recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
***The Mummy*** is a 1999 American fantasy adventure horror movie. It is set in Egypt in 1926. Stephen Sommers wrote and directed it. The movie stars Brendan Fraser (acting as Rick O'Connell, who is a person who tries to find treasure so he can sell it), and Rachel Weisz (acting as Evelyn 'Evie' Carnahan, who is a person who learns about the history of Egypt) and Arnold Vosloo, acting as the Mummy. The movie has a lot of talking in the old Egyptian language, which was spoken with the help of a group of people who study it for a job. The movie was first going to be to be part of a few low-budget movies but was later given the money it needed to be made into a big Hollywood movie.

*The Mummy* was seen by people for the first time on May 7, 1999. It earned $43 million from being seen in 3,210 places that weekend. It went on to earn $415 million from being seen in total. Other movies were then made. The first was made in 2001. It is called *The Mummy Returns*. A TV programme was made called *The Mummy: The Animated Series*. A third movie was then first seen by people on August 1, 2008 and is called *The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor*.

Cast
----

* Brendan Fraser as Richard "Rick" O'Connell
* Rachel Weisz as Evelyn Carnahan
* John Hannah as Jonathan Carnahan
* Arnold Vosloo as High Priest Imhotep
* Kevin J. O'Connor as Beni Gabor
* Oded Fehr as Ardeth Bay
* Jonathan Hyde as Dr. Allen Chamberlain
* Erick Avari as Dr. Terence Bey
* Stephen Dunham, Corey Johnson, and Tuc Watkins as Henderson, Daniels, and Burns
* Bernard Fox as Winston Havelock
* Patricia Velásquez as Anck-Su-Namun

Awards
------

The movie won Best Make-Up at Saturn Awards.

Other websites
--------------

* Official site


Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: ***The Mummy***

* *The Mummy* on IMDb
* *The Mummy* at AllMovie
* *The Mummy* at Rotten Tomatoes
* *The Mummy* at Metacritic

* *The Mummy* at Box Office Mojo
**Ronald David "Ronnie" Wood** (born 1 June 1947) is an English rock guitarist and bassist.

Overview
--------

### Faces

Prior to his work with the Rolling Stones, Wood was the guitarist in the English rock band Faces. He was in Faces from 1969 until the band broke up in 1975. 

### The Rolling Stones

He is best known as a member of The Rolling Stones. He first worked with the band as a touring guitarist for their 1975 world tour. 

In February 1976 he was made a full-time member and has recorded and toured with the band ever since. 

In addition to the Rolling Stones, Wood has maintained a solo music career. 

Since 1974 he has recorded and released 12 studio and live albums. 

Ronnie Wood was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989 as a member of The Rolling Stones.

### Jeff Beck Group

From 1967 until 1969 Wood was the bass guitar player for The Jeff Beck Group.

### Artistry

Wood has also had a lot of success as a painter. In the early 1960s, he trained at Ealing Art College. His paintings and prints have been shown in art galleries all over the world. A London art gallery named "Scream" is co-owned by Wood and his sons. The clothing company "Liberty & Co." have produced a clothing line using fabric that has been printed with Wood's art.

Discography
-----------

### The Rolling Stones

Studio albums
1. *Black and Blue* (1976)
2. *Some Girls* (1978)
3. *Emotional Rescue* (1980)
4. *Tattoo You* (1981)
5. *Undercover* (1983)
6. *Dirty Work* (1986)
7. *Steel Wheels* (1989)
8. *Voodoo Lounge* (1994)
9. *Bridges to Babylon* (1997)
10. *A Bigger Bang* (2005)
11. *GRRR!* (2012)
**Poland** sent people to compete at the **2018 Winter Paralympics** in Pyeongchang, South Korea. People will compete in cross-country skiing, para-alpine skiing, biathlon and para-snowboarding. Team members include Katarzyna Rogowiec and Igor Sikorski.

Team
----

In January 2018, Poland thought their team for the 2018 Games would include ten sportspeople in four sports: cross-country skiing, para-alpine skiing, biathlon and para-snowboarding. The complete list of all members of Team Poland was shared in February 2018.

The table below contains the list of members of people (called "Team Poland") that will be participating in the 2018 Games.

Team Poland| Name | Sport | Gender | Classification | Events | ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Katarzyna Rogowiec | para-Nordic skiing | female |  |  |  |
| Igor Sikorski | para-alpine skiing | male |  |  |  |

It can be difficult for people with disabilities to participate in winter sports. Katarzyna Rogowiec said the reason is because people are more dependent on others. They need help to put on jackets. They may need help to get into a special chair. It can be difficult to stay warm when you do not have hands. Winter sports are also very expensive. The cost makes it difficult for many people to participate.

Goals
-----

Poland did not win any medals at the 2014 Winter Paralympics. Poland won a bronze medal at the 2010 Winter Paralympics. Polish Paralympic Committee President Łukasz Szeliga said the goal of Poland is to have better finishes than 2010 and 2014. They would like to win at least one medal.

Para-alpine skiing
------------------

### Skiers

The team includes Igor Sikorski. Sikorski is from Krakow.

### Before the Games

In January 2018, Igor Sikorski went to the World Cup in Zagreb, Croatia. He skied really well at the competition.

### Schedule and results

The first event on the para-alpine program is the downhill. It starts on 10 March. People ski from 9:30 AM to 1:30 PM. The second event on the program is Super-G. All skiers will race between 9:30 AM and 1:00 PM on 11 March. The super combined takes place on 13 March. The Super-G part of the event is in the morning. The slalom part is in the afternoon. The slalom event gets underway on 14 March and conclude on 15 March. Women and men both race during the same sessions in the morning. The afternoon sessions start with the women doing their second run. Then the men go.The last para-alpine skiing race of the 2018 Games is the giant slalom. It takes place on 17 - 18 March.  Men and women both race at the same time in the morning sessions.  Women race first in the afternoon sessions, with the men racing a half hour after they end.
The **Social Democrat Hunchakian Party** (**SDHP**) (Armenian: Սոցիալ դեմոկրատ Հնչակյան կուսակցություն), also known as **Hentchak** is one of the oldest political parties in Armenia and the first Socialist party in the Ottoman Empire and in Persia in the 1880s. It was founded in 1887 by Avetis Nazarbekian, Mariam Vardanian, Ruben Khan-Azat and others, who studied in Geneva, Switzerland, with the goal to gain Armenia's independence from the Ottoman Empire, which is part of Armenian national liberation movement. Its name, taken from its newspaper *Hunchak,* means "Bell" in English, and is taken by party members to represent "awakening, enlightenment, and freedom."

History
-------

All of the 7 founders of Hunchakian party were Russian-Armenian Marxist students who had left Russia to continue their higher education in universities of Western Europe. They were young persons, in their twenties, and were from well‑to‑do bourgeois families who were financially supporting them. For the purpose of furthering revolutionary activity in Turkish Armenia, they formed the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party in August, 1887.

Hunchak party fought many battles against the Ottoman Empire, to free the Armenian people from Turkish rule. One of Armenia's famous national heroes Andranik Ozanian, at first, joined the Hunchak party, but disagreement with party policies led Andranik to leave the Hunchak ranks and join the Dashnak party.

### Democratic Republic of Armenia

The party also played role in establishment of Democratic Republic of Armenia, as party members took part in the Battle of Sardarapat, during the World War I at Caucasus Campaign, which defended the Armenian capital of Yerevan from Army of Islam of Ottoman Empire.

### Activities in Lebanon

In the 1950s, it clashed, sometimes violently, with the Dashnak Party, due to tensions that escalated when the ARF elected Bishop Zareh as Catholicos of Cilicia, a move that was rejected by the Hunchaks. In the midst of increasing sectarian strife in the late 1960s and early 1970s, however, Lebanon's Armenian community began to close ranks, and in 1972, the Hunchakian Party ran a joint ticket with the Dashnaks. In 2000, the Hunchakian Party joined forces with Rafik Hariri's Dignity party, which swept the city of Beirut.

Modern
------

In the early 1990s, the party took part in the Nagorno Karabakh conflict. The party today forms part of the opposition "Justice" bloc.

This party is also active in Lebanon, where it competes for the six National Assembly seats reserved for ethnic Armenians. The party subscribes to a socialist ideology and advocates a planned economy for Lebanon.

Affiliate organizations
-----------------------

The Hunchakian party has established affiliate organizations such as the AEBU which is an organization that helps with educational, health and social care, the Armenian Dkhrouhi Youth Association and HMM (Homenmen) which is a sporting organization (not to be confused with Homenetmen).

Related pages
-------------

* Armenian Revolutionary Federation

Other websites
--------------

* Party's Official Web Site Archived 2020-12-02 at the Wayback Machine
***Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man*** is a 1964 book by Marshall McLuhan. It was a pioneering study in media theory. McCluhan was a Professor of literature who was deeply interested in the way media had changed society.

The book proposes that media themselves affect their content in important ways. It is an attempt to understand how changing media have affected society. McLuhan suggests that media play a role, not by the content delivered, but by the characteristics of the medium itself. 

McLuhan pointed to the light bulb as an example. A light bulb does not have content in the way that a newspaper has articles or a television has programs, but it is a medium that has a social effect. The light bulb lets people do things at nighttime which would be impossible in darkness. He describes the light bulb as a medium without any content. McLuhan states that "a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence".

More controversially, he thought that content had little effect on society — for example, it did not matter if television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming — the effect of television on society would be identical. He noted that all media have characteristics that engage the viewer in different ways; for instance, a passage in a book could be reread at will, but a movie had to be screened again in its entirety to study any individual part of it. He made the point that reading, by its very nature, is a sequential medium. One reads it in a sequence. On the other hand, a medium like film presents information more holistically. There is a kind of "all at once-ness" about films and television.

The book is the source of the well-known phrase "*The medium is the message*". It was a leading indicator of the upheaval of local cultures by increasingly globalized values. The book's influence spread much further than academics, writers, and social theorists. It was widely read. It became a corner-stone in media studies courses.
Body images to illustrate obesity: Images 1 to 5 show people who are underweight.
Image of an uderweight woman
The term **underweight** refers to humans that have much less weight than they should. Being underweight is bad for the overall health of the person affected. It is normal that a person's weights changes over time. Being underweight is often defined using a measure called the body mass index which calculates a score, based on height and weight. If this score is below 18.5, a person is generally said to be underweight. This is only a general indication, though as the scores must not be calculated for everyone. It does not apply to children and adolescents, for example.

Being underweight can have different causes:

* Malnutrition, not eating enough, or eating the wrong kinds of foods. The right kinds may not be available, or they may be too expensive to buy.
* The weight of a person is also determined by genetic factors. One of these factors is that some people have a "lighter build" than others.
* Stress, anxiety and depression can influence weight.
* There are eating disorders that cause people to become underweight. The most common of these are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
* Sudden unexplained weight loss can point to a disease, such as cancer, tuberculosis, hyperthyroidism, type 1 diabetes or inflammatory bowel disease.
* Sometimes the use of drugs leads to weight loss.
* Organs of the digestive tract may not be working as expected.
* People who train sports too much may be using more energy than they get.

Problems
--------

There are problems that are related to being underweight. Very often being underweight is not the first problem. Rather, it often is the effect of another condition or disease. Unexpected weight loss requires the attention of a doctor. There might be another disease. If that disease is treated, the weight problem also disappears.

Another problem underweight people face is that the weight problem affects their health: Their immune system is weakened, and they may get sick more often. People who are underweight because they cannot get or afford the right food need special attention. Women who are underweight may not have their menstruation and face difficult pregnancies.

Once they were being underweight, psychically, they may feel sad and worried about their health. Therefore, family and friends should support them to help them get rid of their unhappiness.
Reconstructed houses at Jamestown
The **Starving Time** at Jamestown in Virginia Colony was a period of starvation during the winter of 1609–1610. During this time, all but 60 of the 500 colonists died. Lack of rain and access to water had crippled the agricultural production during the summer. Also, the water that the colonists drank was brackish and only drinkable half the year. 

According to historical accounts, the colonists ate dogs, snakes, cats, rats, horses, books and shoe leather through the winter. There is forensic evidence of at least one instance of cannibalism. The remains of a teenage girl (c. 1595–1609), named "Jane" by researchers, showed signs of being butchered (cut up for eating). Examination of Jane's shin bone indicates she was probably 14 years old at the time of her death. Based on studies of the isotopes in a tooth, she was probably from southern England. She was possibly the daughter of a gentleman or a maid in a gentleman's home because she had consumed generous amounts of protein (meat). Jane likely arrived in Virginia in August 1609.

It is almost certain Jane was removed from her grave before being butchered and eaten. She was not murdered. In 1625, George Percy, president of Jamestown during the starvation period, wrote that the hunger was so intense "thatt notheinge was Spared to mainteyne Lyfe and to doe those things which seame incredible, as to digge upp deade corpes outt of graves and to eate them." Five other accounts refer to cannibalism during the bitter winter.

Only 10 percent of Jane's remains have been recovered by researchers. The remains were found about 2.5 feet (0.8 m) down in a trash pit in the cellar of a building built in 1608 inside the James Fort site. Historical accounts indicate cannibalism was widespread at Jamestown during the winter. Modern historians were reluctant to credit these accounts without other evidence. Jane however is the first forensic evidence that confirms the existence of the practice during that winter.

Other websites
--------------

* *New Discoveries at Jamestown* by John L. Cotter and J. Paul Hudson, (1957) at Project Gutenberg
Old Town Hall
**Towcester**, the Roman town of *Lactodorum*, is an affluent market town in south Northamptonshire, England.

The town is about 9 miles (14.5 km) southwest of Northampton and about 11 miles (17.7 km) northwest of Milton Keynes, the nearest main towns.

The name comes from the Latin for "Camp on the (river) Tove".

Towcester is famous for its racecourse. Many important national horse racing events are held there. Greyhound racing is also held at the same venue. In 2010 the World Hovercraft Championship was held on the racecourse.

Nearby is the Silverstone motor racing circuit, currently home to the British Grand Prix. In fiction the "Saracen's Head Inn" in Towcester features in Charles Dickens's novel *The Pickwick Papers* as one of Mr Pickwick's stopping places along what is now the A5 trunk road.

History
-------

### Prehistoric and Roman periods

Towcester may be the oldest town in Northamptonshire. There are Iron Age finds in the town, so it is one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements in the country. There is evidence that it was settled by humans since the Mesolithic era (middle stone age). There is also evidence of Iron Age burials in the area.

In Roman Britain, Watling Street, now the A5 road, was built through the area. A garrison town called *Lactodurum* was built. Two candidate sites for the Battle of Watling Street, fought in 61 AD, are close to the town.

### Saxon period and Medieval age

When the Romans left in the 5th century, the area was settled by Saxons. In the 9th century, Watling Street became the frontier between the kingdom of Wessex and the Danelaw, so Towcester became a frontier town. Edward the Elder fortified Towcester in 917. In the 11th century, the Normans built a motte and bailey castle on the site. Bury Mount are the remains of the fortification and is a scheduled ancient monument. It was renovated in 2008 with an access ramp added and explanatory plaques added.
**James Torrey Smith** (born January 26, 1989) is an American former professional football wide receiver. He played 8 seasons in the National Football League (NFL). He played for the Baltimore Ravens, San Francisco 49ers, Philadelphia Eagles, and Carolina Panthers. He was selected by the Baltimore Ravens in the 2011 NFL Draft. Smith attended Stafford Senior High School in Stafford, Virginia, where he played basketball and football. He accepted a scholarship to the University of Maryland. He won two Super Bowls; XLVII with Ravens in 2013 and LII with the Eagles in 2018.

College career
--------------

Smith played college football for the Maryland Terrapins from 2007 through 2010. Smith redshirted as a freshman in 2007, but had gained a larger role by his sophomore year.

Smith runs against Boston College in 2009.
These numbers tell about Smith's play with the Terrapins:

|  Maryland | Receiving | Returning | Rushing |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Season | GP | GS | Rec | Yds | Avg | Lg | TD | KRs | Yds | Avg | Lg | TD | Att | Yds | Avg | Lg | TD |
| 2008 | 13 | 6 | 24 | 336 | 14.0 | 44 | 2 | 42 | 1,089 | 25.9 | 99 | 1
 | 1
 | 0
 | 0
 | 0
 | 0 |
| 2009 | 12 | 10 | 61 | 824 | 13.5 | 64 | 5 | 51 | 1,309 | 25.7 | 85 | 2
 | 11
 | 59
 | 5.4
 | 14
 | 1 |
| 2010
 | 13
 | 12
 | 67
 | 1,055
 | 15.7
 | 80
 | 12
 | 30
 | 585
 | 19.5
 | 33
 | 0
 | 9
 | 7
 | 0.8
 | 9
 | 0 |
|
| Total | 38 | 28 | 152 | 2,215 | 14.6 | 80 | 19 | 123 | 2,983 | 24.3 | 99 | 3
 | 21
 | 66
 | 3.1
 | 14
 | 1 |

Professional career
-------------------

### Baltimore Ravens

The Baltimore Ravens selected Smith in the 2nd Round (58th overall) of the 2011 NFL Draft. Smith started out slow in the preseason and struggled with drops. However, in Week 3 against the St. Louis Rams, Smith had five catches for 152 yards and three touchdowns. His first catch in the NFL was a 74-yard score from quarterback Joe Flacco. Smith continued his good play, even catching a game-winning touchdown against the Pittsburgh Steelers at Heinz Field on November 6, 2011. Smith finished his first season with 50 catches for 841 yards and seven touchdowns.

On September 3, 2019, Smith announced that he was retiring from playing professional football.

Other websites
--------------

* Torrey Smith on Twitter
* Torrey Smith Facebook
* Torrey Smith Ravens bio Archived 2012-04-04 at the Wayback Machine
**Porth** is a village in the Rhondda Valleys, Wales. Porth is at the joint of the Rhondda Fawr and Rhondda Fach, Porth sees itself as the capital of the Rhondda.

History
-------

On 11 April 1877 the Tynewydd Colliery was the scene of a mine disaster that led to a mine rescue operation following which four first-class and twenty-one second-class Albert Medals for Lifesaving were awarded. A build-up of water in old Cymmer Colliery resulted in flooding of the Tynewydd mine. Only fourteen of 100 miners employed at the mine were working underground at the time of the accident. Four of the trapped miners were rescued after eighteen hours.

The nearby village of Dinas Was the site of the first coal mine in the Rhonddda.

Transport
---------

From Porth you can travel by bus to places such as Cardiff, Treochy, Pontypridd, Porth has a train station in Hannah Street.

Schools
-------

There are schools in Porth. Porth Infants for 3-6 yrs old. Porth Juniors for 6-11 yrs old. Porth County Community School for 11-18 yrs old (opened in 1973).Michael Sheen (the Welsh actor) visited PCCS in May 2009.
Selenium dioxide
**Selenium dioxide**, also known as **selenious oxide**, **selenous oxide**, or **selenium(IV) oxide**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SeO2. It contains selenium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions. It is toxic.

Properties
----------

Selenium dioxide is a white solid. It dissolves in water to make selenous acid. It easily evaporates. The vapor smells like horseradish sauce. It can burn the nose. It reacts with bases to make selenites.

Preparation
-----------

Selenium dioxide can be made by burning selenium in air. It can also be made by reacting selenium with nitric acid or hydrogen peroxide. Another way to make it is to heat selenous acid.

Occurrence
----------

Selenium dioxide is very rare as a mineral. It only is in places where coal caught on fire and the selenides were oxidized to selenium dioxide.

Uses
----

Selenium dioxide is used in making organic compounds. Selenium dioxide is used as a coloring in glass. Cobalt in glass makes a blue color. When a little selenium dioxide is added, the glass becomes colorless. When more selenium dioxide is added, the glass becomes ruby red.

Safety
------

Selenium dioxide can dissolve in water to make toxic selenium compounds. Swallowing any more than a very tiny amount can cause selenium poisoning. Selenium dioxide is a weak oxidizing agent and does not catch things on fire.

Related pages
-------------

* Selenium trioxide
* Selenic acid
This name uses Spanish naming customs; the first or paternal family name is *Hernández* and the second or maternal family name is *Cruz*.
**Victor Hernández Cruz** is a Puerto Rican poet. He was born in Aguas Buenas, Puerto Rico. He moved to New York City with his family when he was five years old. He lives in Morocco and Puerto Rico.

Career
------

Cruz is a member of the Nuyorican poetry movement of Puerto Rican poets who moved to New York City. Nuyorican poets, such as Pedro Pietri, Miguel Algarin, Miguel Pinero, and Giannina Braschi, write about immigrant life and hybrid latino culture. They multilingual literature. They write in Spanish, English, and Spanglish. 

Cruz has received fellowships from the Guggenheim Foundation and the National Endowment for the Arts. He was the first Puerto Rican poet to be a Chancellor of the Academy of American Poets.

He writes about New York City, traveling, the Caribbean, Puerto Rican history, and the immigrant experience. 

> Cruz said in a television interview with Bill Moyers, "I write about myself as a Caribbean man, a man within a larger tapestry, and I try to see the connections between everything. Between myself and history, myself a racially mixed person, and all these things that make me up. I explore them in my poetry."
> 
>

Poetry books
------------

Cruz published his first book, *Papo Got His Gun! And Other Poems*, on a copying machine called the mimeograph. His later books were published by tradition publishing houses. His titles include: *Beneath the Spanish* (2017); *In the Shadow of Al-Andalus* (2011); *The Mountain in the Sea* (2006); *Red Beans* (1991); *Rhythm, Content, and Flavor: New and Selected Poems* (1989); *By Lingual Wholes* (1982); and *Snaps* (1969).

Related pages
-------------

* Puerto Rican poetry
* Caribbean poetry
* Giannina Braschi
* Julia de Burgos
**Victor, Baron Horta** (6 January 1861 - 8 September 1947) was a Belgian architect and designer. John Julius Norwich said he was "undoubtedly the key European Art Nouveau architect." Horta is one of the most important names in Art Nouveau architecture. Some people say his Hôtel Tassel in Brussels was the first time the style was used on architecture.

In 1932 King Albert I of Belgium gave Horta the title of Baron for his services to architecture. Four of the buildings he designed are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Life and career
---------------

Horta had a great interest in music since childhood. In 1873 he went to study musical theory at the Ghent Conservatory. He was removed for bad behaviour. He then joined the Department of Architecture at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Ghent instead. In 1878 Horta left for Paris. He found work with architect and designer Jules Debuysson in Montmartre. There he was inspired by the impressionist and pointillist artists, and also by the possibilities of working in iron and glass.

When Horta's father died in 1880, he returned to Belgium and moved to Brussels. He married his first wife. He studied architecture at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts. In Brussels Horta made a friendship with Paul Hankar. He became an assistant for his professor Alphonse Balat, architect to Leopold II of Belgium. Together they designed the royal Greenhouses of Laeken, Horta's first work to use glass and iron.

In 1884 Horta won the first Prix Godecharle to be awarded for Architecture.

By 1885 Horta worked on his own. He was commissioned to design three houses. The same year he also joined the Central Society of Belgian Architecture. Over the next few years he was in a number of competitions for public work. He worked with sculptors (notably his friend Godefroid Devresse) on statuary and even tombs. He won a number of prizes. He thought the forms he made were highly practical and not artistic.

During this period, Horta joined the freemasons. This gave him many clients when he returned to designing houses and shops in 1893.

Horta was appointed Head of Graphic Design for Architecture at the Université Libre de Bruxelles in 1892. He became Professor of Architecture in 1893. He worked there until 1911.

Heritage
--------

Many of Horta's buildings were destroyed. However, several of Horta’s buildings are still standing in Brussels. Most notable are the *Magasins Waucquez*, formerly a department store, now the Brussels Comic Book Museum and four of his private houses (*hôtels*), which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites:

* Hôtel Tassel, designed and built for Prof. Émile Tassel in 1892 - 1893.
* Hôtel Solvay, designed and built 1895 - 1900.
* Hôtel van Eetvelde, designed and built 1895 - 1898.
* Maison and Atelier Horta, designed in 1898, now the Horta Museum, dedicated to his work.
A **regnal year** is a year of the reign of a monarch. It is from the Latin *regnum* meaning kingdom or rule. Some of the oldest dating systems were in regnal years. A regnal year usually begins on the date of a monarch's accession to the throne. Year one is counted from day one to the end of the first year of a monarch's reign. Then a second year of rule, a third, and so on. They would not have a zero year of rule. It is displayed as an ordinal, not a cardinal number.

Date problems
-------------

Every year of a monarch's reign falls within two calendar years, unless the reign began on the first day of the calendar year. When converting a regnal year in history to a calendar year, this can cause an error of one year. In England, from the 10th century until the late 13th century, the practice was to count the regnal year from the date of coronation. This was usually a later date than when a monarch was proclaimed king or queen. The current practice of dating from the date of accession began in the late 13th century when the heir was out of the country. Henry III of England died on 16 November 1272 which some sources date as the beginning of Edward I of England's rule. His reign actually began when he was proclaimed king at the New Temple on 20 November 1272. Here the date error between sources would be only four days.

Related pages
-------------

* Year
* Julian calendar
* Gregorian calendar

Other websties
--------------

* Regnal Chronologies Archived 2016-10-26 at the Wayback Machine
* Calculate dates based on regnal years Archived 2016-11-18 at the Wayback Machine
The **Richmond Bridge** is a historic bridge in Richmond, 25 km (16 mi) north of Hobart in Tasmania, Australia. It is the oldest bridge still in use in Australia.

History
-------

The foundation stone for the Richmond Bridge was laid on 11 December 1823 and the bridge was built by convicts. It was completed in 1825. The bridge was originally named Bigge's Bridge after Royal Commissioner, John Thomas Bigge, who recognised the need for the bridge in 1820.

The plaque on Richmond Bridge
The stone set in the bridge showing construction started in 1823.
Another historic marker set into the bridge
In 2005, the bridge was recognised as an outstanding historic place and added to the Australian National Heritage List.

### Murder of George Grover

In 1832 a guard from the Richmond Gaol was murdered at Richmond bridge. George Grover work including flogging (whipping) the prisoners. He was hated by the convicts. He died after being pushed off the edge of Richmond Bridge while drunk. No one was convicted of his murder.

Construction
------------

The Richmond Bridge is made from sandstone dug at Butchers Hill, and carried by convicts using hand carts. It has four main arches, with spans of 4.3 m (14 ft), 8.1 m (27 ft), 8.3 m (27 ft), 8.5 m (28 ft), 8.3 m (27 ft) and 4.1 m (13 ft). These arches rise from sloping fins with angular leading edges pointed to the flow of the river.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Richmond Bridge, Tasmania***.

* Discover Tasmania Website Archived 2006-06-19 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed May 2006.
* Tasmanian Communities Online Archived 2006-04-25 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed May 2006.
* Australian National Heritage listing for Richmond Bridge, last accessed 9 July 2008.
* *Historic Richmond Bridge a National Heritage jewel* Archived 2006-09-10 at the Wayback Machine, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, press release, 2005
**Natural killer cells** (or **NK cells**) are a type of lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system. NK cells provide a rapid response to cells infected by viruses, or to bacterial cells. The response happens about 3 days after infection. NK cells also respond to tumour formation. 

**NK cells** are unique: they have the ability to recognise stressed cells in the absence of antibodies and major histocompatibility complex (MHC). This allows for a much faster immune reaction.

In early experiments in cancer patients and animals, investigators found what was called a "natural" reactivity. That is, a certain population of cells seemed to be able to kill tumour cells without previously being sensitized to them. At first many thought that these observations were artifacts. However, by 1973, 'natural killing' activity was established across a wide variety of species, and the existence of a separate line of cells with this ability was suggested.

Function
--------

To control their cytotoxic activity, NK cells have two types of surface receptors: activating receptors and inhibitory receptors. When the NK cell is activated, it destroys the cells which have switched it on. 

Small granules in their cytoplasm contain proteins and enzymes called granzymes. They are released close to a cell which has triggered their action. A protein *perforin* forms pores in the cell membrane of the target cell, creating a channel through which enzymes and other molecules can enter. This kills the target cell. The details vary according to whether the target is a virus, a bacterium or a tumour cell.

### Hypothesis

These inhibitory receptors recognize MHC class I molecules, which could explain why NK cells kill cells with low levels of MHC class I molecules. This inhibition is crucial to the role played by NK cells. MHC class I molecules are main way cells display viral or tumor antigens to cytotoxic T-cells. A common evolutionary adaptation to this seen in both intracellular microbes and tumours is a long-term down-regulation of these MHC I molecules. This makes the cells impervious to T-cell action. NK cells may have evolved as an evolutionary response: the loss of MHC would deprive these cells of the inhibitory effect of MHC and make them vulnerable to NK cell attack.

### NK cell function in adaptive response

The *adaptive* immune response generates memory cells after a primary infection. Then there is a rapid response to later infections by the same antigen. Earlier it was thought that NK cells play no role in the adaptive immune responses, but now it seems they do.
**Ross 154** (also named **V1216 Sgr**) is a star in the southern zodiac constellation of Sagittarius. It has an apparent magnitude of 10.44, so it is much too faint to be seen with the naked eye. The distance to this star can be estimated from parallax measurements, which places it at 9.69 light-years (2.97 parsecs) away from Earth. It is the nearest star in the southern constellation Sagittarius, and one of the closest to the Sun.

This star was first catalogued by American astronomer Frank Elmore Ross in 1925. Ross 154 was found to be a UV Ceti-type flare star, with a mean time between major flares of about two days. The first such flare activity was observed from Australia in 1951 when the star increased in magnitude by 0.4. Usually, the star will increase by 3–4 magnitudes during a flare. 

Ross 154 is an X-ray source and it has been detected by several X-ray observatories. The quiescent X-ray luminosity is about 9 × 1027 ergs s−1. X-ray flare emission from this star has been observed by Chandra observatory, with a particularly large flare emitting 2.3 × 1033 erg.

This is a red dwarf star that is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core. It has an estimated 17% of the Sun's mass and 24% of the Sun's radius, but it is radiating only 0.38% of the luminosity of the Sun.
This is probably a young star with an age of less than a billion years.<warg/> The abundance of elements heavier than helium is about half that in the Sun.

Related pages
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* List of nearest stars
orthographic projection centred over Ross IslandLand fast sea ice in the foreground. Ross Island in the background. 77° 30′ S Latitude 168° 00′ E Longitude.
**Ross Island** is an island which was formed by four volcanoes in the Ross Sea, which can be found near the continent, Antarctica.

Geography
---------

Because of the persistent presence of the ice sheet, the island is sometimes mistaken to be a part of Antarctica. Its area is 2,460 km² (950 sq mi); only a small portion of the island is free of ice and snow. The planet's southernmost active volcano, Erebus (3794 m), as well as the dormant volcano Terror (3230 m), are situated on the island. They were named by Ross after his ships HMS *Erebus* and HMS *Terror*. The third highest peak is Mount Bird, and on its slopes are Shell Glacier and Endeavour Piedmont Glacier. Abbott Peak stands between Mount Erebus and Mount Bird.

Despite its relatively small size, Ross Island is the world's 6th highest island.

Discovery
---------

The island was discovered by Sir James Clark Ross in 1841, and it was later named in his honour by Robert F. Scott. 

Ross Island was the base for many of the early expeditions to Antarctica. It was and still is the southernmost island reachable by sea. Huts built by Scott's and Shackleton's expeditions are still located on the island, preserved as historical sites.

Today Ross Island is home to New Zealand's Scott Base, and the largest Antarctic settlement, the U.S. Antarctic Program's McMurdo Station. Greenpeace established World Park Base on the island and it ran for five years, from 1987 to 1992.

Claims
------

Ross Island lies within the boundaries of Ross Dependency, which is claimed by New Zealand.

Wildlife
--------

Ross Island supports a colony of about a half million (500 000) Adélie Penguins.

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Ross Island at Wikimedia Commons

* NIWA New Zealand
Shushanik Kurghinian
**Shushanik Kurghinian** (Popoljian) (1876-1927) was an Armenian poet. Kurghinian received little or no recognition for her outstanding poems. Although a socialist with some stirring poems of labour's rebellion to her name, she remained a dim star even in the Soviet era. Today she is almost unknown, away from the literary canon in Armenia and the Diaspora.

Background
----------

Shushanik Kurghinian was born on August 18, 1876, in Alexandrapol, in the Yerevan province of Eastern Armenia, into a poor family of Popolji Harout. In her autobiography Shushanik writes of her childhood: "Sometimes father would bring his [shoe-repair] ‘workstation’ home, in order to save money, and I would work for him – demanding my wages, every single kopek (Coin). My mother, having been raised in a traditional household, would reprove my ‘ill behavior toward my parent,’and blamed those harmful books for corrupting me."

Works
-----

`Whoever is without hope, dulled, without spirit,  

alone and lacking faith...  

bring them to me  

my spirit is free  

I will give them of my soul...'  

(Selected Works, 1982 Yerevan p260)

Other websites
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* `I Want to Live: Poems of Shushanik Kurghinian' or at ArmeniaPedia.org

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A shuttlecock made with feathers
A **shuttlecock** is used in the sport badminton. The shuttlecock center is hit with a badminton racquet over the net, in this fast sport. A shuttlecock is also called a **shuttle**. Other names for shuttlecock are **bird**, or **birdie**, because it can be made with feathers.

Materials
---------

Shuttlecocks can be made of many types of materials, including plastic and feathers. It creates a cone shape, and is held together by a round center, usually made of cork or rubber. The cone shape the feathers, or other materials create is called a **shuttlecock skirt**.

In North America and Europe, feather shuttlecocks cost more. In Asia, where the prices of feathers are lower, shuttles made of plastic are rarely used; feather shuttles are used.

It is harder to hit a feather shuttlecock fast, because there is more drag. They are also less durable than plastic shuttles. Experienced badminton players usually play with feather shuttlecocks, and in competition, badminton is almost always played with feather shuttles. They feel that feather shuttles give them more control, and better play is needed to hit feather shuttles. 

In school gyms and amateur/beginner clubs in Europe and North America, plastic shuttlecocks are more often used than feather ones. This is to save feathers, since plastic shuttlecocks do not break easily. Feathers on the feather shuttles bend or break if the player does not hit the cork or rubber center.
**Stan Marsh** is a fictional character in the animated television series *South Park*. He is voiced by the series co-creator Trey Parker. He is also one of the 4 main characters in the series with Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman and Kenny McCormick. Stan is usually known as the serious and sensitive person of the group. Stan is able to think clearly and is good-natured. Stan usually tries to come up with logical solutions to their outrageous situations.

A simplified representation of Stan Marsh.Stan's character is goody based on the personality of co-creator Trey Parker. He is best friend of Kyle Broflovski and their friendship is important in several episodes.

Character
---------

Stan lives in the fictional town of South Park, Colorado. He and his friends are fourth graders and go to the same elementary school. He lives with his friend Kyle Broflovski. Stan is modeled after his voice actor Trey Parker, and has the same birthday with him on October 19.

Other websites
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* South Park Studios Archived 2008-12-18 at the Wayback Machine
* South Park Wikia
**Topsy Gibson Napaltjarri** is an Australian Aboriginal artist.

Life
----

Topsy was born around 1950, in the Gibson Desert. She was born at Wirrulnga, a rockhole near what is now Kiwirrkurra, in Western Australia. She was the first child of Papalya and Waku. She grew up living in the desert, living a traditional hunter-gatherer way of life on the western side of Lake Mackay. Her family had no contact with the modern world and had never seen White people. When she was about 13, she married a man named Tommy Tjakamarra. She left her family and went with Tommy to go and live at Mount Doreen, northwest of Yuendumu. This was her first encounter with modern, Euro-Australian society. Her family was left behind in the desert and did not come out until 1984.

Topsy and Tommy lived at Papunya for a few years, but they later separated. Topsy remarried, to a man named Tony Tjakamarra, and she moved west with him to Balgo. They moved to Kiwirrkurra in 1984, not long after it was founded. She has two daughters, Yalamay (born 1973) and Lynette (born 1976), and one son.

Painting
--------

Topsy began painting in 1996, with her sister Takariya. Her younger brother, Warlimpirrnga, had been painting since 1987 and was already famous as an artist. She was first represented by Warlayirti Artists, the art co-operative at Balgo.
A **minuet** is a dance which was popular in the 18th and 19th centuries in France. It was danced by the aristocracy, especially at the court of King Louis XIV.

Sometimes the French spelling **menuet** is used, or the Italian **minuetto**. It was a moderate or slow dance. There were always three beats in a bar (3/4 time).

Composers liked the music of the minuet and often wrote them just as pieces of music for a keyboard or other instruments. Composers like Bach and Handel included them in their suites (collection of dance movements). Lully started to put them in his operas, often in pairs: Minuet I, Minuet II, then Minuet I repeated. Often the second minuet would be played by three instruments, so it was called a **trio**.

In the Classical music period the minuet and trio were used in symphonies and sonatas. They usually formed the third movement of a four movement work. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote minuets and trios. Gradually the minuets became faster so that they were called scherzos. By the 19th century the waltz had become fashionable among the new middle class. The polite minuet went out of fashion.
**Textual criticism** is the study of different copies of books or manuscripts. The purpose is to find the original, and see what changes were made to the later versions.

Textual criticism started with the study of the Bible, but now these techniques are used to study many texts.

Basic notions and objectives
----------------------------

The basic problem, as described by Paul Maas, is as follows:

"We have no autograph manuscripts of the Greek and Roman classical writers and no copies which have been [compared] with the originals; the manuscripts we possess derive from the originals through an unknown number of intermediate copies, and are consequentially of questionable trustworthiness. The business of textual criticism is to produce a text as close as possible to the original". p1
The lack of autograph manuscripts applies to many cultures other than Greek and Roman. In such a situation, a key objective becomes the identification of the first *exemplar* before any split in the tradition. That exemplar is known as the *archetype*. "If we succeed in establishing the text of [the archetype], the reconstruction of the original is considerably advanced".pp22–23

The textual critic's ultimate objective is the production of a "critical edition". This contains a text most closely approximating the original, which is accompanied by a critical apparatus that presents:

* the evidence that the editor considered (names of manuscripts),
* the editor's analysis of that evidence and
* a record of rejected variants (often in order of preference).pp22–23

Related pages
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* Criticism
* Philology
*Crotalus scutulatus*, Mojave rattlesnake, sidewinding
tracks of a sidewinder in the sand
**Sidewinding** is a type of locomotion unique to some snakes. They use it to move across loose or slippery ground like sand or mud. It is often used by the Saharan horned viper, *Cerastes cerastes*, and the sidewinder rattlesnake, *Crotalus cerastes*, to move across loose desert sands. It is also used by some snakes in Southeast Asia to move across tidal mud flats. Other snakes can be induced to sidewind on artificial smooth surfaces, with various degrees of success. Sidewinding is not the only way snakes can move on sand.

Sidewinding is done by simply lifting all the segments with the same slope off the ground. In the movement, the snake's body is always in static (as opposed to sliding) contact with the ground. The head seems to be "thrown" forward, and the body follows, being lifted from the prior position and moved forward to lie on the ground ahead of where it was originally. Meanwhile, the head is being thrown forward again. In this way, the snake slowly progresses at an angle, leaving a series of mostly straight, J-shaped tracks. Because the snake's body is in static contact with the ground, imprints of the belly scales can be seen in the tracks, and each track is almost exactly as long as the snake.

Below is a crude animated line-drawing showing sidewinding in action. The light brown areas are the tracks left behind, and show where the body of the snake touched the ground.

This mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only static portions on the body. The static nature of the contact points can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint, without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than ⅓ of the cost for a lizard or snake to move the same distance. Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that sidewinding is associated with the sand being hot.
The term **Radio frequency** refers to electromagnetic radiation in the range of frequencies lower than microwaves. Radio waves at these frequencies have been found useful for long-range communications. Among these frequencies, shortwave radio communications operate at frequencies that can be reflected by the ionosphere and therefore can bounce around the earth. Longwave frequencies are used for relatively short range communications such as the most ordinary of the commercial amplitude modulation (AM) radio stations. Their transmissions ordinarily do not get long bounces.

Different short-wave frequencies (with wavelengths shorter than 120 meters) can be reflected well and transmitted by long bounces around the world during times when different conditions prevail in the ionosphere. So transmitters for such organizations as VOA (Voice of America) and BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) will change operating frequencies from month to month and also from time to time during a 24 hour period.