recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**Kin selection** or **kin altruism** is a form of natural selection. Some animals cooperate with relatives, even if this brings risk to themselves. The classic example of this is seen in the family life of mammals, or in colonial insects such as ants. 

Many mammals and birds raise alarms to warn others of danger. Others cooperate in tasks, such as scrub jays help each other with to build nests. In all these cases where animals cooperate, the question is whether there is any biological benefit to themselves. It is now clear that there is benefit if the animals are closely related. This is because related organisms have (to a degree) a shared genetic inheritance.

The first to write about the concept were by R.A. Fisher in 1930, and J.B.S. Haldane in 1955, but it was W.D. Hamilton who truly formalized the concept. The actual term *kin selection* was probably coined by John Maynard Smith, when he wrote: 

"These processes I will call kin selection and group selection respectively. Kin selection has been discussed by Haldane and by Hamilton... By kin selection I mean the evolution of characteristics which favour the survival of close relatives of the affected individual.
By cooperating, relatives influence each other's fitness. Under natural selection, a gene which improves the fitness of individuals will increase in frequency. A gene which lowers the fitness of individuals will become rare. 

However, behaviour which enhances the fitness of relatives but lowers that of the actor, may nonetheless increase in frequency. Relatives do, by definition, carry many of the same genes. This is the fundamental principle behind the theory of kin selection. According to the theory, the enhanced fitness of relatives may more than compensate for the fitness loss of the helpers (individuals displaying the behaviour). 

This is a special case of a more general model, called inclusive fitness.

Hamilton's equation
-------------------

Hamilton's equation describes whether or not a gene for helping behaviour will spread in a population. The gene will spread if **r**x**b** is greater than **c**:

{\displaystyle rb>c\ }
where:

* {\displaystyle c\ } is the reproductive cost to the helper,
* {\displaystyle b\ } is the reproductive benefit to the receiver, and
* {\displaystyle r\ } is the probability, above the population average, of the individuals sharing an altruistic gene – the "degree of relatedness".
**Yelle** (born **Julie Budet**, January 17, 1983) is a French singer and rapper from the city of Saint-Brieuc. She became famous from MySpace.com when she uploaded a song called "Short Dick Cuizi". With her producer who is also a close friend called GrandMarnier, Yelle has recorded her first album called *POP-UP*, after her hit single "Je Veux Te Voir". She was also featured on Fatal Bazooka's song "Parle à ma main" in 2007. As of October 2007, she opened for Mika during his European tour. In February 2008, she performed the song "A cause des Garçons" on the BBC Three programme "Lily Allen and Friends". The programme said that this was her first appearance on UK television.

Discography
-----------

### Singles

| Year | Song | UK | US | CH | F |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2005 | "Je veux te voir" | / | / | / | / |
| 2007 | "Parle à ma main"(Fatal Bazooka featuring Yelle) | / | / | 31 | 1 |
| 2008 | "A cause des garçons" | / | / | / | 11 |
| 2014 | *Complètement Fou* |  |  |  |  |

### Albums

| Year | Album | UK | US | CH | F |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2007 | *Pop-Up* | / | / | / | 61 |
| 2011 | *Safari Disco Club* |  |  |  |  |
| 2014 | *Complètement Fou* |  |  |  |  |

Other websites
--------------

* Official Website
* Image[*permanent dead link*]
The Denisova Cave, where the "X woman" was found
Denisova Cave is located in RussiaDenisova CaveDenisova Caveclass=notpageimage| Location of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia
The **Denisovans** or **Denisova hominins** are archaic humans in the genus *Homo*. They are either an extinct species or subspecies. 

They were first discovered in March 2010 in the Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains in Siberia. This cave that has also been lived in by Neanderthals and modern humans.

A finger bone fragment of a juvenile female was discovered. She lived about 41,000 years ago, with about 3% to 5% of the DNA of Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians and around 6% in Papuans deriving from Denisovans.

The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the finger bone showed it was genetically distinct from Neanderthals and modern humans. The nuclear genome from this specimen suggested that Denisovans shared a common origin with Neanderthals.

DNA analysis has indicated that modern humans, Neanderthals, and the Denisova hominin last shared a common ancestor around 1 million years ago.

The mtDNA analysis also suggested that this species was the result of a migration out of Africa that came between a migration by *Homo erectus* individuals and later ones by some ancestors of most modern humans.

Fossils
-------

So far, the fossils of four distinct Denisovans from Denisova Cave have been identified through their DNA: **Denisova 2**, **Denisova 3**, **Denisova 4**, and **Denisova 8**. Denisova 2 and Denisova 3 are young females,and Denisova 4 and Denisova 8 are adult males. 

### Anatomy

So far, only a finger bone, a toe bone and two teeth are the only body parts that have been found.  The finger bone is from a woman.  It is broader than a human finger.  This fact suggests that Denisovans were more robust than any modern humans.

### Mitochondrial DNA analysis

The mtDNA from the finger bone differs from that of modern humans by 385 nucleotides in the mtDNA strand out of approximately 16,500. This  is more than the difference between modern humans and Neanderthals, which is around 202 bases.
The **nine-banded armadillo** (*Dasypus novemcinctus*), or the **nine-banded, long-nosed armadillo**, is a species of armadillo. The nine-banded armadillo is an insectivorous animal. Ants, termites, and other small invertebrates make up most of its diet. The armadillo can jump 3–4 feet (91–122 cm) in the air when scared.

Range
-----

The nine-banded armadillo is spreading more far out in both the north and east of the United States. It crossed the Rio Grande from Mexico in the late 19th century. At the same time, it was introduced in Florida by humans. By 1995, the species was found in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, and recently seen as far north as southern Nebraska, Illinois, and Indiana.
The main reason of this fast expansion is because the species have few or no natural predators in the United States. It is also because Americans do not hunt or eat the armadillo. In late 2009, the state of North Carolina considered a hunting season for armadillo to slow them down.
Outside the United States, the nine-banded armadillo is in Central and South America and northern Argentina and Uruguay.

Diet
----

Nine-banded armadillos are mostly insectivores. They find their meals by pushing their snouts into soil and digging. They dig up grubs, beetles, ants, termites, and worms. They sometimes also eat amphibians, small reptiles, fungi, and carrion.

Behavior
--------

Armadillo burrow
in Nuevo León, Mexico
Nine-banded armadillos do not live in groups. They are nocturnal, which means that they are lively at night instead of the day. Through soil excavation, the nine-banded armadillo's ability to burrow underground helps the armadillo protect itself from predators and protect their young. They are purposely positioned in a way, such as on a slope, where they have vegetation around, protective layers around, and easy access to nearby burrows. The burrows they make are about 8 inches (20 cm) wide, 7 feet (2.1 m) deep, and 25 feet (7.6 m) long.
Armadillos usually mark their territory. The armadillo can jump 3–4 feet (91–122 cm) in the air when scared. This may be dangerous on roads, because it could get hit by a car. Their top protection mechanism is their rigid, bony, armored shell.

Reproduction
------------

Mating is usually done from July to August in the Northern Hemisphere and November to January in the Southern Hemisphere. A single egg is fertilized. Then it splits into four identical embryos, each which makes its own placenta. The nine-banded armadillo gives birth to genetically identical quadruplets.

After birth, the quadruplets remain in the burrow, drinking the mother's milk for about three months. Then they begin to hunt for their meals with the mother. After six months to a year, they leave.

A single female can produce up to 56 young over the course of her life.
Elina Nechayeva performing at the Eurovision Song Contest 2018
**Elina Netšajeva** (anglicised: **Elina Nechayeva**; born 10 November 1991) is an Estonian singer, soprano and theatre actress.

Background
----------

In 2007, she participated in the Estonian version of *Pop Idol*. She graduated from Tallinn French School in 2011 and later the Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre.

Eurovision Song Contest
-----------------------

On 3 March 2018, by winning *Eesti Laul 2018,* Nechayeva was selected to represent Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 with her Italian language song "La forza". At Eurovision, she finished in 8th place out of the 26 finalists.

In 2020, Nechayeva was one of the "Eurovision stars" who appeared in the film *Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga*.

Discography
-----------

### Singles

* La forza (2018)
* La voce dell'alba (2019)

### Albums

* The Sound of Beauty (2021)

Filmography & acting roles
--------------------------

### Film

* *Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga* (as herself)

### Television

Television appearances as herself| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2007 | *Estonia is Searching for a Superstar* | Contestant |  |
| 2017 | *Eesti Laul 2017* | Semi-final host |  |
| 2018 | *Eesti Laul 2018* | Contestant | Winner |
| Eurovision Song Contest 2018 | Estonian contestant | 8th place |
| 2020 | *Masked Singer Estonia* | Celebrity contestant | Runner-up |

### Theatre roles

| Title | Role |
| --- | --- |
| L’elisir d’amore | Giannetta |
| The Count of Luxembourg |
| L’enfant et les sortileges |
| Orpheus in the Underworld | Eurydike |
| My Fair Lady | Eliza Doolittle |
*Biston betularia* caterpillars on birch (left) and willow (right), demonstrating a color polyphenism.
**Polyphenism** is a kind of polymorphism where different forms of an animal are caused a single genotype. The animal inherits the capability, but the environment determines which form develops. This contrasts with genetic polymorphism, where each morph (form) inherits a slightly different genome.

Polyphenism occurs when the animal inherits a developmental switch. The switch is sensitive to some environmental cue or trigger. For example, the sex of crocodiles is determined by the prevailing temperature. Their gender is a polyphenic trait, and is not determined by the usual sex linkage.

Other examples
--------------

### The caste system in insects

The caste system of social insects is the division of labor between genetically identical individuals. Polyphenism determines whether larvae develop into queens, workers, and in some cases soldiers. In the case of the ant, *P. morrisi*, an embryo must develop under certain temperature and photoperiod conditions in order to become a reproductively-active queen. This allows for control of the mating season, but like sex determination, limits the spread of the species into certain climates.
In bees, "royal jelly" provided by worker bees causes a larva to become a queen. Royal jelly is only produced when the queen is aging or has died.

### Seasonal changes

Polyphenic pigmentation is adaptive for species which reproduce several times a year. Different pigment patterns provide camouflage throughout the seasons, and alter heat retention as temperatures change. Because insects cease growth and development after they are adults, their pigment pattern is set in adulthood. In the case of the peppered moth, *Biston betularia*, the caterpillars are polyphenic. Their trigger is switched by the colour of the plants they are eating: see *this*.

* Junonia almana, wet season form (upper side) *Junonia almana*, wet season form (upper side)
* Junonia almana, dry season form (upper side) *Junonia almana*, dry season form (upper side)

* Junonia almana, wet season form (under side) *Junonia almana*, wet season form (under side)
* Junonia almana, dry season form (under side) *Junonia almana*, dry season form (under side)
**Appeal to tradition** (also known as *argumentum ad antiquitatem*, appeal to antiquity, or appeal to common practice) is a common fallacy.

In this fallacy, an idea is claimed to be right because it is the way it was often done in the past. The appeal takes the form of "this is right because we've always done it this way".

An example of appeal to tradition is, "drinking boiling hot water (and never cold water) is always healthy because Chinese people have done it for thousands of years."

An appeal to tradition essentially makes two mistakes:

* The tradition might be entirely based on incorrect grounds.
* The circumstances may have changed; so past justifications for the tradition may be invalid.

In the case of drinking boiling water, traditional Chinese medicine claims that the health benefits come from re-balancing one's own qi, rather than the fact than un-boiled or un-chilled water may have dangerous germs in it.

The opposite of an appeal to tradition is an appeal to novelty, claiming something is good because it is *new*.
Suraya Pakzad in 2008.
**Suraya Pakzad** is an Afghan activist. She started Voice of Women, an organization that helps women in Afghanistan. In 2008 she received the International Women of Courage Award from the U.S. Department of State.

Life
----

Pakzad was born in Herat, Afghanistan. She received a degree in literature from Kabul University in 1990.

When Pakzad was 12 years old, she saw a gunman kill the headmistress of her school. A few weeks later, a bomb hit her school and killed a girl in her class.

Work
----

Suraya Pakzad (right) in Kabul 2009Pakzad started Voice of Women in 1998. Its main office is in the city of Herat, but it has other offices in three provinces. The organization continued during the time of the Taliban rule, mostly in the city of Kabul. The organization helps women with housing. It helps women who get out of jail, women who run away from violent men, and girls who run away from forced marriages.

During the time of the Taliban, the organization had secret schools for girls in Kabul. After the end of the Taliban in 2001, Voice of Women was the first women’s NGO to register with the new government.

In 2014 Pakzad started a women-only restaurant in Herat Province.

Awards
------

* International Women of Courage Award, 2008, U.S. State Department.
* National Medal (Malali Medal), 2008, President of Afghanistan.
* "Time 100" most influential people, 2009.
* Women, Power and Peace Award, 2009.
On September 17, 2007, U.S. Senator John Kerry addressed a Constitution Day forum at the University of Florida in Gainesville, which was organized by the ACCENT Speakers Bureau, an agency of the university's student government. Initially allowed to ask questions after the close of the question period, Andrew Meyer, a 21-year-old fourth-year undergraduate mass communication student, entered into a planned line of questioning and was forcibly pulled away from the microphone. He immediately resisted the campus security and was subsequently arrested by university police. During arrest, the officers asked him repeatedly to stop resisting, but Meyer continued to struggle and scream for help. While six officers held Meyer down one of the officers drive stunned him with a Taser following Meyer's shouted plea to the police, "Don't tase me, bro!".

Videos
------

Several videos of the episode were posted on the Internet, with one version reaching 7 million views on YouTube. The *New Oxford American Dictionary* listed "tase/taze" as one of the words of the year for 2007, popularized by the widespread use of the phrase "Don't tase me, bro!". Meyer registered the phrase as a trademark in September 2007.

Tobuscus
--------

Toby Turner had made a remix of Meyer shouting "Don't tase me, bro!" to the police on YouTube and had over 1.0 million views on the University remix. He went to University of Florida, so he would've witnessed the university incident while in the auditorium. This would've caused Toby to laugh maniacally.

Related pages
-------------

* Taser safety issues
* Taser International – Taser Manufacturer
* Braidwood Inquiry – Official Canadian enquiry into Tasers and similar devices
* UCLA Taser incident
* Robert Dziekański Taser incident
* Student protest

Other websites
--------------

* Extended Video at YouTube
* Andrew Meyer's website
* Press Release for Town Hall Forum
Front of Saint Denis Basilica (2020)
The **Basilica of Saint-Denis** is a basilica near Paris, France. It is famous for its architecture and as the burial place for many Kings of France. It is in the suburb of Saint Denis, which is in the north of Paris. Since 1966, it is the cathedral of the diocese of Saint-Denis. It is located in the Greater Paris area, about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from Paris.

The Basilica is named after Saint Denis. Saint Denis is the patron saint of France. He was also the first Bishop of Paris.

The Basilica was an Early Gothic building. In 1136 the Abbot Suger (1081 - 1155) began replacing the building, bit by bit, beginning with the west front and then with a new east end. The east end is said to be the first building in the Gothic style. It was not completed until the 13th century.

The current organ of the basilica is the first organ built by Aristide Cavaille-Coll. With 4200 pipes, it contains a lot of innovations, opening the romantic area. The French organist Pierre Pincemaille, titular between 1987 and 2018, set up lots of recitals and recorded 8 CDs with this instrument.

People who are buried in Saint Denis Basilica
---------------------------------------------

* Catherine of Medici, wife of Henry II of France
* Charles Martel
* Charles IV of France
* Charles VI of France
* Charles IX of France
* Clotaire III
* Constance of Arles, wife of Robert II of France
* Francis I of France
* Francis II of France
* Henrietta Maria of France, wife of Charles I of England
* Henry I of France
* Henry II of France
* Henry III of France
* Hugh Capet
* Isabella of Aragon, wife of Philip IV of France
* Isabeau of Bavaria, wife of Charles VI of France
* John I of France
* John II of France
* Leo VI of Armenia
* Louis VI of France
* Louis VII of France
* Louis VIII of France
* Louis IX of France
* Louis X of France
* Louis XII of France
* Louis XV of France
* Louis XVI of France
* Louis XVIII of France
* Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI of France
* Philip I of France
* Philip II of France
* Philip III of France
* Philip IV of France
* Philip V of France
* Philip VI of France
* Robert II of France

Other websites
--------------

* L'Internaute Magazine: Diaporama (in French)

| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata |
| --- |
| International | 
* VIAF
* WorldCat Identities

 |
| National | 
* Germany
* Czech Republic

 |
| Geographic | 
* MusicBrainz place
* Structurae

 |
Sketch of *Odontochelys* fossil.
***Odontochelys*** is the oldest known turtle to have been discovered. It was first described from three 220 million year-old specimens excavated in Upper Triassic rocks in Guizhou, China.

As a primitive turtle, *Odontochelys* differed from modern turtles in several ways. Modern turtles possess a horny beak without any teeth in their mouth. In contrast, *Odontochelys* fossils had teeth in their upper and lower jaws. 

One of the most striking features of turtles, both modern and prehistoric alike, are their dorsal shells, forming an armored carapace over the body of the animal. *Odontochelys* only had the bottom portion of a turtle's armor, the plastron. It did not yet have a solid carapace as most other turtles do. Instead of a solid carapace, *Odontochelys* had broadened ribs like those of modern turtle embryos that still have not started developing the ossified plates of a carapace.

In a comparison of skull proportions, the skull of *Odontochelys* is far more elongated in front of the eyes compared to other turtles. The tail of the prehistoric turtle was longer in proportion to its body than other turtles. In addition, the transverse processes found in the tail are not fused such as in later turtles. 

Taken together, these anatomical differences mean that *Odontochelys* has some of the most primitive features ever seen in a turtle and is somewhat of a transitional fossil. Some scientists, however, are skeptical of this idea. Reisz and Head suggest that *Odontochelys* does not represent a turtle with a partly evolved shell, but that it is a descendant of an older, land–living turtle, and that the shell became reversed. Such shells can be seen on modern turtles, like the leatherback turtles (the genus *Dermochelys*).

It is likely that *Odontochelys* was aquatic, as the fossil specimens were found in marine deposits full of conodonts and ammonites. The primitive turtle swam in shallow marine waters close to shore.

The species' name, *Odontochelys semitestacea* literally means "toothed turtle with a half-shell" - an apt description of its most striking physical characteristics.
**Antonio Tavaris Brown** (born July 10, 1988) is an American Rapper and an American football wide receiver. He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the 6th Round of the 2010 NFL Draft. Brown played college football at the University of Central Michigan.

College
-------

Brown played college football for the Central Michigan University. He was noted for his versatility and was even an All-American.

NFL career
----------

Brown was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the 6th Round of the 2010 NFL Draft. Brown spent time playing as a wide receiver and a returner. He returned a kickoff 89 yards for a touchdown in his rookie season. Brown is famous for a 58-yard third-down helmet reception against Lardarius Webb of the Baltimore Ravens in a playoff win. 

In 2011, Brown beat out veteran Hines Ward and fellow 2nd-year receiver Emmanuel Sanders. He became a starter alongside Mike Wallace. As well as returning kicks and punts very successfully, Brown had 69 catches for 1,108 yards and two touchdowns. Brown was named the Steelers' team MVP of the season.

In 2019, Brown was traded to the Oakland Raiders and then to the New England Patriots. In 2021, he was traded again to the Tampa Bay Buccancers. The reason why Brown was traded is that he had issues with teammates off the field.

Other websites
--------------

* Steelers bio Archived 2016-05-04 at the Wayback Machine
**Cherry picking** is when someone picks the case which supports his opinion.

For example, suppose twenty studies have been done on a new medicine and 19 say it works, but one says it does not work. To "cherry pick" is to use the one failed study to "prove" that the medicine is useless. It is a type of confirmation bias, where a person sees evidence for what they want or expect to see, and ignores evidence which goes against their belief.

The term cherry picking comes from when people harvest cherries from a tree - the cherry picker only takes the reddest, ripest fruits. If someone looked at all the fruit the person had picked, they might think that all the cherries were red, until they went to the tree and saw lots of pale, unripe cherries still on it.

Cherry picking as a term is quite negative, as it implies that the person doing the cherry picking is trying to deceive the audience, or simply does not care about the facts.

When applied to subjects like medicine and science, cherry picking is considered "bad science". or a sign of pseudoscience.

Cherry picking can take several forms. The most obvious case of cherry picking is where only evidence that supports a given argument is used, and other evidence which does not support it or goes against it is ignored or covered up. Other examples can include giving a lot of emphasis to evidence which supports the idea but barely any to other evidence, and taking a quote out of context so that it seems to have a different meaning than it originally did.

Pseudoscience is when untrue claims are made to appear as though they have a scientific basis, even though they do not. Many pseudoscientists cherry pick real scientific evidence to support their claims. It is quite common in science for some studies to contradict others, for example in cases where different methods are used to measure an outcome, or where human error or chance may lead to unusual results. This means that there is often a study someone can use to support their claim, and they can cherry pick that one study even if many more contradict it.
Hermann Stadler 2015
**Hermann Stadler** (born 21 May 1961) is a former Austrian footballer. He is at the moment coach of the U 19 national team.

Career
------

Hermann Stadler started playing football in his local club Oberndorfer SK. His professional career started in 1979, when he came to SV Austria Salzburg. 1983 he went, together with his friend Leo Lainer, to SK Rapid Wien. But in Vienna he did not play often, so he left the club and played a short time for SK VOEST Linz. Then he went back to SV Salzburg into the second league.

With Salzburg he had his most successful time as player becoming two times Champion and reaching the UEFA Cup final versus Inter Mailand. His career ended in 1996 after 380 league matches (323 for Salzburg, 48 for Rapid, 9 for VOEST Linz) and 38 goals (36 for Salzburg, 2 for Rapid)

Coach
-----

He began in different positions mainly in the youth department with SV Austria Salzburg. Now he is coach of Austrias U 19 national team.

Honours
-------

Austrian Champion
3 x: 1987 (with SK Rapid Wien), 1994, 1995 (with SV Austria Salzburg)

Austrian Cup
3 x: 1984, 1985, 1987 (with SK Rapid Wien)

Final European Cup winner Cup
1 x: 1985 (with SK Rapid Wien)

UEFA-Cup-Final
1 x 1994
James Braid
**James Braid** (1795 - 1860) was a Scottish surgeon and hypnotist.

He was born in Portmoak, Scotland. He died in of an illness in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester.

Research on hypnotism
---------------------

Braid saw a demonstration of mesmerism by Charles Lafontaine in 1841 and began to explore and research the subject for himself. He argued that the trance like state that a person went into, which he called hypnotism, was a state of mind. He said it was not caused by the transferring "mesmeric fluid" or "animal magnetism". He believed a hypnotic state could be caused by having a person stare at a small bright object. When a person was in a hypnotic state, they could be given suggestions which they did not remember when fully awake. He also noted changes in pulse and blood circulation, which he believed were able to cure some illnesses. He began using hypnotism and suggestion as way of treating some of his patients.

His ideas were later developed by a group of doctors in Paris, who were called "Braidists". Led by the neurologist J. M. Charcot, their work made it scientifically acceptable to study hypnotism.

Books and articles
------------------

Braid wrote a book and several articles about his research and his ideas:

* *Neurypnology, or, The Rationale of Nervous Sleep* (1843).
* *The Power of the Mind over the Body* (1846).
* *Magic, Witchcraft, Animal Magnetism, Hypnotism, and Electro-Biology* (1852).
* *Hypnotic Therapeutics, Illustrated by Cases* (1853).
| Survivor |
| --- |
|  |
| Single Destiny's Child |
| from the album *Survivor* |
| Released | February 13, 2001 |
| Genre | Pop/R&B |
| Length | 4:14 |
| Label | Columbia Records |
| Writer | Beyoncé Knowles Anthony Dent Mathew Knowles |
| Producer | Beyoncé Knowles Anthony Dent |
| Destiny's Child singles chronology |
| Independent Women Part I(2001r.) | Survivor | Bootylicious(2001r.) |
| Survivor track listing |
| Independent Women Part I(1) | Survivor(2) | Bootylicious(3) |
| Wykonawca track listing |
| Independent Women Part I(2) | Survivor(3) | Soldier(4) |
|

"**Survivor**," Destiny's Child's signature song, is an R&B song written by American singer-songwriter Beyoncé Knowles, Anthony Dent, and Mathew Knowles for Destiny's Child's third studio album *Survivor* (2001). It was produced by Beyoncé and Dent, and was released as the album's first single in early 2001. The song reached number one in Ireland, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and entered the top 10 of the majority of the charts it appeared on, making it one of Destiny's Child most successful single releases. The song also won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
For the brand of cars, see Jaguar (car).

  

The **jaguar** (*Panthera onca*) is a big cat (feline) of the genus *Panthera* which lives in South America and Central America.

The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion. It is also the largest and most powerful feline in the Western Hemisphere.

Because of its spots, jaguars look like leopards, though it is usually larger and stronger, and its behavior is more like that of a tiger. It likes to stay near water, and like the tiger, it is famous for being a big cat that enjoys swimming. It usually hunts alone.

The jaguar has a very powerful strong bite, even compared to other big cats. Because of its strong bite, jaguars can bite through armoured reptiles like caimans, crocodiles, turtles and tortoises. Jaguars kill their prey in an unusual way: they bite directly through the skull between the ears and into the brain.

Appearance
----------

Jaguars have yellow or sometimes yellow-orange fur with brown and black rosettes and spots. They are big and heavy and also have very strong muscles which makes them really powerful. They cannot climb well, but they can swim.

Sometimes there are jaguars who are completely black, but if you look closely you can still see the spots. They are called "black panther" or just "panther".
This is a 'colour morph' of the same species, a kind of polymorphism.

Habitat
-------

Jaguars live in South America and Central America. They mostly live in rainforests, but also in savannas, swamps, grasslands, forest, deserts and open areas.

Life
----

Jaguars are not specialized with their food, but eat almost anything they get: big and small mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and livestock. It is an ambush predator. When hunting, they usually try to secretly get very close to the prey, and then the jaguar suddenly jumps at it and throws it down. The jaguar bites the skull of its prey to kill it. It then takes the prey to a safe place and eats it.

After a pregnancy of about 100 days the female gives birth to usually 1 - 4 babies. The young leave their family after 1–2 years, and they become mature at about 3 years. Jaguars can live up to 10–12 years old in freedom, but in captivity (such as in zoos) they can live to 20–22 years old.

Other websites
--------------


Wikispecies has information on: ***Jaguar***.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Jaguar***.

* BBC videos on Jaguars Archived 2010-11-06 at the Wayback Machine
**Pauline Gill** is a writer from Quebec, member of *L’union des écrivaines et écrivains québécois*. She grew up in Bas-St-Laurent and lived in Longueil for thirty-three years. She has been in Verchères since 2006. She studied sociology, pedagogy, history and letters at university. From 1996 to 2001, Pauline Gill was a linguistic reviser for the Collège Rosemont and some publishing houses. She co-founded *L’Association des auteurs de la Montérégie* in 1988, so she wrote some chronicles in its newspaper by the years. In 2001, she has been co-scenarist to produce a television series on her trilogy **La Saga de la Cordonnière**. Pauline Gill has accomplished a lot of things in her life.

Before starting only writing, she taught a lot (1959-1996) in primary schools, high schools and colleges. She taught sociology, gerontology and history of Quebec. She has also been a research assistant for the INRS (Briefly, *Institut national de la recherche scientifique*), sector society and culture. Since 1990, she has been writing full time. She writes history books that talk about women of the past who built Quebec. She wrote the trilogy *Docteure Irma*, about the life of Irma LeVasseur, first French Canadian woman who has studied medicine. She also wrote **La Saga de la Cordonnière**, which is about Victoire Du Sault, the first lady to become a shoemaker. Other works are **Marie-Antoinette la dame de la Rivière Rouge**, **Évangéline et Gabriel**, and **Gaby Bernier**.

However, she not only wrote about history. She has also written for young people.

Works
-----

* La porte ouverte, Éditions du Méridien, 1990.
* Les enfants de Duplessis, 1991.
* Le château retrouvé, 1996.
* Dans l'attente d'un OUI, 1997
* Guide pour les aidants naturels, 1999
* La Cordonnière, 1998
* La jeunesse de la cordonnière 1999
* Le testament de la cordonnière, 2000
* Béni des dieux, 2000
* Réveil brutal à la forêt de Bonamandou, 2001
* Et pourtant elle chantait, 2001
* Les fils de la cordonnière, 2003
* La saga de la cordonnière, 2003
* Marie-Antoinette la dame de la rivière Rouge, 2005
* Docteure Irma, tome 1 - La louve blanche, 2006
* Dans les yeux de Nathan 2006 (Jeunesse)
* Le miracle de Juliette 2007 (Jeunesse)
* Évangéline et Gabriel, 2007
* Docteure Irma, tome 2 - L'Indomptable, 2008
* Docteure Irma, tome 3 - La soliste, 2009
* Gaby Bernier 2012
**This article contains Japanese text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of kanji and kana.

**Sega Corporation** is a company that makes video games. In the past, they also made video game consoles. Their main office is in Tokyo, Japan. They also have offices in other continents – for example, North America and Europe. Their most famous video games are the *Sonic the Hedgehog* series. Another famous Sega series is *Streets of Rage*.

Consoles
--------

* Sega SG-1000 1983-1984
* Sega SG-1000 II 1984-1985
* Sega Mark III 1985-1989 / Sega Master System 1986-2000

### Sega Mega Drive / Sega Genesis 1988-2002

The **Sega Mega Drive** (Japanese: メガドライブ, *Mega Doraibu*) was a 16-bit video game console made by **Sega**. It was in market in Japan in (1988), and in Europe and the rest of the world in (1990). In North America, it was called *Sega Genesis*.

### Sega Mega CD / Sega CD 1991-1995

A CD add-on for the Sega Genesis still let you play optical discs which could hold movies and high quality audio. It was not well received but has a strong base of fans.

### Sega 32X

The **Sega 32X** was an attempt to top the graphics of the Super Nintendo in the 90's. Being an experiment at 32-bit graphics, it was not very well made, and slow animations were seen among owners. The 32X later died, but Sega didn't stop there. Later, they made CD32X games, which required both the 32X and CD.

### Sega Saturn 1994-2000

The **Sega Saturn** was released on November 22/10, 1997/1999 in Japan/France. It was the first Sega video game console with 3D graphics. Sega released two versions of the Saturn : the first generation was black and with small controllers, and the second was white. One of its most popular games was Sonic R.

### Sega Dreamcast 1998-2001

See the main article: Sega Dreamcast
The **Sega Dreamcast** (Japanese: ドリームキャスト; originally called "Dural," and "Katana") is the last machine made by **Sega** that can play video games. It was sold before the PlayStation 2, GameCube, or Xbox came out. However, not many people bought it after the PlayStation 2 was released, so in the end **Sega** decided to stop making them.

Handhelds
---------

* Game Gear: 1990-1997
* Genesis Nomad: 1995
**Opus** or the shortened form **op.**  after the title of a piece of music means "work". It is followed by a number. When a composer writes their first piece of music it is followed by the term "opus 1". The next composition would then be called "opus 2", etc.

Giving pieces of music opus numbers helps us to identify which piece of music (from a certain composer) that composition is. For example: Beethoven wrote lots of piano sonatas. His first Piano sonata in A flat major has the opus number of op.26. This shows that he wrote this sonata when he was young in his composing career. Many years later, he wrote another piano sonata which is also in A flat major, and this piece one has the opus number of 110 (op. 110).

You cannot always tell from a composer’s opus numbers the order in which the works were composed. Until around the end of the 18th century, opus numbers were only given to pieces of music which were published.

Some musicologists (people who study and write about music) have studied all the works by a famous composer and have given them a catalogue number. For example Mozart’s music does not have opus numbers. Some of them are long operas, others are tiny little pieces for the piano he might have written in a hurry one day. A man called Köchel made a list of every single work by Mozart and gave them K numbers (K for Köchel). His numbering goes up to 622. This is useful, for example, to tell the difference between his Symphony in G minor K183 and his Symphony in G minor K550.

The plural of "opus" is "opuses" in English. This is because the Latin plural is opera which is rather confusing to English speakers as the word is already used in musical terminology. 

The word "opus" can also refer to the "work" of an artist. (For example: "This opus was composed by Chopin," or "This opus is the last Piano sonata that Beethoven composed")

An artist's "magnum opus" means his or her "greatest" work.
**Cam Plante** (born March 12, 1964 in Brandon, Manitoba) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey defenceman. He was drafted in the seventh round, 128th overall, by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1983 NHL Entry Draft. He played two games in the National Hockey League with the Maple Leafs in the 1984–85 season.

Plante holds the Western Hockey League record for points in a season by a defenceman. He scored 140 points as a member of the Brandon Wheat Kings in the 1983–84 WHL season. He finished his playing career with the Wichita Thunder of the CHL, having returned to North America following four seasons on the United Kingdom. Most of that time was spent with the Peterborough Pirates, but also encompassed short spells with the Chelmsford Chieftains and Humberside Hawks. He is the father of current Florida Panthers prospect Tyler Plante and current Edmonton Oilers prospect Alex Plante.

Other websites
--------------

* Biographical information and career statistics from NHL.com, or Hockey-Reference.com, or The Internet Hockey Database
Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor.
Three Mile Island nuclear reactor and power plant
A **nuclear reactor** is a machine that uses fission to generate heat. There are different designs which use different fuels. Most often, uranium-235 or plutonium-239 are the main components of these fuels.

Most nuclear reactors are power reactors, used to make electricity. In nuclear power plants heat from the fission reactions in the reactor changes water into steam. The steam is then used to power electric turbines which make electricity. Some small power reactors run nuclear submarines. As with other steam engines, the turbines take energy from the movement of the steam. 

Some reactors are used for other purposes. Some reactors make neutrons for scientific research and others make radioactive isotopes. Some universities have small nuclear reactors to teach students how reactors work.

The first nuclear reactor was built in 1942 by a team of scientists led by Enrico Fermi. This was a part of the Manhattan Project which needed the fuel from the reactor to make the atomic bomb. The first nuclear reactor to make electricity was a small experimental reactor built in Idaho in 1951. It made just enough electricity for four light globes.

Nuclear reactors are expensive to build because of the many safety features they need to have. There is also a problem with the huge amount of radioactive waste from the reactors. However, they produce electricity cheaply, and do not pollute the air. There have been serious accidents at several nuclear reactors: Windscale (UK) 1957, Mayak (USSR) 1957, Three Mile Island (USA) 1979, Chornobyl (USSR) 1986 and Fukushima (Japan) 2011. Safety concerns have limited the growth of nuclear power. There are about 437 reactors around the world which provide about 5% of the world's electricity.

Other websites
--------------

* Images for nuclear reactors
* Nuclear Power Reactors Archived 2013-02-12 at the Wayback Machine
* Recent videos of nuclear reactorsweapon nuclear accidents Chernobyl plant Fukushima plant books

| * v
* t
* e
Nuclear energy |
| --- |
| Basic concepts | Cold fusion **·**  Containment building **·**  Cooling tower **·**  International Atomic Energy Agency **·**  Nuclear disasters **·**  Nuclear energy **·**  Nuclear energy policy **·**  Nuclear engineering **·**  Nuclear explosion **·**  Nuclear fallout **·**  Nuclear fission **·**  Nuclear fuel **·**  Nuclear fusion **·**  Nuclear meltdown **·**  Nuclear physics **·**  Nuclear reaction **·**  Nuclear reactor **·**  Nuclear weapon |
| Nuclear accidents | Chernobyl disaster **·**  Fukushima nuclear disaster **·**  Mayak accident **·**  Nuclear accidents in Japan **·**  Three Mile Island accident **·**  Tokaimura nuclear accident **·**  Windscale fire |
| Nuclear  power plants | Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant **·**  Zwentendorf power plant |
| Books and Movies | Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power **·**  In Mortal Hands **·**  Nuclear Nebraska **·**  Nuclear or Not? **·**  World Nuclear Industry Status Report **·**  The China Syndrome **·**  Chernobyl (HBO) |
The **ergosphere** is a place just outside the event horizon of a black hole. Its name was given by Remo Ruffini and John Archibald Wheeler in 1971 and is gotten from the Greek word ἔργον (ergon), which means "work". It got its name because it is possible to get energy and even mass from this place.

In this place, it's impossible to stay in one place because of "frame-dragging." According to general relativity, anything that spins will twist the spacetime around it. This is frame dragging. So, near a rotating black hole, things start spin around it. For a spinning black hole, frame-dragging is so strong that to stay in one place, you'd have to move backward faster than the speed of light, which is impossible.

The ergosphere is a place outside the event horizon, where objects cannot stay in one place
Now, this ergosphere isn't just a simple circle; it has a bit of a shape. It's kind of like a big, flattened ball. Think of it as an oblate spheroid, sort of like a pumpkin. At the top and bottom of the black hole, it touches the event horizon, but as you move toward the equator (the middle part), it goes out farther.

The size of this ergosphere depends on how fast the black hole is spinning. If it's spinning just a bit, the ergosphere is more round. But if the black hole is spinning very fast, the ergosphere starts looking more like a stretched pumpkin.

The edge of the ergosphere at the equator has the same size as the Schwarzschild radius of a black hole. And at the poles, it can be even smaller, like just half the Schwarzschild radius, especially for a super-fast-spinning black hole.

If something is inside the ergosphere, it can still escape from the black hole. But with more energy than when it went in. And we could get energy from it through the Penrose process.
View across St Salvator's Quad
College Hall, in the 16th century St Mary's College building
The **University of St Andrews** (**St Andrews University** or **St Andrews**) is a public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. 

It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, and the third oldest university in the English-speaking world (after Oxford and Cambridge). St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy.

St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges (United College, St Mary's College, and St Leonard's College) and 18 academic Schools organized into four Faculties.

The university occupies historic and modern buildings throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas. In term time, over one-third of the town's population is either a staff member or student of the university.

The student body is diverse: over 45% of its intake come from over 100 countries outside of the UK, with about one-eighth of the students from the rest of the EU and the remaining third from overseas – 15% from North America alone. The university's sport teams compete in BUCS competitions, and the student body is keeps ancient traditions such as Raisin Weekend, May Dip, and the wearing of distinctive academic dress.

National league tables currently rank St Andrews as the third best university in the United Kingdom, behind Oxbridge. *The Guardian* ranks the Schools of Physics and Astronomy, International Relations, Computer Science, Geography and Mathematics as first in the United Kingdom. The Complete University Guide ranks Divinity and Middle Eastern and African Studies first. *The Times* Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the world’s Top 20 Arts and Humanities universities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction (joint first) amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom.

St Andrews has many notable former students and staff. Recent alumni include the former First Minister of Scotland Alex Salmond; Secretary of State for Defence Michael Fallon; HM British Ambassador to China Barbara Woodward; United States Ambassador to Hungary Colleen Bell; Olympic gold medalist Chris Hoy; and royals Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge. Six Nobel Laureates are amongst St Andrews' alumni and former staff: two in Chemistry and Physiology or Medicine, and one each in Peace and Literature.
Disclaimers often concern public safety or business relationships, or, as shown here, may be of a personal nature. Publishing disclaimers is an attempt to provide constructive notice to possible claimants.
A **disclaimer** is a denial of liability for possible consequences of the some act. It connects with some risk, involves some uncertainty when you give some kind of statement arguing that it's only your opinion. It also means warning sign.

Tort law
--------

In law, a disclaimer is a statement denying responsibility intended to prevent civil liability arising for particular acts or omissions. Disclaimers are frequently made to escape the effects of the torts of negligence and of occupiers' liability towards visitors. The courts may or may not give effect to the disclaimer depending on whether the law permits exclusion of liability in the particular situation and whether the acts or omissions complained of fall within the wording of the disclaimer.

A disclaimer may take effect as a term of the contract between the person making the disclaimer and the person who is thereby prevented from suing. This kind of disclaimer is, for example, invariably found in the 'terms and conditions' that a software user is confronted with when first installing the software. There will often be term(s) excluding any liability for any damage that the software might cause to the rest of the user's software and hardware. By clicking "I Agree" in the dialogue box, users are agreeing to this disclaimer as matter of contract between themselves and the software company.