rlacombe/ClimateX huggingface dataset:
Material and supply diversification strategies, energy and material efficiency improvements, and circular material flows can reduce the environmental footprint and material supply risks for battery production (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Sourced sustainably and with low-GHG emissions feedstocks, bio-based fuels, blended or unblended with fossil fuels, can provide mitigation benefits, particularly in the short and medium term (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Low-GHG emissions hydrogen and hydrogen derivatives, including synthetic fuels, can offer mitigation potential in some contexts and land-based transport segments (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
For aviation, such technologies include high energy density biofuels (high confidence), and low-emission hydrogen and synthetic fuels (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Alternative fuels for shipping include low-emission hydrogen, ammonia, biofuels, and other synthetic fuels (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Electrification could play a niche role for aviation and shipping for short trips (medium confidence) and can reduce emissions from port and airport operations (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Improvements to national and international governance structures would further enable the decarbonisation of shipping and aviation (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Such improvements could include, for example, the implementation of stricter efficiency and carbon intensity standards for the sectors (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Integrated transport and energy infrastructure planning and operations can enable sectoral synergies and reduce the environmental, social, and economic impacts of decarbonising the transport and energy sectors (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Technology transfer and financing can support developing countries leapfrogging or transitioning to low-emissions transport systems thereby providing multiple co-benefits (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Assisting countries to overcome barriers will help to achieve significant mitigation (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
SM.2, 8.4, 9.5, 10.2, 11.3, 11.4, Table 11.6, Box TS.12} C.10.4 Choice architecture62 can help end-users adopt, as relevant to consumers, culture and country contexts, low-GHG-intensive options such as balanced, sustainable healthy diets61 acknowledging nutritional needs; food waste reduction; adaptive heating and cooling choices for thermal comfort; building-integrated renewable energy; and electric light-duty vehicles, and shifts to walking, cycling, shared pooled and public transit; and sustainable consumption by intensive use of longer-lived repairable products (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Addressing inequality and many forms of status consumption63 and focusing on wellbeing supports climate change mitigation efforts (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
CDR methods vary in terms of their maturity, removal process, time scale of carbon storage, storage medium, mitigation potential, cost, co-benefits, impacts and risks, and governance requirements (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Specifically, maturity ranges from lower maturity (e.g., ocean alkalinisation) to higher maturity (e.g., reforestation); removal and storage potential ranges from lower potential (<1 GtCO2 yr–1, e.g., blue carbon management) to higher potential (>3 GtCO2 yr–1, e.g., agroforestry); costs range from lower cost (e.g., USD-45–100 per tCO2 for soil carbon sequestration) to higher cost (e.g., USD100–300 per tCO2 for DACCS) (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Estimated storage time scales vary from decades to centuries for methods that store carbon in vegetation and through soil carbon management, to 10,000 years or more for methods that store carbon in geological formations (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Afforestation, reforestation, improved forest management, agroforestry and soil carbon sequestration are currently the only widely practiced CDR methods (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Reforestation, improved forest management, soil carbon sequestration, peatland restoration and blue carbon management are examples of methods that can enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functions, employment and local livelihoods, depending on context (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
In contrast, afforestation or production of biomass crops for BECCS or biochar, when poorly implemented, can have adverse socio-economic and environmental impacts, including on biodiversity, food and water security, local livelihoods and on the rights of Indigenous Peoples, especially if implemented at large scales and where land tenure is insecure (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Ocean fertilisation, if implemented, could lead to nutrient redistribution, restructuring of ecosystems, enhanced oxygen consumption and acidification in deeper waters (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
The global economic benefit of limiting warming to 2°C is reported to exceed the cost of mitigation in most of the assessed literature (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
The corresponding reductions in average annual global GDP growth over 2020–2050, in percentage points, are as follows: 0.09–0.14 (C1), 0.05–0.09 (C2), 0.03–0.07 (C4), 0.02–0.04 (C5).66 There are large variations in the modelled effects of mitigation on GDP across regions, depending notably on economic structure, regional emissions reductions, policy design and level of international cooperation67 (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Country-level studies also show large variations in the effect of mitigation on GDP depending notably on the level of mitigation and on the way it is achieved (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Macroeconomic implications of mitigation co-benefits and trade-offs are not quantified comprehensively across the above scenarios and depend strongly on mitigation strategies (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Models that incorporate the economic damages from climate change find that the global cost of limiting warming to 2°C over the 21st century is lower than the global economic benefits of reducing warming, unless: (i) climate damages are towards the low end of the range; or, (ii) future damages are discounted at high rates (medium confidence).68 Modelled pathways with a peak in global emissions between now and 2025 at the latest, compared to modelled pathways with a later peak in global emissions, entail more rapid near-term transitions and higher up-front investments, but bring long-term gains for the economy, as well as earlier benefits of avoided climate change impacts (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Electrification combined with low-GHG energy, and shifts to public transport can enhance health, employment, and can elicit energy security and deliver equity (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
However, some industrial options could impose high costs (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Limited economic, social and institutional resources often result in high vulnerability and low adaptive capacity, especially in developing countries (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
However, land and aquatic ecosystems can be adversely affected by some mitigation actions, depending on their implementation (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Coordinated cross-sectoral policies and planning can maximise synergies and avoid or reduce trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
These options can also reduce flood risks, pressure on urban sewer systems, urban heat island effects, and can deliver health benefits from reduced air pollution (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
For example, increasing urban density to reduce travel demand, could imply high vulnerability to heat waves and flooding (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Absence or limited resources in social and institutional systems can lead to poorly coordinated responses, thus reducing the potential for maximising mitigation and adaptation benefits, and increasing risk (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Applying just transition principles and implementing them through collective and participatory decision-making processes is an effective way of integrating equity principles into policies at all scales, in different ways depending on national circumstances (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
A multitude of actors, networks, and movements are engaged (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
The consideration of ethics and equity can help address the uneven distribution of adverse impacts associated with 1.5°C and higher levels of global warming, in all societies (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Consideration of climate justice can help to facilitate shifting development pathways towards sustainability, including through equitable sharing of benefits and burdens of mitigation, increasing resilience to the impacts of climate change, especially for vulnerable countries and communities, and equitably supporting those in need (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
This enables deployment in many regions (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
While many mitigation options have environmental co-benefits, including improved air quality and reducing toxic waste, many also have adverse environmental impacts, such as reduced biodiversity, when applied at very large scale, for example very large scale bioenergy or large scale use of battery storage, that would have to be managed (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Almost all mitigation options face institutional barriers that need to be addressed to enable their application at scale (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Strengthened and coordinated near-term actions in cost-effective modelled global pathways that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower, reduce the overall risks to the feasibility of the system transitions, compared to modelled pathways with relatively delayed or uncoordinated action.73 (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Policies that shift development pathways towards sustainability can broaden the portfolio of available mitigation responses, and enable the pursuit of synergies with development objectives (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Actions can be taken now to shift development pathways and accelerate mitigation and transitions across systems (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Choices made by policymakers, citizens, the private sector and other stakeholders influence societies’ development pathways (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Actions that steer, for example, energy and land systems transitions, economy-wide structural change, and behaviour change, can shift development pathways towards sustainability74 (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
It can also facilitate the combination of mitigation and other development goals (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
For example, measures promoting walkable urban areas combined with electrification and renewable energy can create health co-benefits from cleaner air and benefits from enhanced mobility (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Coordinated housing policies that broaden relocation options can make mitigation measures in transport more effective (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
In some situations, such as with innovation in technology at an early stage of development and some changes in behaviour towards low emissions, because the enabling conditions may take time to be established, action in the near term can yield accelerated mitigation in the mid-term (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
In other situations, the enabling conditions can be put in place and yield results in a relatively short time frame, for example the provision of energy related information, advice and feedback to promote energy saving behaviour (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Climate governance is most effective when it integrates across multiple policy domains, helps realise synergies and minimise trade-offs, and connects national and sub-national policymaking levels (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Effective and equitable climate governance builds on engagement with civil society actors, political actors, businesses, youth, labour, media, Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
These functions can be promoted by climate-relevant laws, which are growing in number, or climate strategies, among others, based on national and sub-national context (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Framework laws set an overarching legal basis, either operating through a target and implementation approach, or a sectoral mainstreaming approach, or both, depending on national circumstance (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Direct national and sub-national laws that explicitly target mitigation and indirect laws that impact emissions through mitigation-related policy domains have both been shown to be relevant to mitigation outcomes (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Complementary sub-national institutions tailor mitigation actions to local context and enable experimentation but can be limited by inequities and resource and capacity constraints (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Effective governance requires adequate institutional capacity at all levels (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
These instruments could support deep emissions reductions and stimulate innovation if scaled up and applied more widely (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Policy packages that enable innovation and build capacity are better able to support a shift towards equitable low-emission futures than are individual policies (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Economy-wide packages, consistent with national circumstances, can meet short-term economic goals while reducing emissions and shifting development pathways towards sustainability (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
These instruments, and broad-based approaches including relevant economic instruments,75 are complementary (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Regulatory instruments that are designed to be implemented with flexibility mechanisms can reduce costs (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Scaling up and enhancing the use of regulatory instruments, consistent with national circumstances, could improve mitigation outcomes in sectoral applications, including but not limited to renewable energy, land use and zoning, building codes, vehicle and energy efficiency, fuel standards, and low-emissions industrial processes and materials (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Where implemented, carbon pricing instruments have incentivised low-cost emissions reduction measures, but have been less effective, on their own and at prevailing prices during the assessment period, in promoting the higher-cost measures necessary for further reductions (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Equity and distributional impacts of such carbon pricing instruments can be addressed by using revenue from carbon taxes or emissions trading to support low-income households, among other approaches (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Practical experience has informed instrument design and helped to improve predictability, environmental effectiveness, economic efficiency, distributional goals and social acceptance (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Removing fossil fuel subsidies would reduce emissions, improve public revenue and macroeconomic performance, and yield other environmental and sustainable development benefits; subsidy removal may have adverse distributional impacts especially on the most economically vulnerable groups which, in some cases can be mitigated by measures such as redistributing revenue saved, all of which depend on national circumstances (high confidence); fossil fuel subsidy removal is projected by various studies to reduce global CO2 emissions by 1–4%, and GHG emissions by up to 10% by 2030, varying across regions (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
They can meet short-term economic goals while reducing emissions and shifting development pathways towards sustainability (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Infrastructure investments can be designed to promote low-emissions futures that meet development needs (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
There is no consistent evidence that current emission trading systems have led to significant emissions leakage, which can be attributed to design features aimed at minimising competitiveness effects, among other reasons (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Scaling up mitigation financial flows can be supported by clear policy choices and signals from governments and the international community (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Accelerated international financial cooperation is a critical enabler of low-GHG and just transitions, and can address inequities in access to finance and the costs of, and vulnerability to, the impacts of climate change (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Mitigation investment gaps are wide for all sectors, and widest for the AFOLU sector in relative terms and for developing countries76 (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Financing and investment requirements for adaptation, reduction of losses and damages, general infrastructure, regulatory environment and capacity building, and climate-responsive social protection further exacerbate the magnitude of the challenges for developing countries to attract financing (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Barriers to the deployment of commercial finance from within the financial sector as well as macroeconomic considerations include: inadequate assessment of climate-related risks and investment opportunities; regional mismatch between available capital and investment needs; home bias factors; country indebtedness levels; economic vulnerability; and limited institutional capacities (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Scaled-up public grants for mitigation and adaptation funding for vulnerable regions, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, would be cost-effective and have high social returns in terms of access to basic energy (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
A coordinated effort to make the post-pandemic recovery sustainable and increased flows of financing over the next decade can accelerate climate action, including in developing regions and countries facing high debt costs, debt distress and macroeconomic uncertainty (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Challenges in and opportunities to enhance innovation cooperation exist, including in the implementation of elements of the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement as per the literature assessed, such as in relation to technology development and transfer, and finance (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
International cooperation on innovation works best when tailored to specific institutional and capability contexts, when it benefits local value chains, when partners collaborate equitably and on voluntary and mutually agreed terms, when all relevant voices are heard, and when capacity building is an integral part of the effort (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Support to strengthen technological innovation systems and innovation capabilities, including through financial support in developing countries would enhance engagement in and improve international cooperation on innovation (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Transnational networks of city governments are leading to enhanced ambition and policy development and a growing exchange of experience and best practices (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Agreements addressing ozone depletion and transboundary air pollution are contributing to mitigation, and in other areas, such as atmospheric emissions of mercury, may contribute to mitigation (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Trade rules have the potential to stimulate international adoption of mitigation technologies and policies, but may also limit countries’ ability to adopt trade-related climate policies (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Current sectoral levels of ambition vary, with emission reduction aspirations in international aviation and shipping lower than in many other sectors (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Original INDCs and NDCs refer to those submitted to the UNFCCC in 2015 and 2016.GHG emissions continued to rise to 2019, although the growth of global GHG emissions has slowed over the past decade (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Since 2010, GHG emissions have continued to grow reaching 59 ± 6.6 GtCO 2-eq in 2019,4 but the average annual growth in the last decade (1.3%, 2010–2019) was lower than in the previous decade (2.1%, 2000–2009) (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Average annual GHG emissions were 56 GtCO 2-eq yr –1 for 2010–2019 (the highest decadal average on record) growing by about 9.1 GtCO 2-eq yr –1 from the previous decade (2000–2009) (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
The average annual emission levels of the last decade (2010–2019) were higher than in any previous decade for each group of greenhouse gases (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
F-gases excluded from GHG emissions inventories such as chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons are about the same size as those included (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Furthermore, for mitigation pathways that limit global warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower, using GWP100 to inform cost-effective abatement choices between gases would achieve such long-term temperature goals at close to least global cost within a few percent (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
IFrom a mitigation perspective, this makes these metrics well-suited in principle to estimate the effect on the remaining carbon budget from more, or less, ambitious SLCF mitigation over multiple decades compared to a given reference scenario (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
The lifestyle consumption emissions of the middle income and poorest citizens in emerging economies are between five and 50 times below their counterparts in high-income countries (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Increasing inequality within a country can exacerbate dilemmas of 11 Bookkeeping models and dynamic global vegetation models.redistribution and social cohesion, and affect the willingness of the rich and poor to accept policies to protect the environment, and to accept and afford lifestyle changes that favour mitigation (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Average annual GHG emissions growth during 2010–2019 slowed compared to the previous decade in energy supply (from 2.3% to 1.0%) and industry (from 3.4% to 1.4%, direct emissions only), but remained roughly constant at about 2% yr –1 in the transport sector (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Emission growth in AFOLU is more uncertain due to the high share of CO 2-LULUCF emissions (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Accounting for this discrepancy would assist in assessing collective progress in a global stocktake (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
The accounting method used will affect the assessment of collective progress in a global stocktake (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
This slowing of growth is attributable to further improvements in energy efficiency and reductions in the carbon intensity of energy supply driven by fuel switching from coal to gas, reduced expansion of coal capacity, particularly in Eastern Asia, and the increased use of renewables (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
Important drivers include technology transfer and cooperation, international policy and financial support, and harnessing synergies among technologies within a sustainable energy system perspective (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)
A fast global low-carbon energy transition enabled by finance to facilitate low-carbon technology adoption in developing and particularly in least developed countries can facilitate achieving climate stabilisation targets (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
The rapid deployment and unit cost decrease of modular technologies like solar, wind, and batteries have occurred much faster than anticipated by experts and modelled in previous mitigation scenarios, as shown in Figure TS.7 (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: high)
Emerging evidence since AR5 indicates that small-scale technologies (e.g., solar, batteries) tend to improve faster and be adopted more quickly than large-scale technologies (nuclear, CCS) (IPCC AR6_WGIII, confidence: medium)