2023 Wisconsin Statutes & Annotations › Chapter 71 - Income and franchise taxes for state and local revenues. › 71.45 - Income computation.

71.45
Income computation.
(1)
Exempt and excludable income. There shall be exempt from taxation under this subchapter income as follows:
(a)
Income of insurers exempt from federal income taxation pursuant to section 501 (c) (15) of the internal revenue code, town mutuals organized under or subject to ch. 612, foreign insurers, and domestic insurers engaged exclusively in life insurance business, domestic insurers insuring against financial loss by reason of nonpayment of principal, interest and other sums agreed to be paid under the terms of any note or bond or other evidence of indebtedness secured by a mortgage, deed of trust or other instrument constituting a lien or charge on real estate and corporations organized under ch. 185, but not including income of cooperative health care associations organized under s. 185.981, or of a service insurance corporation organized under ch. 613, that is derived from a health maintenance organization as defined in s. 609.01 (2) or a limited service health organization as defined in s. 609.01 (3), or operating under subch. I of ch. 616 which are bona fide cooperatives operated without pecuniary profit to any shareholder or member, or operated on a cooperative plan pursuant to which they determine and distribute their proceeds in substantial compliance with s. 185.45. This paragraph does not apply to income that is realized from the sale of or purchase and subsequent sale or redemption of lottery prizes if the winning tickets were originally bought in this state.
(b)
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2006 and ending before January 1, 2016, the amount of any incentive payment received by an individual under s. 23.33 (5r), 2013 stats., in the taxable year to which the claim relates.
(c)
An amount equal to the increase in the number of full-time equivalent employees employed by the taxpayer in this state during the taxable year, multiplied by $4,000 for a business with gross receipts of no greater than $5,000,000 in the taxable year or $2,000 for a business with gross receipts greater than $5,000,000 in the taxable year. For purposes of this paragraph, the increase in the number of full-time equivalent employees employed by the taxpayer in this state during the taxable year is determined by subtracting from the number of full-time equivalent employees employed by the taxpayer in this state during the taxable year, as determined by computing the average employee count from the taxpayer's quarterly unemployment insurance reports or other information as required by the department for the taxable year, the number of full-time equivalent employees employed by the taxpayer in this state during the immediately preceding taxable year, as determined by computing the average employee count from the taxpayer's quarterly unemployment insurance reports or other information as required by the department for the immediately preceding taxable year. No person may claim a deduction under this paragraph if the person may claim a credit under this subchapter based on the person relocating the person's business from another state to this state and in an amount equal to the person's tax liability. No person may claim a deduction under this paragraph for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2014. The department shall promulgate rules to administer this paragraph.
(d)
Income received in the form of allocations issued by this state with moneys received from the coronavirus relief fund authorized under 42 USC 801 to be used for any of the following purposes:
1.
Broadband expansion.
2.
Privately owned movie theater grants.
3.
A nonprofit grant program.
4.
A tourism grants program.
5.
A cultural organization grant program.
6.
Music and performance venue grants.
7.
Lodging industry grants.
8.
Low-income home energy assistance.
9.
A rental assistance program.
10.
Supplemental child care grants.
11.
A food insecurity initiative.
12.
A farm support program.
13.
Grants to small businesses.
14.
Ethanol industry assistance.
15.
Wisconsin Eye.
(dm)
Income received in the form of a grant issued by the Wisconsin Economic Development Corporation during and related to the COVID-19 pandemic under the ethnic minority emergency grant program. Amounts otherwise deductible under this chapter that are paid directly or indirectly with the grant money are deductible.
(dn)
Income received in the form of a grant from the restaurant revitalization fund under section 5003 of the federal American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, P.L. 117-2. Amounts otherwise deductible under this chapter that are paid directly or indirectly with the grant money are deductible. Amounts excluded under this paragraph by a tax-option corporation or partnership shall be treated as tax-exempt income for purposes of sections 705 and 1366 of the Internal Revenue Code.
(1t)
Exemption from the income tax. The interest and income from the following obligations are exempt from the tax imposed under s. 71.43 (1):
(b)
Those issued under s. 66.1201.
(c)
Those issued under s. 66.1333.
(d)
Those issued under s. 66.1335.
(e)
Those issued under s. 234.65 to fund an economic development loan to finance construction, renovation or development of property that would be exempt under s. 70.11 (36).
(em)
Those issued under s. 234.08 or 234.61, on or after January 1, 2004, if the obligations are issued to fund multifamily affordable housing projects or elderly housing projects.
(f)
Those issued under subch. II of ch. 229.
(g)
Those issued under s. 66.0621 by a local professional baseball park district, a local professional football stadium district, or a local cultural arts district.
(h)
Those issued under s. 114.70 or 114.74.
(i)
Those issued under s. 231.03 (6), on or after October 27, 2007, if the proceeds from the obligations that are issued are used by a health facility, as defined in s. 231.01 (5), to fund the acquisition of information technology hardware or software.
(k)
Those issued under s. 66.0304, if any of the following applies:
1.
The bonds or notes are used to fund multifamily affordable housing projects or elderly housing projects in this state, and the Wisconsin Housing and Economic Development Authority has the authority to issue its bonds or notes for the project being funded.
2.
The bonds or notes are used by a health facility, as defined in s. 231.01 (5), to fund the acquisition of information technology hardware or software, in this state, and the Wisconsin Health and Educational Facilities Authority has the authority to issue its bonds or notes for the project being funded.
3.
The bonds or notes are issued to fund a redevelopment project in this state or a housing project in this state, and the authority exists for bonds or notes to be issued by an entity described under s. 66.1201, 66.1333, or 66.1335.
(L)
Those issued under s. 231.03 (6), if the bonds or notes are issued for the benefit of a person who is eligible to receive the proceeds of bonds or notes from another entity for the same purpose for which the bonds or notes are issued under s. 231.03 (6) and the interest income received from the other bonds or notes is exempt from taxation under this subchapter.
(m)
Those issued by the Wisconsin Housing and Economic Development Authority to provide loans to a public affairs network under s. 234.75 (4).
(n)
Those issued by the Wisconsin Health and Educational Facilities Authority under s. 231.03 (6), if the bonds or notes are issued in an amount totaling $35,000,000 or less, and to the extent that the interest income received is not otherwise exempt under this subsection.
(2)
Determination of net income.
(a)
Insurers subject to taxation under this chapter shall pay a tax according to or measured by net income. Such tax is payable under s. 71.44 (1). Except as provided in sub. (5), “net income" of an insurer subject to taxation under this chapter means federal taxable income as determined in accordance with the provisions of the internal revenue code adjusted as follows:
1.
By adding to federal taxable income the amount of any loss carry-forward or carry-back, including any capital loss carry-forward or carry-back, deducted in the calculation of federal taxable income.
2.
By adding to federal taxable income, if not already included therein, the amount of any federal tax refund or portion thereof previously applied to reduce the amount of tax payable under this chapter.
3.
For insurers subject to taxation under s. 71.43 (1), by adding to federal taxable income the amount of any interest income, except interest under sub. (1t), that is not included in federal taxable income except the amount of any interest income which is by federal law exempt from taxation by this state and, for insurers subject to taxation under s. 71.43 (2), by adding to federal taxable income the amount of any interest income which is not included in federal taxable income.
4.
By adding to federal taxable income an amount equal to dividend income received during the taxable year to the extent such dividend income was used as a deduction in determining federal taxable income.
5.
By adding to federal taxable income the amount of taxes imposed by this or any other state, or the District of Columbia, that are value-added taxes, single business taxes or taxes on or measured by net income, gross income, gross receipts or capital stock, if any, that are deducted in the calculation of federal taxable income except that gross receipts taxes assessed in lieu of property taxes are deductible from gross income.
5m.
By adding to federal taxable income the amount of the environmental tax that is imposed under section 59A of the internal revenue code and that is deducted in calculating federal taxable income.
6.
By adding or subtracting, as appropriate, the difference between the federal basis and the Wisconsin basis of any asset sold, exchanged, abandoned or otherwise disposed of in a taxable transaction during the taxable year.
7.
For taxable years beginning before January 1, 2014, by adding or subtracting, as appropriate, the amount required to reflect the fact that property that, under s. 71.01 (4) (g) 7. to 10., 1985 stats., is required to be depreciated for taxable years 1983 to 1986 under the internal revenue code as amended to December 31, 1980, shall continue to be depreciated under the internal revenue code as amended to December 31, 1980.
8.
By subtracting from federal taxable income dividends received that are deductible under s. 71.26 (3) (j) and are included in federal taxable income.
9.
By subtracting from federal taxable income any net capital losses not offset against capital gains to the extent that subtraction is allowed to other corporations in computing net income under s. 71.26 (2).
10.
By adding to federal taxable income the amount of credit computed under s. 71.47 (1dm) to (1dy), (3g), (3h), (3n), (3q), (3w), (3y), (5e), (5g), (5i), (5j), (5k), (5r), (5rm), (6n), and (10) and not passed through by a partnership, limited liability company, or tax-option corporation that has added that amount to the partnership's, limited liability company's, or tax-option corporation's income under s. 71.21 (4) or 71.34 (1k) (g) and the amount of credit computed under s. 71.47 (3), (3t), (4), (4m), and (5).
10b.
By subtracting from federal taxable income, as provided under s. 71.47 (3) (c) 7., the amount of the credit under s. 71.47 (3) that the taxpayer added to income under subd. 10. at the time that the taxpayer first claimed the credit.
10m.
By adding to federal taxable income the amount deducted under section 847 of the Internal Revenue Code.
13.
For taxable years beginning before January 1, 2014, by adding or subtracting, as appropriate, the depreciation deduction under the federal Internal Revenue Code as amended to December 31, 2000, except that property first placed in service by the taxpayer on or after January 1, 1983, but before January 1, 1987, that, under s. 71.04 (15) (b) and (br), 1985 stats., is required to be depreciated under the Internal Revenue Code as amended to December 31, 1980, and property first placed in service in taxable year 1981 or thereafter but before January 1, 1987, that, under s. 71.04 (15) (bm), 1985 stats., is required to be depreciated under the Internal Revenue Code as amended to December 31, 1980, shall continue to be depreciated under the Internal Revenue Code as amended to December 31, 1980.
14.
By subtracting from federal taxable income the amount that is included in that income from the sale by the original policyholder or original certificate holder who has a catastrophic or life-threatening illness or condition of a life insurance policy or certificate, or the sale of the death benefit under a life insurance policy or certificate, under a life settlement contract, as defined in s. 632.69 (1) (k). In this subdivision, “catastrophic or life-threatening illness or condition" includes AIDS, as defined in s. 49.686 (1) (a), and HIV infection, as defined in s. 49.686 (1) (d).
15.
By subtracting from federal taxable income all income that is realized from the purchase and subsequent sale or redemption of lottery prizes that is treated as nonapportionable income under sub. (3r).
16.
By adding to federal taxable income any amount deducted or excluded under the Internal Revenue Code for interest expenses, rental expenses, intangible expenses, and management fees that are directly or indirectly paid, accrued, or incurred to, or in connection directly or indirectly with one or more direct or indirect transactions with, one or more related entities.
17.
By subtracting from federal taxable income the amount added to federal taxable income under subd. 16., to the extent that the conditions under s. 71.80 (23) are satisfied.
18.
A deduction shall be allowed for the amount added, pursuant to subd. 16. or s. 71.05 (6) (a) 24., 71.26 (2) (a) 7., or 71.34 (1k) (j), to the federal income of a related entity that paid interest expenses, rental expenses, intangible expenses, or management fees to the insurer, to the extent that the related entity could not offset such amount with the deduction allowable under subd. 17. or s. 71.05 (6) (b) 45., 71.26 (2) (a) 8., or 71.34 (1k) (k).
19.
a.
Except as provided in subd. 19. b., starting with the first taxable year beginning after December 31, 2013, and for each of the next 4 taxable years, by subtracting 20 percent of the amount determined by subtracting the combined federal adjusted basis of all depreciated or amortized assets as of the last day of the taxable year beginning in 2013 that are also being depreciated or amortized for Wisconsin from the combined Wisconsin adjusted basis of those assets on the same day.
b.
If any taxable year for which the modification under subd. 19. a. is required is a fractional year under s. 71.44 (2) (c), the difference between the modification allowed for the fractional year and the modification allowed for the 12-month taxable year shall be a modification for the first taxable year beginning after December 31, 2018.
20.
By adding to federal taxable income any amount deducted under the Internal Revenue Code as moving expenses, as defined in s. 71.01 (8j), paid or incurred during the taxable year to move the taxpayer's Wisconsin business operation, in whole or in part, to a location outside the state or to move the taxpayer's business operations outside the United States.
21.
a.
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2019, by subtracting from federal taxable income an amount equal to the gain excluded from federal gross income in the taxable year due to the application of 26 USC 1400Z-2 (b) (2) (B) (iii) for an investment held in a Wisconsin qualified opportunity fund for at least 5 years or 26 USC 1400Z-2 (b) (2) (B) (iv) for an investment held in a Wisconsin qualified opportunity fund for at least 7 years. In this subdivision, “Wisconsin qualified opportunity fund” has the meaning given in s. 71.05 (25m) (a) 2.
b.
No later than January 31 of the year following the close of the fund's taxable year, a fund shall annually certify to each investor and the department that it qualifies as a Wisconsin qualified opportunity fund for the fund's taxable year.
22.
By subtracting from federal taxable income, to the extent included in federal taxable income, income received in the form of allocations issued by this state with moneys received from the coronavirus relief fund authorized under 42 USC 801 to be used for any of the following purposes:
a.
Broadband expansion.
b.
Privately owned movie theater grants.
c.
A nonprofit grant program.
d.
A tourism grants program.
e.
A cultural organization grant program.
f.
Music and performance venue grants.
g.
Lodging industry grants.
h.
Low-income home energy assistance.
i.
A rental assistance program.
j.
Supplemental child care grants.
k.
A food insecurity initiative.
L.
A farm support program.
m.
Grants to small businesses.
n.
Ethanol industry assistance.
o.
Wisconsin Eye.
23.
By subtracting from federal taxable income, to the extent included in federal taxable income, income received in the form of a grant issued by the Wisconsin Economic Development Corporation during and related to the COVID-19 pandemic under the ethnic minority emergency grant program. Amounts otherwise deductible under this chapter that are paid directly or indirectly with the grant money are deductible.
24.
By subtracting from federal taxable income, to the extent included in federal taxable income, income received in the form of a grant from the restaurant revitalization fund under section 5003 of the federal American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, P.L. 117-2. Amounts otherwise deductible under this chapter that are paid directly or indirectly with the grant money are deductible. Amounts excluded under this subdivision by a tax-option corporation or partnership shall be treated as tax-exempt income for purposes of sections 705 and 1366 of the Internal Revenue Code.
(b)
1.
With respect to any domestic insurer engaged in the sale of life insurance and also other insurance, the net income figure derived by application of par. (a) shall be multiplied by a fraction, the numerator of which is the net gain from operations on insurance, other than life insurance, and the denominator of which is the total net gain from operations; except that the multiplier is zero if the numerator is zero or the numerator is negative and the adjusted federal taxable income is positive or the numerator is positive and the adjusted federal taxable income is negative, and except that the multiplier is one if the numerator is positive and the denominator is zero or negative and the adjusted federal taxable income is positive or the numerator is negative and the denominator is zero or positive and the adjusted federal taxable income is negative or the numerator, the denominator and the adjusted federal taxable income are positive and the numerator is greater than the denominator, and except that if the numerator and denominator are both negative and the adjusted federal taxable income is negative the multiplier is positive but may not be more than one.
2.
For purposes of the numerator, “net gain from operations on insurance, other than life insurance" includes net income, after dividends to policyholders, but before federal income taxes and foreign income or franchise taxes, from fire and casualty insurance; net gain from operations, after dividends to policyholders and before federal income taxes, from accident and health insurance; and net realized capital gains or losses on investments from accident and health insurance operations, said net realized capital gains or losses to be apportioned among life and accident and health insurance lines in the same manner as net investment income is required to be apportioned by the commissioner of insurance. “Net gain from operations", “net income", “net realized capital gains or losses", and “net investment income" shall be calculated and reported as required under rules adopted by the commissioner of insurance.
3.
For purposes of the denominator, “total net gain from operations" includes net income, after dividends to policyholders, but before federal income taxes and foreign income or franchise taxes, from fire and casualty insurance; net gain from operations after dividends to policyholders and before federal income taxes, from accident and health and life insurance; and net realized capital gains or losses on investments from accident and health and life insurance operations. “Net income", “net gain from operations", and “net realized capital gains or losses" shall be calculated and reported as required under rules adopted by the commissioner of insurance.
4.
The resultant figure shall constitute Wisconsin net income for purposes of the Wisconsin franchise tax measured by net income except with respect to such of said insurers as had, in the taxable year, premiums written on insurance other than life insurance where the subject of such insurance was resident, located or to be performed outside this state.
(3)
Apportionment. Except as provided in sub. (3d), to determine Wisconsin income for purposes of the franchise tax, domestic insurers that, in the taxable year, have received premiums, other than life insurance premiums, written for insurance on property or risks resident, located or to be performed outside this state shall multiply the net income figure derived by application of sub. (2) by the arithmetic average of the following 2 percentages:
(a)
Subject to sub. (3d), the percentage determined by dividing the sum of direct premiums written for insurance other than life insurance, with respect to all property and risks resident, located, or to be performed in this state, and assumed premiums written for reinsurance, other than life insurance, with respect to all property and risks resident, located, or to be performed in this state, by the sum of direct premiums written for insurance on all property and risks, other than life insurance, wherever located, and assumed premiums written for reinsurance on all property and risks, other than life insurance, wherever located. In this paragraph, “direct premiums" means direct premiums as reported for the taxable year on an annual statement that is filed by the insurer with the commissioner of insurance under s. 601.42 (1g) (a). In this paragraph, “assumed premiums" means assumed reinsurance premiums from domestic insurance companies as reported for the taxable year on an annual statement that is filed with the commissioner of insurance under s. 601.42 (1g) (a).
(b)
1.
Subject to sub. (3d), the percentage determined by dividing the payroll, exclusive of life insurance payroll, paid in this state in the taxable year by total payroll, exclusive of life insurance payroll, paid everywhere in the taxable year.
2.
Under subd. 1., payroll is paid in this state if the individual's service is performed entirely in this state; or the individual's service is performed both in and outside of this state, but the service performed outside of this state is incidental to the individual's service in this state; or some service is performed in this state and the base of operations, or if there is no base of operations, the place from which the service is directed or controlled is in this state, or the base of operations or the place from which the service is directed or controlled is not in any state in which some part of the service is performed, but the individual's residence is in this state.
(3d)
Phase in; domestic insurers.
(a)
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2005, and before January 1, 2007, a domestic insurer that is subject to apportionment under sub. (3) and this subsection shall multiply the net income figure derived by the application of sub. (2) by an apportionment fraction composed of the percentage under sub. (3) (a) representing 60 percent of the fraction and the percentage under sub. (3) (b) 1. representing 40 percent of the fraction.
(b)
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2006, and before January 1, 2008, a domestic insurer that is subject to apportionment under sub. (3) and this subsection shall multiply the net income figure derived by the application of sub. (2) by an apportionment fraction composed of the percentage under sub. (3) (a) representing 80 percent of the fraction and the percentage under sub. (3) (b) 1. representing 20 percent of the fraction.
(c)
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2007, a domestic insurer that is subject to apportionment under sub. (3) and this subsection shall multiply the net income figure derived by the application of sub. (2) by the percentage under sub. (3) (a).
(3e)
Apportionment formula computation.
(a)
1.
For taxable years beginning before January 1, 2008, if both the numerator and the denominator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income are zero, the percentage under sub. (3) (a) is eliminated from the apportionment formula to determine the taxpayer's income under sub. (3).
2.
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2007, if both the numerator and the denominator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income are zero, none of the taxpayer's net income is apportioned to this state.
(b)
1.
For taxable years beginning before January 1, 2008, if the numerator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is a negative number and the denominator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is a positive number, a negative number, or zero, the percentage under sub. (3) (a) is zero.
2.
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2007, if the numerator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is a negative number and the denominator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is a positive number, a negative number, or zero, none of the taxpayer's net income is apportioned to this state.
(c)
1.
For taxable years beginning before January 1, 2008, if the numerator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is a positive number and the denominator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is zero or a negative number, the percentage under sub. (3) (a) is one.
2.
For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2007, if the numerator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is a positive number and the denominator used to determine the percentage under sub. (3) (a) related to a taxpayer's net income is zero or a negative number, all of the taxpayer's net income is apportioned to this state.
(3m)
Arithmetic average. Except as provided in sub. (3d), the arithmetic average of the 2 percentages referred to in sub. (3) shall be applied to the net income figure arrived at by the successive application of sub. (2) (a) and (b) with respect to Wisconsin insurers to which sub. (2) (a) and (b) applies and which have received premiums, other than life insurance premiums, written for insurance on property or risks resident, located or to be performed outside this state, to arrive at Wisconsin income constituting the measure of the franchise tax.
(3r)
Allocation of certain proceeds. All income that is realized from the purchase and subsequent sale or redemption of lottery prizes if the winning tickets were originally bought in this state shall be allocated to this state.
(4)
Net business loss carry-forward.
(a)
Except as provided in par. (b) and s. 71.80 (25), insurers computing tax under this subchapter may subtract from Wisconsin net income any Wisconsin net business loss incurred in any of the 20 immediately preceding taxable years, if the insurer was subject to taxation under this chapter in the taxable year in which the loss was incurred, to the extent not offset by Wisconsin net business income of any year between the loss year and the taxable year for which an offset is claimed and computed without regard to sub. (2) (a) 8. and 9. and this subsection and limited to the amount of net income, but no loss incurred for a taxable year before taxable year 1987 by a nonprofit service plan of sickness care under ch. 148, or dental care under s. 447.13 may be treated as a net business loss of the successor service insurer under ch. 613 operating by virtue of s. 148.03 or 447.13.
(b)
An insurer that is part of a combined group under s. 71.255 may offset against its Wisconsin net business income any unused pre-2009 net business loss carry-forward under s. 71.255 (6) (bm) for the 20 taxable years that begin after December 31, 2011.
(5)
Exceptions. The net income of a cooperative health care association organized under s. 185.981, or of a service insurance corporation organized under ch. 613, that is derived from a health maintenance organization, as defined in s. 609.01 (2), or a limited service health organization, as defined in s. 609.01 (3), is the net income that would be determined if the cooperative health care association or service insurance corporation were subject to federal income taxation and as if that income were that of an insurance company.
(6)
Partnerships and limited liability companies.
(a)
A general or limited partner's share of the numerator and denominator of a partnership's apportionment factors under this section are included in the numerator and denominator of the general or limited partner's apportionment factors under this section.
(b)
If a limited liability company is treated as a partnership, for federal tax purposes, a member's share of the numerator and denominator of a limited liability company's apportionment factors under this section are included in the numerator and denominator of the member's apportionment factors under this section.
History: 1987 a. 312; 1989 a. 31, 336, 359; 1991 a. 37, 39, 269; 1993 a. 16, 112, 263, 437; 1995 a. 27, 56, 371, 380; 1997 a. 27, 37, 237; 1999 a. 9, 65; 1999 a. 150 s. 672; 1999 a. 167, 194; 2001 a. 16, 38, 109; 2003 a. 37, 85, 99, 135, 255, 326; 2005 a. 74, 297, 335, 361, 479, 483; 2007 a. 20, 96, 226; 2009 a. 2, 28, 165, 205, 265, 269, 295, 332, 344; 2011 a. 3, 5, 32, 212, 232; 2011 a. 260 s. 80; 2013 a. 20, 145, 165; 2015 a. 55, 216; 2017 a. 59, 197; 2019 a. 7, 9, 54, 136; 2021 a. 1, 127, 156.
Revisions to sub. (1) by 1995 Wis. Act 27 were constitutional. Group Health Cooperative of Eau Claire v. DOR, 229 Wis. 2d 846, 601 N.W.2d 1 (Ct. App. 1999), 98-1264.