recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
An example cheque made out to "John Doe" in the amount of $212.
A **cheque** (or *check*) is a paper used to give money from one person or business to another person or business. To the person getting the cheque, it is a paper that allows them to go to a bank and get money. To the person writing the cheque, it is a promise to pay the bank that is giving the money to the person who turned the cheque in.

Cheques must be written to a person or business. A cheque that is not written to anyone can be very bad because if it is lost, anyone who finds it can get the money. A cheque that is written to a person but does not have the amount of money written is a blank cheque.

Cheques have been used since over a thousand years ago. However, they became popular in the 20th century for paying money without using cash.

Parts of a cheque
-----------------

The four main parts of a cheque are:

* *Drawer*, the person who makes the cheque
* *Payee*, the person who gets the money
* *Drawee*, the bank that pays the money for the cheque
* *Amount*, the amount that has to be paid

When more people started to use cheques, more things were added to make them more secure and easy to track. They started to require the drawer's signature to be confirmed. The signature on a cheque is the main way to tell if a cheque is real. Cheques also started to need the amount written in words and numbers. This made it harder to make mistakes and harder to change the cheque after it was already written.

Issue dates have also been added to cheques. A cheque is invalid if a long time has passed since the issue date. A cheque with an issue date in the past is called an antedated cheque. A cheque with an issue date in the future is called a post-dated cheque. Usually, a person cannot get money from a post-dated cheque until after the issue date has passed.

Cheque numbers are also used often. Every cheque has a different cheque number. This is to make sure people can't get money twice from one cheque.
**Crème brûlée** (or **Crème brulée**) is a dessert. It is made of custard. It is topped with a thin, brittle crust of caramelized sugar. It may be served cold, warm, or at room temperature. The custard is baked, and then sprinkled with sugar Casa that is caramelized under a broiler or with a kitchen blowtorch. The custard is flavored with vanilla. Other flavorings include chocolate, orange liqueur, fruit, or other. The caramelized sugar crust can be covered with a liqueur and set on fire.

The exact origin of crème brûlée is uncertain. France, England, and Spain all claim to be the country where crème brûlée had its origin. The first printed recipe for a dessert called crème brûlée is from the 1691 edition of the French cookbook *Le Cuisinier Royal et Bourgeois* by Francois Massialot, a cook at the Palace of Versailles. That version was a sweet custard of egg yolks and milk with a burnt sugar crust. It is similar to the modern versions. In the second edition of the book, the dessert is called *crème anglaise*. 

At Trinity College, Cambridge the dessert was known as 'burnt cream'. The college crest was burnt into sugar on top of a custard using a hot iron. It may predate Massialot's cookbook with one authority claiming it was first served at Trinity in 1630.

Catalans claim their dessert known as *crema catalana* is the original. It is a rich custard often flavoured with cinnamon and lemon or orange zest topped with carmelized sugar. The Catalan version was first recorded in the 18th century. It is also called *Crema de Sant Josep*, after Saint Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary. In Spain and in many other parts of Europe, Saint Joseph’s Day is celebrated on 19 March. *Crema Catalana* is a traditional dessert served on this day.

Other websites
--------------

 The dictionary definition of crème brûlée at Wiktionary
 Crème Brûlée at Wikibook Cookbooks
 Media related to Crème brûlée at Wikimedia Commons
* A guide to crème brûlée history and how to prepare a recipe Archived 2007-02-13 at the Wayback Machine
Stagno and Bellincioni as Tiriddu and Santuzza in the first performance, 1890
***Cavalleria rusticana*** is an Italian opera in one act. The music was written by Pietro Mascagni. The story and words (libretto) were written by Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti and Guido Menasci. The opera was based on a play by Giovanni Verga.

The opera was first performed in Rome on May 17, 1890. The work marked the start of the verismo style in Italian opera. It is often paired with Ruggero Leoncavallo's opera *Pagliacci* to make a full evening. Both operas are just a little over one hour each.

Name: The name means 'rustic chivalry' or 'chivalry of (people in) the countryside'.

Characters
----------

* Santuzza, *a peasant girl* (soprano)
* Turiddu, *a young villager* (tenor)
* Lucia, *his mother* (contralto)
* Alfio, *a carter* (baritone)
* Lola, *his wife* (mezzo-soprano)

Sources
-------

* Anderson, James. 1993. *The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta*. Wings Books.
* The Earl of Harewood. 1989. *Kobbe's Illustrated Opera Book*. Putnam's. ISBN 0-399-13475-1. pages 110-112.
A **consortium** (which may also be called **syndicate**) is formed by two or more independent companies, individuals, or other economic actors that work together for a limited amount of time, usually to fulfill a purpose. Consortia are common in the building industries, roads and bridges are often built by consortia.

Overview
--------

Very broadly speaking there are two kinds of consortia:

* Companies doing the same thing associate for a project. This is usually done, because each of the companies alone would not be able to handle the business, or the risk of faliing would be too big for one company alone. Forming a consortium allows these companies (which are not part of the same holding company) to handle the project.
* Companies doing different things unite for a project. Each company acts on its own, and only bears the risks associated with the parts of the job it executes.

The term can be traced to the 16th century, where it developed from *con sortes*, which is the plural of Latin *consors*. It can roughly be translated as *united by fate*. The english word consort probably has the same origin.

The company Airbus started as a consortium of different companies with the aim of building airplanes. 

In 1970, they officially formed a *groupement d'intérêt économique* (which is a consortium, in the French legal system). Today, Airbus is a Societas Europaea, a shareholding company under European law. Not all consortia are done for profit: The Unicode consortium wants to promote the Unicode standard. It is a non-profit organisation, based in California.
*Niobe*, sculpture park Kröller-Müller Museum
**Constant Permeke** (31 July 1886 – 4 January 1952) was a Belgian painter and sculptor. He is said to be the leading figure of Flemish expressionism.

Permeke was born in Antwerp. When he was six years old the family moved to Ostend. His father was curator of the Municipal Museum of Arts. Permeke went to school in Bruges from 1903 until 1906. In 1906 he was drafted into the Belgian army. After his military service ended in March 1908, Permeke returned to Ostend. He roomed together with another artist, Gustave De Smet. In 1909 he returned to Latem where he lived as a recluse. In 1912 Permeke married Maria Delaere and the newlyweds settled in Ostend.

When World War I started, Permeke was in the defense of Antwerp. He was wounded in action near the town of Duffel. His wounds forced him to be evacuated to the United Kingdom. In 1916 he moved to Chardstock in Devonshire and started painting again, mostly colorful English landscapes. After the end of the war, the Permeke family returned to Ostend in 1919.

In 1921 Permeke was able to exhibit his work in Antwerp and in Paris. Between 1922 and 1924, Permeke regularly went to Astene. In 1926 Permeke went to Vevey in Switzerland where he mainly painted mountain scenes. In 1929 he moved to Jabbeke. Starting in 1937 Permeke tried his hand at sculpting as well.

During World War II, Permeke was forbidden to paint by the German occupiers. His art was seen by them as *Entartete Kunst*. His son Paul was arrested and sent to Germany as a forced labourer. After the war, Permeke was made director of the Royal Academy in Antwerp. He only worked there one year. In 1948 his wife died. Emotionally scarred and ailing, Permeke had to be nursed by his daughter.

Constant Permeke died 4 January 1952. He was buried next to his wife at the cemetery in Jabbeke. A statue which Permeke had commissioned by his friend George Minne was placed on the grave of his beloved wife.

BackFormer Belgian 1,000 franc bill
In 1997, Belgium recognized Permeke by dedicating the 1,000 franc bill to him and his work. The bill was used until Belgium started using the euro in 2002.

* Motherhood (woman from Oostende) (1913)Motherhood (woman from Oostende) (1913)
* Ostend harbourOstend harbour
* Farmer's family with cat (1928)Farmer's family with cat (1928)
* Landscape with mill at TiegemLandscape with mill at Tiegem
* Smoking (c.1927)Smoking (c.1927)
* Fisher's wife (1921)Fisher's wife (1921)

| Persondata |
| --- |
| Name | Permeke, Constant |
| Alternative names |  |
| Short description | painter, sculptor |
| Date of birth | 31 July 1886 |
| Place of birth | Antwerp, Belgium |
| Date of death | 4 January 1952 |
| Place of death |  |
**Citigroup Centre** is a building complex in London. It houses Citigroup's EMEA headquarters and is located in Canary Wharf in the city's Docklands. The centre provides 170,000 square metres (1,800,000 sq ft) of floor space across two merged buildings - **33 Canada Square** (known as "CGC1") and **25 Canada Square** (known as "CGC2"), and houses the bulk of Citi's UK employee base. Together, both buildings form the Citigroup Centre complex.

25 Canada Square, or Citigroup Centre 2, stands at 200 metres (656 ft) and, alongside HSBC Tower (with which it was built in tandem), is the joint 4th-tallest building in the United Kingdom (behind The Shard, One Canada Square and Heron Tower). Designed by César Pelli & Associates, construction of the 45-storey tower - undertaken by Canary Wharf Contractors - began in 1998 and was completed in 2001, with Citigroup leasing the building from the outset. The building was bought by RBS in 2004 along with 5 Canada Square (leased to Bank of America) for $1.12 billion. Subsequently, on 2 July 2007, CGC2 was individually sold to a joint venture between Quinlan Private and PropInvest for £1 billion (US$2 billion). Citigroup pay £46.5 million a year in rent for the tower, generating a yield of 4.6% to the owners. The east-facing side of 25 Canada Square up to level 40 is configured for use by tenants.

33 Canada Square, or Citigroup Centre 1, is the smaller of the two buildings in the complex, designed by Norman Foster and completed in 1999, two years before its neighbour. At 105 metres (344 ft) tall, the building is made up of eighteen floors, all of which are adjoined to their equivalent floors in 25 Canada Square. The building is owned by Citigroup, and was built before the completion of the Jubilee line extension in late 1999.

In addition to main entrances from both Canada Square and Upper Bank Street, Citigroup Centre is also accessible via underground walkways from Canada Place shopping mall and Canary Wharf London Underground station - served by the Jubilee line. The centre is also close to DLR stations Canary Wharf and Heron Quays, which provide connections with the City, London City Airport and surrounding areas.
The **de Havilland DH 106 Comet** was the first production commercial jetliner. The Avro Tudor and Vickers VC.1 Viking was fitted with Rolls-Royce Nene turbojets. It had flown earlier but were experimental models. The jet was made by de Havilland at its Hatfield Aerodrome, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom headquarters. The prototype first flew on 27 July 1949. It featured an aerodynamically clean design with four de Havilland Ghost turbojet engines buried in the wings. It had a pressurised fuselage. The jet had large square windows. It showed signs of being a commercial success at its 1952 debut.

The original Comet was about the length of the later Boeing 737-100. It carried fewer people in a more comfortable environment. For the era, it offered a relatively quiet passenger cabin. The Comet had passengers like Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother and Princess Margaret. Flights on the Comet were faster than on other advanced aircraft. In August 1953 BOAC scheduled nine-stop London to Tokyo flights by Comet for 36 hours. Other aircrafts took more than 86 hours. A special order Comet for the exclusive use of King Saud bin Abdul Aziz of Saudi Arabia was described as "the world's first executive jet". 

In 1954, the Comets began suffering problems, with three of them breaking up during mid-flight in accidents. During its service, the Comet was involved in 13 fatal crashes which resulted in 426 fatalities. On 10 January 1954, the first Comet produced broke up in mid-air and crashed into the Mediterranean. All 35 persons on board died. On 8 April 1954, a Comet on charter to South African Airways crashed in the Mediterranean near Naples. All on board died. 

The Comet was removed from service and tested to discover the cause. Design flaws, including dangerous stresses at the corners of the square windows were noted. As a result, the Comet was redesigned into models 2, 3, and in 1958 the Comet 4. But meanwhile other aircraft designers had their own jets, the Boeing 707 in 1957 and in 1960 the Douglas DC-8. The American jets were larger, faster, longer-ranged, and more cost-effective than the Comet. In 1960, as part of a consolidation of the British aerospace industry, de Havilland was bought by Hawker Siddeley. Aviation author Bill Withun concluded that the Comet had pushed "'state-of-the-art' beyond its limits." The only complete remaining Comet 1 is displayed at the RAF Museum Cosford.
Dakota Fanning at the London premiere of *War of the Worlds*, June 2005
Dakota Fanning in January 2009
**Hannah Dakota Fanning** (born February 23, 1994) is an American actress and model. She is best known for her starring roles in the movies *Dreamer*, *Hounddog*, and *Fragments* (also known as Winged Creatures).

Early life
----------

Fanning was born in Conyers, Georgia. Her mother, Heather Joy (née Arrington), played tennis professionally and her father, Steven J. Fanning, played minor league baseball and now works as an electronics salesman in Los Angeles, California. Her maternal grandfather is former American football player Rick Arrington, and her aunt is former ESPN reporter Jill Arrington. Dakota is the elder sister of Elle Fanning, also an actress.

Fanning is of English, French, Irish and German ancestry. She and her family are Southern Baptist.

Child actress
-------------

Dakota was famous for her performance at age seven in the 2001 film *I Am Sam*. This earned her a nomination for a Screen Actors Guild Award at age eight in 2002, as the youngest nominee in history.

Later, she appeared in high-profile films such as *Man on Fire* (2004), *War of the Worlds* (2005) and *Charlotte's Web* (2006). Fanning then began the transition to more adult roles with *Hounddog* (2007) and *The Secret Life of Bees* (2008). Her recent film roles have included the named character in *Coraline* (2009), Cherie Currie in *The Runaways* (2010), Annie James in "The Motel Life" (2013), and Jane in *The Twilight Saga* (2009–12).

Other websites
--------------

* Dakota Fanning on IMDb
***Dead Space*** is a third-person survival horror video game, made by Visceral Games for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows. The player plays as an engineer named Isaac Clarke. He fights against an alien infestation which turns humans into monsters called "Necromorphs" on a mining ship in space named the USG Ishimura.

Characters
----------

**Issac Clarke**

He is the main character. He has a job as an engineer. The Concordance Extraction Corporation sent him to the USG Ishimura to repair it. 

**Kendra Daniels**

She is an engineer, too. She is good at network technology such as hacking. Her opinion often clashes with Hammond's.

**Zach Hammond**

He is Issac and Kendra's colleague. He is a black man and a senior guard.

**Nicole Brennan**

She is Issac's former lover. She is a member of the USG Ishimura's crew. She sent the video asking for help to Issac.

Plot
----

Reception
---------

Legacy and sequels
------------------

Dead Space is part of 3 games. It has 2 sequels.
Tibetan Board Carving of Varjayogini Dakini
鍍金青銅空行母像，現藏於巴黎吉美博物館。
清盛和荼枳尼天 （歌川國芳）  
源平盛衰記人品箋 1840年
In Hinduism and Buddhism, a **dakini** is a female being like a goddess. They are mostly found in Tibetan Buddhism.Chinese: 空行母, Pinyin: Kōngxíng Mǔ and 狐仙,Pinyin:Hú xian ;明妃,Pinyin:Míng fēi｝ The dakini inspires spiritual practice. A dakini is often depicted as beautiful and naked. The nakedness represents the freedom of the mind.

The Chinese and Tibetan terms for *dakini* literally mean "she who travels in the sky"; this is sometimes written poetically as "sky dancer". Their bodies are depicted curved in sinuous dance poses.

Dakinis are associated with energy. They are linked with the revelation of the path of transformation. They help people to change the energy of negative emotions, called poisons *(kleshas)*, into enlightened awareness.

Appearance
----------

Images tend to show the dakini as a young, naked figure in a dancing posture, often holding a skull cup filled with menstrual blood or the elixir of life in one hand, and a curved knife in the other. She may wear a garland of human skulls, with a trident staff leaning against her shoulder. Her hair is usually wild and hanging down her back, and her face often wrathful in expression, as she dances on top of a corpse, which represents her complete mastery over ego and ignorance.

Events
------

Tibetan Buddhists believe that a Dakini gave a black hat to the third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje (1284 - 1339), when he was three years old. The Black Crown became the emblem of this Tibetan lineage known as the Karma Kagyu.

Other websites
--------------

* Dakini and the Female Spirit Archived 2006-12-19 at the Wayback Machine
* *Dakini* on khandro.net
A shrub of the *belladonna*.
Berries of the *belladonna*.
**Deadly nightshade** or **belladonna** (*Atropa belladonna*) is a well-known, hardy perennial shrub. It is a member of the nightshade family. 

It can be found in a few different continents: Europe; North Africa; Asia; and North America, but is far less common there. Usually it grows in the shade. The plant does not like direct sunlight. Often it grows in places where the soil is rich in limestone.

Dangers of belladonna
---------------------

Most parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous. Children have died from eating as few as three berries. One leaf contains enough poison to kill an adult. The root usually contains the most poison.

The poison present in the plant is called atropine.

Effects of the poison
---------------------

The effects of atropine are dilated (big) pupils, hallucinations, and difficulty in seeing (the vision may not be as sharp as always, it may be difficult to focus on some object). Other symptoms include: problems keeping upright; feeling like one is flying; and being confused. 
The pulse of the victim grows faster and faster, and the rate at which the heart is beating will go up. Toxic reaction to atropine causes fever, delirium, stupor (nearly being unconscious) and rash on head, neck and upper trunk. There may be agitation, difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Coma and convulsions usually come before death.
Lady slipper orchidThe deep pocket of the lady slipper orchid traps a bee for a short time, so it pollinates the flower.
**Lady's slipper orchids** are the orchids in the subfamily Cypripedioideae. They are special because of their slipper-shaped pouches on their flowers. The pouch traps insects so that they must climb up past the modified stamens, where they get or give pollen, fertilizing the flower.

Some people think this subfamily should be different from the Orchidaceae as a family Cypripediaceae.

Pollination
-----------

A lady slipper orchid has a deep pocket that is actually a bee trap. When a bee crawls down into the flower to get the nectar, the pocket on the flower closes shut. Because of this, the bee is stuck for a while, wiggling and squirming, getting pollen all over itself.
The bee finally finds a small opening near the top of the orchid, and it gets out so that it can get trapped inside another lady slipper, where it will give that pollen to the other lady slipper's stigma.

The lady's slipper is also known in the United States of America as the *moccasin flower*, because it looks like a shoe or moccasin.

Further reading
---------------

* Cox, A.V. A. M. Pridgeon, V. A. Albert, and M. W. Chase. 1997. Phylogenetics of the slipper orchids (Cypripedioideae: Orchidaceae): nuclear rDNA ITS sequences. *Plant Systematics and Evolution* 208: 197-223. PDF
* Pridgeon, A.M.; Cribb, P.J.; Chase, M.W. & F. N. Rasmussen (1999): *Genera Orchidacearum* Vol. 1, Oxford U. Press. ISBN 0-19-850513-2

Websites
--------

* The Slipper Orchid Alliance
* SlipperOrchids.info
Woman from Minsk wearing national costume of Belarus.
A **costume** is a set of clothes that someone wears to look different from what they normally wear. Some costumes are special to countries or regions. Some people wear them because they are proud of their country. Actors in theatres wear costumes because they are pretending to be a person in a play or ballet. Costumes can also be worn for carnivals or parties.

National costume
----------------

National or regional costume is worn to show that people come from a country or region. Int the past, many groups of people wore national costume every day. Today, most people do not wear costumes. Usually people dress up in national costume for special celebrations or for national dancing.

Some well-known examples of national costume are the kilt which is worn by people in Scotland and the kimono worn in Japan.

Theatrical costume
------------------

 Costume used in yakshagana theatre art from India.
When actors perform in the theatre they usually wear a costume. These are the special clothes they wear to pretend they are a particular character in the story which they act out. They might be pretending to be any kind of person: a beggar, king, businessman, ancient god, etc. Some theatrical costumes stretch the truth about characters. Examples are Harlequin and Pantaloon in the Commedia dell'arte.

Carnivals and festivals
-----------------------

People wearing costumes which are like the clothes worn in the Renaissance about 500 years ago. They are taking part in the 2006 Bristol Renaissance Faire.
Costumes are worn at festivals such as Mardi Gras and Halloween. For example, during Halloween children wear scary masks and costumes.

Related pages
-------------

* Cosplay
* Fashion
* Fashion design
* Fursuit
**David Blaine** (born **David Blaine White** on April 4, 1973) is an American magician. He has set and broken several world records.

Early & personal life
---------------------

Blaine was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York City. His father, William Perez, was a Vietnam veteran. His mother was Patrice Maureen White, a school teacher.

At the age of four, he saw a magician performing at a magic show in the subway, and became interested in the subject. Growing up, he was raised by his single mother. He attended many schools. When he was ten years old, his mother married another man, and the family moved to Little Falls, New Jersey. 

Blaine has a half-brother named Michael James Bukalo. When he was 17 years old, he moved to Manhattan.

Blaine married Alizee Guinochet. They have one daughter, Dessa, who was born in January 2011. Blaine and Guinochet separated in 2014.

Stunts and specials
-------------------

Since 1997 and throughout his life, Blaine has been doing all kinds of stunts. Some of them include (in time order):

* *Street Magic* and *Magic Man*
* *Buried Alive*
* *Frozen in Time*
* *Vertigo*
* *Mysterious Stranger*
* *Above the Below*
* *Drowned Alive*
* *Revolution*
* *Guinness World Records*
* *Dive of Death*
* *Electrified: One Million Volts Always On*

Charity and more
----------------

Every year, David Blaine has traveled all across the country and the world to perform magic for children. 

On January 15, 2010, David Blaine started performing "Magic For Haiti" in Times Square. He performed for 72 hours. He raised nearly one hundred thousand dollars.

David Blaine has traveled internationally. He has performed for President Bill Clinton and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, President George W. Bush, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld (at the Pentagon), Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Henry Kissinger, Bill Gates and Mayor Michael Bloomberg. He has also performed magic for the President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev, the President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili, the President of Ukraine Victor Yanukovych, and the President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev. David Blaine has also performed for Lakshmi Mittal.

Blaine has performed for many other people, including Google founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin, Woody Allen, Jack Nicholson, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, and Muhammad Ali. Blaine has also performed magic alongside Michael Jackson.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***David Blaine***.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: ***David Blaine***

* Official website
* David Blaine Gyroscope Image Gallery Archived 2007-12-17 at the Wayback Machine
* Below The Above official website Archived 2006-05-24 at the Wayback Machine
* David Blaine on IMDb
* David Blaine: How I held my breath for 17 min TED talk
***Don Juan DeMarco*** is a 1995 movie starring Johnny Depp. It was released to theaters by Warner Bros.

Plot
----

John Arnold DeMarco (Johnny Depp) believes himself to be Don Juan, the greatest lover in the world. Clad in a cape and eye-mask, he undergoes psychiatric treatment with Marlon Brando's character to cure him of his apparent disillusionment with his identity. But the psychiatric sessions have an unexpected effect on his psychiatrist, whose relationship with his wife, played by Faye Dunaway, is also affected.

Music
-----

Selena made a brief cameo appearance as a Mariachi singer. A hit single for Bryan Adams, "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman?", is the cornerstone of the soundtrack.

Cast
----

* Johnny Depp as John Arnold DeMarco/Don Juan
* Marlon Brando as Dr. Jack Mickler
* Faye Dunaway as Marilyn Mickler
* Géraldine Pailhas as Doña Ana
* Franc Luz as Don Antonio
* Bob Dishy as Dr. Paul Showalter
* Rachel Ticotin as Doña Inez
* Talisa Soto as Doña Julia
* 'Tiny' Lister, Jr. as Rocco Compton
* Richard C. Sarafin as Detective Sy Tobias
* Tresa Hughes as Grandma DeMarco
* Stephen Singer as Dr. Bill Dunmore
* Selena as Mariachi singer

Other websites
--------------

* *Don Juan DeMarco* on IMDb
* *Don Juan DeMarco* at AllMovie
* *Don Juan DeMarco* at Box Office Mojo
* *Don Juan DeMarco* at Rotten Tomatoes
* Movie stills
* Roger Ebert Review Archived 2012-09-25 at the Wayback Machine
The **Crisis of the Third Century** (235–284 AD) was a period in which the Roman Empire almost collapsed. There were invasions, civil war, plague, and the economy collapsed. The crisis is sometimes called the "Military Anarchy" or "Imperial Crisis".

The crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus at the hands of his own troops in 235 AD. This started a fifty-year period in which 20–25 rivals struggled for the throne. Most were important Roman Army generals who took control over all or part of the Empire. 

By 258–260, the Empire had split into three competing states. There was the Gallic Empire, which included the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania, and the Palmyrene Empire, with the eastern provinces of Syria Palaestina and Aegyptus. These became independent of the Italian Roman Empire proper, which stood between them. The crisis ended with the ascension of Diocletian in 284.

The crisis resulted in many changes to the Empire's institutions, society, economic life and, eventually, religion. It was a transition period between classical antiquity and late antiquity.
A **commander-in-chief** is the commander of a nation's military forces. Some country's commander-in-chief does not need to have been a soldier or involved in the military. The term was first used by King Charles I of England in 1639. 

Commanders-in-Chief is sometimes referred to as **Supreme Commander**, which is sometimes used as a specific term.

Australia
---------

The role of command in chief is done by the Governor-General of Australia as the Queen's representative.

United Kingdom
--------------

The title Commander-in-Chief is rarely used by the King or Queen of England, but usually refers to local commanders-in-chief.

India
-----

After independence from Britain on August 15, 1947, each Service was given its own Chief Commander (navy, army, airforce).

Iran
----

Before 1979, the Shah was the commander-in-chief in Iran. After the creation of the Islamic Republic, the Supreme Leader of Iran has taken on the role.

Ireland
-------

In Ireland, the commander-in-chief of the army is the President.

Pakistan
--------

In Pakistan, the President is by law the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, however the elected Prime Minister has the real power.

Hong Kong
---------

When Hong Kong was a British colony the Governor was also the Commander-in-Chief of Hong Kong.

United States of America
------------------------

Commander-in-chief is one of the many roles given to the president of the United States
Mites get transport on a fly (*Pseudolynchia canariensis*)
**Commensalism** is a type of relationship between two organisms. In commensalism, one organism is helped while the other is not affected. In practice, it is difficult to show that the passive organism is not harmed. For example, some birds live in holes in trees. Does this damage the tree? Mites, which cannot fly, often hitch a ride on insects. Does this affect the
insect's fitness? There is no definite answer to such questions. 

Orchids, mosses, and lichens all grow on tropical trees. They need sunlight, and by being higher up they get to the sunlight. All that can be said for sure is that the trees continue to live and reproduce, and so it is assumed that these epiphytes do not affect their host plant.

Pierre-Joseph van Beneden (1809–1894) introduced the term into evolutionary biology and ecology in the 1870s.

Amensalism
----------

Amensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism is harmed or inhibited and the other is unaffected. Examples of amensalism include the shading out of one plant by a taller and wider one and the inhibition of one plant by the secretions of another (known as allelopathy).

Related pages
-------------

* Mutualism
* Symbiosis
* Parasitism
Frost in June 2005
**Sir David Paradine Frost** OBE (7 April 1939 – 31 August 2013) was an English journalist, comedian, writer, media personality and daytime TV game show host.

He became famous when he hosted *That Was The Week That Was* in 1962. This was a political satire in a period of change. During the later part of his career, he became known for his television interviews with senior political figures. One of his interviews included The Nixon Interviews with former United States President Richard Nixon in 1977. These events were later made into a stage play and movie.

Frost was born on 7 April 1939 in Tenterden, Kent, England. He was raised in Gillingham, Kent. Frost studied at Gillingham Grammar School and at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Frost was married to Lynne Frederick from 1981 until they divorced in 1982. He had an 18-year intermittent affair with Carol Lynley. Then he was married to Lady Carina Fitzalan-Howard from 1983 until his death in 2013. He had three sons with Fitzalan-Howard. Diana, Princess of Wales was the godmother of Frost's youngest son. He was once briefly engaged to American actress Diahann Carroll.

Frost died on 31 August 2013 while giving a speech on board the cruise ship MS Queen Elizabeth from a heart attack caused by cardiomyopathy. He was 74 years old.

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***David Frost***.

* BBC News Profile of David Frost
* Clips of Frost interviews on BBC TV
* TV Cream on Paradine Productions Archived 2009-04-17 at the Wayback Machine
* David Frost on IMDb
A **clavichord** is a musical instrument like a small keyboard. It was very popular for many years, especially in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

Sound
-----

The clavichord is a very quiet instrument. It is not suitable for playing with other instruments because it is so quiet. But it sounds very beautiful in slow, expressive music. It is used as a practice instrument by harpsichord players, or by organists who wanted to practice at home instead of in a (often very cold) church. They were so small that they could be lifted up and put on a table. They could be put one on top of another so that an organist could practise music written for a two-manual organ. Sometimes, they even had pedals for organists to practice this skill.

Uses
----

Many German composers like Johann Sebastian Bach wrote music for the "Clavier". This meant any keyboard instrument: harpsichord, clavichord or organ. The player could choose which they wanted to use.

When the piano suddenly became popular – in the 1760s and 1770s – people started to forget about harpsichords and clavichords. Today a few people make harpsichords and clavichords again so that people can play Renaissance and Baroque music - the music from when the clavichord was popular.

Other websites
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 Media related to Clavichords at Wikimedia Commons
Chandala (Skt. चाण्डाल) is the lowest class in Ancient India. According to the ancient code law of Manusmriti, it is the class formed from the union of a brahmin woman (the highest class within varna) and a shudra man (the lowest classes) in Northern India.

The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian, in the records of his journey to India in the early 5th century, mentions the Chandala as the only ones who eat onion and garlic and live separately from the others. They must make themselves known when they enter towns or marketplaces so that contact with them can be avoided. The Chandalas are the only ones who hunt and sell meat, marking their status as untouchables. Chandalas in ancient times having lost the right to any of the four varnas - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras - were expelled from cities and sought refuge in the forests. After they became "masons", until finally expelled, they left the country, about 400 AD. 10.000 - 12.000 Indian musicians, was sent by the King Shankalat of India to Sassanid King Bahram V. There descendants are the Roma people.
**The coat of arms of Russia** (Russian: Герб России/Transkription Gerb rossi) has been used since the year 1993 as the coat of arms of Russia. Since the year 2000 it was defined by court decision as the coat of arms of Russia. It is based on the coat of arms used before the Soviet Union. It has been changed many times, but can be traced back for centuries.

Objects
-------

### Double Eagle

The double eagle was added by Ivan IIII after his marriage with the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologue. She was the niece of Constantine XI, the last Byzantine Emperor. The double-headed eagle was the symbol of the Byzantine Empire. The orb and scepter held by the eagle are heraldic symbols of sovereign power and autocracy.

### Other part

The horse's rider is Saint George fighting a dragon. The three crowns were added in 1625. Through time, their meaning has changed. They have been seen as the conquered kingdoms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia, or as the coming together of 'All the Russias' - *Grand Russia* (Russia), *Little Russia* (today's Ukraine) and *White Russia* (Belarus). In the modern time, they became the symbol for the three parts of government: Executive, legislative and Judiciary.
A dialysis machine
**Dialysis** is where a machine is used to replace a kidney after kidney failure. The word *dialysis* comes from the Greek word *dialusis*, *dia* meaning through, and *lusis* meaning loosening.

Dialysis can be used for people who have become sick and have lost the use of their kidneys for a short time, or for people who no longer have working kidneys. The purpose of the kidney is to keep a balance of water and minerals in the body. These minerals include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium and sulfate. The kidneys also take out hydrogen ions from the blood. Dialysis is able to remove these wastes from the body and help keep the minerals in balance.

However the kidneys are also part of the endocrine system and make erythropoietin and calcitriol. Dialysis machines are not able to replace this part of the kidney's function.

How dialysis works
------------------

Dialysis machines work by using diffusion and ultrafiltration. A very fine material, called a membrane, allows blood and fluid to flow through it. In the machine, the blood flows in one direction, and on the other side of the membrane, a special fluid, dialysate flows in the opposite direction, this process is known as osmosis. Dialysate is a fluid that has different chemicals in it, such as potassium and calcium. A doctor would decide what mixture of chemicals would be needed for each patient. The dialysate has bicarbonate in it to lower the higher acid levels that these patients often have. The blood and dialysate mix together. The waste products are removed from the blood and caught up in the fine membrane.

Dialysis was originally done in hospitals, and then in many countries moved to local clinics, as the number of patients increased. In 2023 more patients have a portable machine at home and have to manage the process themselves.

Dialyser
--------

A **dialyser** is part of a dialysis machine. The dialyser filters blood like a kidney. It is made of a clear hollow cylinder with two inlets and two outlets. One inlet and outlet is at the upper side and downside which are for blood entrance and exit before and after purification. The other inlet and outlet are beside through which a supporter liquid goes into the dialyser.

A dialyser has very thin fibres of cellulose. The fibres work as a semi-permeable membrane (SPM). There are about 10,000 of them. Impurities such as urea keratin leave through the SPM. Blood cells cannot go through because the blood cells are bigger than the impurities. The whole process of purification is supported by a liquid called dialysate. Dialysate is sent into the dialyser by the pump in the dialysis machine. The pure liquid goes in and the impure dialysate comes out. Dialysers are also called artificial kidneys.
**David Fanshawe** (born 19 April 1942 in Devon, England; died 5 July 2010) was an English composer and explorer. He wrote a large amount of music, especially for television programmes. His best-known composition is a choral work called *African Sanctus*.

Life
----

Fanshawe went to school at St George's School, Windsor Castle and Stowe School. He started his career as a musician and producer for documentary films. He studied composition at the Royal College of Music. He became known for the music he wrote for films and TV. In 1970 he performed *Salaams* in the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London. This was a work based on the rhythms of pearl divers in Bahrain.

He spent several years travelling to many parts of the world collecting recordings of people singing their own traditional music. He travelled to the Middle East, then to Africa and to islands of the Pacific Ocean. In all these places he had to get to know the people and get them to trust him so that they would let him record their music.

His *African Sanctus* was a result of his trip down the Nile. It combines recordings he made there with a choir and orchestra singing. It has been performed thousands of times all over the world.

Fanshawe died on 5 July 2010.

Other websites
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* composer's website Archived 2011-10-01 at the Wayback Machine
* African Sanctus website Archived 2012-07-21 at the Wayback Machine
Cædmon's Hymn written in Northumbrian. This is the earliest known version of this work.
**Cædmon's *Hymn*** is a short Old English poem originally composed by Cædmon. It was about God. It survives in a Latin translation by Bede in his *Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum* and in other dialects written down in several manuscripts of Bede's *Historia*. Bede wrote about the poet and his work in the fourth book of his *Historia*.

Cædmon
------

Bede told the story of Cædmon who was an illiterate cow-herder who was suddenly able to recite a Christian song of creation in Old English verse. This miracle happened after Cædmon left a feast when they were passing a harp around for all to sing a song. He left the hall after feeling ashamed that he could not contribute a song. Later in a dream he said a man appeared to him and asked him to sing a song. Cædmon responded that he could not sing. But the man told him that he could and asked him to "Sing to me the beginning of all things." Cædmon was then able to sing verses and words that he had not heard of before. Cædmon then reported his experience first to a steward then to Hild the abbess. She invited scholars to evaluate Cædmon’s gift. Cædmon was sent home to turn more divine doctrine into song. The abbess was so impressed with the success of his gift that she told him to become a monk. Cædmon lived a long and very productive life as a monk. He created songs from all kinds of Church history and doctrine.

Choral settings of Caedmon's Hymn
---------------------------------

The text has been set to music by a number of composers of choral music. Graham Keitch used Bede's translation for a motet which was commissioned to mark the 1100th anniversary of the death of the Anglo Saxon queen, Aethelflaed. It was first sung during the commemorative Evensong for Queen Aethelflaed which took place in Gloucester Cathedral, June 12th 2018.

Translated text
---------------

 

|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 
Old English
nu scylun hergan     hefaenricaes uard
metudæs maecti     end his modgidanc
uerc uuldurfadur     swe he uundra gihwaes
eci dryctin     or astelidæ
he aerist scop     aelda barnu*m*
heben til hrofe     haleg scepen.
tha middungeard     moncynnæs uard
eci dryctin     æfter tiadæ
firum fold*u*     frea allmectig

  | 
Latin (Bede)
Nunc laudare debemus auctorem regni caelestis,
potentiam creatoris, et consilium illius
facta Patris gloriae: quomodo ille,
cum sit aeternus Deus, omnium miraculorum auctor exstitit;
qui primo filiis hominum
caelum pro culmine tecti
dehinc terram custos humani generis
creavit.
omnipotens

  | Modern English translation
Now [we] must honour the guardian of heaven,
the might of the architect, and his purpose,
the work of the father of glory
as he, the eternal lord, established the beginning of wonders;
he first created for the children of men
heaven as a roof, the holy creator
Then the guardian of mankind,
the eternal lord, afterwards appointed the middle earth,
the lands for men, the Lord almighty. |

Other websites
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* CAEDMON'S HYMN, Washington State University
**Sir Denis Thatcher, 1st Baronet**, MBE, CStJ, TD (10 May 1915 – 26 June 2003) was a British businessman and the husband of Margaret Thatcher, who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990. He was the first male spouse of a British prime minister.

To this day, Thatcher remains the last commoner awarded a British title that could be inherited; he was granted the Thatcher baronetcy in 1990.

Early life
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Thatcher was born in Lewisham, London, the oldest child of a New Zealand-born British businessman, Thomas Herbert (Jack) Thatcher. He studied at the Mill Hill School until he left at the age of 18 to become a businessman.

Personal life
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Thatcher was married to Margaret Kempson (1918-1996) from 1942 until they divorced in 1948. Then he was married to Margaret Roberts from 1951 until his death in 2003. Thatcher and Margaret had twins: a son, Mark Thatcher, and daughter, Carol Thatcher.

### Health

On 17 January 2003, Thatcher underwent a six-hour heart bypass operation. He had been complaining of breathlessness in the weeks before Christmas 2002 and the problem was diagnosed in early January. There, Thatcher was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer along with fluid in his lungs.

Death
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Thatcher died in Lister Hospital at Westminster in London, England, from pancreatic cancer, aged 88. His body was cremated at Mortlake Crematorium in Richmond, London. His widow, Margaret, died almost 10 years after in 2013.

Other websites
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* Media related to Denis Thatcher at Wikimedia Commons
* BBC photo archive
* His obituary (a life story) and picture gallery on the *Telegraph* website
* Denis Thatcher's grave

| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata |
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| International | 
* FAST
* ISNI
* VIAF
* WorldCat Identities

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* Germany
* United States
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* SNAC
* IdRef

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*Blaberus giganteus*
A cockroach.
A 40-50 million year-old cockroach in Baltic amber.
The **cockroach** is an insect of the suborder Blattaria of the order Blattodea. There are 4,000 species. About 30 species invade human homes. This is less than 1% of all the cockroach species. Four species are pests.

Evolutionary history and relationships
--------------------------------------

The families of Mantodea, Isoptera, and Blattaria are usually combined by entomologists into a larger group called Dictyoptera. Current evidence strongly suggests that termites have evolved directly from true cockroaches, and many authors now consider termites to be in the family of cockroaches.

Historically, the name Blattaria has been used largely interchangeably with the name **Blattodea**. Blattodea refers to a larger group that includes fossil groups related to roaches, but not true cockroaches themselves. These earliest cockroach-like fossils ("Blattopterans" or "roachids") are from the Carboniferous period between 354–295 million years ago. However, these fossils differ from modern cockroaches in having long ovipositors and are the ancestors of mantis as well as modern cockroaches. The first fossils of modern cockroaches with internal ovipositors appear in the Lower Cretaceous.
A proposed phylogeny of the families is shown in the diagram.

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  

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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Blattaria | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | Polyphagidae |
|  |
|   | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | Cryptocercidae |
|  |
|   | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | Blattidae |
|  |
|   | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | Blattellidae |
|  |
|  | Blaberidae |
|  |

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|  |

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|  |

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Cockroaches in the broader sense (Blattodea) have existed a very long time. The earliest cockroach fossils are 354–295 million years old. Science student, Cary Easterday, found a giant 300 million year old fossil cockroach 9 cm (4 in) long, in a coal mine in Ohio.

Other
-----

Most cockroaches are omnivores. They are tough, and hard to kill. A cockroach can live for two weeks without a head.

Cockroaches become adults in 3-4 months and can live up to one year. A female German cockroach can produce 8 egg cases in her lifetime and each egg case may contain 30-40 eggs.

Cockroaches are eaten as snacks and used for medicine in China.

In popular culture
------------------

The 1996 MTV musical movie *Joe's Apartment* had 5,000 singing cockroaches. Some parts of the movie were made with clay roaches and some with real roaches.

In the 1996 computer game *Bad Mojo*, the main character is turned into a cockroach and must move through a building to get back to his human body.