recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
This article is about the first letter in the alphabet. For the indefinite article, see Article (grammar). For other uses, see A (disambiguation).

| The Latin alphabet |
| --- |
|  | Aa | Bb | Cc | Dd |  |
| Ee | Ff | Gg | Hh | Ii | Jj |
| Kk | Ll | Mm | Nn | Oo | Pp |
| Qq | Rr | Ss | Tt | Uu | Vv |
|  | Ww | Xx | Yy | Zz |  |

Writing "A" in cursive font.
**A** or **a** is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, **a** or **α**, is used as a lower case vowel.

When it is spoken, ā is said as a long **a**, a diphthong of ĕ and y. A is similar to Alphabet of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it means the same sound. 

"Alpha and Omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G.

A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written "A". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing.

A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as "La".

Where it came from
------------------

The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph. This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head. 

| Egyptian | Phoenician *aleph* | Greek *Alpha* | Etruscan A | Roman/Cyrillic A |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head | Phoenician aleph | Greek alpha | Etruscan A | Roman A |

This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language.

Using the letter
----------------

The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like æ, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word *pad*. Other sounds of this letter are in the words *father*, which developed into another sound, such as in the word *ace*.

Use in mathematics
------------------

In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities.

In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle.

Its letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th postulate, the basis for, as one of the Millennium Prize Problems, the Hodge Conjecture.
The **Polish United Workers' Party**, (**PZPR)**, was the communist party which ruled the Polish People's Republic as a one-party state from 1948 to 1989. It was based on the theories of Marxism-Leninism, with a strong emphasis on left-wing nationalism. It had total control over public institutions in the country as well as the Polish People's Army, the Ministry of Public Security, the Citizens' Militia police force and the media.

The falsified 1947 Polish legislative election granted the Communist Polish Workers' Party complete political authority in post-war Poland. The PZPR was founded in December 1948 by joining it to the Polish Socialist Party. From 1952 onward, the position of "First Secretary" of the Polish United Workers' Party was really Poland's head of state. Throughout its existence it was very close to ideologically-similar parties of the Eastern Bloc, like the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Between 1948 and 1954, nearly 1.5 million people were Polish United Workers' Party members, and membership rose to 3 million by 1980.

The party's main aim was to impose socialist agenda into Polish society. The communist government sought to improve the living standards of the proletariat, make education and healthcare available to all, establish a centralized planned economy, nationalize all institutions and provide internal or external security with a strong armed force. Some ideas imported from abroad, such as large-scale collective farming and secularization, failed in their early stages. The PZPR was more liberal and pro-Western than its counterparts in East Germany or the Soviet Union, and was more averse to radical politics. Although propaganda was used in major media outlets like *Trybuna Ludu* (lit. 'People's Tribune') and televised *Dziennik* ('Journal'), censorship stopped working by the mid-1980s and was gradually abolished. The Polish United Worker's Party was responsible for the brutal pacification of civil resistance and protesters in the Poznań protests of 1956, the 1970 Polish protests and throughout martial law between 1981 and 1983. It started a bitter anti-Semitic campaign during the 1968 Polish political crisis, which forced most of the last of Poland's Jews to emigrate.

In 1980 the Solidarity movement emerged as a major anti-bureaucratic social movement that pursued social change. With communist rule being relaxed in neighbouring countries, the PZPR lost support and was forced to negotiate with the opposition and adhere to the Polish Round Table Agreement, which permitted free democratic elections. The elections on 4 June 1989 proved victorious for Solidarity, bringing 40-year communist rule in Poland to an end. The Polish United Workers' Party was dissolved in January 1990.
**Leopold "Grundl" Grundwald** (28 October 1891 – 9 April 1969) was an Austrian football player in the position of striker and later football coach. He played for SK Rapid Wien and in the Austrian national football team.

Career
------

Leopold Grundwald came to Rapid in 1907 and was in the fighting team from 1910 onward. From 1911–12, Grundwald was one of the cornerstones of the first Austrian championship team as a left winger and left connector and also contributed to a total of seven championship titles with numerous goals. In 1919 and 1920 he also won the Cup. From 1911 to 1921, Grundwald played in 112 championship games for Rapid, scoring around 50 goals. He was also used as a defender, especially in the last few years.

International
-------------

Grundwald was in the Austrian national team eight times and scored three goals. His first match was a 1-0 win over Norway on 1 July 1912. His last match was on 1 October 1916 in a 3-2 away win against Hungary.

Manager
-------

After the end of his active career, he also worked as a coach for FC St. Gallen, and a referee.

Honours
-------

* 7 × Austrian champion: 1912, 1913, 1916, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1921
* 2 × Austrian Cup: 1919, 1920
Cosplayer as Metamorpho.
**Metamorpho** is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character is an elemental superhero with the power to shape-shift his body into various forms, using the elements contained within the human body. He also possesses the power of virtual invulnerability in his inert state. Originally known as the archaeologist **Rex Mason**, exposure to the Orb of Ra in Egypt changed him into one of the mythical Metamorphae. Although Metamorpho's powers allow him to fight against evil, they are also a curse in that he is trapped in this hideous form, unable even to die. He is primarily one of the Outsiders, but has also been a member of the Justice League of America, Doom Patrol, Justice League Europe, the Seven Soldiers of Victory and The Terrifics.

*Metamorpho* was created by Bob Haney and Ramona Fradon. His first appearance was in *The Brave and the Bold* #57 (1965).

The character will make his live-action cinematic debut in *Superman* (2025) and will be played by Anthony Carrigan.
Kirsten Dunst as Mary Jane.
**Mary-Jane Watson** is a fictional character from Marvel Comics. She was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. Mary-Jane Watson is a friend of Peter Parker and later becomes his girlfriend. Peter then decides to stop dating her since he is secretly the superhero Spider-Man and she'll be in danger if she's his girlfriend because of that. She later finds out that he is Spider-Man and they go back to dating. They eventually get married.

Mary-Jane Watson in Film
------------------------

Mary-Jane Watson is played by Kirsten Dunst in the 2002 movie *Spider-Man*. She and Peter Parker's best friend Harry Osborn are the only two students at their high school who are nice to Peter Parker. Mary-Jane dates Flash Thompson and doesn't like it when he bullies Peter Parker. When Peter gets bitten by a genetically engineered super-spider and no longer needs his glasses, Mary-Jane compliments him. Flash Thompson then attacks Peter Parker in front of a locker and Peter beats him up. Mary-Jane then breaks up with Flash. She then starts dating Harry Osborn. Harry's father Norman insults her and tells him all she really cares about is his money. Harry defends her. Mary-Jane, who overheard what was said calls Norman Osborne "a creep". Harry defends his father and Mary-Jane breaks up with him. Mary-Jane falls in love with Spider-Man after he rescues her. Harry later sees her talking to Peter and realizes that they are in love. Harry's father finds out and as the supervillain the Green Goblin kidnaps her to get to Peter who he knows is Spider-Man. Spider-Man rescues her by killing the Green Goblin. Mary-Jane later tells Peter she is in love with him and Peter says he will always be her friend but can never be anything else to her. In the 2004 movie *Spider-Man 2*, she accidentally unmasks Spider-Man after he rescues her from Dr. Octopus. They start dating. In the 2007 movie *Spider-Man 3*, Mary-Jane breaks up with Peter after he starts being bad to people. In the end, Peter goes back to being a good person and he and Mary-Jane get back together.

Spider-Man Loves Mary Jane
--------------------------

From 2004 to 2009, Marvel Comics published a Comic book called Spider-Man Loves Mary Jane which retold the story of Spider-Man with Mary Jane as the protagonist.
**Anthony Henday** (fl. 1750 – 1762) was one of the first white men to explore the interior of the Canadian northwest. His explorations were for the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) who were worried that La Vérendrye and the other western commanders were taking furs from the northwest to their forts.

Henday volunteered to undertake an expedition into this territory. He came from the Isle of Wight, and was a convicted smuggler and joined the HBC in 1750 as a net-maker and labourer. Henday had gained some experience in inland travel after arriving at York Factory. On June 26, 1754, he set out with a group of Plains Indians. They passed the French Fort Paskoya where he may have met La Corne, the western commander at that time.

In October of 1754 he and his group came to what is now Alberta from York Factory with a mission to meet the Blackfoot and perhaps trade with them. The Blackfoot did not give a clear answer, but Henday decided they meant "no", so he travelled back to York Factory with news that he had explored the area and had met with the Blackfoot. Since the answer had been unsure, there was no more expeditions to Alberta.

This trip, and later ones, took Henday across much of the prairies of what is now Saskatchewan and Alberta and his journal shows that he brought a lot of trade to York Factory. Records show that some of the trade also went to the French at Fort Saint-Louis (Fort de la Corne) and Fort Paskoya which were on the route to Hudson Bay. He left the service of the HBC in 1762 largely because his efforts for the company, at least in his estimation, had not been properly recognized.

Anthony Henday Drive, a large ring road in Edmonton is named in his honour.

Other websites
--------------

* Biography at the *Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online*
Ludwig Guttmann
**Sir Ludwig Guttmann** CBE FRS (3 July 1899 – 18 March 1980) was a German neurologist who started the Stoke Mandeville Games. That was a sporting event for people with disabilities. It developed into the Paralympic Games. He was a Jewish doctor who fled Nazi Germany just before the start of the Second World War. Guttmann was one of the first people who organized physical activities for people with disabilities.

1933, Guttmann was working in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland) as a neurosurgeon and lecturing at the University of Breslau. in 1933 under the Nuremberg Laws he was stopped. He was sent to work at the Breslau Jewish Hospital, where he became medical director in 1937. In early 1939, Guttmann and his family left Germany because of the Nazi persecution of the Jews. He was sent to Portugal to treat a friend of the Portuguese dictator António de Oliveira Salazar. The Council for Assisting Refugee Academics helped him to move to Oxford in March 1939. He did research at the Nuffield Department of Neurosurgery in the Radcliffe Infirmary. 

In September 1943, the British government asked Guttmann to establish the National Spinal Injuries Centre at Stoke Mandeville Hospital. The Royal Air Force was worried about the treatment and rehabilitation of pilots with spine injuries. It was the first specialist unit for treating spinal injuries in the United Kingdom. Guttman was the director until 1966. He organised the first Stoke Mandeville Games for disabled war veterans, which was held at the hospital on 29 July 1948, the same day as the opening of the London Olympics. They all had spinal cord injuries and competed in wheelchairs.

In 1961, he setup the International Medical Society of Paraplegia, now the International Spinal Cord Society.
**Nestlé UK Ltd** (UK: /ˈnɛsleɪ/ *NESS-lay*), trading as **Rowntree's** (/ˈraʊntriːz/ *ROWN-treez*), is a British confectionery brand. The business was based in York, England. Rowntree developed the Kit Kat (introduced in 1935), Aero (introduced in 1935), Fruit Pastilles (introduced in 1881), Smarties (introduced in 1937) brands, and the Rolo and Quality Street brands when it merged with Mackintosh's in 1969 to form Rowntree Mackintosh Confectionery. Rowntree's also launched After Eight thin mint chocolates in 1962. The Yorkie and Lion bars were introduced in 1976. Rowntree's also started the selection box (a gift consisting of assorted bars and sweets) which in the UK have been Christmas gifts for over a century.

Started in 1862, the company developed strong associations with Quaker philanthropy. Throughout much of the 19th and 20th centuries, it was one of the big three confectionery manufacturers in the United Kingdom, alongside Cadbury and Fry, both also founded by Quakers.

In 1981, Rowntree's received the Queen's Award for Enterprise for outstanding contribution to international trade. In 1988, when the company was bought by Nestlé, it was the fourth-largest confectionery manufacturer in the world. The Rowntree brand continues to be used to market Nestlé's jelly sweet brands, such as Fruit Gums and Fruit Pastilles. Rowntree’s ceased to exist as a business in 1991, becoming Nestlé UK.
Chick is yum

**Chicken** (*Gallus gallus domesticus*) is a term which refers to a species of poultry. It is raised in many places for its meat and eggs. They are usually kept by humans as livestock. Some breeds of chickens can fly for a short distance. Some sleep in trees (if there are trees around).

A male chicken is called a rooster or a cock(erel). Roosters do not have penises. A female chicken is called a hen; a young chicken is called a chick. Like other female birds, hens lay eggs. The eggs hatch into chicks. 

When raising chickens, a farmer needs a chicken coop (like a little house) for the chickens to roost (sleep) in. They also need a run or yard where they can exercise, take dust baths, eat and drink. The chickens also need to be protected from predators such as foxes. Fences are often used for this. 

Chickens can also be farmed intensively. This lets farms make a lot of chicken meat and eggs.

Eggs
----

See the main article: Egg (food)
The egg from a chicken.
Chickens are well known for their eggs. Many people eat them for their breakfast. The eggs can be prepared in many different ways.

Meat
----

See the main article: Chicken as food
KFC Fried chicken served with rice and ketchup in Malaysia
Because of their low cost, chicken meat (also called "chicken") is one of the most used kinds of meat in the world. Americans eat 8 billion chickens every year. Some popular dishes with chicken are: Buffalo wings, butter chicken, chicken rice, chicken balls, chicken pot pie, chicken soup, fried chicken (see picture), roasted chicken and tandoori chicken.[*source?*]

### Cuts

There are different cuts of chicken. Chicken meat can also be bought whole. The leanest part is known as the breast. Sliced pieces of the breast are known as the tender(loin). There are also wings, thighs, and legs (also known as drumsticks).

Chicken and chickenpox
----------------------

Chickenpox has nothing to do with chickens. When chickenpox was first described, people thought that the pox spots looked like chickpeas placed upon the skin. The Latin word for chickpeas is *grana*. That is the original word that chickenpox got its name from.

Gaming
------

Two gamecocks fighting in a rural Thailand.
In some parts of the world people breed chickens to fight. They bet money on which of two birds will win. In many places this is illegal.

Other websites
--------------

 Data related to Chicken at Wikispecies  

 Media related to Chicken at Wikimedia Commons  

 Raising Chickens at Wikibooks
Spiral galaxy NGC 3982, with blue clusters and dark regions. You can see this galaxy with a little telescope in Ursa Major constellation
NGC 7814, spiral galaxy in Pegasus constellation. It has more than 15 denominations
The Andromeda Galaxy or **NGC 224** is one of the most visible, known and brightest galaxies.
The ***New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars*** is a list of stars, nebulae and galaxies. It is abbreviated **NGC**, and is sometimes called just **New General Catalogue**. It has 7,840 objects on it. These objects are called "NGC objects". It was created by John Louis Emil Dreyer in 1888. Like the older, smaller Messier catalog, it is a famous deep-sky catalogue for amateur astronomy.
Most of observations were rewarded by William Herschel and his son, and expanded by the known catalogue Index Catalogues I and II, adding about 5000 new objects.
South Hemisphere objects are less studied than North Hemisphere objects, observed by John Herschel. The *New General Catalogue* had some mistakes, that were corrected in a special revised edition: RNGC

NGC 2000.0
----------

It's a copy of NGC objects using J2000.0 coordenates created in 1988

Other websites
--------------

* The Interactive NGC Catalog online
The **Peak District** is an upland area in England at the southern end of the Pennines. It is mostly in northern Derbyshire but also includes parts of Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Staffordshire and Yorkshire.

The area has two main parts. The northern 'Dark Peak' is where most of the moorland is found. Its geology is gritstone. The southern 'White Peak' is where most of the population lives: its geology is mainly limestone.

Much of the area is uplands above 1,000 feet (300 m), with a high point on Kinder Scout of 2,087 feet (636 m). Despite its name, the landscape generally lacks sharp peaks, but has rounded hills and gritstone escarpments (the "edges"). The area is surrounded by major conurbations, including Huddersfield, Manchester, Sheffield, Derby and Stoke-on-Trent.

The area is very difficult to travel across. The roads are few and narrow. This is due to the terrain, which is hilly, rough and uneven. Major motorways run east and west of the area.

The **Peak District National Park** became the first national park in the United Kingdom in 1951. It attracts many visitors every year.

Geology
-------

The Peak District is formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Carboniferous period. They comprise the Carboniferous limestone, the overlying gritstone and finally the coal measures at the margins of the area. There are outcrops of igneous rocks including lavas, tuffs and volcanic vent agglomerates. The Peak District is like a broad dome (see image below).

Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up-doming of the area. This resulted in the dome-like shape. The shale and sandstone were worn away until limestone was exposed. At the end of this period, the Earth's crust sank here which led to the area being covered by sea, depositing a variety of new rocks.

Some time after its deposition, mineral veins were formed in the limestone. These veins and rakes have been mined for lead since Roman times.

The Peak District was covered by ice during at least one of the ice ages of the last 2 million years. Glacial meltwaters eroded a complex of sinuous channels along the margin of the Peak District during this period. Glacial meltwaters helped form many of the caves in the limestone area. Wild animal herds roamed the area, and their remains have been found in several of the local caves.

The different types of rock that lie beneath the soil strongly influence the landscape. They determine the vegetation and so the animals that will live in the area. Limestone has fissures (cracks) and is soluble in water, so rivers carve deep, narrow valleys. These rivers then often find a route underground, creating cave systems. Millstone Grit on the other hand is insoluble but porous, so it absorbs water. Water moves through the grits until it meets the less porous shales beneath, creating springs when it reaches the surface again. The shales are friable and easily attacked by frost. They form areas where landslides may occur, as on Mam Tor.
**Find A Grave** is a website that has a database of cemetery records.

History
-------

It was started by Jim Tipton, in 1995 to help people who wanted to visit the graves of famous people. After some time, an online forum was created on the site. The site claims to have over 121 million burial records from all over the world.

Content and features
--------------------

The site's FAQ says they hope to list all the burial places of everyone in the world.

The website has lists of cemeteries and graves from all around the world. The American cemeteries are organized by state and county, and many records contain Google Maps and photographs of the cemeteries. Each grave record can contain: dates and places of birth and death, information about the person, cemetery and plot information, photographs (grave marker, the person, etc.), and information about who added it to Find A Grave.

Members can place on-line memorials for family and friends for no cost. Users can edit the memorials. Members may also request photos of graves which Find A Grave volunteers can add.

Other websites
--------------

* Official website

Further reading
---------------

* Colker, David, Web site answers grave concerns about stars, *Los Angeles Times*, 26 August 1997
* Johnstone, Nick, Why I love ... findagrave.com, *The Guardian*, 14 July 2004
* Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, Web site attracts millions of grave-seekers, *The Orlando Sentinel*, 12 July 2001
* Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, Find VIPs (and others) who R.I.P. through online cemetery, *The Philadelphia Inquirer*, 1 August 2005
**Barbara Jordan** (February 21, 1936 – January 17, 1996) was an American lawyer, educator and politician. She was a leader of the Civil Rights Movement. She was a Democrat.

Jordan was the first African-American female elected to the Texas Senate after Reconstruction. She was also the first Southern African-American female elected to the United States House of Representatives. She was best known for her opening statement at the House Judiciary Committee hearing during the impeachment process against Richard Nixon.

Jordan taught political science at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama for a year. She later returned to Houston. She started a private law practice.

Jordan got a Presidential Medal of Freedom, with many other honors. She was a member of the Peabody Awards' Board of Jurors from 1978 to 1980. She was the first African American female who was buried at the Texas State Cemetery.

Jordan worked as the chair of the United States Commission Reform. The Chair recommended reducing legal immigration by one-third. This work is often cited by American restriction members.

Jordan was born in Houston, Texas. She died due to complications of pneumonia at age 59 in Austin.

Recognition
-----------

* 1984: Inducted into the Texas Women's Hall of Fame
* 1990: Inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame
* 1992: The Spingarn Medal from the NAACP
* 1993: The Elizabeth Blackwell Award from Hobart and William Smith Colleges
* 1994: The Presidential Medal of Freedom
* 1995: The second ever female awardee of the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award
By touching a hot-water bottle, we get heat by conduction.
**Heat conduction** (or **thermal conduction**) is the movement of heat from one object to another one that has different temperature when they are touching each other. For example, we can warm our hands by touching hot-water bottles. When the cold hands touch the hot-water bottle, heat flows from the hotter object (hot-water bottle) to the colder one (hand). People make things with different thermal conductivity, for example cookware to heat things or insulated containers to keep hot things hot or cold things cold.

Other ways to transfer heat are by thermal radiation and/or convection. Usually more than one of these processes happen at the same time.

Microscopic explanation
-----------------------

In the atomic theory solids, liquids and gases are made of tiny particles called "atoms". The temperature of the material measures how fast the atoms are moving and the heat measures the total amount of energy due to the vibration of the atoms.

Conduction can happen when one part of a material is heated. The atoms in this part vibrate faster and are more likely to hit their neighbors. The collisions cause those atoms also to move faster, passing the heat energy to them. In this way the energy travels through the solid. (Rather like the way energy passes along a set of tumbling dominos).

The atomic picture also helps explain why conduction is more important in solids: in solids the atoms are close together and unable to move around. In liquids and gases the particles can move past each other, so the collisions are less common.

Law of heat conduction
----------------------

The **law of heat conduction**, also known as **Fourier's law**, means that the rate, in time, of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area at right angles, to that gradient, through which the heat is flowing:

{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial Q}{\partial t}}=-k\oint \_{S}{\nabla T\cdot \,dS}}
Linear heat flow
where:

*Q* is the amount of heat transferred, and
*t* is the time taken, and
*k* is the material's thermal conductivity' and
*S* is the area through which the heat is flowing, and
*T* is the temperature.
Thermal conductivity usually varies with temperature, but the variation can be small, over a significant range of temperatures, for some common materials.

Related pages
-------------

* Heat transfer
* Convection
* Thermal radiation
Jamaican jerk chicken
Key ingredients in jerk cooking:allspiceAllspice (dried unripe fruit of *Pimenta dioica*)Scotch bonnetScotch bonnet chili peppers (cultivar of *Capsicum chinense*)
**Jerk** is a style of cooking in Jamaica. Meat is rubbed or marinated with a hot spice mixture called **Jamaican jerk spice**.

This came from the indigenous peoples in Jamaica from the Arawak and Taíno tribes. The descendants of 17th century Jamaican Maroons who intermingled with them carried it on.

The smoky taste of jerked meat is achieved using various cooking methods, including modern wood-burning ovens. The meat is normally chicken or pork. The spicy jerk marinade sauce is made with allspice and Scotch bonnet peppers. Jerk cooking is popular in Caribbean and West Indian diaspora communities throughout North America, Canada and the United Kingdom.

Techniques
----------

Jerk chicken cooking at Montego Bay
The cooking technique of jerking, as well as the results it produces, has evolved over time from using pit fires to grilling over coals in old oil barrel halves. Around the 1960s, Caribbean entrepreneurs seeking an easier, more portable method of jerking cut oil barrels lengthwise, added holes for ventilation and hinged lids to capture the smoke. These barrels are fired with charcoal; other jerking methods include wood-burning ovens.

Jerk stands along Highway A1
Street-side "jerk stands" or "jerk centres" are found in Jamaica and the nearby Cayman Islands, as well as throughout the Caribbean diaspora. Jerked meat can be bought with hard dough bread, deep fried *cassava bammy* (flatbread, usually with fish), Jamaican fried dumplings (known as "Johnnycake" or "journey cakes"), and festival, a variation of sweet flavored fried dumplings made with sugar and served as a side.

Ingredients
-----------

Jerk seasoning principally consists of allspice and Scotch bonnet peppers. Other ingredients may include cloves, cinnamon, scallions, nutmeg, thyme, garlic, brown sugar, ginger, soy sauce, vinegar, and salt.

Uses
----

Jerk seasoning was originally used on chicken and pork, but in modern recipes it is used with other ingredients including fish, shrimp, shellfish, beef, sausage, lamb, goat, tofu, and vegetables.
Scotland has an oceanic climate and a highland climate. 
Summers are mild and usually wet. 
Winters can be cold, but are usually quite mild, very wet and windy.

Weather records
---------------

The highest temperature ever recorded in Scotland was 34.8 °C (94.6 °F) on 19 July 2022 in Charterhall.

The lowest temperature ever recorded in Scotland was −27.2 °C (−17.0 °F) on 11 February 1895 & 10 January 1982 in Braemar, and on 30 December 1995 in Altnaharra. 

The highest wind gust ever recorded in Scotland was 312 km/h (194 mph, 87 m/s) on 19 December 2008 at Cairngorms.

Highest temperatures measured in Edinburgh
------------------------------------------

| Temperature | Date |
| --- | --- |
| 31.0 °C (87.8 °F) | 19 July 2022 |
| 30.8 °C (87.4 °F) | 18 July 2022 |
| 30.0 °C (86.0 °F) | 3 August 1975 |
| 29.9 °C (85.8 °F) | 1 July 2009 |
| 29.6 °C (85.3 °F) | 2 August 1990 |

Highest temperatures measured in Aberdeen
-----------------------------------------

| Temperature | Date |
| --- | --- |
| 29.8 °C (85.6 °F) | 18 July 2006 |
| 29.7 °C (85.5 °F) | 11 August 2022 |
| 29.7 °C (85.5 °F) | 21 August 1995 |
| 29.2 °C (84.6 °F) | 16 August 1995 |
| 28.4 °C (83.1 °F) | 24 August 1976 |
Louis XIV was the ruler of the Kingdom of France. He is the longest reigning king and monarch to have ever lived
A **king** is usually a male monarch who rules a country or territory which is a monarchy. The person usually inherits the title and position. A king comes to power when the previous monarch dies, who is usually a family member of his, most likely a parent. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's abdication, for example George VI (who became King of Britain after his brother decided to abdicate). 

If a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a monarchy. A country which a king or queen rules is called a kingdom. 

For most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in Europe. However, most countries, such as France, decided to become republics. Some, such as the United Kingdom, still have a royal family. In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from. 

The wife of a king is called a queen. A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen. 

If there is a queen without a husband she might be inducted as the king in certain monarchies in Africa and Europe. Her Royal Majesty Queen Diambi is the current female king of the Bakwa Luntu People of Central Kasaï, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. 

In the Muslim world a King would be known as Malik, Sultan or shah.

Shah (Persian: شاه) is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. The term "Shah" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979. 

Some modern kings today include Charles III of the United Kingdom and Felipe VI of Spain.

Related pages
-------------

* Shah
* Emperor
* Prince
* Queen
* Princess
* Sultan
* Duke
***Kokusai himitsu keisatsu series*** (国際秘密警察シリーズ, *International Secret Police Series*) is an action movie produced by Toho from 1963 to 1967. A total of five films were produced by Toho and stars Tatsuya Mihashi, a look-alike Cary Grant.

Overview
--------

This series was produced in 1963 when the first James Bond film "Dr. No" (directed by Terrence Young) was released and became a hit in Japan. It is said to be "the first spy movie in the world to be influenced by 007". The basic story is that Jiro Kitami, an agent working for the International Secret Police/I.S.P. (国際秘密警察, *Kokusai himitsu keisatsu*), destroys evil organizations, just like the "Japanese James Bond" played by Mihashi. The highlights are the bizarre gadgets used during the missions and his skillful gun handling.

The first work "Interpol Code 8" and the second work "Tiger Fang" were produced as pure spy action movies with a serious mood, but the third work "Director Takashi Tsuboshima" written by Shinichi Sekizawa and directed by Takashi Tsuboshima. From "Keg of Gunpowder" onwards, elements of sex appeal are added and Kitami becomes sloppy with women, the appearance of unrealistic enemy characters, elements of comedy touches is also included. It has become a work of entertainment for audiences looking to watch something different from other film genres they watched like kaiju and tokusatsu.

In 1966, Toho invited American actor and producer Roger Smith, who was also popular in Japan with "77 Sunset Strip", a one-hour TV series planned starring a Japanese-American duo with Mihashi. Although the project fell through with many script changes, Shinichi Sekizawa rewrote the 5th and final film, "The Killing Bottle," by reusing the novel "Desperate Situation" (
絶体絶命, *Zettai zetsumei*) written by novelist Michio Tsuzuki for the pilot episode.

Films
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### Kokusai himitsu keisatsu shirei dai 8-gō/Interpol Code 8

First installment・Release date: August 31, 1963 (Produced and distributed by Toho)
* Plot: Quyen, a government official was killed in Saigon, South Vietnam, and Akimoto, an employee of a Japanese trading company who had been in contact with the government official, disappeared. Jiro Kitami is dispatched to Japan from the International Secret Police (ISP) Headquarters in Paris, as the merchant of death, Rudolf Kent, is involved in this case. Together with Natsuo Ezaki, Akimoto's colleague, Kitami stands up to break the Kent gang's secret trading route.
army of kids that came in "through Gamergate and then get turned onto politics and Trump".[266][157]
In 2016, Vox said that Gamergate's "success" "gave many on the extreme right a template for how to attack their perceived enemies." and that "The methods deployed in this ground-zero Gamergate event have since become standard practice for internet mobs wishing to attack seemingly anyone they believe to be a foe."[267] As of 2018, "Not only are Gamergate supporters still active, but its most visible advocates seem to be thriving in the age of President Trump."[268]
In a retrospective for Slate in August 2019, Evan Urquhart wrote that Gamergate was still active on Reddit and that its members continue to harass journalists. However, Urquhart also commented that Gamergate had not stopped socially-conscious games journalism, efforts to increase diversity in games, or individuals like Quinn and Sarkeesian.[269] In a retrospective for Vox in January 2020, Aja Romano stated that police, businesses, and social media platforms are still susceptible to Gamergate-like tactics and that they would have to change in order to keep victims safe.[270]
In a retrospective for Polygon in December 2019, Sarkeesian said that "GamerGate’s real goals were expressed in the explicit racism, sexism, and transphobia of the memes the movement generated, and the posts its supporters wrote on the message boards where they organized and strategized. Later, the flimsiness of the "ethics in games journalism" pretense would became a mocking meme signifying a bad faith argument. It would almost be funny, if GamerGate hadn’t done so much harm, and caused so much lasting trauma."[271]
In the aftermath of the 2021 United States Capitol attack, Brianna Wu said that "everything I tried to get the FBI to act on in the aftermath of GamerGate has now come true...We told people that if social media companies like Facebook and Reddit did not tighten their policies about these communities of organized hate, that we were going to see violent insurrection in the United States … We told people that these communities were organizing online for violence and extremism. That, unfortunately, has proven to be true."[272][270] Joan Donovan, research director at Harvard's Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, said that key figures in Gamergate worked to raise online fury ahead of the attempted coup.[273]
In August 2021, The Washington Post noted that "despite the attempts to discredit her, wreck her career and destroy her sense of safety, Wu has now become a vocal proponent of forgiveness for those who apologize and show they have grown."[274]
See also
Comicsgate
**Ethel May Caterham** (née **Collins**; born 21 August 1909) is an English supercentenarian. She is best known for being the oldest known living person in the United Kingdom and the last born in the 1900s decade.

Caterham's case was verified by Oliver Trim and Waclaw Jan Kroczek, and validated by the Gerontology Research Group (GRG) as of 28 January 2023.

Biography
---------

Ethel May Collins was born in Shipton Bellinger, Hampshire, England on 21 August 1909. Her birth was registered in Andover. She was the seventh of eight children. She was raised in Tidworth, Wiltshire. Her elder sister Gladys Maud Babilas died in March 2002, aged 104.

Collins went on voyage to British India in 1927, at the age of 18, and worked as an au pair to a military family there until she was 21. She said: "I have very fond memories of my time in India, British life there was very privileged, we were waited on by servants and we kept both British traditions like Christmas and Indian traditions like Tiffin and Tea. It was not very common in my area for young women to head off to India but my parents were excited for me at the thought of this amazing experience."

Collins met her future husband Norman Caterham at a dinner party in 1931. The couple married at Salisbury Cathedral. Their marriage was registered in Brentford, Middlesex in January 1933. Her husband served in the Royal Army Pay Corps. This saw the couple travel to several parts of the world, including Hong Kong, where she set up a nursery to teach English, crafts and games. They also travelled to Gibraltar, where they started their family; they raised two daughters back in England. Her husband died in July 1976. He was 71.

Caterham has lived in Surrey for over 50 years and has resides in a care home in Ash Vale, Guildford since 2020. She had previously lived in Bisley. She drove until she was 97 and enjoyed playing contract bridge in her centenarian years. She survived COVID-19 in 2020, aged 110, and was visited by the Mayor of Surrey Heath on her 111th birthday in August. Shortly before her 111th birthday, she and her granddaughter were interviewed by BBC Radio Surrey, where she said her secret to her longevity was "taking everything in my stride, the highs and the lows."

Caterham has received letters from Queen Elizabeth II to mark her 100th birthday in August 2009, her 105th birthday in August 2014 and her 110th birthday in August 2019. She had also received eight telegrams from the Queen.

Caterham became the oldest known living person in the United Kingdom upon the death of 112-year-old Mary "Mollie" Walker MBE on 22 January 2022. She turned 113 in August of that year, becoming the first person in Britain to do so since Olive Boar in 2017. On 7 October 2022, upon the death of 113-year-old Rose Eaton, she became the last British person born before 1910. Since the death of Lucile Randon of France on 17 January 2023, she has been the second-oldest person in Europe, after Spain's Maria Branyas—the world's oldest living person. She is, however, the oldest living European-born person, as Branyas was born in the United States. She is the last surviving subject of King Edward VII.
**Callaloo** (/kæləˈluː/); is a plant used in popular dishes in many Caribbean countries. In some Caribbean countries, a stew made with the plant is called callaloo. In Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada, the dish itself is called callaloo, and uses taro leaves (known by many local names such as 'dasheen bush', 'callaloo bush', or 'bush') or *Xanthosoma* leaves (known by many names, including *cocoyam* and *tannia*).

Callaloo recipes
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A Jamaican breakfast including callaloo (bottom right)
Callaloo in eastern Caribbean countries is generally made with okra and dasheen or water spinach *Ipomoea aquatica*. There are many sorts of callaloo which may include coconut milk, crab, conch, Caribbean lobster, meats, pumpkin, chili peppers, and other seasonings such as chopped onions and garlic. The ingredients are added and cooked gently to a somewhat stew-like consistency. When done, callaloo is dark green in colour and is served as a side dish which may be used as a gravy for other food.

In Guyana it is made in various ways without okra.

In Jamaica, callaloo is often combined with saltfish or other meats, and is usually seasoned with garlic, carrots, local powdered seasoning, tomatoes, salt, scotch bonnet peppers, onions, scallions, thyme, sweet pepper and pimento. It is often eaten as a side dish with a full course meal, or as either breakfast or dinner with roasted breadfruit, boiled green bananas and dumplings, or bread. It is even added to Jamaican patties, called vegetable/vegie/vagan patties, seasoned rice, as well as Fritters

In Grenada, callaloo is steamed with garlic, onion and coconut milk and often eaten as a side dish. Grenadians also stir or blend the mixture until it has a smooth consistent texture. Callaloo soup of callaloo, okra (optional), dumplings, ground provision like yam, potato (sweet and "Irish") chicken and beef is traditionally eaten on Saturdays. It is also one of the most important ingredients in oil down, the island's national dish of steamed breadfruit, callaloo, dumplings, ground provision, carrot and several varieties of meat—salt fish, chicken, and pork. All of this is steamed in coconut milk and saffron powder.

In the Virgin Islands, callaloo is served with a dish of fungee on the side.

In Guadeloupe, *calalou au crabe* (crab callaloo) is a traditional Easter dish.

In St. Lucia, crab callaloo is also popular especially as part of the country's Creole day celebrations.

Martinique and Guadeloupe also have a variety served with Creole rice and salt cod salad.

A similar variation is the recipe called *laing* is popular in the Philippines, mainly the Bicol region.
**Rice and peas** or **peas and rice** are traditional rice dishes in some Caribbean countries. The 'peas' used in this dish are traditionally pigeon peas. They are called 'Gungo peas' in the Caribbean. So9metimes kidney beans are used. Rice and peas recipes throughout the Caribbean vary, with each country having their own way of making it and name of calling it. They are similar only by the two main ingredients which are the peas/beans used and rice to form a mixture. The name "rice and peas" originally is used by Jamaicans to identify the dish. Other countries have different names for it. 

In 1961, Frederic G. Cassidy made note that the dish had been referred to as Jamaica's coat of arms.

Caribbean
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Rice and peas is the mainstay of Jamaica, Anguilla, Bahamas, Trinidad, Barbados, Haiti and many other Caribbean islands. In most of Caribbean, the dish is called Rice and peas. In the Bahamas, it is known as peas n' rice, from which the Bahamian folk song "Mamma don't want no Peas n' Rice and Coconut Oil" is named.

Preparation
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The traditional Jamaican method of cooking rice and peas is cooking long-grain rice in coconut milk and pigeon peas/kidney beans along with other ingredients like scallions, garlic, bell peppers and allspice. It is often served with curries and jerk chicken.
Dr. **Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr.**, retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut. He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.

Early life
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Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951. After postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Aeronautics and Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963.From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he won several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.

Apollo 11 mission
-----------------

Aldrin was the second person in history to set foot on the Moon (after Neil Armstrong, during the Apollo 11 mission).

The Lunar Lander Module landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969.

He was 39 when he set foot on the moon.

He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.

Later life
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Aldrin left NASA in March 1972. He has been married four times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, and to Lois Driggs Cannon and to Anca V Faur. He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice and Andrew. He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988. He is the oldest contestant on the television series *Dancing with the Stars*. He competed in 2010.
**Abdul Rahman Ibn Abdul Aziz al-Sudais** was born in the city of Qassim, Saudi Arabia in the year 1961, is a Saudi world renown Qari. In addition to being the Chief Imam and Khateeb of Masjid Al Haram in Makkah, he is also the President of the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques.

At the tender age of 12, Al Sudais had memorized the Holy Qur’an, and completed his preliminary education in the ‘Al Muthana Bin Harith Elementary School ‘ and graduated in 1979 with excellent grades.

The renowned Imam studied in Riyadh University – presently known as King Saud University, received a degree in Sharia in 1983, and a Master from the Sharia College of Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University in 1987. In 1995 he was awarded a Ph.D. in Islamic Sharia from Umm al-Qura University and he is one of the senior teachers in the Faculty of Sharia at the same place.

Sheikh Al Sudais is known for his magnanimous voice and for his emotional, overwhelming recitation of the Quran in accordance with Tajweed. Every believer of the Muslim Ummah is not alien to this voice, so much so that Sheikh Abdul Rehman Al Sudais was even appointed by King Salman to deliver Hajj Khutbah in the year 2016/1437.

In 2005, he received the prize of the ‘ Islamic Personality Of the year’ in the 9th annual Dubai International Holy Quran Award.

Sheikh Sudais is currently overlooking the progress of the much talked about expansion of both Masjids in Makkah and Madinah, as the expansion in Masjid Al Haram targets completion at the earliest.

Other websites
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: ***Abdul-Rahman Al-Sudais***

* Quran recitation by Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais on Google Play (free listening and free download)[*permanent dead link*]
* Salaat and other recordings (Audio / Video) Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais
* Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais Recitation of complete Quran
* Based on Koranic Verses, Interpretations, and Traditions, Muslim Clerics State: The Jews Are the Descendants of Apes, Pigs, And Other Animals by Aluma Solnick (MEMRI Special Report - No. 11. November 1, 2002)
* A question of leadership (BBC. Panorama) August 21, 2005
* Statement of the Islamic Thinkers Society on As-Sudais

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