romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
The crusaders consolidated their conquests into crusader states. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between those states and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from those states to the papacy led to further crusades, such as the Third Crusade, called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by Saladin (d. 1193) in 1187.[Z] In 1203, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a Latin Empire of Constantinople and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261, but never regained their former strength. By 1291 all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland, although a titular Kingdom of Jerusalem survived on the island of Cyprus for several years afterwards.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What was the purpose of the Third Crusade?
A: to regain Jerusalem', '
Q: Who took Jerusalem in 1187?
A: Saladin', '
Q: In what year did the Fourth Crusade occur?
A: 1203', '
Q: What state was founded following the Fourth Crusade?
A: Latin Empire of Constantinople', '
Q: After 1291, where did the titular King of Jerusalem reside?
A: Cyprus']
Popes called for crusades to take place elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic. The Spanish crusades became fused with the Reconquista of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of Calatrava and Santiago by the beginning of the 12th century. Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later, and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the Order of the Sword Brothers. Another order, the Teutonic Knights, although originally founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225, and in 1309 moved its headquarters to Marienburg in Prussia.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with the Baltic and Spain, in what area were crusades called?
A: southern France', '
Q: Where was the Teutonic Order headquartered in 1309?
A: Marienburg', '
Q: What military order was founded as a result of the Northern Crusades?
A: the Order of the Sword Brothers', '
Q: In what century did the Northern Crusades begin?
A: 12th', '
Q: What century saw the end of the Northern Crusades?
A: 14th']
During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was debate between the realists and the nominalists over the concept of "universals". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism. Scholars such as Peter Abelard (d. 1142) and Peter Lombard (d. 1164) introduced Aristotelian logic into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries cathedral schools spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns. Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the universities established in major European cities. Philosophy and theology fused in scholasticism, an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason and culminated in the thought of Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), who wrote the Summa Theologica, or Summary of Theology.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What group opposed the nominalists on the subject of universals?
A: realists', '
Q: What ancient philosopher was rediscovered, leading to a revival of philosophy?
A: Aristotle', '
Q: When did Peter Lombard die?
A: 1164', '
Q: What was the name of the school of thought that combined theology and philosophy?
A: scholasticism', '
Q: Who authored the Summa Theologica?
A: Thomas Aquinas']
Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by troubadours, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the chansons de geste, or "songs of great deeds", such as The Song of Roland or The Song of Hildebrand. Secular and religious histories were also produced. Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. c. 1155) composed his Historia Regum Britanniae, a collection of stories and legends about Arthur. Other works were more clearly history, such as Otto von Freising's (d. 1158) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or William of Malmesbury's (d. c. 1143) Gesta Regum on the kings of England.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What does chansons de geste mean in English?
A: songs of great deeds', '
Q: Along with The Song of Ronald, what is a notable chanson de geste?
A: The Song of Hildebrand', '
Q: Who wrote Historia Regum Britanniae?
A: Geoffrey of Monmouth', '
Q: What legendary figure was featured in the Historia Regum Britanniae?
A: Arthur', '
Q: Who was the subject of Gesta Friderici Imperatoris?
A: Emperor Frederick Barbarossa']
Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and canon law, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the Decretum.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What is another name for canon law?
A: ecclesiastical law', '
Q: What is another name for Roman law?
A: Secular law', '
Q: Where could one study Roman law in 1100?
A: Bologna', '
Q: In what century was the Corpus Juris Civilis rediscovered?
A: 11th', '
Q: Who wrote the Decretum?
A: Gratian']
Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What invention led to advances in mathematics?
A: algebra', '
Q: What influential astronomy text did Ptomely author?
A: Almagest', '
Q: In what language was Almagest originally written?
A: Greek', '
Q: In what city was a medical school located that was notably influenced by Islamic medicine?
A: Salerno', '
Q: Into what language was Almagest translated in the 12th century?
A: Latin']
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe produced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of distilled spirits, and the use of the astrolabe. Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with the astrolabe, windmill and distilled spirits, what was a notable technological advancement of the 12th and 13th centuries?
A: mechanical clocks', '
Q: What was invented in approximately 1286?
A: Concave spectacles', '
Q: Near what city were concave spectacles invented?
A: Pisa']
The development of a three-field rotation system for planting crops[AA] increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production. The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the horse collar, which led to the use of draught horses in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What fraction of land was under cultivation using the two-field system?
A: one half', '
Q: What fraction of land was under cultivate using the three-field system?
A: two-thirds', '
Q: What invention allowed horses rather than oxen to be used to plow?
A: the horse collar', '
Q: What invention led to an increase in efficiency in the farming of heavy soils?
A: the heavy plough', '
Q: In addition to requiring less pasture, what distinguishes horses from oxen?
A: faster']
The construction of cathedrals and castles advanced building technology, leading to the development of large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and tithe barns. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon. Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern-post rudder, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with bridges, tithe barns and town halls, what notable new structures were built during this period?
A: houses', '
Q: What method, derived from the Romans, was traditionally used to build ships?
A: mortise and tenon', '
Q: What new shipbuilding method was invented in this period?
A: rib and plank', '
Q: What type of rudder was introduced during this period?
A: stern-post', '
Q: What type of sails were first used during this era?
A: lateen']
In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers. Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.[AB] The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour. Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what century did Europeans become aware of gunpowder?
A: 13th', '
Q: Who was recorded as using gunpowder in 1304?
A: the English', '
Q: Against whom was gunpowder used in 1304?
A: the Scots', '
Q: In what decade were siege cannon known to have been used?
A: 1320s', '
Q: What led to the increased use of armor in the 12th century?
A: The increasing use of crossbows']
In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" is derived. Where available, Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults. The large portal with coloured sculpture in high relief became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the capitals of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals. According to art historian C. R. Dodwell, "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive. Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed, and became crucial to politics and warfare.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what century was Romanesque architecture first used?
A: 10th', '
Q: What feature of Romanesque architecture was especially prevalent in France?
A: arched stone vaults', '
Q: Who noted the prevalence of wall-paintings in Western churches of this era?
A: C. R. Dodwell', '
Q: What non-church architectural structure developed in the 10th century?
A: the castle', '
Q: Around what year did the great wave of church-building in stone occur?
A: 1000']
Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège, contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick. Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall, a Christ in Majesty at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, on the barrel-vaulted roof.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was a noted figure in Mosan art?
A: Nicholas of Verdun', '
Q: What year saw the death of Nicholas of Verdun?
A: 1205', '
Q: On what wall of a church was the Last Judgment typically painted?
A: west', '
Q: Where are narrative biblical scenes painted in the church at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe?
A: on the barrel-vaulted roof', '
Q: What notable Romanesque metalwork is named for Gloucester?
A: Gloucester Candlestick']
From the early 12th century, French builders developed the Gothic style, marked by the use of rib vaults, pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained glass windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals, and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England. Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what century did the Gothic style first flourish?
A: 12th', '
Q: In what century did the Gothic style cease to be used?
A: 16th', '
Q: Along with Reims, where is a notable Gothic cathedral in France located?
A: Chartres', '
Q: What is a notable English Gothic cathedral?
A: Salisbury Cathedral', '
Q: Among which builders was the Gothic style first used?
A: French']
During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to Janetta Benton "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops", and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses. In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco. Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who noted that 14th century monks bought books in shops?
A: Janetta Benton', '
Q: What form of art had the most prestige in this era?
A: Metalwork', '
Q: When did Giotto die?
A: 1337', '
Q: What were many pieces of secular art carved from in this period?
A: ivory', '
Q: Along with Duccio, what Italian artist was a noted innovator in this period?
A: Cimabue']
Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. Cluny Abbey, founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909, was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear. Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what century was thought given to monastic reform?
A: 11th', '
Q: In what year was Cluny Abbey founded?
A: 909', '
Q: In what part of France was Cluny Abbey founded?
A: Mâcon', '
Q: Along with rigor, what did Cluny have a reputation for?
A: austerity', '
Q: What reforms were named for the abbey at Cluny?
A: Cluniac Reforms']
Monastic reform inspired change in the secular church. The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX (pope 1049–1054), and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture, clerical marriage, and simony. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: During what century did the Investiture Controversy occur?
A: 11th', '
Q: When did the reign of Pope Leo IX begin?
A: 1049', '
Q: What pope was involved in the Investiture Controversy?
A: Pope Gregory VII', '
Q: In what year was the Concordat of Worms agreed to?
A: 1122', '
Q: What secular rulers did the Concordat of Worms increase the power of?
A: German princes']
The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians. The latter especially expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an Apostolic life. Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What monastic order did Bernard of Clairvaux belong to?
A: Cistercians', '
Q: When did Bernard of Clairvaux die?
A: 1153', '
Q: Along with Bari, what was a notable new pilgrimage site in this era?
A: Monte Gargano', '
Q: Along with Rome and Jerusalem, what traditional pilgrimage site saw a greater number of visitors in the High Middle Ages?
A: Compostela', '
Q: Along with the Cistercians, what new monastic order was founded in the High Middle Ages?
A: Carthusians']
In the 13th century mendicant orders—the Franciscans and the Dominicans—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy. Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, but they were condemned as heretical by the papacy. Others joined the Cathars, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the Albigensian Crusade, which in combination with the medieval Inquisition, eliminated them.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Along with the Dominicans, what mendicant order was founded in the 13th century?
A: Franciscans', '
Q: What notable vow was sworn by the mendicant orders?
A: poverty', '
Q: How did the mendicant orders make a living?
A: begging', '
Q: What was the crusade against the Cathars called?
A: the Albigensian Crusade', '
Q: Along with the Cathars and Humiliati, what group was notably condemned as heretics in this period?
A: the Waldensians']
The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17. The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures. The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In what years did the Great Famine occur?
A: 1315–17', '
Q: What period resulted in poor weather that increased crop failures?
A: the Little Ice Age', '
Q: What period preceded the Little Ice Age?
A: the Medieval Warm Period', '
Q: Along with 1317–21, what span saw extreme rains in Europe?
A: 1313–14', '
Q: In what century did the European average annual temperature decrease?
A: 14th']
These troubles were followed in 1347 by the Black Death, a pandemic that spread throughout Europe during the following three years.[AC] The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.[AD] Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice the reduced number of available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, both of which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and popular uprisings broke out across Europe. Among the uprisings were the jacquerie in France, the Peasants' Revolt in England, and revolts in the cities of Florence in Italy and Ghent and Bruges in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self-mortification of the flagellants, and the scapegoating of Jews. Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did the Black Death start?
A: 1347', '
Q: How many million people died from the Black Death?
A: 35', '
Q: What popular uprising occurred in France during this period?
A: the jacquerie', "
Q: What English popular revolt took place during this period?
A: the Peasants' Revolt", '
Q: What Italian city experienced a popular revolt?
A: Florence']