reglab/housing_qa huggingface dataset:
VA Code § 8.3A-308 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-308. Proof of signatures and status as holder in due course

(a) In an action with respect to an instrument, the authenticity of, and authority to make, each signature on the instrument is admitted unless specifically denied in the pleadings. If the validity of a signature is denied in the pleadings, the burden of establishing validity is on the person claiming validity, but the signature is presumed to be authentic and authorized unless the action is to enforce the liability of the purported signer and the signer is dead or incapacitated at the time of trial of the issue of validity of the signature. If an action to enforce the instrument is brought against a person as the undisclosed principal of a person who signed the instrument as a party to the instrument, the plaintiff has the burden of establishing that the defendant is liable on the instrument as a represented person under § 8.3A-402 (a).(b) If the validity of signatures is admitted or proved and there is compliance with subsection (a), a plaintiff producing the instrument is entitled to payment if the plaintiff proves entitlement to enforce the instrument under § 8.3A-301, unless the defendant proves a defense or claim in recoupment. If a defense or claim in recoupment is proved, the right to payment of the plaintiff is subject to the defense or claim, except to the extent the plaintiff proves that the plaintiff has rights of a holder in due course which are not subject to the defense or claim.Code 1950, § 6-411; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-307; 1992, c. 693; 1997, c. 801.
VA Code § 8.3A-309 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-309. Enforcement of lost, destroyed, or stolen instrument

(a) A person not in possession of an instrument is entitled to enforce the instrument if (i) the person was in possession of the instrument and entitled to enforce it when loss of possession occurred, (ii) the loss of possession was not the result of a transfer by the person or a lawful seizure, and (iii) the person cannot reasonably obtain possession of the instrument because the instrument was destroyed, its whereabouts cannot be determined, or it is in the wrongful possession of an unknown person or a person that cannot be found or is not amenable to service of process.(b) A person seeking enforcement of an instrument under subsection (a) must prove the terms of the instrument and the person's right to enforce the instrument. If that proof is made, § 8.3A-308 applies to the case as if the person seeking enforcement had produced the instrument. The court may not enter judgment in favor of the person seeking enforcement unless it finds that the person required to pay the instrument is adequately protected against loss that might occur by reason of a claim by another person to enforce the instrument. Adequate protection may be provided by any reasonable means.1964, c. 219, § 8.3-804; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-310 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-310. Effect of instrument on obligation for which taken

(a) Unless otherwise agreed, if a certified check, cashier's check, or teller's check is taken for an obligation, the obligation is discharged to the same extent discharge would result if an amount of money equal to the amount of the instrument were taken in payment of the obligation. Discharge of the obligation does not affect any liability that the obligor may have as an endorser of the instrument.(b) Unless otherwise agreed and except as provided in subsection (a), if a note or an uncertified check is taken for an obligation, the obligation is suspended to the same extent the obligation would be discharged if an amount of money equal to the amount of the instrument were taken, and the following rules apply:(1) In the case of an uncertified check, suspension of the obligation continues until dishonor of the check or until it is paid or certified. Payment or certification of the check results in discharge of the obligation to the extent of the amount of the check.(2) In the case of a note, suspension of the obligation continues until dishonor of the note or until it is paid. Payment of the note results in discharge of the obligation to the extent of the payment.(3) Except as provided in paragraph (4), if the check or note is dishonored and the obligee of the obligation for which the instrument was taken is the person entitled to enforce the instrument, the obligee may enforce either the instrument or the obligation. In the case of an instrument of a third person which is negotiated to the obligee by the obligor, discharge of the obligor on the instrument also discharges the obligation.(4) If the person entitled to enforce the instrument taken for an obligation is a person other than the obligee, the obligee may not enforce the obligation to the extent the obligation is suspended. If the obligee is the person entitled to enforce the instrument but no longer has possession of it because it was lost, stolen, or destroyed, the obligation may not be enforced to the extent of the amount payable on the instrument, and to that extent the obligee's rights against the obligor are limited to enforcement of the instrument.(c) If an instrument other than one described in subsection (a) or (b) is taken for an obligation, the effect is (i) that stated in subsection (a) if the instrument is one on which a bank is liable as maker or acceptor, or (ii) that stated in subsection (b) in any other case.1964, c. 219, § 8.3-802; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-311 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-311. Accord and satisfaction by use of instrument

(a) If a person against whom a claim is asserted proves that (i) that person in good faith tendered an instrument to the claimant as full satisfaction of the claim, (ii) the amount of the claim was unliquidated or subject to a bona fide dispute, and (iii) the claimant obtained payment of the instrument, the following subsections apply. For purposes of this subsection, a person does not act in good faith when tendering a check in full satisfaction of an obligation under a loan if (i) such check is for less than the amount due under the terms of the loan agreement and (ii) such check is tendered to a person without knowledge of a dispute concerning the loan.(b) Unless subsection (c) applies, the claim is discharged if the person against whom the claim is asserted proves that the instrument or an accompanying written communication contained a conspicuous statement to the effect that the instrument was tendered as full satisfaction of the claim.(c) Subject to subsection (d), a claim is not discharged under subsection (b) if either of the following applies:(1) The claimant, if an organization, proves that (i) within a reasonable time before the tender, the claimant sent a conspicuous statement to the person against whom the claim is asserted that communications concerning disputed debts, including an instrument tendered as full satisfaction of a debt, are to be sent to a designated person, office, or place, and (ii) the instrument or accompanying communication was not received by that designated person, office, or place.(2) The claimant, whether or not an organization, proves that within ninety days after payment of the instrument, the claimant tendered repayment of the amount of the instrument to the person against whom the claim is asserted. This paragraph does not apply if the claimant is an organization that sent a statement complying with paragraph (1) (i).(d) A claim is discharged if the person against whom the claim is asserted proves that within a reasonable time before collection of the instrument was initiated, the claimant, or an agent of the claimant having direct responsibility with respect to the disputed obligation, knew that the instrument was tendered in full satisfaction of the claim.1992, c. 693; 2006, c. 624.
VA Code § 8.3A-401 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-401. Signature

(a) A person is not liable on an instrument unless (i) the person signed the instrument, or (ii) the person is represented by an agent or representative who signed the instrument and the signature is binding on the represented person under § 8.3A-402.(b) A signature may be made (i) manually or by means of a device or machine, and (ii) by the use of any name, including a trade or assumed name, or by a word, mark, or symbol executed or adopted by a person with present intention to authenticate a writing.Code 1950, § 6-370; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-401; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-402 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-402. Signature by representative

(a) If a person acting, or purporting to act, as a representative signs an instrument by signing either the name of the represented person or the name of the signer, the represented person is bound by the signature to the same extent the represented person would be bound if the signature were on a simple contract. If the represented person is bound, the signature of the representative is the "authorized signature of the represented person" and the represented person is liable on the instrument, whether or not identified in the instrument.(b) If a representative signs the name of the representative to an instrument and the signature is an authorized signature of the represented person, the following rules apply:(1) If the form of the signature shows unambiguously that the signature is made on behalf of the represented person who is identified in the instrument, the representative is not liable on the instrument.(2) Subject to subsection (c), if (i) the form of the signature does not show unambiguously that the signature is made in a representative capacity or (ii) the represented person is not identified in the instrument, the representative is liable on the instrument to a holder in due course that took the instrument without notice that the representative was not intended to be liable on the instrument. With respect to any other person, the representative is liable on the instrument unless the representative proves that the original parties did not intend the representative to be liable on the instrument.(c) If a representative signs the name of the representative as drawer of a check without indication of the representative status and the check is payable from an account of the represented person who is identified on the check, the signer is not liable on the check if the signature is an authorized signature of the represented person.Code 1950, §§ 6-371 through 6-373; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-403; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-403 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-403. Unauthorized signature

(a) Unless otherwise provided in this title or Title 8.4, an unauthorized signature is ineffective except as the signature of the unauthorized signer in favor of a person who in good faith pays the instrument or takes it for value. An unauthorized signature may be ratified for all purposes of this title.(b) If the signature of more than one person is required to constitute the authorized signature of an organization, the signature of the organization is unauthorized if one of the required signatures is lacking.(c) The civil or criminal liability of a person who makes an unauthorized signature is not affected by any provision of this title which makes the unauthorized signature effective for the purposes of this title.Code 1950, §§ 6-361, 6-375; 1956, c. 149; 1964, c. 219, §§ 8.3-404, 8.3-405; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-404 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-404. Impostors; fictitious payees

(a) If an impostor, by use of the mails or otherwise, induces the issuer of an instrument to issue the instrument to the impostor, or to a person acting in concert with the impostor, by impersonating the payee of the instrument or a person authorized to act for the payee, an endorsement of the instrument by any person in the name of the payee is effective as the endorsement of the payee in favor of a person who, in good faith, pays the instrument or takes it for value or for collection.(b) If (i) a person whose intent determines to whom an instrument is payable (§ 8.3A-110 (a) or (b)) does not intend the person identified as payee to have any interest in the instrument, or (ii) the person identified as payee of an instrument is a fictitious person, the following rules apply until the instrument is negotiated by special endorsement:(1) Any person in possession of the instrument is its holder.(2) An endorsement by any person in the name of the payee stated in the instrument is effective as the endorsement of the payee in favor of a person who, in good faith, pays the instrument or takes it for value or for collection.(c) Under subsection (a) or (b), an endorsement is made in the name of a payee if (i) it is made in a name substantially similar to that of the payee or (ii) the instrument, whether or not endorsed, is deposited in a depositary bank to an account in a name substantially similar to that of the payee.(d) With respect to an instrument to which subsection (a) or (b) applies, if a person paying the instrument or taking it for value or for collection fails to exercise ordinary care in paying or taking the instrument and that failure substantially contributes to loss resulting from payment of the instrument, the person bearing the loss may recover from the person failing to exercise ordinary care to the extent the failure to exercise ordinary care contributed to the loss.Code 1950, § 6-361; 1956, c. 149; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-405; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-405 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-405. Employer's responsibility for fraudulent endorsement by employee

(a) In this section:(1) "Employee" includes an independent contractor and employee of an independent contractor retained by the employer.(2) "Fraudulent endorsement" means (i) in the case of an instrument payable to the employer, a forged endorsement purporting to be that of the employer, or (ii) in the case of an instrument with respect to which the employer is the issuer, a forged endorsement purporting to be that of the person identified as payee.(3) "Responsibility" with respect to instruments means authority (i) to sign or endorse instruments on behalf of the employer, (ii) to process instruments received by the employer for bookkeeping purposes, for deposit to an account, or for other disposition, (iii) to prepare or process instruments for issue in the name of the employer, (iv) to supply information determining the names or addresses of payees of instruments to be issued in the name of the employer, (v) to control the disposition of instruments to be issued in the name of the employer, or (vi) to act otherwise with respect to instruments in a responsible capacity. "Responsibility" does not include authority that merely allows an employee to have access to instruments or blank or incomplete instrument forms that are being stored or transported or are part of incoming or outgoing mail, or similar access.(b) For the purpose of determining the rights and liabilities of a person who, in good faith, pays an instrument or takes it for value or for collection, if an employer entrusted an employee with responsibility with respect to the instrument and the employee or a person acting in concert with the employee makes a fraudulent endorsement of the instrument, the endorsement is effective as the endorsement of the person to whom the instrument is payable if it is made in the name of that person. If the person paying the instrument or taking it for value or for collection fails to exercise ordinary care in paying or taking the instrument and that failure substantially contributes to loss resulting from the fraud, the person bearing the loss may recover from the person failing to exercise ordinary care to the extent the failure to exercise ordinary care contributed to the loss.(c) Under subsection (b), an endorsement is made in the name of the person to whom an instrument is payable if (i) it is made in a name substantially similar to the name of that person or (ii) the instrument, whether or not endorsed, is deposited in a depositary bank to an account in a name substantially similar to the name of that person.Code 1950, § 6-361; 1956, c. 149; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-405; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-406 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-406. Negligence contributing to forged signature or alteration of instrument

(a) A person whose failure to exercise ordinary care substantially contributes to an alteration of an instrument or to the making of a forged signature on an instrument is precluded from asserting the alteration or the forgery against a person who, in good faith, pays the instrument or takes it for value or for collection.(b) Under subsection (a), if the person asserting the preclusion fails to exercise ordinary care in paying or taking the instrument and that failure substantially contributes to loss, the loss is allocated between the person precluded and the person asserting the preclusion according to the extent to which the failure of each to exercise ordinary care contributed to the loss.(c) Under subsection (a), the burden of proving failure to exercise ordinary care is on the person asserting the preclusion. Under subsection (b), the burden of proving failure to exercise ordinary care is on the person precluded.1964, c. 219, § 8.3-406; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-407 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-407. Alteration

(a) "Alteration" means (i) an unauthorized change in an instrument that purports to modify in any respect the obligation of a party, or (ii) an unauthorized addition of words or numbers or other change to an incomplete instrument relating to the obligation of a party.(b) Except as provided in subsection (c), an alteration fraudulently made discharges a party whose obligation is affected by the alteration unless that party assents or is precluded from asserting the alteration. No other alteration discharges a party, and the instrument may be enforced according to its original terms.(c) A payor bank or drawee paying a fraudulently altered instrument or a person taking it for value, in good faith and without notice of the alteration, may enforce rights with respect to the instrument (i) according to its original terms, or (ii) in the case of an incomplete instrument altered by unauthorized completion, according to its terms as completed.Code 1950, §§ 6-366, 6-367, 6-477, 6-478; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-407; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-408 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-408. Drawee not liable on unaccepted draft

A check or other draft does not of itself operate as an assignment of funds in the hands of the drawee available for its payment, and the drawee is not liable on the instrument until the drawee accepts it.Code 1950, §§ 6-480, 6-543; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-409; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-409 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-409. Acceptance of draft; certified check

(a) "Acceptance" means the drawee's signed agreement to pay a draft as presented. It must be written on the draft and may consist of the drawee's signature alone. Acceptance may be made at any time and becomes effective when notification pursuant to instructions is given or the accepted draft is delivered for the purpose of giving rights on the acceptance to any person.(b) A draft may be accepted although it has not been signed by the drawer, is otherwise incomplete, is overdue, or has been dishonored.(c) If a draft is payable at a fixed period after sight and the acceptor fails to date the acceptance, the holder may complete the acceptance by supplying a date in good faith.(d) "Certified check" means a check accepted by the bank on which it is drawn. Acceptance may be made as stated in subsection (a) or by a writing on the check which indicates that the check is certified. The drawee of a check has no obligation to certify the check, and refusal to certify is not dishonor of the check.Code 1950, §§ 6-485 through 6-491, 6-541 through 6-543; 1964, c. 219, §§ 8.3-410, 8.3-411; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-410 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-410. Acceptance varying draft

(a) If the terms of a drawee's acceptance vary from the terms of the draft as presented, the holder may refuse the acceptance and treat the draft as dishonored. In that case, the drawee may cancel the acceptance.(b) The terms of a draft are not varied by an acceptance to pay at a particular bank or place in the United States, unless the acceptance states that the draft is to be paid only at that bank or place.(c) If the holder assents to an acceptance varying the terms of a draft, the obligation of each drawer and endorser that does not expressly assent to the acceptance is discharged.Code 1950, §§ 6-492 through 6-495; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-412; 1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-411 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-411. Refusal to pay cashier's checks, teller's checks, and certified checks

(a) In this section, "obligated bank" means the acceptor of a certified check or the issuer of a cashier's check or teller's check bought from the issuer.(b) If the obligated bank wrongfully (i) refuses to pay a cashier's check or certified check, (ii) stops payment of a teller's check, or (iii) refuses to pay a dishonored teller's check, the person asserting the right to enforce the check is entitled to compensation for expenses and loss of interest resulting from the nonpayment and may recover consequential damages if the obligated bank refuses to pay after receiving notice of particular circumstances giving rise to the damages.(c) Expenses or consequential damages under subsection (b) are not recoverable if the refusal of the obligated bank to pay occurs because (i) the bank suspends payments, (ii) the obligated bank asserts a claim or defense of the bank that it has reasonable grounds to believe is available against the person entitled to enforce the instrument, (iii) the obligated bank has a reasonable doubt whether the person demanding payment is the person entitled to enforce the instrument, or (iv) payment is prohibited by law.1992, c. 693.
VA Code § 8.3A-412 (2021)
2021 Code of Virginia|Title 8.3A - Commercial Code - Negotiable Instruments|Sections|§ 8.3A-412. Obligation of issuer of note or cashier's check

The issuer of a note or cashier's check or other draft drawn on the drawer is obliged to pay the instrument (i) according to its terms at the time it was issued or, if not issued, at the time it first came into possession of a holder, or (ii) if the issuer signed an incomplete instrument, according to its terms when completed, to the extent stated in §§ 8.3A-115 and 8.3A-407. The obligation is owed to a person entitled to enforce the instrument or to an endorser who paid the instrument under § 8.3A-415.Code 1950, §§ 6-412 through 6-414; 1964, c. 219, § 8.3-413; 1992, c. 693.