remiconnesson/oceanservice-noaa-facts huggingface dataset:
# What role does the ocean play in the weather?

## The ocean plays a leading role in the Earth's climate.

![Hurricane Gustav](/facts/ocean-climate.jpg "Hurricane Gustav on Sept. 10, 2008")

Hurricane Gustav was one of a series of hurricanes to strike the United States in 2008. Hurricanes originate over the tropical regions of the ocean under conditions where high humidity, light winds, and warm sea surface temperatures combine.

The ocean plays an important role in shaping our climate and weather patterns.

Warm ocean waters provide the energy to fuel storm systems that provide fresh water vital to all living things. Understanding and predicting precipitation is critical to farmers who decide which crops to plant, and how deep, based in part on soil moisture levels. Crop and food prices may increase when weather that is too wet or too dry adversely affects crops.

Like precipitation, extreme heat and cold also affect livestock management.

Weather prediction can be a life-saving tool. Aside from helping people prepare for catastrophic storms, prediction can help citizens and governments anticipate extreme hot and cold temperatures, which may cause death among the elderly.

Water management experts study how much rainfall to anticipate so they can manage reservoir levels and water usage, to ensure everyone has abundant water supplies.
# What is a fish ladder?

## A fish ladder is a structure that allows migrating fish **passage over or around an obstacle** on a river.

![image of fish ladder](fishladder.jpg "What is a fish ladder?")

Fish ladder near the south shore of Long Island, where recorded Alewive migration was occurring.

The survival of many fish species depends on migrations up and down rivers. Among anadromous fish such as salmon, shad, and sturgeon, downstream migration is a feature of early life stages, while upstream migration is a feature of adult life. Among catadromous, like the North American eel, the opposite is true. River obstructions such as dams, culverts, and waterfalls have the potential to slow or stop fish migration. Indeed, these impediments to fish migration are often implicated in the decline of certain fish stocks.

A fish ladder, also known as a fishway, provides a detour route for migrating fish past a particular obstruction on the river. Designs vary depending on the obstruction, river flow, and species of fish affected, but the general principle is the same for all fish ladders: the ladder contains a series of ascending pools that are reached by swimming against a stream of water. Fish leap through the cascade of rushing water, rest in a pool, and then repeat the process until they are out of the ladder.
# What is a pocosin?

## A pocosin is a wetland bog with sandy peat soil and woody shrubs throughout.

![Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, North Carolina.](/facts/pocosin.jpg "Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, North Carolina. Image courtesy of Dale Suiter, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.")

Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, North Carolina.

Pocosins are generally found along the Atlantic coastal plain of the United States, from southern Virginia to northern Florida. These areas typically occur in broad, low-lying shallow basins that do not drain naturally. Pocosins are formed by the accumulation of organic matter, resembling black muck, which builds up over thousands of years. This accumulation of material causes the soil to be highly acidic and nutrient-deficient.

At one time, pocosins were prominent ecosystems in the southeastern United States, but they disappeared rapidly due to their perceived low value for the environment and high value for land development. In reality, restoring healthy pocosin [wetlands](https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/wetland.html) provides important benefits to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as well as human communities: They provide wildlife habitat, lessen the frequency and severity of wildfires, sequester carbon, nitrogen, and mercury (known as a [carbon sink](https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bluecarbon.html)), protect the water quality of [estuaries](https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/estuary.html), and control flooding in low-elevation coastal areas. Pocosin restoration also plays a key role in the adaption of ecosystems to sea level rise by preventing soil loss and promoting soil formation.

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The word pocosin comes from an Eastern Algonquian word meaning "swamp-on-a-hill." A more accurate description of a pocosin, however, would be a "raised bog." The city of Poquoson, Virginia, located on the state's coastal plain in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, derives its name from this geographic feature.

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**Last updated:** 06/16/24  
**Author:** NOAA  
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Did you know? - 

- The word pocosin comes from an Eastern Algonquian word meaning "swamp-on-a-hill." A more accurate description of a pocosin, however, would be a "raised bog." The city of Poquoson, Virginia, located on the state's coastal plain in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, derives its name from this geographic feature.
# What are PBDEs?

## PBDEs, or polybrominated diphenyl ethers, are a class of **fire retardant chemicals**.

![description of image](pbde.jpg "short caption")

As part of [NOAA's Mussel Watch Program](https://products.coastalscience.noaa.gov/collections/ltmonitoring/nsandt/default.aspx), PBDEs are one of 150 different contaminants that are continually monitored by periodically sampling bivalves and sediment at 300 coastal sites around the nation.

PBDEs are found in a variety of consumer products, from TVs and toasters to mattresses and drapes. These chemicals are intended to slow the rate of ignition and fire growth, allowing people more time to escape from a fire or extinguish it. In recent years, PBDEs have generated international concern over their widespread distribution in the environment, their potential to bioaccumulate in humans and wildlife, and their suspected adverse human health effects. In the U.S., PBDE levels in people are generally 10–100 times higher than levels measured in people in Europe and Asia.

Production of PBDEs in the U.S. began in the 1970s and peaked in the late 1990s. Flame retardant manufacturers in the U.S. voluntarily stopped producing the PentaBDE (used in furniture foam) and OctaBDE (used in electronic products) varieties of PBDEs in 2004 and have begun producing alternative flame retardants; however, DecaBDE continues to be produced and used in the U.S., primarily in television casings. DecaBDE is classified as a possible human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
# What is a maritime forest?

![a maritime forest](/facts/maritime-forest1.jpg "What is a maritime forest?")

_These stumps are evidence that trees once grew here, but due to a constantly changing shoreline, they are now mostly submerged in the ocean._

Maritime forests are shoreline [estuaries](/facts/estuary.html) that grow along coastal barrier islands that support a great diversity of plants and animals. Many maritime forests in the United States remain largely untouched by commercial development and closely resemble the woodlands where Native Americans lived and early colonists settled hundreds of years ago. Trees, bushes, and other plants in maritime forests and estuaries withstand strong winds, periodic flooding, and salt spray. Many species of mammals and reptiles make the forests their home, and thousands of birds migrate to maritime forests each year.

![a maritime forest](maritime-forest2.jpg "What is a maritime forest?")

_Currituck Banks Reserve, on North Carolina's Outer Banks, is a maritime forest._  

A good example of a maritime forest is the [Currituck Banks Reserve](https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/contributing-partners/currituck-banks-component-ncnerr.html), located on the Outer Banks of North Carolina.  The western, ocean side of Currituck consists of sand dunes of beach grass and sea oats, which front a tightly woven canopy of shrub-like thickets of wax myrtle, holly, and stunted oaks.  The canopy acts as a windscreen to protect the forest's less tolerant interior trees, often consisting of American holly, beach olive, ironwood, loblolly pine, red maple, and live oak. On the other side of the barrier island's maritime forest lies the estuary of Currituck Sound, where fresh water meets the ocean's salt water.  This shallow intertidal area is home to the estuary's abundant flora and fauna.

Like all barrier islands, maritime forests are constantly changing and on the move. On Currituck, for example, one can see stumps of [deciduous trees](#) along the sandy beach. These trees were once in the center of the island, but due to the constantly changing shoreline, they are now mostly submerged in the ocean. Maritime forests, like all estuaries, are essential for storm protection. They also conserve important nutrients and groundwater.
# What is lightering?

![A lightering barge being positioned next to the freighter M/V Montrose in 2007. (Photo credit: U.S. Coast Guard)](/facts/lightering.jpg)

_A lightering barge being positioned next to the freighter M/V_ Montrose _in 2007. (Photo credit: U.S. Coast Guard)_

Lightering is not possible in all oil spill scenarios. It depends on many factors including the type of oil that is spilled. As time passes, the oil can become more viscous, or thicker, and therefore more difficult to pump. This can, in turn, make lightering difficult, if not impossible. While there are benefits to removing oil in this way, there can also be accidents and spills that result from lightering.

Lightering is also used to transfer cargo between vessels of different sizes like a barge and a bulker or oil tanker to reduce the vessel's draft in order to enter port facilities.
# What is a marsh organ?

## The "marsh organ" is a simple instrument that helps scientists study sea level rise.

![An installed marsh organ at the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve in the Florida Panhandle](/facts/marshorgan.jpg "What is a marsh organ?")

An installed marsh organ at the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve in the Florida Panhandle. A NOS-sponsored project in the Gulf of America employs the marsh organ to mimic sea level rise impacts on marsh vegetation and inform forecast models. Image courtesy of Jim Morris, University of South Carolina.

Scientists are always looking for ways to measure sea-level rise and its long-term effects on coastal processes. To that end, the University of South Carolina and NOAA’s [National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science](http://coastalscience.noaa.gov/) developed a simple device called a “marsh organ” (because its graduated “pipes” resemble those of an organ) to determine how well an estuary may respond to rising sea levels.

Setting up the marsh organ is a _very_ muddy process. Scientists working to install the instrument may find themselves waist-deep in the soft marsh sediments! Once the organ is in place, they fill the tubes with mud and plant marsh grasses in each one. In a year or two, they return to the marsh organ to harvest the grass and measure how much it has grown. 

Each “pipe” of the marsh organ represents a varying water-level "elevation.” As the tides ebb and flow, the marsh and the pipes are subject to rising and falling water levels. Depending on the amount of flooding and other factors, the marsh plants grow accordingly. The data is then used to inform a model that helps scientists forecast the future health of the marsh.
# What is an anchialine pool?

![Bermuda Triangle map](/facts/anchialine.jpg "Bermuda Triangle")

 _Anchialine pools form some of the longest submerged caves structures on Earth. (Image courtesy of [National Science Foundation](http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/mmg_disp.jsp?med_id=72955&from=mmg))_

The word “anchialine” (AN-key-ah-lin) comes from a Greek word meaning “near the sea." These typically small pools, which form in limestone or volcanic rock, are located throughout the world but are most common in the Hawaiian Islands and on Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula.

Anchialine pools have their own unique ecosystems populated by tiny and often rare species of crustaceans, fish, and eels. Among these species is Hawaii’s legendary red shrimp, the _ʻ__ōpaeʻula_ (oo-PAY-oo-la). Water levels in the pools can fluctuate in response to ocean tides. Due to their subterranean connection to the ocean, anchialine surface waters are often brackish and become more saline (salty) with increasing depth.

Many anchialine pools are found in underground cave systems and are favorite destinations for cave divers seeking to observe unusual cave species. One such creature is the Mexican blind tetra, an albino fish that has lost not only its sight but also its eyes!

More than half of the world’s known anchialine pools are found in the Hawaiian Islands. On the Big Island of Hawaii, the [NOAA Restoration Center](https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/habitat-conservation#how-we-restore) funded a two-acre restoration project for the pools, which have fallen victim in recent years to invasive fish species that upset the pools’ natural balance. To restore the ponds, nearly 400 citizen volunteers helped remove the foreign invaders and reintroduce native vegetation. The restored sites are monitored twice a month to remove algae and maintain the revitalized vegetation. Scientists are learning that the pools’ fragile natural balance makes them good indicators of overall coastal ecosystem health.
# What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?

## The "garbage patch" is a popular name for concentrations of marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean.

![marine debris](/facts/garbagepatch1.jpg "marine debris")

While "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" is a term often used by the media, it does not paint an accurate picture of the marine debris problem in the North Pacific ocean. Marine debris concentrates in various regions of the North Pacific, not just in one area. The exact size, content, and location of the "garbage patches" are difficult to accurately predict.

The name "Pacific Garbage Patch" has led many to believe that this area is a large and continuous patch of easily visible marine debris items such as bottles and other litter—akin to a literal island of trash that should be visible with satellite or aerial photographs. This is not the case. While higher concentrations of litter items can be found in this area, much of the debris is actually small pieces of floating plastic that are not immediately evident to the naked eye.

Ocean debris is continuously mixed by wind and wave action and widely dispersed both over huge surface areas and throughout the top portion of the water column. It is possible to sail through "garbage patch" areas in the Pacific and see very little or no debris on the water's surface. It is also difficult to estimate the size of these "patches," because the borders and content constantly change with ocean currents and winds. Regardless of the exact size, mass, and location of the "garbage patch," manmade debris does not belong in our oceans and waterways and must be addressed.

Debris found in any region of the ocean can easily be ingested by marine species causing choking, starvation, and other impairments.
# What is dredging?

## Dredging is the act of removing silt and other material from the bottom of bodies of water

![As sand and silt washes downstream, sedimentation gradually fill channels and harbors. This material must be periodically removed by dredging. (Image credit: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)](/facts/dredging.jpg "As sand and silt  washes downstream, sedimentation gradually fill channels and harbors. This material must be periodically removed by dredging. Image credit: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency")

As sand and silt washes downstream, sedimentation gradually fill channels and harbors. This material must be periodically removed by dredging.

Dredging is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbors, and other water bodies. It is a routine necessity in waterways around the world because sedimentation—the natural process of sand and silt washing downstream—gradually fills channels and harbors.

Dredging often is focused on maintaining or increasing the depth of navigation channels, anchorages, or berthing areas to ensure the safe passage of boats and ships. Vessels require a certain amount of water in order to float and not touch bottom. This water depth continues to increase over time as larger and larger ships are deployed. Since massive ships carry the [bulk of the goods imported into the country](/news/features/sep11/inchwater.html), dredging plays a vital role in the nation's economy.

Dredging is also performed to reduce the exposure of fish, wildlife, and people to contaminants and to prevent the spread of contaminants to other areas of the water body. This _environmental dredging_ is often necessary because sediments in and around cities and industrial areas are frequently contaminated with a variety of pollutants. These pollutants are introduced to waterways from [point sources](pollution.html) such as sewer overflows, municipal and industrial discharges, and spills; or may be introduced from [nonpoint sources](pollution.html) such as surface runoff and atmospheric deposition. NOAA's Office of Response and Restoration [plays a major role](http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/environmental-restoration) in protecting and restoring marine natural resources when environmental damage occurs.

The disposal of dredged material is managed and carried out by federal, state, and local governments, as well as by private entities such as port authorities. The [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers](http://www.usace.army.mil/) issues permits for the disposal of dredged material; the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](http://www.epa.gov/) provides oversight and authorization for the disposal of dredged materials.
# How do we forecast harmful algal blooms?

## Scientists can forecast a harmful algal bloom **similar to how a hurricane is forecasted**.

![a harmful algal bloom in Western Lake Erie. ](/facts/hab-forecast.jpg "How do we forecast harmful algal blooms?")

A boat cuts a green wake—a harmful algal bloom—in Western Lake Erie.

NOAA's Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) Operational Forecast System in the Gulf of America identifies whether or not a bloom of algae is likely to contain a toxic species, where it is, how big it is, where it's headed, and if it could become more severe in the near future. Like a weather forecast, this system provides officials advance warning to test and close beaches and shellfish beds more precisely and for a shorter period of time.

This system relies on satellite imagery, field observations, models, public health reports, and buoy data to provide information on bloom events. Forecasters create a public HAB conditions report using this data and information to provide the likelihood of respiratory irritation impacts to people in the area.

Expert oceanographers at NOAA analyze available data and models in order to create accurate bulletins. To ensure the highest degree of accuracy, all operational HAB forecasts undergo secondary review prior to dissemination.

_The Harmful Algal Bloom Operational Forecast System depends on the dedication, energy, and feedback from individuals at partner agencies and other organizations working on this issue. Blooms of harmful algae are not unique to the Gulf of America, so NOAA continues to work with local agencies in Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio, Washington, Oregon, California, and elsewhere in the U.S. to make new forecasts operational over the next five years._
# What is shoreline armoring?

## "Armoring" is the practice of using **physical structures** to protect shorelines from **coastal erosion**.

![Shoreline armoring along Wells Beach, Maine.](shoreline-armoring.jpg  "'Armoring' is the practice of using physical structures to protect shorelines from coastal erosion.")

Shoreline armoring along Wells Beach, Maine. Coastal managers and property owners often attempt to stabilize coastal land and protect residential and commercial infrastructure along the coast by building shoreline armoring structures to hold back the sea and prevent the loss of sediment.

Coastal erosion—the loss of shoreline sediment - is a complex process that continuously reshapes the shoreline and can threaten coastal property. With approximately 350,000 structures located within 500 feet of the nation’s shoreline, erosion is a problem many U.S. coastal communities must address.

Coastal managers and property owners often attempt to stabilize coastal land and protect residential and commercial infrastructure along the coast by building shoreline armoring structures to hold back the sea and prevent the loss of sediment. Examples of such structures are seawalls, breakwaters, and riprap.

Shoreline armoring has both beneficial and detrimental effects. Armored shorelines can prevent sandy beaches, wetlands, and other intertidal areas from moving inland as the land erodes or sea levels rise, but they also have the potential to eliminate habitat for marine organisms and beach front for the public by restricting the natural movement of sediments. The key to shoreline stabilization, if it is required, is to use a site-specific stabilization method that balances the needs of the public and the needs of the natural system.

While coastal erosion is a natural process, the rate of erosion can be greatly influenced by human activities. Natural factors that contribute to erosion include sediment supply; geologic characteristics; changes in sea level; and the effects of waves, currents, tides, and wind—all of which vary by location. Human activities that can alter natural shoreline processes include beach nourishment (adding sand), dredging of ports and coastal approaches, construction of harbors and sediment-trapping dams, and the use of shoreline armor.
# What is ghost fishing?

![Atlantic croaker trapped within a derelict or ](/facts/ghost-fishing.jpg)

_Atlantic croaker trapped within a derelict or "ghost" crab pot pulled from the York River in Virginia._

Derelict fishing gear, sometimes referred to as "ghost gear," is any discarded, lost, or abandoned, fishing gear in the marine environment. This gear continues to fish and trap animals, entangle and potentially kill marine life, smother habitat, and act as a hazard to navigation. Derelict fishing gear, such as nets or traps and pots, is one of the main types of debris impacting the marine environment today.

Through the Fishing for Energy partnership, NOAA, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Covanta Energy Corporation, and Schnitzer Steel Industries, Inc. a cost-free solution is provided to fishermen to dispose of old, derelict or unusable fishing gear and to reduce the amount of derelict fishing gear in and around coastal waterways.

The [NOAA Marine Debris Program](http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/) is working with fishermen to provide a place to dispose of fishing gear free of charge and support new, innovative prevention strategies through technological advancements in fishing gear. These solutions will help prevent derelict fishing gear. The program has collected more than 1,814,369.48 kilograms (4 million pounds) of gear from 56 locations across the United States.