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2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-301. Territorial applicability; parties' power to choose applicable law

(a) This section applies to a transaction to the extent that it is governed by another title of the Uniform Commercial Code.
(b) Except as otherwise provided in this section, when a transaction bears a reasonable relation to this state and also to another state or nation the parties may agree that the law either of this state or such other state or nation shall govern their rights and duties.
(c) In the absence of an agreement effective under subsection (b), the rights and obligations of the parties are determined by the law that would be selected by application of this State's conflict of laws principles.
(d) To the extent that the Uniform Commercial Code governs a transaction, if one of the following provisions of the Uniform Commercial Code specifies the applicable law, that provision governs and a contrary agreement is effective only to the extent permitted by the law so specified:
(1) Rights of creditors against sold goods. § 8.2-402;
(2) Applicability of the title on leases. §§ 8.2A-105 and 8.2A-106;
(3) Applicability of the title on bank deposits and collections. § 8.4-102;
(4) Applicability of the title on funds transfers. § 8.4A-507;
(5) Letters of credit. § 8.5A-116;
(6) Applicability of the title on investment securities. § 8.8A-110;
(7) Law governing perfection, the effect of perfection or nonperfection, and the priority of security interests and agricultural liens. §§ 8.9A-301 through 8.9A-307.
1964, c. 219, § 8.1-105; 1973, c. 509; 1990, c. 9; 1991, c. 536; 1996, c. 216; 1997, cc. 121, 343; 2000, c. 1007; 2003, c. 353; 2011, c. 369.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-302. Variation by agreement

(a) Except as otherwise provided in subsection (b) or elsewhere in the Uniform Commercial Code, the effect of provisions of the Uniform Commercial Code may be varied by agreement.
(b) The obligations of good faith, diligence, reasonableness, and care prescribed by the Uniform Commercial Code may not be disclaimed by agreement. The parties, by agreement, may determine the standards by which the performance of those obligations is to be measured if those standards are not manifestly unreasonable. Whenever the Uniform Commercial Code requires an action to be taken within a reasonable time, a time that is not manifestly unreasonable may be fixed by agreement.
(c) The presence in certain provisions of the Uniform Commercial Code of the phrase "unless otherwise agreed," or words of similar import, does not imply that the effect of other provisions may not be varied by agreement under this section.
1964, c. 219, §§ 8.1-102, 8.1-204; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-303. Course of performance, course of dealing, and usage of trade

(a) A "course of performance" is a sequence of conduct between the parties to a particular transaction that exists if:
(1) the agreement of the parties with respect to the transaction involves repeated occasions for performance by a party; and
(2) the other party, with knowledge of the nature of the performance and opportunity for objection to it, accepts the performance or acquiesces in it without objection.
(b) A "course of dealing" is a sequence of conduct concerning previous transactions between the parties to a particular transaction that is fairly to be regarded as establishing a common basis of understanding for interpreting their expressions and other conduct.
(c) A "usage of trade" is any practice or method of dealing having such regularity of observance in a place, vocation, or trade as to justify an expectation that it will be observed with respect to the transaction in question. The existence and scope of such a usage must be proved as facts. If it is established that such a usage is embodied in a trade code or similar record, the interpretation of the record is a question of law.
(d) A course of performance or course of dealing between the parties or usage of trade in the vocation or trade in which they are engaged or of which they are or should be aware is relevant in ascertaining the meaning of the parties' agreement, may give particular meaning to specific terms of the agreement, and may supplement or qualify the terms of the agreement. A usage of trade applicable in the place in which part of the performance under the agreement is to occur may be so utilized as to that part of the performance.
(e) Except as otherwise provided in subsection (f), the express terms of an agreement and any applicable course of performance, course of dealing, or usage of trade must be construed whenever reasonable as consistent with each other. If such a construction is unreasonable:
(1) express terms prevail over course of performance, course of dealing, and usage of trade;
(2) course of performance prevails over course of dealing and usage of trade; and
(3) course of dealing prevails over usage of trade.
(f) Subject to § 8.2-209, a course of performance is relevant to show a waiver or modification of any term inconsistent with the course of performance.
(g) Evidence of a relevant usage of trade offered by one party is not admissible unless that party has given the other party notice that the court finds sufficient to prevent unfair surprise to the other party.
1964, c. 219, §§ 8.1-205, 8.2-208; 1991, c. 536, § 8.2A-207; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-305. Remedies to be liberally administered

(a) The remedies provided by the Uniform Commercial Code shall be liberally administered to the end that the aggrieved party may be put in as good a position as if the other party had fully performed but neither consequential or special damages nor penal damages may be had except as specifically provided in the Uniform Commercial Code or by other rule of law.
(b) Any right or obligation declared by the Uniform Commercial Code is enforceable by action unless the provision declaring it specifies a different and limited effect.
1964, c. 219, § 8.1-106; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-306. Waiver or renunciation of claim or right after breach

A claim or right arising out of an alleged breach may be discharged in whole or in part without consideration by agreement of the aggrieved party in an authenticated record.
Code 1950, §§ 6-472, 6-473, 6-475; 1964, c. 219, § 8.1-107; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-307. Prima facie evidence by third-party documents

A document in due form purporting to be a bill of lading, policy or certificate of insurance, official weigher's or inspector's certificate, consular invoice, or any other document authorized or required by the contract to be issued by a third party is prima facie evidence of its own authenticity and genuineness and of the facts stated in the document by the third party.
1964, c. 219, § 8.1-202; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-308. Performance or acceptance under reservation of rights

(a) A party that with explicit reservation of rights performs or promises performance or assents to performance in a manner demanded or offered by the other party does not thereby prejudice the rights reserved. Such words as "without prejudice," "under protest," or the like are sufficient.
(b) Subsection (a) does not apply to an accord and satisfaction.
1964, c. 219, § 8.1-207; 1992, c. 693; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-309. Option to accelerate at will

A term providing that one party or that party's successor in interest may accelerate payment or performance or require collateral or additional collateral "at will" or when the party "deems itself insecure," or words of similar import, means that the party has power to do so only if that party in good faith believes that the prospect of payment or performance is impaired. The burden of establishing lack of good faith is on the party against which the power has been exercised.
1964, c. 219, § 8.1-208; 1974, c. 572; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.1A - Uniform Commercial Code - General Provisions › Sections › § 8.1A-310. Subordinated obligations

An obligation may be issued as subordinated to performance of another obligation of the person obligated, or a creditor may subordinate its right to performance of an obligation by agreement with either the person obligated or another creditor of the person obligated. Subordination does not create a security interest as against either the common debtor or a subordinated creditor.
2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-102. Scope; certain security and other transactions excluded from this title

Unless the context otherwise requires, this title applies to transactions in goods; it does not apply to any transaction which although in the form of an unconditional contract to sell or present sale is intended to operate only as a security transaction nor does this title impair or repeal any statute regulating sales to consumers, farmers or other specified classes of buyers.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-103. Definitions and index of definitions

(1) In this title unless the context otherwise requires:
(a) "Buyer" means a person who buys or contracts to buy goods.
(b) "Good faith" in the case of a merchant means honesty in fact and the observance of reasonable commercial standards of fair dealing in the trade.
(c) "Receipt" of goods means taking physical possession of them.
(d) "Seller" means a person who sells or contracts to sell goods.
(2) Other definitions applying to this title or to specified parts thereof, and the sections in which they appear are:
"Acceptance."§ 8.2-606.
"Banker's credit."§ 8.2-325.
"Between merchants."§ 8.2-104.
"Cancellation."§ 8.2-106 (4).
"Commercial unit."§ 8.2-105.
"Confirmed credit."§ 8.2-325.
"Conforming to contract."§ 8.2-106.
"Contract for sale."§ 8.2-106.
"Cover."§ 8.2-712.
"Entrusting."§ 8.2-403.
"Financing agency."§ 8.2-104.
"Future goods."§ 8.2-105.
"Goods."§ 8.2-105.
"Identification."§ 8.2-501.
"Installment contract."§ 8.2-612.
"Letter of credit."§ 8.2-325.
"Lot."§ 8.2-105.
"Merchant."§ 8.2-104.
"Overseas."§ 8.2-323.
"Person in position of seller."§ 8.2-707.
"Present sale."§ 8.2-106.
"Sale."§ 8.2-106.
"Sale on approval."§ 8.2-326.
"Sale or return."§ 8.2-326.
"Termination."§ 8.2-106.
(3) The following definitions in other titles apply to this title:
"Check."§ 8.3A-104.
"Consignee."§ 8.7-102.
"Consignor."§ 8.7-102.
"Consumer goods."§ 8.9A-102.
"Control."§ 8.7-106.
"Dishonor."§ 8.3A-502.
"Draft."§ 8.3A-104.
(4) In addition Title 8.1A contains general definitions and principles of construction and interpretation applicable throughout this title.
1964, c. 219; 2000, c. 1007; 2003, c. 353; 2004, c. 200.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-104. Definitions: "Merchant"; "financing agency"; "between merchants."

(1) "Merchant" means a person who deals in goods of the kind or otherwise by his occupation holds himself out as having knowledge or skill peculiar to the practices or goods involved in the transaction or to whom such knowledge or skill may be attributed by his employment of an agent or broker or other intermediary who by his occupation holds himself out as having such knowledge or skill.
(2) "Financing agency" means a bank, finance company or other person who in the ordinary course of business makes advances against goods or documents of title or who by arrangement with either the seller or the buyer intervenes in ordinary course to make or collect payment due or claimed under the contract for sale, as by purchasing or paying the seller's draft or making advances against it or by merely taking it for collection whether or not documents of title accompany or are associated with the draft. "Financing agency" includes also a bank or other person who similarly intervenes between persons who are in the position of seller and buyer in respect to the goods (§ 8.2-707).
(3) "Between merchants" means in any transaction with respect to which both parties are chargeable with the knowledge or skill of merchants.
1964, c. 219; 2004, c. 200.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-105. Definitions: Transferability; "goods"; "future" goods; "lot"; "commercial unit."

(1) "Goods" means all things (including specially manufactured goods) which are movable at the time of identification to the contract for sale other than the money in which the price is to be paid, investment securities (Title 8.8A) and things in action. "Goods" also includes the unborn young of animals and growing crops and other identified things attached to realty as described in the section on goods to be severed from realty (§ 8.2-107).
(2) Goods must be both existing and identified before any interest in them can pass. Goods which are not both existing and identified are "future" goods. A purported present sale of future goods or of any interest therein operates as a contract to sell.
(3) There may be a sale of a part interest in existing identified goods.
(4) An undivided share in an identified bulk of fungible goods is sufficiently identified to be sold although the quantity of the bulk is not determined. Any agreed proportion of such a bulk or any quantity thereof agreed upon by number, weight or other measure may to the extent of the seller's interest in the bulk be sold to the buyer who then becomes an owner in common.
(5) "Lot" means a parcel or a single article which is the subject matter of a separate sale or delivery, whether or not it is sufficient to perform the contract.
(6) "Commercial unit" means such a unit of goods as by commercial usage is a single whole for purposes of sale and division of which materially impairs its character or value on the market or in use. A commercial unit may be a single article (as a machine) or a set of articles (as a suite of furniture or an assortment of sizes) or a quantity (as a bale, gross, or carload) or any other unit treated in use or in the relevant market as a single whole.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-106. Definitions: "Contract"; "agreement"; "contract for sale"; "sale"; "present sale"; "conforming" to contract; "termination"; "cancellation."

(1) In this title unless the context otherwise requires "contract" and "agreement" are limited to those relating to the present or future sale of goods. "Contract for sale" includes both a present sale of goods and a contract to sell goods at a future time. A "sale" consists in the passing of title from the seller to the buyer for a price (§ 8.2-401). A "present sale" means a sale which is accomplished by the making of the contract.
(2) Goods or conduct including any part of a performance are "conforming" or conform to the contract when they are in accordance with the obligations under the contract.
(3) "Termination" occurs when either party pursuant to a power created by agreement or law puts an end to the contract otherwise than for its breach. On "termination" all obligations which are still executory on both sides are discharged but any right based on prior breach or performance survives.
(4) "Cancellation" occurs when either party puts an end to the contract for breach by the other and its effect is the same as that of "termination" except that the cancelling party also retains any remedy for breach of the whole contract or any unperformed balance.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-107. Goods to be severed from realty; recording

(1) A contract for the sale of minerals or the like (including oil and gas) or a structure or its materials to be removed from realty is a contract for the sale of goods within this title if they are to be severed by the seller but until severance a purported present sale thereof which is not effective as a transfer of an interest in land is effective only as a contract to sell.
(2) A contract for the sale apart from the land of growing crops or other things attached to realty and capable of severance without material harm thereto but not described in subsection (1) or of timber to be cut is a contract for the sale of goods within this title whether the subject matter is to be severed by the buyer or by the seller even though it forms part of the realty at the time of contracting, and the parties can by identification effect a present sale before severance.
(3) The provisions of this section are subject to any third party rights provided by the law relating to realty records, and the contract for sale may be executed and recorded as a document transferring an interest in land and shall then constitute notice to third parties of the buyer's rights under the contract for sale.
1964, c. 219; 1973, c. 509.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-201. Formal requirements; statute of frauds

(1) Except as otherwise provided in this section a contract for the sale of goods for the price of $500 or more is not enforceable by way of action or defense unless there is some writing sufficient to indicate that a contract for sale has been made between the parties and signed by the party against whom enforcement is sought or by his authorized agent or broker. A writing is not insufficient because it omits or incorrectly states a term agreed upon but the contract is not enforceable under this paragraph beyond the quantity of goods shown in such writing.
(2) Between merchants if within a reasonable time a writing in confirmation of the contract and sufficient against the sender is received and the party receiving it has reason to know its contents, it satisfies the requirements of subsection (1) against such party unless written notice of objection to its contents is given within ten days after it is received.
(3) A contract which does not satisfy the requirements of subsection (1) but which is valid in other respects is enforceable
(a) if the goods are to be specially manufactured for the buyer and are not suitable for sale to others in the ordinary course of the seller's business and the seller, before notice of repudiation is received and under circumstances which reasonably indicate that the goods are for the buyer, has made either a substantial beginning of their manufacture or commitments for their procurement; or
(b) if the party against whom enforcement is sought admits in his pleading, testimony or otherwise in court that a contract for sale was made, but the contract is not enforceable under this provision beyond the quantity of goods admitted; or
(c) with respect to goods for which payment has been made and accepted or which have been received and accepted (§ 8.2-606).
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-202. Final written expression; parol or extrinsic evidence

Terms with respect to which the confirmatory memoranda of the parties agree or which are otherwise set forth in a writing intended by the parties as a final expression of their agreement with respect to such terms as are included therein may not be contradicted by evidence of any prior agreement or of a contemporaneous oral agreement but may be explained or supplemented
(a) by course of performance, course of dealing or usage of trade (§ 8.1A-303); and
(b) by evidence of consistent additional terms unless the court finds the writing to have been intended also as a complete and exclusive statement of the terms of the agreement.
1964, c. 219; 2003, c. 353.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-204. Formation in general

(1) A contract for sale of goods may be made in any manner sufficient to show agreement, including conduct by both parties which recognizes the existence of such a contract.
(2) An agreement sufficient to constitute a contract for sale may be found even though the moment of its making is undetermined.
(3) Even though one or more terms are left open a contract for sale does not fail for indefiniteness if the parties have intended to make a contract and there is a reasonably certain basis for giving an appropriate remedy.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-205. Firm offers

An offer by a merchant to buy or sell goods in a signed writing which by its terms gives assurance that it will be held open is not revocable, for lack of consideration, during the time stated or if no time is stated for a reasonable time, but in no event may such period of irrevocability exceed three months; but any such term of assurance on a form supplied by the offeree must be separately signed by the offeror.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-206. Offer and acceptance in formation of contract

(1) Unless otherwise unambiguously indicated by the language or circumstances
(a) an offer to make a contract shall be construed as inviting acceptance in any manner and by any medium reasonable in the circumstances;
(b) an order or other offer to buy goods for prompt or current shipment shall be construed as inviting acceptance either by a prompt promise to ship or by the prompt or current shipment of conforming or nonconforming goods, but such a shipment of nonconforming goods does not constitute an acceptance if the seller seasonably notifies the buyer that the shipment is offered only as an accommodation to the buyer.
(2) Where the beginning of a requested performance is a reasonable mode of acceptance an offeror who is not notified of acceptance within a reasonable time may treat the offer as having lapsed before acceptance.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-207. Additional terms in acceptance or confirmation

(1) A definite and seasonable expression of acceptance or a written confirmation which is sent within a reasonable time operates as an acceptance even though it states terms additional to or different from those offered or agreed upon, unless acceptance is expressly made conditional on assent to the additional or different terms.
(2) The additional terms are to be construed as proposals for addition to the contract. Between merchants such terms become part of the contract unless:
(a) the offer expressly limits acceptance to the terms of the offer;
(b) they materially alter it; or
(c) notification of objection to them has already been given or is given within a reasonable time after notice of them is received.
(3) Conduct by both parties which recognizes the existence of a contract is sufficient to establish a contract for sale although the writings of the parties do not otherwise establish a contract. In such case the terms of the particular contract consist of those terms on which the writings of the parties agree, together with any supplementary terms incorporated under any other provisions of this act.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-209. Modification, rescission and waiver

(1) An agreement modifying a contract within this title needs no consideration to be binding.
(2) A signed agreement which excludes modification or rescission except by a signed writing cannot be otherwise modified or rescinded, but except as between merchants such a requirement on a form supplied by the merchant must be separately signed by the other party.
(3) The requirements of the statute of frauds section of this title (§ 8.2-201) must be satisfied if the contract as modified is within its provisions.
(4) Although an attempt at modification or rescission does not satisfy the requirements of subsection (2) or (3) it can operate as a waiver.
(5) A party who has made a waiver affecting an executory portion of the contract may retract the waiver by reasonable notification received by the other party that strict performance will be required of any term waived, unless the retraction would be unjust in view of a material change of position in reliance on the waiver.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-210. Delegation of performance; assignment of rights

(1) A party may perform his duty through a delegate unless otherwise agreed or unless the other party has a substantial interest in having his original promisor perform or control the acts required by the contract. No delegation of performance relieves the party delegating of any duty to perform or any liability for breach.
(2) Except as otherwise provided in § 8.9A-406, unless otherwise agreed all rights of either seller or buyer can be assigned except where the assignment would materially change the duty of the other party, or increase materially the burden or risk imposed on him by his contract, or impair materially his chance of obtaining return performance. A right to damages for breach of the whole contract or a right arising out of the assignor's due performance of his entire obligation can be assigned despite agreement otherwise.
(3) The creation, attachment, perfection, or enforcement of a security interest in the seller's interest under a contract is not a transfer that materially changes the duty of or increases materially the burden or risk imposed on the buyer or impairs materially the buyer's chance of obtaining return performance within the purview of subsection (2) unless, and then only to the extent that, enforcement actually results in a delegation of material performance of the seller. Even in that event, the creation, attachment, perfection, and enforcement of the security interest remain effective, but (i) the seller is liable to the buyer for damages caused by the delegation to the extent that the damages could not reasonably be prevented by the buyer and (ii) a court having jurisdiction may grant other appropriate relief, including cancellation of the contract for sale or an injunction against enforcement of the security interest or consummation of the enforcement.
(4) Unless the circumstances indicate the contrary a prohibition of assignment of "the contract" is to be construed as barring only the delegation to the assignee of the assignor's performance.
(5) An assignment of "the contract" or of "all my rights under the contract" or an assignment in similar general terms is an assignment of rights and unless the language or the circumstances (as in an assignment for security) indicate the contrary, it is a delegation of performance of the duties of the assignor and its acceptance by the assignee constitutes a promise by him to perform those duties. This promise is enforceable by either the assignor or the other party to the original contract.
(6) The other party may treat any assignment which delegates performance as creating reasonable grounds for insecurity and may without prejudice to his rights against the assignor demand assurances from the assignee (§ 8.2-609).
1964, c. 219; 2000, c. 1007.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-302. Unconscionable contract or clause

(1) If the court as a matter of law finds the contract or any clause of the contract to have been unconscionable at the time it was made the court may refuse to enforce the contract, or it may enforce the remainder of the contract without the unconscionable clause, or it may so limit the application of any unconscionable clause as to avoid any unconscionable result.
(2) When it is claimed or appears to the court that the contract or any clause thereof may be unconscionable the parties shall be afforded a reasonable opportunity to present evidence as to its commercial setting, purpose and effect to aid the court in making the determination.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-304. Price payable in money, goods, realty, or otherwise

(1) The price can be made payable in money or otherwise. If it is payable in whole or in part in goods each party is a seller of the goods which he is to transfer.
(2) Even though all or part of the price is payable in an interest in realty the transfer of the goods and the seller's obligations with reference to them are subject to this title, but not the transfer of the interest in realty or the transferor's obligations in connection therewith.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-305. Open price term

(1) The parties if they so intend can conclude a contract for sale even though the price is not settled. In such a case the price is a reasonable price at the time for delivery if
(a) nothing is said as to price; or
(b) the price is left to be agreed by the parties and they fail to agree; or
(c) the price is to be fixed in terms of some agreed market or other standard as set or recorded by a third person or agency and it is not so set or recorded.
(2) A price to be fixed by the seller or by the buyer means a price for him to fix in good faith.
(3) When a price left to be fixed otherwise than by agreement of the parties fails to be fixed through fault of one party the other may at his option treat the contract as cancelled or himself fix a reasonable price.
(4) Where, however, the parties intend not to be bound unless the price be fixed or agreed and it is not fixed or agreed there is no contract. In such a case the buyer must return any goods already received or if unable so to do must pay their reasonable value at the time of delivery and the seller must return any portion of the price paid on account.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-306. Output, requirements and exclusive dealings

(1) A term which measures the quantity by the output of the seller or the requirements of the buyer means such actual output or requirements as may occur in good faith, except that no quantity unreasonably disproportionate to any stated estimate or in the absence of a stated estimate to any normal or otherwise comparable prior output or requirements may be tendered or demanded.
(2) A lawful agreement by either the seller or the buyer for exclusive dealing in the kind of goods concerned imposes unless otherwise agreed an obligation by the seller to use best efforts to supply the goods and by the buyer to use best efforts to promote their sale.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-307. Delivery in single lot or several lots

Unless otherwise agreed all goods called for by a contract for sale must be tendered in a single delivery and payment is due only on such tender but where the circumstances give either party the right to make or demand delivery in lots the price if it can be apportioned may be demanded for each lot.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-308. Absence of specified place for delivery

Unless otherwise agreed
(a) the place for delivery of goods is the seller's place of business or if he has none his residence; but
(b) in a contract for sale of identified goods which to the knowledge of the parties at the time of contracting are in some other place, that place is the place for their delivery; and
(c) documents of title may be delivered through customary banking channels.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-309. Absence of specific time provisions; notice of termination

(1) The time for shipment or delivery or any other action under a contract if not provided in this title or agreed upon shall be a reasonable time.
(2) Where the contract provides for successive performances but is indefinite in duration it is valid for a reasonable time but unless otherwise agreed may be terminated at any time by either party.
(3) Termination of a contract by one party except on the happening of an agreed event requires that reasonable notification be received by the other party and an agreement dispensing with notification is invalid if its operation would be unconscionable.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-310. Open time for payment or running of credit; authority to ship under reservation

Unless otherwise agreed:
(a) payment is due at the time and place at which the buyer is to receive the goods even though the place of shipment is the place of delivery; and
(b) if the seller is authorized to send the goods he may ship them under reservation, and may tender the documents of title, but the buyer may inspect the goods after their arrival before payment is due unless such inspection is inconsistent with the terms of the contract (§ 8.2-513); and
(c) if delivery is authorized and made by way of documents of title otherwise than by subsection (b) then payment is due regardless of where the goods are to be received (i) at the time and place at which the buyer is to receive delivery of the tangible documents or (ii) at the time the buyer is to receive delivery of the electronic documents and at the seller's place of business or if none, the seller's residence; and
(d) where the seller is required or authorized to ship the goods on credit the credit period runs from the time of shipment but postdating the invoice or delaying its dispatch will correspondingly delay the starting of the credit period.
1964, c. 219; 2004, c. 200.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-311. Options and cooperation respecting performance

(1) An agreement for sale which is otherwise sufficiently definite (subsection (3) of § 8.2-204) to be a contract is not made invalid by the fact that it leaves particulars of performance to be specified by one of the parties. Any such specification must be made in good faith and within limits set by commercial reasonableness.
(2) Unless otherwise agreed specifications relating to assortment of the goods are at the buyer's option and except as otherwise provided in subsections (1) (c) and (3) of § 8.2-319 specifications or arrangements relating to shipment are at the seller's option.
(3) Where such specification would materially affect the other party's performance but is not seasonably made or where one party's cooperation is necessary to the agreed performance of the other but is not seasonably forthcoming, the other party in addition to all other remedies
(a) is excused for any resulting delay in his own performance; and
(b) may also either proceed to perform in any reasonable manner or after the time for a material part of his own performance treat the failure to specify or to cooperate as a breach by failure to deliver or accept the goods.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-312. Warranty of title and against infringement; buyer's obligation against infringement

(1) Subject to subsection (2) there is in a contract for sale a warranty by the seller that
(a) the title conveyed shall be good, and its transfer rightful; and
(b) the goods shall be delivered free from any security interest or other lien or encumbrance of which the buyer at the time of contracting has no knowledge.
(2) A warranty under subsection (1) will be excluded or modified only by specific language or by circumstances which give the buyer reason to know that the person selling does not claim title in himself or that he is purporting to sell only such right or title as he or a third person may have.
(3) Unless otherwise agreed a seller who is a merchant regularly dealing in goods of the kind warrants that the goods shall be delivered free of the rightful claim of any third person by way of infringement or the like but a buyer who furnishes specifications to the seller must hold the seller harmless against any such claim which arises out of compliance with the specifications.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-313. Express warranties by affirmation, promise, description, sample

(1) Express warranties by the seller are created as follows:
(a) Any affirmation of fact or promise made by the seller to the buyer which relates to the goods and becomes part of the basis of the bargain creates an express warranty that the goods shall conform to the affirmation or promise.
(b) Any description of the goods which is made part of the basis of the bargain creates an express warranty that the goods shall conform to the description.
(c) Any sample or model which is made part of the basis of the bargain creates an express warranty that the whole of the goods shall conform to the sample or model.
(2) It is not necessary to the creation of an express warranty that the seller use formal words such as "warrant" or "guarantee" or that he have a specific intention to make a warranty, but an affirmation merely of the value of the goods or a statement purporting to be merely the seller's opinion or commendation of the goods does not create a warranty.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-314. Implied warranty: Merchantability; usage of trade

(1) Unless excluded or modified (§ 8.2-316), a warranty that the goods shall be merchantable is implied in a contract for their sale if the seller is a merchant with respect to goods of that kind. Under this section the serving for value of food or drink to be consumed either on the premises or elsewhere is a sale.
(2) Goods to be merchantable must be at least such as
(a) pass without objection in the trade under the contract description; and
(b) in the case of fungible goods, are of fair average quality within the description; and
(c) are fit for the ordinary purposes for which such goods are used; and
(d) run, within the variations permitted by the agreement, of even kind, quality and quantity within each unit and among all units involved; and
(e) are adequately contained, packaged, and labeled as the agreement may require; and
(f) conform to the promises or affirmations of fact made on the container or label if any.
(3) Unless excluded or modified (§ 8.2-316) other implied warranties may arise from course of dealing or usage of trade.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-315. Implied warranty: Fitness for particular purpose

Where the seller at the time of contracting has reason to know any particular purpose for which the goods are required and that the buyer is relying on the seller's skill or judgment to select or furnish suitable goods, there is unless excluded or modified under the next section [§ 8.2-316] an implied warranty that the goods shall be fit for such purpose.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-316. Exclusion or modification of warranties

(1) Words or conduct relevant to the creation of an express warranty and words or conduct tending to negate or limit warranty shall be construed wherever reasonable as consistent with each other; but subject to the provisions of this title on parol or extrinsic evidence (§ 8.2-202) negation or limitation is inoperative to the extent that such construction is unreasonable.
(2) Subject to subsection (3), to exclude or modify the implied warranty of merchantability or any part of it the language must mention merchantability and in case of a writing must be conspicuous, and to exclude or modify any implied warranty of fitness the exclusion must be by a writing and conspicuous. Language to exclude all implied warranties of fitness is sufficient if it states, for example, that "There are no warranties which extend beyond the description on the face hereof."
(3) Notwithstanding subsection (2)
(a) unless the circumstances indicate otherwise, all implied warranties are excluded by expressions like "as is," "with all faults" or other language which in common understanding calls the buyer's attention to the exclusion of warranties and makes plain that there is no implied warranty; and
(b) when the buyer before entering into the contract has examined the goods or the sample or model as fully as he desired or has refused to examine the goods there is no implied warranty with regard to defects which an examination ought in the circumstances to have revealed to him; and
(c) an implied warranty can also be excluded or modified by course of dealing or course of performance or usage of trade.
(4) Remedies for breach of warranty can be limited in accordance with the provisions of this title on liquidation or limitation of damages and on contractual modification of remedy (§§ 8.2-718 and 8.2-719).
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-317. Cumulation and conflict of warranties express or implied

Warranties whether express or implied shall be construed as consistent with each other and as cumulative, but if such construction is unreasonable the intention of the parties shall determine which warranty is dominant. In ascertaining that intention the following rules apply:
(a) Exact or technical specifications displace an inconsistent sample or model or general language of description.
(b) A sample from an existing bulk displaces inconsistent general language of description.
(c) Express warranties displace inconsistent implied warranties other than an implied warranty of fitness for a particular purpose.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-317.1. Use of warranty registration cards

A. As used in this section, "warranty registration card" means a card or similar device that is provided to the purchaser of personal, family, or household goods with a statement that the purchaser's return of the warranty registration card shortly after purchase of the goods is a condition precedent to warranty coverage and performance.
B. Unless any requirement that the purchaser of personal, family, or household goods return a warranty registration card as a condition precedent to warranty coverage and performance is conspicuously disclosed in any advertising and marketing materials that reference the goods' warranty, a seller may not condition the coverage or performance of a warranty upon the return by the purchaser of a warranty registration card, or provide that the duration of a warranty is dependent upon the return by the purchaser of a warranty registration card.
C. This section does not prohibit the use of warranty registration cards where a seller suggests use of the card as one possible means of proof of the date the goods were purchased. Any such suggestion to the purchaser shall include notice that failure to return the card will not affect rights under the warranty, if the purchaser can establish with reasonable certainty the date the goods were purchased.
D. A violation of this section constitutes a prohibited practice under the Virginia Consumer Protection Act (§ 59.1-196 et seq.).
2010, c. 713.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-318. When lack of privity no defense in action against manufacturer or seller of goods

Lack of privity between plaintiff and defendant shall be no defense in any action brought against the manufacturer or seller of goods to recover damages for breach of warranty, express or implied, or for negligence, although the plaintiff did not purchase the goods from the defendant, if the plaintiff was a person whom the manufacturer or seller might reasonably have expected to use, consume, or be affected by the goods; however, this section shall not be construed to affect any litigation pending on June 29, 1962.
Code 1950, § 8-654.3; 1962, c. 476; 1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-319. F.O.B. and F.A.S. terms

(1) Unless otherwise agreed the term F.O.B. (which means "free on board") at a named place, even though used only in connection with the stated price, is a delivery term under which
(a) when the term is F.O.B. the place of shipment, the seller must at that place ship the goods in the manner provided in this title (§ 8.2-504) and bear the expense and risk of putting them into the possession of the carrier; or
(b) when the term is F.O.B. the place of destination, the seller must at his own expense and risk transport the goods to that place and there tender delivery of them in the manner provided in this title (§ 8.2-503):
(c) when under either (a) or (b) the term is also F.O.B. vessel, car or other vehicle, the seller must in addition at his own expense and risk load the goods on board. If the term is F.O.B. vessel the buyer must name the vessel and in an appropriate case the seller must comply with the provisions of this title on the form of bill of lading (§ 8.2-323).
(2) Unless otherwise agreed the term F.A.S. vessel (which means "free alongside") at a named port, even though used only in connection with the stated price, is a delivery term under which the seller must
(a) at his own expense and risk deliver the goods alongside the vessel in the manner usual in that port or on a dock designated and provided by the buyer; and
(b) obtain and tender a receipt for the goods in exchange for which the carrier is under a duty to issue a bill of lading.
(3) Unless otherwise agreed in any case falling within subsection (1) (a) or (c) or subsection (2) the buyer must seasonably give any needed instructions for making delivery, including when the term is F.A.S. or F.O.B. the loading berth of the vessel and in an appropriate case its name and sailing date. The seller may treat the failure of needed instructions as a failure of cooperation under this title (§ 8.2-311). He may also at his option move the goods in any reasonable manner preparatory to delivery or shipment.
(4) Under the term F.O.B. vessel or F.A.S. unless otherwise agreed the buyer must make payment against tender of the required documents and the seller may not tender nor the buyer demand delivery of the goods in substitution for the documents.
1964, c. 219.
2023 Code of Virginia › Title 8.2 - Commercial Code - Sales › Sections › § 8.2-320. C.I.F. and C. & F. terms

(1) The term C.I.F. means that the price includes in a lump sum the cost of the goods and the insurance and freight to the named destination. The term C. & F. or C.F. means that the price so includes cost and freight to the named destination.
(2) Unless otherwise agreed and even though used only in connection with the stated price and destination, the term C.I.F. destination or its equivalent requires the seller at his own expense and risk to
(a) put the goods into the possession of a carrier at the port for shipment and obtain a negotiable bill or bills of lading covering the entire transportation to the named destination; and
(b) load the goods and obtain a receipt from the carrier (which may be contained in the bill of lading) showing that the freight has been paid or provided for; and
(c) obtain a policy or certificate of insurance, including any war risk insurance, of a kind and on terms then current at the port of shipment in the usual amount, in the currency of the contract, shown to cover the same goods covered by the bill of lading and providing for payment of loss to the order of the buyer or for the account of whom it may concern; but the seller may add to the price the amount of the premium for any such war risk insurance; and
(d) prepare an invoice of the goods and procure any other documents required to effect shipment or to comply with the contract; and
(e) forward and tender with commercial promptness all the documents in due form and with any endorsement necessary to perfect the buyer's rights.
(3) Unless otherwise agreed the term C. & F. or its equivalent has the same effect and imposes upon the seller the same obligations and risks as a C.I.F. term except the obligation as to insurance.
(4) Under the term C.I.F. or C. & F. unless otherwise agreed the buyer must make payment against tender of the required documents and the seller may not tender nor the buyer demand delivery of the goods in substitution for the documents.
1964, c. 219.