recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Not to be confused with Kawasaki Heavy Industries C151, Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CSR Qingdao Sifang C151A, or Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CRRC Sifang C151C.
**Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CSR Qingdao Sifang C151B** is the fifth generation of trains used on the Singapore MRT system. The trains operate on the East West Line and North South Line.

The first train began running on the North South Line, on 16 April 2017. Until 27 May 2018, the trains only ran on the North South Line and the new Tuas West Extension of the East West Line, where the new train signalling system was turned on. This is because these new trains were installed with only new signalling system, and the rest of the East West Line did not have the new signalling system turned on yet. From 28 May 2018, these trains are now able to run on the East West Line. All 45 trains are currently running, and most of them are housed in Tuas depot.

These trains were built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and CSR Sifang. 45 six-carriage trains, totalling 270 carriages, were built in China.

The C151B is the first train to be made with STARiS v2.0, which is a system that shows passengers information about the train's route.

Design
------

The C151B is the first train to be painted with a white front, and also features a smaller SMRT logo. This train is also the last to be painted in SMRT's livery, with all following train models being painted in LTA's standard livery

Train formation
---------------

Each train has a 4 digit serial number. The first number is the carriage number, the second is the train identification number-which for the C151B is a '6' and the last two are the train set numbers, which are the unique number given to that train set. 

each train is made up of 2 3-car train sets coupled together. The train numbers run from 601 to 670. They are either normally coupled or cross coupled. Eg: 601/602 (normal coupling) or 603/606 (cross coupling).

Each train set is made up of the following,

Dt-Mc1-Mc2-Mc2-Mc1-Dt

Dt-Driving trailer Mc-Motor car

for example, train set 669/670 would be made up of 3669-1669-2669-2670-1670-3670

Related pages
-------------

* Kawasaki Heavy Industries C151
* Siemens C651
* Kawasaki Heavy Industries & Nippon Sharyo C751B
* Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CSR Qingdao Sifang C151A
* Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CRRC Sifang C151C
See the main article: ISO 3166-2
**ISO 3166-2:PY** is the entry for Paraguay in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g. provinces, departments or states) of all countries that are in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for Paraguay, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 capital and 17 departments. The capital of the country Asunción is similar to the departments.

Each code has of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is PY, the second part is either of the following:

* two digits (1–16, 19): departments
* three letters: the capital district, Asunción

Current codes
-------------

Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).


| Code | Subdivision name |
| --- | --- |
| PY-ASU | Asunción Asunción |
| PY-16 | Departamento de Alto Paraguay Alto Paraguay |
| PY-10 | Departamento de Alto Paraná Alto Paraná |
| PY-13 | Departamento de Amambay Amambay |
| PY-19 | Departamento de Boquerón Boquerón |
| PY-5 | Departamento de Caaguazú Caaguazú |
| PY-6 | Departamento de Caazapá Caazapá |
| PY-14 | Departamento de Canindeyú Canindeyú |
| PY-11 | Departamento Central Central |
| PY-1 | Departamento de Concepción Concepción |
| PY-3 | Departamento de Cordillera Cordillera |
| PY-4 | Departamento de Guairá Guairá |
| PY-7 | Departamento de Itapúa Itapúa |
| PY-8 | Departamento de Misiones Misiones |
| PY-12 |  Departamento de Ñeembucú Ñeembucú  |
| PY-9 | Departamento de Paraguarí Paraguarí |
| PY-15 | Departamento de Presidente Hayes Presidente Hayes |
| PY-2 | Departamento de San Pedro San Pedro |

Related pages
-------------

* Departments of Paraguay

Other websites
--------------

* ISO Online Browsing Platform: PY
* Departments of Paraguay, Statoids.com
**Judit Polgár** (born 23 July 1976) is a Hungarian chess grandmaster. She is by far the strongest female chess player in history,p312 yet she has never played in the Women's World Chess Championship. In 1991 she got the title of Grandmaster (GM) at 15 years, 4 months. She was, at that time, the youngest person to do so. Polgár is now ranked number 51 in the world, the only woman on FIDE's *Top 100 Players* list; she has been ranked as high as eighth.

Life
----

Judit and her two sisters were educated at home by their father. She always preferred playing in the open events, making it clear from the start that she wanted to become the true world chess champion regardless of gender. This considerably annoyed the Hungarian Chess Federation, which had visions of winning the Women's World Championship after decades of Soviet domination. Paid substantial appearance fees by the Hungarian Chess Federation,p106 the family did play in two female-only events. The Hungarians (nicknamed 'Polgaria') won the Women's Chess Olympiads, with a team packed with Polgárs, in 1988 and 1990.p106; 156 Zsuzsa, Judit, Sofia (the least strong sister) and Ildiko Madl were the team which pushed the Soviet Union into second place for the first time.

In 1994 Judit suffered a controversial defeat at the hands of then-world champion Garry Kasparov, the highest-rated chessplayer of all time. Kasparov changed his mind after making a losing move and then made another move instead. According to chess rules, once a player has released a piece s/he cannot make a different move, so Kasparov should have been made to play his original move. However, Polgár did not challenge this because she says there were no witnesses and an arbiter was not around. She was also unaware at the time that the re-move was caught on tape by a television crew. The tournament director was criticised for not forfeiting Kasparov when the videotape evidence was made available to him.

In the event, Polgar has not reached the top of the game (very few do), and now is the mother of two children. Nevertheless, she has broken the gender barrier in chess: she has proved that a woman can reach the top ten. Her sister, Susan Polgar, who now lives in the U.S.A. did become Women's World Champion, and also a full Grandmaster.
See the main article: ISO 3166-2
**ISO 3166-2:PA** is the entry for Panama in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g. provinces, departments or states) of all countries that are in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for Panama, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 10 provinces and 3 indigenous regions.

Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is PA, the code of Panama. The second part is either of the following:

* one or two digits (1–10): provinces
* two letters: indigenous regions

The codes for the provinces are assigned in traditional Spanish alphabetical order.

Current codes
-------------

Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).


| Code | Subdivision name | Subdivision category |
| --- | --- | --- |
| PA-1 | Bocas del Toro | province |
| PA-2 | Coclé | province |
| PA-3 | Colón | province |
| PA-4 | Chiriquí | province |
| PA-5 | Darién | province |
| PA-6 | Herrera | province |
| PA-7 | Los Santos | province |
| PA-8 | Panamá | province |
| PA-9 | Veraguas | province |
| PA-10 | Panamá Oeste | province |
| PA-EM | Emberá | indigenous region |
| PA-KY | Guna Yala | indigenous region |
| PA-NB | Ngöbe-Buglé\* | indigenous region |

(\*) ISO 3166-2 uses the name "Ngöbe-Buglé" even though "Ngäbe-Buglé" is the more widely used variant.

Related pages
-------------

* Provinces of Panama

Other websites
--------------

* ISO Online Browsing Platform: PA
* Provinces of Panama, Statoids.com
Tigranes the Great's Empire
The **history of Armenia** and Armenians is very ancient and can go back at least 2000 BC. Archaeologists say the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region, and Armenia today, as the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to around 6000 - 4000 BC. But, a newer discovered tomb has been dated to 9000 BC. Another early culture in the Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas—the Kura-Araxes culture is in the period of ca. 4000 - 2200 BC, and is believed to have to go into the Trialeti culture (ca. 2200 - 1500 BC), and meaning Armenians are one of the oldest Indo-European subgroups.

Urartu
------

Urartu was an ancient kingdom in the Armenian Highlands.

Some experts say that the Armenians started as a mixture of the different peoples to move through the area in history: The Hurrians, Urarteans, Luvians and Mushki. This last group, also knowns as Phrygians may have brought their Indo-European language to Armenia. The Armenian language today is Indo-European, but shows a lot of influence from the earlier languages, especially Urartean.

Ancient period
--------------

Main articles: Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) and Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia
The Armenians had friendly relations with the Parthian empire. The fighting between the Roman Empire and Parthia was centered in Armenia. Armenia was in between Parthian and the Roman Empire. The Armenians had already played a role in the early history of the Roman-Parthian relations. Tigranes put military and political relations with Rome and Parthia on an international legal foundation. The Parthians were allies to Armenians in many times. Many Parthian noble families had moved out and they went to Armenia.

Related pages
-------------

* Hayasa-Azzi
* Battle of Rhandeia

Other websites
--------------

* Armenia at Livius.Org Archived 2007-10-01 at the Wayback Machine (ancient history)
* All about Armenia by www.haias.net Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
* Rulers.org — Armenia list of rulers for Armenia
* History of Armenia Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
* A book about the history of Armenia from 1827. It was written by a priest.

| * v
* t
* e
History of Europe by country |
| --- |
| Sovereign states | 
* Albania
* Andorra
* Armenia
* Austria
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
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* Finland
* France
* Georgia
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* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Kazakhstan
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* Liechtenstein
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* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
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 |
| States with limitedrecognition | 
* Abkhazia
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 |
| Dependencies andother entities | 
* Åland
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 |
The café wall illusion: the horizontal lines are parallel, despite appearing to be at different angles to each other
Illusionː The *Flying tap* fountain in Ahmedabad seems to hang in the air. In reality, there is a tube in the middle of the water, which supports it.
An **illusion** is a distortion of perception. The brain arranges, sorts, and organises data from the senses. Normally the system works well. Sometimes it does not, and we see illusions. In general, they are shared by most people in the same situation.

Illusions can happen with all five senses (taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing), and some involve the way information from two senses is put together. Some illusions happen because of disorders, but generally, all normal people can sense the same illusion. An illusion is different from a hallucination; a hallucination is sensing something that is not real, but an illusion is interpreting what we sense wrongly.

Optical illusions
-----------------

Optical illusions are the best known and understood. Because they are illusions common to most people, it follows that they are a product of the visual system. The visual system, from the retina to the visual cortex, is what is common to most humans.

Auditory illusions
------------------

These are illusions which are heard. The person listening hears sounds that aren’t really there, or sounds that can’t really happen. A Shepard tone is an auditory illusion.

Touch illusion
--------------

They are when a person feels something that is not there, or something that should not be there but feels like it is. This happens sometimes when a person loses their arm. The person still feels like the arm is there. They might want to scratch the arm, or the arm might hurt them. This can happen with any limb of the body, and it is called the phantom limb.
Joseph Blackburne. Vanity Fair colour lithograph by 'Ape', 1888.
 Joseph Blackburne
**Joseph Henry Blackburne** (Manchester, 10 December 1841 – London, 1 September 1924), nicknamed 'The Black Death', was the leading British chess Grandmaster during the later part of the 19th century. 

Blackburne learned the game at the relatively late age of 18 but quickly became a strong player. He went on to develop a professional chess career that spanned over 50 years. At one point he was the world's second most successful player, with a string of tournament victories behind him. Blackburne especially enjoyed giving simultaneous and blindfold displays around the country. Blackburne also annotated a collection of his own games (explained the moves), and was a chess correspondent for a leading journal until his death.

"For more than 20 years he was one of the first six players in the world, and for even longer the leading English-born player".p42
Blackburne was fond of Scotch whisky, and often drank during a display. He once drank his opponent's glass, and said: "He left it *en prise*, and I took it *en passant!*"  Much loved, he was supported by subscriptions from his fans in his last years.
**Jean Guttery Fritz** (16 November 1915 – 14 May 2017) was an American children's writer and historian. Her parents were Arthur Minton and Myrtle Guttery. They were missionaries. Missionaries are people who set out on a mission to teach others about their religion.

Early life
----------

Fritz lived in China until she was 13 years old. She learned to speak Chinese before she learned English. In 1928 the family returned to the United States. As a child of missionaries she used her writing as a "private place." She wrote her thoughts, feelings, and emotions. She also wrote down anything she thought about. Fritz wrote it all down. She wrote about many different things. Sometimes she copied some sections of poems and books that Fritz had read. She liked to read different poets and authors.

Early career
------------

Later in life these things she had written about turned into the books that she later wrote. On 1 November 1942 Fritz married Michael Fritz The couple later had two children. They were named David and Andrea.

Career
------

Fritz has a record for writing information flooded, true books about real things that happened in history. She had been amazed about what had happened during the time of the American Revolution. She learned a great deal of information on the topic. It was really interesting to her. She wrote a handful of children's books about key figures and events that happened during that time. Most books she wrote are non-fictional children's’ books. Fritz has written some novels. She wrote a novel called "Brady". She dived into her search for information. She looked at primary sources. In 1986 she won the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal.

After her father's death she wrote the book *Homesick: My Own Story*. It was about her own childhood experiences in China. After writing the book she visited China. After returning she wrote two more books about China and Mao Zedong.

Publication of Fritz' books
---------------------------

She started writing her books in the 1950s. Fritz knows much about happenings around the world.

Works
-----

* Homesick: My Own Story (Puffin, 1982 ISBN 0142407615. Paperback)
* China homecoming (Putnam, 1985 ISBN 0399211829. Hardcover)
* China's Long March (Putnam, 1988 ISBN 0399215123. Hardcover)
* The Cabin Faced West (Puffin, 1987 ISBN 0140322566. Paperback. Hardcover.)
* Brady (Puffin, 1988 ISBN 0140322582. Paperback)
* Early Thunder (Puffin, 1987 ISBN 0140322590. Paperback.)

Other websites
--------------

* "Jean (Guttery) Fritz." Major Authors and Illustrators for Children and Young Adults. Detroit: Gale, 2002. Biography in Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2014.
* Hurst, Carol O. "Jean Fritz." Carol Hurst's Children's Literature Site. Ed. Rebecca Otis. Dec. 1998. Web. 1 Apr. 2014
**Latgale** is the historical land of Latvia. 

* Latgale location*Latgale location*
* Coat of arms of Latgale*Coat of arms of Latgale*
* Official flag of LatgaleOfficial flag of Latgale

This is a region in the east. It is located to the north of the Daugava River. 

The territory of Latgale appears in the 12th and 13th centuries. After 1561, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ruled. And then the Russian Empire (1772-1918).

The name of the area was "Inflanty". The name "Latgale" was invented by the Latgalian writer Francis Kemps (1876–1953) in 1900. It was originated from the ancient term "Lotigolu".

Latgale is 22% of Latvia.

**The highest point** is 289 meters (Great Linden Hill).

Latgale is called the land of blue lakes. There are more than 2000 lakes in Latgale.

  

  

Latgale has very beautiful nature. Winters are always harsh. A lot of snow.

* Winter in Latgale*Winter in Latgale*

Main cities are **Daugavpils, Rēzekne, Jēkabpils.**

* Daugavpils*Daugavpils*
* Rēzekne*Rēzekne*
* Jēkabpils*Jēkabpils*

Culture
-------

**Heritage:**

* monuments
* churches
* buildings (Kraslava Castle, Luznava Manor, Chervona Castle, Preili Castle and Park, Krustpils Castle)
* landscapes
* ensembles (Russian ensemble "Harmony", Bebrene Manor Ensemble)

**Traditions:**

* culture
* songs
* dances
* crafts

The cultural heritage list of Latgale contains more than **600** objects. 

* Daugavpils nature*Daugavpils nature*

History
-------

Until the end of the **12th century** in Latgale were several state formations of Latgale.

**Since 1561**, Latgale was a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Later it was divided into 4 parts: Daugavpils, Rezekne, Ludza and Vilaka.

**In 1772**, Latgale was annexed by the Russian Empire.

**From 1802 to 1917**, Latgale was a part of the Vitebsk Governorate.

**In 1919-1920**, Latgale was added to the rest of Latvia.
The **ITS 90** is the international temperature scale, published in the year 1990. It mainly is a set of fixed temperatures and instructions how to realise a practical temperature scale, being as close to the thermodynamical temperature scale as current knowledge allows.

History
-------

The first international temperature scale was established in 1927. An improved version came in 1948. In 1968 the IPTS 68 was issued. Note the letter P, which stands for practical. In 1975 the very low side of the scale (below 1 Kelvin) was added. Since 1990 the ITS 90 is in use.

How it works
------------

A list of fixed temperatures is given. This list has been produced by national laboratories from all over the world. It has been approved by the B.I.P.M. (Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mesure) in Paris. Temperatures between the fixed points can be measured, using a platinum resistance thermometer (up to 660 °C). This thermometer, however, has to be calibrated first. This is being done at a number of fixed temperatures, covering the desired range. Procedures and formulae for defining an interpolating thermometer are given as well.

An example
----------

Say we need a calibrated thermometer in the range from room temperature to 400 °C. A triple point of water is to be realised for 0.01 °C. For 231.928 °C there is the freezing point of tin. At 419.527 °C it is the freezing point of zinc, which serves the goal.

After having measured the electrical resistance of this thermometer at the given temperatures, the data is being fed into a prescribed formula, giving the deviation coefficients for the range from 0 to 420 °C. So, from now on we have a thermometer with which we can perform accurate measurements according to the ITS 90.

This type of calibration is called primary calibration. With the thermometer we just calibrated we can perform a secondary calibration. Then another thermometer is to be calibrated against ours. This derived calibration, of course, is a little less accurate, but can take place at any suitable temperature within the range, since our thermometer interpolates between the fixed temperatures.

For more information see the official site of BIPM
**John Davis** (born in 1784 in Surrey) was an American ship captain from New Haven, Connecticut. He is thought to have been the first to land on mainland Antarctica. He is one of four explorers who share this claim. In February 1821 he may have landed a boat at Hughes Bay. The Davis Strait which separates Baffin Bay from the Labrador Sea was named by William Baffin in 1916. He probably named it after John Davis.

On March 20, 1820, Davis left New Haven, Connecticut for a trip to the Pacific Ocean. He had received news of the discovery of the South Shetland Islands while he was anchored at the Falkland Islands. Learning there were large numbers of seals there, he and another ship captain sailed their vessels to Greenwich Island. But it was too late in the season and other sealers were there before them. So Davis took his ship, named *Cecilia*, in search of seals further south. Finding many seals at Low Island he continued southwards. He probably came upon Hughes Bay on the Antarctic Peninsula. His ship's log records he found "a large body of land." He sent a boat to shore to look for seals but found none. He also wrote "I think this southern land to be a continent". He also wrote in the log the latitude was 64°01'S (sixty-four degrees, one minute, south). Davis continued his journey back to Greenwich Island arriving there on 10 February, 1821. He wintered at the Falkland Islands and returned to seal hunting the following season. It remains impossible, however, to prove he was the first to reach Antarctica.
The first three printed volumes, in German, French and Italian.
The ***Historical Dictionary of Switzerland*** is an encyclopedia on the history of Switzerland. It tries to use modern historical research to provide information in a broad manner. It is published by a foundation supported by the Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences (SAGW/ASSH) and the Swiss Historical Society (SGG-SHH). It is financed by national research grants. Other than 35 people at the central offices, it is written by a team including 100 academic advisors, 2500 historians and 100 translators.

Print edition
-------------

Example of one page (French version, volume 3, page 506).
The encyclopedia is being edited at the same time in the three national languages of Switzerland: German (*Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz*, HLS), French (*Dictionnaire Historique de la Suisse*, DHS) and Italian (*Dizionario Storico della Svizzera*, DSS). There are 13 volumes. The first was published in 2002. The last volume was published in 2014.

The 36,000 headings are grouped into:

1. Biographies (35%)
2. Articles on families and genealogy (10%)
3. Articles on places (municipalities, cantons, other nation states, fortresses, signories, abbeys, archeological sites) (30%)
4. Subject articles (historical phenomena and terms, institutions, events) (25%)

On-line edition
---------------

The on-line edition has been available since 1998. All articles in the print version are available, for free, but no images. It also lists all 36,000 topics that are to be covered.

Bibliography
------------

* *Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz* (HLS), Schwabe AG, Basel, ISBN 3-7965-1900-8 (2002–)
* *Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse* (DHS), Editions Gilles Attinger, Hauterive, ISBN 2-88256-133-4 (2002–)
* *Dizionario storico della Svizzera* (DSS), Armando Dadò editore, Locarno, ISBN 88-8281-100-X (2002–)
* *Lexicon Istoric Retic* (LIR), Kommissionsverlag Desertina, Chur, ISBN 978-3-85637-390-0 (vol.1: Abundi à Luzzi), ISBN 978-3-85637-391-7 (vol. 2: Macdonald à Zwingli)

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Historical Dictionary of Switzerland at Wikimedia Commons
* DHS/HLS/DSS online edition in German, French and Italian
* *Lexicon Istoric Retic* (LIR) online edition in Romansh

| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata |
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* ISNI
* VIAF
* WorldCat Identities

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* France
* BnF data
* Germany
* United States
* Latvia
* Czech Republic
* Croatia

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| People | 
* ISIL

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| Other | 
* IdRef

 |
Istria County within Croatia
This map shows the percentages of Italians in municipalities of Istria in 1910, based on the Austro-Hungarian census. Italians made up more than 70% of the population in 43 areas.
The Italian language is the third most spoken language (after Croatian and Serbian) in the Republic of Croatia today. It is an officially recognized minority language in Istria County (where it is spoken by 7.69% of the population).

Speaker Population
------------------

The 2001 census in Croatia reported 19,636 ethnic Italians in the country (some .44% of the total population). Ethnologue reported 70,000 speakers in 1998: 40,000 ethnic Italians and 30,000 ethnic Croats and Istrian people. Native Italian speakers are largely concentrated along the Adriatic coast. In addition, roughly 120,000 Italian tourists visit Croatia each year, so many in the service and tourist industries have some knowledge of the language.As the 3/4 of the Italian community is concentrated in Istria, according to Ethnologue's estimates ( 70.000 ), at least 20% of the population of Istria is Italian mother tongue, although many simply declare themselves as Istrian.

Historically, the language had a much larger population than it does now. Italians have lived on the Adriatic coast for hundreds of years, and Istria was part of the Kingdom of Italy from 1919 until 1947. However the Istrian exodus after the Second World War and Yugoslavian ethnic cleansing in the form of the Foibe massacres forced the greater part of the Istrian Italians to flee to Italy.
During the Italian exodu, about 350000 people left Istria, Dalmatia and the isles of Croatia.

Italian in Use
--------------

Government services are provided in Italian and Croatian in Istria County, including the official government website (which is also available in English). There are four Italian-language schools in Istria: primary schools in Buje (Buie) and Novigrad (Cittanova) and secondary schools in Pula (Pola) and Rovinj (Rovigno).

Related pages
-------------

* Dalmatian Italians
* Italian cultural and historic presence in Dalmatia
* Istrian-Dalmatian exodus
* List of Italian place names in Dalmatia
Michelangelo's *The Creation of Adam* c. 511, a fresco often used to symbolize the Italian Renaissance
The **Italian Renaissance** (Italian: *Rinascimento* [rinaʃʃiˈmento]) was the earliest beginning of the general European Renaissance. It was a period of great cultural change and achievement that began in Italy during the 14th century. It lasted into the 17th century, marking the gradual change between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The term "renaissance" is a modern one that was first used in 1858 by French historian Jules Michelet. The Italian renaissance was a period of gradual change. Some parts can be traced back to the earlier part of the 14th century. Other parts did not happen until the end of the century. The French word *renaissance* (*Rinascimento* in Italian) means "Rebirth". The era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity. While it started as a humanist movement it spread to other areas including science, religion, art and exploration. During this period William Shakespeare wrote his plays, Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa, and Martin Luther had started a new religious movement. It saw Christopher Columbus discover the Americas and Johannes Gutenberg introduced printing to Europe. The Italian "rebirth" gradually spread into Northern Europe. As it moved northward, it changed into less a classical movement and more into a religious movement.
**Khenifiss National Park** (French: *Le Parc National Khenifiss*) is a national park in the southwest of Morocco, located near Akhfennir on the Atlantic coast in the region of Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra. It was established in 2006. The area of the park is 1,850 square kilometres (710 sq mi). The national park was created to protect desert, wetlands, and coastal dunes.

The park was first created as a natural reserve in 1960, and in 1980, it was classified as a wetland of international importance. In 1983, the natural reserve was transformed into a Permanent Biological Reserve, and on September 26, 2006, the national park was created.

The park is located at the coast of Atlantic Ocean, north of the border with Western Sahara, between the towns of Tan-Tan (north) and Tarfaya (south). The National Route 1, which runs along the Atlantic coast of Morocco, passes through the park.

The park includes a coastal portion, the Khenfiss lagoon, the biggest lagoon at the Moroccan coast, and the inland portion, located on desert plateaus. The lagoon is also an important bird nesting ground. Ruddy shelduck, marbled duck, and Audouin's gull inhabit the lagoon permanently, and a big number of species migrate here in winter. Every year, about 20,000 birds stay in the lagoon area in the winter season.

The inland part includes sabkhas and is typical for Sahara landscapes. It also includes sand dunes and limestone plateaus.

The government declared its intention to turn the park into a major tourist attraction specializing in ecotourism.

World Heritage Status
---------------------

This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on 12/10/1998 in the natural category.
**Jodi Lynn Picoult** (born 19 May 1966 in Nesconsent, Long Island, New York) is an American author. Picoult comes from what she calls a "non-practicing Jewish family". She was raised in her hometown in Long Island, but moved to the U.S. State of New Hampshire when she was 13 years old. She went to Princeton, a university in the U.S. state of New Jersey, where she studied writing and graduated from in 1987. She also went to Harvard University, where she earned a master's degree in education. She had many jobs, as a guest writer for magazines like *Seventeen*, to editing textbooks and teaching eighth grade English. She published her first novel *Songs of the Humpback Whale* in 1992. Her first book to debut as a New York Times best-seller was her 2007 novel *Nineteen Minutes*; the following year her novel *Change of Heart* became her second novel to debut as #1 on the New York Times Best Seller's list. Her last novel to be featured on the list was *Handle With Care* (2009). Four of her novels, *The Pact* (1998), *Plain Truth* (2000), *The Tenth Circle* (2006) and most recently, *My Sister's Keeper*, which published as a book in 2004 but released as a movie in 2009. She was awarded the New England Bookseller Award for fiction in 2003. Picoult currently has some 14 million copies of her books in print worldwide. In addition to writing novels, Picoult had written for DC Comics' third volume of Wonder Woman in 2007; she only wrote 5 issues. She lives with her husband, Tim Van Leer, their three children and pets in Hanover, New Hampshire.

Books by Picoult
----------------

| Years | Title | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1992 | *Songs of the Humpback Whale* |  |
| 1993 | *Harvesting the Heart* |  |
| 1995 | *Picture Perfect* |  |
| 1996 | *Mercy* |
| 1998 | *The Pact* | Adapted as a *Lifetime Original Movie* in 2002 |
| 1999 | *Keeping Faith* | Adapted as a *Lifetime Original Movie* in 2004 |
| 2000 | *Plain Truth* |  |
| 2001 | *Salem Falls* |  |
| 2002 | *Perfect Match* |  |
| 2003 | *Second Glance* |  |
| 2004 | *My Sister's Keeper* | Adapted into a movie in 2008 |
| 2005 | *Vanishing Acts* |  |
| 2006 | *The Tenth Circle* |  |
| 2007 | *Nineteen Minutes* | New York Times Best Seller |
| 2008 | *Change of Heart* | New York Times Best Seller |
| 2009 | *Handle With Care* | New York Times Best Seller |
| 2010 | *House Rules* |  |
| 2011 | *Sing You Home* |  |
|  |
**Historical linguistics** is the study of language change. It has five main concerns:

1. to study changes in particular languages
2. to discover the pre-history of languages, and group them into language families (comparative linguistics)
3. to develop theories about how and why language or sound changes
4. to describe the history of speech communities
5. to study the history of words, etymology.

History and development
-----------------------

Modern historical linguistics dates from the late 18th century. It grew out of the earlier discipline of philology, the study of ancient texts and documents dating back to antiquity.

At first, historical linguistics was comparative linguistics. The focus was on the well-known Indo-European languages, many of which had long written histories. Scholars also studied the Uralic languages, another language family for which less early written material exists.

Since then, there has been linguistic work in non-European languages, such as on the Austronesian languages and various families of Native American languages.

Comparative linguistics is now part of a discipline of historical linguistics. For Indo-European languages, comparative study is now a well-developed field. Most research is being carried out on their later development, such as the development of the modern standard varieties.

Some scholars have done studies attempting to establish super-families. They have, for example, linked Indo-European, Uralic, and other families into Nostratic. Such attempts have not been accepted widely. The information needed to establish relatedness becomes thinner the farther back. The time depth of linguistic methods is limited because of chance word resemblances and variations between language groups. Scholars can trace language changes back to around 10,000 years. The dating of the various proto-languages is also difficult; several methods are available for dating, but only approximate results are possible.
A glass replica of the diamond before it was re-cut in 1852 on display at the Reich der Kristalle museum in Munich, Germany.
Copy of the new cut of the Koh-i-Noor
The **Koh-i-Noor** (also spelled **Koh-i-Nûr** and **Kooh-è Noor**) is a large, colourless diamond that was found near Guntur in Andhra Pradesh, India, possibly in the 13th century. The name means **Mountain of Light** in the Persian language. 

Before it was cut for jewellery, it weighed 793 carats (158.6 g). It was first owned by the Kakatiya dynasty. Ownership of the stone changed several times between various ruling groups in South Asia over the next few hundred years. The Koh-i-Noor ended up in the possession of Queen Victoria after the British conquest of the Punjab in 1849. It is now part of the British Crown Jewels, part of the Royal Collection held in trust by Queen Elizabeth II for her successors and the UK.

In 1852, Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria, unhappy with its dull and irregular appearance, ordered it cut down from 186 carats (37.2 g). It emerged 42 per cent lighter as a dazzling oval-cut brilliant weighing 105.6 carats (21.12 g) and measuring 3.6 cm x 3.2 cm x 1.3 cm.

Since arriving in the U.K. it has only ever been worn by female members of the family, starting with Queen Victoria. After Queen Victoria's death, the Koh-i-Noor was set in the crown of Queen Alexandra, the wife of Edward VII. It was used to crown her at their coronation in 1902. The diamond was transferred to Queen Mary's crown in 1911, and finally to the Queen Mother's crown in 1937. When The Queen Mother died in 2002, it was placed on top of her coffin for her state funeral.

Today, the diamond is set in the front of the crown, as part of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. It is seen by millions of visitors to the Tower of London each year.
**Lake Vostok** is the biggest of the seventy lakes in Antarctica that are under sheets of ice. It is at 77° S 105° E. It is under Russia's Vostok Station. It is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) under Antarctica's surface. 

The lake was found by Russian and British scientists. They used radar to find it. 

The lake consists of fresh water. The temperature of the water is about -3 °C. The freezing point of water is at 0 °C, but the water in the lake remains liquid because of the high pressure produced by the ice. 

There are two separate basins in the lake. These are separated by a ridge. It has been suggested that the ecosystems of the two basins are different.

Pressure and oxygen
-------------------

Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment. It is supersaturated with oxygen. The levels of oxygen are fifty times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth. 
The weight of the ice on top of Lake Vostok is believed to add to the high concentration of oxygen. Oxygen from the ice gets dissolved into the water of the lake. Deposits of oxygen and other gases are trapped in the lake as well. The structure that traps them is called a clathrate. Gases trapped in clathrates are enclosed in ice and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high-pressure depths of Lake Vostok; they would become unstable if brought to the surface.

Life
----

No other natural environment on Earth is as rich in oxygen. For this reason, if there are any forms of life in the lake, they would probably need to have adapted to the high levels of oxygen to be able to survive. Some adaptations might include high concentrations of protective enzymes.

The environment in the lake is very similar to that on Jupiter's moon Europa or Saturn's moon Enceladus. Finding life in the lake would therefore make it more probable that life has existed on one of these moons.

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Lake Vostok***.

* "Miles Below Antarctic Ice, a Freshwater Lake May Harbor Ancient Life." Robert Lee Hotz, *The Los Angeles Times*.

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The **Lake Zug** (German: *Zugersee*) is one of the lesser known Swiss lakes, on the outskirts of the Alps and north of Lake Lucerne. It is fed by the Aa, which descends from the Rigi and enters the south end of the lake. The Lorze feeds the lake at the northern shore.

For the most part, the lake is in the Canton of Zug, but the southern end is up to 10 km in the canton of Schwyz, while the Canton of Lucerne stretches over a 2 km area by the Immensee. 

At its northern end the shores are nearly level, while on the west shore the wooded promontory of Buonas (with its castles, old and new) projects picturesquely into the waters. The principal place on the lake is the town of Zug. Three railways follow the shore of the lake, one from Zürich via Zug and Arth-Goldau to the St Gotthard, one from Lucerne via Arth-Goldau to the St Gotthard and one from Zürich via Zug to Lucerne.

Many fish (including pike and carp of considerable weights) are taken from the lake, which is especially famous for an endemic kind of trout (*Salmo salvelinus*, locally called *Rolheli*). Because of farming runoff, it is not one of Switzerland's cleanest lakes.

List of cities and places on the lake
-------------------------------------

* Zug
* Oberwil
* Walchwil
* Arth
* Immensee
* Buonas
* Risch
* Cham

Historical notes
----------------

In 1911, a railway was built around the lake.

The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1852.

Other websites
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* Waterlevels of Lake Zug Archived 2007-06-14 at the Wayback Machine at Zug


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Lake Zug***.
**Jakku** is a desert planet from *Star Wars*. The planet first appeared in *Star Wars: The Force Awakens*, the first installment in the *Star Wars* sequel trilogy. Jakku is very sparsely populated because of its harsh climate. After the Battle of Endor, Jakku was the sight of a big battle between the remaining Imperial fleet and the newly formed New Republic fleet. As soldiers fought each other in the desert and dogfights took place above, the large cruisers from the fleets started to drag each other to the surface of the planet with their tractor beams. Ships crashed to surface causing a "graveyard" of ships to form. The Republic fleet won the battle and the remaining Imperial forces fled into the unknown regions of the galaxy. Rey Skywalker is from Jakku and helped Finn escape the planet with BB-8 after the First Order massacred a village and started to look for Finn, after he deserted. A year later the people of Jakku rose up against the First Order as part of a galaxy wide rebellion after the Battle of Exegol in *Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker*.
The **Indian Forest Service** (**IFS**) is one of the three All India Services of the Government of India. The other two All India Services being the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian Police Service. It was constituted in the year 1966 under the All India Services Act, 1951.

The service implements the National Forest Policy in order to ensure the ecological stability of the country through the protection and participatory sustainable management of natural resources. Positions in state forest department, such as District/Divisional Forest Officer (DFO), Conservator of Forests, Chief Conservator of Forests and Principal Chief Conservator of Forests etc. are held, at times, by Indian Forest Service officers. The highest-ranking Forest Service official in each state is the Head of Forest Forces.

History
-------

Earlier, the British Government in India had constituted the **Imperial Forest Service** in 1867 which functioned under the Federal Government until the Government of India Act 1935 was passed and responsibility was transferred to the provinces. The Imperial Forestry Service was organised subordinate to the Imperial Forest Department in 1867.

The modern Indian Forest Service was established in 1966, after independence, under the All India Services Act 1951. The first Inspector General of Forests, Hari Singh, was instrumental in the development of the Forest Service.

India has an area of 635,400 km2 designated as forests, about 19.32% of the country. India's forest policy was created in 1894 and revised in 1952 and again in the year 1988.

Recruitment
-----------

Officers are recruited through an open competitive examination conducted by the UPSC.

They are eligible for State and Central deputations as their counterpart IAS and IPS officers. Deputation of Forest Service officers to the Central Government includes appointments in Central Ministries at the position of Deputy Secretary, Director, Joint Secretary and Additional Secretary etc.

Sources
-------

1. ↑  "Public Service". *Official website of Government of India*.
2. ↑  "rti". *Upsc.gov.in*. 31 December 1997. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
3. ↑  "Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy : Indian Forest Service". Archived from the original on 11 January 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
4. ↑  "NFP 1988" (PDF). *Envfor.nic.in*. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
5. ↑  "The colonial origins of scientific forestry in Britain". *Environmental History Resources*. 25 June 2007. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
6. ↑  "Indian Forest Service". *ifs.nic.in*. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
7. ↑  Academy, Indira Gandhi National Forest. "Indian Forest Service". *ignfa.gov.in*. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.

Other websites
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* All Officers of the Forest Service (Civil List)
**John Harold Ostrom** (February 18, 1928 – July 16, 2005) was an American paleontologist.

In the 1960s, he showed that dinosaurs are more like big non-flying birds than they are like lizards (or "saurians"). Thomas Henry Huxley in the 1860s had thought birds evolved from dinosaurs, based on a comparison of *Archaeopteryx* with *Compsognathus*. Huxley's idea was later discarded, mainly because Heilmann, in 1926, had different views.

The first of Ostrom's reviews of the osteology and phylogeny of the primitive bird *Archaeopteryx* appeared in 1976. After the modern discoveries of fossil dinobirds in China, the Huxley–Ostrom theory was accepted by almost all palaeontologists.

Ostrom was a professor at Yale University. He was the Curator Emeritus of vertebrate paleontology at the Peabody Museum of Natural History, which has an impressive fossil collection started by Othniel Charles Marsh. He died from complications of Alzheimer's disease.

Discoveries
-----------

His 1964 discovery of *Deinonychus* was one of the most important fossil finds in history. *Deinonychus* was an active predator that clearly killed its prey by leaping and slashing or stabbing with its "terrible claw". Evidence of a truly active lifestyle included long strings of tendons running along the tail, making it a stiff counterbalance for jumping and running. The conclusion that at least some dinosaurs had a high metabolism, and were therefore warm-blooded, was popularized by his student Robert Bakker. This helped to change the impression of dinosaurs as the sluggish, slow, cold-blooded lizards which had prevailed since the turn of the century.

This changed how dinosaurs are seen by both professional dinosaur illustrators, and by the public. The find is also credited with triggering the "dinosaur renaissance", a term coined in a 1975 issue of *Scientific American* by Bakker. It describes the renewed interest in paleontology, which has lasted from the 1970s to the present.

Ostrom's interest in the dinosaur-bird connection started with his study of what is now known as the Haarlem *Archaeopteryx*. Discovered in 1855, it was actually the first specimen recovered but, incorrectly labeled as *Pterodactylus crassipes*, it languished in the Teyler's Museum in the Netherlands until Ostrom's 1970 paper (and 1972 description) correctly identified it as one of only eight "first birds" (counting the solitary feather).

Ostrom also studied fossilized trackways of the duckbilled dinosaur *Hadrosaurus*. He decided they traveled in herds. To this extent they were social animals like many birds and mammals, but unlike lizards.

Other websites
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* Dinosaurs in your garden