romikgosai/squad_modified huggingface dataset:
Following the Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident, President Harry S. Truman, himself a combat veteran of World War I, issued Executive Order 9808 establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine the violence and recommend appropriate federal legislation. Hearing of the incident, Truman turned to NAACP leader Walter Francis White and declared, "My God! I had no idea it was as terrible as that. We've got to do something." In 1947 the committee published its findings, To Secure These Rights. The book was widely read, influential, and considered utopian for the times: "In our land men are equal, but they are free to be different. From these very differences among our people has come the great human and national strength of America." The report discussed and demonstrated racial discrimination in basic freedoms, education, public facilities, personal safety, and employment opportunities. The committee was disturbed by the state of race relations, and included the evacuation of Americans of Japanese descent during the war "made without a trial or any sort of hearing…Fundamental to our whole system of law is the belief that guilt is personal and not a matter of heredity or association." The recommendations were radical, calling for federal policies and laws to end racial discrimination and bring about equality: "We can tolerate no restrictions upon the individual which depend upon irrelevant factors such as his race, his color, his religion, or the social position to which he is born." To Secure These Rights set the liberal legislative agenda for the next generation that eventually would be signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson.:35–36

Questions and answers:
["
Q: What group was established in response to Executive Order 9808?
A: President's Committee on Civil Rights", '
Q: What was the Executive Order 9808 issued in response to?
A: Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident', '
Q: In which year were the "To Secure These Rights" findings published?
A: 1947', '
Q: What was the committee especially disturbed by as indicated in their report?
A: the state of race relations', '
Q: Who in the generation following the "To Secure These Rights" findings sign legislation for affirmative action into law?
A: Lyndon B. Johnson']
To Secure These Rights also called for desegregation of the Armed Forces. "Prejudice in any area is an ugly, undemocratic phenomenon, but in the armed services, where all men run the risk of death, it is especially repugnant." The rationale was fairness: "When an individual enters the service of the country, he necessarily surrenders some of the rights and privileges which are inherent in American citizenship." In return, the government "undertakes to protect his integrity as an individual." Yet that was not possible in the segregated Army, since "any discrimination which…prevents members of the minority groups from rendering full military service in defense of their country is for them a humiliating badge of inferiority." The report called for an end to "all discrimination and segregation based on race, color, creed, or national origins in…all branches of the Armed Services.":38–39

Questions and answers:
['
Q: The "To Secure These Rights" findings wanted desegregation of which institution?
A: Armed Forces', '
Q: Which risk associated with serving was specifically highlighted by the findings?
A: death', '
Q: What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he enters the armed services?
A: surrenders some of the rights and privileges', '
Q: Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities was seen as what?
A: a humiliating badge of inferiority']
In June, Truman became the first president to address the NAACP. His speech was a significant departure from traditional race relations in the United States. In front of 10,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, the president left no doubt where he stood on civil rights. According to his speech, America had "reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens…Each man must be guaranteed equality of opportunity." He proposed what black citizens had been calling for - an enhanced role of federal authority through the states. "We must make the Federal government a friendly, vigilant defender of the rights and equalities of all Americans. And again I mean all Americans.":40

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who was the first President to address the NAACP?
A: Truman', '
Q: How many people were present at the speech that Truman made?
A: 10,000', "
Q: Where did Truman's historic speech take place?
A: Lincoln Memorial", '
Q: During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man should be guaranteed what?
A: equality of opportunity', "
Q: Who's authority did Truman want to increase throughout the states?
A: federal"]
On July 26, Truman mandated the end of hiring and employment discrimination in the federal government, reaffirming FDR's order of 1941.:40 He issued two executive orders on July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981. Executive Order 9980, named Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment, instituted fair employment practices in the civilian agencies of the federal government. The order created the position of Fair Employment Officer. The order "established in the Civil Service Commission a Fair Employment Board of not less than seven persons." Executive Order 9981, named Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, called for the integration of the Armed Forces and the creation of the National Military Establishment to carry out the executive order.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What day did Truman mandate the end of discrimination in the federal government?
A: July 26', '
Q: How many executive orders were issued to help prevent discrimination?
A: two', '
Q: What was the name given to Executive Order 9980?
A: Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment', '
Q: Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9980?
A: Fair Employment Officer', "
Q: What name was given to Executive Order 9981?
A: Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services"]
When Eisenhower was elected President in 1952, he believed hiring practices and anti-discrimination laws should be decided by the states, although the administration gradually continued to desegregate the Armed Forces and the federal government.:50 The President also established the Government Contract Committee in 1953, which "conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors".:50–51 The committee, chaired by Vice President Richard Nixon, had minimal outcomes in that they imposed the contractors with the primary responsibility of desegregation within their own companies and corporations.:51

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which year was Eisenhower elected President?
A: 1952', '
Q: Who did Eisenhower believe should be allowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?
A: the states', '
Q: What was established in 1953?
A: Government Contract Committee', '
Q: What was the main purpose of the Government Contract Committee?
A: conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors', '
Q: Who was the chairman of the newly established committee?
A: Vice President Richard Nixon']
In the 1960 presidential election, Democratic candidate and future President John F. Kennedy "criticized President Eisenhower for not ending discrimination in federally supported housing" and "advocated a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission".:59 Shortly after taking office, Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 in March 1961, requiring government contractors to "consider and recommend additional affirmative steps which should be taken by executive departments and agencies to realize more fully the national policy of nondiscrimination…. The contractor will take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".:60 The order also established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), chaired by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. Federal contractors who failed to comply or violated the executive order were punished by contract cancellation and the possible debarment from future government contracts. The administration was "not demanding any special preference or treatment or quotas for minorities" but was rather "advocating racially neutral hiring to end job discrimination".:61 Turning to issues of women's rights, Kennedy initiated a Commission on the Status of Women in December 1961. The commission was charged with "examining employment policies and practices of the government and of contractors" with regard to sex.:66

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Who criticized President Eisenhower during the 1960 presidential election?
A: John F. Kennedy', "
Q: What was John F. Kennedy's criticism of the President based on?
A: not ending discrimination in federally supported housing", '
Q: Which order was issued soon after Kennedy took office?
A: Executive Order 10925', "
Q: What does PCEEO stand for?
A: President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity", '
Q: What was the immediate penalty for a federal contractor for not obeying the executive order?
A: contract cancellation']
In June 1963, President Kennedy continued his policy of affirmative action by issuing another mandate, Executive Order 11114. The order supplemented to his previous 1961 executive order declaring it was the "policy of the United States to encourage by affirmative action the elimination of discrimination in employment".:72 Through this order, all federal funds, such as "grants, loans, unions and employers who accepted taxpayer funds, and other forms of financial assistance to state and local governments," were forced to comply to the government's policies on affirmative action in employment practices.:72

Questions and answers:
['
Q: When did President Kennedy issue Executive Order 11114?
A: June 1963', '
Q: What was the main aim of Executive Order 11114?
A: elimination of discrimination in employment', "
Q: What was anyone who received federal funding of any sort required to do under the Executive Order?
A: comply to the government's policies on affirmative action"]
The first time "affirmative action" is used by the federal government concerning race is in President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, which was chaired by Vice President Johnson. At Johnson's inaugural ball in Texas, he met with a young black lawyer, Hobart Taylor Jr., and gave him the task to co-author the executive order. He wanted a phrase that "gave a sense of positivity to performance under the order." He was torn between the words "positive action" and "affirmative action," and selected the later due to its alliterative quality. The term "active recruitment" started to be used as well. This order, albeit heavily worked up as a significant piece of legislation, in reality carried little actual power. The scope was limited to a couple hundred defense contractors, leaving nearly $7.5 billion in federal grants and loans unsupervised.:60

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which Executive Order first contained the phrase "affirmative action"?
A: Executive Order 10925', '
Q: Who co - authored the executive order?
A: Hobart Taylor Jr.', '
Q: Who chaired the committee created by Executive Order 10925?
A: Vice President Johnson', '
Q: What was the alternative phrase to "affirmative action" that was being considered?
A: positive action', '
Q: What was the main reason that "affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?
A: alliterative quality']
NAACP had many problem's with JFK's "token" proposal. They wanted jobs. One day after the order took effect, NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill filed complaints against the hiring and promoting practices of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. Lockheed was doing business with the Defense Department on the first billion-dollar contract. Due to taxpayer-funding being 90% of Lockheed's business, along with disproportionate hiring practices, black workers charged Lockheed with "overt discrimination." Lockheed signed an agreement with Vice President Johnson that pledged an "aggressive seeking out for more qualified minority candidates for technical and skill positions.:63–64 This agreement was the administration's model for a "plan of progress." Johnson and his assistants soon pressured other defense contractors, including Boeing and General Electric, to sign similar voluntary agreements indicating plans for progress. However, these plans were just that, voluntary. Many corporations in the South, still afflicted with Jim Crow laws, largely ignored the federal recommendations.:63–64

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who had issues with JFK's proposal?
A: NAACP", '
Q: Who filed complaints quickly after the Executive Order was implemented?
A: NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill', '
Q: Which company was targeted by the NAACP for not having fair practices?
A: Lockheed Aircraft Corporation', '
Q: Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?
A: Vice President Johnson', '
Q: Which laws did the corporations in the South associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?
A: Jim Crow']
This eventually led to LBJ's Civil Rights Act, which came shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. This document was more holistic than any President Kennedy had offered, and therefore more controversial. It aimed not only to integrate public facilities, but also private businesses that sold to the public, such as motels, restaurants, theaters, and gas stations. Public schools, hospitals, libraries, parks, among other things, were included in the bill as well. It also worked with JFK's executive order 11114 by prohibiting discrimination in the awarding of federal contracts and holding the authority of the government to deny contracts to businesses who discriminate. Maybe most significant of all, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act aimed to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees. Another provision established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as the agency charged with ending discrimination in the nation's workplace.:74

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Which piece of legislation quickly followed President Kennedy's assassination?
A: Civil Rights Act", '
Q: Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Civil Rights Act?
A: integrate public facilities', "
Q: Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act work closely with?
A: 11114", '
Q: What was the purpose of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act?
A: to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees', "
Q: What was the goal of the Equal Employment Opportunity C omission?
A: ending discrimination in the nation's workplace"]
Title VII was perhaps the most controversial of the entire bill. Many conservatives accused it of advocating a de facto quota system, and claimed unconstitutionality as it attempts to regulate the workplace. Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey corrected this notion: "there is nothing in [Title VII] that will give power to the Commission to require hiring, firing, and promotion to meet a racial 'quota.' [. . .] Title VII is designed to encourage the hiring on basis of ability and qualifications, not race or religion." Title VII prohibits discrimination. Humphrey was the silent hero of the bill's passing through Congress. He pledged that the bill required no quotas, just nondiscrimination. Doing so, he convinced many pro-business Republicans, including Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen (IL) to support Title VII.:78–80

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which section of the legislation was considered the most controversial?
A: Title VII', '
Q: What did critics claim that Title VII advocate?
A: a de facto quota system', '
Q: Which Senator fought back against the criticism of Title VII?
A: Hubert Humphrey', '
Q: Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to support the bill?
A: Everett Dirksen', '
Q: What position of importance other than Senator did Everett Dirksen hold?
A: Senate Minority Leader']
The strides that the Johnson presidency made in ensuring equal opportunity in the workforce were further picked up by his successor Nixon. In 1969 the Nixon administration initiated the "Philadelphia Order". It was regarded as the most forceful plan thus far to guarantee fair hiring practices in construction jobs. Philadelphia was selected as the test case because, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur Fletcher explained, "The craft unions and the construction industry are among the most egregious offenders against equal opportunity laws . . . openly hostile toward letting blacks into their closed circle." The order included definite "goals and timetables." As President Nixon asserted, "We would not impose quotas, but would require federal contractors to show 'affirmative action' to meet the goals of increasing minority employment."

Questions and answers:
["
Q: Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring equal opportunity?
A: his successor Nixon", '
Q: Which piece of legislation was begun in 1969?
A: Philadelphia Order', '
Q: Which industry of jobs did the legislation target?
A: construction', '
Q: Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against equal opportunity laws?
A: craft unions', '
Q: Who held the position of Assistant Secretary of Labor?
A: Arthur Fletcher']
After the Nixon administration, advancements in affirmative action became less prevalent. "During the brief Ford administration, affirmative action took a back seat, while enforcement stumbled along.":145 Equal rights was still an important subject to many Americans, yet the world was changing and new issues were being raised. People began to look at affirmative action as a glorified issue of the past and now there were other areas that needed focus. "Of all the triumphs that have marked this as America's Century –...none is more inspiring, if incomplete, than our pursuit of racial justice."

Questions and answers:
['
Q: In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of affirmative action after the Nixon administration?
A: became less prevalent', '
Q: What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of affirmative action lost its momentum?
A: there were other areas that needed focus', '
Q: Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a backseat to other issues?
A: Ford']
In the beginning, racial classifications that identified race were inherently suspect and subject to strict scrutiny. These classifications would only be upheld if necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest. Later the U.S. Supreme Court decided that racial classifications that benefited underrepresented minorities were to only be upheld if necessary and promoted a compelling governmental purpose. (See Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.) There is no clear guidance about when government action is not "compelling", and such rulings are rare.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: What kind of classification was subject to strict scrutiny?
A: racial', '
Q: What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered acceptable?
A: necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest', '
Q: Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were necessary?
A: U.S. Supreme Court', '
Q: What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is beneficial?
A: Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.']
Ricci v. DeStefano was heard by the United States Supreme Court in 2009. The case concerns White and Hispanic firefighters in New Haven, Connecticut, who upon passing their test for promotions to management were denied the promotions, allegedly because of a discriminatory or at least questionable test. The test gave 17 whites and two Hispanics the possibility of immediate promotion. Although 23% of those taking the test were African American, none scored high enough to qualify. Because of the possibility the tests were biased in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, no candidates were promoted pending outcome of the controversy. In a split 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that New Haven had engaged in impermissible racial discrimination against the White and Hispanic majority.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2009?
A: Ricci v. DeStefano', '
Q: Where was the issue of White and Hispanic firefighters heard in the case based out of?
A: New Haven, Connecticut', '
Q: How many whites were given the possibility of immediate promotion as a result of taking the controversial test?
A: 17', '
Q: What percentage of those people taking the test were African American?
A: 23', '
Q: What was the final vote count for the Supreme Court over the issue?
A: 5-4']
President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin, employed or seeking employment with the Federal Government and on government contracts"; that "it is the policy of the executive branch of the Government to encourage by positive measures equal opportunity for all qualified persons within the Government"; and that "it is in the general interest and welfare of the United States to promote its economy, security, and national defense through the most efficient and effective utilization of all available manpower".

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the United States?
A: Kennedy', '
Q: Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was a violation of the Constitution?
A: Executive Order 10925', '
Q: What were the affected industries in terms of regulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?
A: Federal Government and on government contracts']
Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes.

Questions and answers:
['
Q: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system discriminated against?
A: class', '
Q: Which organization believed in the class based argument?
A: African American Policy Forum', '
Q: What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action created?
A: African American middle class', '
Q: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based argument is?
A: non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination', '
Q: What does the AAPF believe the goal of affirmative action should be?
A: to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success']