romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Marshall's words and future court decisions gave Congress much latitude in delegating powers. It was not until the 1930s that the Supreme Court held a delegation of authority unconstitutional. In a case involving the creation of the National Recovery Administration called A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), Congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of "fair competition." It was held that Congress must set some standards governing the actions of executive officers. The Court, however, has deemed that phrases such as "just and reasonable," "public interest" and "public convenience" suffice.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When was the first time that a Congressional attempt at delegating lawmaking responsibility was found to be in violation of the Constitution?
A: the 1930s', '
Q: The establishment of what body was the subject of A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States?
A: National Recovery Administration', '
Q: In what year was A.L.A. Schechter v. United States tried before the Supreme Court?
A: 1935', '
Q: In what year did the supreme court determine that delegating powers by congress was unconstitutional?
A: 1935', '
Q: What was the supreme court case that was determined that congress could not allow the President to determine fair competition?
A: Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States']
Executive power is vested, with exceptions and qualifications, in the President. By law (Section 2.) the president becomes the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, Militia of several states when called into service, has power to make treaties and appointments to office "with the Advice and Consent of the Senate," receive Ambassadors and Public Ministers, and "take care that the laws be faithfully executed" (Section 3.) By using these words, the Constitution does not require the president to personally enforce the law; rather, officers subordinate to the president may perform such duties. The Constitution empowers the president to ensure the faithful execution of the laws made by Congress and approved by the President. Congress may itself terminate such appointments, by impeachment, and restrict the president. Bodies such as the War Claims Commission, the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission—all quasi-judicial—often have direct Congressional oversight.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which branches of the national military does the U.S. president command?
A: Army and Navy', "
Q: Whose approval is required for the president's appointees to take office?
A: Senate", '
Q: What is a Congressional means of removing presidential appointees?
A: impeachment', '
Q: What term can characterize the status of bodies like the War Claims Commission and the Interstate Commerce Commission?
A: quasi-judicial', '
Q: Which of the three branches has the duty of Commander and Chief?
A: Executive', '
Q: Who has the authority to make treaties?
A: the President', '
Q: What is it called when congress terminates an appointment of the President?
A: impeachment', '
Q: Who has over-sight of the Federal Trade Commission?
A: Congress']
Congress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties, as laid out by the laws Congress passes. In INS v. Chadha (1983), the Supreme Court decided (a) The prescription for legislative action in Art. I, § 1—requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives—and § 7—requiring every bill passed by the House and Senate, before becoming law, to be presented to the president, and, if he disapproves, to be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House—represents the Framers' decision that the legislative power of the Federal Government be exercised in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered procedure. This procedure is an integral part of the constitutional design for the separation of powers. Further rulings clarified the case; even both Houses acting together cannot override Executive vetos without a 2⁄3 majority. Legislation may always prescribe regulations governing executive officers.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: To what does congress attempt to limit executive officials?
A: the performance of their duties', '
Q: What court case affirmed the mandates of the first and seventh sections of Article I of the Constitution?
A: INS v. Chadha', '
Q: When was INS v Chadha tried before the Supreme Court?
A: 1983', '
Q: By what margin can congress over ride a Presidential veto?
A: two-thirds']
Judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts established by Congress. The judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office. If a court's judges do not have such attributes, the court may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. Courts exercising the judicial power are called "constitutional courts."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what branch is the ability to try legal cases placed?
A: Judicial', '
Q: Who nominates justices for the U.S. Supreme Court?
A: president', '
Q: Who must approve presidential appointees to the Supreme Court?
A: Senate', '
Q: What is the term for judicial institutions exercising their power?
A: constitutional courts', '
Q: What is the power given to the supreme court and lower courts called?
A: Judicial power', '
Q: Who appoints a judge?
A: the president', '
Q: Who gives the President advice and consent for a judge appointment?
A: the Senate']
Congress may establish "legislative courts," which do not take the form of judicial agencies or commissions, whose members do not have the same security of tenure or compensation as the constitutional court judges. Legislative courts may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. In Murray's Lessee v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co. (1856), the Supreme Court held that a legislative court may not decide "a suit at the common law, or in equity, or admiralty," as such a suit is inherently judicial. Legislative courts may only adjudicate "public rights" questions (cases between the government and an individual and political determinations).

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of courts did congress establish?
A: legislative courts', '
Q: What power are legislative courts not allowed to exercise?
A: judicial power of the United States']
The president exercises a check over Congress through his power to veto bills, but Congress may override any veto (excluding the so-called "pocket veto") by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the president may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the president. The Vice President serves as president of the Senate, but he may only vote to break a tie.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who can determine a date of adjournment if congress cannot agree?
A: President', '
Q: Who can call congress into emergency session?
A: The president', '
Q: Who serves as president of the Senate?
A: The Vice President']
The president, as noted above, appoints judges with the Senate's advice and consent. He also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either the House of Representatives or the Senate, or even to acceptance by the recipient.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who has the power to issue a pardon?
A: The president', '
Q: Who has the power to issue a reprieve? 
A: The president']
The president is the civilian Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has the authority to command them to take appropriate military action in the event of a sudden crisis. However, only the Congress is explicitly granted the power to declare war per se, as well as to raise, fund and maintain the armed forces. Congress also has the duty and authority to prescribe the laws and regulations under which the armed forces operate, such as the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and requires that all Generals and Admirals appointed by the president be confirmed by a majority vote of the Senate before they can assume their office.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is the commander and chief of the Army?
A: The president', '
Q: Who has the power to declare ware?
A: Congress', '
Q: Who has the responsibility to confirm Generals and Admirals?
A: the Senate']
Courts check both the executive branch and the legislative branch through judicial review. This concept is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the Constitution's Framers (for example, The Federalist Papers mention it). The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. There were protests by some at this decision, born chiefly of political expediency, but political realities in the particular case paradoxically restrained opposing views from asserting themselves. For this reason, precedent alone established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who is responsible for judicial review?
A: Courts', '
Q: What is the court case that established judicial review?
A: Marbury v. Madison']
A common misperception is that the Supreme Court is the only court that may determine constitutionality; the power is exercised even by the inferior courts. But only Supreme Court decisions are binding across the nation. Decisions of a Court of Appeals, for instance, are binding only in the circuit over which the court has jurisdiction.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which courts decisions are binding across the entire United States?
A: the Supreme Court']
The power to review the constitutionality of laws may be limited by Congress, which has the power to set the jurisdiction of the courts. The only constitutional limit on Congress' power to set the jurisdiction of the judiciary relates to the Supreme Court; the Supreme Court may exercise only appellate jurisdiction except in cases involving states and cases affecting foreign ambassadors, ministers or consuls.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who can limit judicial review of a law?
A: Congress', "
Q: Who's judicial power does congress have the right to limit?
A: the Supreme Court"]
The Chief Justice presides in the Senate during a president's impeachment trial. The rules of the Senate, however, generally do not grant much authority to the presiding officer. Thus, the Chief Justice's role in this regard is a limited one.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who presides over an impeachment trial?
A: The Chief Justice']
The Constitution does not explicitly indicate the pre-eminence of any particular branch of government. However, James Madison wrote in Federalist 51, regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others, that "it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who wrote that the legislative branch was the predominate branch of government?
A: James Madison', '
Q: In which Federalist paper did James Madison state that the legislative branch of government was predominate?
A: Federalist 51']
Throughout America's history dominance of one of the three branches has essentially been a see-saw struggle between Congress and the president. Both have had periods of great power and weakness such as immediately after the Civil War when republicans had a majority in Congress and were able to pass major legislation and shoot down most of the president's vetoes. They also passed acts to essentially make the president subordinate to Congress, such as the Tenure of Office Act. Johnson's later impeachment also cost the presidency much political power. However the president has also exercised greater power largely during the 20th century. Both Roosevelts greatly expanded the powers of the president and wielded great power during their terms.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Immediately following the civil war which branch of government was seen to have the greater amount of power?
A: Congress']
The first six presidents of the United States did not make extensive use of the veto power: George Washington only vetoed two bills, James Monroe one, and John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and John Quincy Adams none. James Madison, a firm believer in a strong executive, vetoed seven bills. None of the first six Presidents, however, used the veto to direct national policy. It was Andrew Jackson, the seventh President, who was the first to use the veto as a political weapon. During his two terms in office, he vetoed twelve bills—more than all of his predecessors combined. Furthermore, he defied the Supreme Court in enforcing the policy of ethnically cleansing Native American tribes ("Indian Removal"); he stated (perhaps apocryphally), "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!"

Questions and answers:
['
Q: How many bills did George Washington veto?
A: two', '
Q: How many bills did James Monroe veto?
A: one', '
Q: How many bills did Andrew Jackson veto
A: twelve', '
Q: Who was the seventh President of the United States?
A: Andrew Jackson']
Some of Jackson's successors made no use of the veto power, while others used it intermittently. It was only after the Civil War that presidents began to use the power to truly counterbalance Congress. Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, vetoed several Reconstruction bills passed by the "Radical Republicans." Congress, however, managed to override fifteen of Johnson's twenty-nine vetoes. Furthermore, it attempted to curb the power of the presidency by passing the Tenure of Office Act. The Act required Senate approval for the dismissal of senior Cabinet officials. When Johnson deliberately violated the Act, which he felt was unconstitutional (Supreme Court decisions later vindicated such a position), the House of Representatives impeached him; he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote.

Questions and answers:
["
Q: How many of Andrew Johnson's veto's were over turned by Congress
A: fifteen", '
Q: What act did congress pass that gave the senate the right to approve the dismissal of a cabinet official?
A: Tenure of Office Act']
Johnson's impeachment was perceived to have done great damage to the presidency, which came to be almost subordinate to Congress. Some believed that the president would become a mere figurehead, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming a de facto Prime Minister. Grover Cleveland, the first Democratic President following Johnson, attempted to restore the power of his office. During his first term, he vetoed over four hundred bills—twice as many bills as his twenty-one predecessors combined. He also began to suspend bureaucrats who were appointed as a result of the patronage system, replacing them with more "deserving" individuals. The Senate, however, refused to confirm many new nominations, instead demanding that Cleveland turn over the confidential records relating to the suspensions. Cleveland steadfastly refused, asserting, "These suspensions are my executive acts ... I am not responsible to the Senate, and I am unwilling to submit my actions to them for judgment." Cleveland's popular support forced the Senate to back down and confirm the nominees. Furthermore, Congress finally repealed the controversial Tenure of Office Act that had been passed during the Johnson Administration. Overall, this meant that Cleveland's Administration marked the end of presidential subordination.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first president to veto over 400 bills?
A: Grover Cleveland', '
Q: Under which President was the Tenure of Office Act repealed? 
A: Grover Cleveland']
Several twentieth-century presidents have attempted to greatly expand the power of the presidency. Theodore Roosevelt, for instance, claimed that the president was permitted to do whatever was not explicitly prohibited by the law—in direct contrast to his immediate successor, William Howard Taft. Franklin Delano Roosevelt held considerable power during the Great Depression. Congress had granted Franklin Roosevelt sweeping authority; in Panama Refining v. Ryan, the Court for the first time struck down a Congressional delegation of power as violative of the doctrine of separation of powers. The aforementioned Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, another separation of powers case, was also decided during Franklin Roosevelt's presidency. In response to many unfavorable Supreme Court decisions, Roosevelt introduced a "Court Packing" plan, under which more seats would be added to the Supreme Court for the president to fill. Such a plan (which was defeated in Congress) would have seriously undermined the judiciary's independence and power.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which President attempted to pack the supreme court?
A: Franklin Roosevelt', '
Q: Who had granted Franklin Roosevelt sweeping authority during the great depression?
A: Congress']
Richard Nixon used national security as a basis for his expansion of power. He asserted, for example, that "the inherent power of the President to safeguard the security of the nation" authorized him to order a wiretap without a judge's warrant. Nixon also asserted that "executive privilege" shielded him from all legislative oversight; furthermore, he impounded federal funds (that is to say, he refused to spend money that Congress had appropriated for government programs). In the specific cases aforementioned, however, the Supreme Court ruled against Nixon. This was also because of an ongoing criminal investigation into the Watergate tapes, even though they acknowledged the general need for executive privilege. Since then, Nixon's successors have sometimes asserted that they may act in the interests of national security or that executive privilege shields them from Congressional oversight. Though such claims have in general been more limited than Nixon's, one may still conclude that the presidency's power has been greatly augmented since the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Under what basis did Richard Nixon assert an expansion of the power of the President?
A: national security']
It is said[by whom?] on one side of this debate that separation of powers means that powers are shared among different branches; no one branch may act unilaterally on issues (other than perhaps minor questions), but must obtain some form of agreement across branches. That is, it is argued that "checks and balances" apply to the Judicial branch as well as to the other branches.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What term is used when one branch of government must get approval from at least one other branch of government?
A: checks and balances']
An example of the first view is the regulation of attorneys and judges, and the establishment of rules for the conduct of the courts, by the Congress and in the states the legislatures. Although in practice these matters are delegated to the Supreme Court, the Congress holds these powers and delegates them to the Supreme Court only for convenience in light of the Supreme Court's expertise, but can withdraw that delegation at any time.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who has congress delegated the responsibility of establishing the rules of conduct for the courts to? 
A: the Supreme Court']
An example of the second view at the State level is found in the view of the Florida Supreme Court, that only the Florida Supreme Court may license and regulate attorneys appearing before the courts of Florida, and only the Florida Supreme Court may set rules for procedures in the Florida courts.[citation needed] The State of New Hampshire also follows this system.[citation needed]

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who may license and regulate attorneys in Florida?
A: the Florida Supreme Court', '
Q: Who sets the procedures to be followed in the Florida court system?
A: the Florida Supreme Court']
Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "builder") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the latin word for architecture?
A: Architectural', '
Q: What is the Latin word for architecture?
A: architectura', '
Q: What do you call the planning and building of buildings?
A: Architecture', '
Q: What structures can be viewed as both works of art and symbols of certain cultures?
A: Architectural works', '
Q: Civilizations from the past cane often be identified by what surviving structures?
A: architectural achievements', '
Q: In what language does the word "architecture" have its origins?
A: Greek', '
Q: What two words is "architecture" a combination of?
A: ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "builder"', '
Q: Architecture involves the creation of what?
A: buildings and other physical structures', '
Q: Aside from symbolizing cultures, what else are architectural works thought of as?
A: as works of art', '
Q: What can extant architectural works be used to identify?
A: Historical civilizations']
The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD. According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in modern English would be:

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is the oldest architecture plans that has survived?
A: De architectura', '
Q: Who created the oldest surviving architecture plans?
A: Roman architect Vitruvius', '
Q: When did Vitruvius create these plans?
A: 1st century AD.', '
Q: What are the three principles every plan should consider?
A: firmness, commodity and delight.', '
Q: What is the first known extant writing about architecture called?
A: De architectura', '
Q: Who was the author of  De architectura?
A: Vitruvius', "
Q: What was Vitruvius' profession?
A: architect", "
Q: What were Vitruvius' three principles for a well made building?
A: firmitas, utilitas, venustas", '
Q: What is the commonly seen English translation of the three principles?
A: firmness, commodity and delight']
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari: by the 18th century, his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When were the styles of arts created?
A: 16th century', '
Q: Who wrote Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects?
A: Vasari', '
Q: By the 18th century which languages was Vasaris book translated in?
A: Italian, French, Spanish and English', "
Q: In Vitruvius's mind, whose responsibility was it to see the principles carried out?
A: architect", '
Q: Who wrote De Re Aedificatoria?
A: Leon Battista Alberti', '
Q: What did Leon Battista Alberti consider most important for beauty?
A: proportion', '
Q: What ideal proportion did Alberti promote?
A: the Golden mean', '
Q: In what century did "style" as an artistic concept arise?
A: 16th']