rlacombe/ClimateX huggingface dataset:
Limited information regarding cost-benefit analyses of adaptation is available in the region and regarding avoiding maladaptation effects and promoting site-specific and dynamic adaptation options considering available technologies (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
Climate information services has an important role in climate-change adaptation and there is a recognised gap between climate science and farmers (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Barriers to financial access are present in the region, restricting effective adaptation to extreme weather events (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Lack of finance and proper infrastructure is compounded by limited knowledge of sustainable farming practices and high rates of financial illiteracy (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Agricultural technologies are not necessarily changing, but the economic activity is shifting to accommodate increasing climate variation and adapt to changes in water availability and ideal growing conditions (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Crop–livestock–forestry systems are also important for climate-change adaptation as they provide multiple benefits, including the coproduction of food, animal feed, organic fertilizers and soil organic carbon sequestration (Sharma et al., 2016; Rodríguez et al., 2021), achieving mitigation and adaptation goals (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Agroforestry has also proven to have protective benefits to obtain more stable, less fluctuating yields due to climate-related damage in coffee production (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
On one hand, they ensure the conservation of a very rich agrobiodiversity that is likely to meet the challenges of climate change (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
In the Andes, ancient technologies increased the quantity of crops produced and made it possible to cope with climatic changes and water scarcity, while nutrition conditions were improved (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The ability to enrol stakeholders and include community-based initiatives can determine adaptation success, particularly considering their impact in the decision-making arena (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Slum upgrading and built-environment interventions (housing and infrastructure improvement and provision) in informal settlements can enhance adaptation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The climate adaptation plans of several large CSA cities include efficient land use and occupation planning and urban control systems (comprising regulation, monitoring), fostering the articulation with housing and environmental policy (by means of intersectoral and multi- level governance), inhibiting and reducing the occupation of risk areas (mainly flooding and landslides risks); increasing population density in areas already served by infrastructure; expanding slum urbanisation and technical assistance programmes to improve and expand social housing (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Those initiatives, associated with a housing policy that guarantees access to land and decent housing, represent a comprehensive intervention in vulnerable neighbourhoods for their adaptation to climate change, and CbA (community-based adaptation) strategies, including housing self-management and the participation of cooperatives, demonstrate the need and opportunity to transition to a transformative urban agenda that encompasses sustainable development, poverty reduction, disaster-risk reduction, climate- change adaptation and climate-change mitigation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Several large cities are implementing municipal risk management plans and management and restoration plans for hydrologically relevant areas, considering threats of drought and heat waves, integrated watershed management and flood control programmes (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
EWS and the use of mapping tools as undertaken in La Paz proved to be an effective adaptation measure in the face of increasing hydro-climatic extreme events (Aparicio-Effen et al., 2018).12.5.5.3.2 Green and Grey Infrastructure Hybrid solutions, combining green and grey infrastructure (GGI), have been adopted for better efficiency in flood control (Ahmed et al., 2019; Drosou et al., 2019; Romero-Duque et al., 2020), sanitation, water scarcity, landslide prevention and coastal protection (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Managing water in cities in an adaptive way has been central to reducing impacts such as floods and contributes to water security (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Many cities facing frequent heavy storms that impact mostly underprivileged communities, slums and vulnerable areas could benefit from integrated NbS for disaster risk reduction and adaptation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
In several municipal climate plans, NbSs were introduced mainly to enhance rainwater management, reduce energy consumption and urban heat areas, improve water quality, prevent landslides and set aside green areas (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The main proposed actions still consider the traditional approach in improving the hydraulic capacity of urban drainage systems as an adaptive measure (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
More recently, climate services, such as EWSs and forecast models, have been promoted for the health sector (WHO and WMO, 2012, 2016; WMO, 2014; Thomson and Mason, 2018) and are an important adaptation measure to reduce the impacts of climate on health (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Epidemic forecast tools are an example of an adaptation measure being developed and/or implemented in this region (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
One of the most promising climate services for the health sector are heat and cold early-warning and alert systems (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
The public dissemination of climate–health warnings via bulletins, websites and other outlets can be an adaptation measure to address climate change and weather variability to reduce health risks (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Climate and health observatories represent a promising strategy that is being developed at sub-national, national (e.g., Brazil, Argentina) and regional levels (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
A Climate Change Vulnerability Index was used to generate vulnerability maps for countries of the Latin American and Caribbean region (Vörösmarty et al., 2013; CAF , 2014).12.5.6.4 Other Adaptation Actions Diverse adaptation measures are being implemented through public policies, private household responses and communal management that directly or indirectly reduce the impacts of climate change on human health (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Adaptation strategies implemented by the public sector include a diverse suite of strategies ranging from the creation of green spaces in urban areas, relocation of families located in disaster-prone areas, ecosystem restoration and improved access to clean water, among many others (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Sustainable financing and political support are needed to ensure the functioning of disaster EWSs (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Those already suffering are losing their livelihoods and reducing their development options; poor populations and countries are more vulnerable and have lower adaptive capacity to climate change compared to rich ones (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Climate change has differential impacts, and even within a household there may be important differences in relation to age, gender, health and disability; these factors may intersect with one another (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Poor and vulnerable groups are disproportionately affected in negative ways by climate change (Section 8.2.1.4; Section 8.2.2.3; SR15 Section 5.2 and Section 5.2.1, Roy et al., 2018) due to physical exposure derived from their place of residence or work, illiteracy, low income and skills, political and institutional marginalisation tied to a lack of recognition of informal settlements and employment, poor access to good-quality services and infrastructure, resources and information and other factors (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Researchers argue that poverty is mischaracterised and has multiple dimensions (Castán Broto and Bulkeley, 2013) (Section 8.1.1), that biodiversity loss, climate change and pollution will undermine efforts on 80% of assessed SDG targets, that biodiversity and climate change must be tackled together (Pörtner et al., 2021; United Nations Environment Programme, 2021) and due to the COVID crisis LAC countries have made uneven progress in terms of meeting SDGs (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Climate change will be a major obstacle in reducing poverty (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
This suggests that caution in framing climate adaptation and resilience related interventions equally benefits everyone (high confidence) (Brown, 2014; Chu et al., 2016; Connolly, 2019; Romero-Lankao and Gnatz, 2019; Johnson et al., 2021) and that equality and justice dimensions should be incorporated into decision- making (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Poor rural households in marginal territories that have a low productive potential and/or that are far from markets and infrastructure are highly vulnerable to climate-change impacts and could easily fall into poverty-environment traps (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Poverty and disaster risk reduction interlinked with climate-change adaptation share a focus on identifying and acting on local risks and their root causes, even though they view risk through different lenses (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Construction of climate knowledge and risk perceptions affect decision-making to define implementation priorities, but the poor are less able to cope with and adapt so as to avoid so-called adaptation injustices (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Risks are seldom distributed equally, highlighting socioeconomic inequalities and governance failures (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
In Brazil, for example, it would be difficult to clearly separate climate-change adaptation and urban policies (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Because there are asymmetries among populations regarding the vulnerability and benefits of adaptation, along the lines of gender, age, socioeconomic conditions and ethnicity, it has been noticed that adaptation policies and programmes must be adequate to diverse conditions and actors (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
IKLK participation is thought to be more considered in adaptation policies because it yields good results (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Approaches integrating IK with more formal sciences, to address research and policies, have improved adaptation processes, but they carry their own complications (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
In contrast, top-down approaches without citizen or community participation have shown to be less effective (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
In CSA, the awareness of climate change as a threat is increasing, a situation related to growth in climate justice activism and to the occurrence of extreme weather events of all kinds (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
In rural areas, it largely relates to temperature rise and changes in rainfall patterns, changes in agriculture (pests, calendars), biodiversity loss, solar radiation or changes in the oceans, and their impacts are sometimes related or even more attributed to socioeconomic and environmental drivers, as well as to negative financial outcomes (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Often, for several economic and social reasons, women have less capacity to adapt, further widening structural gender gaps (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Recent studies emphasise that a gender approach to social inequalities ought to move beyond just looking at men and women as experiencing impacts in a differentiated manner; rather, an intersectional analysis illuminates how different individuals and groups relate differently to climate change due to their situatedness in power structures based on context-specific and dynamic social categorisations (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Particular constellations of race, gender, class, age or nationality reveal more complex realities (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Migration to cities can mean opportunities for migrants and for urban areas, but it can also worsen existing problems, as urban poor people can become even more exposed and vulnerable, and the pressure on urban capacities may not be well absorbed (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Some areas are more likely to generate climatic migration: the Andes, the dry areas of Amazonia, northern Brazil and northern countries in CA (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Climate financing in CSA is mainly focused on mitigation actions (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Therefore, there is a need to design adequate programmes and allocate resources for agroforestry system implementation and technical assistance and training (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
These included the legal and regulatory feasibility, institutional capacity and administrative feasibility, transparency and political acceptability (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
This may be a potential barrier to the adaptive approach of multi-use water storage (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
However, limitations in technical assistance and funding for specific key technologies and training may act as a barrier for EbA adoption (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
Many of the new neighbourhoods were established through land invasions or informal markets, in many cases over steep slopes, in water sources and agricultural or conservation areas (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Two impacts related to warmer air conditions are the displacement of the freezing line currently placed at 5100 MASL (Basantes-Serrano et al., 2016), followed by glacier retreat and the upward displacement of mountainous ecosystems (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Other important climatic hazards and impacts are the increase of solar radiation, the heat island effect and fires (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The programme has direct impacts on nutrition, generation of work for women, production of healthy food, reduction of runoff, recycling of organic waste and social cohesion, among others (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Along the same lines, these areas constitute a key element to increase the adaptive capacity of rural livelihoods and contribute to mitigating climate change through landscape restoration, sustainable production and forest conservation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
A major pending environmental issue is air pollution; a high level of pollutants affects the city in general and especially the most vulnerable groups (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
ADEs are characterised by their increased fertility in relation to adjacent soils, with high contents of organic carbon (C) (mainly as charcoal) as well as inorganic nutrients, especially phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca) and high carbon/nitrogen ratios (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Charcoal content is a key indicator of pre-Hispanic fire activity and sedentary occupation, which is evidence of the anthropic origin of these soils (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Located on the Pacific coast with more than 10 million inhabitants, it suffers from flooding, mudslide disasters and water stress, and is more frequently affected by heavy rain peak events (1970, 1987, 1998, 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2017) (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Climate-change scenarios were ignored or denied, particularly when budget allocations for preventive actions were necessary (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Impacts on human settlements, agriculture and ecosystems result from both excess and reduced precipitation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Its effects were felt in different parts of the world, and Guatemala and the rest of CA experienced intense water scarcity due to a significant reduction in rainfall (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
A lack of regulation, coordination mechanisms, information and other elements of water governance was the root cause of the problem, exacerbated by the drier conditions during the intense El Niño event, resulting in the intensification of an existing conflict (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Local governance was also essential for the implementation of flood risk management actions (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Although some may argue that water governance is in the realm of development, it has made contributions in reducing direct and indirect impacts of climate events and, therefore, can be seen as a key element for climate adaptation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Poverty and extreme poverty rates are higher among children, young people, women, Indigenous Peoples and migrant and rural populations, but urban extreme poverty is also growing (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Most countries in CA are already ranked as the highest risk level worldwide due to the region’s high vulnerability to climate change and low adaptive capacity; the lack of climate data and proper downscaling are challenging the adaptation process (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Many extreme events are already impacting the region and are projected to intensify; such events include warming temperatures and dryness, SLR, coastal erosion and ocean and lake acidification, resulting in coral bleaching and an increasing frequency and severity of droughts in some regions, with a concomitant decrease in water supply, which impact agricultural production, traditional fishing, food security and human health (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Urban areas in the region are vulnerable for many reasons, notably high rates of poverty and informality, poor and unevenly distributed infrastructure, housing deficits and the recurrent occupation of risk areas (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The high poverty level increases the region’s vulnerability to droughts, both in cities and rural areas, where people already suffer from natural water scarcity (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
IKLK play an important role in adaptation but are also threatened by climate change (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Inadequate access to finance and technology is widely identified as an adaptation barrier (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Subsistence farmers and the urban poor are expected to be the most impacted by droughts and variable rainfall in the region (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Internal and international migrations and displacements are expected to increase (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Climatic drivers, such as droughts, tropical storms and hurricanes, heavy rains and floods, interact with social, political, geopolitical and economic drivers (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The lack of climate data and proper downscaling, weak governance, obstacles to financing, and inequality constrain the adaptation process (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The number and type of adaptation measures for ocean and coastal ecosystems and their contributions to humans are very different among CSA countries, which highlights the number of measures related to increasing scientific research and monitoring followed by the conservation of biodiversity and changes in legislation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
In the water sector, a lack of systematic analysis and evaluation of adaptation measures predominates, although important progress has been made since AR5 in terms of understanding the interlinkages among climate change, human vulnerabilities, governance, policies and adaptation success (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Climate change poses several challenges to the agri-food sector, impacting agricultural production and productivity and posing a risk to food security and the economy (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Adapting agriculture while conserving the environment represents a challenge for sustainable and resilient food production (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Adaptation in the region presents persistent barriers and limitations (Table 12.8) associated with investments and knowledge gaps (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
Urban adaptation is limited by financing constraints, weak intersectoral and multi-level governance and deficits in the housing and infrastructure sectors, the overcoming of which represents an opportunity for transformative adaptation (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Short- term interventions are more common than long-term planning (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Initiatives in social housing focus on reducing risk and overcoming urgent deficits but also adding to a transformative adaptation pathway (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Hybrid (green- grey) infrastructure has been adopted for better efficiency in flood control, sanitation, water scarcity and landslide prevention and coastal protection (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
NbS, including GI and EbA, are increasing in urban areas (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
The integration of transport and land use plans and the improvement of public transport are key to urban adaptation; mitigation prevails over adaptation in the sector (high confidence).There is a growing body of evidence that climate variability and climate change are causing harm to human health in CSA—including the increasing transmission of vector-borne and zoonotic diseases, heat stress, respiratory illness associated with fires, food and water insecurity associated with drought, among others (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
However, institutional barriers (limited resources, administrative feasibility and political mandates) need to be addressed to ensure the sustained implementation of adaptation strategies (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Poor and vulnerable groups exert limited political influence; the fewer channels and opportunities that exist to participate in decision-making and policymaking make these groups less able to leverage government support to invest in adaptation measures (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Social organisation, participation and governance reconfiguration are essential for building climate resilience (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
Social organisation, participation, governance, education and communications to increase perception and knowledge are essential for building the resilience to adapt and overcome expected and unexpected climate impacts (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
The focus on inclusion and enrolling of the full range of actors in adaptation processes, including vulnerable populations, have yielded good results in the region (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
However, existing poverty and inequality, imbalances in power relations, corruption, weak governance and institutions, structural problems and high levels of risk tolerance may reinforce poverty and inequality cycles (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
It is widely recognised that climate adaptation measures, if carefully selected considering coupled human-environment systems, will provide significant contributions to the sustainable development pathways of the region and to achieve the SDGs if implemented together with comprehensive strategies to reduce poverty, inequality and risks (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Since AR5, there has been a substantial increase in detected or attributed impacts of climate change in Europe, including extreme events (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Impacts of compound hazards of warming and precipitation have become more frequent (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
Climate change has resulted in losses of, and damages to, people, ecosystems, food systems, infrastructure, energy and water availability, public health and the economy (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: very high)
As impacts vary both across and within European regions, sectors, and societal groups (high confidence), inequalities have deepened (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
Traditional lifestyles, for example in the European Arctic, are threatened already (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)
Poor households have lower capacity to adapt to, and recover from, impacts (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: medium)
The range of options available to deal with climate-change impacts has increased in most of Europe since AR5 (IPCC AR6_WGII, confidence: high)