romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. The Encyclopédie, for example, narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority") demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon, and are largely forgotten today as a result.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Book sellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness in what country, especially?
A: France', '
Q: Which work narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes?
A: The Encyclopédie', '
Q: Many publishing companies were located outside of which country to avoid overzealous censors?
A: France', '
Q: Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about what topics than they were in political theory itself?
A: criminals and political corruption', '
Q: What was the term given to books that did not have a dominant motif and contained something to offend almost everyone in authority?
A: general works']
A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. The Encyclopédie, for example, condemned not only by the King but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. But many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who helped The Encyclopedie find its way into print using the French censorship law creatively?
A: Malesherbes', '
Q: The King and Clement XII condemned which literary work?
A: The Encyclopédie', '
Q: What percentage of books borrowed in England, Germany, and Norath America were novels?
A: 70', '
Q: What percentage of books borrowed were of a religious nature in England, Germany, and North America?
A: 1']
The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation". Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public", then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What did the Republic of Letters support?
A: free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation', '
Q: Once everyone was a part of what group did Kant believe all of society would be enlightened?
A: the "reading public"', '
Q: Who were two of the figures that participated in the Republic of Letters?
A: Diderot and Voltaire', '
Q: What did Immanuel Kant consider essential to his conception of the public sphere?
A: written communication']
Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and promoted the "enlightened" ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture?
A: Jonathan Israel', '
Q: To what did the journals shift attention of the cultivated public away from and towards novelty and innovation?
A: established authorities', '
Q: What enlightened ideas were promoted by the journals?
A: toleration and intellectual objectivity', '
Q: The journals were a source of knowledge derived from what topics?
A: science and reason']
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How did dictionaries and encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
A: from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words', '
Q: What movement were dictionaries and encyclopedias trying to promote?
A: to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite', '
Q: How did the content of encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
A: tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology', '
Q: Encyclopedias in the 18th century tended to focus more strongly on what topics, rather than theology?
A: secular affairs, particularly science and technology']
The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How was the Encyclopedie arranged?
A: according to a "tree of knowledge."', '
Q: The rise of empiricism caused a division between which two subjects?
A: the arts and sciences', '
Q: What was considered the trunk of the tree of knowledge?
A: philosophy', '
Q: Which editions of the Encyclopedie were less expensive and more accessible to the non-elite?
A: quarto and octavo', '
Q: How many copies of the Encyclopedie were estimated to be in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution?
A: 25 000']
In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe, and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate," and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act", and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible; "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution". In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which society in England also played a significant role in the public sphere and spread of Enlightenment ideas?
A: Royal Society of London', '
Q: In what year was the Royal Society of London given a royal charter?
A: 1662', '
Q: Whose method based knowledge on experiementation, which had to be witnessed?
A: Robert Boyle', '
Q: Who were considered more reliable witnesses than the Oxfordshire peasants?
A: Oxford professors', '
Q: What two factors were taken into account in credibility in the Royal Society?
A: a witness\'s knowledge in the area; and a witness\'s "moral constitution"']
The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional" – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues, and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority". After this date everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in," and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revoled around what subject?
A: "confessional"', '
Q: Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues were called what?
A: "confessional"', '
Q: During what time period did a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in"?
A: second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century', '
Q: The aim of confessional debates was to establish which bloc of faith should have what?
A: the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority"']
German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed that "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism. He argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: According to German historian Reinhart Koselleck, which two social structures left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment?
A: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges', '
Q: Which Scottish professor believes that Masons were not a major radical or reformist network in their own right?
A: Thomas Munck', '
Q: Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspriting what type of thinking?
A: political thought', '
Q: Daniel Roche claims that Masonry promoted what idea by only attracting men of similar social background?
A: egalitarianism', '
Q: The presence of whom in the French "lodges of adoption" formed in the 1780s was die to the close ties shared with aristocratic society?
A: noble women']
Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. The historian Charles Porset, commenting on alphabetization, has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Reason as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What ordering scheme did readers prefer?
A: alphabetical', '
Q: Who believed the avoidance of thematic and heirarhical systems allowed free interpretation of the works and caused them to beomce an example of eglitarianism?
A: Charles Porset', '
Q: Why did Encyclopedias and dictionaries become more popular during the Age of Reason?
A: the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply', '
Q: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published between 1760 and 1769?
A: 63', '
Q: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published in the decade preceding the French Revolution?
A: 148']
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What caused an increasingly literate population to develop in the Enlightenment era?
A: a high rise in the availability of food', '
Q: Instead of paying more for food, on what did people spend their money?
A: education', '
Q: Which ideal endeavoured to make information available to the greatest number of people?
A: Popularization', '
Q: Who wrote the celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica?
A: Sir Isaac Newton', '
Q: Which work of Isaac Newton was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze it in the vernacular?
A: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica']
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to best capitalize on environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that cannot predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral, but not physiological, circadian rhythms in quail.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: For what do Circadian rhythms let an organism prepare?
A: environmental changes', '
Q: What can an organism that uses circadian rhythms use to its advantage that others can not?
A: resources', "
Q: By better using resources, how does that improve an organism's chances of surviving?
A: selective advantage", '
Q: By improving what processes does the use of circadian rhythms serve to benefit the individual?
A: internal metabolic', '
Q: What insect has been studied concerning the inheritability of rhythms?
A: fruit flies']
Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What type of animals have been shown to have circadian rhythms only at certain times?
A: Arctic animals', '
Q: What daily feature do animals that show limited circadian rhythms need?
A: sunrises and sunsets', '
Q: In a study, when did reindeer at 70 degrees north only show circadian rhythms?
A: autumn, winter and spring', '
Q: At what degree north did reindeer show rhythms only in autumn and summer?
A: 78 degrees', '
Q: What aninmals  do researchers think might also show a variance in circadian rhythms in different seasons?
A: other Arctic animals']
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock-Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis, as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions), plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. Gene expression of CCA1 and LHY oscillates and peaks in the early morning, whereas TOC1 gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of CCA1, LHY, and PRR7 and 9 in the morning loop but also of GI and ELF4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of TOC1 gene functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component repressilator model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What produces a self-sustaining rhythm?
A: central oscillator', '
Q: When do the CCA1  and LHY function?
A: morning', '
Q: Which loop that consists of GI and ELF4 functions?
A: evening', '
Q: What was the previous belief of feedback in the gene loop?
A: negative feedback loop', '
Q: What researcher showed that the gene  feedback loop serves as a repressor?
A: Andrew Millar']
A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the Drosophila gene the cause of?
A: sleep disorder FASPS', '
Q: What is the Drosophila gene also known as?
A: period', '
Q: What is Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome?
A: FASPS', '
Q: What kind of clock have genetic functions?
A: biological clock', '
Q: What does the body interpret from the gene feedback loop?
A: time of the day']
Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often cross several timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to fatigue. The NTSB cites this as contributing to many accidents[unreliable medical source?]  and has conducted several research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Whose work habits and environment prevents them from maintaining a regular sleep pattern?
A: airline pilots', '
Q: What can the lack of regular sleep patterns cause?
A: fatigue', '
Q: What organizations cites this disruption of sleep patterns as a cause of accidents?
A: NTSB', '
Q: What has the NTSB conducted to find the cause of pilot fatigue?
A: research studies', '
Q: Of what does the NTSB want to find a means of doing?
A: combating fatigue']