recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
The **sum** of two numbers is their value added together. This operation is called **additive summation** or **addition**. There are many ways of writing sums, including:

* Addition ({\displaystyle 2+4+6=12})
* Summation ({\displaystyle \sum \_{k=1}^{3}k=1+2+3=6})
* Code:

Sum = 0
For I = M to N
Sum = Sum + X(I)
Next I (in Visual BASIC)

Sigma notation
--------------

**Sigma notation** is a mathematical notation to write long sums in a short way. Sigma notation uses the Greek letter Sigma ({\displaystyle \Sigma }), and takes upper and lower bounds which tell us where the sum begins and where it ends. The lower bound usually has a variable (called the index, often denoted by {\displaystyle i}, {\displaystyle j} or k) along with a value, such as "{\displaystyle i=2}". This tells us that the summation begins at 2, and goes up by 1 until it reaches the number on the top.

Properties
----------

{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{n}0=0}
{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{n}1=n}
{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{n}n=n^{2}}
{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{n}i={\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}}
{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{n}i^{2}={\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)}{6}}}
{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{n}i^{3}={\frac {n^{2}(n+1)^{2}}{4}}}
{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{\infty }a\_{i}=\lim \_{t\to \infty }\sum \_{i=1}^{t}a\_{i}}

Applications
------------

Sums are used to represent series and sequences. For example:

{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{4}{\frac {1}{2^{i}}}={\frac {1}{2^{1}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{4}}}}
The geometric series of a repeating decimal can be represented in summation. For example:

{\displaystyle \sum \_{i=1}^{\infty }{\frac {3}{10^{i}}}=0.333333...={\frac {1}{3}}}
The concept of an integral is a limit of sums, with the area under a curve being defined as:

{\displaystyle \lim \_{n\to \infty }\sum \_{i=1}^{n}f(x\_{i}^{\*})\Delta x}

Related pages
-------------

* Product (mathematics)

Further reading
---------------

* Nicholas J. Higham, "The accuracy of floating point summation", *SIAM J. Scientific Computing* **14** (4), 783–799 (1993).

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Summation at Wikimedia Commons
* Sigma Notation Archived 2015-09-21 at the Wayback Machine on PlanetMath
* Derivation of Polynomials to Express the Sum of Natural Numbers with Exponents Archived 2013-02-18 at the Wayback Machine
Apical meristem or growing tip.   
The epidermal (L1) and subepidermal (L2) layers form the outer layers called the tunica. The inner L3 layer is called the corpus. Cells in the L1 and L2 layers divide in a sideways fashion, which keeps these layers distinct, whereas the L3 layer divides in a more random fashion.
A **meristem** is a tissue in plants made of dividing cells. They are in parts of the plant where growth can take place.

Plant cells which are differentiated generally cannot divide or produce cells of a different type. Therefore, cell division in the meristem is necessary to get new cells. This allows for the growth of tissues and new organs needed by the plant.

Meristematic cells have the same function for plants as stem cells have for animals. They are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cell division.

The cells are small and protoplasm fills the cell completely. The vacuoles are extremely small. The cytoplasm does not contain plastids (such as chloroplasts, but they are there in rudimentary form ('proplastids'). Meristematic cells are packed closely together without intercellular cavities. The cell wall is a very thin primary cell wall.

Apical meristem
---------------

10x microscope image of root tip with meristem  
 1 – quiescent center   
 2 – calyptrogen (live rootcap cells)   

3 – rootcap   

4 – sloughed off dead rootcap cells  

5 – procambium
The apical meristem, or growing tip, is found in the buds and growing tips of roots in plants.

It begins growth of new cells in young seedlings at the tips of roots and shoots (forming buds, among other things). Specifically, an active apical meristem lays down a growing root or shoot behind itself, pushing itself forward. Apical meristems are very small, compared to the cylinder-shaped lateral meristems.

Primary meristems
-----------------

Apical meristems may differentiate into three kinds of primary meristem:

* **Protoderm** – around the outside of the stem and develops into the epidermis.
* **Procambium** – just inside of the protoderm and develops into primary xylem and primary phloem. It also produces the vascular cambium, a secondary meristem.
* **Ground meristem** develops into the pith. It produces the cork cambium, another secondary meristem.

These meristems are responsible for primary growth, or an increase in length or height.

Secondary meristems
-------------------

These meristems cause secondary growth, or an increase in width. There are two types of secondary meristems:

* Vascular cambium – produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem, which may continue through the life of the plant. It is what gives rise to wood in plants. Such plants are called arborescent. It does not occur in plants which do not go through secondary growth, that is, herbaceous plants.
* Cork cambium – gives rise to the bark of a tree.

Related pages
-------------

* Cork cambium
* Vascular cambium


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Méristème***.

Other websites
--------------

* Research on meristems: meristemania.org  Archived 2009-01-06 at the Wayback Machine
Pentre Ifan side view
View of the portal
How it might have looked
The **Pentre Ifan** dolmen is the largest and best preserved neolithic dolmen in Wales. It is on the ancient manor of Pentre Ifan in the civil parish of Nevern, Pembrokeshire, Wales. The manor was the home of the Bowen family going back to the 11th century. Being built around 3,500 B.C.

History
-------

This monument is recorded as Coflein NPRN 101450, which tells us: "Pentre Ifan is perhaps the finest surviving Neolithic tomb in Wales and forms one of a group of Portal Dolmens built around the tributaries of the Nevern Valley approximately 6,000 years ago".

The capstone is said to weigh around 16 tons and points at the Nevern River. From the east side of the site looking west the capstone follows almost the exact same angle as the northern slope of Carningli mountain, both leading your eyes to the mouth of the Nevern estuary at Newport.

The dolmen dates from about 3,500 B.C. It may have been used for group burials. The existing stones form the door, called a portal and main chamber of the tomb. These would have been covered with a large stone mound about 36.6 m long and 17 m wide. Some of the stones have been scattered, but at least seven are in their original position. The capstone is 5.1 m in length, and is thought to to weigh 16 tonnes, and rises 2.4 m above the ground. It is held up by the narrow tips of three uprights. These stones make a chamber that is 3 m long, 2 m wide and 3 m high. A large stone has been used to block the entrance.

The facade around the portal is a carefully built dry stone wall.

William Francis Grimes carried out archaeological diggings at the site in 1936/1937 and 1958/1959. Small pieces of flint and pottery were discovered during these digs. This are also signs that there may have been holes dug for some sort of ritual purpose long before the dolmen was set up.

The dolmen is owned and looked after by Cadw, the Welsh Historic Monuments Agency. The site is well-kept and entrance is free. It is about 17 km from Cardigan. It has views down the Nevern Valley to the sea.

Other websites
--------------

* www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Pentre Ifan and surrounding area
* The best preserved megalithic site in Wales - Extrageographic Archived 2008-10-03 at the Wayback Machine
* 

Coordinates: 51°59′56″N 4°46′12″W﻿ / ﻿51.9990°N 4.7700°W﻿ / 51.9990; -4.7700

* QuickTime VR of Pentre Ifan: British Tours Ltd
* Article and photos of Pentre Ifan
*
Expansion of the Seljuk Sultanate after 1077
The **Sultanate of Rûm** was a Sunni Muslim kingdom in Anatolia, founded by Süleyman I of Rüm of the Seljuk dynasty, from 1077 to 1308. Süleyman was a Muslim Turkoman ruler in Anatolia. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm Collapsed In 1308, Some time after The Mongol Invasion. After its collapse, many Beyliks were founded in Anatolia under the early time of the Ottoman Empire.

The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm was formed in 1077, when the Seljuks defeated the Byzantine Empire and started to conquer their territories in Anatolia. This occurred after the Battle of Manzikert resulted in a Byzantine defeat in 1071 and the Seljuk Muslim tribes of Anatolia conquered large parts of Anatolia and formed their own Beyliks. The Seljuks set up the Sultanate of Rûm in Anatolia in 1077. It was formed on conquered Byzantine territory. Later, the Seljuk Empire would Fall, after that the Seljuk sultanate of Rum was mostly called "Seljuk Sultanate". This sultanate propagated the Islamization of Anatolia through the influx of several Turkoman tribes into regions of Anatolia which were earlier conquered from the Christian Byzantine Empire.
Satellite image of Lake Toba: 100km long and 30km wide. The lake is the caldera of a supervolcano
Position of Lake Toba
The **Toba catastrophe** was the largest volcanic eruption in the last 2.6 million years. It is called a catastrophe because its effects may have damaged the human species.

The eruption
------------

Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia, is the site of a supervolcanic eruption that occurred 73,000 (±4000 years) years ago.
It was a climate-changing event. The eruption was two orders of magnitude (= x100) larger than the largest known historic eruption, that of Tambora, also in Indonesia.

This eruption was the last and largest of four eruptions of Toba during the Quaternary epoch. It had an estimated Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8 (described as "apocalyptic"). It made a sizable contribution to the 100x30 km caldera complex. The mass it threw out was 100 times greater than the largest volcanic eruption in recent history. That was the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia, which caused the 1816 "Year Without a Summer" in the northern hemisphere.

Consequences
------------

The eruption of Toba led to a volcanic winter with a worldwide decline in temperatures between 3-5 degrees C, and up to 15 degrees C in higher latitudes.

### Effect on humans

According to the **Toba catastrophe theory**, it had global consequences. It killed most humans then alive. It created a population bottleneck in Central Eastern Africa and India that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.

According to the theory, only 10,000 (perhaps only 1,000) pairs of humans survived the disaster. Perhaps it led to the other hominids becoming extinct, though the Neanderthals certainly survived in Europe and Eurasia.

There is no direct evidence that the theory is correct. And there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species. There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption. The theory in its strongest form seems to be incorrect.
**Supergirl** is an American superhero television series that aired on CBS and later The CW from October 26, 2015, to November 9, 2021. It is based on the DC Comics character Supergirl and stars Melissa Benoist. Supergirl is the cousin of Superman and along with him is one of the last surviving Kryptonians.

The series premiered on October 26, 2015 on CBS, and on May 12, 2016 it was renewed for a second season that premiered on October 10, 2016 by The CW. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a third season.

Plot
----

Kara Zor-El was sent to Earth from her planet Kyrpton that was about to explode at age of 13 years old by her parents Alura and Zor-El. Alura gave her instructions to protect her baby cousin Kal-El (Superman) who had been sent previously to Earth as well, and told her that due to the Earth yellow's sun, she will obtain extraordinary powers.

Kara's spacecraft was hit by a wave of the Krypton explosion and was taken off course to the Phantom Zone, a region in space where time doesn't pass. She stayed there for 24 years, and when the spacecraft escaped for the Phantom Zone and arrived at Earth, she still looked like a 13-year-old girl. Her cousin, Kal-El, had grown up and became Superman. Superman took Kara to be adopted by his friends, the Danvers family. The series begins eleven years old later when the now 24-year-old Kara is learning to use her powers after previously hiding them, while at the same working as a normal person.

Cast
----

* Melissa Benoist as Kara Zor-El /Kara Danvers /Supergirl
* Mehcad Brooks as James Olsen / The Guardian
* Chyler Leigh as Alex Danvers
* Jeremy Jordan as Winn Schott
* David Harewood as J'onn J'onzz / Martian Manhunter
* Chris Wodd as Mon-El
* Calista Flockhart as Cat Grant
* Floriana Lima as Maggie Sawyer
Scanning electron micrograph (with false colouring) of methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* and a dead human neutrophil
similar
A **staphylococcal infection** (also called **staph infection**) is an infection caused by a *Staphylococcus* bacterium. Staphylococcus can cause many different infections. It can also cause food poisoning.

*Staphylococcus aureus*
-----------------------

See the main article: Staphylococcus aureus
*Staphylococcus aureus* is a staphylococcus bacterium that can cause dangerous or even fatal diseases. Because *Staphylococcus aureus* can live on dry surfaces, such as doorknobs or tables, for longer than most bacteria, someone can get sick from *Staphylococcus aureus* from touching one of those surfaces if someone with a staphylococcal infection has touched it even if there is nobody who has a staphylococcal infection near them. *Staphylococcus aureus* can also cause toxic shock syndrome by releasing toxins into the bloodstream.

### Methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus*

See the main article: MRSA
Methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* is *Staphylococcus aureus* that is not cured by the antibiotic Methicillin or any other penicillin or cephalosporin antibiotics. This is called antibiotic resistance. Because penicillin and cephalosporin are the most important drugs that doctors use to treat *Staphylococcus aureus* infections, doctors may not be able to cure people with MRSA.

Types of staph infections
-------------------------

| Type | Description | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Localised skin infections | Small infections that usually aren't serious | Abscesses, boils, and carbuncles |
| Diffuse skin infections | Contagious skin infections that can be serious | Impetigo |
| Deep localised infections | Infections that are often very painful but do not spread to the blood | Septicemia and necrotising pneumonia |
| Toxinoses | Toxins in the bloodstream | Gastroenteritis and toxic shock syndrome |

Other *Staphylococcus* bacteria
-------------------------------

Other *Staphylococcus* bacteria can cause infections, including *Staphylococcus epidermidis* and *Staphylococcus saprophyticus*. *Staphylococcus epidermidis* is a bacterium that is normally on the skin. If someone has a disease that makes his or her immune system work badly, this bacterium might give him or her an infection. *Staphylococcus saprophyticus* can cause urinary tract infections in women.
***Pteranodon*** was a large pterosaur from the Upper Cretaceous period. About 1200 partial skeletons have been found, more than any other pterosaur. It lived in the area of the Western Interior Seaway.

Fossil *Pteranodon* have been found in Kansas, Alabama, Nebraska, Wyoming, and South Dakota.

Appearance
----------

With its wings open it was up to 7 meters across. *Pteranodon* might have lived much like an albatross, spending a lot of time over the ocean, looking for fish. It had no teeth in its long mouth, and it had a small pouch like a pelican at the back of its jaw. *Pteranodon* had a big crest at the back of its head. *Pteranodon longiceps* had a straight crest that went backwards, and *Pteranodon sternbergi* had a bigger, flatter crest that went upward.

Life style
----------

*Pteranodon* lived mainly on offshore rookeries. Most *Pteranodon* fossils are found where, at the time, they were hundreds of kilometres from the coastline.

They certainly fed on fish. Fossilized fish bones have been found in the stomach area of one *Pteranodon*. Other specimens have fragments of fish scales and vertebrae near the torso.

Females of both species were smaller than the males, and had small, rounded crests. The crests were probably used in display, though they may have had other functions as well.
*In this Japanese name, the family name is* Uesugi*.*
Uesugi Harunori
**Uesugi Harunori** (上杉 治憲, 1751–1822) was a Japanese daimyo. He was the 9th leader of the Yonezawa domain. This domain the area that today is the Yonezawa and Okitama region. Uesugi was born in Edo. He was the second son of a daimyo of the Akizuki clan. His father controlled part of Hyuga province. His mother was a granddaughter of the fourth head of Yonezawa. As a child, he was called "Matsusaburō" (松三郎) and "Naomatsu" (直松). He was adopted by the daimyo of Yonezawa, Uesugi Shigesada. In 1767 he replaced Shigesada as diamyo. After retirement, he began to use the *gō*, or pen name, Yozan (鷹山).

Today, Uesugi is best remembered for his financial changes in his domain. He is often used as an example of a good governor of a domain. Yonezawa had been in debt for about a hundred years when Uesugi took over. Shigesada had thought about returning the domain to the shogunate because of the debt. His his father-in-law, the daimyo of Owari province, told him he should resign as daimyo instead of this. This is how Uesugi came to be daimyo of Yonezawa. He created strict disciplinary measures. Several of his *karō* (advisers) did not think his plans were good. He had these people killed. Because of many of the changes he caused, Yonezawa became prosperous. It also did not suffer much from the famine in Japan in the Tenmei era (1781-9). In 1830, less than a decade after Harunori's death, the shogunate said that Yonezawa was a paragon of a well-governed domain.

Uesugi's beliefs about governance and how a feudal lord show act were written in a letter to his son Haruhiro:

|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| "| The state (国家, *kokka*) is inherited from one's ancestors and passed on to one's descendants; it should not be administered selfishly.
The people belong to the state; they should not be administered selfishly.
The lord exists for the sake of the state and the people: the state and the people do not exist for the sake of the lord. | "|

This means:

* The person who rules the state get the state from the people that ruled it before him and will give it to those that rule after him. The ruler should not rule in a way which is bad for the state.
* The people are a part of the state. The ruler should rule them in the way that is best for them. He should not rule in the way that is best for him.
* The job of the ruler is make things better for the people and the state. It is not the job of the people and the state to make things better for the ruler.
**USS *Benicia*** was a screw sloop in the United States Navy during the late 19th century. She was named for Benicia, California.

History
-------

*Benicia* was launched 18 August 1868 by Portsmouth Navy Yard as *Algoma*. She was renamed *Benicia* on 15 May 1869. It was commissioned 1 December 1869 with Commander S. Nicholson in command.

Between March 1870 and August 1872, *Benicia* served on the Asiatic Station. It took part in Rear Admiral John Rodgers' expedition to Korea (16 May-11 June 1871). During this period Ordinary Seaman John Andrews, Chief Quartermaster Patrick H. Grace and Private Michael McNamara, USMC, received the Medal of Honor.

Following repairs at Mare Island Navy Yard, *Benicia* joined the North Pacific Squadron 6 December 1872. She cruised in Mexican, Central American, and Hawaiian waters and arrived at San Francisco, California on 29 November 1874 carrying King Kalākaua of Hawaii and his suite. 

Captain of the Mizzen Top Albert Weisbogel also received the Medal of Honor (his first award) for service on *Benicia*, in 1874.

*Benicia* made a cruise to Alaska (11 May-21 July 1875) and was decommissioned at Mare Island 29 November 1875. *Benicia* was sold 3 May 1884.

Other websites
--------------

* US Navy Historical Center of USS Benica photographs Archived 2012-10-21 at the Wayback Machine
**Ratcliff** is an area of East London. It is in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is located on the north side of the River Thames. It was once a hamlet in the historic county of Middlesex.

Ratcliff is the site of one of London biggest fires in 1794. It began at Clovers Barge Yard. The flames quickly spread to a nearby barge loaded with saltpetre. This was a substance used to make gunpowder and matches. This exploded. Causing the fire to spread and destroying Ratcliff.

Etymology
---------

Ratcliff name is from a sandstone cliff. This used to be above the surrounding marshes. This had a red appearance. Hence Red-cliffe.

History
-------

Ratcliffe was known for shipbuilding. It was an important sea departure area. In the sixteenth century. Such as Willoughby and Frobisher. Ratcliffe at this time also had the largest population in Stepney. Having 3500 residents.

Around 1669. Almost 200 Presbyterians were worshipping inside a warehouse in Ratcliffe. There was a purpose-built Quaker meeting house in Schoolhouse Lane that had been built near the same time.

Ratcliffe was divided between the parishes of Limehouse and Stepney until 1866. It was constituted a separate civil parish. It was then administered by Limehouse District Board of Works. In 1900 it joined the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney.

As the warehouses fell into decline. They were not allowed to stand and were cleared for redevelopment.
A Nanta performance at the LG Life Tastes Good Championship, in Bangkok, 2009
**Nanta** is a popular Korean musical. It is a non-verbal performance using the traditional Korean "Samulnori" rhythm. 
This musical was first performed in 1997.

Nanta received an award for Best Performance at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in 1999. Since then, it has been performed successfully in many foreign countries. In 2004, Nanta opened a long running show on Broadway, in New York, a first for an Asian musical.

Nanta is presented through music and motions, so there is no language barrier. This musical combines traditional rhythms of Korean samulnori with modern musical forms including rock music and jazz. This musical creates unique but familiar experience to a world audience. It is a comedy where everyone in the audience can join in the performance. The audience interacts with the performers in many ways.

Other websites
--------------

* The official web site Archived 2009-05-31 at the Wayback Machine
**Rachel Donelson Jackson** (June 15, 1767 – December 22, 1828) was the wife of Andrew Jackson, the seventh president. She died before her husband's inauguration. She was never First Lady.

Early life
----------

Young Rachel was very pretty, with dark brown hair and beautiful eyes. Her family moved from Virginia to Nashville, Tennessee. The Robards family was quite wealthy and important in Nashville. Rachel was married to Captain Lewis Robards in Kentucky. She met Andrew Jackson while living with her mother. Andrew was staying at her mother's house. One time, she sent a letter home asking one of her brothers to come to Kentucky. She wanted to go home again. Jackson went to Kentucky instead of her brother.

Remarriage
----------

Rachel Donelson Robards and Andrew Jackson wanted to get married. They could not because Rachel was already married to Lewis Robards. She tried to get a divorce in 1790. She and Andrew thought that her husband would get a divorce. They got married in 1791 in the town of Natchez, Mississippi. Their marriage was unlawful (against the law). She and Andrew tried to get a real divorce until 1794. They married again in 1794 when her marriage with Lewis Robards ended. No one knows if she knew that she broke the law.

The second Hermitage in Nashville, Tennessee
Rachel moved to the Hermitage outside Nashville with Andrew. They were quite wealthy. They owned many slaves on their plantation. Rachel managed the household. She ran the plantation while Andrew was away.

Rachel died in 1828. This was the year her husband Andrew became president. He thought she died because other people said mean things about her. They talked about her marriage. Many people said she broke the law to marry Andrew on purpose. This made her very sad. She was buried in a corner of the Hermitage garden.

What people remember
--------------------

People thought Rachel and Andrew were very different. Andrew was tall, important, and neat. Rachel was short, quiet, and common. One girl who visited their house would not have guessed that they were married. She thought they were too different. The visitor said that Rachel was kind and motherly, not elegant or graceful. Rachel had lived in the frontier (newly-lived in areas) her whole life. She had no reason to become elegant.

Rachel loved Andrew very much. She was sad every time he went away. Once she travelled to meet him, it was not common for women to do. She was very worried when he was in danger. She became quite sick from stress. Her marriage was very important to her. A visitor once said that their love was very great. Andrew Jackson always treated Rachel like she was the best thing in his life. Rachel was always devoted to Andrew.


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Rachel Jackson***.
**Syncopation** is music which creates rhythmical variation. Examples would be:

* A stress (accent) on a beat not usually stressed.
* A rest where there would normally be a beat.
* Use of split-beats.
* Minute delays or advances in the timing of beats.

"If a part of the measure (bar) that is usually unstressed is accented, the rhythm is considered to be syncopated".

More simply, syncopation is a general term for a disturbance or interruption of the regular flow of rhythm; a placement of rhythmic stresses or accents where they wouldn't normally occur.

Syncopation is used in many musical styles, and is fundamental in black-influenced styles such as jazz, ragtime, Cuban music, funk, ska, reggae, rap, jump blues, progressive rock, extreme metal, breakbeat, drum'n'bass, dubstep amd minimalism. "All dance music makes use of syncopation and it's often a vital element that helps tie the whole track together". In the form of a back beat, syncopation is used in virtually all popular music.

Syncopation has been an important element of musical composition since at least the Middle Ages. For some musical styles, such as jazz and ragtime, syncopation is an essential part of their character.
Schumann
**Symphony No. 1 in B flat major, Op. 38 ("Spring")** is the first of Robert Schumann's four symphonies. It was written early 1841. Schumann sketched the symphony in four days from 23 January to 26 January. He completed the orchestration by 20 February. The premiere took place under the direction of Felix Mendelssohn on 31 March 1841 in Leipzig. The symphony was well received. Schumann was largely known for his piano works and for songs at the time. His wife Clara Schumann encouraged him to write symphonic music. Schumann said he was inspired by his *Liebesfrühling* (spring of love) in the symphony's composition. 

The work has four movements: Andante un poco maestoso – Allegro molto vivace (B flat major); Larghetto (E flat major; Scherzo: Molto vivace – Trio I: Molto piu vivace – Trio II (G minor); and Allegro animato e grazioso (B flat major). The orchestration is for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, timpani, triangle and strings. Schumann expanded the use of the timpani in this piece. He made some revisions in the work until the definitive edition was published in 1853.
A bulb of *Muscari* has made two bulbs underground, each of which produces a flower stem. In this way it reproduces vegetatively
*Bryophyllum daigremontianum* produces plantlets along the margins of its leaves. When they are mature enough, they drop off and root in any suitable soil beneath
**Vegetative reproduction** is a kind of asexual reproduction. Many plants do it. By vegetative reproduction plants can cover the ground quickly: ground taken by one plant is difficult for other plants to take. This occurs naturally, and can also be done on purpose by horticulturists. 

Vegetative reproduction uses mitosis. This means that the newly created cell is a clone, and identical to the parent cell. Some plants put out new roots underground, have bulbs, or grow new vines and shoots above ground.

By this process, new plants can be grown naturally without any seeds or spores. Therefore, it is widely used especially in agriculture to spread the trees that are of great value to the economy.

Cuttings
--------

In gardening and farming, vegetative reproduction means cutting a tree branch below its center joint, planting it in some other earth, and letting it form new roots. In this way, many kinds of useful plants can be easily reproduced without any seeds, for example: apple, avocado, banana, cacao, hemp, orange/lemon, date, fig, grape, almond, pineapple, potato, strawberry, sugar cane and tea.

Related pages
-------------

* Plant reproduction
The **Queen's Gambit Declined** is a chess opening which starts with 1.d4 d5 2.c4 e6. It is an old opening, and one of the most important. It is often used in top-class play. In this opening, called QGD for short, the struggle for the centre is the strategy of both players. Unlike the Queen's Gambit Accepted, Black keeps his pawn on d5 protected. A simple example:

 The QGD

position after 10...Bh4

1.d4 d5
2.c4 e6
3.Nc3 Nf6
4.Bg5 Be7
5.e3 0-0
6.Nf3 c6
7.cxd5 exd5
8.Bd3 Nbd7 (Black could play 8...Ne4 here)
9.0-0 h6
10.Bh4
Here White has more space, and Black has to decide how to develop his pieces. It is easier to play the white pieces in this kind of position. However, overall, black players do as well with this defence as with most others. Best for Black in this position is 10...Ne4 or 10...Re8.



The English Wikibooks has more information on:
***Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...e6***

| * v
* t
* e
Chess |
| --- |
| Pieces | 
* King
* Queen
* Rook
* Bishop
* Knight
* Pawn

 |
| Gameplay | 
* Check and checkmate
* Draw
* Fast chess
* Gambit
* Notation
* Terms
* Zugzwang

 |
| Strategy | 
* Castling
* Double check
* En passant
* Openings
	+ List
	+ English opening
	+ King's Gambit
	+ Ruy Lopez
	+ Pirc defence
	+ Sicilian defence
	+ Queen's Gambit
	+ Queen's Gambit Declined
* Prophylaxis
* Zwischenzug

 |
| Related | 
* Chess club
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	+ Engines
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	+ List
* History
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* Symbols in Unicode
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	+ Olympiad
	+ World Championship

 |
| Famous players | 
* Alexander Alekhine
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* Vladimir Kramnik
* Emanuel Lasker
* Vera Menchik
* Paul Morphy
* Judit Polgar
* Wilhelm Steinitz

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The **Queen's Hall** was a concert hall in Central London, England. It opened in 1893. It is best known for being where the Promenade Concerts were started by Robert Newman in 1895.

The Queen's Hall was built because London needed a new concert hall in the centre of the town. It stood in Langham Place, just next to where BBC Broadcasting House stands today. The Queen's Hall had seating for up to 3,000 people (including the orchestra). The arena (downstairs) had removable seating. The polished floor could be used for dancing. The acoustics of the hall were excellent. There was also a smaller hall, The Queen's Small Hall, which seated 500 people. This was used for chamber music. In later years it was used as a recording studio. The architect who designed the hall was Thomas Edward Knightley.

The first time The Queen's Hall was used was on 25 November 1893 when Newman gave a children's party in the afternoon. In the evening about 2000 ladies and gentlemen came to a concert given by the Band of the Coldstream Guards, which included vocal music, piano and organ solos. At 11.00pm the seats in the arena were removed and the dancing began. The official opening of the hall took place on 2 December. On 10 August 1895 the first Promenade concert was given with Henry Wood conducting.

On January 14, 1896, the first public movie show was given at the Queen's Hall to members and wives of the Royal Photographic Society.

The seats were uncomfortable because there was not enough leg room, so in 1913 and 1919 some changes were made, after which the hall could seat 2400 people. 

From 1930 to 1941, the BBC Symphony Orchestra regularly gave broadcast concerts in the hall. Arturo Toscanini, who guest conducted the orchestra during the 1930s, made some famous recordings in the Queen's Hall in the late 1930s.

On 10 May 1941 (during the World War II) the Royal Choral Society gave a concert in the Queen's Hall with the London Symphony Orchestra. They performed Elgar's oratorio *Dream of Gerontius* under the conductor Sir Malcolm Sargent. It was the last concert ever given there because, later that night, the hall was completely destroyed by bombs. 

After the destruction of Queen's Hall, the BBC Symphony Orchestra moved its broadcast concerts and recording sessions to Bedford School. Among the great recordings made at the school was Sir Adrian Boult's recording of Elgar's second symphony. The Proms continued in the Royal Albert Hall. They also took place in Bristol and Bedford, but after the war they settled in the Royal Albert Hall where they continue today.
**Tavi Gevinson** (born April 21, 1996) is an American writer and blogger. In 2008 she started a blog called *Style Rookie*. She posted pictures of herself wearing outfits and wrote about the latest fashion trends. The blog was successful. Due to its success Gevinson was asked to go to New York Fashion Week and Paris Fashion Week. In autumn 2011, Gevinson made a website called *Rookie*. Rookie is an internet magazine for teenage girls.

Life
----

Gevinson was born in Chicago to a Jewish family. Gevinson is going to go to a university in the East Coast. She is a feminist.

### Career

Gevinson acted for the first time in the 2008 short film *First Bass*. In September 2009 she was on the cover of Pop magazine. That month she was interviewed by Pixie Geldof for Love magazine.

In January 2011 Gevinson interviewed Gwen Stefani for Teen Vogue. In September 2011 Gevinson started an internet magazine called Rookie. She is also its editor. In 5 days it had been viewed over 1 million times. Lady Gaga called her the "future of journalism". Gevinson was invited to TedxWomen in New York. She met Gloria Steinem there and gave her a short interview.

In January 2013 she was interviewed by CNN and Steven Colbert. A documentary about Kathleen Hanna called The Punk Singer was released in March 2013. Gevinson was interviewed in it. In May 2013 she interviewed Emma Watson. In June 2013 she interviewed Sofia Coppola and Greta Gerwig. In October 2013 *Enough Said*, a movie she acted in, was released. In November 2013 Gevinson modelled for Cole Haan's Christmas advert. Gevinson's face was on the cover of the first internet-only issue of BULLETT Magazine in November 2013.

Other websites
--------------

* Style Rookie
Telharmonium, Thaddeus Cahill 1897
Trautonium, 1928
A **musical synthesizer** is an instrument that uses electricity to make musical sounds. They are the main instrument for making electronic music. Many synthesizers have a keyboard like that of a piano. When playing a piano keyboard, sounds are made by hitting soft hammers against strings pulled very tight. When playing a synthesizer keyboard, sounds are made by turning electrical oscillators on and off. Since "synthesizer" is such a big word, the word is usually shortened to "synth".

How synthesizers work
---------------------

An oscillator is something that "vibrates", or repeats the same pattern. The pendulum of a clock, for example, is a very slow oscillator. A piano string "oscillates" when struck by a hammer.

Electric oscillators might be made using transistors. They turn electricity into electrical patterns, or signals, that repeat over and over. When different keys are pressed, different notes are heard. This is done by making the signal from the oscillator repeat at different rates. 

The signal can be boosted in strength and sent straight to a loudspeaker. But the sound of a simple signal can be boring after a while. Sounds can be made more interesting in many ways.

For example
* Signals are often shaped by changing how fast they get loud and then soft again. This method, called "ADSR", helps synthesizers to sound more like older instruments — pianos, trumpets, flutes, and so on.
* The signals from several different oscillators may be combined. This helps to make a richer sound.
* The signal can then be sent to one or more filters. Filters are used to take away parts of the signal. For example, they might make the signal sound "brighter" or "duller", "soft" or "harsh".
* Many synthesizers use special oscillators called "LFOs". For example, an LFO might control how loud and soft the signal is, or control the pitch of the signal. An LFO might even control the actions of the filters.

By combining many of these methods, synths can now sound very much like older instruments. For one example, special synths called "drum synths" are used just to make the sounds a drummer might make. Synths can also make many new sounds never heard before.

In the early 2000s, computers got fast enough so "software synths" could be made. These are computer programs designed to look and work like a synth. They tend to be less expensive, so more can be used. Most of these programs can be downloaded for free, however this may be illegal.

There are special tools available to play synths. For example, a thing called a "wind controller" lets players of wind instruments use their special skills. But there is still a need for more ways to control synths to make them more expressive.

Other websites
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* Sonic State describing 3000 models of Synthesizers
* Analog & Digital Synthesizers museum Archived 2007-01-22 at the Wayback Machine - Synthesizers database, resources, user reviews, pictures
* Vintage Synth Explorer - facts and photos of hundreds of old and new synths
* The history of Electronic Music
* 120 years of Electronic Music Archived 2007-07-17 at the Wayback Machine
**Schoep's Ice Cream** is an ice cream manufacturing company based in Madison, Wisconsin.

History
-------

Schoep's Ice Cream was founded by E.J. Schoephoester in 1928. Schoephoester produced and sold the ice cream in his grocery store. By 1937 Schoep's Ice Cream had become well known locally and E. B. Schoephoester sold his company to Peter B. Thomsen, a butter maker. The company has been kept in the Thomsen family, and as of 2008 it was owned in part by nineteen members of the Thomsen family.

Operation
---------

All of Schoep's Ice Cream is currently produced from a single factory located on Helena Street in Madison, Wisconsin. As of 2008 Schoep's was producing 6,000 gallons of ice cream an hour and 2.5 million gallons a year. With this high production rate, Schoep's has been recognized as the top producer of ice cream in the state of Wisconsin. Due to this growth, in 2005, Schoep's opened a $7 million, 46,000-square-foot distribution center on Manufacturers Drive, near the Dane County Regional Airport. This new facility features space for 3,600 pallets and 14 loading-dock doors. Before this facility was built, Schoep's had shipped all of their ice cream from two loading docks at their factory.

Contracts
---------

### Walgreens

Schoep's is not well known around the United States as Schoep's Ice Cream, but as Walgreens brand Ice Cream. Since 1993 Schoep's has been the sole producer of ice cream sold under the Walgreens label. This contract accounts for more than 25 percent of Schoep's business.
***Wonderwall*** is a 1968 British movie by then first-time director Joe Massot. It starred Jack MacGowran, Jane Birkin, Richard Wattis, Irene Handl, and Iain Quarrier, and had cameos by Anita Pallenberg and Dutch designers The Fool (who were also set designers for the movie).

Plot
----

The story of the movie revolves around the reclusive, eccentric scientist Oscar Collins (MacGowran), whose next-door neighbours are a pop photographer and his girlfriend/model (Birkin), named Penny Lane. Discovering a beam of light streaming through a hole in the wall between them, Collins follows the light and spots Penny modelling for a photo shoot. Intrigued, he begins to make more holes, as days go by and they do more photo sessions. Oscar gradually becomes infatuated with the girl, and feels a part of the couple's lives, even forsaking work to observe them. When they quarrel and the couple split, Penny takes an overdose of pills and passes out, but Oscar comes to her rescue.

Cast
----

* Jack MacGowran as Prof. Oscar Collins
* Jane Birkin as Penny Lane
* Irene Handl as Mrs. Peurofoy
* Richard Wattis as Perkins
* Iain Quarrier as Young Man
* Beatrix Lehmann as Mother
* Brian Walsh as Photographer
* Sean Lynch as Riley
* Bee Duffell as Mrs. Charmer
* Noel Trevarthen as Policeman

Other websites
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* *Wonderwall* on IMDb
* *Wonderwall* at Allmovie
The **National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain** (**NYO**) is an orchestra for young musicians in the United Kingdom. The members of the orchestra are all aged between 13 and 19 years. It is a very large orchestra with about 150 players. Children who want to play in the National Youth Orchestra have to be able to play their instrument very well. They need to be at least Grade 8 Distinction standard and they need to be very good at sightreading so that they can learn very quickly. They have to pass an audition to get a place in the orchestra. These auditions take place in the autumn in several towns in Britain.

The National Youth Orchestra was started in 1947 by Ruth Railton (later Dame Ruth King). The current director is Sarah Alexander.

The orchestra meet three times a year during the school holidays at New Year, Easter and Summer for about two weeks. They rehearse very hard together and then give one or two concerts in famous concert halls in Britain such as Barbican Hall in London, Symphony Hall in Birmingham, Bridgewater Hall in Manchester, St David's Hall in Cardiff and Glasgow Royal Concert Hall in Glasgow. Every year they play in a Promenade Concert in the Royal Albert Hall. In 2007 they played the Leningrad Symphony by Shostakovich at the Proms. In June that year they played at the Glastonbury Festival. The trumpeters and drummers woke people up with Aaron Copland’s *Fanfare for the Common Man* In April 2008 the NYO played Stravinsky's *Rite of Spring* in Birmingham Symphony Hall, and in August they will play at the Snape Maltings and at the BBC Proms conducted by Antonio Pappano with the pianist Boris Berezovsky as soloist.

The concerts are always conducted by famous conductors. Usually the famous conductor will come to rehearse the orchestra for the last few days of the course. 

During their courses they also have time to play chamber music together. They are taught by teachers who are famous musicians. Some of them are young composers who are learning to compose music. They are taught by the composer Paul Patterson. The musicians also have time to explore music from other cultures.

The NYO also has Open Days for slightly younger children to explore music.

Other websites
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* National Youth Orchestra Official website
Artist's conception of a protoplanetary disk
**Direct motion** is the motion of a planetary body in a direction similar to that of other bodies within its system, and is sometimes called **prograde motion**.

**Retrograde motion** is motion in the opposite direction. In the case of celestial bodies such as the retrograde Carme group of moons, such motion may be real, defined by the natural rotation or orbit of the body. 

Every so often a planet *seems* to change direction and go the other way for a short period of time (in relation to the fixed stars). It makes a "retrograde loop" or squiggle in its track before carrying on as normal. This apparent retrograde motion, however, is only seen because the Earth is moving. It is only seen when outer planets are near opposition.

Prograde motion in planetary systems
------------------------------------

Prograde or direct motion is usually the case. That is because *both the star and its planets formed out of the same disk of gas*. By definition the disk rotates all in the sane direction because gravity links all the objects which are formed by the shrinking of the primordial disk of gas.

All eight planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in the direction of the Sun's rotation, which is counterclockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole. Six of the planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction. 

The exceptions – the planets with retrograde rotation – are Venus and Uranus. Venus's axial tilt is 177°, which means it is rotating almost exactly in the opposite direction to its orbit.

Uranus has an axial tilt of 97.77°, so its axis of rotation is approximately parallel with the plane of the Solar System. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is not known with certainty. During the formation of the Solar System, it is thought an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation. But see also Grand tack hypothesis.

The orange moon is orbiting in the opposite direction to its primary
**Umm Al-Qura University**, despite its recent establishment and its current demarcation, remains one of the most distinguished universities by virtue of its location and heritage. Umm Al-Qura University has emerged as an academic institution with a great academic reputation in Sharia sciences, education and Islamic studies, in addition to modern scientific and applied disciplines.

Since the establishment of its first college, Umm Al-Qura University has passed through three historical stages; The first stage (1369-1391 AH); The first launch of Umm Al-Qura University dates back to the year 1369 AH, when the College of Sharia was established as the first edifice in higher education in its modern sense in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Sharia was established in 1381 AH, and it was called the College of Sharia and Education, and in 1382 AH the College of Education was established in Makkah Al-Mukarramah, independent of the College of Sharia.

Notable alumni
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* Abdul-Rahman Al-Sudais, also Imam and the President of the Decision-Making Council at the Masjid-al-Haraam
* Assim al-Hakeem is an Saudi Arabian Islamic Scholar.

Other websites
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* Umm Al-Qura's Official website Archived 2019-05-25 at the Wayback Machine

Coordinates: 21°19′31″N 39°56′42″E﻿ / ﻿21.3254°N 39.9451°E﻿ / 21.3254; 39.9451

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Coordinates: 51°22′48″N 30°02′57″E﻿ / ﻿51.38011°N 30.04908°E﻿ / 51.38011; 30.04908

Red Forest HillThe **Red Forest** (Ukrainian: Рудий ліс, Russian: Рыжий лес) is in the area around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. The forest is the trees in the 10 km² around the damaged nuclear reactor. The name "Red Forest" comes from color of the pine trees that died after taking in high levels of radiation from the Chernobyl accident on April 26, 1986. The trees became reddish-brown. People took down the trees and buried them in 'waste graveyards' while cleaning up after the disaster. The Red Forest is one of the areas in the world today with the most radioactivity.

Other websites
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* Description of Red Forest - unique ecosystem of Chernobyl zone of alienation. (*radiation dead forest ecosystem*) Archived 2009-05-19 at the Wayback Machine
* Greenpeace ten-year retrospective Archived 2007-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
* The Zone as a wildlife reserve
* More images from inside the Zone
* 25 years of satellite imagery over Chernobyl Archived 2011-05-05 at the Wayback Machine