recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Birmingham Town Hall where the festival was held from 1837
Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, Town Hall 1834
Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, Town Hall 1845
The **Birmingham Triennial Musical Festival** was a festival of classical music that used to be held in Birmingham, England. It was started in 1784 and continued until 1912. "Triennial" means that it happened once every three years.

History
-------

The first music festival was held for three days in September 1768. It helped to raise money to complete the new General Hospital on Summer Lane. Another festival was held in 1778 to get more money. The hospital opened in September 1779.

From September 1784 the festival was held every three years. It continued to raise money for the hospital.

The church and theatre where the festival was held became too small, so in 1834 they built Birmingham Town Hall which had much more room.

Many famous musicians performed at the festival. In 1837 Felix Mendelssohn conducted a performance of his oratorio *St. Paul*, played the organ, and played the piano part in the first performance of his Piano Concerto No. 2 which had been especially commissioned by the Festival. In the next festival he played his Piano Concerto No. 1. In 1846 (a year before he died) the festival commissioned him to write his oratorio *Elijah*. It was a huge success. He was paid 200 guineas. *Elijah* was played at every festival after that.

The festival commissioned other composers to write works, these included: Arthur Sullivan, Max Bruch, Charles Gounod and Antonín Dvořák.

The great conductor Hans Richter was made principal conductor in 1885.

Edward Elgar wrote several works for the festival. In 1900 his oratorio *The Dream of Gerontius* was given its first performance. In 1903 he performed *The Apostles*, and 1906 *The Kingdom*. In 1912 he wrote *The Music Makers*. The principal conductor for 1912 was Henry Wood.

The 1909 and 1912 festivals lost a lot of money and they could not give any money to the hospital. This was soon followed by World War I, so the festival stopped and did not continue after the war.
In computer science, **breadth-first search (BFS)** is a method used for traversing a graph. It starts at any item you want to use as a starting position in a graph, and explores all of the neighbor items at the present depth before to moving on to the items at the next depth level. A breadth-first search done on a tree (data structure) is called a level-order traversal.

Animated example of a breadth-first search (level-order traversal) within a tree.

Implementation
--------------

```
void breadthFirstSearch(Item root) {
    Queue q = new Queue();
    root.found = true;
    q.enqueue(item);
    while (!q.isEmpty()) {
        Item v = q.dequeue();
        for (Item neighbor : v.neighbors()) {
            if (!neighbor.found) {
                neighbor.found = true;
                q.enqueue(neighbor);
            }
        }
    }
}

```

Usage
-----

Though they have usage in a variety of disciplines, breadth first search algorithms are most often associated with finding the shortest distance between two points, such as on a map.

Related pages
-------------

* Linear search
* Binary search
* Depth-first search
* Bidirectional search
See the main article: Physical fitness
Heracles and his child Telephos, Louvre.
**Bodybuilding** is an activity where people develop their muscles. It is a form of human body change which uses intensive muscle hypertrophy.

An individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a *bodybuilder*. In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders display their physiques to a panel of judges, who assign points based on their appearance.

The muscles are revealed through a process known as the "cutting phase" - a combination of fat loss, oils, and tanning which, combined with the lighting, make the definition of the muscle group more distinct. 

A strongman Eugen Sandow, the "Father of modern bodybuilding".

Competition
-----------

Some people do bodybuilding full-time as a career choice. Bodybuilders train their body and then they pose when the competition starts. 
Bodybuilders do not show their power or strength. They only show their muscular body. It is important to have every muscle build up. The person with the best muscles and pose will win the contest.
When Bodybuilders train they use very complex diet and training systems that will help them to achieve best results.
Some popular bodybuilders that were taking part in competitions include Arnold Schwarzenegger and Charles Atlas.


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Bodybuilding***.

Related pages
-------------

* Body image
* Calisthenics
* Exercise
* Flexibility training
* Jogging
* Physical attractiveness
* Physical fitness
* Running
* Sports
* Squat
* Strength training
* Stretching
* Weight training
* Yoga

Other websites
--------------

* Bodybuilding Archived 2000-10-12 at the Wayback Machine at the Open Directory Project
* Historic Bodybuilding Contest Results Database
* The Golden Age of Bodybuilding
Queensland, Australia: you have been warned...
The **Cubozoa**, the box jellies, contain some of the most dangerous jellyfish in the phylum Cnidaria. They make up a small class of Cnidarians, with only 19 species. It is their powerful venom which makes them noteworthy.

All cubozoans have four 'legs' (pedalia) hanging from the corners, from which hang tentacles. They have a rudimentary neural network. The cubozoans can move through the water to actively hunt prey, and have a degree of sight as they have up to 26 eyes. Cubozoans have two main eyes on each of the four pedalia, each with a lens, retina and cornea; and some species also have eye-spots as well. 

The box jellies are found in tropical oceanic waters round the world. Their venom is delivered by stinging nematocysts, which cluster on tentacles, each with half a million stinging cells. The largest species, *Chironex fleckeri*, has caused many human deaths. The pain of an attack is agonising, and heart failure is a danger. The attack can be treated: first with vinegar, then remove stingers, then apply anti-venom.
Barry Switzer
**Barry Switzer** (born October 5, 1937 in Crossett, Arkansas, USA) was an American football coach. He coached both professional and college football for 32 years. Switzer is one of only three head coaches to win both a college football national championship and a Super Bowl. He has one of the highest winning percentages in the history of college football.

After high school, Switzer went to the University of Arkansas. He played football there from 1956 to 1960. After graduation, Switzer join the US Army for a short time. After the Army, he returned to the University of Arkansas to work as an assistant coach. 

After the 1966 season, Switzer became an assistant coach at the University of Oklahoma. He became head coach there in 1973. During his first two years as head coach, Oklahoma did not lose any games and won the national championship two time. They won the championship a third time in 1985. Switzer left Oklahoma in 1989. His record there was 157 wins, 29 losses and 4 ties.

In 1994, Switzer became the coach for the Dallas Cowboys. He led them to a win in Super Bowl XXX during the 1995 season. Switzer retired from coaching after the following season.

In 2001, Switzer was elected into the College Football Hall of Fame. On September 9, 2007, he began working with the FOX television network on its NFL pre-game show.
The **Atlantic sailfish** (*Istiophorus albicans*) is a species of marine fish in the family Istiophoridae of the order Perciformes. It is found in the Atlantic Oceans and the Caribbean Sea, from the surface to depths of 200 m (656 ft). It does not occur in large areas of the central North Atlantic and the central South Atlantic. The Atlantic sailfish is related to the marlin.

Tests in the 1920s estimated that the Atlantic sailfish was capable of short sprints of up to 111 kilometres per hour; however, more conservative estimates of 37 to 55 kilometres per hour are more widely accepted. More recent studies even suggest sailfish do not exceed swimming speeds of 36 km/h (22 mph).

Atlantic sailfish hunt schooling fish, such as sardines, anchovies and mackerel although they also feed on crustaceans and cephalopods.

Description
-----------

Ernest Hemingway in Key West, Florida, USA, in the 1940s, with an Atlantic sailfish he had caught 
The Atlantic sailfish is a metallic blue fish with a large sail-like dorsal fin and a long and pointed bill-like snout. It is dark bluish-black on the upperparts and lighter on the sides (counter-shading). There are about twenty bluish horizontal bars along the flanksThe underparts are silvery white. The tail fin is strongly forked. The fins are bluish-black and the front dorsal fin is speckled with small black spots. The bases of the anal fins are pale.

The length of this fish is up to 3.15 m (10.3 ft) and the maximum published weight is 58.1 kg (128.1 lb).

Studies found that sailfish hunting schools of sardines rely heavily upon stealth and quick slashing or tapping with the rostrum in order to temporarily immobilize prey and make capturing small prey easier. The bill has been hypothesized to increase the hydrodynamic qualities of the fish and even to ward off predators. However, it has been well documented that the sailfish use the bill for hunting.

Distribution and habitat
------------------------

The Atlantic sailfish is a pelagic fish of tropical and temperate waters in the Atlantic Ocean. It ranges from approximately 40°N in the northwestern Atlantic to 40°S in the southwestern Atlantic, and 50°N in the northeastern Atlantic to 32°S in the southeastern Atlantic. It is a migratory species and moves about the open ocean and into the Mediterranean Sea. Its depth range is from warm surface waters down to about 200 m (656 ft).

Taxonomy
--------

Some authorities only recognise a single species of sailfish, *Istiophorus platypterus*, with *I. albicans* being treated as a synonym for *I. platyperus*.

Other websites
--------------

* Video clips from the BBC Archived 2010-11-06 at the Wayback Machine
Atlas missile launch from Cape Canaveral in 1957
**Atlas** was a missile built by the *Convair* Division of *General Dynamics*.

It was originally designed as an ICBM in the late 1950s. It launched the Mercury project space capsules and became the foundation for a family of successful space launch vehicles now built by *United Launch Alliance*. The Atlas rocket family is today used as a launch platform for commercial and military satellites, and other spacecraft.

History
-------

Mercury Atlas 9 rocket and spacecraft on Launch Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral, FL in 1963.
The Atlas, first tested in 1957, was the United States' first successful ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile).

Atlas, named for the Atlas of Greek mythology, got its start in 1946 with the award of a United States Army Air Force research contract to Convair for the study of a 1,500 to 5,000 mi. (2,400 to 8,000 km) range nuclear armed missile.

The missile was originally given the military designation "XB-65", thus making it a bomber; from 1955 it was redesignated "SM-65" and, from 1962, it became "CGM-16". This letter "C" stood for "coffin" or "Container", because the rocket was stored in a semi-hardened container; it was prepared for launch by being raised and fueled in the open. The Atlas-F (HGM-16) was stored vertically underground, but launched after being lifted to the surface.

Atlas EELV family of launch vehicles (US Govt).

Current Atlas Family
--------------------

* Atlas II
* Atlas III
* Atlas V

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Atlas (rocket)***.

* Video of an early Atlas launch in 1960
* bio Karel J. Bossart Archived 2006-02-16 at the Wayback Machine
* Karel Jan Bossart, Ir.
* Atlas launch vehicle profile
* 1958 Video of "Atlas in Orbit" Newsreel Archived 2011-07-18 at the Wayback Machine
* Atlas D from Encyclopedia Astronautica
* Atlas ICBM History site Archived 2008-10-05 at the Wayback Machine
* Atlas ICBM Launch on 5/23/1960 Archived 2009-02-13 at the Wayback Machine Video
* Atlas ICBM Information/History
3D representation of a living cell during the process of mitosis, example of an autopoietic system.
**Autopoiesis** refers to life and other self-organising systems. The word means "self creation or self-production". It refers to a system which can reproduce and sustain itself. 

The term was introduced in 1972 by Chilean biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela to define the self-maintaining chemistry of living cells. Since then the concept has also been applied to systems theory and sociology.

What is life?
-------------

Autopoiesis was a modern definition for life, plus any other systems with lifelike properties. To qualify for the name *autopoiesis* a system would need to show three main features:

1. The production of their own components
2. The correct assembly of these components
3. Continuous repair and maintenance of their own existence.

Roth commented that "In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems". This approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas, but it does not refer to the particular way life is organised on Earth. This is because the authors thought it was possible for machines to have those features, and for other types of life to exist.
Hill 60 was a man-made hill created in the 1860s from what was dug out from a nearby railway line. It had a height of 150 feet and was situated to the south-east of Ypres. It had been captured by the Germans in December 1914, giving them a strategic advantage due to its height.
Naturally the British wanted to take it back and so in April 1915 they began tunnelling. This use of offensive mining involved digging tunnels into and under the hill in order to place 5 mines beneath the hill. When they were detonated they literally blew the top off Hill 60 allowing the British to retake the crucial position.

All the men who joined the Tunnelling Companies were experienced miners; they came from the coal mines in Northumberland, from the sewers in Manchester and the tubes in London. Most of them had been digging since they were 10 years old, with generations of mining history and were often shorter than regular soldiers.
In the barbaric, secret wars below ground; it was these men who experienced one of the highest death rates.

Unfortunately almost as soon as the battle for Hill 60 was finished, the Second Battle of Ypres began. In these significant battles, the Germans used chlorine gas for the first time. And by the end of the battle, the Germans had moved two miles closer to Ypres, on the eastern side of the salient.
**Assata Olugbala Shakur** (born July 16, 1947 as **JoAnne Deborah Byron**) is an African-American activist. She was a member of the Black Panther Party and the Black Liberation Army. She was put into prison, but in 1984 she managed to escape. She now lives in Havana, Cuba, as a fugitive. She was the first woman to be put on the FBI's Most Wanted Terrorists list. Shakur is the step-aunt of Tupac Shakur, a rapper who was assassinated in 1996.

Early life
----------

Shakur was born in Jamaica, Queens, New York City. She lived there for three years. She then moved to North Carolina with her grandparents. Shakur was arrested for the first time in 1967 for trespassing during a protest.

Activism
--------

In 1971, Shakur joined the Republic of New Afrika and the Black Liberation Army. She chose the name Assata Olugbala Shakur because she felt that her English name was a "slave name." She wrote in her book, "It sounded so strange when people called me Joanne. It really had nothing to do with me. I didn’t feel like no Joanne, or no negro, or no amerikan. I felt like an African woman".

Assata is a West African name from the Arabic name Aisha, which means "she who struggles." Olugbala is from Yoruba and means "savior." Shakur means "thankful one" in Arabic.

Arrests and trials
------------------

On April 6, 1971, Shakur was shot in the stomach. She was charged with attempted robbery, felonious assault, reckless endangerment, and possession of a deadly weapon, then released on bail. Between 1973 and 1977 Shakur was charged with two bank robberies, the kidnapping of a Brooklyn heroin dealer, and attempted murder of two Queens police officers. She was put in prison in 1973. On November 2, 1979 she escaped the Clinton Correctional Facility for Women in New Jersey.

Political asylum in Cuba
------------------------

In 1984, the Cuban government granted political asylum to Shakur. Her daughter Kakuya came to live with her in 1985.

Shakur wrote in a letter that Cuba was "one of the largest, most resistant and most courageous *Palenques* (Maroon Camps) that has ever existed on the face of this planet".
The Radcliffe Camera, viewed from the University Church
The **Bodleian Library** (founded in 1602) is the main library of the University of Oxford, and one of the oldest libraries in Europe. It is the second largest library in the United Kingdom after the British Library. It is one of six legal deposit libraries for works published in the United Kingdom and under Irish Law it is entitled to request a copy of each book published in the Republic of Ireland. It has had rights of legal deposit for books since the 17th century. 

Though members of the University may borrow some books from some dependent libraries (such as the Radcliffe Science Library), the vast majority of the material held by the Bodleian may only be read within the library buildings. Besides books, periodicals and manuscripts there are smaller collections of other types of material.

The Library occupies a group of five buildings near Broad Street in central Oxford: the oldest is the late medieval Duke Humfrey's Library. The newest is the Weston Library which opened in 2015, built from an overhaul of what the New Bodleian which dates from the 1930s. Since the 19th century a number of underground stores have been built below parts of these.

Though Duke Humfrey's Library was a library for the university from 1488 to 1560 the Bodleian itself was founded by Sir Thomas Bodley in the years 1598 to 1602. In the following centuries it greatly increased in size through collections of books donated by benefactors and through books received through legal deposit.

Many notable scholars have been heads of the library (known as Bodley's Librarians): the present Bodley's Librarian is Richard Ovenden.
**Body modification** (or **body alteration**) is when a person changes their body in a way that lasts forever or for a long time. There are many different kinds of body modification, like piercing, circumcision, or tattoos. Almost all cultures do some kind of body modification.

Early body mortification in 1885

Arguments
---------

People who do not like body modification sometimes call it "disfigurement" or "mutilation." They believe that if someone changes their body, it is wrong and they are doing something dangerous or unethical.

Why people do body modification
-------------------------------

Body modification is done for different reasons. Religions might tell people that they should change their bodies to look a certain way. Other people with body modifications might just like the way the body modifications look, or how they feel good during sex.

Kinds of body modification
--------------------------

### Common body modification

Woman with nose piercing (*Septum-Piercing*
*Scarification*: removal of skin for decoration
* *Body piercing* is when a hole is made through the skin, and a piece of jewelry is put into the hole. Some piercings can be stretched so they fit larger, thicker kinds of jewelry.
* *Tattooing* is when ink is put under the skin to make a picture. Whole body tatooing and tattooing of the lips and eyes would be thought extreme by some.
* *Scarification* is when part of the skin is removed to create a scar.
* *Branding* is when the skin is burned to create a scar.

### "Extreme" body modification

* *Tongue splitting* is when a person's tongue is split in two like a snake's.
* *Subdermal implant* is when a small object is placed right underneath a person's skin.
* *Transdermal implant* is when a small object is placed underneath a person's skin, but part of it pokes out of the skin and is visible.
* *Extra ocular implant* (eye jewellery) is when a tiny chip of metal is placed in someone's eye.

### Other body modification

* *Amputation* is when a body part is cut off.
Chocolate assembly line
An **assembly line** is a manufacturing process which is a very important part of industry.

In an assembly line, parts are added to a product in a sequence. Each worker and machine does one part, and the parts are put together to make the finished object. This makes a product much faster than with handcrafting-type methods, where one person made the whole object. 

The division of labour was discussed by Adam Smith in his book *The Wealth of Nations* (1776). He used the manufacture of pins as an example of increasing productive efficiency.

Ford
----

The assembly line developed by Ford Motor Company between 1908 and 1915 made assembly lines famous as an example of mass production. The result was a cheaper car, the Ford Model T, and higher wages for Ford workers. Henry Ford was the first to master the moving assembly line, and was able to reduce labor hours needed to make a car, and increased numbers of cars and parts. Ford was the first company to build large factories around the assembly line concept. 

Mass production by assembly lines was the catalyst which started the modern consumer culture by making possible low unit cost for manufactured goods. It is often said that Ford's production system was ingenious because it turned Ford's own workers into new customers. The lower prices turned a huge potential market into a reality. The greater demand allowed further economies of scale to be exploited. This bootstrapping quality of growth made Ford famous and set an example for other industries.

The idea was not invented by Ford. Its use in America may have started with the production of cars by Ransom E. Olds in 1901.

History
-------

The earliest example of an assembly system is the Terracotta Army of the 3rd century BC. The terracotta army figures were made in workshops. The head, arms, legs and torsos were created separately and then assembled. Studies show that eight face moulds were most likely used. Once put together, features such as facial expressions were added. 

It is thought their legs were made the same way that terracotta drainage pipes were made at the time. This would make it an assembly line production, with specific parts manufactured and assembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting one solid piece and subsequently firing it. In those times, each workshop had to write its name on items produced. Once they were completed, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in precise military formation according to rank and duty.
The **Boxer Rebellion** was an uprising that occurred within China in the years 1900 and 1901 (from on 2 November 1900 to 7 September 1901). It was led by the Boxers, a group of Chinese citizens who disliked the vast amount of foreign influence that existed in China.

The Foreigners in China
-----------------------

Main articles: Opium Wars and First Sino-Japanese War
It happened during a time when many foreign countries were scrambling for concessions in China in the aftermath of the first Sino-Japanese war. These countries were Japan, Britain, Germany, and Russia. China had lost the First Sino-Japanese war a few years earlier over Korea.

The Boxers
----------

The Boxers were Chinese citizens who were angry about the growing power of foreigners in China, who wanted to fight and drive out all foreigners and even some Chinese people. The Boxers got a lot of people to help them and drove their fight to Peking (Beijing).

55 Days at Peking
-----------------

The interior inner city of Beijing was known as the Tartar city because it was majority Manchu and half of all Manchus in the Qing lived in Beijing's inner city. Japan, Russia, Britain, France, the United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy made an alliance to conduct an expedition against the Boxers in Beijing. While they did that, the Empress Dowager Cixi declared war on all of them and sent the Gansu Army to help the Boxers. The first foreign expedition to Beijing, the Seymour expedition, was defeated. The foreign legations in Beijing were surrounded for 55 days before the foreign reinforcements got through in the second Gaselee expedition and got to the legations in Beijing. Manchus suffered tremendously as the foreign soldiers went around raping their women and killing their men. The rest of China outside of Manchuria and Zhili province was not affected since the Han governor generals such as Yuan Shikai, Li Hongzhang, Liu Kunyi and Zhang Zhidong signed a pact called the Mutual Protection of Southeast China to keep their provinces out of the war and did not help the Qing court and neither did the foreigners attack them.

Aftermath
---------

The foreigners were very angry with the Qing. They said that China had to pay them even more money and execute officials responsible for supporting the Boxers like the Manchu bannerman governor Yuxian, Qixiu, Captain Enhai (En Hai) and Manchu Zaixun, Prince Zhuang and Han general Dong Fuxiang. China agreed to execute all the Manchu officials like Yuxian, Qixiu, Enhai and Zaixun but refused to execute Han general Dong Fuxiang. A few years later in 1911, the Qing Empire collapsed and China had a new government, but the foreigners still influenced China, especially Japan.

Related pages
-------------

* Opium Wars
* First Sino-Japanese War
* Qing Dynasty
* Empress Dowager Cixi
* Imperial Japanese Army
* Open Door Policy
* Imperialism
The **Boston Symphony Orchestra** (**BSO**) is an American orchestra based in Boston, Massachusetts. It is one of the great orchestras of the world. They give concerts in the Symphony Hall, Boston. They also play every summer at the Tanglewood Festival.

The orchestra was started in 1881. Many of the conductors it had during its history were extremely famous, including Arthur Nikisch from 1889 to 1893, and Pierre Monteux from 1919 to 1924 who gave the orchestra a reputation for a "French" sound which many people think it still has today. Serge Koussevitzky was their conductor for many years and made them a world-class orchestra. With Koussevitzky, the orchestra gave radio broadcasts and made its summer home at Tanglewood, where Koussevitzky founded the Berkshire Music Center, which is now the Tanglewood Music Center.

Koussevitzky asked many famous composers to write music for the orchestra. Works written especially for them include *Symphony No. 4* by Sergei Prokofiev and the *Symphony of Psalms* by Igor Stravinsky. They also gave the first performance of Béla Bartók's *Concerto for Orchestra*. Since then many other composers have written for the orchestra including Roger Sessions, Andrzej Panufnik and Elliott Carter.

When the conductor Charles Munch took over from Koussevitzky he gave the orchestra their first tour overseas. He was followed in 1962 by Erich Leinsdorf, then William Steinberg, Seiji Ozawa and, since 2004, James Levine who is the first American-born conductor of the orchestra.

As well as the Boston Symphony Orchestra there is also the Boston Pops Orchestra, founded in 1885, which plays light music, e.g. from show tunes. Arthur Fiedler conducted them from 1930 until 1979. He was followed by the film composer John Williams. Today their conductor is Keith Lockhart.

A small group of principal players from the BSO form the Boston Symphony Chamber Players. They have being playing since 1964 and perform in Boston, Tanglewood and in other places in USA and Europe. They have made many recordings.

The Boston Symphony have made many recordings with their conductors since 1917 when they made one of the earliest music recordings conducted by Karl Muck.

Conductors
----------

* 1881-1884 George Henschel
* 1884-1889 Wilhelm Gericke
* 1889-1893 Arthur Nikisch
* 1893-1898 Emil Paur
* 1898-1906 Wilhelm Gericke
* 1906-1908 Karl Muck
* 1908-1912 Max Fiedler
* 1912-1918 Karl Muck
* 1918-1919 Henri Rabaud
* 1919-1924 Pierre Monteux
* 1924-1949 Serge Koussevitzky
* 1949-1962 Charles Munch
* 1962-1969 Erich Leinsdorf
* 1969-1972 William Steinberg
* 1973-2002 Seiji Ozawa
* 2004-present James Levine

Other websites
--------------

* Boston Symphony Orchestra official website
The rivalry between Othniel Charles Marsh (left) and Edward Drinker Cope (right) sparked the Bone Wars
Marsh (back row and center), surrounded by armed assistants for his 1872 expedition. Marsh spent little time in the field himself, leaving the work to his agents
Marsh's 1896 illustration of the bones of *Stegosaurus*, a dinosaur he described and named in 1877
The **Bone Wars** was a period of fossil finding and discovery in the U.S.A during the late 19th century. Most of the action took place in Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming.

There was a heated rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope (of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia) and Othniel Charles Marsh (of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale). They used bribery, theft, and destruction of bones. Each scientist attacked the other in scientific publications, seeking to ruin his credibility and have his funding cut off.

Their search for fossils led them west to rich "bone beds" in the western United States. From 1877 to 1892, both paleontologists used their wealth and influence. They paid for their own expeditions, and the services and dinosaur bones from fossil hunters. By the end of the Bone Wars, both men had exhausted their funds in this way.

Cope and Marsh were financially and socially ruined by their attempts to disgrace each other. Their contributions to paleontology were massive and provided plenty of material for later work: both scientists left behind many unopened boxes of fossils after their deaths. 142 new species of dinosaurs were discovered and described by them, though today only 32 of their names are valid.

The products of the Bone Wars increased our knowledge of prehistoric life, and sparked the public's interest in dinosaurs. This led to more fossil excavation in North America in the decades that followed. Several historical books and fictional adaptations have been published about this period of intense fossil-hunting activity.

Between them, they discovered some of the most famous fossil sites in North America, such as the Morrison Formation at Como Bluff, Wyoming. The Morrison Formation extends into 13 states, and is still being searched wherever it outcrops onto the surface.
Biosphere 2 is a 3.14-acre (1.26-hectare) place of research in the United States.

It is a closed ecological system located in Oracle, Arizona. It was designed as a technological system to explore the complex web of interactions within a closed ecological system. The facility consists of five biomes—a tropical rainforest, an ocean with a coral reef, a grassland savanna, a fog desert, and a mangrove wetlands—each of which is an independent and self-sustaining ecosystem. The facility was built between 1987 and 1991 and was sealed from the outside environment and stocked with 3,800 species of plants and animals, including humans, and was intended to be a self-sustaining system for two years. After two years of operation, it was opened to the public in 1993. The experiment ended in 1994, but the facility remains open for research and educational uses. Biosphere 2 continues to be used to research the effects of climate change and other environmental issues, as well as to help build a better understanding of how closed ecological systems work and how they can be used to address global problems.
Former Methodist Chapel in Breage, Cornwall
**Breage** is a parish and village in west Cornwall, United Kingdom. The village is three miles (5 km) west of Helston and has a population of 2,375. Other settlements in the parish include the villages of **Ashton**, **Carleen**, Godolphin Cross, and the coastal village of Praa Sands. Breage is named after Saint Breage or Breaca, a missionary from Ireland (to whom the 15th century church is dedicated).

Geography
---------

The geological formation known as the Tregonning-Godolphin Granite underlies the parish and the area was formerly an important source of tin and copper ore. Other than Praa Sands, the villages in the parish were tin and copper mining villages. Most of today's working population are commuters, travelling to nearby towns or to RNAS Culdrose.

Parish Church
-------------

The church was built of granite in the 15th century: on the north wall are five medieval wall paintings. A Roman milestone of the 3rd century is preserved in the church and in the churchyard there is an unusual Hiberno-Saxon cross head.
Rough Tor
**Bodmin Moor** is a granite moorland in northeastern Cornwall, United Kingdom. It is 208 square kilometres (80 sq mi) in size, and originally dates from the Carboniferous period of geological history.

Bodmin Moor is one of five granite plutons (underground masses of igneous rock) in Cornwall.

The name 'Bodmin Moor' is fairly recent, invented in 1813. It was formerly known as **Fowey Moor** after the River Fowey which rises within it. Since the mid 18th century Bodmin Moor has been crossed by the trunk road now known as the A30.

Geography
---------

Dramatic granite tors rise from the rolling moorland: the best known are Brown Willy, the highest point in Cornwall at 417 m (1,368 ft), and Rough Tor at 400 m (1,300 ft). Considerable areas of the moor are poorly drained and form marshes (in hot summers these can dry out). The rest of the moor is mostly rough pasture or overgrown with heather and other low vegetation.

The Moor contains about 500 farm holdings with around 10,000 beef cows, 55,000 breeding ewes and 1,000 horses and ponies. Most of the moor is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and has been officially designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), as part of Cornwall AONB.

### Rivers and inland waters

Bodmin Moor is the source of several of Cornwall's rivers: they are mentioned here anti-clockwise from the south.

* The River Fowey rises at a height of 290 m (950 ft) and flows through Lostwithiel and into the Fowey estuary.
* The River Tiddy rises near Pensilva and flows into the River Lynher.
* The River Inny rises near Davidstow and flows southeast into the River Tamar.
* The River Camel rises on Hendraburnick Down and flows for about 40 km (25 mi) before joining the sea at Padstow.
* The De Lank River rises near Roughtor and flows into the Camel south of Wenford.
* The River Warleggan rises near Temple and flows south to join the Fowey.

Inland waters on the moor include Dozmary Pool (Cornwall's only natural inland lake) and
three reservoirs, Colliford Lake, Siblyback Lake and Crowdy reservoir which supply water for a large part of the county's population.
The Birmingham Campaign was a series of anti-racial segregation protests that took place in Birmingham, Alabama in April of 1963.

Background
----------

Birmingham, Alabama, was a segregated city in the early 1960s. This meant that black and white people had to be kept apart. There were a variety of schools, restaurants, drinking fountains, and housing options available to them. Jim Crow laws were even passed that authorized and enforced segregation. In most situations, amenities for black people, such as schools, were inferior to those for white people. Several African-American leaders agreed to organize a huge protest to bring the issue of segregation in Birmingham to the attention of the rest of the country.

Violence
--------

Martin Luther King, Jr. was staying at the Gaston Motel when it was bombed on May 11th. Fortunately, he had departed earlier. In the residence of A.D. King, King's younger brother, another explosion exploded. In response to the explosions, the demonstrators became more violent. They rioted across the city, torching buildings and cars and assaulting police officers. To restore control, soldiers from the United States Army were dispatched.

The Youth Protest
-----------------

Despite its best efforts, the campaign did not receive the national attention that its strategists had hoped for. They decided to include students in the demonstrations. On May 2, almost a thousand African-American kids skipped school to join the protests. Demonstrators quickly overflowed the cells in Birmingham. With the cells full. He used police dogs and fire hoses on the kids. Images of children being hosed down and dogs being mauled made national headlines. The protests had drawn the attention of the entire country.

Results
-------

Despite the fact that there were still numerous issues with racism, the Birmingham campaign helped to break down several barriers to segregation. When the new school year began in September of 1963, the schools were likewise integrated. The campaign's most important effect was the nationalization of the issues and the engagement of leaders like President John F. Kennedy.
Banded iron formation, Karijini National Park, Western Australia
2.1 billion year old banded iron formation
**Banded iron formations** (or **BIF**s) are a distinctive type of rock often found in Precambrian sedimentary rocks.

They consist of repeated thin layers of iron oxides, either magnetite (Fe3O4) or hematite (Fe2O3), alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert.

Some of the oldest known rock formations, formed over 3,700 million years ago (mya), include banded iron layers. The banded layers are a common feature in sediments for much of the Earth's early history.

Relation to atmospheric oxygenation
-----------------------------------

Close-up of banded iron formation specimen from Upper Michigan. Scale bar is 5.0 mm.
The formations are abundant around the time of the Great Oxygenation Event, 2,400 mya. They become less common after 1,800 mya.

The total amount of oxygen locked up in the banded iron beds is estimated to be perhaps twenty times the volume of oxygen present in the modern atmosphere of Earth. Banded iron beds are an important commercial source of iron ore, such as the Pilbara region of Western Australia, the Animikie Group in Minnesota and Carajás Mineral Province in Brazil.

Origins
-------

The conventional concept is that the *banded iron* layers were formed in sea water as the result of oxygen released by photosynthetic cyanobacteria. This combined with dissolved iron in Earth's oceans to form insoluble iron oxides. These precipitated out, forming a thin layer on the substrate, which may have been anoxic mud (forming shale and chert). Each band is similar to a varve: the banding is assumed to result from cyclic variations in available oxygen.

It is assumed that the Earth started out with vast amounts of iron dissolved in the world's acidic seas. Iron is much more soluble than its oxides.

Eventually, as photosynthetic organisms generated oxygen, the available iron in the Earth's oceans was precipitated out as iron oxides.

At the tipping point where the oceans became permanently oxygenated, small variations in oxygen production produced pulses of free oxygen in the surface waters, alternating with pulses of iron oxide deposition.
The **Birmingham to Peterborough Line** is an important cross-country train track in the United Kingdom, making a connection from the Midlands to East Anglia. Passenger services are given by CrossCountry and East Midlands Trains, serving the following places:

* Birmingham (New Street)
* Water Orton
* Coleshill
* Nuneaton (The station used to be called *Nuneaton Trent Valley*)
* Hinckley
* Narborough
* Wigston (South Wigston)
* Leicester (The station used to be called *Leicester London Road*)
* Melton Mowbray
* Oakham
* Stamford
* Peterborough (The station used to be called *Peterborough North*)

On other tracks (Ely to Peterborough, Breckland and West Anglia) the trains keep going after Peterborough, through March and Ely to Thetford and Norwich or Wendens Ambo (Audley End) and Stansted Airport. Many of them run to Stansted. Services for Norwich come back out of Ely. 

Other services using part of the Birmingham to Peterborough Line include Birmingham to Leicester local (close by) trains. The tracks also have a lot of cargo on the trains, being one of the big train tracks to Birmingham Freightliner Terminal (on the site of Birmingham Lawley Street railway station).

Stations that are not there anymore
-----------------------------------

Stations that are not on these tracks anymore are:

* Croft railway station at Croft
* Blaby railway station at Blaby
* Glen Parva railway station at Glen Parva
* Leicester
* Syston
* Rearsby railway station at Rearsby
* Brooksby railway station at Brooksby
* Frisby railway station at Frisby
* Asfordby railway station at Asfordby
* Ketton
**Brenda Villa** (born April 18, 1980) is an American water polo player and coach.

Childhood and family
--------------------

Brenda Villa is a three time Olympic medalist in Water Polo. She was born in Commerce, California. She started playing Water Polo at age 8 at the Commerce Aquatorium. She was inspired to take up Water Polo by her brother Edgar. Edgar pushed her to become stronger and better. She was always looking for his approval. Another challenge was that she was playing against older kids who were mostly boys. There were not enough girls to make a team.

Education
---------

Villa graduated from high school in 1998. She earned a college scholarship to Stanford for her skills in Water Polo. She was named the top collegiate player on the Stanford Women’s Water Polo team. Villa is famous for her accomplishments in Water Polo which have earned her several Olympic medals.

Professional life
-----------------

Brenda started playing for the US National Team in 1998. She helped them qualify for the Olympics. She and her teammates appeared on CNBC, MSNBC, and NBC. In 2003, her team won the World Championship in Water Polo. Villa was also a big part in the Pan Am championships. Right now, she is working as the Water Polo Coach at Castilleja School in Palo Alto, California, USA. Villa is possibly going to be recognized in the Olympic Hall of Fame.
For bot operation on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Bots.
A **bot** is a computer program which acts automatically. It may do things that a person wouldn't normally do, or take a long time to do. It is an automated or semi-automated tool or script. They may be simple, or advanced and complex:

1. Software agents acts for a user doing things which the user programs it for. Software agents which interact with people (such as chatbots) have features which make this possible, such as natural language processing.
2. More advanced agents:
	1. Intelligent agents can use artificial intelligence.
	2. Autonomous agents change the way they do things to achieve the same objectives. Also, there are multi-agent systems which can work together to get a result which could not be done by a single agent.
	3. Mobile agents can move (relocate) their working to different processors.

Issues with bots
----------------

Societies are going through a rapid learning process at present. The freedom of bots to mine data is challenged. By mining data is meant collecting information about use, and about users, so as to advance some commercial or other purpose. In the European Union, for example, bots must now ask for permission to mine data from users. Before, they could collect any data they liked from users inorder to promote the welfare of the companies that used them.

There is a Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases. It is a directive of the European Union in the field of copyright law, made under the Treaty of Rome. The need to protect the data of *users* is a more recent development.

Data mining is certain to be extremely important in the future. On Wikipedia the use of bots is frequent (see link above), but the use of data mining is minimal.
An aerial view of the heath looking south with All Saints Church in the centre rear of the heath
**Blackheath** is a heathland area of South East London. Formerly in Kent, it is now shared between the London Boroughs of Lewisham and Greenwich. Blackheath has one of the largest areas of common land in Greater London.

History
-------

The Paragon, Blackheath
The name is recorded in 1166 as *Blachehedfeld* and means the "dark coloured heathland". It is formed from the Old English 'blæc' and 'hǣth' and refers to the open space that was the meeting place of the ancient hundred of Blackheath. The name was later used for the Victorian suburb that developed in the 19th century and was extended to the areas known as **Blackheath Park** and **Blackheath Vale**.

### Origins

The Roman road that later became known as Watling Street crosses the northern edge of Blackheath (almost in line with the A2).

Blackheath was a rallying point for Wat Tyler's Peasants' Revolt of 1381, and for Jack Cade's Kentish rebellion in 1450. Wat Tyler is remembered by Wat Tyler Road on the heath. After pitching camp on Blackheath, Cornish rebels were defeated in the Battle of Deptford Bridge (sometimes called the Battle of Blackheath), just to the west, on 17 June 1497.

With Watling Street carrying stagecoaches across the heath, on the way to north Kent and the Channel ports, it was also a common place for highwaymen to rob travelers during the 17th and 18th centuries.

### Blackheath Park

The sizeable estate of Blackheath Park was created on lands of Wricklemarsh Manor, and built over in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It has fine examples of substantial Georgian and Victorian houses – most notably Michael Searles' crescent of semi-detached terrace houses linked by colonnades, The Paragon (c 1793-1807).

The Pagoda is a good example of a beautiful property in Blackheath, built in 1760 by Sir William Chambers. It was later leased to the Prince Regent, who later became King George IV, and used as a summer home by his wife Caroline, Princess of Wales.

Sports
------

In 1608, according to tradition, Blackheath was the place where golf was introduced to England – the Royal Blackheath Golf Club. The club was one of the first golf associations established (1766) outside Scotland. Since 1923 it has been in nearby Eltham. Blackheath also gave its name to the first hockey club, established during the mid 19th century.

The Blackheath Rugby Club was founded in 1858, the oldest rugby club in England. The Blackheath club organised the world's first rugby international (between England and Scotland in Edinburgh on 27 March 1871), and hosted the first international between England and Wales ten years later. Blackheath Rugby Club was one of the 12 founding members of the Football Association in 1863.