: The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke\'s philosophies?
A: "consent of the governed"', '
Q: According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?
A: governance paradigm shift']
Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen, and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents; Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign", rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what work did Ferguson explain how humans advanced from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract?
A: An Essay on the History of Civil Society', '
Q: In what year did Ferguson publish An Essay on the History of Civil Society?
A: 1767', '
Q: How many stages of progress did Ferguson theorize?
A: four', '
Q: Who, along with Adam Ferguson, criticized the idea of social contract theorists?
A: David Hume']
In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences, and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and, in residence, world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What century produced the first Russian univeristy, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press?
A: 18th century', '
Q: What did the Russian enlightenment focus on instead of societal enlightenment?
A: the individual', '
Q: From whom did Catherine the Great receive assistance in her Enlightenment ideals via correspondence?
A: Voltaire']
Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation, and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues, by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation?
A: Bertrand Russell', '
Q: Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from?
A: 16th-century Protestants', '
Q: Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment?
A: Martin Luther']
Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power". This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion", born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates ... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power". Nevertheless, it took another century before cultural approach became central to the historiography, as typified by Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (1979).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution?
A: the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment', '
Q: Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville?
A: men of letters', '
Q: From where did Tocqueville believe the illusory power of the men of letters came from?
A: the rise of "public opinion"']
Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge – of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage", tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another". "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance." The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness". According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Jewish philosopher referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason?
A: Moses Mendelssohn', '
Q: How did Immanuel Kant describe the Enlightenment?
A: "man\'s release from his self-incurred tutelage"', '
Q: For whom was Enlightenment mankind\'s final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance?"
A: Immanuel Kant', '
Q: According to historian Roy Porter, what was the Age of Enlightenment trying to capture?
A: the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance']
These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia, and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist?
A: Thomas Jefferson', '
Q: Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document?
A: the United States Constitution', '
Q: Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived?
A: Isaac Newton']
In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. It is important to note, however, that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public; women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: From a historical standpoint, what was one of the most important features of the debating society?
A: openness to the public', '
Q: Were debates only open to certain economic classes, or could all attend?
A: all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee', '
Q: What were some of the issues discussed in addition to debates on religion?
A: politics and the role of women']
Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment?
A: social conditions', '
Q: How did Habermas describe the public sphere?
A: bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state', '
Q: The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe?
A: the "bourgeois public sphere"']
Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century, and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What do Jonathon Israel claim caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th centure and early 19th century?
A: the ideas themselves', '
Q: What does Israel argue Western civilization was based on until the 1650s?
A: largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority', '
Q: Jonathon Israel rejects the notion that the revolutionary ideas were by products of what transformations?
A: social and economic', '
Q: What time period does Johnathon Israel focus on?
A: 1650 to the end of the 18th century']
One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of "common concern," and argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How was the public sphere defined?
A: realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture', '
Q: During what centuries was the rise of the public sphere?
A: late 17th century and 18th century', '
Q: What term did Habermas give to describe the areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously exlusive territory of the state and religious authorities?
A: common concern', '
Q: The argument of the public sphere was founded on what?
A: reason', '
Q: The values of the bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to the supreme, considering everything open to criticism, and the opposition of what?
A: secrecy of all sorts']