recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**COBOL** is a programming language that was developed in the year 1959. It was one of the first computer programming languages. The name COBOL stands for ***CO**mmon **B**usiness-**O**riented **L**anguage*.

Background
----------

COBOL was created because people wanted a language they could use to describe the problems in a way that is independent of the hardware used. Like SQL COBOL uses a syntax that is close to that of natural languages. As an example, ***ADD** YEARS **TO** AGE* is a valid expression.

History
-------

There are several different versions of COBOL. The newest is from 2002. In general, versions of the language before 1985 are not compatible with the newer versions, from 1985 and later. 

In his letter to an editor in 1975 titled "How do we tell truths that might hurt?", computer scientist and Turing Award recipient Edsger Dijkstra remarked that "The use of COBOL cripples the mind; its teaching should, therefore, be regarded as a criminal offense." In this letter, Dijkstra also criticised several other languages which were used at the time.

In recent years, COBOL has been extended to allow object-oriented programming, user-defined functions, and user-defined data types.

Reputation
----------

The computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins disagreed, and defended structured COBOL: "COBOL programs with convoluted control flow indeed tend to 'cripple the mind'", but this was because "there are too many such business application programs written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well...".
**Robert "Bo" Belinsky** (December 7, 1936 – November 23, 2001) was an American left-handed pitcher in Major League Baseball. He became a California celebrity as a rookie with the original Los Angeles Angels. He is best known for pitching a no-hitter against his former Major League Baseball team, the Baltimore Orioles, in 1962. Belinsky is one of only two pitchers in the history of the Angels to start his career with a four-game winning streak or better. The other was Jered Weaver, in 2006.

Life and baseball career
------------------------

Belinksy was born in New York City, to a Polish-American Catholic father and a Jewish mother. He grew up in Trenton, New Jersey. He became a "street rat" and one-time pool gambler. Belinsky was already getting in trouble while still in the minor leagues for partying at night. He pitched for several seasons in the Baltimore Orioles minor leagues. His career and life changed when the Angels picked him in a minor league draft for the 1962 season. 


"If I'd known I was gonna pitch a no-hitter today, I would have gotten a haircut."

— Belinsky, after throwing a no-hitter

Belinsky had a losing career record of wins and losses, but he threw the first no-hitter in the history of the Los Angeles Angels. It was also the first to be thrown at Dodger Stadium, beating the Baltimore Orioles 2–0 on May 5, 1962. His no-hitter was his fourth straight win at the start of his rookie season.

After throwing the no-hitter Belinsky said, "If music be the food of love, by all means let the band play on." The 1962 season was a crazy one for him. He became a gossip topic for Southern California sportswriters. They took pictures and reported in the news about his partying and dating many movie star women. He became known as a playboy. He was dating at one time or another, famous women like Ann-Margret, Connie Stevens, Tina Louise and Mamie Van Doren, the last his fiancee for a year. One of his teammates once said, "Bo had more fun off the field than he did on the field."

After a hotel room fight in 1964, he was let go by the Angels. They traded him to the Philadelphia Phillies. After spending a little over a season with the Phillies, he also pitched for the Houston Astros, Pittsburgh Pirates and Cincinnati Reds. His career ended in the Cincinnati minor league in 1970.

Later life and death
--------------------

Belinsky married and divorced a *Playboy* Playmate of the Year, Jo Collins. He eventually overcame alcoholism. He then became a counselor for the alcohol abuse program he had entered in Hawaii. He later moved to Las Vegas to work in advertising. He was then off drugs and alcohol and was a born-again Christian. ("Can you imagine," he was quoted as saying, "finding Jesus Christ in Las Vegas?").

Belinsky had been sick with bladder cancer before his death in Las Vegas. He died of an apparent heart attack at age 64. He is buried at Davis Memorial Park in Las Vegas, Nevada.

Other websites
--------------

* Biography for Bo Belinsky on IMDb
* 

* Career statistics and player information from MLB, or Baseball-Reference, or Fangraphs
* Baseball Cube profile
* Baseball Almanac
* Bo Belinsky at Find a Grave
**Bennett's tree-kangaroo** (*Dendrolagus bennettianus*) is a large tree-kangaroo. Males can weigh from 11.5 kg up to almost 14 kg (25 to 31 lbs), and female about 8 to 10.6 kg (17.6 to 23 lbs). They are very agile and are able to leap 9 metres (30 ft) down to another branch. They have been known to drop as far as 18 metres (59 ft) to the ground without injury.

Habitat
-------

This very elusive (cryptic) tree-kangaroo is found in both mountain and lowland tropical rain forests south of Cooktown, Queensland to just north of the Daintree River. It is occasionally found in sclerophyll woodlands. It lives on the leaves of rainforest trees, notably *Schefflera actinophylla* (the umbrella tree), vines, ferns and various wild fruits.

Diet
----

The Bennett's tree-kangaroo is a herbivore. It eats leaves from 33 different plant species.

Now that it is rarely hunted by Aborigines, its main predators are pythons and the dingo. It is thought to be the closest tree-kangaroo to the ancestral form.

Physical description
--------------------

Bennett's tree-kangaroo mother and baby
Like other tree-kangaroos it has longer forelimbs and shorter hindlimbs than terrestrial kangaroos and a long bushy tail. It is mostly dark brown above and lighter fawn on chin, throat and lower abdomen. The forehead and muzzle are greyish. The feet and hands are black. The tail has a black patch at the base and a light patch on the upper part. The ears are short and rounded.
The **Chapel Royal** is a department of the monarch's household in the United Kingdom. 

Incorrectly, the term is also used for the choirs of these chapels. The correct name for these choirs is the *Gentlemen of the Chapel*. They are a group of priests and singers who sing church services for the British monarch (king or queen). They are helped by young boy singers called choristers or *Children of the Chapel.* It is an old tradition. 

Today there are two consecrated buildings at St James’s Palace, near Buckingham Palace in London served by the Chapel Royal. These chapels do not belong to the diocese (group of churches in a district). That is why they are called "royal peculiars" ("peculiar" in this sense does not mean "strange" but "special"). Services are held every Sunday except during August and September. Members of the public are welcome to go to these services. This is the only time that the public can go into the royal chapels. The choir also sing at special services, including one held every year on 6 January to celebrate Epiphany when offerings of gold, frankincense and myrrh are made on behalf of the queen.

History
-------

The Chapel Royal dates back to the late 13th century. At that time the priests and choir travelled with the king wherever he went.

In the 17th century the chapel had its own building in Whitehall, which burned down in 1698. Since 1702 it has been based in St. James's Palace.

In the 16th and 17th centuries the choir was the best choir in England. William Byrd and Thomas Tallis were both organists there during the reign of Elizabeth I. Boy choristers from choirs outside London were sometimes made to join the Children of the Chapel if they had beautiful voices. These boys also took part in plays at the king or queen’s court. Charles II liked musical instruments, so the choir were often joined by violins, lutes and viols. 

Some very famous composers were organists at the Chapel Royal. These include: Thomas Tallis (c.1545-85), William Byrd (c.1572-c.1618), John Bull (1591-1613), Orlando Gibbons (1605-25), John Blow (1673/4-1708), Henry Purcell (1682-95), Jeremiah Clarke (1704-1707), William Croft (1708-27), and George Frideric Handel who was organist from (1723-59). At the time Handel was appointed he was still German, not English, so he was not allowed to be a member. Instead, he was given a special title: "Composer of Musick of His Majesty's Chappel Royal".

Today the Choir rehearses twice weekly at St James's Palace. The choir consists of six Gentlemen-in-Ordinary who are professional singers, and ten boys who have scholarships to go to the City of London School where they are called Queen's Scholars. 

The composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, who was Master of the Queen's Music, worked closely with the Chapel Royal, composing a new carol for them every Christmas.

The head of the Chapel Royal in Scotland is a Dean. Another Chapel Royal once existed in Ireland.

Other websites
--------------

* Chapels Royal, from the official site of the British Monarchy
**Naturist Christians** are the Christians who practice naturism or nudism, and are a part of the clothes-free movement. They believe that the human body was the greatest making of God. It is not shameful and should not be covered. Naturist Christians can be found in almost all of the different groups of Christianity, called "denominations". They do not find any conflict with the teachings of the Bible, and living their lives and worshiping God without any clothing. However, most have various differences with New Age and man-centered philosophy (called "humanism") which is common among other naturists and wish to be separated from it. This includes not worshiping nature at all.

Garden of Eden
--------------

*Adam and Eve*, by Albrecht Dürer (1507).
In the Book of Genesis, Adam and Eve were living in the Garden of Eden as 'man and wife'. They ate the fruit not allowed by God, after being talked into it by the devil in the form of a snake. Then their eyes were opened, and they knew that they were naked. So, they gathered fig leaves to be used as simple clothing to cover their sexual organs. These became lacking very quickly, and Adam and Eve hid themselves from God in the trees.

* God to Adam (with Eve) "Who told you that you are naked?" (Genesis 3:11)
A Christian Dior fashion boutique
A **boutique** is a small shopping outlet, especially one that specializes in elite and fashionable items such as clothing and jewellery. The word is French for "shop".

"Boutique" was an everyday English word in the late 1960s when, for a brief period, Swinging London was the centre of the fashion trade. Carnaby Street and the Kings Road were the focus of much media attention as the most fashionable boutiques of the era were there.

Today, boutique may refer to a specialised firm, such as a boutique investment bank or boutique law firm. The word is often used to describe small private hotels, to distinguish them from larger chains (such as Hilton Hotels). In such cases the term suggest their operation is elite and highly specialised.

In the strictest sense of the word, boutiques would be one-of-a-kind but some chains are referred to as boutiques if they specialize in particular styles.

Recently, the term "boutique" has started being applied to normally-mass-market items that are either niche or produced in intentionally small numbers at very high prices. This may be referred to as boutique manufacturing. For example, a *Time Magazine* article suggested that Nintendo could become a "boutique video-game company", producing games for niche audiences, rather than trying to compete directly with Microsoft and Sony.
Bismuth(III) chloride
**Bismuth(III) chloride**, also known as **bismuth trichloride**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is BiCl3. It has bismuth and chloride ions in it. The bismuth is in its +3 oxidation state.

Properties
----------

Bismuth(III) chloride is a pale yellow solid. It reacts with water to make bismuth oxychloride and hydrochloric acid. It dissolves in acids like hydrochloric acid. It reacts with reducing agents to make bismuth metal.

Preparation
-----------

It is made by reacting bismuth with chlorine. It can also be made by dissolving bismuth(III) oxide in hydrochloric acid. Bismuth can be dissolved in nitric acid to make bismuth(III) nitrate, which reacts with sodium chloride to make bismuth(III) chloride.

Uses
----

It is used as a catalyst in organic chemistry. It is a good source of bismuth and is used to make other bismuth compounds.

Safety
------

Bismuth(III) chloride can cause burns on skin because it makes hydrochloric acid when it reacts with water. It irritates the gastrointestinal tract.

Related pages
-------------

* Bismuth(III) bromide
* Bismuthine
The ***Cantar de mio Cid*** (Song of My Lord) is an anonymously written poem about the life of the Spanish knight El Cid. The original manuscript is believed to have been written around the year 1200.

It is the oldest Spanish epic poem that is nearly complete; the only missing pages are the first page along with 2 others within the writing. However, other accounts of the work have led historians to produce what is likely to have been in the missing segments. Along with this poem, there exists three other works chronicling the life of El Cid: *Mocedades de Rodrigo* (circa 1360), the *Cantar de Roncesvalles* (circa 1270), and an epitaph, the *Epitafio épico del Cid* (circa 1400).

The poem has literary significance, and is credited with being the original work of the discipline of the study of Spanish literature: the study has been given credit to historian Ramón Menéndez Pidal (1869-1968), who sparked interest in the work and popularized the study of Spanish literature.

Reproduction of the Sing exposed in the Convent of Our Lady of the Espino of Vivar of the Cid (Boroughs)
A chess boxing match in Berlin, 2008
**Chess boxing** is a mixed sport which puts together the sport of boxing with games of chess in every other round. Chess boxing fights have been done since early 2003. The sport was started when Dutch artist Iepe Rubingh, given the idea by a similar sport in the writing of Enki Bilal, started actual matches. The sport has become more well known since then. To do well at chess boxing, players must be both good chess players and good boxers.

Structure and rules
-------------------

A match between two players is made up of up to 11 rounds of boxing and chess sessions, starting with a four-minute chess round followed by two minutes of boxing and so on. Between rounds there is a one-minute pause, during which the players change their gear. The form of chess played is rapid chess in which each player has a total of twelve minutes for the whole game. Players may win by knocking out the other player, checkmate, a judge's choice, or if the other player runs out of chess time. If a player does not make a move in the round of chess, he will be given a warning by the referee and he must then make a move in the next 10 seconds.

History
-------

On the left: reigning light heavyweight world champion Nikolay Sazhin from Russia.
The idea was started in 1992 by cartoonist Enki Bilal, and a match of chess boxing was a big story part of his graphic novel *Froid Équateur*. Iepe Rubingh, a Dutch artist, was took the idea from Bilal's book and started the sport in the spring of 2001. Rubingh decided that the method of play in the book, a boxing match with a chess match after, was not very good. Rubingh made the rules so a round of chess would come after a round of boxing.

The World Chess Boxing Organisation (WCBO), keeps control of the sport. The first world championship was in Amsterdam in 2003 and was won by Iepe Rubingh, the starter of the sport. The First European Chess Boxing Championship took place in Berlin on October 1, 2005 when Tihomir Atanassov Dovramadjiev of Bulgaria beat Andreas D'Schneider of Germany after D'Schneider gave up in the seventh round.

In April 2008, the World Chess Federation, FIDE, posted a video on its website in which its president Kirsan Ilyumzhinov played a friendly chess boxing match in Elista. Also in April 2008 the UK's first Chess Boxing club was started in London by Great Britain Chess Boxing Organisation founder Tim Woolgar. In July 2008 in Berlin, a 19-year old Russian mathematics student Nikolai Sazhin won the title of "World Champion" in chess boxing by beating Frank Stoldt. Stoldt resigned in the 5th round after losing his queen.
This name uses Spanish naming customs; the first or paternal family name is *Gómez* and the second or maternal family name is *Bolaños*.
**Chespirito** (born **Roberto Gómez Bolaños**, February 21, 1929 – November 28, 2014) was a Mexican writer, actor, director, comedian, humorist, songwriter and poet.

He was known for writing, directing, and starring in the *Chespirito* (1968-1995), *El Chavo del Ocho* (1971-1980), and *El Chapulín Colorado* (1972-1981) television series. The character of *El Chavo* is one of the most iconic in the history of Latin American television. *El Chavo del Ocho* is still popular. It has been watched every day by 91 million people per episode.

Early life
----------

Chespirito was born on February 21, 1929 in Mexico City, Mexico. His parents were Francisco Gómez Linares and Elsa Bolaños Cacho Aguilar. His brother Horacio was also an actor. Mexican President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz Bolaños was his cousin once removed.

Early career
------------

Before becoming an actor, Chespirito was a small-time boxer. He wanted to be a engineer, so he studied at National Autonomous University of Mexico. Chespirito also wrote some plays before he started acting. His stage name, "Chespirito", was given to him by a producer during Chespirito's first years as a writer. The nickname means "Little Shakespeare".

Personal life
-------------

Chespirito's first wife was Graciela Fernandez. They married in 1968. They had six children. They divorced in 1989.

In 2004, Chespirito married his co-star and long-time partner, actress Florinda Meza. 

Chespirito was a member of the National Action Party (PAN).

### Death

On November 28, 2014, Chespirito died from heart failure as a complication of Parkinson's disease at the age of 85, in Cancún, Quintana Roo. His funeral was held at the Estadio Azteca in Mexico City on November 30, 2014. He is buried at Panteón Francés, in Mexico City.

Bibliography
------------

* Gómez Bolaños, Roberto (2007). *Sin querer queriendo*. Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial México. ISBN 9786071110565.

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Chespirito at Wikimedia Commons

* Chespirito on IMDb
* Official website
Vibrant Striped Boardshorts (25556353870)
Boardshorts are a type of swimwear or beachwear. They can also be general casual wear (informal clothing), however they usually don't have big pockets for a phone and wallet like other casual shorts. Boardshorts usually have only a very small inside pocket to hold car keys. Compared to other styles of swimwear or beachwear, they are quite long (approximately knee length) and loose-fitting. They are made of material that is quick-drying. They are generally made from strong and smooth polyester or nylon material. They are very popular with teenaged boys. Boardshorts were popular for boys and men at first, but are now also worn by girls and women. 

Boardshorts are popular to wear at swimming pools and beaches. Originally they were for surfing. They are also popular for wakeboarding, riding jet skis and water skiing. Boardshorts are very popular in North America. They are less popular in other parts of the world, where other suit styles are more common. They are not actually very good for swimming if you want to swim quickly. Tighter, form-fitting, swimwear is better to swim fast. However, most men and boys in the United States and Canada do not like to wear tight beachwear that shows the shape of the penis and testicles. In slang, this shape is sometimes called a **manbulge** or mooseknuckle**.** People in Europe do not care so much and are happy to wear tighter and more flexible swimwear.

Boardshorts started in the 1950s. Their popularity spread beyond surfing, especially as the skater (skateboard) punk fashion trend started. They are also commonly worn for men's beach volleyball. 

Boardshorts usually do not have an elastic waist like many swim shorts do; instead they have a more rigid waistband which opens at the front, often with a Velcro (or similar hook and loop technology) fly. To be extra safe, the waistband is also held together at the front with a lace-up string (thin rope) tie. Because there are two ways they are kept from falling down, it is uncommon for boardshorts to come off and be lost in the ocean while surfing in rough waves. 

Although the basic design for boardshorts has not changed much over the years, some companies that make them use new technology. Because surfers and other people who like water-sports usually wear boardshorts without underwear (commonly called "**freeballing**" or "**going commando**"), one of the major complaints was about the use of velcro for the fly closure. Velcro can entangle or catch pubic hair. This can hurt. To fix this problem, some companies use a neoprene fly instead. This does not allow the fly to completely open, but provides enough stretch so that the shorts can be easily pulled on and off. Pubic hair does not get caught on the neoprene fly. Velcro is not a big problem for people who keep their pubic hair cut short or shave their pubic hair, as is now common.

Examples
--------

* BoardshortsBoardshorts
* BoardshortsBoardshorts
* Two men wearing boardshortsTwo men wearing boardshorts
***Born Again*** is the first posthumous album by The Notorious B.I.G. by Bad Boy Records and Arista Records. It was on released on December 7, 1999. It was going to be his third studio album, releasing sometime in 1998, but he died in early 1997. It debuted #1 on The Billboard 200 during it's first week. Then certified Double-platinum on January 14, 2000.

Setlist
-------

1. "Born Again" (intro) - 1:28  

2. "Notorious B.I.G." (ft. Lil' Kim and Puff Daddy) - 3:11  

3. "Dead Wrong" (ft. Eminem) - 4:57  

4. "Hope You Niggas Sleep" (ft. Cash Money Millionares) - 4:10  

5. "Dangerous MC's" (ft. Mark Curry, Snoop Dogg and Busta Rhymes) - 5:15  

6. "Biggies" (performed by Junior M.A.F.I.A.) - 5:22  

7. "Niggas" - 3:48  

8. "Big Booty Hoes" (ft. Too $hort) - 3:27  

9. "Would You Die For Me" (ft. Lil' Kim and Puff Daddy) - 3:36  

10. "Come On" (ft. Sadat X) - 4:37  

11. "Rap Phenomenon" (ft. Method Man & Redman) - 4:02  

12. "Let Me Get Down" (ft. G-Dep, Craig Mack and Missy Elliott) - 4:33  

13. "Tonight" (ft. Mobb Deep and Joe Hooker) - 6:08  

14. "If I Should Die Before I Wake" (ft. Black Rob, Ice Cube and Beanie Sigel) - 4:51  

15. "Who Shot Ya?" - 3:48  

16. "Can I Get Witcha" (ft. Lil' Cease) - 3:36  

17. "I Really Want To Show You (ft. Nas and K-Ci & JoJo) - 5:09  

18. "Ms. Wallace" (Outro) - 3:18
**Robert Knight "Bob" Andras** PC (21 February 1921 – 17 November 1982) was a Canadian politician. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of Canada from 1965 to 1980. He was a part of the Liberal Party during this time. He represented two electoral areas in Ontario. They were Port Arthur and Thunder Bay—Nipigon. Andras was from Lachine, Quebec. He moved to Port Arthur, Ontario to work in a car dealership.

As a politician, Andras was a part of the cabinet of Canada many different times. Most of the time, this was when Pierre Trudeau was the Prime Minister. He was Minister without Portfolio from 1968 to 1971, Minister of State for Urban Affairs from 1971 to 1972, the Minister of Status of Women from 1971 to 1974, Minister of Consumer and Corporate Affairs in 1972, Minister of Manpower and Immigration from 1972 to 1976, President of the Treasury Board from 1976 to 1978, and Minister of State for Economic Development from 1978 to 1979. For the 1980 federal election, he said he wouldn't try to be elected again.

One of the most important things Andras did was help the *Immigration Act, 1976* become a law. This was when he was the Minister of Manpower and Immigration. The law replaced the *Immigration Act of 1952*. The law made sure that there was a minimum amount of immigrants Canada let in, and that immigrants would be let in without discriminating on their ethnicity, gender, or country they came from. Andras also tried to work with Jean Chrétien to help with making public policy of the First Nations people.

Andras died on 17 November 1982 in Vancouver, British Columbia. This is after he fought cancer for a year.

Other websites
--------------

* 

* Bob Andras – Parliament of Canada biography
**Blake Edwards** (July 26, 1922 – December 15, 2010) was an American director, producer, screenwriter and actor.

Early life
----------

Born **William Blake Crump** in Tulsa, Oklahoma. His grandfather was J. Gordon Edwards, a director of silent movies, and his stepfather, Jack McEdwards, became a film production manager after moving his family to Los Angeles in 1925. He was raised in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Career
------

Edwards' career began in the 1940s as an actor, but he soon turned to writing radio scripts at Columbia Pictures. He would later begin to write or direct movie such as; *Experiment in Terror*, *The Great Race*, and the hugely successful *The Pink Panther* movie series with the British comedian Peter Sellers. Often thought of as primarily a director of comedies, he also directed drama movies such as; *Breakfast at Tiffany's* and *Days of Wine and Roses*. His greatest successes, however, were his comedies, and most of his movies were either musicals, dramas, comedies, or horror.

Personal life
-------------

Edwards was married to Patricia Walker from 1953 unti they divorced in 1967. Lastly he married Julie Andrews from 1969 until his death in 2010. He had 3 daughters and 1 son. He lived in Los Angeles, California.

Death
-----

Edwards died on December 15, 2010 from pneumonia in a hospital in Santa Monica, California, he was 88 years old.

### Honors

In 2004, he received an Honorary Academy Award.

Other websites
--------------

* Blake Edwards at Find a Grave
* Blake Edwards on IMDb
* Blake Edwards at the TCM Movie Database
* Blake Edwards at AllMovie
The coastal road of Chalkida
**Chalkida** (or Chalkis) is a Greek town. Its population is 55,264 inhabitants according to the 2001 census. Chalkida is located to the north of Athens, on Euboea island. It is at the point where the Euboea is nearest to mainland Greece. At this point is the Eyripous narrow, a sea narrow, where there is a tidal phenomenon.

History
-------

During antiquity, Chalkida was an important town. Its people were Ionian, an ancient Greek race. Chalkida had founded many colonies. Most of them were in south Italy. The Latin alphabet is an evolution of the ancient Chalkidian alphabet. During the Middle Ages Chalkida was an unimportant city. During the Lombardian knights' rule, Chalkida was developed again. Today Chalkida is an industrial town.
Coordinates: 38°27′45″N 23°35′42″E﻿ / ﻿38.46250°N 23.59500°E﻿ / 38.46250; 23.59500

| * v
* t
* e
Capitals of Greek prefectures |
| --- |
| Athens | Thessaloniki | Patras | Heraclion | Larissa | Volos | Ioannina | Chalkida | Livadeia | Lamia | Messolonghi | Amfissa | Kalamata | Tripoli | Nauplion | Sparta | Pyrgos | Corinth | Karpenisi | Karditsa | Trikala | Arta | Igoumenitsa | Preveza | Chania | Agios Nikolaos | Rethymno | Kozani | Grevena | Kastoria | Florina | Edessa | Veroia | Katerini | Polygyros | Kilkis | Serres | Drama | Kavala | Alexandroupoli | Xanthi | Komotini | Leukada | Corfu | Argostoli | Zakynthos | Rhodes | Chios | Mytilene | Samos | Ermoupolis  |  |
**Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg** (19 April 1795 – 27 June 1876) was a German naturalist, zoologist, comparative anatomist, geologist, and microscopist. He was one of the most famous and productive scientists of his time.

Microscopic organisms
---------------------

Ehrenberg was appointed professor of medicine at Berlin University in 1827. In 1829 he accompanied Alexander von Humboldt through eastern Russia to the Chinese frontier. After his return he began to concentrate his studies on microscopic organisms, which then were not much studied.

For nearly 30 years Ehrenberg examined samples of water, soil, sediment, blowing dust and rock and described thousands of new species, among them well-known flagellates such as Euglena, ciliates such as *Paramecium aurelia* and *Paramecium caudatum*, and many fossils, in nearly 400 scientific publications. He was particularly interested in a unicellular group of protists called diatoms, but he also studied, and named, many species of radiolaria, foraminifera and dinoflagellates.

These researches built up our knowledge of the microorganisms of certain geological formations, especially of the chalk, and of the marine and freshwater accumulations. Until Ehrenberg took up the study it was not known that considerable masses of rock were composed of minute forms of animals or plants. He also demonstrated that the phosphorescence of the sea was due to organisms.

He was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences from 1836 and a foreign member of the Royal Society of London from 1837. In 1839, he won the Wollaston Medal, the highest award granted by the Geological Society of London. He continued until late in life to investigate the microscopic organisms of the deep sea and of various geological formations. He died in Berlin on 27 June 1876.

Legacy
------

After his death in 1876, his collections of microscopic organisms were deposited in the Humboldt Museum at the University of Berlin. The "Ehrenberg Collection" includes 40,000 microscope preparations, 5,000 raw samples, 3,000 pencil and ink drawings, and nearly 1,000 letters of correspondence. His collection of scorpions, and other arachnids from the Middle East, is also held in the Berlin Museum.
A bottle and a glass of Calvados
Different greens show the different locations where Calvados is made
**Calvados** is an alcoholic drink. It is made from distilling cider in Normandy, one of the oldest Provinces of France (created in 911). It got its name from the place called Calvados which is famous for making it (sometimes called 'le Pays d'Auge'). It is also made in the other places in Normandy including la Manche (Cotentin) and l'Orne (Domfront).

How Calvados is made
--------------------

The way to make Calvados is to distil cider twice. The first time it is done, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. The second time it is done, the amount of alcohol is increased to about 40%.

Since 1942, the Calvados has its own *Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC)*, which means it is from one place. The rules are:

* The « Calvados Pays d’Auge » (25% of production): The Cidre needs to come from apples of the « Pays d'Auge ». Two rounds of distillation in a multi-pass still
* The « Calvados » (74 % of production): The apples used for the cidre need to be from Normandy.
* The « Calvados Domfrontais » (1% of production) : Base for the production are apples and pears from the region called « domfrontais », there is only one round of distillation in a still.

How Calvados is served
----------------------

Calvados can be served either dry or with ice, as a cocktail, an aperitif, or as a digestif. It goes very well with cheese, chocolate, dessert or ice cream. Crepes can also be served with Calvados.

Calvados can also be added to coffee. People usually do this at the end of dinner.

Other websites
--------------

* Apples, cider and Calvados in Pays d'Auge, Normandy (Multilingual)\*
* Ferme du Ponctey Normandy (Multilingual) Archived 2020-02-17 at the Wayback Machine\*
Major Cascade volcano eruptions in the last 4000 years
The **Cascade Volcanic Arc** (also known as the **Cascades** or the **Cascade Range**) is a major range of volcanoes in southwestern British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northern California. 

The arc is central to the Cascade Range, a mountain range in the Pacific Northwest. It includes about 20 major volcanoes, among over 4,000 separate volcanic vents.

Twelve volcanoes in the arc are over 10,000 ft (3,000 m) in height, and the two highest, Mount Rainier and Mount Shasta, are over 14,000 ft (4,300 m). By volume, the two largest Cascade volcanoes are the broad shields of Medicine Lake Volcano and Newberry Volcano, which are about 145 mi³ (600 km³) and 108 mi³ (450 km³) respectively.

The volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago, but most of the present-day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2 million years old. The most recent major catastrophic eruption in the arc was at Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980.

The major volcanoes in the arc include Mount Silverthrone, Mount Meager, Mount Cayley, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, Mount Adams, Mount Hood, Mount Jefferson, Three Sisters, Broken Top, Mount Bachelor, Newberry Volcano, Mount Thielsen, Mount Mazama (Crater Lake), Mount McLoughlin, Medicine Lake Volcano, Mount Shasta, Mount Tehama and Lassen Peak.

Other websites
--------------

* Living with volcanic risk in the Cascades
In grammar, **case** changes what a noun, adjective or pronoun does in a sentence. It is a set of forms which depend on the syntax (how the words go together). Case is an example of inflection, which is often an affix, a part of a word that is added to other words, that signals a grammatical relationship. Long ago, Old English used several cases, but Modern English does not use cases except for in pronouns.

History of case
---------------

In Latin, nouns pack several ideas into one word:

* Gender: nouns must be masculine (*Latin*: ends in -us), feminine (ends in -a) or neutral (ends in -um). Also, adjectives must agree with the nouns by changing their endings. English is one of the few European languages that does not usually have gender in nouns.
* Case: nominative (*subject*), vocative (*direct speech),* accusative (*object*), genitive (*of* the noun), dative (*to* or *for* the noun), ablative (*by, with*, or *from* the noun).
	+ The locative (*at* the noun) is a rare case form for some specific nouns.

In many languages like Latin, German, Russian, Korean and Japanese, a noun's case changes the end of a word depending on the noun's role in the sentence. Nouns change their endings to show that they are doing something, that something is done to them, that they just happen to be there during the action, or that they own something.

Therefore, word order in those languages is less important than in English, which often has word order change a sentence's meaning.

Modern English
--------------

In English, case is not used much. Instead, word order and auxiliary verbs (helpers) are more important.

"The most important grammatical development [in English] was the establishment of a fixed pattern of word-order to express the relationship between clause elements".p44
English has these cases for nouns and pronouns: *common case* and *genitive* (possessive).p202 Each may take a plural:

* Nouns: *Girl*; *girls*; *girl's*; *girls'*. The last three cannot be distinguished in speech (except by the context).
* Pronouns: *This is **your** hat*; *this hat is **yours***. A few pronouns have three cases and four forms: ***I*** (subject), ***me*** (object), ***my*** (genitive before noun), ***mine*** (independent genitive).

English adjectives unchanged: *red hat*, *red hats*.
**Case citation** is a system used by legal professionals to identify past court case decisions. These are found either in series of books called reporters or law reports, or in a neutral style that identifies a decision regardless of where it is reported. Case citations are formatted differently in different jurisdictions, but generally contain the same key information.

A **legal citation** is a "reference to a legal precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or work, that either agrees with or contradicts a given position". Where cases are published on paper, the citation usually contains the following information:

* Report title
* Volume number
* Page, section, or paragraph number
* Publication year

In some report series, for example in England and Australia, volumes are not numbered independently of the year. So the year and volume number (usually no greater than 4) are required to identify which book of the series has the case reported within its covers. In such citations, it is usual in these jurisdictions to apply square brackets "[year]" to the year (which may not be the year that the case was decided, For example, a case decided in December 2001 may have been reported in 2002).

The Internet brought with it the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on websites. Decisions of many courts from all over the world can now be found through the website WorldLII and its member institutes.

Most court decisions are not published on paper. The large number of court decisions found online resulted in a flood of information. The result was that a medium-neutral citation system was adopted. This usually contains the following information:

* Year of decision
* Abbreviated title of the court
* Decision number (not the court file number)

Rather than utilizing page numbers for "pinpoint references", which would depend upon particular printers and browsers, pinpoint quotations refer to paragraph numbers.

The conjunction "versus" is abbreviated to "v" in Commonwealth countries and to "v." in the United States.

Pronunciation of case titles
----------------------------

In common law countries with an adversarial system of justice, the names of the opposing parties are separated in the case title by the abbreviation *v.* The abbreviation represents the Latin word *versus*, which means *against*. When case titles are read out loud, the *v.* can be pronounced, depending on the context, as *and*, *against*, *versus*, or *vee*.
Chefs in training in Paris
A **chef** is a person who cooks food as their job. They usually work in restaurants or hotels.

Full explanation
----------------

The chef is responsible for everything about the food in a restaurant. He is responsible for buying the food, hiring and supervising the kitchen workers, creating the menus for the customers, and deciding the recipes (the details of how the cooking is done). Some chefs are trained and some are not trained.

The **sous-chef** (sometimes called an assistant chef) is the chef's main helper. A **chef de partie** is a 'line chef', in charge of a station in the kitchen. The **commis chef** works under a chef de partie. It is usually a training position. 

The lines or stations in a big kitchen are:

* Sauté chef
* Fish chef
* roast chef
* grill and/or fry chef
* vegetable chef
* roundsman (fills in where needed)
* pantry chef
* butcher
* pastry chef

Related pages
-------------

* Celebrity chef

Other websites
--------------

* free chefs resource guide built by chefs for chefs
* Official certification levels of the American Culinary Federation
Charon captured by New Horizons in 2015 true colour.
**Charon** is a moon of the dwarf planet Pluto. It is half as wide as Pluto and is much like the dwarf planet itself. It was discovered many years after Pluto. They are sometimes considered a binary system, as Charon does not orbit Pluto, and Pluto does not orbit Charon. They orbit a barycentre in space.

Naming
------

The moon is named after Charon in Greek mythology, a boatman who would carry the souls of dead people across the river Acheron to the underworld.

Discovery
---------

Discovery image of Charon, where the main object is Pluto, and the moon is the odd-looking blob on the edge of the main circle
Charon was found by astronomer James Christy on June 22, 1978, when he was looking at highly blown up picture of Pluto on a photographic plate that taken a couple of months before. Christy noticed that a slight bulge was able to be seen every now and then. This finding was made public on July 7, 1978. Later, the bulge was confirmed on plates dating back to April 29, 1965.

Later observations of Pluto were able to figure out that the bulge was due to a smaller body. The orbit of the bulge fit in with Pluto's rotation period, which was already known from Pluto's light curve. 

Any final doubts were erased when Pluto and Charon entered a five-year period of mutual eclipses between 1985 and 1990. This happens when the Pluto-Charon orbital plane is edge-on as seen from Earth, which only happens at twice in Pluto's 248-year orbital period. It was very lucky that one of these intervals happened to occur so soon after Charon's discovery.

Pictures
--------

1996 image of Pluto (left) and Charon (right) from the ESA/Dornier Faint Object Camera on the NASA Hubble Space Telescope.
Pictures showing Pluto and Charon as separate disks were taken for the first time by the Hubble Space Telescope in the 1990s. Later, after a new technology called adaptive optics was discovered, it was possible to see Pluto and Charon as separate disks using ground-based telescopes.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Charon (moon)***.

* Charon Profile Archived 2014-10-08 at the Wayback Machine by NASA's Solar System Exploration
* James W. Christy and Robert S. Harrington, "The satellite of Pluto," *The Astronomical Journal* **83** (1978) 1005
* Marc W. Buie, Phases of Charon as seen from Pluto, Lowell Observatory
* Buie, Surface of Charon and Pluto
* Hubble reveals new map of Pluto, BBC News, September 12, 2005
* IAU Circular No. 3241 describing the discovery
* Measuring the Size of a Small, Frost World Archived 2008-05-17 at the Wayback Machine (ESO press release January 2006)
* M. J. Person et al.: Charon’s Radius and Density from the Combined Data Sets of the 2005 July 11 Occultation (submitted to the Astronomical Journal, February 3, 2006)
* Cryovolcanism on Charon and other Kuiper Belt Objects Archived 2009-03-20 at the Wayback Machine

| * v
* t
* e
Moons of Pluto |
| --- |
| Generally listed in increasing distance from Pluto. Temporary names in *italics*. |
| Charon • Styx • Nix • Kerberos • Hydra |
*C. geishanensis* restoration
***Chaohusaurus*** is an extinct genus of basal  ichthyopterygian, or ichthyosaur, from the Lower Triassic of Chaohu and Yuanan, China.

It was closer in time and form to *Cymbospondylus* and *Mixosaurus* than to more advanced genera like *Ichthyosaurus*. It did not have the dolphin-like form of later ichthyosaurs, but it was fully aquatic. The tail fin is wide-based and short. The neck is rather long, whereas later ichthyosaurs have no neck. There is no dorsal fin.

It was one of the smallest ichthyosaurs, about 70 to 180 cm long. Its weight was about 10 kg.

Reproduction
------------

A recent study of *Chaohusaurus* shows an early example of live birth. A remarkable feature was a baby close to emerging *head-first*. The authors comment:

"Its headfirst birth posture... strongly indicates a terrestrial origin of viviparity, in contrast to the traditional view. The tail-first birth posture in derived ichthyopterygians, convergent with the conditions in whales and sea cows, therefore is a secondary feature". They comment "obligate marine amniotes appear to have evolved almost exclusively from viviparous land ancestors".
In other words, ichthyosaurs gave live birth when they were still land dwellers. Then, later, they adapted to an aquatic life.

Diagram from the PLoS paper, showing key features of the fossil *Chaohusaurus*  
The maternal *Chaohusaurus* specimen with three embryos. Color coding shows: black, maternal vertebral column, including neural and haemal spines; blue, maternal pelvis and hind flipper; green, maternal ribs and gastralia. Embryos 1 and 2 are in orange and yellow, and neonate 1 is in red. Scale bar = 1 cm
Diagram of a CRISPR locus. There are three main parts.   
1. *cas* genes,   
2. a leader sequence, and   
3. A repeat-spacer array. 
  
The arrangement of the three components is not always as shown
CRISPR Cascade protein (cyan) bound to CRISPR RNA (green) and phage DNA (red)
CRISPR/Cas9
**CRISPR** is a term in DNA research. It stands for *clustered regularly-interspaced short palindromic repeats*. These are part of the genetic code in prokaryotes: most bacteria and archaea have it. It is their defence against attack by viruses. Its structure and function was discovered in the 21st century.

CRISPR has a lot of short repeated sequences. These sequences are part of an adaptive immune system for prokaryotes. It allows them to remember and counter the bacteriophages which prey on them. They work as a kind of acquired immunity for bacteria.

They can modify the genes of almost any organism. They are used by researchers as a tool to cut and insert genes in genetic modification (GM). Work is under way to find how they can be used to attack virus diseases in humans (gene therapy).

How it works
------------

Each repetition is followed by short segments of "spacer DNA". These come from previous exposures to a bacterial virus or plasmid. CRISPR spacers *recognize and cut up the foreign genetic elements* in a manner like RNA interference in eukaryotic organisms.

In effect, the spacers are fragments of DNA from viruses that have previously tried to attack the cell line. The foreign source of the spacers was a sign to researchers that the CRISPR/cas system could have a role in adaptive immunity in bacteria.

The actual cutting is done by a nuclease called ***Cas9***. *Cas9* has two active cutting sites, one for each strand of the DNA's double helix. *Cas9* does this by unwinding foreign DNA and checking whether it is complementary to the 20 basepair spacer region of the guide RNA (the spacer region RNA). If it is, the foreign DNA gets chopped up.

Applications
------------

CRISPR is an anti-viral defensive system which originated in bacteria and archaea. Gene editing is a human exploitation of CRISPR.

The technology has been used to switch off genes in human cell lines and cells, to study *Candida albicans*, to modify yeasts used to make biofuel and to genetically modify crop strains.

The CRISPR-Cas9 system cuts DNA, but can do more. It can turn gene expression on and off, and can be used to fluorescently tag particular sequences.

Nobel award
-----------

The understanding and development of the CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technique won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2020. The prize was awarded jointly to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna.

Anti-CRISPR
-----------

Anti-CRISPR is a group of proteins in some phages. It inhibits the normal activity of CRISPR-Cas, the immune system of many bacteria. Phages with anti-CRSPR avoid having their genomes destroyed by the prokaryotic cells that they infect.