recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Modelling a wheel of fortune using probability space
**Probability space** is a mathematical model used to describe scientific experiments. A probability space consists of three parts:

1. A sample space which lists all possible outcomes (where a sample space is often written as {\displaystyle \Omega }, and an outcome as {\displaystyle \omega })
2. A set of events. Each event associates zero or more outcomes
3. A function that assigns probabilities to each event

An *outcome* is the result of a single execution of the model. Since individual outcomes might be of little practical use, more complex *events* are used to characterize groups of outcomes. The collection of all such events is a *σ-algebra*, sometimes written as {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}. Finally, there is a need to specify each event's likelihood of happening. This is done using the *probability measure* function, *P*.

Once the probability space is established, one usually assumes that "nature" makes its move and selects a single outcome, *ω*, from the sample space Ω. All the events in {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} that contain the selected outcome *ω* (recall that each event is a subset of Ω) are said to "have occurred". The selection performed by nature is done in such a way that if the experiment were to be repeated an infinite number of times, then the relative frequencies of occurrence of each of the events would coincide with the probabilities described by the function *P*.

The prominent Soviet mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov introduced the notion of probability space, together with other axioms of probability, in the 1930s.

Related pages
-------------

* Random variable
**Overclocking** is the process of configuring a computer processor or other electronic circuit to run faster than it was designed to. Overclocking allows a computer to be faster and more responsive. Overclocked processors tend to use more electricity and make more heat than those running at their intended speed. It is often necessary to install a better heat sink to avoid overheating the processor. If a processor is overclocked too high, it can damage the processor or make the computer unstable. Increasing the voltage to the processor can allow it to be run at even higher speeds where it would otherwise be unstable, but this carries an especially high risk of damaging the processor.

Overclocking is usually done in the computer's BIOS setup utility. Most brand-name computers such as Dell, HP, and others do not allow overclocking in the BIOS setup utility, but custom-built computers usually do. It is also possible to do the opposite, called underclocking, where the processor is run at a lower speed than intended. This may be done to extend battery life and reduce heat output. Underclocking will not usually damage a processor and may in fact make it last longer. Some processors automatically underclock themselves when the computer is not doing a lot of work.

Overclocking of other components
--------------------------------

Many other digital circuits with a clock signal can be overclocked (or underclocked). This includes video cards, smartphones, and even graphing calculators. Even some sound cards can be overclocked to record or play at a higher sample rate than usual. Overclocking has become popular with Android users.
The **mugger crocodile** (*Crocodylus palustris*) is also known as the marsh crocodile, broad-snouted crocodile and mugger. 

It lives in the Indian subcontinent and nearby countries. In Pakistan's coastal regions of the Makran and delta marshlands of Sindh, it is known as the Indus crocodile. The name "Mugger" is a corruption of the Hindi word magar which means "water monster". It is one of three crocodilians in India, the others are the saltwater crocodile (*C. porosus*) and gharial (*Gavialis gangeticus*).

National reptile of Pakistan
Mugger crocodile hatchlings are pale olive with black spots. Adults are dark olive to grey or brown. The head is rough without any ridges.

The mugger crocodile is a medium-sized crocodilian. It has a strong tail and webbed feet. It has good sense of smell, sight and hearing. Adult female muggers are 2 to 2.5 m (6 ft 7 in to 8 ft 2 in) on average. Adult male muggers are 3 to 3.5 m (9 ft 10 in to 11 ft 6 in). They rarely grow up to 5 m (16 ft 5 in). The largest known muggers measured 5.63 m (18 ft 6 in).

Distribution and habitat
------------------------

The mugger crocodile can be found in southern Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka, but is probably extinct in Bangladesh. It lives in freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes. It prefers slow-moving, shallow water bodies. It is also known to live in artificial reservoirs and irrigation canals.

Behaviour
---------

The mugger crocodile is a very strong swimmer that uses its tail and hind feet to move forward, change direction and go under the water. Its belly touches the ground at the bottom of waterbodies and on land. During the hot dry season, it walks over land at night to find better wetlands. It spends most of the day under the water. During the cold season it basks on riverbanks and they tolerate one another during this period. They are more aggressive during the mating season.

The mugger crocodile has an optimal body temperature of 30 to 35 °C (86 to 95 °F). It will die of freezing or hyperthermia when exposed to temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F) or above 38 °C (100 °F). It digs burrows to get away from extreme temperatures. Burrows are between 0.6 and 6 m (2.0 and 19.7 ft) deep. Temperatures inside the burrows keep constant.
**Quaid-I-Azam University** Islamabad (Urdu: جامعہ قائداعظم‎; commonly known as **QAU**), founded as **University of Islamabad**, is a public research university in Islamabad, Pakistan.

Initially this university was founded for the study of postgraduate education but slowly through the 1980s university became an interdisciplinary university offering undergraduate and postgraduate education. In 2015, University became largest varsity in Islamabad with 13,000 students. The university is on a 1700 acres (or 6.9km²) campus on the foothills of the Margalla.

Divided into four faculties and nine affiliated research institutes, QAU is among Pakistan's largest and highest ranked public universities. In 2020, it is ranked between 510-520 overall whilst in Physics, Mathematics and agriculture departments ranked 225th, 225th and 125th respectively worldwide, in emerging economics it's ranked below 100 which is probably a prestige, and also ranked 111th in Asia by the *QS World University Rankings* while its regional publications ranked QAU among 120 in Asia in 2013. The *Times Higher Education World University Rankings* ranked QAU between 401-500 globally and top 75 in Asia in its 2020 lists. 

The university has intellectual interaction with international institutes, including the United Nations, University of Tokyo and the ICTP. It is one of the most popular universities in the country and counts several public figures and intellectuals among its current and former faculty, researchers, or alumni since its establishment. They include Maleeha Lodhi, Nasim Zehra, Shamshad Akhtar, Suhail Zubairy, Abdul Rashid Ghazi, Farzana Aslam, Tasneem Zehra and Salma Zahid. The university is currently led by Professor Muhammad Ali.

jamshed from payactiv.The university was renamed in honor of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948), founder of Pakistan.
The University of Islamabad was established on 22 July 1967 by the Government of Pakistan. It was renamed as Quaid-i-Azam University in honor of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder of Pakistan in 1976 - which was the year of his birth centenary. However, the spelling of the University's name were kept different i.e. "i" was used instead of "e" for Ezāfe that links the two words in Jinnah's title Quaid-e-Azam.

The University offered teaching and research programs for PhD and MPhil degrees in the beginning and later offered Master's programs. The University now offers undergraduate programs as well.

Quaid-i-Azam University has four different faculties and 38 departments, institutes, schools and centers.
**Neoconservatism** in Japan refers to the new generation of Japanese conservatives.

They are nationalistic and think Japan is unique and special.

They think they are not responsible for Japan's conquests and wartime history, Japanese war crimes, the Nanjing Massacre, and the Japanese colonization of Korea.

They want to change the Japanese constitution and remove Article 9. After losing WW2, Japan wrote into its constitution that it is not allowed to wage war. This is Article 9. The USA helped write it because he wanted to prevent Japan from ever attacking the US or any other country like when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. 

However Japanese neoconservatives want to restore the military in that they want to use the Japanese "Self-Defense" Forces to for more than just "self-defense". But this is against Article 9.

Some like Shinzō Abe have visited the Yasukuni Shrine to honor Japanese soldiers who murdered and raped Koreans, Chinese, and other Asians. 

They do not like China and refuse to apologize for Imperial Japan's war crimes. 

They do not like Korea either, North or South. They do not think their relationship with Korea is special. 

Some like Shintaro Ishihara want fewer immigrants. Some want to ban foreigners from voting, and only "Japanese nationals" should have the right.
Lorenzo da Ponte
**Lorenzo da Ponte** (10 March 1749 – 17 August 1838) was an opera librettist and poet. He is best known for having written the libretti for three of Mozart's operas, *The Marriage of Figaro*, *Don Giovanni*, and *Così fan tutte*.

Biography
---------

Da Ponte was born Emanuele Conegliano to Jewish parents near Venice, Italy. He became a Christian, and took the name Lorenzo da Ponte from the bishop who baptized him. He became a priest at the church of San Luca in Venice. He took Anzoletta Bellaudi as his mistress. They ran a brothel. Da Ponte was banished from Venice for 15 years. He went to Austria where he became court librettist to Emperor Joseph II.

About 1792, da Ponte married Ann Celestine Grahl. They had four children. When Joseph II died, da Ponte lost his job. He went to London. He got into debt, and went to the United States. He ran a grocery store in Pennsylvania for a short time. He moved to New York City and opened a bookstore. He became the first professor of Italian literature at Columbia College. He produced *Don Giovanni* in New York in 1826. In 1828, da Ponte became a naturalized US citizen.

Da Ponte died in 1838 in New York. His funeral was held in New York's old St. Patrick's Cathedral. His final resting place is uncertain. All of da Ponte's libretti were adaptations of pre-existing plots, except *L'arbore di Diana* and *Così fan tutte*. His adaptations are of the highest order. The Don Giovanni character was given new life in da Ponte's hands. The character is now considered the archetypical libertine.
*Medea* by Anthony Frederick Augustus Sandys (painted 1866-68); The painting was not accepted for the exhibition in the Royal Academy in 1868. This rejection caused a storm of protest.
A poster by Alfons Mucha, for a theatre piece starring Sarah Bernardt as Medea (1898)
In Greek mythology, **Medea** (/mɪˈdiːə/; Greek: Μήδεια, *Mēdeia*, Georgian: მედეა, *Medea*) is a sorceress of Greek mythology. She was the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, niece of Circe, granddaughter of the sun god Helios. She married the hero Jason, and had two children with him, Mermeros and Pheres. In Euripides's play *Medea*, Jason leaves Medea when Creon, king of Corinth, offers him his daughter, Glauce. The play tells of Medea avenging her husband's betrayal by killing their children.

The myths involving Jason have been interpreted as part of a class of myths that tell how the Hellenes of the distant heroic age, before the Trojan War, faced the challenges of the pre-Greek "Pelasgian" cultures of mainland Greece, the Aegean and Anatolia. Jason, Perseus, Theseus, and above all Heracles, are all figures on the threshold between the old world of shamans, earth deities, and the new Bronze Age Greek ways.

Medea figures in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts, a myth known best from a late literary version worked up by Apollonius of Rhodes in the 3rd century BC and called the *Argonautica.* However, for all its self-consciousness and researched archaic vocabulary, the late epic was based on very old, scattered materials. Medea is known in most stories as an enchantress and is often depicted as a priestess of the goddess Hecate or a witch. The myth of Jason and Medea is very old, originally written around the time Hesiod wrote the *Theogony*. It was known to the composer of the *Little Iliad*, part of the Epic Cycle.
**Rebecka Månstråle Liljeberg** (born 13 May 1981) is a Swedish actress.

She was born in Turinge, about 40 km southwest of Stockholm, and moved around Sweden for much of her youth. Liljeberg's mother was relatively young when she was born, and her parents divorced when she was one year old. At the age of 9 (1991), Liljeberg began her acting career when she won a role in the series *Sunes jul*. Between 1993 and 1997, she became played in amateur theatre, which she continued with until gaining a role in the movie *Närkontakt* later in 1997. The following year she won her breakthrough role in the Lukas Moodysson movie *Fucking Åmål*. For the movie she stopped his study in high school to take up the role, which ultimately won her the 1999 Guldbagge Award for Best Actress, together with Alexandra Dahlström. After her roles in *Fucking Åmål* and *Sherdil*, Liljeberg began an adult education course in order to graduate from high school. While studying, she also played in *Bear's Kiss*, and voiced a character in the Swedish version of IMAX movie *T-Rex: Back to the Cretaceous*. In 2002, she completed the adult education course, and is now studying medicine at the Karolinska Institute to become a pediatrician.

Private Life
------------

Liljeberg is known to enjoy working with computers. She wrote for a Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet for some time. Liljeberg also contributed to UNESCO's *Utrymme* anthology of twenty works from young writers around the world. Liljeberg now lives in Stockholm with her boyfriend Alexander Skepp. They have two children: Harry Theodor, born in June 2002 and Vera, born on 1 January, 2005. Liljeberg expressed a desire to work with director Lukas Moodysson again.

Filmography
-----------

* *Sunes jul* (1991) (series)
* *Närkontakt* (1997)
* *Längtans blåa blomma* (series) (1998)
* *Fucking Åmål* (1998)
* *Lithivm* (1998)
* *Där regnbågen slutar* (1999)
* *Sherdil* (1999)
* *Skärgårdsdoktorn* (2000)
* *Födelsedagen* (2000)
* *Eva & Adam* (2000)
* *Bear's Kiss* (2002)

Other websites
--------------

* Rebecka Liljeberg on IMDb
In physics, **mechanical energy** describes the potential energy and kinetic energy present in the components of a mechanical system.

When a given amount of mechanical energy is transferred (such as when throwing a ball, lifting a box, crushing a soda can, or stirring a beverage) it is said that this amount of mechanical work has been done. Both mechanical energy and mechanical work are measured in the same units as energy in general. It is usually said that a component of a system has a certain amount of "mechanical energy" (i.e. it is a state function), whereas "mechanical work" describes the amount of mechanical energy a component has gained or lost.

The conservation of mechanical energy is a principle that states that under certain conditions, the total mechanical energy of a system is constant. This rule does not hold when mechanical energy is converted to other forms, such as chemical, nuclear, or electromagnetic. However, the principle of general conservation of energy is so far an unbroken rule of physics - as far as we know, energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form.
The Oka Crisis was a time in Canadian history when there was a disagreement between a group of Mohawk people and the town of Oka in Quebec, Canada over land. It lasted 78 days and led to the death of one person. The Oka Crisis is a well-known example of violent conflict between a First Nations group and the Canadian government.

Background
----------

The Mohawk people were in the Montreal area starting from the 1700s. In 1717, some land in the Montreal region was given to the Roman Catholic Church to use as a seminary. Part of this land included a Mohawk burial site. In 1868, Joseph Onasakenrat, a leader of the Mohawk, wrote a letter to the seminary that said that part of the land was meant for the Mohawk people to use. A year later, he and some other Mohawk attacked the seminary but were unable to get the land in the end.

In 1936, the seminary sold off the land the Mohawk claimed was theirs.

In 1959, the town of Oka let a golf course be built on part of the disputed land. The Mohawk filed a lawsuit but it didn't go through.

In 1977, a group of Mohawk called the Kanehsatà:ke band filed a land claim with the Office of Native Claims. By filing a land claim, they wanted to be accepted as the owners of the land. They were unable to successfully file a claim.

In 1989, the golf club said they wanted to expand the golf course. The Mohawk people protested and took the club to court.

In 1990, the court approved of the expansion of the golf course.

Crisis
------

The Mohawk set up barricades so that no one could get to the golf course. The mayor of Oka, Jean Ouellette, told them to get off but they refused.

On July 11, Mayor Ouellette called the Quebec provincial police to the town.

End of Crisis
-------------

Although the Mohawk did not get the land, the golf course was not expanded.
**Memphis** was the ancient capital of the first nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and later for shorter periods during the New Kingdom. It was an administrative centre throughout ancient history.

Its ancient Egyptian name was **Ineb Hedj** ("The White Walls"). The name "Memphis" (Μέμφις) is the Greek 
deformation
 of the Egyptian name of the pyramid of Pepi I (6th dynasty), which was **Men-nefer**, and became **Menfe** in Coptic. The modern cities and towns of Mit Rahina, Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusir, Abu Gorab, and Zawyet el'Aryan, south of Cairo, all lie within the administrative borders of historical Memphis (29°50′58.8″N 31°15′15.4″E﻿ / ﻿29.849667°N 31.254278°E﻿ / 29.849667; 31.254278).

Memphis was also known in Ancient Egypt as **Ankh Tawy** ("That which binds the Two Lands") because of the strategic position of the city between Upper and Lower Egypt.

The ruins of Memphis are 20 km (12 miles) south of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile.

Hieroglyphs in Memphis with a statue of Ramses II in the background
In the Bible, Memphis is called Moph or Noph.

Sources
-------

* Baines & Malek *Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt*, 2000. ISBN 0-8160-4036-2

Other websites
--------------

* On the Memphis Theology
* Memphis site (Windows Live Local)

|
|  |
| Preceded by-- |  **Capital of Egypt**3100 BC - 2180 BC | Succeeded byHerakleopolis |

29°50′40.8″N 31°15′3.3″E﻿ / ﻿29.844667°N 31.250917°E﻿ / 29.844667; 31.250917
The flag of Mexico contains a **coat of arms** which is derived from an Aztec symbol depicting an eagle with a snake in its mouth.

Seal of the Government of Mexico.Coat of Arms of Mexico.Black and White Version of the Seal of the Government of Mexico (Linear).
In the early 14th century, the Mexica people were a wandering tribe looking for a permanent settlement in modern day central Mexico. They survived by hunting and gathering and were often hired to fight as mercenaries for the city-states scattered throughout the region. According to legend, their god, Huitzilopochtli, told them to establish a city of their own at a site where they would find an eagle eating a snake on top of a cactus. The legend relates that the people saw the eagle on a small, swampy island in the middle of the shallow Texcoco lake. The Mexica invented a resourceful system of gardening, called chinampas, which allowed them to grow small gardens, eventually drying out the lake. In 1325, they completed construction of a city there. That city, which they called Tenochtitlan, became the capital of the Aztec Empire, which dominated central Mexico until its destruction by Spanish Conquistadores led by Hernando Cortes.

After winning its independence from Spain in 1810, the newly created nation of Mexico–whose capital was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan–adopted the symbol of the eagle and the snake to commemorate its Aztec heritage. The symbol can be found at the center of the Mexican flag.
Nikolai Vavilov
**Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov**  (25 November 1887 – 26 January 1943) was a Russian botanist and geneticist. He is best known for showing how and where crop plants evolved. He devoted his life to agriculture: the study and improvement of wheat, corn, and other cereal crops.

By 1940, Vavilov had accumulated a collection of 200,000 plant seeds from the Soviet Union and from abroad. He was widely admired, but his life came to a terrible end. Vavilov repeatedly criticised a powerful but poor scientist, Trofim Lysenko. As a result, Vavilov was arrested, and died of starvation in a prison in 1943. Today Vavilov's name stands high. The *Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry* in St. Petersburg is named after him. It maintains one of the world's largest collections of plant genetic material.

Vavilovian mimicry
------------------

This is mimicry in plants where a weed comes to look like a crop plant. Before herbicides, weeds were plucked by hand. This has been done for thousands of years. The weeds come to look like the crop because the weeders pick those weeds which look most different. Vavilovian mimicry is caused by unintentional selection by humans. The weeds that survive pass on their genes. Gradually, all the weeds look more like the crop plant.

Rye is a now a crop. Originally it was a mimetic weed of wheat
An example is rye, a common Mediterranean species. Rye was originally just a weed growing with wheat and barley. Weeding made it like the crop. Like wheat, it came to have larger seeds and more rigid spindles to which the seeds are attached.

Rye is a tougher plant than wheat: it survives in harsher conditions. Having become a crop like the wheat, rye was able to become a crop plant in harsh areas, such as hills and mountains.
Coordinates: 30°54′N 31°7′E﻿ / ﻿30.900°N 31.117°E﻿ / 30.900; 31.117

NASA satellite photograph of the Nile Delta (shown in false colour)
The **Nile Delta** (Arabic: دلتا النيل) is the delta formed in Northern Egypt (Lower Egypt) where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's largest river deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east, it covers some 240 km of Mediterranean coastline—and is a rich agricultural region. From north to south the delta is approximately 160 km in length. The Delta begins slightly down-river from Cairo. Dams at Aswan farther upstream on the Nile have stopped further addition of the silt that built the delta in past centuries. Because of this, the delta is shrinking.

Shape and composition
---------------------

Nile River and Delta
The Nile is considered to be an "arcuate" delta (arc-shaped), and resembles a triangle or lotus flower when seen from above.

Climate
-------

The Nile Delta has a Mediterranean climate, characterized by little rainfall. Only 100 to 200 mm of rain falls on the delta area during an average year, and most of this falls in the winter months. The delta experiences its hottest temperatures in July and August, averaging 30 °C, with a maximum of around 48 °C. Winter temperatures are normally in the range of 5° to 10 °C. The Nile Delta region becomes quite humid during the summer months. The Nile Delta is currently eroding.

Ancient and modern cities in the Delta region
---------------------------------------------

* Alexandria

* Cairo

Other websites
--------------

* keyway.ca Archived 2010-08-02 at the Wayback Machine
* worldwildlife.org
* Media related to Nile Delta at Wikimedia Commons
The Sun pub, a traditional-style public house that serves beer and ale
The Gate, a 20th-century 'estate pub' on the Seacroft Estate in Leeds
**Public houses** (better known as **pubs**) are businesses that serve alcoholic drinks such as beer, cider and ale, and usually also non-alcoholic drinks such as lemonade, cola, tea, and coffee to be consumed within the limits of the public house. They are subject to the licensing laws of the country. They may be closed down if not properly conducted. Many pubs also sell food such as fish and chips and meat pies.

Pubs are found in English-speaking countries such as England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, Canada, Australia and the United States. In villages and small towns in many parts of England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, pubs are the centre of community life. Some pubs hire bands or singers to entertain customers. If the pub has rooms where people can sleep at night, it is usually called an inn.

Ownership and staffing
----------------------

Public houses may be owned and operated in different ways. Breweries may own a number of pubs themselves. Pubs may be run as franchises by large catering companies. However they are owned, a pub will be managed by a "landlord" or "landlady". Employees do different jobs to provide good service. Bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") serve drinks at the bar. In most pubs, the customer orders the drinks at the bar and waits for them to be prepared, then carries the drinks back to the tables or area of seating. In some types of pubs may sit at the bar or remain standing with their drinks. Some pubs hire servers, called waiters or waitresses, to bring drinks to people who are sitting at tables or in chairs. Some pubs also hire people to take away empty bottles and glasses, though commonly the bartenders will do this as well.

Pubs that serve food have cooks, dishwashers, and servers to prepare, cook, and serve the food. Bands and singers who entertain customers during the evening are not usually employees of the pub. Instead, the pub signs a contract with these entertainers, in which the entertainer promises to come to the pub on a specified day or night, in return for a sum of money.

Comparison with nightclubs
--------------------------

Another type of business that serves alcohol is the nightclub. Like pubs, some nightclubs also serve food and have bands or singers as entertainers. Most people go to nightclubs because they enjoy the music and dancing. However, nightclubs often have a much wider selection of alcoholic drinks than pubs. Most nightclubs sell a number of different brands of spirits, liqueurs, wine, sherry, and aperitifs.

The bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") at nightclubs often make a much larger variety of mixed drinks, or cocktails, than those who work in pubs.
West end of the bridge from below
The **Maribyrnong River Viaduct** (also known as the **Quarter Mile Bridge**) is a railway bridge across the Maribyrnong River in the western suburbs of Melbourne, Australia. It is near the E.J. Whitten Bridge, and is almost 400 metres long (hence the quarter mile name). The Albion-Jacana railway line uses the bridge, which is mainly used for freight. It also carries the Melbourne to Sydney CountryLink XPT. It is the second highest bridge in Victoria, only behind the West Gate Bridge (58 metres). At a height of 180 feet (54.86 m) above the water, it is even higher than the Sydney Harbour Bridge (52 metres). The bridge is 1257 feet (383.13 m) long

It was built in 1927–29 by the Victorian Railways Construction Branch, being the largest trestle bridge in Australia when completed in June, 1929. It is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register and employed 200 people during construction, with one fatality.

Other websites
--------------

* Images from the construction of the bridge, 1928 Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine

Coordinates: 37°44′53.0″S 144°50′43.8″E﻿ / ﻿37.748056°S 144.845500°E﻿ / -37.748056; 144.845500
Sister Marie Claude Naddaf of Syria in 2010 with U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (left) and First lady Michelle Obama (right).
**Marie Claude Naddaf** (Arabic: ماري كلود نداف ) is an activist and a nun from Syria. In 2010, she received an International Women of Courage Award.

Work
----

In 1994, Naddaf became Mother Superior at the Good Shepherd Convent in Damascus. In 1996, she opened the "Oasis Shelter" with her convent. The Oasis Shelter was the first organization for victims of human trafficking and domestic violence in Syria.  She also started the first telephone hotline in Syria. It was part of an emergency shelter for women.

Naddaf worked for the right of women in police custody in Syria to go to shelter, if they are victims of trafficking. She also started a nursery school and a vocational education program at the prison for women in Damascus.

Awards
------

She received a 2010 International Women of Courage award.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Marie Claude Naddaf***.

* 2010 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr
* Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)
Maria Callas, 1958
**Maria Callas** (December 3, 1923 – September 16, 1977) was a Greek soprano. She was one of the most famous and most controversial opera singers of the 20th century. She had a very distinctive voice of great range, power and agility enabling her to sing a wide variety of roles and was a singer-actress of great dramatic intensity. She was dubbed *La Divina* (*The Divine One*) by her admirers. She was mainly associated with the Italian repertoire, particularly Bellini's *Norma*, Donizetti's *Lucia di Lammermoor*, Verdi's *La traviata* and Puccini's *Tosca*.

Life and career
---------------

Maria was born **Maria Kalogeroupoulou** at Terence Cardinal Cooke Health Care Center in New York City, to Greek parents, she returned to Greece in 1937, with her mother and older sister. There, she studied singing with Elvira de Hidalgo, and made her debut while still a teenager with the Athens Opera in 1941.

During a short return to America to visit her father in 1945, she auditioned at the Metropolitan Opera without success. Her first major break came with her Italian debut in Verona in 1947, as *La Gioconda*. There, she met conductor Tullio Serafin who became her mentor and guided her towards the bel canto repertoire. She sang her first *Norma* in Florence in 1948, and the following year, as a last minute replacement, she appeared as Elvira in Bellini's *I puritani* in Venice, which was to be her first great success. 

In 1949, she married industrialist Giovanni Battista Meneghini who became her manager. She was sometimes known as Maria Meneghini Callas after her marriage. 

Shortly after, she made her debut at La Scala in Milan, where the major part of her career and greatest triumphs were to take place. In collaboration with conductors like Carlo Maria Giulini, Leonard Bernstein, Gianandrea Gavazzeni, and directors like Franco Zeffirelli and Luchino Visconti, lavish productions of works such as Cherubini's *Medea*, Spontini's *La Vestale*, Bellini's *La sonnambula* and *Norma*, Donizetti's *Anna Bolena* and *Poliuto*, Verdi's *La traviata* and *Un ballo in maschera*, were made especially for her to great acclaim. 

She also made guest appearances at the Royal Opera House in London, the Berlin State Opera, the Paris Opéra, the Lyric Chicago Opera, the Dallas Opera and the Metropolitan Opera in New York City. 

In 1958, she met Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis which led to her divorce from Meneghini, and slowly began to withdraw from the stage. Her final appearance was in *Tosca* in London in 1965. She made a last world concert tour in 1973–74 with her often partner tenor Giuseppe Di Stefano, but by then her voice was almost gone. 

Callas died of a heart attack in Paris, France, at the age of 53.
Flattened sphere (exaggerated)
A **reference ellipsoid** is an ellipsoid which is used as a frame of reference for geodetic calculations. It is a figure like the shape of the Earth. It is easier to work with than the geoid, which is another shape like that of the Earth. 

It is relatively easy to describe the reference ellipsoid using mathematical formulae. Describing the geoid is much more complex, as it results from precise measurements. The first such models were spheres, used since Ancient Greece. In the 17th century, there were doubts that the earth was a sphere. In 1688, Isaac Newton solved a controversy with Giovanni Domenico Cassini by demonstrating mathematically that the rotation of the earth would lead to a flattening around the area of the poles, and not at the equator. 

In practice this was shown by Pierre Bouguer and Alexis-Claude Clairaut half a century later. The two had done an expedition to Peru and Lapland (1735-1741). Their measurement of the meridian arc lead to the definition of the metre. This was the ten-millionth part of the idealized distance between the pole and the equator, 1791. Because of different errors in measurement, it turned out to be 0.022% too short, and was redefined twice, in 1793, and 1799. The value of 1799 is still the official definition but it is about 0.197‰ too short. 

In 1983, the metre was redefined as the distance, light travels in a certain amount of time, in a vacuum.
Joey in pouch
The **red-necked wallaby** (*Macropus rufogriseus*) is a medium-sized macropod, common in parts of eastern Australia. As one of the largest wallabies, it looks like a kangaroo. Males can weigh more than 20 kg and have a head-body length of 90 cm.

Red-necked wallabies have a black nose and paws, white stripe on the upper lip, and a medium grey coat with a red color on their neck.

Red-necked wallabies are found along the coast and forests of eastern Australia, from Rockhampton, Queensland to the South Australian border; in Tasmania and on many of the Bass Strait islands (many of these may have been introduced to the islands).

In Tasmania, north-east New South Wales and coastal Queensland, their numbers have got bigger over the past 30 years. This is because they are no longer hunted. A lot of forest has been cleared for grass where wallabies can feed at night, alongside trees where they can shelter by day. It is less common in Victoria.

Like most macropods, the red-necked wallaby lives by itself. Groups, also called mobs, share feeding areas. They feed at night and in the late afternoon, generally eating grass and herbs close to forest shelter.

There are two subspecies. The Tasmanian form, *Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus*, also called **Bennett's wallaby** is smaller, has longer fur, and breeds in the late summer, mostly between February and April. They can live close to people and are seen feeding on lawns in the suburbs of Hobart and other towns.

The mainland form, *Macropus rufogriseus banksianus*, breeds all year round. A female can have babies at the about 14 months old. A baby red-necked wallaby, called a joey, lives in the mothers pouch for 9 months, and continues to feed from the mother till about 12–15 months of age.
**Mario Del Monaco** (July 27, 1915 - July 16, 1982) was an Italian tenor, particularly associated with Italian heroic roles, notably *Otello*. One of the leading "tenore di forza" (dramatic tenor) of the 1950s, he possessed a voice of considerable range and power with a thrilling upper register.

Life and career
---------------

Born in Florence, Italy, he studied in Pesaro with Melocchi but was mostly self-taught. He began his operatic career in Pesero in 1940, as Turriddu in *Cavalleria rusticana*. He then sang widely in Italy and made his debut at La Scala in Milan in 1943, as Rodolfo in *La bohème*. After the war, he began to appear outside Italy, Barcelona, London, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, etc. He first sang at the Metropolitan Opera in New York in 1950, as des Grieux in *Manon Lescaut*.

Although mostly associated with the Italian repertoire (*Ernani*, *Il trovatore*, *La forza del destino*, *Aida*, *Andrea Chénier*, *Tosca*, *La fanciulla del West*, *Turandot*, etc.), he also enjoyed considerable success as Don José in *Carmen* and Samson in *Samson et Dalila*. He left several complete opera recordings, often with soprano Renata Tebaldi. 

Del Monaco was married to soprano Rina Filippini, who was also his vocal coach. Their son, Giancarlo (b. 1945), is an operatic stage director. Del Monaco died from nephritis in Mestre, near Venice, at the age of 67.

Sources
-------

* *Le guide de l'opéra*, Roland Mancini & Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Fayard, 1986.
In cryptography, **RC6** is a symmetric-key block cipher derived from RC5. RC6 is a parameterized algorithm with a variable block size, a variable key size, and a variable number of rounds. RC stands for "Rivest Cipher", or alternatively, "Ron's Code".

In 1997, the NIST announced a competition to choose a successor to Data Encryption Standard (DES) to be known as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). RC6 was derived from RC5 to meet the competition requirements, and was selected as one of the *five finalists* of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) competition, but was not selected as a standard.

In order to provide varieties of security and efficiency levels, RC6 allows choices for the block size: 32 bits (for experimentation and evaluation purposes only), 64 bits (for use as a replacement for DES), and 128 bits (intended for AES). The number of rounds can range from 0 to 255, while the key sizes can range from 0 bits to 2040 bits in size.

RC6 is very similar to RC5 in structure and could be viewed as interweaving two parallel RC5 encryption processes. However, RC6 does use an extra multiplication operation not present in RC5 and the use of four b/4-bit working registers (see splitting of plaintext blocks in feistel cipher) instead of two b/2-bit registers as in RC5 (b is the block size). Integer multiplication is used to increase the diffusion achieved per round so that fewer rounds are needed and the speed of the cipher can be increased.  
The reason for using four working registers instead of two is mainly for optimization on 32-bit CPUs. The default block size of RC5 was 64 bits, while the default block size of the AES is 128 bits. RC5 has only two working registers. It uses 32-bit operations when dealing with 64-bit blocks and 64-bit operations when dealing with 128-bit blocks, so four working registers are required to build the AES architecture using only 32-bit operations.

RC6 is a proprietary and patented algorithm (by RSA Security U.S. Patent 5,724,428 and U.S. Patent 5,835,600), and may require licensing and royalty payments for any products using the algorithm. It was designed by Ron Rivest, Matt Robshaw, Ray Sidney, and Yiqun Lisa Yin, and was also submitted to the NESSIE and CRYPTREC projects.

Other websites
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* SCAN's entry on RC6
* RSA Security's RC6 page Archived 2006-10-16 at the Wayback Machine
Example: The blue circle represents the set of points (*x*, *y*) satisfying *x*2 + *y*2 = *r*2. The red disk represents the set of points (*x*, *y*) satisfying *x*2 + *y*2 < *r*2. The red set is an open set, the blue set is its boundary set, and the union of the red and blue sets is a closed set.
In set theory an open set is a set where all elements have the same properties. Simply put, an open set is a set that does not include its edges or endpoints. For each point in the set, you can make a bubble around that point, such that all points in the bubble are also in the set.

On the other hand, a closed set includes all its edges or endpoints. A set that includes some of its edges or endpoints is neither open nor closed.

An open set is very similar to an open interval.

Examples
--------

The set **(0,1)** is open. If we choose a very small value, there will always be a small bubble which are all in the set **(0,1)**.

If we choose a very small value h ∈ (0,1), we can make a bubble {\displaystyle \left[{\frac {h}{2}},{\frac {3h}{2}}\right]}, in which all the values are in **(0,1)**.

  

However, **[0,1]** is closed. If we choose the value 0, and choose a very small value k, 0-k ∉ **[0,1]**, which means that it's closed.
Little Ringed Plover *Charadrius dubius* 
Snowy Plover, on the beach at Vanderberg, California
**Plovers** are water birds belonging to the subfamily **Charadriinae**. There are about 40 species, most of them called 'plover' or 'dotterel'. The closely related lapwing subfamily, **Vanellinae**, has another 20-odd species.

Plovers are found throughout the world, and have short bills. They wade in the water, and hunt by sight, rather than by feel as longer-billed waders like snipe do. 

They feed mainly on insects, worms or other invertebrates. They use a run-and-pause technique, rather than the steady probing of some other waders.

The plover group of birds has a defence against predators called *false brooding*. They sit on an imaginary nest site, changing position sometimes as if real eggs were under them.

The plover has been known to attack when the young are threatened. The birds secrete an acidic compound from a gland located in their mouth. On contact with skin causes a burning sensation.
**Ranbir Raj Kapoor** (14 December 1924 – 2 June 1988) was an Indian movie actor, producer and director.

Kapoor is thought of as one of the greatest and most influential actors and moviemakers in the history of Indian cinema. Kapoor won many awards. These include 3 National Film Awards and 11 Filmfare Awards in India. He was nominated twice for the Palme d'Or grand prize at the Cannes Film Festival. His performance in *Awaara* was named one of the top ten greatest performances of all time by *Time* magazine. His movies were popular worldwide, particularly in Asia and Europe. He was called "the Clark Gable of the Indian film industry".

The Government of India honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 1971.

Early life
----------

Kapoor was born in 1924 to Prithviraj Kapoor and Ramsarni Devi Kapoor. The Kapoor family is well known for their acting and directing in India. Kapoor's father, brothers, children and grandchildren have had success as actors or producers.

Kapoor acted in his first movie when he was only 10 years old.

Career
------

Kapoor was the lead actor for the first time in *Neel Kamal* (1947). His co-star was Madhubala. In 1947, he started his own movie company, R. K. Films. At 24 years old, he directed his first movie *Aag*. His co-star was Nargis. He and Nargis worked together in 16 movies, 6 of these were produced by Kapoor. His first major success as an actor was in the movie *Andaz* directed by Mehboob Khan. *Andaz* was the second-highest earning movie in 1949. The highest earning movie that year was *Barsaat*, also starring Kapoor.

He went on to produce and star in several hit movies made by his company including *Awaara* (1951), *Shree 420* (1955), and *Jagte Raho* (1956). His movie *Jis Desh Men Ganga Behti Hai*, directed by Radhu Karmakar, won Filmfare Award for Best Film. Kapoor also won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for the movie. The romantic musical movie *Sangam* was his first movie in colour.

In 1970, he produced, directed and starred in his movie *Mera Naam Joker*. The movie took more than six years to complete but it did not earn very much money. Later in 1973, his movie *Bobby* became the highest earning movie of the year and the second highest earning movie of the 1970s at the Indian box office. The movie was the first lead role for Kapoor's son, Rishi Kapoor.

Later movies produced and directed by Kapoor focused on the female lead character. The movie *Prem Rog* (1982) with Padmini Kolhapure won the Filmfare Award for Best Director.

Filmography
-----------

See the main article: Raj Kapoor Filmography

Other websites
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* Raj Kapoor on IMDb
Star cluster NGC 3572 and its surroundings. 
An **open star cluster**, also known as **galactic cluster**, is a group of a few hundred or thousand stars. They have roughly the same age, and were formed from the same giant molecular cloud.

More than 1,100 open clusters have been discovered within the Milky Way Galaxy, and many more are thought to exist. They are loosely bound together by mutual gravitational attraction, but they get disrupted by close encounters with other clusters and clouds of gas. Open clusters generally survive for a few hundred million years, with the most massive ones surviving for a few billion years.

In contrast, the more massive globular clusters of stars exert a stronger gravitational attraction on their members. So, they can survive for longer. Open clusters have been found only in spiral and irregular galaxies, in which active star formation is occurring.

Young open clusters may still be in the molecular cloud from which they formed. They light it up and create an H II region. Over time, radiation pressure from the cluster will disperse the molecular cloud. Typically, about 10% of the mass of a gas cloud will form stars before radiation pressure drives the rest of the gas away.

Open clusters are key objects in the study of stellar evolution. The cluster members are of similar age and chemical composition, so their properties (such as distance, age and chemical composition) are more easily studied than for isolated stars. A number of open clusters, such as the Pleiades, Hyades or the Alpha Persei Cluster are visible with the naked eye.
Nativity scene in Nazareth, Orthodox Church of the Archangel Gabriel over source Mary (2014)
A **nativity scene** is a three-dimensional depiction of the Nativity of Jesus. It is also called a crib, manger or crèche. Typically, a large scale scene includes: the Holy Family, the angels, the Magi, the ox and the donkey, and an assortment of shepherds, villagers, servants and others.

There are two types of scenes: static representations of figures made of clay or other material and living scenes. Static scenes are often displayed on a table top in the home. In living scenes, humans and animals portray the characters in the scene. 

St. Francis of Assisi is said to have created the first nativity scene in 1223 (a "living" one) near Greccio, Italy. It was a "hit". The scene's popularity inspired communities throughout Catholic countries to stage similar scenes.

In the modern world, nativity scenes have provoked controversy. Animals are said to be abused in living scenes and objections have been placed against static scenes displayed on public lands. In addition, outdoor scenes are often the target of vandals. Theft or destruction of outdoor figures is not uncommon.

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Nativity scenes***.

* Roman presepi
* The message of the child — Original Nativity scenes made with natural stones
* The Neapolitan Crib (Presepe)
* International crèche school - History of Nativities and instructions for building them Archived 2009-09-01 at the Wayback Machine
* Nativiti scene - Florece,FaQ - Video details Archived 2008-01-31 at the Wayback Machine