此條目介紹的是主题的导论，行文力图简单、通俗易懂，避免深奥术语。关于该主题的详细描述，请见「**廣義相對論中的數學**」。

| 廣義相對論 |
| --- |
| Spacetime curvature schematic爱因斯坦场方程 |
| * + 廣義相對論入門
	+ 歷史
* 廣義相對論中的數學
* + 广义相对论的实验验证
 |
| 基礎概念
* 等效原理
* 狭义相对论
* 世界线
* 黎曼几何
 |
| 現象

|  |
| --- |
| * 重力電磁性
* 广义相对论中的开普勒问题
* 引力
* 引力場
* 重力井（英语：）
* 引力透镜
* 重力波 (相對論)
* 重力紅移
* 紅移
* 蓝移
* 時間膨脹
* 引力時間膨脹
* 引力时间延迟效应
* 重力位
* Gravitational compression（英语：）
* 引力坍缩
* 参考系拖拽
* 测地线效应
* 引力奇点
* 事件視界
* 裸奇異點
* 黑洞
* 白洞
 |
| 时空 |
| * 空間
* 时间
* 闵可夫斯基图
* 閔考斯基時空
* 封閉類時曲線 (CTC)
* 虫洞
	+ Ellis wormhole（英语：）
 |

 |
| * 方程式
* 形式主義

| 
方程式 |
| --- |
| * 線性化重力
* 爱因斯坦场方程
* 弗里德曼方程
* Geodesics（英语：）
* Mathisson–Papapetrou–Dixon（英语：）
* 哈密顿-雅可比-爱因斯坦方程
* Curvature invariant (general relativity)（英语：）
* 伪黎曼流形
 |
| 
形式主義 |
| * ADM（英语：）
* BSSN（英语：）
* 後牛頓（英语：）
 |
| 
Advanced theory |
| * 卡魯扎-克萊因理論
* 量子引力
 |

 |
| 解（英语：）
* 史瓦西度規 (interior（英语：）)
* 萊斯納-諾德斯特洛姆度規
* Gödel（英语：）
* 克爾度規
* 克尔-纽曼度规
* Kasner（英语：）
* 托尔曼度规
* 托布-NUT度規
* 米尔恩模型
* 弗里德曼-勒梅特-罗伯逊-沃尔克度规
* pp-wave（英语：）
* van Stockum dust（英语：）
* Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou（英语：）
* 真空解 (廣義相對論)（英语：）
* 真空解（英语：）
 |
| 科學家
* 阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦
* 亨德里克·洛伦兹
* 大卫·希尔伯特
* 儒勒·昂利·庞加莱
* 卡爾·史瓦西
* 威廉·德西特
* 汉斯·赖斯纳
* 贡纳尔·努德斯特伦
* 赫尔曼·外尔
* 亚瑟·爱丁顿
* 亞歷山大·弗里德曼
* 愛德華·亞瑟·米爾恩
* 弗里茨·兹威基
* 乔治·勒梅特
* 库尔特·哥德尔
* 約翰·惠勒
* Robertson（英语：）
* 詹姆斯·M·巴丁
* Walker（英语：）
* 羅伊·克爾
* 苏布拉马尼扬·钱德拉塞卡
* Ehlers（英语：）
* 羅傑·潘洛斯
* 史蒂芬·霍金
* Raychaudhuri（英语：）
* 约瑟夫·泰勒
* 拉塞尔·赫尔斯
* 范·斯托克姆（英语：）
* 托布（英语：）
* Newman（英语：）
* 丘成桐
* 基普·索恩
* 其他（英语：）
 |
| * 
* 论
* 编
 |

**廣義相對論所使用的數學**很複雜。牛頓的運動理論中，物體做加速度運動時，其長度和時間流逝的速率保持定值，這表示牛頓力學中的許多問題用代數就能解決。然而，相對論中的物體在運動速度接近光速時，長度和時間流逝的速率會有可觀的改變，這表示要計算物體的運動必須用上更多變數和複雜的數學，如向量、張量、偽張量、曲線座標（英语：）等概念。

向量與張量
-----

条目：向量和張量
### 向量

典型向量的圖示。
在數學、物理學及工程學中，歐幾里得向量（有時也稱為「幾何向量」、「空間向量」，或單稱「向量」）是同時有量值（長度）和方向的幾何對象。一個向量將A點「搬運」至B點；向量的拉丁文「vector」意思為「搬運東西的東西」。向量的量值就是兩點之間的距離，方向則為A到B的位移方向。很多實數的代數運算（英语：），像加、減、乘、邏輯非，和向量的運算很類似，運算也遵守相似的代數法則，如交換律、結合律、分配律。

### 張量

壓力是二階張量。箱子上各面一系列的向量代表壓力
張量將向量的概念延伸至額外的維度。純量是沒有方向的量，是單純的數字，在圖上以點來表示，是零維的物件。向量則有量值和方向，在圖上以線呈現，是一維的物件。張量延伸了向量的概念，一個二維的張量稱為二階張量，可以看成一組相關的向量，在一個平面上的多個方向移動。

### 應用

向量在物理科學裡很基礎。他們可用來代表所有同時有量值和方向的量，例如速度。速度的量值為速率。舉例而言，每秒五公尺向上的速度可以向量（0, 5）表示（在二維以y軸的正方向表示向上）。力的量也能以向量表示，因為它有量值和方向。向量也能描述很多其他的物理量，如位移、加速度、動量和角動量。其他物理向量，如電場和磁場，以物理空間中所有點的向量系統表示，也就是向量場。

張量在物理中也有延伸應用：

* 电磁学中的電磁張量（或法拉第張量）
* 在连续介质力学中的形變描述形變和應變張量的有限應變張量
* 电容率和電極化率是各向异性介質中的張量
* 廣義相對論中的應力-能量張量，用來表示动量的通量
* 球張量算符是球座標系中量子角動量算符的特徵函數
* 擴散張量是擴散磁振造影的基礎，代表生物環境中的擴散率

### 維度

廣義相對論需要用到四維向量，或稱四向量。這四維為長、寬、高、時間。其中的「點」代表事件，因為它同時包含地點和時間。類似向量，相對論中的張量也需要四維。其中一個例子就是黎曼曲率張量。

### 座標轉換

已隱藏部分未翻譯内容，歡迎參與翻譯。
A vector **v**, is shown with two coordinate grids, *ex* and *er*. In space, there is no clear coordinate grid to use. This means that the coordinate system changes based on the location and orientation of the observer. Observer *ex* and *er* in this image are facing different directions.Here we see that *ex* and *er* see the vector differently. The direction of the vector is the same. But to *ex*, the vector is moving to its left. To *er*, the vector is moving to its right.
In physics, as well as mathematics, a vector is often identified with a tuple, or list of numbers, which depend on some auxiliary coordinate system or reference frame. When the coordinates are transformed, for example by rotation or stretching of the coordinate system, then the components of the vector also transform. The vector itself has not changed, but the reference frame has, so the components of the vector (or measurements taken with respect to the reference frame) must change to compensate.

The vector is called *covariant* or *contravariant* depending on how the transformation of the vector's components is related to the transformation of coordinates. 

* Contravariant vectors are "regular vectors" with units of distance (such as a displacement) or distance times some other unit (such as velocity or acceleration). For example, in changing units from meters to millimeters, a displacement of 1 m becomes 1000 mm.
* Covariant vectors, on the other hand, have units of one-over-distance (typically such as gradient). For example, in changing again from meters to millimeters, a gradient of 1 K/m becomes 0.001 K/mm.

In Einstein notation, contravariant vectors and components of tensors are shown with superscripts, e.g. *xi*, and covariant vectors and components of tensors with subscripts, e.g. *xi*. Indices are "raised" or "lowered" by multiplication by an appropriate matrix, often the identity matrix.

Coordinate transformation is important because relativity states that there is no one correct reference point in the universe. On earth, we use dimensions like north, east, and elevation, which are used throughout the entire planet. There is no such system for space. Without a clear reference grid, it becomes more accurate to describe the four dimensions as towards/away, left/right, up/down and past/future. As an example event, take the signing of the Declaration of Independence. To a modern observer on Mount Rainier looking east, the event is ahead, to the right, below, and in the past. However, to an observer in medieval England looking north, the event is behind, to the left, neither up nor down, and in the future. The event itself has not changed, the location of the observer has.

斜軸
--

An oblique coordinate system is one in which the axes are not necessarily orthogonal to each other; that is, they meet at angles other than right angles. When using coordinate transformations as described above, the new coordinate system will often appear to have oblique axes compared to the old system.

非張量
---

参见：偽張量
A nontensor is a tensor-like quantity that behaves like a tensor in the raising and lowering of indices, but that does not transform like a tensor under a coordinate transformation. For example, Christoffel symbols cannot be tensors themselves if the coordinates don't change in a linear way.

In general relativity, one cannot describe the energy and momentum of the gravitational field by an energy–momentum tensor. Instead, one introduces objects that behave as tensors only with respect to restricted coordinate transformations. Strictly speaking, such objects are not tensors at all. A famous example of such a pseudotensor is the Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor（英语：）.

曲線座標和彎曲時空
---------

High-precision test of general relativity by the Cassini space probe (artist's impression): radio signals sent between the Earth and the probe (green wave) are delayed by the warping of space and time (blue lines) due to the Sun's mass. That is, the Sun's mass causes the regular grid coordinate system (in blue) to distort and have curvature. The radio wave then follows this curvature and moves toward the Sun.
Curvilinear coordinates（英语：） are coordinates in which the angles between axes can change from point to point. This means that rather than having a grid of straight lines, the grid instead has curvature.

A good example of this is the surface of the Earth. While maps frequently portray north, south, east and west as a simple square grid, that is not in fact the case. Instead, the longitude lines running north and south are curved and meet at the north pole. This is because the Earth is not flat, but instead round.

In general relativity, gravity has curvature effects on the four dimensions of the universe. A common analogy is placing a heavy object on a stretched out rubber sheet, causing the sheet to bend downward. This curves the coordinate system around the object, much like an object in the universe curves the coordinate system it sits in. The mathematics here are conceptually more complex than on Earth, as it results in four dimensions of curved coordinates instead of three as used to describe a curved 2D surface.

平行移動
----

条目：平行移動
Example: Parallel displacement along a circle of a three-dimensional ball embedded in two dimensions. The circle of radius *r* is embedded in a two-dimensional space characterized by the coordinates *z*1 and *z*2. The circle itself is characterized by coordinates *y*1 and *y*2 in the two-dimensional space. The circle itself is one-dimensional and can be characterized by its arc length *x*. The coordinate *y* is related to the coordinate *x* through the relation *y*1 = *r* cos *x*/*r* and *y*2 = *r* sin *x*/*r*. This gives ∂*y*1/∂*x* = −sin *x*/*r* and ∂*y*2/∂*x* = cos *x*/*r* In this case the metric is a scalar and is given by *g* = cos2 *x*/*r* + sin2 *x*/*r* = 1. The interval is then *ds*2 = *g dx*2 = *dx*2. The interval is just equal to the arc length as expected.
### 高維空間中的區間

In a Euclidean space, the separation between two points is measured by the distance between the two points. The distance is purely spatial, and is always positive. In spacetime, the separation between two events is measured by the *invariant interval* between the two events, which takes into account not only the spatial separation between the events, but also their temporal separation. The interval, *s*2, between two events is defined as:

{\displaystyle s^{2}=\Delta r^{2}-c^{2}\Delta t^{2}\,}     (spacetime interval),
where *c* is the speed of light, and Δ*r* and Δ*t* denote differences of the space and time coordinates, respectively, between the events. The choice of signs for *s*2 above follows the space-like convention (−+++)（英语：）. A notation like Δ*r*2 means (Δ*r*)2. The reason *s*2 is called the interval and not *s* is that *s*2 can be positive, zero or negative.

Spacetime intervals may be classified into three distinct types, based on whether the temporal separation (*c*2Δ*t*2) or the spatial separation (Δ*r*2) of the two events is greater: time-like, light-like or space-like.

Certain types of world lines are called geodesics of the spacetime – straight lines in the case of Minkowski space and their closest equivalent in the curved spacetime of general relativity. In the case of purely time-like paths, geodesics are (locally) the paths of greatest separation (spacetime interval) as measured along the path between two events, whereas in Euclidean space and Riemannian manifolds, geodesics are paths of shortest distance between two points. The concept of geodesics becomes central in general relativity, since geodesic motion may be thought of as "pure motion" (inertial motion) in spacetime, that is, free from any external influences.

### 協變導數

条目：協變導數
The covariant derivative is a generalization of the directional derivative from vector calculus. As with the directional derivative, the covariant derivative is a rule, which takes as its inputs: (1) a vector, **u**, (along which the derivative is taken) defined at a point *P*, and (2) a vector field, **v**, defined in a neighborhood of *P*. The output is a vector, also at the point *P*. The primary difference from the usual directional derivative is that the covariant derivative must, in a certain precise sense, be independent of the manner in which it is expressed in a coordinate system.

### 平行移動

Given the covariant derivative, one can define the parallel transport of a vector **v** at a point *P* along a curve *γ* starting at *P*. For each point *x* of *γ*, the parallel transport of **v** at *x* will be a function of *x*, and can be written as **v**(*x*), where **v**(0) = **v**. The function **v** is determined by the requirement that the covariant derivative of **v**(*x*) along *γ* is 0. This is similar to the fact that a constant function is one whose derivative is constantly 0.

### 克里斯多福符號

条目：克里斯多福符號
The equation for the covariant derivative can be written in terms of Christoffel symbols. The Christoffel symbols find frequent use in Einstein's theory of general relativity, where spacetime is represented by a curved 4-dimensional Lorentz manifold with a Levi-Civita connection. The Einstein field equations – which determine the geometry of spacetime in the presence of matter – contain the Ricci tensor. Since the Ricci tensor is derived from the Riemann tensor, which can be written in terms of Christoffel symbols, a calculation of the Christoffel symbols is essential. Once the geometry is determined, the paths of particles and light beams are calculated by solving the geodesic equations（英语：） in which the Christoffel symbols explicitly appear.

測地線
---

条目：廣義相對論中的測地線
In general relativity, a **geodesic** generalizes the notion of a "straight line" to curved spacetime. Importantly, the world line of a particle free from all external, non-gravitational force, is a particular type of geodesic. In other words, a freely moving or falling particle always moves along a geodesic.

In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting around a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved 4-dimensional spacetime geometry around the star onto 3-dimensional space.

A curve is a geodesic if the tangent vector（英语：） of the curve at any point is equal to the parallel transport of the tangent vector（英语：） of the base point.

曲率張量
----

条目：黎曼曲率張量
The Riemann tensor tells us, mathematically, how much curvature there is in any given region of space. Contracting the tensor produces 3 different mathematical objects:

1. The Riemann curvature tensor: *Rρσμν*, which gives the most information on the curvature of a space and is derived from derivatives of the metric tensor. In flat space this tensor is zero.
2. The Ricci tensor: *Rσν*, comes from the need in Einstein's theory for a curvature tensor with only 2 indices. It is obtained by averaging certain portions of the Riemann curvature tensor.
3. The scalar curvature: *R*, the simplest measure of curvature, assigns a single scalar value to each point in a space. It is obtained by averaging the Ricci tensor.

The Riemann curvature tensor can be expressed in terms of the covariant derivative.

The Einstein tensor **G** is a rank-2 tensor defined over pseudo-Riemannian manifolds. In index-free notation it is defined as

{\displaystyle \mathbf {G} =\mathbf {R} -{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {g} R,}
where **R** is the Ricci tensor, **g** is the metric tensor and *R* is the scalar curvature. It is used in the Einstein field equations.

應力-能量張量
-------

条目：應力-能量張量
Contravariant components of the stress–energy tensor.
The **stress–energy tensor** (sometimes **stress–energy–momentum tensor** or **energy–momentum tensor**) is a tensor quantity in physics that describes the density and flux of energy and momentum in spacetime, generalizing the stress tensor of Newtonian physics. It is an attribute of matter, radiation, and non-gravitational force field（英语：）s. The stress–energy tensor is the source of the gravitational field in the Einstein field equations of general relativity, just as mass density is the source of such a field in Newtonian gravity.

愛因斯坦方程
------

条目：愛因斯坦場方程
The **Einstein field equations** (**EFE**) or **Einstein's equations** are a set of 10 equations in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity which describe the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy. First published by Einstein in 1915 as a tensor equation, the EFE equate local spacetime curvature (expressed by the Einstein tensor) with the local energy and momentum within that spacetime (expressed by the stress–energy tensor).

The Einstein Field Equations can be written as

{\displaystyle G\_{\mu \nu }={8\pi G \over c^{4}}T\_{\mu \nu },}
where *Gμν* is the Einstein tensor and *Tμν* is the stress–energy tensor.

This implies that the curvature of space (represented by the Einstein tensor) is directly connected to the presence of matter and energy (represented by the stress–energy tensor).

史瓦西解與黑洞
-------

条目：史瓦西度規
In Einstein's theory of general relativity, the **Schwarzschild metric** (also **Schwarzschild vacuum** or **Schwarzschild solution**), is a solution to the Einstein field equations which describes the gravitational field outside a spherical mass, on the assumption that the electric charge of the mass, the angular momentum of the mass, and the universal cosmological constant are all zero. The solution is a useful approximation for describing slowly rotating astronomical objects such as many stars and planets, including Earth and the Sun. The solution is named after Karl Schwarzschild, who first published the solution in 1916.

According to Birkhoff's theorem（英语：）, the Schwarzschild metric is the most general spherically symmetric（英语：）, vacuum solution（英语：） of the Einstein field equations. A **Schwarzschild black hole** or **static black hole** is a black hole that has no charge or angular momentum. A Schwarzschild black hole is described by the Schwarzschild metric, and cannot be distinguished from any other Schwarzschild black hole except by its mass.

參見
--

* 微分流形
* 克里斯托费尔符号
* 黎曼几何
* 瑞奇微積分（英语：）
* 微分几何
* 微分幾何話題列表（英语：）
* 廣義相對論
* 規範重力論（英语：）
* 廣義協變（英语：）
* 勞侖茲變換的推導（英语：）

註釋
--

1. ↑  Ivanov 2001 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIvanov2001 (help)[查无此文]
2. ↑  Heinbockel 2001 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeinbockel2001 (help)[查无此文]
3. ↑  From Latin *vectus*, perfect participle of *vehere*, "to carry". For historical development of the word *vector*, see. 牛津英語詞典 (第三版). 牛津大學出版社. 2005-09 （英语）.  and Jeff Miller..  [2007-05-25]. （原始内容存档于2015-09-05）.
4. ↑  This characterization is not universal: both the arcs between two points of a great circle on a sphere are geodesics.
5. ↑  Berry, Michael V.. CRC Press（英语：）. 1989: 58. ISBN 0-85274-037-9.  Extract of page 58, caption of Fig. 25
6. ↑  Einstein, Albert.. Annalen der Physik. 1916, **354** (7): 769. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2006-08-29）.
7. ↑  Einstein, Albert.. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. November 25, 1915: 844–847  [2006-09-12]. （原始内容存档于2016-10-27）.
8. ↑  Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John Archibald.. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman（英语：）. 1973. ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0.  Chapter 34, p 916

參考文獻
----

* P. A. M. Dirac.. Princeton University Press. 1996. ISBN 0-691-01146-X.
* Misner, Charles; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John Archibald.. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. 1973. ISBN 0-7167-0344-0.
* Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M.. Oxford: Pergamon. 1975. ISBN 0-08-018176-7.
* R. P. Feynman; F. B. Moringo; W. G. Wagner.. Addison-Wesley. 1995. ISBN 0-201-62734-5.
* Einstein, A.. New York: Crown. 1961. ISBN 0-517-02961-8.

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| 

| * 
* 论
* 编
物理学分支 |
| --- |
|  |
| 物理学史 |
|  |
| 组成部分 | 
* 理论物理
* 实验物理
* 应用物理

 |
|  |
| 能量 · 运动 | 
* 热力学
* 力学
	+ 经典力学
		- 弹道
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		- 哈密顿
	+ 连续介质
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 |
|  |
| 波 · 场 | 
* 引力
* 电磁学
	+ 经典
* 量子场论
* 相对论
	+ 狭义相对论
	+ 廣義相對論

 |
|  |
| 按专业 | 
* 數碼物理學
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	+ 分子
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* 生物物理学
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	+ 农业物理学
* 醫學物理
	+ 激光医学（英语：）
	+ 核医学
	+ 醫學影像
	+ 心理物理学

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| 交叉学科 | 
* 天体物理学
* 数学物理
* 非线性物理学
* 经济物理学
* 材料科学
	+ 高分子
* 物理化学 / 化学物理学
* 物理宇宙学
* 大气
	+ 云
* 地球物理学
* 土壤物理學
* 物理海洋学
* 量子信息科学

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| 有关 | 
* 诺贝尔物理学奖
* 物理教育

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* 分类 **分类**
* 主题 **主題**
* 共享资源页面 **共享资源**
* 专题 **专题**

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* 论
* 编
張量 |
| --- |
|  |
| 張量理論中的字彙（英语：） |
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| 範疇 | 

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| --- | --- |
| 数学 | 
* 坐標系
* 多重线性代数
* 欧几里得几何
* 张量代数
* 並矢張量
* 微分几何
* 外微分
* 張量微積分

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| * 物理学
* 工程学
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* 连续介质力学
* 电磁学
* 输运现象
* 廣義相對論
* 计算机视觉

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| 符號 | 
* 指標記號（英语：）
* 多重指标
* 爱因斯坦求和约定
* 瑞奇微積分（英语：）
* 潘洛斯圖形符號
* 佛依格特記號（英语：）
* 抽象指标记号
* 四元組 (指標記號)（英语：）
* 凡得瓦登記號（英语：）

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| 張量定義 | 
* 张量 (内蕴定义)
* 张量场
* 張量密度（英语：）
* 曲線座標中的張量（英语：）
* 混合張量
* 反對稱張量（英语：）
* 對稱張量（英语：）
* 張量算符（英语：）
* 张量场

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| 运算 | 
* 张量积
* 外代数
* 張量收縮（英语：）
* 转置矩阵
* 指标的上升和下降
* 霍奇对偶
* 协变微商
* 外微分
* 外共变导数
* 李导数

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| 相關抽象名詞 | 
* 維度
* 基 (線性代數)
* 向量（英语：）、向量空间
* 多重向量（英语：）
* 共變和反變
* 线性映射
* 矩阵
* 旋量
* 卡當形式 (物理學)（英语：）
* 微分形式
* 微分形式
* 联络形式
* 测地线
* 流形
* 纤维丛
* 列维-奇维塔联络
* 仿射联络

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|  |
| 知名張量 | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| 數學 | 
* 克罗内克δ函数
* 列維-奇維塔符號
* 度量张量
* nonmetricity tensor（英语：）
* 克里斯托费尔符号
* 里奇曲率張量
* 黎曼曲率張量
* 外勒張量（英语：）
* 扭率張量

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| 物理 | 
* 轉動慣量
* 角动量
* 自旋張量（英语：）
* 柯西应力张量
* 應力-能量張量
* 電磁張量
* 膠子場強度張量（英语：）
* 爱因斯坦张量
* 度量張量 (廣相)（英语：）

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|  |
| 数学家 | 
* 萊昂哈德·歐拉
* 卡爾·弗里德里希·高斯
* 奧古斯丁-路易·柯西
* 赫爾曼·格拉斯曼
* 格雷戈里奥·里奇-库尔巴斯托罗
* 图利奥·列维-齐维塔
* Jan Arnoldus Schouten（英语：）
* 波恩哈德·黎曼
* 埃尔温·布鲁诺·克里斯托费尔
* 沃爾德馬爾·佛依格特（英语：）
* 埃利·嘉当
* 赫尔曼·外尔
* 阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦

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| 

| * 
* 论
* 编
科學入門條目 |
| --- |
|  |
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* 本徵態（英语：）
* 電磁學（英语：）
* 熵（英语：）
* 演化（英语：）
* 規範場論（英语：）
* 狹義相對論
* 廣義相對論
* 遺傳學
* M理論
* 廣義相對論中的數學
* 量子力學
* 收縮幾何學（英语：）
* 最重元素
* 病毒

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