NY Veh & Traf L § 375 (2021)
2021 New York Laws VAT - Vehicle and Traffic Title 3 - Safety Responsibility; Financial Security; Equipment; Inspection; Size and Weight; and Other Provisions Article 9 - Equipment of Motor Vehicles and Motorcycles 375 - Equipment.

§ 375. Equipment.  1. (a) Every motor vehicle, operated or driven upon the public highways of the state, shall be provided with adequate brakes and steering mechanism in good working order and sufficient  to  control such  vehicle  at  all times when the same is in use, and a suitable and adequate horn or other device for signaling, which horn or device  shall produce a sound sufficiently loud to serve as a danger warning but shall not be used other than as a reasonable warning nor be unnecessarily loud or harsh.  (b) Every such motor vehicle shall be equipped with suitable wipers or other  device  which shall clear a sufficient area of the windshields to provide reasonable driving vision. (i) The use or placing of posters  or stickers  on  windshields  or  rear windows of motor vehicles other than those  authorized  by  the  commissioner,  is  hereby  prohibited.   The attaching  to  windshields  and windshield wipers of handbills and other forms of advertisements, is hereby prohibited.  (ii) In a city of one million or more, the attaching  or  affixing  by any  means whatsoever of handbills or other forms of advertisements to a motor vehicle is hereby prohibited. In any prosecution  for  an  alleged violation  of this subparagraph, there shall be a rebuttable presumption that the person whose  name,  telephone  number,  or  other  identifying information  appears  on  any  handbill  or  other form of advertisement attached or affixed to a motor vehicle shall  be  in  violation  of  the provisions of this subparagraph.  (iii) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, in addition to those persons  otherwise authorized to enforce this subdivision and adjudicate violations  thereof,  the  provisions  of  subparagraph  (ii)  of   this paragraph shall also be enforceable in a city having a population of one million  or more by an agency or agencies designated for such purpose by the mayor of such city, and notices of violation may  be  returnable  to the environmental control board of such city, which shall have the power to  impose the monetary penalties provided in subdivision (b) of section eighteen hundred of this chapter. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, service of a notice of  violation  of  subparagraph  (ii)  of  this paragraph  committed  in  such  city  may be made upon a person by first class mail, postage prepaid, and any such notice served by mail shall be returnable only to such environmental control  board.  Such  service  by first  class mail shall be deemed complete upon mailing of the notice of violation, unless the notice of violation is returned to the  sender  by the  United  States  postal service for any reason other than refusal of delivery. In addition, any  notice  of  violation  for  a  violation  of subparagraph  (ii) of this paragraph may be served by a means prescribed in article three of the civil practice law and rules or article three of the business corporation law. Notwithstanding  any  other  provision  of law, such penalties imposed by such environmental control board shall be paid into the general fund of such city.  (iv)  Any  final  order  issued  pursuant to subparagraph (ii) of this paragraph  by  an  environmental  control  board  of  a  city  having  a population  of one million or more shall constitute a judgment which may be entered in any place provided for the entry of civil judgments within the state, and may be enforced without  court  proceeding  in  the  same manner  as  the enforcement of money judgments entered in civil actions. Notwithstanding the preceding sentence, before a judgment based  upon  a default  may  be  so entered, such environmental control board must have notified the respondent by  first  class  mail  in  such  form  as  such environmental  control board may direct: (A) of the default decision and order and the penalty imposed; (B) that a judgment will  be  entered  in any  place  provided  for the entry of civil judgments in the state; and (C) that the entry of such judgment may be avoided by requesting a  stay  of  default  for  good  cause  shown  and either requesting a hearing or entering a plea pursuant to the  rules  of  such  environmental  control board  within  thirty  days  of  the mailing of such notice. No judgment based  upon  a  default  may  be so entered by the environmental control board within thirty days of the mailing  of  such  notice.  No  judgment based  upon  a  default  may  be so entered by the environmental control board within less than sixty days from the completion of service by mail of the notice of violation as provided in  subparagraph  (iii)  of  this paragraph.  Any  requirement  of  any  provision  of law other than this subdivision that related to the manner  of  service  of  the  notice  of violation  that  precedes  any final order of such environmental control board shall  not  apply  to  a  final  order  issued  pursuant  to  this subparagraph.  A  judgment  entered  pursuant  to this subdivision shall remain in full force and effect for eight years.  (c) Every trailer and semi-trailer weighing  more  than  one  thousand pounds  unladen  and  every  trailer  and  semi-trailer  manufactured or assembled on or after January first, nineteen hundred seventy-one having a registered maximum gross weight,  an  actual  gross  weight  or  gross weight  consisting  of  the unladen weight and maximum carrying capacity recommended by the manufacturer in excess of three thousand pounds  also shall be equipped with adequate brakes in good working order if operated or drawn on the public highways of this state. Every trailer while being drawn upon the public highways of this state shall be so attached to the vehicle  drawing  the same as to prevent the wheels of such trailer from being deflected more than  six  inches  from  the  path  of  the  towing vehicle's   wheels.   On  and  after  January  first,  nineteen  hundred seventy-one every trailer, except a semi-trailer, while being drawn upon the public highways of this state, shall  be  attached  to  the  vehicle drawing the same by a device of a type approved by the commissioner.  (d)  The  commissioner shall make rules prescribing standards of brake efficiency, except for motor vehicles the standard of  brake  efficiency of  which  are  fixed by the department of public service, and no brakes shall be deemed adequate within the meaning of this  subdivision  unless they  meet  the requirements of such rules. Such rules shall be filed in the office of the secretary of state and thereafter  published  once  in the  state  advertising  bulletin  and  shall become effective one month after such publication. Any amendment to such rules  shall  be  likewise filed  and  published  and  shall  take  effect  one  month  after  such publication.  (e) No operator or registered owner of  any  motor  vehicle  having  a registered  maximum  gross  weight  of  eighteen thousand pounds or more shall disconnect or knowingly permit the disconnection  of  any  set  of service brakes on such motor vehicle. Any violation of the provisions of this  paragraph  shall occur only when such vehicle is actually operated on the  public  highways.  Such  violation  shall  be  punishable  as  a misdemeanor.   2.  (a)  Every motor vehicle except a motorcycle, driven upon a public highway during the period from one-half hour after  sunset  to  one-half hour  before  sunrise or at any other time when windshield wipers are in use, as a result  of  rain,  sleet,  snow,  hail  or  other  unfavorable atmospheric  condition,  and  at  such  other  times as visibility for a distance of one thousand feet ahead of such motor vehicle is not  clear, shall display:   1.  at  least  two  lighted head lamps on the front, one on each side, having light sources of equal power;   2. if manufactured prior to January first, nineteen hundred fifty-two, at least one lighted lamp on the rear which shall display  a  red  light visible from the rear for a distance of at least five hundred feet;    3.  if  manufactured  on  or  after  January  first,  nineteen hundred fifty-two, at least two lighted lamps on the rear,  one  on  each  side, which  lamps  shall  display  a  red  light  visible from the rear for a distance of at least one thousand feet; and   4.  if  required  to display a number plate on the rear, a white light which shall illuminate the numerals on such plate in such manner  as  to render  such numerals legible for at least fifty feet from the rear. The provisions of this subparagraph shall also apply to trailers.  (b) All lamps used on a motor vehicle except a motorcycle shall be  so arranged,  adjusted and operated, as to avoid dangerous glare or dazzle. Except as provided in paragraph  (d)  of  this  subdivision,  the  upper outline  of  any  beam  of  dazzling  light projected to the left of the longitudinal axis of the vehicle by the lowermost light distribution  of a  headlamp  designed to produce more than one light distribution, or by the single light distribution of any other lamp used  on  such  a  motor vehicle,  shall  not  rise  higher than the lamp center at a distance of twenty-five feet nor higher than  forty-two  inches  at  a  distance  of seventy-five  feet.  In  each  case,  the  height  of  the beam shall be measured from the plane upon which the vehicle stands and  the  distance shall be measured from the lamp projecting the light.  (c)  No  lamp  shall  be used on a motor vehicle having a light source greater than thirty-two candle power, unless such lamp  is  approved  by the  commissioner  as  provided  by this section. The provisions of this paragraph shall not  apply  to  any  light  which  is  permitted  to  be displayed only on an authorized emergency vehicle, a hazard vehicle or a vehicle  which is permitted to display a blue or green light pursuant to paragraphs four and five of subdivision forty-one of this section.  (d) A motor vehicle, other than a motorcycle, equipped with any device such as, but not limited to, a snow plow blade, which blocks or  impairs the  projection  of  light  from the headlamps of such vehicle, shall be equipped with at least two  additional  headlamps  on  the  front  which headlamps  meet  all  the requirements of this subdivision for headlamps except  those  provisions  of  paragraph   (b)   of   this   subdivision specifically limiting the height of the beam of any headlamp.   3. Headlamps required pursuant to the provisions of subdivision two of this  section  may be of the multiple beam type designed to produce more than one distribution of light or of the single beam  type  designed  to produce only one distribution of light.   Provided  that,  whenever  a  vehicle approaching from ahead is within five hundred feet, or when approaching a moving vehicle  from  the  rear and  within  two  hundred  feet  of  the  same, the headlamps, if of the multiple beam type, or the auxiliary front facing lamps, if the  vehicle is  so  equipped,  shall  be  operated  so  that dazzling light does not interfere with the driver of the approaching  vehicle,  or  the  vehicle being  approached,  and,  whenever  the highway is so lighted or traffic thereon is such that illumination of  the  highway  for  more  than  two hundred  feet  ahead  of  the  vehicle  by  lights  on  such  vehicle is unnecessary or impracticable, the headlamps, if  of  the  multiple  beam type,  or  the  auxiliary  front  facing  lamps,  if  the  vehicle is so equipped, shall be operated with the lowermost distribution of light  in use. Nothing contained in this subdivision shall be construed to prevent the use of flashing high beams to signify an intention to pass a vehicle or  vehicles  when  two  or  more  vehicles  are  traveling  in the same direction, the operation of any headlamp as defined in  paragraph  d  of subdivision  two  of  this  section, nor shall it apply to any auxiliary front facing lamp permitted  to  be  displayed  only  on  an  authorized emergency vehicle.    4.  No  headlamp  shall  be  used  upon  any  motor  vehicle  except a motorcycle operated upon the public highways of this state, unless  such lamp is approved by the commissioner or is equipped with a lens or other device  approved by the commissioner. Every such headlamp, lens or other device shall be applied and adjusted in accordance with the requirements of  the certificate approving the use thereof. Every such headlamp shall be firmly and substantially mounted on the motor vehicle in such  manner as  to  allow the lamp to be properly and readily adjusted. The operator of every motor vehicle shall permit any police officer or  other  person exercising police powers to inspect the equipment of such motor vehicle, and  make  such  tests  as  may  be  necessary  to determine whether the provisions of this section are being complied with.   Any certificate of approval heretofore  issued  pursuant  to  law,  or hereafter issued by the commissioner may be revoked by the commissioner, after a hearing of which the person or corporation named therein, or his or  its  successor  in interest, shall have been given reasonable notice and an opportunity to appear and be  heard  upon  the  ground  that  the device  does  not  comply  with  the provisions of this section, and the rules and regulations of  the  commissioner  and  the  decision  of  the commissioner  revoking such certificate shall be final; such revocation, however, of a lens or other headlighting device heretofore or  hereafter approved  shall  not  take effect until six months after the decision of the commissioner revoking the same and  shall  apply  only  to  vehicles manufactured and used thereafter on the highways of this state.   The  foregoing  provisions  governing  lights on motor vehicles do not apply to so-called dimmers the use of which is permitted or required  by local ordinances.   The  commissioner  may  make  such  rules  and regulations relative to lights on motor vehicles and  the  approval  of  the  same  as  are  not inconsistent with the specific provisions of this section.   7.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm,  association  or corporation to sell or offer for  sale  a  headlighting  device  without delivering  therewith  to  the purchaser a printed sheet of instructions describing the device in detail, its method of mounting, arrangement and adjustment and specifying the candle power  of  the  lamps  to  be  used thereon  and any other matter that may be necessary to insure compliance in the use of such device with the provisions of this  article  and  the certificate  of  approval.  Such  instructions  shall  be printed with a photogravure of the pattern of light  from  one  headlight  shown  on  a regulation testing screen with respect to a horizontal cross line placed across  the  face  of such screen at a height equal to the height of the center of such headlight, and with the headlight adjusted in  accordance with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  commissioner. The sale of a headlighting device not approved under the provisions of this section is prohibited. A violation of any of the  provisions  of  this  subdivision shall be a misdemeanor.   9.  Every  omnibus  operating  upon  the  public highways of the state having a carrying capacity of ten or more passengers, shall be  equipped with  one  hand  fire  extinguisher  of  at  least  4  B:C Underwriters' Laboratories rating or a similar rating by any qualified  laboratory  or testing  organization  which  meets the criteria of American Society for Testing Materials test E548-76. Fire extinguishers shall be kept in good operating condition at all times and must be mounted in a place  readily accessible for use.   10.  a.  Every  motor  vehicle,  when driven or operated upon a public highway, shall be equipped with a mirror or other reflecting  device  so adjusted  that  the operator of such vehicle shall have a clear and full view of the road and condition of traffic behind such vehicle.    b. In addition to the above requirements, an omnibus having a capacity of ten or more passengers registered in this state and  manufactured  or assembled  after July first, nineteen hundred seventy, shall be equipped with a mirror attached to the right side of such vehicle and so adjusted that the driver thereof shall have a clear and full view of the road and condition of traffic behind such vehicle.   c.  Every  passenger  motor  vehicle  registered  in  this  state  and manufactured  or  assembled  after  June  thirtieth,  nineteen   hundred sixty-nine,  and  designated as a nineteen hundred seventy or subsequent year model, shall be equipped with adjustable interior  mirrors  meeting specifications  established by the commissioner which specifications may provide minimum and maximum reflectance values.   d. Every  new  passenger-type  motor  vehicle,  except  a  motorcycle, manufactured  for  sale  in New York state on or after January first, in the year next succeeding the effective date of this paragraph  shall  be manufactured with an interior rear-view mirror of the selective position prismatic type with a reflectance value in the night driving position of at  least  four  percent;  or its functional equivalent. For purposes of this section,  "passenger-type  motor  vehicle"  shall  mean  any  motor vehicle  with  a  seating  capacity of not more than fifteen adults, not including the driver, that is equipped with one or  more  rear  windows. Any  violation  of  the provisions of this paragraph by any manufacturer shall constitute an offense and shall be punishable by a civil  fine  of not more than seven hundred fifty dollars for each offense.   e.  Every single-unit motor vehicle registered in this state, operated for commercial purposes and having a  cube  style  or  enclosed  walk-in delivery  bay,  where  such  delivery bay has a length of eight feet six inches or more, but not exceeding a length of eighteen  feet,  shall  be equipped  with  a  cross-view  back-up mirror system, rear video system, rear object detection system , or other device, which enables the driver of the vehicle to detect by means of a visual,  or  visual  and  audible warning-indicator,  persons  and  objects  located  directly  behind the vehicle. The commissioner is hereby authorized to promulgate regulations providing specifications for mirrors or other  devices  as  required  by this paragraph.   f.  Every  sani-van and motor vehicle commonly classified as a garbage truck purchased on or  after  January  first,  two  thousand  eight  and registered  in  this  state,  which  is  operated  in and engages in the collection of garbage or refuse in the county of  Westchester  shall  be equipped  with  a  rear  video  system, rear object detection system, or other device which enables the driver of the vehicle to detect by  means of  a  visual,  or  visual  and  audible  warning-indicator, persons and objects located directly behind the vehicle. The commissioner is  hereby authorized   to  promulgate  regulations  providing  specifications  for mirrors or other  devices  as  required  by  this  paragraph.  Provided, however,  that the provisions of this paragraph shall not apply to motor vehicles commonly classified as rolloff vehicles that are used  for  the express  purpose  of transporting waste containers such as open boxes or compactors.   10-a.  It  shall  be  unlawful  after  July  first,  nineteen  hundred sixty-seven  to  operate  on  any public highway in this state any motor vehicle registered in this state, manufactured or assembled on or  after such  date,  and  designated  as a nineteen hundred sixty-eight or later model, unless such vehicle is equipped  with  an  adjustable  side  view mirror  which  shall  be affixed to the left outside of such vehicle and which shall be adjustable so that the operator of such vehicle may  have a  clear  view of the road and condition of traffic on the left side and to the rear of such vehicle.    10-b. It shall be unlawful  after  June  thirtieth,  nineteen  hundred seventy-three  to operate on any public highway or street in this state, any passenger  type  motor  vehicle  except  convertible,  suburban  and omnibus  or  other  motor  vehicle that has a roll-down rear window or a rear  window  or windows located in a movable closure (door-like) member registered in this state, manufactured or assembled after said date, and designated as a nineteen hundred seventy-four or subsequent model unless such vehicle be equipped with a rear window defogger or defroster, which shall be so located and  adjusted  that  its  operation  will  give  the operator  of  such  vehicle,  by means of the mirror or other reflecting device required by subdivision ten of this section, a view of  the  road and the condition of traffic behind such vehicle.   10-c.  It  shall  be  unlawful  after June thirtieth, nineteen hundred eighty-five to operate on any public highway or street  in  this  state, any  passenger  type  motor  vehicle  that  has a rear window or windows located  in  a  movable  closure  (door-like)  member,  except   for   a multipurpose  passenger  vehicle  (designed to carry ten persons or less and constructed either on a truck chassis or with special  features  for occasional off-road operation) registered in this state and manufactured or  assembled  after  said  date,  and  designated as a nineteen hundred eighty-six or subsequent model unless such vehicle be  equipped  with  a rear  window  defogger  or  defroster,  which  shall  be  so located and adjusted that its operation will give the operator of such  vehicle,  by means  of  the mirror or other reflecting device required by subdivision ten of this section, a view of the road and  the  condition  of  traffic behind such vehicle.   10-d.  It  shall  be  unlawful  after  December thirty-first, nineteen hundred ninety-two to operate on any public highway or  street  in  this state,  any  passenger type motor vehicle that has a rear window located in  a  single  movable  closure  (door-like)  member  and  which  has  a non-removeable  top,  registered  in  this  state  and  manufactured  or assembled  after  said  date,  and  designated  as  a  nineteen  hundred ninety-three  or subsequent model unless such vehicle be equipped with a rear window defogger  or  defroster,  which  shall  be  so  located  and adjusted  that  its operation will give the operator of such vehicle, by means of the mirror or other reflecting device required  by  subdivision ten  of  this  section,  a view of the road and the condition of traffic behind such vehicle.   * 10-e. Every  truck,  tractor,  and  tractor-trailer  or  semitrailer combination  registered  in  this  state  having  a gross vehicle weight rating of twenty-six thousand pounds or more,  and  a  conventional  cab configuration in which more than half of the engine length is forward of the  foremost point of the windshield base and the steering wheel hub is in the forward quarter of the vehicle length, whenever operated within a city having a population of one million or more on highways  other  than controlled-access  highways,  shall  be equipped with a convex mirror on the front of such vehicle or combination of vehicles. When such  vehicle or  combination  of  vehicles  is  being  operated, such mirror shall be adjusted so as to enable the operator thereof to see all  points  on  an imaginary  horizontal  line which: (a) is three feet above the road, (b) is one foot directly forward from the midpoint  of  the  front  of  such motor  vehicle,  and  (c)  extends  the  full width of the front of such vehicle or combination of vehicles. Provided, however, the commissioner, in consultation with the commissioner of transportation, may  promulgate rules   and   regulations   exempting  from  the  requirements  of  this subdivision  any  vehicle  or  combination  of   vehicles   where   such commissioner  has  determined  that the use of such convex mirrors would  not increase the visibility of persons or objects  located  directly  in front of such vehicle or combination of vehicles.   * NB Repealed upon conditions set forth in chapter 138 of 2011 § 2   11.  It  shall  be  unlawful  after  January  first,  nineteen hundred thirty-four to operate on any public highway or street, in this state, a motor vehicle manufactured or assembled after  said  date,  designed  or used  for  the  purpose  of carrying passengers for hire, or as a public conveyance to transport school children and others, unless such  vehicle be  equipped  with safety glass wherever glass is used in doors, windows and windshields.   12. It shall be unlawful to operate on any public highway or street in this state any motor vehicle registered in New York  state  unless  such vehicle  be  equipped with safety glass wherever glass is used in doors, windows and windshields. For  the  purposes  of  this  subdivision,  any device  other  than  a  trailer,  which is attached to or carried upon a motor vehicle and which lawfully can be occupied while the motor vehicle is in motion, shall be considered a part of such motor vehicle.   12-a. (a) Every motor vehicle, except a  motorcycle,  when  driven  or operated  upon a public highway, road or street shall be equipped with a front  windshield  in  a  fixed  and  more  or  less  upright   position constructed  of  safety glass as defined in subdivision fourteen of this section and required by subdivisions eleven and twelve hereof. No person shall drive any motor vehicle with  any  sign  or  other  nontransparent material  other  than a certificate or paper required to be displayed by law upon the front windshield or the sidewings or side windows on either side forward of or adjacent to the operator's seat.  (b) No person shall operate any motor vehicle upon any public highway, road or street:  (1) the front windshield of  which  is  composed  of,  covered  by  or treated  with  any material which has a light transmittance of less than seventy percent unless such materials are limited to the  uppermost  six inches of the windshield; or  (2)  the  sidewings or side windows of which on either side forward of or adjacent to the operator's  seat  are  composed  of,  covered  by  or treated  with  any material which has a light transmittance of less than seventy percent; or  (3) if it is classified as a station  wagon,  sedan,  hardtop,  coupe, hatchback   or  convertible  and  any  rear  side  window  has  a  light transmittance of less than seventy percent; or  (4) the rear window of which is composed of,  covered  by  or  treated with  any  material which has a light transmittance of less than seventy percent. A rear window may have  a  light  transmittance  of  less  than seventy  percent  if  the  vehicle is equipped with side mirrors on both sides of the vehicle so adjusted that the driver thereof  shall  have  a clear  and  full  view  of the road and condition of traffic behind such vehicle.  (c) Any person required for medical reasons to be  shielded  from  the direct  rays  of  the  sun  and/or  any person operating a motor vehicle belonging to such  person  or  in  which  such  person  is  an  habitual passenger  shall  be exempt from the provisions of subparagraphs one and two of paragraph (b) of this subdivision provided the  commissioner  has granted  an  exemption  and  notice  of such exemption is affixed to the vehicle  as  directed  by  the  commissioner.  The  applicant  for  such exemption  must  provide a physician's statement with the reason for the exemption, the  name  of  the  individual  with  a  medically  necessary condition   operating  or  transported  in  the  vehicle,  the  specific condition  involved,  and  the  minimum  level  of  light   transmission required.  The  commissioner  shall  only authorize exemptions where the  medical condition certified by the physician is contained on a  list  of medical  conditions  prepared  by the commissioner of health pursuant to subdivision sixteen of section two hundred six of the public health law. If  such such exemption is granted, the commissioner shall make a record thereof and shall distribute a sufficiently noticeable  sticker  to  the applicant  to  be attached to any window so shielded or altered pursuant to such exemption.  (d) The commissioner may test any window for a  person  who  has  been charged  with  violating this subdivision. If such window is found to be in conformity with this subdivision, a  small  label  attesting  to  the conformity shall be affixed to the window tested.  (e) On and after January first, nineteen hundred ninety-two, no person shall  manufacture,  sell,  offer  for  sale,  equip  or operate a motor vehicle  in  this  state  in  violation  of  the  provisions   of   this subdivision,  except  that  a  person  may  operate  a  nineteen hundred ninety-one  or  earlier  model  year  vehicle  without  violating   this subdivision  if the windows on said vehicle were in conformity with this subdivision as it existed on  December  thirty-first,  nineteen  hundred ninety-one.  (f) The commissioner shall make such rules and regulations as he shall deem necessary to carry out the provisions of this subdivision.  (ff)  Notwithstanding any other provision of this section or any other general, special or local law, charter, administrative code,  ordinance, rule or regulation to the contrary, any person operating a motor vehicle in a burial or funeral procession while travelling to or from a funeral, interment or cremation may place a funeral sign no larger than eight and one  half  by  fourteen inches in any window of such vehicle, as long as such sign when so placed will not prevent  such  person  from  having  a clear and full view of the road and the condition of traffic behind such vehicle.   13.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person, firm or corporation to replace glass in doors, windows, or windshields of motor vehicles unless such replacement be made with safety glass.   14. The term "safety glass" as used in this section shall be construed to mean any product composed of glass, so  manufactured,  fabricated  or treated  as  substantially to prevent shattering and flying of the glass when struck or broken, or such  other  or  similar  product  as  may  be approved by the commissioner.   15.  The commissioner of motor vehicles shall maintain a list of types of glass approved  by  him  as  conforming  to  the  specifications  and requirements  for  safety  glass as set forth in this section, and shall not issue a license for or relicense any motor vehicle  subject  to  the provisions  of  subdivisions eleven and twelve unless such motor vehicle be equipped as therein provided with such approved type of glass.   16. The owner and operator of any motor vehicle operated in  violation of the provisions of subdivisions eleven and twelve shall be guilty of a traffic infraction. In case of the violation of such subdivisions by any common  carrier  or person operating under a permit issued by the public service commission (or other authorized body  or  person),  said  permit shall  be  revoked, or, in the discretion of the commissioner, suspended until the provisions of such subdivisions  are  satisfactorily  complied with.   17.  Every  omnibus  having  a  seating  capacity  of  more  than  ten passengers, every truck having a  maximum  gross  weight  in  excess  of twelve  thousand  pounds  and  every  combination of tractor and trailer operated upon a public highway shall carry emergency lighting  equipment ready  at  all  times for immediate use. The equipment of the vehicle or combination of vehicles may consist  of  flares  of  the  type  used  by  railroads,   flaring   candles,   torches,  lanterns  or  red  emergency reflectors provided it is adequate to provide a  warning  light  in  all kinds  of weather both in front of and in the rear of the vehicle for at least  eight  hours. No red emergency reflector shall be deemed adequate within the meaning of this subdivision unless it is of a size  and  type approved  by  the  commissioner,  and conforms to minimum specifications established by him, which minimum shall not be  less  than  the  minimum established  by  the interstate commerce commission for buses and trucks in interstate commerce. When  any  such  vehicle  or  a  combination  of vehicles,  except an omnibus which stops for the purpose of taking on or discharging passengers, is parked or left standing on a  public  highway except  within  a  city  or incorporated village, during the period from one-half hour after sunset to one-half hour before sunrise, the operator of such vehicle or combination of vehicles  shall  cause  at  least  one light,  or  reflector  or  lighted  flare to be placed on the highway in front of such vehicle or combination  of  vehicles,  and  at  least  one light,  reflector  or  lighted  flare on the highway in the rear of such vehicle or combination of vehicles at a distance  of  approximately  one hundred  feet  in  the  front  of  and  at  the  rear of such vehicle or combination of vehicles, provided that if such vehicle is parked or left standing within three hundred feet of a curve, crest of hill,  or  other obstruction,  the  flare,  candle,  torch, lantern, or reflector in that direction shall be so placed as to afford ample warning to other highway users but in no case less than approximately one hundred  feet  or  more than approximately three hundred feet from the stopped vehicle.   18.  Except  as  otherwise  provided  herein,  it shall be unlawful to operate on any public highway or street in this state any motor vehicle, or combination of motor vehicle and trailer, so constructed or so loaded that the driver thereof is unable to indicate clearly by hand signals to approaching and following traffic his intention of stopping or  turning, unless  such  motor vehicle or combination of vehicles shall be equipped with  directional  signals  approved  by  the  commissioner,   provided, however,  it  shall  be  unlawful  after January first, nineteen hundred fifty-two to operate on any public highway or street in this  state  any motor  vehicle registered in this state, manufactured or assembled after said date unless such  vehicle  be  equipped  with  directional  signals approved by the commissioner. It shall also be unlawful to fail to cause such  signals  to  be  maintained,  at  all times in good and sufficient working order. The provisions of this subdivision  shall  not  apply  to special purpose commercial motor vehicles registered under schedule F of subdivision  seven  of  section four hundred one of this chapter or to a vehicle or combination of vehicles lawfully operated under  registration issued,  under  section  four hundred fifteen of this chapter or under a similar provision of the law of another jurisdiction.   18-a. Any motor vehicle may be equipped with and every  motor  vehicle registered  in  this  state  and  manufactured  or  assembled after June thirtieth, nineteen hundred sixty-five, and  designated  as  a  nineteen hundred  sixty-six  or  subsequent  year model, shall be equipped with a device, approved by the commissioner, by means of which the operator may cause  the  two  front  and  two  rear  directional  signals  to   flash simultaneously  for  the  purpose  of  warning  the  operators  of other vehicles of the presence of a vehicular  traffic  hazard  requiring  the exercise  of  unusual  care  in  approaching, overtaking or passing. The provisions of this subdivision requiring  that  certain  motor  vehicles shall be so equipped shall not apply to special purpose commercial motor vehicles  registered  under  schedule  F of subdivision seven of section four hundred one or to a vehicle or  combination  of  vehicles  lawfully operated under registration issued under section four hundred fifteen.    19.  It  shall  be  unlawful for the owner to operate, park or stand a motor vehicle or trailer on any public highway or street in this  state, or  to authorize another to so operate, park or stand a motor vehicle or trailer, with the consent of such owner, expressed  or  implied,  unless such  motor  vehicle  or  trailer be equipped and lighted as provided by this  section  and  by  section  three  hundred  seventy-six,  and   the operation,  parking  or  standing  on a public highway or street in this state of a motor vehicle or trailer which is not so equipped and lighted or which is defectively equipped and lighted is hereby prohibited.   20. Every omnibus  having  a  seating  capacity  of  more  than  seven passengers,  used  exclusively  to  transport pupils, teachers and other persons acting in a supervisory capacity to and from  school  or  school activities,  or  to  transport  children,  instructors  or other persons acting in  a  supervisory  capacity  to  and  from  child  care  centers maintained for migrant farm and food processing laborers or to transport children,  instructors or other persons acting in a supervisory capacity to  and  from  camp  or  camp  activities,  or  to  transport  children, instructors  or  other  persons  acting in a supervisory capacity to and from religious services or instruction shall be equipped in  the  manner provided  by  this  subdivision  and  any such omnibus used by any state facility or not-for-profit agency licensed by  the  state  and  used  to transport persons with disabilities, instructors or other persons acting in a supervisory capacity may be equipped in the manner provided by this subdivision:  (a)  For  each  such  omnibus  having  a seating capacity in excess of fifteen  children,  there  shall  be  colored  flashing   signal   lamps conforming  to  regulations  prescribed by the commissioner on the front and on the rear thereof, including at least one flashing red signal lamp on the front thereof and at least one flashing red signal  lamp  on  the rear  thereof.    For each such omnibus having a seating capacity of not more than fifteen children, there shall be colored flashing signal lamps conforming to regulations prescribed  by  the  commissioner  facing  the front  and facing the rear thereof, and at least one flashing red signal lamp facing the front thereof and at least one flashing red signal  lamp facing  the  rear  thereof.  The driver of every such vehicle shall keep such red signal lamps lighted whenever passengers are being received  or discharged or whenever he has stopped within fifty feet to the rear of a vehicle  with  such  red signal lamps lighted, and shall light all other required signal lamps, as a warning, prior to  stopping  to  receive  or discharge  passengers  in  accordance with regulations prescribed by the commissioner.  (b) (1)  In  addition  to  such  signal  lamps,  two  signs  shall  be conspicuously   displayed   on   the  exterior  of  every  such  omnibus designating it as a school omnibus by the use of the words "SCHOOL  BUS" which  shall be painted or otherwise inscribed thereon in black letters. Such letters shall be of uniform size, at least eight inches in  height, and each stroke of each letter shall be not less than one inch in width. The  background  of  each  such sign shall be painted the color known as "national school bus chrome." For each such  omnibus  having  a  seating capacity  in  excess  of  fifteen children, such signs shall be securely mounted on top of such vehicle, one of which shall  be  affixed  on  the front  and  one  on  the  rear  thereof.  For each such omnibus having a seating capacity of not more than fifteen children, such signs shall  be securely  mounted  on  top  of such vehicle, one of which shall face the front and one of which shall face the rear thereof. Each such sign shall be visible and readable from a point at least two hundred feet distant.  (2) The universal handicapped symbol shall be conspicuously  displayed on  the  exterior of every omnibus equipped with a wheelchair lift which  transports children with disabilities. The commissioner shall promulgate regulations  regarding  the  size  and  location   of   such   universal handicapped  symbol. The commissioner shall require that any new signage relating  to  accessibility  installed  or  replaced  on  or  after  the effective date of the chapter of the laws of two thousand fourteen which amended this subparagraph depict the logo promulgated by  the  secretary of state pursuant to section one hundred one of the executive law.  (c)  In  the event such vehicle is operated on a public highway during the period between one-half hour after sunset and one-half  hour  before sunrise,  the  signs required by paragraph (b) of this subdivision shall be illuminated as to be visible from a point at least five hundred  feet distant.  (d) Every such omnibus shall be equipped as provided in paragraphs (a) and  (b)  of  this  subdivision,  and  such signs shall be displayed and illuminated  in  accordance  with  paragraphs  (b)  and  (c)   of   this subdivision,  and  such  signal  lamps  shall be operated as provided in paragraph (a) of this subdivision at all times when such  omnibus  shall be  engaged  in  transporting  pupils  to  and  from  school  or  school activities or in transporting children to and from  child  care  centers maintained for children of migrant farm and food processing laborers, or in  transporting  children  to  and  from  camp  or  camp  activities or transporting children to and from religious services or  instruction  or transporting  persons  with disabilities on any such omnibus used by any state facility or not-for-profit agency licensed by the state.  (e) Every such omnibus, having its engine located ahead of the driver, with a seating capacity of more than twelve  school  children  shall  be equipped  with  a  mirror,  convex  in  shape,  at least eight inches in diameter, firmly mounted at hood, windshield  or  fender-top  height  in front  of  the bus. It shall be located on either the left or right side of the bus in such manner that the seated driver may observe through its use the road from the front bumper forward to  the  point  where  direct observation is possible.  (f)  The  commissioner  of  motor  vehicles  is  hereby authorized and empowered to adopt and, from time to time, to  amend  such  regulations, not  inconsistent  with  this  subdivision, governing the color, number, size, type, construction and use of such signal lamps and signs,  as  he may  deem necessary for public safety. On and after July first, nineteen hundred fifty-one, no such signal lamp or sign shall be deemed to comply with the requirements of this subdivision unless it is  of  a  size  and type  approved  by  the  commissioner and unless it shall conform to the specifications prescribed and promulgated by him.  (g) In the event, however, that such an omnibus,  equipped  as  herein provided,  shall  cease  to  be  used  to transport pupils or pupils and teachers or children of migrant laborers and migrant child  care  center instructors,  or  children and camp instructors, the equipment, markings and paint, herein provided for, shall  be  removed  and  changed  within fifteen  days  after  relicense.  Nothing  contained  in  this  section, however,  shall  be  deemed  to  waive  any  other  requirements  as  to equipment, markings and paint, contained in this chapter.  (h)  All the provisions of this chapter relating to school buses shall apply with equal force and effect to buses used in transporting children and instructors to and from child care centers maintained  for  children of  migrant  farm  and  food  processing  laborers  and to buses used in transporting children to and from camp or camp activities and  to  buses used  in  transporting  children  to  and  from  religious  services  or instruction. As used in this subdivision, camp or camp activities  shall mean day camp or day camp activities respectively.  (i)  Every omnibus subject to the provisions of this subdivision shall be operated with headlights and taillights illuminated at all  times  of day or night.  (j)   The  commissioner  of  transportation,  in  his  discretion,  by regulation or upon written request,  by  departmental  order,  for  good cause,  may  exempt  any  school  bus that does not receive or discharge passengers on or along the public highways on regularly scheduled routes from the requirements of any or all paragraphs  of  subdivisions  twenty and twenty-one of this section.  (k)  All  omnibuses  manufactured  or  assembled prior to April first, nineteen  hundred  seventy-seven  and  all  omnibuses  manufactured   or assembled after April first, nineteen hundred seventy-seven which do not meet federal standards for school bus safety, shall be phased out of use beginning   with   the  nineteen  hundred  ninety-six--nineteen  hundred ninety-seven  school  year  and  ending  with   the   nineteen   hundred ninety-seven--nineteen hundred ninety-eight school year. In each of such school  years, at least one-half of such omnibuses shall be retired from use  according  to  the  following  formula:  in  the  nineteen  hundred ninety-six--nineteen  hundred  ninety-seven  school  year,  the  minimum number of such omnibuses to be phased out of each owner/operator's fleet shall be the total number of such omnibuses divided by two  and  rounded upwards  to the nearest whole number. All such omnibuses remaining shall be phased out in the  nineteen  hundred  ninety-seven--nineteen  hundred ninety-eight school year.   Notwithstanding   the  foregoing  provisions  of  this  paragraph  the commissioner of education may make exceptions on a case by case basis if a school district certifies to the  commissioner  of  education  that  a certain  omnibus  should  not be retired for reason of economic hardship and the commissioner of transportation determines upon  inspection  that such  omnibus is in good working order. In making his determination, the commissioner of transportation  shall  consider,  among  other  relevant factors,  the relative age and structure of each such omnibus. When such determination  is  made,  every  such  omnibus  so  certified  shall  be reinspected by the commissioner of transportation once every six months. Any  school  district receiving an exemption from the provisions of this paragraph for any omnibus shall provide to the commissioner of education an annual recertification of economic hardship.  (l)(1) Every such omnibus used on a regular basis to transport  pupils with a disability on a regularly scheduled route shall, with the written consent  of  the  parent,  guardian,  or  person  in  a position of loco parentis, have maintained on  such  omnibus  the  following  information about each such pupil:  (i) name;  (ii) nature of the disability; and  (iii)  the  name  of  such  pupil's  parent,  guardian, or person in a position of loco parentis and one or more telephone numbers  where  such person  can  be  reached  in an emergency, and/or the name and telephone number of any other person designated by such parent, guardian or person in a position of loco parentis as a person who can be  contacted  in  an emergency.  (2)  Such  information  shall  be  used  solely  for  the  purpose  of contacting such pupil's parent, guardian, person in a position  of  loco parentis, or designee in the event of an emergency involving such pupil, shall  be  kept  in a manner which retains the privacy of the pupil, and shall not be accessible to any person other than the driver or a teacher acting in a supervisory capacity. Provided, however, that in  the  event that  such  driver  or teacher is incapacitated, such information may be  accessed by any emergency services provider for the  purpose  authorized by this subparagraph.  (3)  Such  information  shall  be updated as needed, but at least once each school year. Such  information  shall  be  destroyed  if:  parental consent  is  revoked;  the  pupil no longer attends such school; or, the disability no longer exists.  (4) For the purposes of this paragraph, the  term  "disability"  shall mean  a  physical  or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of a pupil, whether of a temporary  or permanent nature.   21.  Every  motor vehicle having a seating capacity of more than seven passengers, and  used  primarily  to  transport  pupils  or  pupils  and teachers  to  and  from  school,  shall  be  painted  the color known as "national school bus chrome."   In the event, however, such a motor vehicle so painted shall cease  to be  used  to transport pupils or pupils and teachers, the color of paint herein provided for, shall be changed to another color,  within  fifteen days of relicense.   21-a.  In  any  case  where  a New York state police or New York city, Albany,  Buffalo,  Rochester,  Syracuse  or  Yonkers  police  department vehicle  is  painted a distinctive color which would designate it in the public's view as such a state or city police vehicle, the  purchaser  of such  vehicle  shall  cause  the color of its paint to be altered within fifteen days of registration.   21-b. The commissioner shall promulgate rules and regulations for  the use of two-way radios on school buses.   21-c.  The  commissioner,  in  consultation  with  the commissioner of transportation, shall promulgate rules and regulations for  the  use  of stop-arms  on  school  buses which shall include provisions for a second stop-arm to be located on the driver's side as close as is practical  to the rear corner of the bus. Every school bus designed with a capacity of forty-five persons or more, and manufactured for use in this state on or after  January  first,  two thousand two shall be equipped with a second stop-arm in compliance with such regulations.   21-d. The commissioner shall promulgate rules and regulations for  the use of back up beepers on school buses.   21-e.  The commissioner shall promulgate rules and regulations for the use of front crossing arms on school buses.   21-f. The commissioner shall promulgate rules and regulations for  the use of safety sensor devices on school buses.   21-g.  Every school bus manufactured for use in this state after April first, nineteen hundred ninety, shall be equipped with back-up beepers.   * 21-h. It shall be unlawful for any motor vehicle  having  a  seating capacity  of more than seven passengers, and used primarily to transport pupils or pupils and teachers to and from school to be mounted with,  or have  placed  or  installed  thereon  any sign, placard or other display except as provided by law. Provided, however,  that  the  provisions  of this  subdivision  shall not apply to such motor vehicles operating in a city with a population of one million or more.   * NB There are 2 sub. 21-h's   * 21-h. (a) Every school bus manufactured for use in this state on  or after  April  first,  two  thousand,  shall  be  equipped  with exterior reflective  markings  which  comply  with  the  rules  and   regulations promulgated  by  the  commissioner  pursuant  to  paragraph  (c) of this subdivision.  (b) Every school bus used to transport ten or more passengers in  this state  on  or after September first, two thousand two, shall be equipped with exterior reflective  markings  which  comply  with  the  rules  and  regulations promulgated by the commissioner pursuant to paragraph (c) of this subdivision.  (c)  The  commissioner  shall  promulgate  rules  and  regulations for exterior reflective markings required to be attached  on  school  buses. Such rules and regulations:  (1)  shall  require  the  rear  of  school  buses  to  be  marked with reflective material to outline the perimeter of the back of the bus  and of the rear emergency exit;  (2)  shall  require the horizontal application of strips of reflective material, not less than one and three-quarters inches  wide,  above  the rear  windows,  and  above  the  rear  bumper from the edges of the rear emergency exit door to both corners of  the  school  bus  with  vertical strips of reflective material at each corner connected to the horizontal strips;  (3)  shall  require the horizontal application of strips of reflective material, not less than one and three-quarters inches wide,  the  entire length  of  the  sides  of  the  school bus body and located equidistant between the floorline and the beltline of the bus; and  (4) may require the marking of the front,  rear  or  both  bumpers  of school buses with reflective material between one and three-quarters and two  and  one-quarter inches wide applied thereto at a forty-five degree angle to the center line of the road surface.   * NB There are 2 sub. 21-h's   21-i. (a) (1) Every school bus manufactured on or after January first, nineteen hundred ninety, fueled with other than diesel fuel and used  to transport  three or more students who use wheelchairs or other assistive mobility devices or with a total capacity of more than eight  passengers and  used  to  transport students who use wheelchairs or other assistive mobility devices shall be  equipped  with  an  engine  fire  suppression system.  (2)  Every  school  bus manufactured for use in this state on or after September first, two thousand seven fueled with diesel fuel and used  to transport  three or more students who use wheelchairs or other assistive mobility devices or with a total capacity of more than eight  passengers and  used  to  transport students who use wheelchairs or other assistive mobility devices shall be  equipped  with  an  engine  fire  suppression system.  (b)  The  commissioner  of  the  department  of  transportation  shall promulgate rules and regulations establishing standards for the  use  of engine  fire  suppression  systems  on  school  buses  used to transport students who use wheelchairs or other assistive mobility devices.   * 21-j. (a) Every school bus which is owned and operated by  a  school district or which is privately owned and operated for compensation under contract  with  such  district  may  be equipped with signs, placards or other displays giving notice to approaching motor vehicle operators that school bus photo violation monitoring systems are in use, provided  that such  school  district  has  entered  an  agreement  pursuant to section twenty-two of chapter one hundred forty-five of the laws of two thousand nineteen with a county, city, town or village which  has  established  a demonstration  program pursuant to section eleven hundred seventy-four-a of this chapter imposing monetary liability on the owner  of  a  vehicle for failure of an operator thereof to comply with section eleven hundred seventy-four  of  this  chapter.  Such signs, placards or other displays shall  comply  with  the  rules  and  regulations  promulgated  by   the commissioner pursuant to paragraph (b) of this subdivision.  (b)  The  commissioner  shall promulgate rules and regulations for the content, size and placement on school buses of a sign, placard or  other display,  as  authorized  pursuant to paragraph (a) of this subdivision,  giving notice to approaching motor vehicle  operators  that  school  bus photo violation monitoring systems are in use.   * NB  Repealed  December 1, 2024 and also upon specific provisions set forth in chapter 325 of 2021 § 3   22. It shall be unlawful to operate a motor vehicle  upon  the  public highways  of  this  state  which  is equipped with any glass which is so broken, fractured or discolored as to distort visibility.   23. Every motor vehicle operated for hire upon the public highways  of this  state  shall be equipped with handles or other devices which shall permit the door or doors to the  passenger  compartment  to  be  readily opened from the interior of the vehicle.   24.  It  shall  be unlawful to operate upon any public highway in this state a motor vehicle which is equipped with a television receiving  set within view of the operator or in which a television receiving set is in operation  within the view of the operator. A motor vehicle shall not be deemed to be equipped with a television  receiving  set  solely  because such  set  utilizes  power  from  such  vehicle.  The provisions of this subdivision shall not prohibit a vehicle with a weight of  ten  thousand pounds  or  more  or  a  school bus from using closed-circuit television receiving equipment exclusively for safety and maneuvering purposes,  in accordance with regulations to be established by the commissioner.   24-a.  It shall be unlawful to operate upon any public highway in this state a motor vehicle, limited use automobile, limited use motorcycle or bicycle while the operator is wearing more than one earphone attached to a radio, tape player or other audio device.   25. (a) On and after  the  first  day  of  January,  nineteen  hundred seventy-four  it  shall  be unlawful to operate on any public highway or street in this state any tractor, commercial motor vehicle,  combination of  a  commercial  motor  vehicle  and  trailer,  or  combination  of  a truck-tractor and semi-trailer which is not so constructed  or  equipped as  reasonably  to bar water or other road surface substances from being thrown by the rearmost wheels beyond the extreme rear of the vehicle  or combination of vehicles, and to minimize side spray.  (b)  Unless  the  commercial  vehicle  or  combination  vehicle  is so designed or constructed  to  accomplish  the  objectives  set  forth  in paragraph   (a)  of  this  subdivision  by  reason  of  fender  or  body construction or other means of enclosure, any such commercial vehicle or combination vehicle shall be  equipped,  on  and  after  January  first, nineteen  hundred  fifty-seven,  with splash guards and stone deflectors which shall be composed of materials  substantial  enough  to  withstand ripping  or  tearing  by  ordinary means and withstand the action of the elements for a reasonable length of time. Such splash guards  and  stone deflectors  shall  also  have a reasonable degree of flexibility and the distance from the lower end thereof  to  the  ground  shall  not  exceed one-third of the distance, measured along the ground, from the bottom of the splash guard to the point of contact of the rear wheel.  (c)  The  commissioner  of  motor  vehicles  is  hereby authorized and empowered to make rules and regulations with respect  to  splash  guards and  stone deflectors, their type and construction, manner of attachment to vehicles and all other matters requisite for the proper  effectuation of   the  purposes  of  this  subdivision.  In  making  such  rules  and regulations the commissioner shall be  guided  by  the  desirability  of uniformity  in  requirements  with  regard  to  splash  guards and stone deflectors among the several states.  (d) The provisions of  this  subdivision  shall  not  apply  to  motor vehicles,  trailers and semi-trailers registered pursuant to subdivision thirteen of section four hundred one of this chapter, and  not  operated upon  the  public highways in excess of one and one-half miles by direct  route between  farms  or  portions  of  farms  under  single  or  common ownership or operation.   26.  A  gong  or  siren whistle shall not be used on any vehicle other than an authorized emergency vehicle. This shall  not  be  construed  to apply  to a gong or siren designed and used solely as a burglar alarm on a vehicle.   27. When a vehicle (a) has a  crane,  boom  or  other  similar  device attached  or  (b)  is  loaded  with  any material, and such crane, boom, device or material extends four feet or more beyond the front or rear of such vehicle, such vehicle shall be provided with a red  flag  not  less than  twenty-four  inches square by day and a red light visible from the rear and an amber light visible from the front  for  a  distance  of  at least  five  hundred  feet  by night on the extreme end of the extending portion of such crane, boom, device or material.   28. No person shall operate upon a  public  highway  a  vehicle  which emits unnecessary smoke or unnecessary offensive vapors.   28-a.  Except  as  permitted  or  authorized  by  law, no person shall remove, dismantle or otherwise cause to be inoperative any equipment  or feature  constituting  an  operational  element of a motor vehicle's air pollution control system or mechanism required by federal or  state  law or by any rules or regulations promulgated pursuant thereto.   28-b.  Except where inconsistent with federal law, every motor vehicle registered in this  state  and  manufactured  or  assembled  after  June thirty,  nineteen hundred sixty-three shall be equipped with a crankcase ventilating system of a type  approved  by  the  state  commissioner  of environmental  conservation  for the purpose of reducing the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere. Such system shall be maintained in  good working  order in continued conformity with standards promulgated by the state commissioner of environmental conservation. For  the  purposes  of this  subdivision  the term "motor vehicle" shall exclude diesel powered motor vehicles, motorcycles,  vehicles  driven  by  electric  power  and special  purpose  commercial motor vehicles registered under paragraph F of subdivision seven of section four hundred one of this chapter.   28-c.  Except  where  inconsistent  with  federal   law,   rules   and regulations,   every   motor   vehicle  registered  in  this  state  and manufactured  or  assembled  after   June   thirty,   nineteen   hundred sixty-seven  and  known  as a nineteen hundred sixty-eight or subsequent model shall be equipped with an air contaminant emission control  system of   a   type  approved  by  the  state  commissioner  of  environmental conservation. Such systems shall be maintained in good working order  in continued  conformity  with  emission standards promulgated by the state commissioner of environmental conservation. For  the  purposes  of  this subdivision, "air contaminant emission control systems" may include, but shall   not   be  limited  to,  exhaust  control  systems  and  gasoline evaporation control systems  but  shall  exclude  crankcase  ventilating systems.   28-d.  The state commissioner of environmental conservation may exempt or partially exempt from the provisions of  subdivisions  twenty-eight-b and  twenty-eight-c  of  this section any type or class of motor vehicle for which no practical  control  systems  have  been  developed  or  are necessary.   28-e.  Standards  and exemptions established by the state commissioner of environmental conservation pursuant to  subdivisions  twenty-eight-b, twenty-eight-c  and  twenty-eight-d of this section, shall be consistent with applicable federal laws and regulations.   28-f. (a) Except  where  inconsistent  with  federal  law,  rules  and regulations, in addition to any air contaminant emission control systems required  by  subdivisions  twenty-eight-b  and  twenty-eight-c  of this  section,  the  commissioner  of  environmental   conservation   may   by regulation  require the installation of exhaust emission control devices in proper working condition on all or  any  vehicles  of  any  class  or classes  of  gasoline  powered motor vehicle having a registered maximum gross weight in excess of  six  thousand  pounds.  The  commissioner  of environmental  conservation  shall  not  promulgate  any such regulation unless he (i) has determined, with the concurrence of the  commissioner, that  any  such  device is, or devices are, effective and reliable, (ii) has determined that the installation of any such device on  all  or  any vehicles  of  such  class  or classes is necessary to the achievement of federal ambient air  quality  standards  pursuant  to  an  approved  air quality  implementation  plan  adopted pursuant to the federal clean air act, as amended (42 U.S.C. 1857 et seq.) and (iii) has  determined  that the  effect  of  such regulation will not be diluted by the absence of a comparable requirement in an adjoining state;  provided,  however,  that the  effective  date of the requirements of such regulation shall not be prior to the approval or promulgation of a transportation  control  plan pursuant  to  the Federal clean air act as amended for those portions of adjoining states designated as the territorial areas  forming  parts  of the  New  Jersey-New  York-Connecticut  Interstate  Air  Quality Control Region under such act and not prior to the effective date of  comparable requirements  for such vehicles registered in, required to be registered in, or operated in any such portions. Any such  requirement  shall  take effect with respect to any such motor vehicle as of the date of issuance of  a registration for such vehicle in the year next succeeding the date on which the regulation requiring the installation of such a  device  is promulgated by the commissioner of environmental conservation, but in no event prior to March first, nineteen hundred seventy-six.  (b)  The  provisions  of paragraph (a) of this subdivision shall apply only to gasoline  powered  vehicles  which  are  registered  in  or  are required  by  law  to  be  registered  pursuant  to subdivision seven of section four hundred one of this chapter in, or are  regularly  operated in  that portion of the state designated as the territorial area forming part   of   the   New   Jersey-New   York-Connecticut   Interstate   Air Quality-Control  Region  under the federal clean air act, as amended (42 U.S.C. 1857 et seq.) or any part of such region.  (c) Whenever a motor vehicle registered pursuant to subdivision  seven of  section  four  hundred  one  of  this  chapter  is not required by a regulation promulgated pursuant to this subdivision, to have an  exhaust emission  control  device installed in accordance with this subdivision, the applicant for registration for  any  such  motor  vehicle  shall  be required  to  file  a  statement  as  prescribed  by the commissioner in conjunction with such  registration  that  such  motor  vehicle  is  not required  to  have  such a device. A false statement in relation to such exemption shall constitute a material false statement in an  application for registration.  (d)  A  notation  on the registration for a vehicle and an identifying sticker on the vehicle, both of which  indicate  that  such  vehicle  is required to have an exhaust emission control device shall be presumptive evidence  that  such  device  in proper working condition is required on that vehicle pursuant to paragraph (a) of this subdivision.  (e) The rules and regulations promulgated pursuant to paragraph (a) of this subdivision shall contain provisions necessary  or  appropriate  to implement  this  subdivision,  including  the  definition  of  terms and exemptions  for  motor  vehicles  registered  in  areas  from  which  no substantial  numbers  of  motor  vehicles  are regularly operated in the portion of the state referred to in paragraph (b) of this subdivision.  (f) No registered owner shall permit a motor vehicle, required to have an exhaust emission control device in proper working condition  pursuant to  the provisions of this subdivision, to be operated in the portion of the state to which this subdivision is applicable, unless  such  vehicle is  equipped  with an approved exhaust emission control device in proper working condition.  Every  person  convicted  of  a  violation  of  this paragraph  shall  for  a  first  violation  thereof  with  respect  to a particular motor vehicle be punished by a fine of  seven  hundred  fifty dollars.  Such  fine may not be waived, suspended or in any other manner not levied, except that four hundred fifty dollars of such fine  may  be waived  upon  presentation  of  acceptable  evidence  prior to the final determination of the violation that  the  device  required  pursuant  to paragraph  (a) of this subdivision has been installed on the vehicle and is in proper working condition. Every person convicted of  a  second  or subsequent  violation  with  respect  to  a  particular vehicle shall be punished by a fine of seven hundred fifty dollars, which fine may not be waived, suspended or in any other manner not levied.   29. (a) A motor vehicle shall not be used to tow more than  one  other vehicle.  (b)   Notwithstanding   the   provisions  of  paragraph  (a)  of  this subdivision, the following  vehicles  or  combination  of  vehicles  are permitted to be operated in New York state:   1.  Municipal  garbage  or  ash collecting systems consisting of three vehicles;   2. A tow truck or  wrecker  being  used  to  tow  a  disabled  tractor semitrailer combination;   3.  A  tractor being used to tow a semitrailer and trailer outside the city of New York or counties of Nassau and Suffolk or on any  qualifying highway  or  access  highway  within the city of New York or counties of Nassau or Suffolk;   3-a. A tractor semitrailer-semitrailer combination of  vehicles  where the  two  semitrailers  are  connected  by  a  B-train assembly and such combinations of vehicles is operated outside the city  of  New  York  or counties  of  Nassau  and Suffolk or on any qualifying highway or access highway within the city of New York or counties of Nassau or Suffolk;   4.  Subject  to  rules  and  regulations  of   the   commissioner   of transportation,  a  combination  of  an automotive powered cab and truck chassis being used  to  tow  two  such  additional  vehicles  in  double saddle-mount   fashion,   each   mounted  upon  a  device  designed  and constructed so as to be readily  dismountable  and  which  performs  the function  of a conventional fifth wheel, so that while all the wheels of the towing powered chassis touch the roadway, only  the  wheels  on  the rear axle of each of the towed vehicles are in contact with the roadway; and   5.   Subject   to   rules  and  regulations  of  the  commissioner  of transportation, a combination of an automotive  powered  cab  and  truck chassis  being  used  to  tow  three  such additional vehicles in triple saddle-mount fashion on a qualifying or  access  highway,  each  mounted upon  a device designed and constructed so as to be readily dismountable and which performs the function of a conventional fifth wheel,  so  that while  all  the  wheels of the towing powered chassis touch the roadway, only the wheels on the rear axle of each of the towed  vehicles  are  in contact with the roadway.  (c)  No vehicle shall be towed by a rope or other non-rigid connection which is longer than sixteen feet.  (d) A  motor  vehicle  being  towed  by  a  rope  or  other  non-rigid connection  must  have a licensed driver in such motor vehicle who shall steer it when it is being towed.    29-a. No vehicle or mobile equipment shall be towed with the use of  a dolly  unless  the  dolly, vehicle or mobile equipment is secured to the towing vehicle by safety chains or cables which will prevent the  dolly, vehicle  or mobile equipment from separating from the towing vehicle and the towed vehicle or mobile equipment is securely fastened to the dolly. Dolly  shall  mean  a  multi-wheel  device utilized to raise a part of a towed vehicle or mobile equipment while it is  being  towed  by  another vehicle.   30.  It  shall  be  unlawful for any person to operate a motor vehicle with any object placed or hung in or upon the vehicle,  except  required or  permitted  equipment of the vehicle, in such a manner as to obstruct or interfere with the view of the operator through the windshield, or to prevent him from having a clear and full view of the road and  condition of traffic behind such vehicle.   * 31.  Mufflers  and exhaust systems. Prevention of noise. Every motor vehicle, operated or driven upon the highways of the state, shall at all times be equipped  with  an  adequate  muffler  and  exhaust  system  in constant  operation  and properly maintained to prevent any excessive or unusual noise and no such muffler or exhaust system  shall  be  equipped with  a  cut-out,  bypass, or similar device. No person shall modify the muffler or exhaust system of a motor vehicle  in  a  manner  which  will amplify  or increase the noise emitted by the motor or exhaust system of such vehicle above  that  emitted  by  the  muffler  or  exhaust  system originally  installed  on  the  vehicle  and  such  original muffler and exhaust system shall comply with all the requirements of this section.   A muffler is a device consisting of a series  of  chambers  or  baffle plates,  or other mechanical design for the purpose of receiving exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine, and effective in reducing noise.   An exhaust system is a series of mechanical devices for the purpose of receiving exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine  and  expelling it into the atmosphere.   * NB Effective until April 1, 2022   * 31.  Mufflers  and  exhaust  systems. Prevention of noise. (a) Every motor vehicle, operated or driven upon the highways of the state,  shall at  all times be equipped with an adequate muffler and exhaust system in constant operation and properly maintained to prevent any  excessive  or unusual  noise  and  no such muffler or exhaust system shall be equipped with a cut-out, bypass, or similar device. No person  shall  modify  the muffler  or  exhaust  system  of  a motor vehicle in a manner which will amplify or increase the noise emitted by the motor or exhaust system  of such  vehicle  above  that  emitted  by  the  muffler  or exhaust system originally installed on  the  vehicle  and  such  original  muffler  and exhaust system shall comply with all the requirements of this section.  (b) No person shall, in the state, sell, offer for sale or install any of the following for the muffler or exhaust system of a motor vehicle: a cut-out,  bypass, or a similar device which will amplify or increase the noise emitted by the motor or exhaust system of such vehicle above  that emitted  by  the  muffler  or exhaust system originally installed on the vehicle.   A muffler is a device consisting of a series  of  chambers  or  baffle plates,  or other mechanical design for the purpose of receiving exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine, and effective in reducing noise.   An exhaust system is a series of mechanical devices for the purpose of receiving exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine  and  expelling it into the atmosphere.   * NB Effective April 1, 2022    * 31-a.  No  person  shall,  in  the  state,  sell,  install  or use a motorcycle exhaust device without internal baffles, known  as  "straight pipes".   * NB Effective until April 1, 2022   * 31-a. No person shall, in the state, sell, offer for sale or install a motorcycle exhaust device without internal baffles, known as "straight pipes".   * NB Effective April 1, 2022   * 31-b.  No  person  shall,  in  the  state,  sell,  install  or use a motorcycle exhaust device that is intentionally designed  to  allow  for the   internal   baffling   to   be   fully   or  partially  removed  or interchangeable. This  subdivision  shall  not  apply  to  a  motorcycle manufactured  or  assembled  prior to nineteen hundred seventy-nine or a motorcycle registered as a limited use vehicle or an all terrain vehicle pursuant to article forty-eight-A or forty-eight-B of this chapter.   * NB Effective until April 1, 2022   * 31-b. No person shall, in the state, sell, offer for sale or install a motorcycle exhaust device that is intentionally designed to allow  for the   internal   baffling   to   be   fully   or  partially  removed  or interchangeable or that has been modified in a manner that will  amplify or  increase  the  noise emitted by the motor of a motorcycle above that emitted by the exhaust system originally installed on  such  motorcycle. This  subdivision  shall  not  apply  to  a  motorcycle  manufactured or assembled  prior  to  nineteen  hundred  seventy-nine  or  a  motorcycle registered  as  a limited use vehicle or an all terrain vehicle pursuant to article forty-eight-A or forty-eight-B of this chapter.   * NB Effective April 1, 2022   * 32. The violation of any of the  provisions  of  this  section  with respect  to  adequate  brakes except those relating to emergency or hand brakes shall constitute a misdemeanor and the violation of  any  of  the other  provisions of this section, including those relating to emergency or hand brakes, shall be punishable by a fine not exceeding one  hundred fifty  dollars  or  by imprisonment for not exceeding thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment, except as herein otherwise provided.   * NB Effective until April 1, 2022   * 32. (a) The violation of any of the provisions of this section  with respect  to  adequate  brakes except those relating to emergency or hand brakes shall constitute a misdemeanor and the violation of  any  of  the other  provisions of this section, including those relating to emergency or hand brakes, shall be punishable by a fine not exceeding one  hundred fifty  dollars  or  by imprisonment for not exceeding thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment, except as herein otherwise provided.  (b)  Notwithstanding  the  provisions  of  paragraph   (a)   of   this subdivision,  a  violation  of  paragraph (b) of subdivision thirty-one, subdivision thirty-one-a or subdivision  thirty-one-b  of  this  section shall  be  punishable by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or by imprisonment for not exceeding thirty days, or by  both  such  fine  and imprisonment.   * NB Effective April 1, 2022   33.  The provisions of this section shall not apply to fire and police vehicles,  self-propelled  combines,   self-propelled   corn   and   hay harvesting   machines,   farm   type   tractors   used  exclusively  for agricultural purposes or for snow  plowing  other  than  for  hire,  and self-propelled   caterpillar   or  crawler-type  equipment  while  being operated on the contract site except when reference is specifically made to such vehicle.   34. Any motor vehicle may be equipped with and every passenger vehicle registered in this state and manufactured  or  assembled  after  January  first,  nineteen hundred sixty-nine, shall be equipped with at least one back-up light. Such light shall display a white light to the  rear  when the ignition switch is energized and reverse gear is engaged. Such light shall not be lighted when the motor vehicle is in forward motion.   35.  Tires.  (a)  The  commissioner  may  establish  standards for the manufacture, regrooving or retreading of tires  which  are  produced  or sold  in  this  state,  and for the use of tires on vehicles operated in this state.  (b) No tire shall be manufactured, distributed, offered  for  sale  or sold  in this state if it does not comply with the standards established by the commissioner pursuant to paragraph (a)  of  this  subdivision.  A violation of this paragraph shall be punishable as a misdemeanor.  (c)  No  person shall operate a motor vehicle or a trailer on a public highway if such vehicle is equipped with tires  that  do  not  meet  the standards  established  by the commissioner pursuant to paragraph (a) of this subdivision.   35-a. It shall be unlawful to  operate  a  motor  vehicle  or  trailer equipped  with tires having metal objects protruding from the tire tread upon any public highway. The prohibition contained in this section shall not apply to pneumatic tires containing metal type studs,  the  diameter of   which   studs   inclusive  of  the  stud  casing  does  not  exceed three-eighths of an inch and which do  not  protrude  beyond  the  tread surface  of such tires more than three thirty-seconds of an inch and the contact area of which does not exceed three-fourths of one per  cent  of the  total  nominal contact area of said tires determined by multiplying the circumference of the outer most edge of tread times the tread width, except that no vehicle equipped with such tires, other than school buses and state or municipally-owned vehicles, may operate on a public highway during the period from the first day of May  to  the  fifteenth  day  of October, inclusive.   36.  (a)  (i)  The  slow-moving  vehicle  emblem  as  developed by the American Society of  Agricultural  and  Biological  Engineers  shall  be recognized  as  the  official  state  slow  moving  vehicle  emblem. The commissioner of motor vehicles shall adopt standards and  specifications for  design, creation and use, in conformance with those recommendations of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers for the size, design and mounting of said slow-moving vehicle emblem.  (ii) The commissioner shall adopt  standards  and  specifications  for design,  creation  and use, in conformance with those recommendations of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological  Engineers  standard which   meets   the   criteria   of   the  American  National  Standards Institute/American Society for Testing and Materials S584 for the  size, design   and   mounting  of  a  speed  identification  symbol.  A  speed identification symbol shall indicate the maximum speed in miles per hour at which the unit of farm machinery, implement of  husbandry  and  other machinery including road construction and maintenance machinery to which it is mounted is designed by its manufacturer to operate.  (b) (i) Farm machinery and implements of husbandry and other machinery including  road  construction  and  maintenance  machinery  designed  to operate at twenty-five miles per hour or less,  traveling  on  a  public highway   during  day  or  night,  whether  self-propelled  or  used  in combination, shall each separately display a slow-moving vehicle  emblem as specified in paragraph (a) of this subdivision.  (ii)  (A)  Farm  machinery  and  implements  of  husbandry  and  other machinery including road construction and maintenance machinery designed to operate at a speed greater than twenty-five miles per hour  but  less than  forty  miles per hour, traveling on a public highway during day or night,  whether  self-propelled  or  used  in  combination,  shall  each  separately   display   a   slow-moving   vehicle   emblem  and  a  speed identification symbol as specified in paragraph (a) of this subdivision.  (B) If an agricultural tractor that is designed by its manufacturer to operate  at  a  speed  greater  than  twenty-five miles per hour but not greater than forty miles per hour is  being  operated  on  a  street  or highway at a speed greater than twenty-five miles per hour but less than forty miles per hour and is towing, pulling, or otherwise drawing a unit of   farm  machinery,  the  unit  of  farm  machinery  shall  display  a slow-moving vehicle emblem and a speed identification symbol that is the same as the  speed  identification  symbol  that  is  displayed  on  the agricultural tractor.  (C)  When  an  agricultural tractor is designed by its manufacturer to operate at a speed greater than twenty-five miles per hour but less than forty miles per hour is being operated on a street or highway at a speed greater than twenty-five miles per hour, the operator shall possess some documentation published or provided by the manufacturer  indicating  the maximum  speed  in miles per hour at which the manufacturer designed the agricultural tractor to operate.  (c) The use of such emblem and symbol shall  be  in  addition  to  any lighting  devices, flags or other equipment required by law. Such emblem and symbol shall be used  only  on  farm  machinery  and  implements  of husbandry  on  road  construction and maintenance machinery, and on such other  vehicles,  machinery  and  equipment  as  may  be  specified   in regulations  issued  by the commissioner. All use shall be in accordance with such regulations. Use of such emblem as a clearance  marker  or  on stationary objects on the highways is prohibited.   37.   The   commissioner   shall   promulgate  rules  and  regulations prescribing appropriate  cautionary  devices  to  be  affixed  to  motor vehicles  engaged  in  retail  sales  of  frozen  desserts  directly  to consumers which shall include, but not be  limited  to,  front  crossing arms to be activated only when such vehicle is stopped and its occupants are  engaged  in  such retail sales. Such rules and regulations shall be designed to warn oncoming vehicles of the likelihood of  pedestrians  in or  about  the vicinity of such sales oriented motor vehicles. No person shall engage in the retail sale by  motor  vehicle  of  frozen  desserts directly  to  consumers  in  violation  of  the  rules  and  regulations promulgated by the commissioner. As used in  this  subdivision,  "frozen desserts" shall mean ice cream, frozen custard, French ice cream, French custard   ice   cream,  artificially  sweetened  ice  cream,  ice  milk, artificially sweetened ice milk, fruit sherbet, non-fruit sherbet, water ices, non-fruit water ices, quiescently frozen  confection,  quiescently frozen  dairy  confection, manufactured desserts mix, frozen confection, mellorine frozen dessert, parevine, frozen yogurt, freezer made  shakes, freezer made milk shakes, lo-mel, and dietary frozen dessert as all such products  are  commonly known, together with any mix used in such frozen desserts and any products which are similar in appearance, odor or taste to such products, or are prepared  or  frozen  as  frozen  desserts  are customarily  prepared  or  frozen,  whether  made with dairy products or non-dairy products.   39. Every motor vehicle registered in this state and  manufactured  or assembled  after  October  first,  nineteen  hundred sixty-four shall be equipped with a defrosting  device,  in  good  working  order,  for  the purpose  of  preventing  the  formation of snow or ice on the windshield directly in front of the operator. For the purposes of this  subdivision the  term  "motor  vehicle"  shall  exclude  motorcycles,  tractors used exclusively  for   agricultural   purposes,   self-propelled   combines, self-propelled harvesting machines and farm equipment and self-propelled  caterpillar  or  crawler-type  equipment  while  being  operated  on the contract site.   40. Stop lamps. (a) Every motor vehicle, except a motorcycle, operated or  driven  upon the public highways of the state, if manufactured prior to January first, nineteen hundred fifty-two, shall be equipped with  at least  one stop lamp which shall display a red to amber light visible at least five hundred feet from the rear of the vehicle when the  brake  of such vehicle is applied.  (b)  Every motor vehicle, except a motorcycle, operated or driven upon the public highways of the state, if manufactured on  or  after  January first,  nineteen  hundred fifty-two, shall be equipped with at least two stop lamps, one on each side, each of which shall display a red to amber light visible at least five hundred feet from the rear  of  the  vehicle when the brake of such vehicle is applied.   41.  Colored  and  flashing lights. The provisions of this subdivision shall govern the affixing and display of lights on vehicles, other  than those lights required by law. 1. No light, other than a white light, and no revolving, rotating, flashing, oscillating or constantly moving white light  shall  be  affixed  to,  or  displayed  on  any vehicle except as prescribed herein.   2. Red lights and certain white lights. One or more red or combination red and white lights, or one white light  which  must  be  a  revolving, rotating,  flashing,  oscillating  or  constantly  moving  light, may be affixed to an authorized emergency  vehicle,  and  such  lights  may  be displayed  on  an  authorized  emergency  vehicle  when  such vehicle is engaged in an  emergency  operation,  and  upon  a  fire  vehicle  while returning from an alarm of fire or other emergency.   3.  Amber  lights.  a.  One  or  more amber lights may be affixed to a hazard vehicle, and such a light or lights which display an amber  light visible  to  all approaching traffic under normal atmospheric conditions from a distance  of  five  hundred  feet  from  such  vehicle  shall  be displayed  on  a  hazard  vehicle  when  such  vehicle  is  engaged in a hazardous operation.  Such light or lights shall not be required  to  be displayed  during daylight hours provided at least two red flags visible from a distance of five hundred feet are placed both in or on the  front of,  and  to or on the rear of the vehicle and two such flags are placed to each side of the vehicle open to traffic. Such lights or  flags  need not  be  displayed  on  the  vehicle  when  the vehicle is operating, or parked, within a barricaded work area  and  said  lights  or  flags  are displayed on the barricade. The provisions of this subdivision shall not prohibit the temporary affixing and display of an amber light to be used as  a warning on a disabled motor vehicle or on a motor vehicle while it is stopped on a highway  while  engaged  in  an  operation  which  would restrict, impede or interfere with the normal flow of traffic.   b.  In  any  city  in this state having a population of one million or more, one amber light may be affixed  to  any  motor  vehicle  owned  or operated  by  a  volunteer member of a civilian or crime patrol provided such volunteer civilian or crime patrol member has  been  authorized  in writing  to  so  affix  an amber light by the police commissioner of the municipality in which he patrols, which authorization shall  be  subject to revocation at any time by the police commissioner who issued the same or  his  successor  in  office. Such amber light may be operated by such volunteer civilian or crime patrol member in such a  vehicle  only  when engaged  in  a  patrol  operation as defined and authorized by rules and regulations promulgated by the police commissioner and only  in  such  a manner and at such times as may be authorized by the police commissioner pursuant to said rules and regulations.    4.  Blue light.  a. One blue light may be affixed to any motor vehicle owned by a volunteer member of a fire department or on a  motor  vehicle owned by a member of such person's family residing in the same household or  by  a  business  enterprise  in  which such person has a proprietary interest  or  by  which  he  or she is employed, provided such volunteer firefighter has been authorized in writing to so affix a blue  light  by the  chief  of  the  fire  department or company of which he or she is a member, which authorization shall be subject to revocation at  any  time by the chief who issued the same or his or her successor in office. Such blue light may be displayed exclusively by such volunteer firefighter on such  a  vehicle only when engaged in an emergency operation. The use of blue lights on vehicles shall be restricted for use only by a  volunteer firefighter  except as otherwise provided for in subparagraphs b and b-1 of this paragraph.   b. In addition to the red and white lights authorized to be  displayed pursuant  to  paragraph two of this subdivision, one or more blue lights or combination blue and red lights or combination blue,  red  and  white lights  may  be  affixed  to  a police vehicle, fire vehicle, ambulance, emergency  ambulance  service  vehicle,  and  county  emergency  medical services  vehicle  provided  that  such  blue  light  or lights shall be displayed on  a  police  vehicle,  fire  vehicle,  ambulance,  emergency ambulance service vehicle, and county emergency medical services vehicle for  rear projection only. In the event that the trunk or rear gate of a police vehicle, fire vehicle,  ambulance,  emergency  ambulance  service vehicle,  and  county  emergency  medical  services vehicle obstructs or diminishes the visibility of other emergency lighting on such  vehicles, a  blue  light may be affixed to and displayed from the trunk, rear gate or interior of such vehicles. Such lights may be displayed on  a  police vehicle,  fire  vehicle, ambulance, emergency ambulance service vehicle, and county emergency medical services vehicle  when  such  vehicles  are engaged   in   an   emergency   operation.  Nothing  contained  in  this subparagraph shall be deemed to authorize the  use  of  blue  lights  on police  vehicles, fire vehicles, ambulances, emergency ambulance service vehicles, and county emergency medical  services  vehicles  unless  such vehicles  also  display  one  or  more  red or combination red and white lights as otherwise authorized in this subdivision.   b-1. In addition  to  the  amber  light  authorized  to  be  displayed pursuant to paragraph three of this subdivision, one or more blue lights or  combination blue and amber lights may be affixed to a hazard vehicle designed for the towing or pushing of disabled  vehicles  provided  that such  blue  light  or lights shall be displayed on such a hazard vehicle for rear projection only. Such blue light or lights may be displayed  on a hazard vehicle designed for the towing or pushing of disabled vehicles when  such  vehicle  is  engaged  in  a  hazardous operation and is also displaying the amber light or lights required to be displayed  during  a hazardous  operation  pursuant  to  paragraph three of this subdivision. Nothing contained in this subparagraph shall be deemed to authorize  the use of blue lights on hazard vehicles designed for the towing or pushing of  disabled  vehicles  unless  such hazard vehicles also display one or more amber lights as otherwise authorized in this subdivision.   c. The commissioner is authorized to promulgate rules and  regulations relating  to  the  use, placement, power and display of blue lights on a police vehicle, fire vehicle, and hazard vehicle designed for the towing or pushing of disabled vehicles.   5. Green light. One green light may be affixed to  any  motor  vehicle owned  by  a  member  of  a  volunteer  ambulance service, or on a motor vehicle owned by a member of such person's  family,  or  by  a  business enterprise  in  which such person has a proprietary interest or by which  he is employed, provided such member has been authorized in  writing  to so  affix  a  green  light  by  the  chief  officer  of  such service as designated by the members thereof. Such green  light  may  be  displayed exclusively  by  such  member of a volunteer ambulance service only when engaged in an emergency operation. The use of green lights  on  vehicles shall  be  restricted  for use only by a member of a volunteer ambulance service as provided for in this paragraph.   As used in this paragraph volunteer  ambulance  service  means:  a.  a non-profit  membership  corporation  (other  than  a  fire  corporation) incorporated under or  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  membership corporations   law,  or  any  other  law,  operating  its  ambulance  or ambulances on a non-profit basis for  the  convenience  of  the  members thereof  and their families or of the community or under a contract with a county,  city,  town  or  village  pursuant  to  section  one  hundred twenty-two-b of the general municipal law; or   b. an unincorporated association of persons operating its ambulance or ambulances  on a non-profit basis for the convenience of the members and their families or of the community.   6. The commissioner  is  authorized  to  promulgate  regulations  with respect  to the affixing and display of colored lights and to promulgate specifications with respect to such lights.   7.  The  provisions  of  this  subdivision  forty-one  shall  not   be applicable  to vehicles from other states or from the Dominion of Canada which have entered this state to render police, fire  or  civil  defense aid, or ambulance service, while such vehicles are here or are returning to  their  home  stations if the lights on such vehicles comply with the laws of their home states or the Dominion of Canada and are displayed in this state in the same manner permitted by  their  home  states  or  the Dominion  of  Canada,  nor  shall  the  provisions  of  this subdivision forty-one be deemed to amend, supersede or  in  any  manner  affect  the provisions  of  the New York state defense emergency act as now in force or as it may be amended from time to time.   8. The provisions of this subdivision shall not be applicable  to  the driver  of  a  vehicle  from another state or foreign jurisdiction which vehicle  has  colored  lights  affixed  but  not  revolving,   rotating, flashing, oscillating or constantly moving if the lights on such vehicle comply  with the laws of the state or home foreign jurisdiction in which the vehicle is registered.   42. Every motor vehicle registered in this state which is manufactured or assembled on or after September first, nineteen  hundred  eighty  and operated or driven upon the highways of the state shall be equipped with a  speedometer  device  which  is capable of measuring the speed of such vehicle and displaying the same in miles per hour.   43. No dealer shall sell a motor vehicle or a trailer which is  to  be registered  in  this  state unless such motor vehicle or trailer has all the equipment required for operation on  the  public  highways  of  this state.   44.  Driver education vehicles. Any motor vehicle used for the purpose of driving instruction for hire or for driver education by a school  and being operated by a person receiving such instruction or education shall bear  identification, visible to both oncoming and following traffic, to indicate that the vehicle is being  driven  by  a  student  driver.  The commissioner may establish standards for such identification.   45.  Hydrocarbon gas powered vehicles. It shall be unlawful to operate upon any public highway or street in this state  a  motor  vehicle  that uses hydrocarbon gas as its primary or secondary fuel supply, unless the motor  vehicle  conspicuously  displays a reflective placard designed to alert emergency personnel to the extraordinary hazards which  may  arise  from  proximity  with  this fuel. The commissioner shall, in cooperation with the state fire  administrator,  establish  regulations  as  to  the location and design of this warning placard.   46.  Tamper-resistant  odometers or speedometers. It shall be unlawful after July first, nineteen hundred  ninety-one  for  any  person,  firm, association or corporation to sell or offer for sale in this state a new motor  vehicle  which  is  to  be registered in this state and which was manufactured or assembled on or after  such  date,  and  designed  as  a nineteen  hundred  ninety-two  or  later  model,  unless such vehicle is equipped with a tamper-resistant odometer or speedometer  designed  with the  intent  to  reduce  the  likelihood  of unlawful tampering with the mileage reading thereon.   The commissioner shall promulgate such rules and regulations  relative to tamper-resistant odometers and speedometers on motor vehicles and the approval  of  the  same  as  are not inconsistent with the provisions of federal law, if any, relating thereto. Such rules shall, at  a  minimum, require odometers and speedometers which indicate mileage with a minimum of  six  digits exclusive of digits indicating fractions of a mile. This section shall not apply to motorcycles.   47. (a) It shall be unlawful for any person to operate or cause to  be operated,  an audio amplification system which is operated in, installed in or powered by a vehicle which generates an A-weighted sound level  in excess  of  seventy  dB  (A)  measured at, or adjusted to, a distance of twenty-five feet from the vehicle which is driven, standing,  or  parked on  a  public  highway,  or  within one hundred feet of a public highway unless that system is being operated to request assistance or warn of  a hazardous   situation.  This  section  shall  not  apply  to  authorized emergency vehicles or vehicles operated by gas, electric, communications or water utilities. This section shall not apply to the sound systems of vehicles used for advertising, or in parades, political or other special events, except that the use of sound systems on those motor vehicles may be prohibited by a local authority by ordinance or local law.  (b) Any person convicted of a violation of this section  shall  for  a first  conviction  thereof  be  punished  by a fine of up to one hundred fifty dollars; for a conviction of a second  violation,  both  of  which were  committed within a period of eighteen months, such person shall be guilty of a traffic infraction and shall be punished by a  fine  of  not less  than  one  hundred  fifty  dollars and not more than three hundred dollars; upon conviction of a third  or  subsequent  violation,  all  of which  were  committed  within  a period of eighteen months, such person shall be guilty of a traffic infraction and shall be punished by a  fine of  not  less  than three hundred seventy-five dollars and not more than seven hundred fifty dollars.   48.  Bumpers  or  similar  devices.  (a)  For  the  purposes  of  this subdivision, the following terms shall have the following meanings:  (i)  Bumper.  A  system,  the  primary function of which is to provide protection against damage affecting front or rear external  lamps,  body parts and vehicle occupants during low speed impacts.  (ii)  Passenger  car.  A  motor  vehicle  whose body style is a sedan, hardtop, coupe, convertible, station wagon or hatchback but not  a  van, minivan,  multipurpose  passenger vehicle, truck, tractor, motorcycle or bus.  (b) No person shall operate a passenger car  registered  in  New  York unless  it  is equipped with both a front and rear bumper, each securely fastened and with some part of the bumper located between sixteen inches and twenty inches above the ground. This provision shall not apply to  a vehicle registered as an historical vehicle.  (c)  Except  insofar as paragraph (b) of this subdivision shall apply, no person shall operate a motor vehicle designated as a nineteen hundred ninety or newer model year vehicle, which is registered in  this  state, except  a  motorcycle  or  special purpose commercial vehicle registered under  schedule  F  of  subdivision seven of section four hundred one of this chapter, which is so constructed that the body has a  clearance  at the  front  end  of  more than thirty inches from the ground when empty, unless the front end of the vehicle is equipped with bumpers or  devices serving  similar purposes which shall be so constructed and located that (i) some part of the bumpers or devices must be at least sixteen but not more than thirty inches above the ground with the  vehicle  empty;  (ii) the  maximum  distance  between  the  closest  points between bumpers or devices, if more than one is used, shall not exceed twenty-four  inches; (iii)  the maximum transverse distance from the widest part of the motor vehicle at the front to the bumper or device shall not  exceed  eighteen inches;   and  (iv)  the  bumpers  or  devices  shall  be  substantially constructed  and  firmly  attached.  A  motor  vehicle  constructed  and maintained  so  that  the  body,  chassis, or other parts of the vehicle afford the front end protection contemplated shall be deemed  to  be  in compliance with this section.  (d)  Except  insofar as paragraph (b) of this subdivision shall apply, no person shall operate a motor vehicle or a  combination  of  vehicles, designated  as  a  nineteen  hundred ninety or newer model year vehicle, except  a  tractor,  pole  trailer,  vehicle  engaged  in   saddle-mount operation,  motorcycle  or special purpose commercial vehicle registered under schedule F of subdivision seven of section  four  hundred  one  of this  chapter,  if  the  motor  vehicle is registered in this state, and which is so constructed that the body, or the chassis  assembly  without the  body,  has  a  clearance at the rear end of more than thirty inches from the ground when empty, unless  the  rear  end  of  the  vehicle  or combination  of  vehicles  is  equipped  with bumpers or devices serving similar purposes which shall be so constructed  and  located  that:  (i) some  part  of  the  bumpers or devices must be at least sixteen but not more than thirty inches above the ground with the  vehicle  empty;  (ii) the  maximum  distance  between  the  closest points between bumpers, or devices, if more than one is used, shall not exceed twenty-four  inches; (iii)  the maximum transverse distance from the widest part of the motor vehicle at the rear to the bumper or device shall  not  exceed  eighteen inches;  (iv)  the  bumpers  or  devices  shall be located not more than twenty-four inches forward of the extreme rear of the vehicle;  and  (v) the  bumpers  or  devices  shall be substantially constructed and firmly attached. Motor vehicles constructed and maintained so  that  the  body, chassis,  or  other  parts of the vehicle afford the rear end protection contemplated shall be deemed to be in compliance with this section.   49. Truck warning lights.  (a) Every truck registered  in  this  state and  manufactured  or  assembled after September first, nineteen hundred ninety-two, which has a  bed  capable  of  being  tilted  or  lifted  by controls  that  are  located  within  the cab of such truck and which is operated upon any public highway  or  street  in  this  state  shall  be equipped  with a warning light in its cab that is activated whenever the bed of the truck is elevated.  (b) Every  tractor  registered  in  this  state  and  manufactured  or assembled after September first, nineteen hundred ninety-three, which is used  primarily  for  the towing of a trailer capable of being tilted or lifted and which is operated upon any public highway or street  in  this state  shall  be  equipped  with  a  warning  light  in  its cab that is activated whenever the trailer is elevated.    50. Taxicab partitions and shields. Every taxicab registered  in  this state  and  registered  or  licensed  by  a  city,  town  or  village of seventy-five thousand persons or more pursuant to  section  one  hundred eighty-one  of  the  general  municipal  law  shall be equipped with (a) partitions  or shields made of plexiglass or other shatterproof material located between and effectively separating the front and rear seats, and (b) amber colored distress lights, mounted on  and  clearly  visible  to passersby  from  the  front  and rear of the taxicab; provided, however, that the requirements of this subdivision shall not  apply  to  taxicabs registered or licensed by such city, town or village which elects not to be  subjected to the requirements of this subdivision pursuant to a duly enacted or adopted local law, ordinance or regulation. Nothing contained herein shall be construed to restrict the  power  of  a  city,  town  or village  which  elects  not  to  be  subject to the requirements of this subdivision to adopt or enforce a local  law,  ordinance  or  regulation regarding the use of taxicab partitions and distress lights.   * 51.  Taxicab,  livery  and  stretch  limousine  notices.  (a)  Every taxicab, livery, and altered motor vehicle commonly  referred  to  as  a "stretch  limousine"  which  was  altered on or after January first, two thousand twenty-one or retrofitted  pursuant  to  subdivision  one-a  of section  three  hundred  eighty-three of this article registered in this state shall have posted therein the following notice: "Seatbelts must be available for your use. You must buckle up, it's the law."  (b) The notices required to be posted pursuant  to  paragraph  (a)  of this  subdivision shall be posted in a manner legible and conspicuous to passengers in all seating positions of such vehicles. Provided, however, that in addition to the requirements of  this  paragraph,  such  notices posted  within  taxis and liveries subject to registration and licensing by cities having a population of one  million  or  more  shall  also  be provided  in  the  top two designated citywide languages as such term is defined in section 23-1101 of the administrative code of the city of New York.   * NB Repealed upon notification that any federal agency determines  in writing  that  chapter 10 of 2020 would render New York state ineligible for the receipt of federal funds or any court of competent  jurisdiction finally  determines that said chapter would render New York state out of compliance with federal law or regulation (see chapter 10 of 2020 § 6)   * 51. Taxicab  and  livery  notices.  (a)  Every  taxicab  and  livery registered in this state shall have posted therein the following notice: "Seatbelts must be available for your use. Please buckle up."  (b)  The  notices  required  to be posted pursuant to paragraph (a) of this subdivision shall be posted in a manner legible and conspicuous  to passengers in all seating positions of such vehicles.   * NB Effective upon repeal (see chapter 10 of 2020 § 6)   52.  No  police  vehicle  owned  by  the  state, a public authority, a county, town, city or village shall be sold unless, prior to such  sale, such  vehicle is decommissioned and any distinctive markings and affixed lights which would designate it in the public's view as  such  a  police vehicle  have been removed. The commissioner of the division of criminal justice  services,  in  consultation  with   the   commissioner,   shall promulgate  rules  and  regulations  determining  the specifications for decommissioning police vehicles and for the removal of such  distinctive markings and affixed lights prior to sale.   53.  Federal  motor  vehicle  safety  standard certification label. No person shall, with intent to defraud, knowingly remove, deface, destroy, cover, alter, or otherwise change the form or appearance  of  a  federal motor  vehicle safety standard certification label, issued in accordance with section 30115 of title 49 of the United States Code and part 567 of  title 49 of the  code  of  federal  regulations,  on  an  altered  motor vehicle.  No  person  shall, with intent to defraud, affix to an altered motor vehicle a federal  motor  vehicle  safety  standard  certification label  except in accordance with section 30115 of title 49 of the United States Code and part 567 of title 49 of the code of federal regulations. A violation of this subdivision shall be punishable as a misdemeanor.   * 54. Stretch limousine commercial GPS. (a)  Every  stretch  limousine registered  in  this  state  shall  be  equipped  with commercial global positioning system (GPS) technology within no later than one year of the date upon which  the  national  highway  traffic  safety  administration promulgates final regulations establishing standards for commercial GPS.  (b)  It shall be unlawful to operate or cause to be operated a stretch limousine registered in this state on any public highway or private road open to public motor vehicle traffic unless such  stretch  limousine  is equipped  with  commercial global positioning system (GPS) technology as required by this subdivision  and  such  commercial  global  positioning system  (GPS) technology is used. The presence in such stretch limousine of commercial global positioning system (GPS) technology connected to  a power source and in an operable condition is presumptive evidence of its use by any person operating such stretch limousine. Such presumption may be  rebutted  by  any credible and reliable evidence which tends to show that such commercial global positioning system (GPS) technology was  not in use.  (c) For the purposes of this subdivision:  (i)  "Stretch  limousine" shall mean an altered motor vehicle having a seating capacity of nine  or  more  passengers,  including  the  driver, commonly  referred  to as a "stretch limousine" and which is used in the business of transporting passengers for compensation; and  (ii) "Commercial global positioning  system  (GPS)  technology"  shall mean   global   positioning  system  (GPS)  technology  which  has  been specifically designed to assist in the navigation  of  commercial  motor vehicles.   * NB Effective until April 6, 2022   * 54.  Stretch  limousine  and  charter  bus commercial GPS. (a) Every stretch limousine and charter bus registered  in  this  state  shall  be equipped  with  commercial  global  positioning  system (GPS) technology within no later than one year  of  the  date  upon  which  the  national highway  traffic  safety  administration  promulgates  final regulations establishing standards for commercial GPS.  (b) It shall be unlawful to operate or cause to be operated a  stretch limousine  or charter bus registered in this state on any public highway or private road open to public motor vehicle traffic unless such stretch limousine or charter bus is equipped with commercial global  positioning system  (GPS)  technology  as  required  by  this  subdivision  and such commercial global positioning  system  (GPS)  technology  is  used.  The presence  in  such stretch limousine or charter bus of commercial global positioning system (GPS) technology connected to a power source  and  in an  operable  condition is presumptive evidence of its use by any person operating such stretch limousine or charter bus. Such presumption may be rebutted by any credible and reliable evidence which tends to show  that such  commercial  global  positioning system (GPS) technology was not in use.  (c) For the purposes of this subdivision:  (i) "Stretch limousine" shall mean an altered motor vehicle  having  a seating  capacity  of  nine  or  more  passengers, including the driver, commonly referred to as a "stretch limousine" and which is used  in  the business of transporting passengers for compensation;  (ii)  "Charter  bus"  shall  mean  a  bus  transporting passengers for compensation in a chartered party;  (iii) "Chartered party" shall mean a group of persons who, pursuant to a common purpose and under a single contract and at a fixed charge, have acquired  exclusive  use  of  a  bus  to travel together as a group to a specific destination or for a particular itinerary either agreed upon in advance or modified after having left the place of origin by such group; and  (iv) "Commercial global positioning  system  (GPS)  technology"  shall mean   global   positioning  system  (GPS)  technology  which  has  been specifically designed to assist in the navigation  of  commercial  motor vehicles.   * NB  Effective  April 6, 2022 and Repealed upon notification that any federal agency determines in writing  that  chapter  11  of  2020  would render New York state ineligible for the receipt of federal funds or any court  of  competent  jurisdiction  finally determines that said chapter would render New York state  out  of  compliance  with  federal  law  or regulation (see chapter 11 of 2020 § 3)