recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
In Brazil, the **Civil Police** (called the ''Polícía Civil'' in Portuguese) is the country's investigative state police forces. The Civil Police are under the authority of the federative units of Brazil. The federative units' job is to protect public safety and keep public order. Article 144 of the Federal Constitution of 1988 gives this job to the federative units (and their agency, the Civil Police).

Each of the states of Brazil has its own Civil Police Department, which carries out detective work, forensics, and criminal investigations. Each Civil Police Department acts as a state bureau of investigation.

Description
-----------

*Civil Police Helicopter*
The Civil Police of Brazil began as the General Intendancy of Police, created in Rio de Janeiro on May 10, 1808. The General Intendancy was later re-organized and renamed the Civil Police. Today, the Constitution of Brazil says that the Civil Police must exist. This is stated in article 144, IV and 144 § 4°, of the Federal Constitution.

Organization
------------

There are 27 civil police forces in Brazil, one for each state. They are directed by a Head of Police, who is elected. 

Judiciary police have control over small cities or quarters of the large cities.

Other websites
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 Media related to Civil Police (Brazil) at Wikimedia Commons
The **Civil Rights Act of 1875** (18 Stat. 335–337), sometimes called **Enforcement Act** or **Force Act**, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in *Civil Rights Cases* (1833) that sections of the act were unconstitutional.

History of Act
--------------

### Legislative History

The drafting of the bill was done in early 1870 by Senator Charles Sumner. It was with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African-American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st United States Congress in 1870. The act was eventually passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.

### Constitutional challenge

See the main article: Civil Rights Cases
The Supreme Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, declared the act unconstitutional in the *Civil Rights Cases* on October 15, 1883. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law in the United States until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.

### Legacy of law

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the major pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War. These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.

Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. This legislation relied on the Commerce Clause in Article One of the Constitution of the United States.
A **diocese** is an area of land under the charge of a bishop. He looks after the religious needs of the Christians who live there. The bishop organises the work of the Church in the area, and is responsible for all the ministers (priests) in his area. Another word for diocese is **see**, or even 'episcopal see'.

The diocese is the key geographical unit of religious authority in the church. Archbishops have an **archdiocese**. Inside each diocese are a number of parishes. Each parish is the area supervised by a local priest, and is part of the diocese.

History
-------

As the Western Roman Empire fell during the 5th and 6th centuries the bishops of the Church took over many of the administrative roles of the former Roman prefects. The areas of ecclesiastical administration always coincided with those of the Roman civil administration. 

A thousand years later, the Ottoman Empire conquered the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire. The eastern bishops then continued as the Roman civil structure was stripped away. Many an ancient diocese, though later divided among several dioceses, preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division.

Other websites
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 Media related to Dioceses at Wikimedia Commons
***Conspiracy of One*** is the sixth album by American punk rock band The Offspring, released in 2000. The album debuted at 9 on the US Billboard 200 with around 125,000 copies sold in its first week and has sold more than 1 million copies worldwide.[*source?*] It is the follow-up to the commercially successful *Americana*.

The Offspring had come out in support of file sharing, claiming it does not hurt sales. This album was originally planned to be released directly on their website before retail, until their label threatened to sue.

*Conspiracy of One* is also the band's final studio album with the most successful line-up, as drummer Ron Welty left band in early 2003 to pursue his career with Steady Ground.

Track listing
-------------

1. "Intro" – 0:08
2. "Come Out Swinging" – 2:47
3. "Original Prankster" (with Redman) – 3:42
4. "Want You Bad" – 3:23
5. "Million Miles Away" – 3:40
6. "Dammit, I Changed Again" – 2:49
7. "Living in Chaos" – 3:28
8. "Special Delivery" – 3:00
9. "One Fine Day" – 2:45
10. "All Along" – 1:39
11. "Denial, Revisited" – 4:33
12. "Vultures" – 3:35
13. "Conspiracy of One" – 2:17

Personnel
---------

* Dexter Holland - Vocals and Guitar
* Noodles - Lead Guitar
* Greg K. - Bass
* Ron Welty - Drums
**Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore** (August 8, 1605 – November 30, 1675), was a member of the English nobility who started the colony of Maryland in the British colonies. He was the first Proprietary Governor of the Province of Maryland. Before that, he was the ninth Proprietary Governor of the Colony of Newfoundland (in what is today Canada). His father was George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore. George Calvert was chosen to be the proprietary governor of both Maryland and Newfoundland, but he died before he could take the position.

He was called "Cecil Calvert." Cecil was a Roman Catholic and the colony of Maryland was officially Catholic. He managed Maryland from his home in England. Maryland was known for its religious toleration. At the time, there was a lot of religious persecution in England. Many Catholics fled (ran away to) Maryland because their religion was accepted there. Calvert was governor of Maryland for forty-two years. He died in England on November 30, 1675, aged 70 years. The city of Baltimore is named for him.

Sources
-------

1. ↑  Archives of Maryland (Biographical Series) Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Lord Baltimore (1605-1675) Retrieved February 2011
2. ↑  American History Website Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved February 2011
About 86 per cent of Nicaraguans are European (but not limited to Spanish) or mixed European and of native ancestry. Most Nicaraguans have Spanish ancestors, but the 19th century saw several waves of immigration from other European countries (mainly from Germany). Most of the Mestizo and European population live in the western and central regions of the country and especially in the cities of Managua, Leon and Granada.

About 9 per cent of Nicaragua's population is black or afro-nicaragüense and they are concentrated in the country's eastern coast, and were brought mostly from Jamaica and Haiti when the region was a British protectorate. There is also a smaller number of Garifuna, a people of mixed African, Caribbean, Angolan, Congoan and Arawak descent.

Just 5 per cent of the population are of pure native descent. Nicaragua's pre-Columbian population consisted of the Nahuatl-speaking Nicarao people of the west, and six ethnic groups including the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos in the Caribbean region. While very few pure-blooded Nicarao people still exist, the Caribbean peoples have remained distinct. In the mid-1980s, the government divided the eastern half of the country - the former department of Zelaya - into two autonomous regions and granted the African and indigenous people of the region limited self-rule.

There is also a small Middle Eastern-Nicaraguan community of Syrian, Armenian, Palestinian and Lebanese people in Nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000, and an East Asian community of Japanese, Taiwanese and Chinese people of almost 8,000. The minorities speak Spanish and maintain their ancestral languages as well.

Spanish is spoken by about 90% of Nicaraguans; the Nicaraguan dialect has many similarities to Galician, and also has similarities to Argentinian Spanish which uses "vos" instead of "tu", along with the "vos" conjugation. The black population of the east coast region has English as its first language. Several indigenous peoples of the east still use their original languages.

Roman Catholicism is the major religion, but evangelical Protestant groups have grown recently, and there are strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast. 0.1% of Nicaragua is Buddhist and the religion has been growing in recent years.

Ninety per cent of Nicaraguans live in the Pacific and central lowlands and the adjacent interior highlands. The population is 54% urban.
The interior of the former vegetable market
Another view of the central market area
A view of the Royal Opera House
**Covent Garden** is a huge piazza or open area in London, between the West End and the City of London. It is north of The Strand and east of Trafalgar Square. Once it was a huge fruit, vegetable and flower market with many taverns, theatres, coffee-houses, prostitutes and brothels.

Now it is a huge commercial area and "tourist trap". The former market has been redeveloped, keeping its glass roof and cast iron spans. The area is hugely popular with visitors to London, and has a number of remarkable buildings nearby.

The Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, is the main theatre for ballet and opera in London. It has several rehearsal rooms with full-size stages, a large costume department and restaurants.

The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane is nearby. It has been purchased and restored by Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber.

Bow Street is also nearby; it is a boundary road to Covent Garden. This was the road where the original police force of London, the Bow Sreet Runners, was formed in the 1740s. The Bow Street Magistrate's Court was one of the most famous criminal courts in London until it was closed in 2006. It is going to be a boutique hotel.

A view from the Royal Opera House
Demographics of Pakistan, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.
The **Demographics of Pakistan** are a study of the population and the people. It is estimated that Pakistan's population was over 170,000,000 in mid 2008. Pakistan had an estimated population of 169,300,000 as of July 2007,. Between 1951-1998, the number of people in Pakistan's cities and towns (known as the urban population) increased sevenfold. And by the next decade the population is expected to exceed 176 million. In the past, the country's population had a quite high growth rate. Dramatic social changes have led to rapid urbanisation and the emergence of megacities. Between 1990-2003, Pakistan sustained its historical lead as the most urbanised nation in South Asia, with city dwellers making up 34% of its population.

Pakistan has a multicultural and multi-ethnic society and has one of the largest refugee populations in the world as well as a young population.

Pakistan's next national census will take place in 2008.

Population data
---------------

### Geographic distribution

The majority of southern Pakistan's population lives along the Indus River. In the northern half, most of the population lives about an arc formed by the cities of Faisalabad, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Nowshera, Swabi, Mardan and Peshawar.
**Crime in Armenia** includes human trafficking, domestic violence, murder, political murder, contract killing, tax evasion, corruption, extortion, money laundering, police brutality, organized crime, and clan or gang violence.

The quick change from a Communism system to a free market capitalist system destroyed the socioeconomic structure of Armenia. 

During the first ten months of 2008, crime in Armenia's capital Yerevan rose nearly 14 percent from the same period in 2007.

Organized crime and "brotherhoods"
----------------------------------

Organized crime is a part of the Armenian economy. In Yerevan there are organized, criminal clans known as "akhperutyuns" (or *brotherhoods*). The different groups sometimes battle for rights over their territory. Members are guided by the underworld laws brought from Russian prisons.

Most of the smaller cities, towns, and villages of Armenia are also controlled by a clan or family.

Human trafficking
-----------------

A "well-paid job" is very often the bait used to persuade women in difficult social situations to travel abroad.

### Sexual exploitation

In July 2004, Russia’s Interior Minister Rashid Nurgaliev said that growing cooperation between Russian and Armenian law enforcement bodies has prevented more than one hundred Armenian women from being trafficked abroad for sexual exploitation. According to Nurgaliev, "criminal groups" which have been neutralized planned to transport the mostly young women to third countries, mainly the United Arab Emirates, via Russia. On June 24, 2004, members of a criminal group who were intent on forcing 6 Armenian women into prostitution were arrested.

On April 20, 2009, Anoush Martirosyan, the infamous "Madame Pimp" of Dubai, was sentenced to thirteen years in prison by a Yerevan judge. Martirosyan ran a prostitution ring in Dubai to which she lured girls from Armenia.

Domestic violence
-----------------

According to a 2008 study by Amnesty International, more than a quarter of women in Armenia "have faced physical violence at the hands of husbands or other family members." Reporting domestic violence is heavily stigmatized in Armenian society. Many of these women have no choice but to stay in abusive situations.
**Charlotte Forman** (1715–1787) was a journalist, translator, political essayist and activist. Between 1756 and 1780, she wrote political essays and news from abroad for newspapers under pseudonyms (false names). The false name she used in the newspapers *Gazetteer* and *The Public Ledger* was "Probus".

She was not famous in her lifetime, but she has become more well known in recent years. This is because she was one of the few women at that time who wrote essays on politics and trade. Back then, people thought those were men's areas of interest. Because of sexism, most people thought Forman's essays were written by men.

Scholars say her essays show great knowledge and morality.

Early life
----------

Forman's father was Irish Jacobite Charles Forman, and her mother was called Mary. Forman had five brothers and sisters. 

Charles Forman was a clerk in the English war office. When James Francis Edward Stuart tried become king of England, Ireland and Scotland (and make royal House of Stuart the rulers of these countries) in the Jacobite rising of 1715, Forman was late in sending orders to the English general Charles Wills, who was fighting the Jacobites. Therefore, we do not know whether Charlotte was born in England or France, but she did later write that she had been "nursed in the palace of the Trianon" in France.

She lived in London for most of her life in poverty, and went into debtors' prison for a short time in 1767.

Writing career
--------------

Forman wrote a many political essays for the *Gazetteer* and *London Daily Advertiser* between 1756 and 1760, then carried in in the *Public Ledger* in 1760. Both newspapers were for merchants, traders, and shopkeepers in London, and had information about to international trade, such as news about shipping and offers of wholesale and retail goods..

Forman's essays in the *Gazetteer* and the *Public Ledger*, all signed as Probus, were written in the before and during the Seven Years' War. About 200 surviving essays comment on diplomatic news and general news reports, as well as looking into the interests of England, Prussia, France, Holland, Austria, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark. She always supported the English war effort, and kept telling readers that England could defeat France, as well as defending Frederick the Great and William Pitt from critics. She also argued against an early peace, as she thought it would give France too much leeway.

Letters written between her and with Radical satirist and politician John Wilkes have beensaid to give modern readers "graphic evidence of the struggles of an independent woman in the 18th century attempting to support herself by writing". She said she was a literary day labourer.

She is not known to have published anything under her own name, although there are many works published anonymously which now cannot be attributed.
Mount of oxyaenid *Patriofelis* from the American Museum of Natural History.
The **Creodonta** are, traditionally, an extinct order of mammals which lived from the Palaeocene to the Miocene epoch. They are distant relatives of the Carnivora. However, the carnassial teeth of modern carnivores and both groups of creodonts are not formed from the same teeth. This evolutionary convergence suggests the creodonts are *not* the ancestors of modern carnivores. 

Also, they are perhaps not a natural group. However, a phylogenetic analysis of Paleocene mammals published in 2015 supported the monophyly of Creodonta, and put the group as relatives of pangolins. There is an extensive literature on the subject.

 Outline and front view of skull of *Sarkastodon mongoliensis*.
Skull of oxyaenid *Machaeroides eothen*.
Creodonts were the dominant group of carnivorous mammals from 55 to 35 million years ago (mya) in the ecosystems of Africa, Eurasia and North America. They competed with the Mesonychids and the Entelodonts and ultimately outlasted them. In Oligocene Africa, they were the dominant predatory group. 

At last, they lost ground to the Carnivora. The Carnivora are the only group to survive today. The last creodont genus went extinct eight million years ago, and modern carnivores now occupy their ecological niches.

The first creodont fossils were in the Palaeocene, about 60 million years ago (mya), and the last *Dissopsalis*, perhaps eight mya. So, the creodonts lasted for at least 50 million years.

Adaptations
-----------

Creodonts show various adaptations to their carnivorous life-style, and show convergent evolution with modern carnivores. They share, for example, the carnassial shear, a modification of teeth that sliced meat like scissors.

The Carnivora also developed larger brains and more efficient running. Once forest and woodland was partly replaced by grassland, in the Miocene, the true carnivores had the advantage, and the creodonts lost ground and eventually became extinct.
Adult crested serpent eagle
The **crested serpent eagle** (*Spilornis cheela*) is a medium-sized bird of prey. It is found in forested habitats across tropical Asia. It is found in a wide range across the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia and East Asia. There are a number of variations and some authorities prefer to treat several of its subspecies as completely separate species. In the past, several species including the Philippine serpent eagle (*S. holospila*), Andaman serpent eagle (*S. elgini*) and South Nicobar serpent eagle (*S. klossi*) were treated as subspecies of the Crested serpent eagle.

Physical description
--------------------

All members within the species complex have a large looking head with long feathers on the back of the head giving them a crested appearance. The face is bare and yellow joining up with the beak. Its powerful feet are unfeathered and heavily scaled. They fly over the forest canopy on broad wings and their tails have wide white and black bars. They call often with a loud, piercing and familiar three or two-note call.

Behavior
--------

This raptor sits motionless from a high perch watching for prey. When prey is found it drops almost straight down to pounce. They often feed on snakes, giving them their name and are placed along with the *Circaetus* snake-eagles in the subfamily *Circaetinae*. In addition to snakes it catches reptiles as well as small mammals and birds. It will take a dead snake whenever it finds one. They are often seen soaring over their territory in pairs. In Japan they are usually found very close to forest edges and wet marshlands.

Role in the ecosystem
---------------------

Crested serpent eagles are apex predators and at the top of their food chain. They are a good indicator of the health of the ecosystem they occupy. They control snake populations and also those of other small mammals and reptiles. They are a common sight in places such as India. The species is not globally threatened. On most lists they are of least concern.
**Charles Henry "Charlie" Christian** (July 29, 1916 – March 2, 1942) was an American jazz guitarist. Christian is best known as one of the first famous guitarists to play the electric guitar. He is also remembered as one of the first musicians to help create the styles of jazz music known as *"bebop"* and *"cool jazz."*

Career
------

Christian first gained fame as a member of the Benny Goodman Orchestra. He played with Goodman from August 1939 to June 1941. He was very good at playing many notes up and down on a sinle guitar string. By playing his guitar through an amplifier his guitar solos made the guitar very loud in the band.

Death
-----

Christian died in March 1942 when he was only 26 years old. He had been sick with tuberculosis for several years before he died. 

Even though he was jazz guitarist who died before the music style rock and roll was started, he was still a large influence on rock and roll musicians. It was because of this that in 1990 Charlie Christian was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame even though he had never played rock and roll music.

Legacy
------

Charles Henry Christian was raised in Oklahoma City in the American state of Oklahoma. In 2006 Oklahoma City renamed a street to *"Charlie Christian Avenue."* There is also a yearly jazz music festival in Oklahoma City which is named after Charlie Christian.
A **deadline** is a time by which some task must be completed.

Very often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work.

Deadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature. For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself.

A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things.
**Charles Stewart Parnell** (27 June 1846 – 6 October 1891) was an Irish member of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. He led the Irish Parliamentary Party. He played an important part in the fight for Home Rule for Ireland.

Background
----------

Charles Stewart Parnell was born in Avondale, County Wicklow. His family was upper class. He was the seventh child of John Henry Parnell and his American wife Delia Tudor Stewart. Parnell's great-grandmother was in the Tudor family so he was related to the British Royal Family.

His parents separated when he was six. He was sent to different schools in England, where he was unhappy. His father died in 1859 and he inherited his fortune. He then studied at Cambridge University (1865-9) but never graduated. He was Sheriff of his county, Wicklow, prior to being an MP (member of the House of Commons).

Member of Parliament
--------------------

Charles Stewart Parnell was first elected to the House of Commons, as a Home Rule League MP for Meath, on 21 April 1875. During his first year Parnell mostly stayed quiet and watched. He first drew attention in 1876 when he said a group of Irish rebels called Fenians (accused of killing a police officer) did not kill anyone.

### Home Rule

Parnell fought for Ireland's right to be self-governing Home Rule Movement. At first he met with Fenians, but he later decided to work with Michael Davitt. He was elected president of Davitt's movement, (called the "Land League") on 21 October 1879. After becoming the MP for Cork City, he formed a new group with ideas from many other groups called the Irish National League which later became the Irish Parliamentary Party. Although Ireland did not become independent for many years, Parnell's work in Parliament pushed Ireland much closer to their goal by unifying Irish politics.

Personal life
-------------

### Katherine O'Shea

On 24 December 1889 Captain William O’Shea decided to divorce his wife Katherine O'Shea. O'Shea had already separated from his wife, but would not divorce her as she was expecting a substantial inheritance.

O'Shea at last filed for divorce. He claimed she had an affair and three children with Parnell. Parnell did not reply to the claim, and the divorce was granted. Because divorce is not allowed by Catholics, many Catholics who supported Parnell did not like him anymore and he became less popular.

Parnell married Katherine after her divorce. The damage from his affair caused many people to lose respect for him, and he became less powerful. Many members of his party left him. He died on 6 October 1891 of a heart attack and in the arms of his wife. He was 45 years old.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***China Railways DF4D***.

The **DF4D** (Chinese: 东风4D) is a kind of diesel locomotive used in China. It was built by Dalian Locomotive & Rolling Stock Works. It has been in production since 1996 and is still produced as of 2012. It is the common locomotive in China and is used for both passenger and freight services.

Models
------

### 0000 Series (Speed passenger type)

The first DF4D was built in 1996 in Dalian. The 0000 Series locomotives used the 16V240ZJD engine. It took several years to build all 580 locomotives of this type.It is called "**Tiger**" by Chinese raliway fans.

### 3000 Series (Quasi-high-speed passenger type)

The first 3000 Series was built in 1999 in Dalian. It had full suspension bogies, electro-pneumatic braking system and fully enclosed electrical cabinets, ZD106 traction motor, and change the gear ratio. It is called "Flower Tiger" by Chinese raliway fans.

### 4000 Series (General freight type)

The first two 4000 Series locomotives were built in 1999 in Dalian,but using the number 0241 and 0242.

The 4000 Series' maximum operating speed is adjusted to 100 km / h, locomotive the starting tractive significantly increased to 480 kN, continuous tractive effort increased dramatically to 341 kN.

A 4000 Series Locomotive which numbered 1893 is 4th generation of Mao Zedong Locomotive. It has delisted.

4000 Series Locomotive is called "Ukraine" by Chinese raliway fans,because the coating color of the car looks like the Ukrainian flag upside down.

### 7000 Series (Radial bogie freight type)

In order to adjust the mountain railways in southwest China, the first 7000 Series locomotive was built in 2000 in Dalian.The 7000 Series Locomotive using two three-axis self-steering radial bogies,but these 21 locomotives were replaced the ordinary bogies in 2007.

7000 Series Locomotive is called "Liuzhou Tiger" by Chinese raliway fans,because it spent it's working life on Liuzhou Locomotive Depot of Nanning Railway Bureau.

Gallery
-------

* DF4D-1893DF4D-1893
* DF4D-3174 & DF4D-3265DF4D-3174 & DF4D-3265
* DF4D-4001DF4D-4001
* DF4D-7002DF4D-7002

Related pages
-------------

* Chinese Rail DF4C
* Chinese Rail DF4DD
* Chinese Rail DF4DF
* Chinese Rail DF4DJ
* Chinese Rail DF6
* Chinese Rail DF11
**Chiapas** is the southernmost state of Mexico. It is towards the southeast of the country. Chiapas is bordered by the states of Tabasco to the north, Veracruz to the northwest, and Oaxaca to the west. To the east Chiapas borders Guatemala, and to the south the Pacific Ocean. 

Chiapas has an area of 28,528 square miles (73,890 km2). The 2005 census population was 4,293,459 people.

In general Chiapas has a humid, tropical weather. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can be more than 3,000 mm (118 in) per year. In the past, natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely to give way to agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula. On the several parallel "sierras" or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, climate can be quite temperate and foggy. This allows the development of cloud forests like those of the Reserva de la Biosfera el Triunfo, home to a handful of quetzals and horned guans.

The state capital is Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Other cities and towns in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Tapachula. Chiapas is also home to the ancient Maya ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilan, Bonampak, Chinkultic, and Tonina.

Most people in Chiapas are poor, rural small farmers. About one quarter of the population are of full or predominant Maya descent, and in rural areas many do not speak Spanish. The state suffers from the highest rate of malnutrition in Mexico. This rate is estimated to affect over 40% of the population.

Other social issues involve the increasing presence of the Central American gangs known as Maras, and illegal immigration from Central America in general. This migration is mostly directed towards the United States, but it makes local poverty even worse. Many times, there are abuse and Human Rights violations that touch these migrants.

In 1994, there was an outbreak of violence between the Mexican Government and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (the EZLN or Zapatistas). Today, the EZLN (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, named in honour of Emiliano Zapata) has rejected the use of force and seek to be recognized as a voice of the poor. There are currently 32 "rebel autonomous zapatista municipalities" (independent Zapatista communities, MAREZ in Spanish), controlled by the EZLN in Chiapas: examples of these communities are Ocosingo and Las Margaritas.

| Political divisions of Mexico |
| --- |
| States | Aguascalientes • Baja California • Baja California Sur • Campeche • Chiapas • Chihuahua • Coahuila • Colima • Durango • Guanajuato • Guerrero • Hidalgo • Jalisco • Mexico • Michoacán • Morelos • Nayarit • Nuevo León • Oaxaca • Puebla • Querétaro • Quintana Roo • San Luis Potosí • Sinaloa • Sonora • Tabasco • Tamaulipas • Tlaxcala • Veracruz • Yucatán • Zacatecas |
| National capital | Mexico City |
**Chinatown MRT Station (NE4/DT19)** is an MRT Station in Singapore. It is an interchange station along the North East MRT Line and Downtown MRT Line. It was the first MRT station with both lines operated by SBS Transit.

On the North East Line, it lies between the Outram Park and Clarke Quay MRT stations and between Telok Ayer and Fort Canning MRT stations on the Downtown Line. It is directly below and serves the ethnic district of Chinatown. The construction of the station was considered an engineering achievement, due to the busy traffic on the roads above and a number of nearby historical buildings that had to be preserved during the construction. The section of track between Telok Ayer and this station is the shortest between any two stations on the MRT network; it takes around 35 to 40 seconds for a train to travel between the stations. The distance between Chinatown and the next station, Clarke Quay, is the shortest distance between two MRT stations in Singapore, a mere 360 metres.

History
-------

This station is said to be the most challenging station to build on the North-East line, due to the large number of buildings above ground, most with reinforced concrete or timber piles and all in marine clay. Another feat was that they had to preserve Garden Bridge, a large overhead bridge on bore piles, while building the station below. The tidal Eu Tong Sen Canal was also diverted into four two-meter diameter steel pipes slung under the temporary traffic decks (two on each side). Part of the New Bridge Road was often closed between 12 January 1998 and 20 October 2001 for the construction of Chinatown MRT Station. This station was named People's Park before it was renamed in 1999. It was originally H3 / C3 before opening.
Typical preparation
Showing the different kinds of sausages, and potatoes
On a French market..
**Choucroute garnie** is a dish that can be found in the eastern parts of France, in Switzerland, Germany and Austria. In essence, it consists of Sauerkraut, with different types of sausages, and other cooked meat is added. Very often, potatoes are added too. There are many regional variations, and there's no set recipe. Most often, the sauerkraut is served with three or four different kinds of sausage, potatoes and other cooked meat. The types of sausages which are used are Morteau sausage, Saucisson vaudois, and Frankfurter. Other cooked, usually salty meat is commonly added, as are potatoes.

In other regions of France, there are also recipes with fish, shellfish and mussels.

Riesling, or another kind of white wine is used to prepare it. The version that uses Champagne instead is often called *Choucroute royale*. 

At the base, choucrote garnie is a dish of the common people, that is cheap to prepare. There are higher-priced versions that use foie gras, or deer. Many grands chefs also prepare their version.
Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland
**Direct democracy**, which is also called **pure democracy**, is a democracy in which the decisions are not taken by representatives. All decisions are voted on by the people.
When a budget or law needs to be passed, then the idea goes to the people. Governments of modern countries rarely make laws this way.

Costs and benefits of direct democracy
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Interest groups would have to change the minds of all people, not just a few representatives. Taxes could not be raised without the permission of the people. The few would not rule the many and the government would not pay representatives salaries. In indirect, or representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf. This is what most modern countries have today. 
Direct democracy makes decisions by majority rule. Representative democracy was made with the idea that representatives would be responsible for the majority's interests while protecting minority rights. People like James Madison believed that direct democracy was bad for minority groups.

History
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Classical Athens was a direct democracy. All citizens voted on major decisions of government. But, to be a citizen, you had to be a free, land-owning, native-born man.

Switzerland has aspects of direct democracy. "Evidence suggests that attendance at assemblies... has always been limited to roughly twenty per cent of the citizenry". The practice is only used in two cantons, Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus. 

The Federal government of the United States does not use direct democracy but the individual states sometimes make laws by referendum. Some New England towns govern themselves by a town meeting.

Related pages
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* Democracy
* Representative democracy
Zitkala-Sa, a West Dakotan author.
The **Dakota people** are a Native American tribe. They are also a part of the First Nations. They make up two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people. They are usually divided into the **Eastern Dakota** and the **Western Dakota**.

The Eastern Dakota are also called the **Santee**, and are located in the eastern Dakotas, central Minnesota and northern Iowa. They have many federally recognized tribes.

The Western Dakota are also called the **Yankton** or **Yanktonai,** and are located in the Missouri River area. They also have many notable federally recognized tribes. They were often mistaken to be the Nakota (who are actually a group of tribes that broke away from the main branches of the Sioux nation in earlier times).

History
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The Dakota lived in Wisconsin and Minnesota in the 17th century. By 1700 some had moved to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota became alliances with French merchants. The French tried to use this alliance to help them control the North American fur trade against the English.

### Dakota War of 1862

In the late 1850s, treaty violations by the United States and unfair payments by Indian agents (governmental people who were allowed to interact with the natives) led to increasing hunger and hardship among the Dakota. Even though the Dakota tried to negotiate with the U.S. government, nothing was successful. On 16 August 1862, a group of Dakota hunters killed a family of settlers. This led to more attacks on settlers, and soon a full war had begun. On 5 November 1862, 38 Dakota warriors were sentenced to death by hanging. This would later become the largest mass execution in U.S. history.

During and after the revolt, many Eastern Dakota and their family left Minnesota and Eastern Dakota to go to Canada, or settle in the James River Valley in a short-lived reservation. They were then forced to move to the Crow Creek Reservation on the east bank of the Missouri river. Some joined the Western Dakota and moved further west to help the Lakota tribes to continue their fight against the U.S. military.

Others remained in Minnesota and the east, in small reservations that still exist, including Sisseton-Wahpeton, Flandreau, and Devils Lake (Spirit Lake or Fort Totten) Reservations in the Dakotas. Some moved to Nebraska, where the Santee Sioux Tribe today has a reservation on the south bank of the Missouri river.

Those who fled to Canada left nine small reservations for their families in Manitoba (Sioux Valley, Long Plain, Dakota Tipi, Birdtail Creek, and Oak Lake [Pipestone]) and the four more (Standing Buffalo, Moose Woods [White Cap], Round Plain [Wahpeton], and Wood Mountain) in Saskatchewan.

Language
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The Dakota language is part of the Siouan languages. People who speak Dakota can also understand the Lakota language. Dakota is written in the Latin script. The language has two major dialects between the Eastern and Western Dakota tribes.

Other websites
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* Dakota Language Texts, from the Boston Athenæum: Schoolcraft Collection of Books in Native American Languages. Digital Collection.
Commemorative tablet to Chris Gueffroy. In the background is the partly destroyed Wall, near Reichstag. Winter 1989/90.
**Chris Gueffroy** (21 June 1968 in Pasewalk – 6 February 1989 in Berlin) was the last person to be killed by border troops while trying to escape across the Berlin Wall.

Gueffroy and his friend Christian Gaudian tried to escape from East Berlin to West Berlin on the night of 5 to 6 February 1989. They tried to cross near the Britz district canal.

Gueffroy and Gaudian thought that the *Schießbefehl*, the order to shoot anyone who attempted to cross the wall, had been stopped. Climbing the last metal fence, the two were seen and shot at by the National People's Army (NVA) border troops. Gueffroy was hit in the chest by ten shots and died in the border strip.

Gaudian was badly injured, and was arrested and was sentenced on 24 May 1989 to imprisonment for three years by the Pankow district court for trying illegally to cross the border ("*versuchten ungesetzlichen Grenzübertritts im schweren Fall*").

In September 1989 Gaudian was freed on bail by the East German government and on 17 October 1989 he was transferred to West Berlin.

Monument erected in 2003 at the Britz district canal in Berlin's Treptow-Köpenick borough
The four border guards at first got an award (*Leistungsabzeichen der Grenztruppen*) from the chief of the local border guards, Erich Wöllner, and a prize of 150 East German Marks each. After the reunification of East and West Germany, they were prosecuted by Berlin regional court. Two of them were released in January 1992. Ingo Heinrich, who fired the shot that killed Gueffroey was sentenced to three and a half years in jail. The Bundesgerichtshof reduced the penalty to a suspended sentence of two years in 1994.

In 2000, two SED officials, Siegfried Lorenz and Hans-Joachim Böhme, were tried for the death of Gueffroy and two other young men, but acquitted as the judge could find no evidence that they might have been able to lift the shoot-to-kill order. The case was retried on 7 August 2004, and the two men were found guilty and given suspended sentences of 15 months each. The judge explained that the short sentences were due to the length of time since the events. This was the last case concerning deaths on the inner German border.

On 21 June 2003, which would have been his 35th birthday, a monument to Gueffroy was built on the banks of the Britz district canal. The monument was designed by Berlin artist Karl Biedermann.

Other websites
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 Media related to Chris Gueffroy at Wikimedia Commons
The **River Dajabón** is a river in the northern side of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. It is 55 km long and flows to the north into the Manzanillo Bay, Atlantic Ocean.

Name
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The Taíno name of the river was *Guatapaná* but the Spanish people that came to live in the Hispaniola island called it **Dajabón** after the Taíno name of the region (*Dahaboon*). Because this river was the border between the two colonies of the island, there were many fights during the 16th and 17th centuries and many people died here; then the French people began to name the river **Massacre**, written sometimes **Masacre** in Spanish; massacre means the killing of many people.

Course
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The source of the Dajabón is at the *Pico de Gallo* mountain, on the northern side of the Cordillera Central mountain range. It flows through the Dajabón province and then form part of the limits between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Its mouth is in the Manzanillo Bay, on the Atlantic Ocean.

Its discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) is 2.84 cubic metres per second at Don Miguel, a place a few kilometres south of the city of Dajabón.

The city of Dajabón is the most important Dominican city close to the river. It flows also through the city of Loma de Cabrera. The Haitian city of Ouanaminthe is also close to the river.

The most important tributary is the river *Capotillo* (in Haiti, river *Bernard*). There is not any important tributary in the lower part.

The river Capotillo is part of the northern border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic until it joins the river Dajabón between the cities of Loma de Cabrera and Dajabón. Then the border follows the course of the river Dajabón.
**Chris McNally** (born November 8, 1988 in North Vancouver, British Columbia), is a Canadian actor known for his portrayal as Lucas Bouchard on the hit Hallmark Channel Original Series *When Calls the Heart*. He also had a recurring role as Sergei Brevlov in the Netflix series *Altered Carbon.*

Early life
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McNally was born and raised in North Vancouver. He attended and graduated from Argyle Secondary School.

Career
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Before getting his big break on The Hallmark Channel, as well as starring as a series regular on the network's popular series *When Calls the Heart*, McNally has spent half of his acting career guest starring in minor roles on TV shows such as *Supernatural*, *Killer Instinct*, *Tower Prep*, *Untold Stories of the E.R.*, *Dead of Summer*, *Falling Skies*, and *Lucifer*.

Aside from television, McNally also has a film career, starring in movies such as *John Apple Jack* and *The Orchard*. He also has starred in The Hallmark Channel's made-for-TV movies *The Sweetest Heart*, *A Winter Princess*, and *Sailing Into Love*. 

Recently, McNally had a role in the Lifetime Original Movie *Heaven*, based on the V.C. Andrews novels, as Cal Tennison.

Personal life
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McNally has two dogs. His cousin is Canadian actor and singer Drew Seeley.

Other websites
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* Chris McNally on IMDb
18th century paiting of the Château de Lunéville, Lorraine.

  

The **Château de Lunéville** was the former royal residence of the ruling Dukes of Lorraine. It is often likened to the far grander and larger Palace of Versailles. It is no longer a royal residence and is today a museum. The restoration of the building and its decors is under way. In France it was referred to as the "Versailles of Lorraine" and is also sometimes referred to as the **Palace of Lunéville** in English.

History
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A building had been on the site since medieval times but nothing had been done to improve or update the building due to the poor finances of the Duchy of Lorraine.

Duke Leopold I of Lorraine was married to Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans herself a niece of Louis XIV of France who at the time of their marriage in 1698 was beginning to expand the Palace of Versailles. The ducal family of Lorraine had previously used the Ducal Palace of Nancy itself in the capital of the duchy. The new Duke and duchess had an ever growing family and Leopold took it upon himself to commission another palace reflecting his rank as a sovereign duke.

Following the death of Leopold of Lorraine in 1729 the duchy was inherited by his son Francis Stephen who eventually married Empress Maria Theresa and he spent most of his time in Austria with his large family.

A after war between France, Poland and Austria apeace was concluded in October 1735 and upheld in the Treaty of Vienna in November 1738. Under its terms, Stanisław Leszczyński, the father-in-law of King Louis XV and the losing claimant to the Polish throne, received Lorraine, while Francis, in compensation for his loss, was made heir to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which he would inherit in 1737. While the ex king of Poland was in residence the building was known as the *Château Stanislas*. Stanisław Leszczyński actually died at the Château in 1766 as did his wife Catherine Opalińska in 1747. After the Polish royals left the Château was largely ignored until it was created a French Historic monument in 1901. It is currently being restored.

Gallery
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* The gardens of the Château.The gardens of the Château.
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Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Palace of Lunéville***.

* Château de Lunéville Official site Archived 2013-07-03 at the Wayback Machine