recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
A band of modern waits
**Waits** or **waites** were British town musicians. From medieval times up to the early 19th century, every important British town and city had a band of waites. Some other countries in Europe also had waits. They were called **Stadtpfeifer** in Germany and **Pifferi** in Italy.

The duties (things they had to do) varied in different towns and at different times in history. One of their most important jobs was to play at certain times of day so that people knew what the time was. They often played from the top of church towers. Sometimes they were also guards, watching from the towers so that they could spot any danger. They were like watchmen, making sure everything was all right (there was no police at that time). They woke people up in the mornings by playing music in the streets.

The instruments they played also varied. Mostly they were loud wind instruments such as the shawm. It was a paid job. The waits wore smart liveries and silver chains of office with the town's arms.

In Germany the Stadtpfeifer would also play at church services. They would play shawms or trombones on normal days, but trumpets and drums on feast-days.

In Britain there were no more waits after 1835. The name "waits" is still used in "Christmas Waits" (any group of people singing carols at Christmas).
A **witch doctor** often refers to a healer in undeveloped regions who use traditional and sometimes out of date methods rather than modern medicine or science.

The term witch doctor is generally used with negative terms. It is often used to imply that the healer has little or no experience or ability in medicine.

The Oxford English Dictionary says that the first recorded use of this term is in 1718, in a book by Francis Hutchinson.

The witch doctors in Africa are known as sangomas in Southern Africa. The Oxford English Dictionary states that the first use of the term "witch doctor" to refer to African shamans (i.e. medicine men) was in 1836 in a book by Robert Montgomery Martin (1803?-1868).

The role is only partly a practical one. It is also a spiritual one. The so-called witch doctor is often the guardian of the tribe's belief system and rituals. Key ceremonies must be properly held or else the life of the community may fall apart, as has happened in many places. Aggressive action by outsiders to the local belief system may lead to the 'genocide of indigenous peoples'.

Related pages
-------------

* Shaman
* Medicine man
* Ainu
***Palamedes*** (パラメデス, *Paramedesu*) is a puzzle video game released by the Taito Corporation in 1990.

Gameplay
--------

Palamedes is a puzzle game requiring the player to match the dice they are holding to the dice at the top of the screen. Using the "B" button, the player can change the number on his/her dice, then throw the dice using the "A" button when it matches the dice at the top of the screen, which wipes the target dice off the screen. The player can play in "solitaire" mode against the computer or another player, or "tournament" mode against AI opponents. There are six sides and numbers on the dice, making an attempt to match all the numbers on the screen and eliminating them as a challenge.

Ports
-----

Ports of the game were published for the NES, MSX, FM-Towns and Game Boy by HOT-B. The Japan-only sequel, *Palamedes 2: Star Twinkles*, was released in 1991 for the NES by HOT-B. It featured most of the same basic gameplay elements as the original but with the play field scrolling in the opposite direction.

Reception
---------

On release, *Famitsu* magazine scored the Game Boy version of the game a 22 out of 40.
The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***vassal***.

A **vassal** during the feudalism of medieval Europe, was someone who had shared duties with a lord. Usually the vassal provided soldiers to the lord. The lord used his army of soldiers from all of his vassals to protect those vassals. The lord also gave him the piece of land that he held as a fief. By analogy the term *vassal* is used also for similar systems in other feudal societies.

Western vassalage
-----------------

The development of the *vassal*, in a society that was increasingly organised around the concept of "lordship"– in French the *seigneur*– is one sign that Antiquity ended and the Early Middle Ages began. Lordship is the basic social institution as Tacitus described them in his book *Germania*. The Roman West experienced them for the first time in the Migration Period.

As the system developed in the seventh century, the vassals were gangs of freemen who subjected themselves, in some degree of formality, to the authority of a leader, from whom they could expect to be fed, clothed and armed. The quality of a vassal was only in his fighting ability and the strength of his loyalty. The etymology (where the word came from) of "vassal" is from a Celtic word *gwas* "boy" that meant a young male slave, with a Latinised form, *vassus* that appeared in Salic Law (Rouche 1987 p 429), like the way "knight" came from the from Old English word *cniht* and similar words in Frisian and Dutch, all meaning "lad" .

Related pages
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* Gokenin, vassals of the shogunate in Japan
The **Menai Suspension Bridge** (Welsh: *Pont Grog y Borth*) is a suspension bridge in Wales. It runs from the island of Anglesey to Holyhead. It was designed by Thomas Telford. They started building it in 1819 and it was finished in 1826.

Building of the bridge
----------------------

Before the bridge was built, the only way people could get to Anglesey island was by a ferry from Holyhead. The water of the Menai Strait is very rough and dangerous, so it was hard for people to use their own boats or swim to the island. The people who lived on Anglesey sold cattle that they raised. The cattle were forced to swim through the dangerous water, with many of them often dying. If the cows survived the trip, they were sent to London and other places to be sold.

An engineer named Thomas Telford was working near Holyhead when he thought it would be a good idea to build a suspension bridge to Anglesey. A suspension bridge was big enough that tall ships could go underneath them. He asked the British Parliament if he could build the bridge and they said yes.

Telford designed the bridge. They started building it in 1819. The first thing to be built were the towers that are on both sides at Holyhead and Anglesey. The towers were made out of limestone from Penmon. They were hollow inside. After the towers were built, 16 chains were installed. They were made out of 935 bars of iron. They were long enough to support the 176-metre (577 ft) long bridge. Iron can rust. So, the people who made the chains soaked them in linseed oil and the painted. The chains were 522.3 metres (1,714 ft) long and weighed 121 tons. The bridge opened on January 30, 1826.

Bridge improvements
-------------------

Menai Suspension bridge being painted in August 2005
The road that went over the bridge was not very safe because of the strong winds. Workers made the bridge stronger in 1840. The bridge road was made of wood, and in 1893 it was replaced with steel. The bridge only allowed cars and trucks that weighted up to 4.5 tons to go over the bridge. This made it hard for big trucks to bring goods to the island. In 1938 they installed wrought iron chains to make the bridge strong. In 1999, the bridge closed for one month. The road was fixed and the bridge was made stronger. When it was closed, people had to drive over the Britannia Bridge to get to the island. 

One part of the bridge was closed for six months starting on February 28, 2005. The bridge was painted for the first time in 65 years. It was reopened on December 11.

Surroundings
------------

The Anglesey Coastal Path goes under the bridge. There is a memorial to the Aberfan disaster victims at the bridge on Anglesey.

Popular culture
---------------

The closest town to the bridge is called Menai Bridge. British one pound coins have drawings of the bridge. The coins were made in 2005. The bridge is mentioned in *Through the Looking-Glass* by Lewis Carroll.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Menai Suspension Bridge***.

* Official website
Pastoral nomads camping in Tibet
Nomads in Mongolia
Starting fire by hand. San people in Botswana
**Nomadic people** (or **nomads**) are people who move from one place to another, instead of living in one place. The best known examples in Europe are gypsies, Roma, Sinti, and Irish travelers. Many other ethnic groups and communities are traditionally nomadic; such as Berbers, Kazakhs, and Bedouin.

People are nomads for many reasons. Most nomads are family men herding their livestock, such as cattle, or horses from pasture to pasture. These people have to change places because of the weather. Other nomads are traders and craftsmen (people who make things), traveling to exchange goods or to practice their craft where it is needed.

Nomads who follow their herds usually live in tents with few things inside, like the Mongols. Nomads who trade or practice crafts usually have wagons in which they travel, because wagons are better for carrying goods.

The Sámi of Lapland are semi-nomadic tribe following a herd of reindeer. They are a migratory people who lead their own herd of reindeer to winter feeding grounds and then return them in the spring to their feeding ground close to a permanent home base, where their family lives. This cycle happens every year. 

The skills of nomadic life can also be useful in mobile warfare, and have been used in attacking sedentary agricultural and urban people. Genghis Khan and the Mongol hordes, for example conquered vast areas in Asia by organizing themselves as cavalry.
Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-8-1543) - 'Noli Me Tangere'
Noli me tangere, a fresco by Fra Angelico
Noli me tangere, Jan Brueghel the Younger, Jacob Jordaens and Lucas van Uden, c. 1630
According to the evangelist, John 20.17, ***noli me tangere*** is a phrase Jesus says to Mary Magdalene, when she recognises him after the resurrection. The phrase is commonly translated as *don't touch me*. In Koine Greek, the phrase reads Μή μου ἅπτου (*mḗ mou háptou*), which is translated differently, as cease holding on to me or stop clinging to me. Many artists and painters have been inspired by the phrase.

Text
----

In the translation of Saint Jerome, the text is as follows:

"11. Maria *autem stabat ad monumentum foris, plorans. Dum ergo fleret, inclinavit se, et prospexit in monumentum"* - Mary [on the other hand] was near the tomb and wept. While she was weeping, she bent forwards and looked inside the tomb

"12. *et vidit duos angelos in albis sedentes, unum ad caput, et unum ad pedes, ubi positum fuerat corpus Jesu.* - And she sees two angels, [dressed in] white, which were sitting, where the corpse of Jesus had been; one at the head, the other at the feet.

"13. *Dicunt ei illi : Mulier, quid ploras ? Dicit eis : Quia tulerunt Dominum meum : et nescio ubi posuerunt eum." - They ask her: woman, why do you weep - she answers them: They have taken my lord, and I don't know where they have put him*

"14. *Hæc cum dixisset, conversa est retrorsum, et vidit Jesum stantem : et non sciebat quia Jesus est." - When she had said this, she turned around, and she sees Jesus standing [there], and she did not know that it was Jesus*

"*15. Dicit ei Jesus : Mulier, quid ploras ? quem quæris ? Illa existimans quia hortulanus esset, dicit ei : Domine, si tu sustulisti eum, dicito mihi ubi posuisti eum, et ego eum tollam.*" - Jesus asked her: Woman, why do you weep? Who are you looking for? - She answered him, thinking he was the gardener: My lord, if it was you who took him, you should tell me where you put him, and I will remove him.

"16: *Dicit ei Jesus : Maria. Conversa illa, dicit ei : Rabboni (quod dicitur Magister).* - Jesus said to her "Maria" - she turned around, and said "Raboni", which means master

"17.   *Dicit ei Jesus : **Noli me tangere**, nondum enim ascendi ad Patrem meum : vade autem ad fratres meos, et dic eis : Ascendo ad Patrem meum, et Patrem vestrum, Deum meum, et Deum vestrum.* - Jesus told her: **Don't touch me**, because I have not risen towards my father. Go, to my brothers, and tell them: I rise twords my father and your father, my god and your god.

"18.   *Venit Maria Magdalene annuntians discipulis : Quia vidi Dominum, et hæc dixit mihi. - Maria of Magdala comes, and she tells the disciples: I have seen the lord, and that's what he told me.*
Women's Bureau in 1920
The **United States Women's Bureau** (**WB**) is an agency of the United States government. It is a part of the United States Department of Labor. The Woman's Bureau was established by Congress in 1920. It is the only federal agency mandated to represent the needs of women wage earners in the public policy process. The Director is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. He or she is supported by a staff in the national office as well as ten regional offices.

History
-------

In 1918 President Woodrow Wilson created **Woman in Industry Service**. It was the predecessor of the more permanent Women's Bureau which was founded in 1920. The agency was founded by an act of Congress. The first director was Mary Anderson. She had been the assistant director of the Woman in Industry Service. She remained the director through World War II. In 1922, the WB investigated and reported on the conditions facing 'negro women in industry.' The WB successfully advocated for the inclusion of women under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. By 1942 shortages of manpower and efforts by woman's advocate groups such as the Women's Bureau saw the female labor force go up from 12 to 18 million. Their wages doubled and even tripled during the war. But after the war the difference between woman's and men's working wages returned. In the 1950s, the Woman's Board focused on 'older women as office workers.' The WB played a large role in the passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963. In 1982, the Woman's Board started a major initiative to encourage employer-sponsored childcare. This was followed by the start of a multimedia Work and Family Clearinghouse in 1989. they also worked for the passage of the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993. In 1996, the Woman's Board published a fact sheet on the workplace effects of domestic violence.

Related pages
-------------

* United States Department of Labor
* Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
* Equal Pay Act of 1963

Other websites
--------------

* US Department of Labor; Woman's Bureau
Detail of the Reading Madonna by Giorgione (c.1500)
**Virginity** means a state of purity or inexperience. Traditionally a **virgin** is a person that has not had sexual intercourse. Virginity has different meanings and importance in different religions and cultures.

Virgin women do not need to have an unbroken hymen. A hymen is a human tissue that partially blocks the opening of the vagina about two inches deep. When a man inserts his penis or other object(s) are inserted into the vagina, it can tear or break the hymen which may result in bleeding. This blood from the hymen is important in many cultures, as it is a sign that the woman is a virgin; even though it is not necessary for the hymen to be broken to signify a woman's lack of virginity. The hymen can also, however, be worn away naturally by riding a horse, playing sports, or other recreational activities; it can also heal over time just like torn human tissue can.

It is possible for a virgin to have a sexually transmitted disease, which was acquired by some other means: such as drug use, blood or plasma transfusions, close skin contact in the pubic area with infected people, oral sex, and other means.

In several polytheistic religions (religions with many gods), priestesses of certain gods have to be virgins, one notable exception is the Sumerian goddess Fauk'Stek, who was believed to have impregnated the sun god Loki and to have 'taught the Earth and its sons the glory of sacrifice'. In many cultures it is said that women should be virgins until marriage. In some cultures, women who are not virgins until marriage are ostracized or murdered.

Related pages
-------------

* Chastity


The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***virginity***.
Virgo Cluster
M87.This deep image of the Virgo Cluster shows the diffuse light between the galaxies belonging to the cluster. The dark spots are where bright foreground stars were removed from the image. Messier 87 is the largest galaxy in the picture (lower left).
The **Virgo Cluster** is a cluster of galaxies. Its center is 53.8 ± 0.3 million light years (16.5 ± 0.1 million parsecs) away from Earth, in the constellation Virgo. The cluster forms the heart of the larger Virgo Supercluster, of which our Local Group is an outlying member. 

The Virgo Cluster has about 1300 (and perhaps up to 2000) member galaxies. Its mass is about 1.2×1015 solar masses out to 8 degrees of the cluster's center or a radius of about 2.2 million parsecs.

Many of the brighter galaxies in this cluster, including the giant elliptical galaxy Messier 87 and brightest member Messier 49, were discovered in the late 1770s and early 1780s. They were included in Charles Messier's catalogue of non-cometary fuzzy objects. Described by Messier as nebulae without stars, their true nature was not recognized until the 1920s. Many of the member galaxies of the cluster are visible with a small telescope. Its brightest member is the elliptical galaxy Messier 49.
a caliper
A **Vernier scale** is a way to get a much better result when measuring how long something is or the size of an angle.

Vernier scale 3.58 mm the superimposed red markings show where the readings are taken
Sometimes when measuring things we need to get our measurement as accurate as possible. Accuracy is important in surveying the land, navigation of ships, making parts for machines like car engines, looking at stars and planets in astronomy and when doing experiments in science.

The working of Vernier scale
----------------------------

Length has been measured with a straight ruler for hundreds of years. It measures up to 0.01cm. If the object we are measuring is somewhere in between two of the marks on our ruler then we would have to estimate where between the two marks to take the measurement. A Vernier scale on our ruler does this last fine piece of measuring between the two marks for us. 

So , for example if the measurement with our eye said it was between 1.5 and 1.6 centimeters, we would look at the Vernier and we would be able to say the measure is actually 1.57, something it would be vary hard to see with the eye alone.

When measuring angles the same problem occurs and a vernier may be part of a device to measure fine angles in between two of the marks on the scale.

We don't need to be sharp eyed to read the Vernier scale because its marks are almost as big as our main measuring scale. We just count how many marks there are to the next place where there is a mark on both the main and vernier scales that are exactly lined up. That number of marks tells us the size of the small extra measurement.
The Far Eastern curlew
A sandpiper, *Calidris pusilla*
Waders roosting on the beach at high tide
**Wader** is a common term in ornithology for birds which walk about in shallow water. Sometimes they are called shore-birds. They are members of the order Charadriiformes, which are water birds. The Charadriiformes also includes marine-going seabirds with webbed feet. The evolutionary relationships of these birds are very complicated.

Most waders live in wetland or coastal environments. Many species of Arctic and temperate regions are strongly migratory, but tropical birds are often resident. Some of the Arctic species, such as little stint, are amongst the longest distance migrants, spending the non-breeding season in the southern hemisphere.

Most species eat small invertebrates picked out of mud or exposed soil. Different lengths of bills allow different species to feed in the same habitat without direct competition for food. Many waders have sensitive nerve endings at the end of their bills which let them detect prey hidden in mud or soft soil. Some larger species, especially those adapted to drier habitats, take larger prey like insects and small reptiles.

Many of the smaller species found in coastal habitats are often called "sandpipers". The smallest member of this group is the least sandpiper, small adults of which can weigh as little as 15.5 grams and measure just over 13 cm (5 inches). The largest species is believed to be the Far Eastern curlew, at about 63 cm (25 inches) and 860 grams (1.9 lb), although the beach thick-knee, is the heaviest at about 1 kg (2.2 lb).
**Yukultji Napangati** is an Australian Aboriginal artist. She is a painter of the Papunya Tula group of artists. She is part of a generation of female painters who followed in the footsteps of the original male Papunya Tula artists.

Yukultji grew up around Marruwa, a waterhole near Lake Mackay. She grew up without knowing about places like Kiwirrkurra, or her relatives living there. She had never met anyone from outside her own family. Her family lived a completely traditional nomadic way of life. Her father, Lanti (or "Joshua"), had lived for a short time at the mission in Balgo, but he had run away after getting into trouble for stealing food. It was his decision to stay in the desert, and kept his family far away from the towns. Yukultji's father died sometime around 1980. The family finally came into contact with outsiders in October 1984, and were settled at Kiwirrkurra. The event was big news at the time, and the family became famously known as "the last nomads". Yukultji was the youngest of this group.

Yukultji experienced major culture shock when first coming out of the desert. She often found new things difficult to understand. In an interview once, she remembers, "I hopped into a car and crouched down, and I saw the trees move. I was frightened. I was scared. I jumped right off because the trees were racing around the place."

Yukultji began painting in the early 1990s. Before this, she had watched her brothers painting and later decided to try it for herself. She paints stories and songs from her and her mother's dreaming. These stories are about her traditional country, around Marruwa, Ngaminya and Marrapinti.

Her paintings are shown in several public collections in Australia. Her work has been shown in over 80 exhibitions in Australia and overseas. She was a finalist in the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Awards, in 2006, 2009, 2010 and 2011. In 2012, Yukultji won the Alice Prize, an award for Australian artists in Alice Springs.

Other websites
--------------

* Works by Yukultji Napangati at the Art Gallery of New South Wales
**Welshpool** (Welsh: **Y Trallwng**) is a small town and community in the unitary authority of Powys, Wales. It is the fourth largest town in Powys, with a population of 6,664. It lies on the banks of the River Severn and is in the historic county of Montgomeryshire. It is known for its Georgian architecture.

The town is situated around 4 miles (6.4 km) from the border with Shropshire in England. Its name in the Welsh language, **Y Trallwng**, means *"the marshy or sinking land"*. In English, it was initially known as **Pool** but its name was changed to **Welshpool** in 1835 to differentiate it from the Dorset town of Poole.

It served briefly as the capital of Powys Wenwynwyn after its prince was forced to flee the traditional Welsh royal site at Mathrafal in 1212, by the prince of Gwynedd. Assistance from the English crown (the enemies of the Gwynedd prince) restored the Wenwynwyn dynasty to their lands.

The town has a mainline railway station on the Cambrian Line between Shrewsbury and Aberystwyth. Managed and served by Transport for Wales, trains run roughly two-hourly each way.

Gallery
-------

* Welshpool CockpitWelshpool Cockpit
* Welshpool, 1794Welshpool, 1794
* Coed-y-DinasCoed-y-Dinas

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A thematic map
John Snow's cholera map about the cholera deaths in London in the 1840s, published 1854
A **thematic map** is a kind of map. Different from normal maps, a thematic map is designed to show the distribution of human or natural features or data. The information may or may not be related to geography. For example, a map which shows population is a thematic map.

Thematic maps are called so because they show features relating to a particular theme or aspect of geography.

Examples
--------

An early contributor to thematic mapping in England was the English astronomer Edmond Halley (1656–1742). His first important map was a star chart of the constellations of the Southern Hemisphere, published in 1686. In the same year he also published something new, a map of the globe (Earth) in an article about trade winds. This map is sometimes called the first weather map.

Another example of early thematic mapping comes from London physician John Snow. Snow’s cholera map of 1854 is the best known example of using thematic maps for analysis of data. His method anticipates the principles of a geographic information system (GIS). He started with an accurate map of a London neighborhood which included streets and water pump locations. Onto this Snow placed a dot for each cholera death. The pattern centered around one particular pump on Broad Street. At Snow’s request, the handle of the pump was removed, and new cholera cases ceased almost at once. Further investigation of the area revealed the Broad Street pump was near a cesspit under the home of the outbreak's first cholera victim.
A **toast sandwich** is a type of sandwich. The filling of the sandwich is a thin slice of bread that is toasted. This piece of bread may be buttered. A recipe from 1861 says to add salt and pepper to change the taste of the sandwich.

Victorian recipe
----------------

A recipe for toast sandwiches is in the invalid cookery section of the 1861 *Book of Household Management* by Isabella Beeton. She adds, "This sandwich may be varied by adding a little pulled meat, or very fine slices of cold meat, to the toast, and in any of these forms will be found very tempting to the appetite of an invalid."

Modern versions
---------------

In November 2011, the toast sandwich was recreated by the Royal Society of Chemistry after the release of Beeton's *Book of Household Management*. They wanted to bring back the forgotten dish. They said it cost as little as GB£.075 per sandwich. They named it "the country's most economical lunch". The society said they would give £200 (equivalent to £245.53 in 2019) to anyone who could make a cheaper edible meal. Many people sent them recipes. Because of this, the offer was ended seven days later. The £200 was given to a randomly selected person.
Carved wooden cranes
Detail of the Last Supper from Tilman Riemenschneider's *Altar of the Holy Blood*, 1501-05, Rothenburg, Bavaria
Work of Master Woodcarver Alexander A. Grabovetskiy
A selection of woodcarving hand tools: 3 fishtail gouges, a v-parting tool, 4 straight gouges, 3 spoon gouges, and a carvers mallet
**Wood carving** is a form of working wood by means of a cutting tool. A chisel or knife are usual tools: the chisel can be tapped with a wooden mallet. The result is a wooden figure, or the sculptural ornamentation of a wooden object. A 'wood carving' may also refer to the finished product.

The making of sculpture in wood has a long history. Wood survives much less well than the other materials such as stone and bronze. It is vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and fire. Therefore, we do not know much about wood in the art history of older cultures. Outdoor wood sculptures do not last long in most parts of the world, so that we have little idea how the totem pole tradition developed.

Many of the most important sculptures of China and Japan are in wood, also most African sculpture and that of Oceania and other regions. Wood is light, so it is suitable for masks and other objects meant to be carried. It can take very fine detail, and is also much easier to work than stone.

Some of the finest examples of early European wood carving are from the Middle Ages in Germany, Russia, Italy and France, where the typical themes of that era were used in Christian icons. In England many complete examples remain from the 16th and 17th century, when oak was often used. In general, really fine carving is done in fruitwood (wood of a fruit tree) because that is easy to work with. The famous woodcarver Grinling Gibbons used to work with lime wood. Complex pieces are often carved in separate sections which are later stuck together.

Related pages
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* Grinling Gibbons
A **Tobin tax** is a tax on all trade of currency across borders. 

The first idea that it could be useful came from the economist James Tobin. The tax is meant to put a penalty on short-term speculation in currencies. The proposed tax rate would be low, between 0.1% to 0.25%. 

On August 15, 1971, Richard Nixon told that it would no longer be possible to change the US dollar to gold, so ended the Bretton Woods system. Tobin suggested a new system for international currency stability, and proposed that such a system include a charge on foreign-exchange transactions. Professor Tobin later received a Nobel Prize in Economics in 1981.

The idea was nearly forgotten for more than 20 years. In 1997 Ignacio Ramonet, editor of *Le Monde Diplomatique*, started the debate around the Tobin tax again with an editorial titled "*Disarming the markets*". Ramonet proposed to create an association for the introduction of this tax, which was named ATTAC (Association for the Taxation of financial Transactions for the Aid of Citizens). The tax has then become an issue of the antiglobalization movement and a matter of discussion not only behind academic institutions but even in the streets and in parliaments around the world, such as the UK and France.

Tobin tax projects in the world
-------------------------------

Since one country acting alone would find it very difficult to introduce this tax, many argue it would be best done by an international institution. It has been proposed that having the United Nations manage a Tobin tax would solve this problem and would give the U.N. a large source of funding independent from donations by participating states. However, there have been initiatives of national dimension about the tax.

The Tobin tax idea was the subject of much discussion in Europe in the summer of 2001. On June 15, 2004, the Commission of Finance and Budget in the Belgian Federal Parliament approved a bill implementing the *Spahn tax* (a version of the Tobin tax proposed by Paul-Bernd Spahn). According to the legislation, Belgium will introduce the Tobin tax once all countries of the eurozone introduce a similar law.

Other websites
--------------

* ATTAC Archived 2020-09-16 at the Wayback Machine
* Disarming the markets, editorial by Ignacio Ramonet, Le Monde Diplomatique 1997
* Tobin Tax Initiative Archived 2006-03-08 at the Wayback Machine
* War on Want Archived 2019-01-10 at the Wayback Machine
* coverage of the issue in HedgeWorld Archived 2004-03-28 at the Wayback Machine
* The Guardian editorializes against the Tobin tax
* Currency Transaction Taxes - analysis from Global Policy Forum
* English version of James Tobin interview on Der Spiegel on Jubilee 2000 web site Archived 2005-03-06 at the Wayback Machine
* ATTAC France's view on Tobin's interview (English version) Archived 2006-02-10 at the Wayback Machine
* Website offering coverage of Tobin tax initiatives, as well as supportive and critical papers Archived 2007-02-04 at the Wayback Machine
* JEEA article by Prof. Hau Archived 2006-11-28 at the Wayback Machine
**Pelham Humfrey** (also: *Humphrey*) (born London 1647; died Windsor 14 July 1674) was an English composer in the Baroque period. Although he died at the age of 26 he had an important influence on English composers such as William Turner and Henry Purcell. He lived at the time of the Restoration, when England was ruled by a king once more after two decades of republican rule, during which music had not been allowed in churches.

Life
----

We do not know much detail about his early life. He seems to have been a choirboy in the Chapel Royal by 1660. During this time he was obviously becoming a very gifted composer. Other boys in the choir included John Blow and William Turner. As a young man he travelled to France where he heard music by French composers such as Lully and Italians such as Carissimi. This helped him to form his own style. He became a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He wrote some fine anthems, although the diarist Samuel Pepys thought that he was showing off. This may be because Pepys did not like the new kind of music. He married the daughter of his old choir master Henry Cooke. He became Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal. This meant that he was in charge of the children in the king's chapel choir. He was also a court composer.

He became ill and died at the age of 26. He was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.

His music
---------

Humfrey composed a lot of music during his very short life. It helped to form the English Baroque style. He mostly wrote church music, but he also wrote some music for the theatre.

Humfrey liked to compose music which excited people's emotions. Some of his melodies jump around in unexpected ways. There is a lot of chromaticism. Some of his best anthems include: *O Lord my God*, *By the waters of Babylon* and *Like as the hart*. He wrote 27 songs. Five of them are religious songs, and they are some of the best songs of that time.
**Privacy by design (PbD)** is an idea in systems engineering and information technology.

In privacy by design, the engineers build the system so that it keeps information private starting at the beginning instead of building the system and then adding privacy protection later. In privacy by design, the designers treat privacy protection as just as important as other parts of the design.

History
-------

Dr. Ann Cavoukian first said the term "Privacy by Design" when she was the Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario, Canada. Dr. Cavoukian later wrote about the "7 foundational principles" of privacy by design in the 1990s.

The European GDPR regulation incorporates privacy by design which revolves around the following foundational principles:

Foundational principles
-----------------------

### Privacy by Design is based on seven foundational principles

1. Privacy First
2. Privacy as the default setting
3. Privacy inside of design
4. Full functionality
5. End-to-end security
6. Keep it open
7. Keep user centered

The authors of more than five hundred other articles have talked about these principles by citing the white paper "Privacy by Design in Law, Policy and Practice" by Ann Cavoukian. Privacy by Design is accepted as the gold standard internationally.
**Palakkad District** is one of the 14 districts of the Indian state of Kerala. Also, it is the largest district in kerala from 2006. The city of Palakkad is the district headquarters. Palakkad is bordered on the northwest by the Malappuram District, on the southwest by the Thrissur District, on the northeast by The Nilgiris District and on the east by Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. The district is 24.4% urbanised according to the census of 2011. The district is nicknamed "the granary of Kerala" and "Rice bowl of Kerala".

Palaklad Govt. Victoria College Entrance

Demographics
------------

According to the 2011 census Palakkad district has a population of 2,810,892, roughly equal to the nation of Jamaica or the US state of Utah. This gives it a ranking of 138th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of 627 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,620/sq mi). Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 7.39%. Palakkad has a sex ratio of 1067 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 89.32%. Palakkad city has a literacy rate of 94.20%

### Languages

The official language Malayalam is predominantly and widely spoken in the district, while Tamil forms the main language of over 6% of the district's population.

Satellite Images
----------------

* Satellite image of Palakkad
* Road map of Palakkad

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Palakkad district***.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide about: ***Palakkad District***

* Official website for Palakkad Archived 2018-02-25 at the Wayback Machine
* Palakkad District Tourism-Information
A common clownfish in a sea anemone. The fish lives in a symbiosis with the anemone
*Amphiprion melanopus* anemonefish in a bubble anemone from East Timor.
**Sea anemones** are Cnidarian animals that live in the sea. They are polyps, one of the basic forms of the phylum. They are predatory animals, which paralyse their prey with stinging nematocysts. These fire a harpoon-like structure which delivers a dose of neurotoxins. To eat the fish, or crustacean, they move the prey into their stomach, where they are slowly digested.

Anemones are sessile. This means they like to stay in one area. They can move very slowly along the bottom. Some types can swim to a new location by using flexing movements. Many species live in rockpools between high tide and low tide, and on rocky shores generally. Anemones can be found in deep oceans as well, and a few are pelagic.

An anemone has an oral disk on the top of its body. The sea anemone’s mouth and gut are in the middle of the oral disk. The tentacles surround the oral disk. The pedal disc is on the bottom of the sea anemone.

Some sea anemones live in symbiosis with other animals. clownfish, Incognito goby, and arrow crabs may shelter among the tentacles of the anemone. Hermit crabs often have sea anemones on the shell they live in. Some anemones have a symbiosis with a type of algae which lives inside them. This is the same thing many corals do. The dinoflagellate algae use sunlight to make food, and the anemone uses some of the food.

The first detailed investigation of sea anemones was a survey of those found on or near the beaches of the British Isles by the naturalist Philip Henry Gosse.
**Sepsis** is a very dangerous disease that occurs when an infection goes wrong. Normally the immune system of the body is able to fight the germs and overcome the infection, but in sepsis something goes wrong. The pathogen was at some point able to get into the blood or tissues. The term sepsis is frequently used to refer to septicemia (**blood poisoning**). Septicemia is only one type of sepsis. Bacteremia specifically refers to the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream (viremia and fungemia are the terms used for viruses and fungi). A sepsis is a medical emergency, as it can put the life in danger, if it is not acted on.

Symptoms
--------

Common symptoms of sepsis are inflammations all over the body. This is often combined with high fever. Today, people believe, these symptoms are caused by the immune system trying to fight the disease. Because of the strong reactions, organs can be damaged in the process. In a sense, the immune system over-reacts the germs and goes wrong, causing damage to the organs.

Cause of death
--------------

In the United States, sepsis is the leading cause of death for ICU patients which do not have heart problems. Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention shows it is the tenth most common cause of death overall. Older people, those with a weak immune system and those with a strong illness suffer from sepis more often. It is also more dangerous to them. It occurs in 1%-2% of all hospitalizations and accounts for as much as 25% of intensive care unit (ICU) bed utilization. It is a major cause of death in intensive care units worldwide, with mortality rates that range from 20% for sepsis to 40% for *severe sepsis* to over 60% for *septic shock*.

More severe forms
-----------------

Severe sepsis and septic shock are more severe forms of sepsis. With severe sepsis, one or more organs fail to work. Septic shock is when sepsis is combined with very low blood pressure.

Treatment
---------

Today, the bacterial forms of sepsis can be treated with antibiotics. In addition, the fluids (blood) containing the germs have to be replaced. It might also be necessary to functionally replace the organs that failed. It is important to begin to treat the sepsis as quickly as possible, as each hour it is left untreated will raise the chances of death by 5% to 10%.

About half the people affected and untreated die from the condition. Rapid access to treatment will increase the chances of survival in most cases.

Other websites
--------------

* Society of Critical Care Medicine Archived 2006-09-26 at the Wayback Machine Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock (and other guidelines)
**Sigrid Sofia Matilda Elisabet von Essen** (17 August 1850 in Porvoo - 22 April 1912 in Helsinki) was a Swedish speaking Finnish actress.

Life
----

At home Siri had already in young years a French governess. This is a reason, that Siri can speak French very well. Her parents Carl Reinhold von Essen and Carlotta In de Betou were normally people. Already in 1868 the first move to Paris came. She had no problems with the new city and the speach. When the family five years later must sell the Finnish goods, Siri moved to Stockholm, where she married some years later Carl Gustav Wrangel. The divorced came after four years, because Siri want to work as an actress. Also her husband had a married with Siris cousin.

After divorce Siri took drama lessons and already in 1877 she had her first performance. 1875 she met August Strindberg and married him at 30th December 1875. When she got her first children, she was quit by the dramatist. Since 1884 the married between Strindberg and Siri von Essen wasn't very good, because August accused Siri to had a lesbian married with Marie David. 1888 Siri and August started a drama, but it doesn't works good. After divorce in 1893, Siri moved with her children to Finland.

She was died at 22 April 1912 in Solna.
The location of Salland (red) within Overijssel (dark grey) and the Netherlands (light grey), showing the area now generally considered to be part of Twente.
Salland Hillridge National Park
**Salland** is a historical region in the west and north of the present Dutch province of Overijssel.

History
-------

The history of Salland goes back to the early Middle Ages, when the four quarters of Oversticht (Salland, Twente, Land van Vollenhove and Drenthe) came together.
Salland (and nearby areas) may have been the early seat of the Salian Franks, the founders of the modern Dutch and French nations.

Geography
---------

Salland is bound to the west by the provincial border with Gelderland, which is partly formed by river IJssel; to the north by the Meppelerdiep stream and the provincial border with Drenthe, which partly consists of the Reest stream; to the east by the borders with the German state of Lower Saxony and the eastern Overijssel region of Twente; and to the south by the border with the Gelderland region of Achterhoek, part of which is formed by the Schipbeek stream.

Geologically, most of Salland's landscape consists of a lowland covered with river sediment.

Municipalities
--------------

These 13 municipalities belong to Salland region:

 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| * Dalfsen
* Deventer (also part of IJsselvallei region)
* Hardenberg
* Hellendoorn (small part in Twente region)
* Kampen (also part of IJsselvallei and Kop van Overijssel regions)
* Olst-Wijhe (also part of IJsselvallei region)
* Ommen

  | * Raalte
* Rijssen-Holten (partially in Twente)
* Staphorst (also part of Kop van Overijssel region)
* Twenterand (partially in Twente)
* Zwartewaterland (also part of Kop van Overijssel region)
* Zwolle (also part of IJsselvallei region)
 |

Related pages
-------------

* Achterhoek
* Kop van Overijssel
* Twente

Other websites
--------------

* Salland Natuurlijk Gastvrij, pages of the Salland Board of Tourism (in Dutch)
**School holidays** are the periods when schools close for a break. The dates and length of school holidays are very different throughout the world. Governments often pass laws on the total number of school days for public schools. Private schools usually decide their own holidays.

Popular Holidays
----------------

### Christmas Holidays

In all Christan countries and some countries with different religions there are holidays called Christmas Holidays where people don't have to go to school and they can spend time with their families. Usually in the Northern Hemisphere Christmas holidays last for about 2 weeks. But in the Southern Hemisphere, it is summer holidays so the Christmas Holidays usually last from about 6-14 weeks depending on the country.

### Easter Holidays

Christan countries also celebrate the Easter holidays which can last for about a week or two weeks. In the Northern Hemisphere this is also known as Spring break because it is Spring during Easter in the Northern Hemisphere while in the Southern Hemisphere these are just known as the Easter holidays because it is Autunm over there.

### Summer Vacation

In places like America, summer vacation usually lasts from June until September (14 weeks) while in other places like England, summer vacation (or known as summer holidays over there) last for about 6 weeks from late July until the begining of September because they have a 2 week holiday for Christmas and a 2 week holiday for Easter and several 1 week holidays. In places like Australia, because they're in the Southern Hemisphere, they have their holidays for about 6 weeks like England but have their holidays from about mid December to late January because they have the two two week holidays like England and an extra two week holiday in October without having the extra one week holidays.
Based on discovered skeletal material
*Scutellosaurus*
***Scutellosaurus*** was a small bipedal herbivorous dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic period, 200–196 million years ago. It was about a metre long.

Its back was armoured, and it is placed in the Thyreophora with the other armoured dinosaurs. It was one of the earliest members of this group, and the most basal (primitive) form so far known. Its closest relatives may have been *Emausaurus* and *Scelidosaurus*. These, and the larger armoured dinosaurs *Ankylosaurus*, *Stegosaurus* and *Huayangosaurus*, were all quadrupedal. The lightly built bipedal *Scutellosaurus* is similar in form to the ancestral dinosaurs, which were bipedal.

Description
-----------

*Scutellosaurus* was around 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) long, 50 centimetres (20 in) tall at the hips, and weighed 10 kilograms (22 lb). The fossil evidence includes two partial skeletons recovered from Arizona, although of the skull only the lower jaw has been recovered. There were also several hundred scutes running along its neck to its back and as far down as its tail. Some of these shields were flat, while others were pitted. It had an unusually long tail, possibly a counterbalance to the weight of the armoured body, and long arms that suggest it may have browsed on all fours.