recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Topographic map of Liberia
Location of Liberia in western Africa
Köppen climate classification map of Liberia
**Liberia** is a country in West Africa. It is on the north Atlantic side to the southwest (580 kilometers (360 mi) of sea) and three other African countries on the other three sides, Sierra Leone to the northwest, Guinea to the northeast and Ivory Coast to the east.

In total, Liberia comprises 111,369 square kilometers (43,000 sq mi) of which 96,300 square kilometers (37,190 sq mi) is land and 15,000 square kilometers (5,810 sq mi) is water.

Physical geography
------------------

Liberia goes from between 4.21°N and 8.34°N to 7.27°W and 11.31°W. It is almost in a rectangle shape measuring about 510 km (317 mi) in length from northwest to southeast, with a width of about 275 km (171 mi). The coastline is about 680 km (423 mi), with river mouths up to one kilometre wide.

Drainage of the whole country is directly to the sea, with a lot of short rivers flowing directly into the sea. These are, from west to east, the Mano River on the border with Sierra Leone, the Mafa River, the Lofa River, the Saint Paul River, the Mesurado River, the Farmington River, the Saint John River, the Timbo River, the Cestos River, the Sehnkwehn River, the Sinoe River, the Dugbe River, the Dubo River, the Grand Cess River and the Cavalla River on the border with Ivory Coast.

In the west, the sea is low and sandy, but in the central and eastern parts of the country it is sandy and rocky and of mild height, often broken by the mouths of the rivers. The plains varies in width, being narrow between Monrovia and Buchanan, but being much wider in the west and in the Cestos Valley in the center, becoming smaller again in the eastern end of the country.

Further in, the land rises, to a plateau some 300 to 400 m (1,000 to 1,300 ft) above sea level. This is split by the river valleys and hilly ridges between some of those river valleys. The land goes further in the north and northwest of the country, with mountains that nears 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in several places, the tallest point in the country being in the Wologizi Range at 1,440 m (4,724 ft).

Terrain
-------

Liberia has mostly hilly land, it also has rolling plains along the sea to a plateau and low mountains in the northeast.

1. 1 2 3  Philip's (1994). *Atlas of the World*. Reed International. p. 100. ISBN 0-540-05831-9.
2. 1 2  Hughes, R.H. (1992). *A Directory of African Wetlands*. IUCN. pp. 385–386. ISBN 978-2-88032-949-5.
**William Sealy Gosset** was a famous English statistician. He worked for Guinness brewery in Ireland.

Ronald Fisher with 'Student'
He created new ways to analyze small sets of data. He wrote his findings under the name "Student". His most famous work is the "Student's t-distribution".

Life
----

William was born in Canterbury, England. He went to school at Winchester College and then studied natural sciences and mathematics at New College, Oxford.

He had three kids: Harry, Bertha Marian, and Ruth.

Work
----

At the brewery, William made new ways to test and improve beer quality using statistics. He learned these methods by studying, trying different things, and working with other experts. He wrote about his findings, but because of a rule at Guinness, he couldn't use his real name or mention beer. So, he wrote under the name "Student". This is why his famous "t-distribution" is called "Student's" instead of "Gosset's".

Relationship with Fisher
------------------------

Another statistician, Ronald A. Fisher, noticed the value of William's work. They wrote many letters to each other. Fisher helped William improve his methods, and they both shared their findings.

In 1935, William became the main brewer for a new Guinness brewery in London. He died in 1937 from a heart attack.

People remembered William as a kind man who made big contributions to statistics. He was friends with both Pearson and Fisher.

Legacy
------

William's methods are still used today in statistics. For example, the "studentized range" is a way to compare data points. It was introduced by William in 1927 and is still important in modern statistics.
**Abe Vigoda** (February 24, 1921 – January 26, 2016) was an actor in both television and movie. His most well known roles are playing mobster Sal Tessio in the movies *The Godfather* and *The Godfather: Part II*, and playing Detective Phil Fish on television shows *Barney Miller* and *Fish*, *Fish* having been a spinoff of *Barney Miller*.

Multiple death hoax
-------------------

In 1982, *People* magazine said that Vigoda had died, even though he did not. Vigoda took the error with a sense of humor, even appearing in a picture where he was in a coffin, holding said magazine. Since then, the false death information, as well as the question to whether Vigoda is dead or alive, has been used as a joke sometimes on various television shows and internet websites, including abevigoda.com Archived 2005-12-26 at the Wayback Machine, a website that says if Vigoda is alive or dead.

Death
-----

Vigoda died in his sleep under hospice care at his daughter's home in Woodland Park, New Jersey from complications of an illness on January 26, 2016 at the age of 94.

Other websites
--------------

* Abe Vigoda on IMDb
* Abe Vigoda at TV.com
**Zheng Xiaoqiong** (Chinese: 郑小琼') is a Chinese poet. She was born in Nanchong, Sichuan on June 18, 1980.

Early life
----------

Zheng studied at a nursing school. Then she worked in a hospital. In 2001, she quit that work because she was not happy with the working conditions. She moved to Dongguan. In that city, she began working in factories as an assembly-line worker.

Life as a poet
--------------

Zheng began writing poetry about the conditions of factory workers. Some time around 2005, she began to become famous. In 2007, she won the Liqun Literature Award, which made her more famous. Zheng has published many books of her poetry. She has received many awards for literature. Her poetry has been translated into other languages.

### Poetry

"Characterized by stark oppositions, personifications, and broken phrases, her work is razor-sharp in its observations. Iron is perhaps the element most strongly associated with Zheng Xiaoqiong's poetry.. .. Her poems reveal how pervasive industrialization ensures that humans become part of the machine: nameless, a number on an assembly line, without rights.

Awards
------

The first literary award Zheng won was the Liqun Literature Award from Peoples’ Literature in 2007. "The impact was strong – not simply because few had heard of her, but because she lives and works as a migrant worker and writes poetry so startlingly beautiful, vulnerable, and powerful, that nearly each poem stops one’s breath mid-line." She has also won the Zhuang Chongwen Prize, a youth literature award.

Further reading
---------------

* Zhang, Qinghua. "Who Touches the Iron of the Age: On Zheng Xiaoqiong's Poetry," *Chinese Literature Today*. 1.2 (Summer 2010): 31–35.
* *New Cathay: Contemporary Chinese Poetry*, edited by Ming Di (Tupelo Press, co-published by Poetry Foundation, USA, 2013)
* Zhou Xiaojing, 2014, "A musical note of our era: ZHENG XIAOQIONG’S POETRY,"
* Zhou Xiaojing, 2016, "Zheng Xiaoqiong's Poems on the Global Connection to Urbanization and the Plight of Migrant Workers in China," *Studies in Global Asias* Vol. 2, No. 1, *Asian Urbanisms and Urbanization* (Spring 2016), pp. 84-96.

Selected publications by the poet
---------------------------------

* "Shame: A Poem from China"
* *Female Migrant Workers*. Guangzhou: Flower City Publishing House, 2012.

* *Pedestrian Overpass.* Taiwan, Taibei: Tanshang Publications, Inc. 2009.
*.   *Poems Scattered on the Machine.* Beijing: China Society Publishing House, 2009.
A coronet of a child of France.
***Fils de France*** (French pronunciation: ​[fis də fʁɑ̃s], *Son of France*) was a title used by children of the reigning King of France. It entitled the holder of the title to the style of *Royal Highness*. However, that was rarely used. The French court preferred to use terms such as "Madame" and "Monsieur". The reigning king, his wife and their children were collectively referred to as the *Famille de France* ("Family of France"). The grandchildren of the king were entitled to the rank of "Grandson or Granddaughter of France". But the more senior of the two titles was that of "Child of France" due to being a child of a monarch. In French a "Child of France" was a *Fils de France*.

Examples
--------

* Philippe, Duke of Orléans - the only brother of Louis XIV of France and known as *Monsieur* all his life
* Marie Louise d'Orléans eldest daughter of the above and known simply as *Mademoiselle* prior to her marriage
* Henrietta of England the first wife of "Monsieur" and known simply as *Madame*
* Marie Clotilde of France a granddaughter of Louis XV and known as *Madame Clotilde* prior to her marriage
* Marie Adélaïde of Savoy daughter-in-law of Louis XIV and known as *Madame la Dauphine*
**Open Fortress** is free and easily configured mod for Valve's Team Fortress 2 created by over a hundred developers from the Team Fortress 2 community. It includes a new character, the Deathmatch mercenary, new and modified weapons, and over 50 maps. It also introduces the deathmatch game mode from Quake. Other additions include all the playable characters from Team Fortress Classic and the game mechanic of bunny hopping.

On September 10th, 2021, Open Fortress, along with the mod Team Fortress 2 Classic were removed for download due to an arrangement with Valve. By July 1st, 2022, both mods were once again available for download.

Gameplay
--------

Game modes in Open Fortress include deathmatch, Capture the Flag, and duel. In the deathmatch game mode, players move quickly around the map, trying to kill as many opponents as possible. Weapons and powerups are available around the map. The gameplay of deathmatch is based on Quake. In Capture the Flag, players attempt to bring the objective from the enemy base to their own while preventing the enemy from the doing the same. Variants of the game mode are played with the deathmatch mercenary, the mercenaries of Team Fortress 2, or both. Duel is a game mode where two players fight in an arena until a certain number of kills is achieved. This is similar to the unofficial game mode of MGE in the TF2. Other game modes include arena, where players do not respawn and each team attempts to wipe out the entire enemy team, and arsenal, where players face off against waves of computer-controlled enemies.
A **video game developer** is a person or company who makes games on computers and other game systems. Some developers make games for only one or two types of game systems, others might even make one kind of game. Some games are only for one system. Developers might try and make a copy of such a game to another, different system. Some translate games from one language to another.

Video game developers work in development companies. There are over 1,000 development companies today. A big part of that thousand is very small companies, that usually only have one or two workers - these kind of small companies make games for the Internet or mobile phones. Some development companies are big, too. They have buildings in many places and hundreds of workers.

Types of developers
-------------------

There are three types of video game developers.

### Third-party developer

Third-party developers are video game developers that make deals with big publishers to make one game at a time. The developers are not part of the company: when the game is complete, the developers do not have to make another game for the publisher if they do not want to. Publishers will tell them exactly what they want third-party developers to do, and the developers do not have very much power to do something else.

### In-house developers

In-house developers work directly with the publisher. They have more freedom in the making of the game than third-party developers have. Sometimes publishers buy third-party developers, and so they become in-house developers: workers for the publisher. This is an easy way for the publisher because the developers are workers for the publisher and so the publisher has more control.

### Independent developers

Independent developers are usually small groups of people that are not owned by any publisher or another company. Because of that, most independent developers publish their games themselves. If they do that, the games usually will not get much attention or money. Still, independent developers can make exactly the game they want, when there is no publisher to tell them what to do. These are also sometimes called indie developers.
The VSS Vintorez
The **VSS**, also called the **Vintorez**, (rus. Винторез, literally "screw cutter") is a sniper rifle featuring a built-in suppressor (similar to that of the AS-Val) the weapon is loaded with heavy subsonic 9×39mm SP5 cartridges and armor-piercing SP6 cartridges. It was manufactured (created) by the Soviet company TsNIITochMash during the late 1980s. It is issued primarily to Spetsnaz units for secretive operations, a role made evident by its ability to be broken down for transport in a specially fitted case.

Design
------

The way the gun operates and the silencer system used on the VSS are based from the AS assault rifle. The VSS is a gas-operated select-fire rifle. It has a long-stroke gas piston operating rod in a gas cylinder above the barrel. The weapon catch is held in its place thanks to a rotating bolt who attach themselves to the appropriate socket when needed. The VSS is striker fired. It features a cross-bolt type fire selector switch located behind the trigger, inside the trigger guard; the safety lever and the charging handle resemble those used in Kalashnikov weapons.

The skeletonized wooden stock is a more rounded version of that provided on the SVD rifle; it has a rubber shoulder pad and can be removed when the rifle is dismantled for compact storage. The forward handguard is made from a high-impact polymer. If needed, the weapon can be used in fully automatic mode using either its original 10-round magazine or the 20-round magazines from the AS rifle.
The National Health Service measures how well it is doing by setting what are called targets. These are things that can be counted. The targets are changed over time. The targets, and how they are measured, are different in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. 

The target which gets most attention is the four-hour target in emergency departments. People should be seen, treated, and admitted to the hospital or sent home in under four hours. This was first measured in 2004. Since 2010 the number of people waiting more than 4 hours has gone up every year. July 2015 was the last month the target was met for 95% of patients in England. There were plans to change the target but in November 2022 it was to stay for at least 2 more years.

Percent of patients in English A&E departments waiting over 4 hours, monthly, 2011-2018
In December 2022 more than 54,500 patients waited over 12 hours in emergency departments in England after doctors decided they needed a hospital bed. That is the highest-ever number and almost treble the figure for May. The Royal College of Emergency Medicine found that people over 80 were spending 16 hours in emergency departments waiting for care or a bed. In 2021 it was 9 hours. Such long waits mean people are less likely to recover. In the winter of 2022/3 there were long delays when ambulances arrived at hospitals and attempted to hand patients over to emergency staff.

In January 2023 Rishi Sunak said he would improve ambulance performance so an average response time of 30 minutes for category 2 emergency calls such as heart attacks and strokes would be met in 2023/24. In December, patients waited over 90 minutes. The official target is 18 minutes.
Over 600 million people speak Spanish. It is the fourth largest languages by number of speakers. It is the second largest language by number of native speakers. Spanish is the third widely spoken language.

Nations in which Spanish is an official language (de jure, de facto, cultural or political). Hispanophone countries are a subset of which Spanish is the main native language.

Summary
-------

Mexico is the largest Spanish-speaking country with about 130 million native speakers. There are 50 million native speakers found in Colombia, 47 million in Spain, 45 million in Argentina and 42 million in the United States.

In the European Union, Spanish is one of the 24 official languages and widely used in some institutions, and by almost all of the population in Spain and Andorra. It is a second language in some member states.

Estimates that include second language speaking vary greatly, from 360 million speakers to more than 500 million speakers. When combining native speakers and non-native speakers, Spanish is the fourth widely most spoken language worldwide.

Besides main dialects of Spanish, countries such as the United States, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, Paraguay, Uruguay and Nicaragua have millions of native speakers of dialect continua. These versions range from Spanish based creole languages to Standard Spanish. Other countries such as Peru and Bolivia also use Spanish as their primary official languages.

The United States now claims to be the second largest Spanish-speaking country in the world. The most reliable estimate is that 20% of the population or 70 million people speak Spanish, second only to Mexico. It may be two times larger in the next decade from 2022.
**El Clásico** (English: The Classic, Catalan: *El clàssic*) is a football match between two Spanish rival football clubs, FC Barcelona and Real Madrid, in the Spanish football league La Liga. It is one of the most famous football matches in the world.

History
-------

The rival match is also well-known due to its history. Historically, Catalonia was oppressed and disrespected by the dictatorship. Thus, the only way the citizens could take revenge to the government was to defeat the football club representing Madrid (the capital city and the central government in Spain). FC Barcelona led in Official Matches 96 wins to 95 Real Madrid. As early as the 1930s, Barcelona "had developed a reputation as a symbol of Catalan identity, opposed to the centralising tendencies of Madrid".

Achievements
------------

Currently, the records for both Real Madrid and FC Barcelona are one of the top football clubs in the world.

Real Madrid has won: 35 La Ligas, 20 Copa del Reys, 2 UEFA Cups, 14 UEFA Champions Leagues, 3 Intercontinental Cups, and 4 FIFA Club World Cups.

FC Barcelona has won: 27 La Ligas, 31 Copa del Reys, 4 UEFA Cup Winners' Cups, 5 UEFA Champions Leagues, 3 Inter-Cities Fairs Cups, and 3 FIFA Club World Cups.
**Raidió Teilifís Éireann**, known as **RTÉ**, is an Irish public service broadcaster. It both produces and broadcasts programmes on television, radio and online. The radio service began on 1 January 1926, while regular television broadcasts began on 31 December 1961, making it one of the oldest continuously operating public service broadcasters in the world. It is headquartered in Donnybrook in Dublin, with offices across different parts of Ireland.

Television
----------

In the Republic of Ireland, RTÉ One and RTÉ2 are RTÉ's flagship channels.

RTÉ's programme *The Late Late Show*, is the longest running chat show in the world.

Radio
-----

RTÉ Radio has four stations. There are also many digital stations.

* RTÉ Radio 1
* RTÉ 2fm
* RTÉ lyric fm
* RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta

Other
-----

RTÉ has many other services.

### RTÉ Performing Groups

The *RTÉ Performing Groups* are five classical musical groups. They include:

* RTÉ National Symphony Orchestra - the bigger orchestra out if the two.
* RTÉ Concert Orchestra - lighter music than the NSO
* RTÉ Philharmonic Choir - an adult choir with 140 members
* RTÉ Cór na nÓg - a children's choir
* RTÉ Vanbrugh Quartet - a string quartet

Other websites
--------------

* RTÉ website
**The Democracy in Ancient Athens** was very different from modern democracy. Citizens had the right to help govern but most people were not citizens.

To be classed as a citizen in fifth-century Athens you had to be male, born from two Athenian parents, over eighteen years old, and completed your military service. Women, slaves, metics and children under the age of 20 were not allowed to become citizens.

Citizens could be involved in the running of Athens and could be chosen for important positions. They were also allowed to own land. Citizens were between 10% and 20% of the total population at various times in the 5th and 4th centuries.

The Ecclesia (Assembly of Men)
------------------------------

Ancient Athens had a direct democracy. This meant that each citizen had an equal say and opportunity in the governing of Athens. The citizens of Athens would meet on a hillside (the Pnyx) 30 to 40 times a year to discuss how to run the city better. Usually a few thousand actually came to the meeting.

All citizens could attend the meetings. People would stand on a raised platform called the bema to speak. Speakers wore a garland whilst speaking. Any citizen could speak.

All major decisions concerning the running of Athens were decided here – taxes, war, policy, etc. Any decisions were made by a show of hands.

A black pig would be sacrificed to the gods at the start of the meeting to make sure the meeting went well.

All democratic countries now have an indirect democracy. This means members of parliament are elected to make decisions concerning government. There are now too many people in countries for them to meet on a hillside, and many people are too busy to be able to go many times each year.

The Boule (Council of 500)
--------------------------

Cleisthenes, a democratic reformer, divided Attica into ten tribes in 510 BC. The Boule was made up of 50 male Athenian citizens chosen at random from each of the ten tribes (all over 30 years old). This meant that 500 men were elected, but only 50 served at any one time.
Chloroplasts visible in the cells of *Plagiomnium affine*
**Chloroplast** ultrastructure:  

 1. outer membrane  

 2. intermembrane space  

 3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope)  

 4. **stroma** (fluid)  

 5. **thylakoid** lumen (inside of thylakoid)  

 6. thylakoid membrane  

 7. **grana** (stacks of thylakoids)  

 8. **thylakoid** (lamella)  

 9. starch  

 10. ribosome  

 11. plastidial DNA  

 12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids)

A **chloroplast** is a small organelle inside the cells of plants and algae. They absorb light to make sugar in a process called photosynthesis. The sugar can be stored in the form of starch. 

Chloroplasts contain the molecule chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis. In addition to chlorophyll, a chloroplast uses carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to form sugar and gives off oxygen (O2). 

Chlorophyll is what gives green plants their green colour. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow and orange pigments to assist in photon capture for photosynthesis.

Diagram of a chloroplast

Structure
---------

Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double walled semi-permeable membrane. These are collectively known as peristromia. In the layered stacks are flat disk-shaped thylakoids. They contain light-absorbing pigments, including chlorophyll and carotenoids, as well as proteins which bind the pigments. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also contain their own DNA and ribosomes.

Evolution
---------

Chloroplasts are one of the many different types of organelles in the cell. They may have originated as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This was suggested by Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905, after an observation by Schimper in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resembled cyanobacteria.

Almost all chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event.

Mitochondria also had a similar origin, but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protists. In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes. They may be the outer and inner membranes of the ancestral cyanobacterium. Chloroplasts have their own genome, much smaller than that of free-living cyanobacteria. The DNA which remains shows clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. 

Plastids may contain 60–100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often contain more than 1500 genes. Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the host. 

In some algae (such as the heterokonts), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts. This formed chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary endosymbionts may have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, so forming tertiary endosymbionts. In the alga *Chlorella*, there is only one chloroplast, which is bell-shaped.

In some groups of mixotrophic protists such as the dinoflagellates and some sea slugs, chloroplasts are separated from a captured alga or diatom and used temporarily. These klepto (stolen) chloroplasts may only have a lifetime of a few days and are then replaced.
**I Ching** (易经), also known as the Book of Changes, is one of the oldest of the Chinese classic texts, it is used mainly for divination (fortunetelling).

Historical Background
---------------------

The text was mainly written during the early Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-771 BC). Before Zhou Dynasty, there was Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BC). Shang Dynasty's main cultural characteristics are its divination and character (old Chinese character). We cannot say which one was first, but it is supposed that characters were made from certain need while doing divination. During Shang Dynasty, divination was done by burning animal's bone or tortoise shell. Zhou Dynasty made Shang cease to exist, but it accepted Shang's culture. In early age of Zhou Dynasty, a new way of divination appeared which was put into writing. It was advanced form of Shang Dynasty's divination, and finally, it took place instead of Shang's divination.

The Contents of I Ching
-----------------------

The contents of I Ching consist of 64 hexagrams and explanation for each. Hexagram is a group of six broken or unbroken lines. The broken line (the line where the middle part is missing) represents yang, and the unbroken line represents yin. From the bottom to top, six lines are gathered in parallel. There exists one different name for one hexagram. In I Ching, the name of one hexagram and the hexagram itself comes first, and after those, there are different explanations for the hexagram and the each line consisting hexagram, from bottom to top. There comes next hexagram after explanations of all lines of one hexagram.

Tools For I Ching Divination
----------------------------

The typical divination using I Ching needs the number of fifty thin sticks usually made from bamboo. Using those sticks with certain order, the person who wants to know the result draws hexagram and finds the explanation in the book. To make process simpler, some people use coin to know the result.

Philosophical Elements
----------------------

In I Ching, the word 'Heaven'(or sky; it corresponds to the Chinese character '天') is considered as same as God or the absolute being with humane character, who decides the good and evil and makes judgements. For example, the explanation of 26th hexagram (大畜 dà chù) is "the Heaven's bliss is given, therefore, lucky."

Also, there is the idea of constantly changing world, as the explanation of 11th hexagram (泰 tài) tells, "Everything flat will be inclined, and everything gone will be come back." Similarly, the idea of endlessness can also be found. The literal meaning of 63rd hexagram (既濟 jì jì) is "already (既) finished (濟)", but the last hexagram, which is the 64th (未濟 wèi jì), means "not (未) finished (濟)" literally. This means the process of whole world and life is endless and never stops.
Because of the end of the Soviet Union, Russia went through a large change politically, economically, and militarily. First off the Soviet Union became the Russian Federation. People now consider that the Federation is a follow up of the Soviet Union. However, Post-Soviet Russia lacked the military and political power of the former USSR. Now that communism died, Russia could elect a President. In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected as the first president of Russia.

Change in Economy
-----------------

Boris Yeltsin told his people that he would help the economy. One thing he did was help improve trade with other countries. However, not all his ideas would be good. When Yeltsin lifted price controls, a sudden increase in prices occurred (hyperinflation). Because the military was hit hard during the fall of the Soviet Union, many plants laid off workers because the Government was not sending the plants any new orders. This led to large unemployment.

In August 1998 the Russian government devalued the ruble and defaulted on their debt. This was called the 1998 Russian financial crisis. This was due in part to the Asian financial crisis and the war in Chechnya. Many banks were forced to close down. The government stopped making payment of wages, pensions and when workers were paid, it was often with goods rather than rubles.
Despite this, Russia came back from the August 1998 financial crash with speed. This was because the price of oil went up. Having the prices of oil go up, the exportation of the oil form Russia would cost more, this would bring in lots of money for the economy.

A series of privatizations occurred.

Relationships with Countries
----------------------------

Unlike in the Cold war, Russia now said that the West was considered an ally. In June 1998 they joined the NATO peace-keeping forces. The Russians also have begun relationships with China. In 1997 the Russians made a treaty with Belarus

Today
-----

Russia in the 21st century has gone through many changes. In 2000 Vladimir Putin was made President of Russia. Through his term he had good and bad approval ratings. In 2001-2002 Putin took over several media stations. Issues like this have also occurred with print media. However Putin has done good things for Russia, Indeed, during real GDP grew on average 6.7% a year, average income increased 11% annually, and a positive balance of the federal budget now let the government to cut 70% of its debt during his term.
**Swiss Standard German** or **Swiss High German** is the written form of one of the four official languages of Switzerland. It is mainly written, and not spoken.

Written Swiss Standard German
-----------------------------

Written Swiss Standard German
-----------------------------

An example of Swiss Standard German used for a "no parking" sign. *Fehlbare werden für Umtriebe behaftet* would instead be written as *Zuwiderhandelnde haften für die Kosten des entstehenden Aufwands* in High German. "Fehlbare" (as used in this situation), "Umtriebe", and "behaftet" are Swiss in origin.
Swiss Standard German is the official written language. It is used in books, all official laws, in newspapers, printed notices, most advertising, and other printed writing. Authors write books mainly using Swiss Standard German. 

There are differences in the spelling of Swiss Standard German and Standard German, for example replacing the German ß with ss. For example: 


| Swiss Standard German | Non-Swiss Standard German | English |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *Strasse* | *Straße* | street |
| *gross* | *groß* | big |
| *Fussball* | *Fußball* | football |
| *süss* | *süß* | sweet |
| *weiss*, *Weiss* | *weiß*, *Weiß* | white |
| *fliessen* | *fließen* | to flow |

There are some differences in vocabulary, including using a loanword from another language.

| Swiss Standard German | Non-Swiss Standard German | English |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **Billett** | *Fahrkarte* | ticket (for bus/tram/train etc.) |
| **Führerausweis** or **Fahrausweis** | *Führerschein* | driving licence |
| **Velo** | *Fahrrad* | bicycle |
| **Handy** | *Handy* or *Mobiltelefon* | mobile phone |
| **parkieren** | *parken* | to park |
| **Poulet** | *Hähnchen* | chicken |
| **Jupe** | *Rock* | skirt |

Spoken Swiss Standard German
----------------------------

Swiss Standard German is only spoken in very few specific formal situations, such as in news broadcasts, education, and in religious sermons.

Diglossia
---------

Swiss Standard German and Swiss German dialects has been called a typical case of Diglossia, or when a group of people have two languages or dialects that they use.
**Post-structuralism** is a kind of philosophy and way of looking at media. The "*Post-*" in Post-structuralism means "comes after." "Structuralism" is another kind of philosophy. Most of post-structuralism is about saying that structuralism is wrong.

The people we call Post-structuralists who wrote about structuralism all had different ideas. A common idea among them was not liking how some structuralists thought the whole world could be thought of as symbols that are opposite to each other. They thought that things in life and in media are more complex than that, so that thinking "this is the opposite of that" was silly. A lot of the time, the post-structuralists said that the things that we think of as the ends of a binary were really made up by other people, and were not really useful or true.

*Structuralism* says that we can see human culture as a structure that looks like language. It also says that this is not reality, but we can use a "third order" that makes a bridge between the two. A post-structuralist might say that to build meaning out of that, you have to make a mistake and think that the definitions of things are good and don't change. Post-structualists might also say that the structuralist theory is above and not a part of from these structures they are writing things about.

Post-structuralist writers write about how structuralism is too stiff and is wrong to put things in categories.

Writers that have been called post-structuralists include: Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari, Judith Butler, Jean Baudrillard and Julia Kristeva, although some did not want to be called "post-structuralist."
**The Third Wave** was an experimental social campaign made by California high school history teacher Ron Jones in 1967. This experiment was to explain to the student how the German population could accept the actions of the Nazis during the rise of the Third Reich and the Second World War.

Jones taught his students about Nazi Germany. During his senior level World History class, he found it difficult to explain to his students how the German population could accept the actions of the Nazis. He decided to make a fake social movement as an example of the appeal of fascism. The experiment took place over the course of 5 days (or nine, according to student Sherry Toulsey). Jones started a series of exercises in his classroom mainly focusing on discipline and community. This was intended to model certain traits of the Nazi movement.

The experiment started to get out of control. The movement grew outside of his class and members began to increase in the hundreds. He convinced the students to attend a rally where he claimed that the classroom project was part of a nationwide movement, and that the announcement of a Third Wave presidential candidate would be televised. When the students arrived, they were shown a blank channel. Jones told his students that the movement was an experiment about fascism. He showed his students a short film about the actions of Nazi Germany.

This project was turned into an American film, **The Wave**, in 1981, and a very praised German film, **Die Welle**, in 2008.

Background
----------

The experiment started at Cubberley High School in Palo Alto, California, during the first week of April, 1967. Jones was a member of the SDS, sponsor of the Cubberley United Student Movement, and a supporter of the Black Panthers. Jones decided to create this experiment after finding it hard to tell his students how the German people could have ignored the Holocaust. Jones started a movement called "The Third Wave" and told his students that the movement wanted to end democracy. The idea that democracy focuses on individuals was seen as a drawback, and Jones focused this main point of the movement in its motto: "Strength through discipline, strength through community, strength through action, strength through pride."

The experiment was not well documented, being briefly mentioned in two issues of the Cubberley High School student newspaper, *The Cubberley Catamount*. Another issue of the paper has a longer description of the experiment when it was finished. Jones wrote a detailed recollection about nine years after. Articles from other authors followed, some featuring an interview with Jones and the students involved.
**Shafiul Islam Mohiuddin** is a Bangladeshi Business leader. He is the President of Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FBCCI). He led the Ready-Made Garment (RMG) sector of the country over thirty years and became the President of Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA), the largest export earning sector of the country.

Early life and education
------------------------

Md. Shafiul Islam (Mohiuddin) obtained B.Com (Hon’s) and M.Com degree in Accountancy from University of Dhaka.

Career
------

Mohiuddin involve with RMG sector of the country over thirty years. He entered garment industry in 1992 by establishing Onus Apparel Ltd. Since he started his export oriented garments industry named Onus Group, the largest export earning sector of the country. He has also successfully diversified his business in other business sectors like Garment Accessories, Real Estate, Shipping, Fishing, Trawler, Dredging, Solar Energy, Auto Bricks, Handicrafts, etc. He has currently employed over six thousand people in his business group. He is the Director of Trustee Board, BGMEA University of Fashion and Technology (BUFT). He is also the Vice President of Society for Anti addiction Movement (SAAM), Centre of Excellence for Bangladesh Apparel Industry (CEBAI) and Rugby Federation, Director of Mohammedan Sporting Club Limited, Director of BGMEA Apparel Club.

Personal life
-------------

Mohiuddin is married to Leesa Khalid Islam. The have four daughters and one son.
Flag of the Balawaristan National Front.
The **Balawaristan National Front** is a Pakistani political party in Gilgit-Baltistan. It was formed on December 28, 1989 under the Chairmanship of Nawaz Khan Naji. It was reorganized in July 30 1993. In 1947 at the time of Independence of Pakistan the people of the area were mostly Shia Muslims. However over the years the ethnic composition has changed. Sunni Kashmiri and other Pakistanis have settled in this area leading to discontent - although Shias remain the outright majority.[*source?*] A 2008 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees said that Pakistan-administered Kashmir, which included Gilgit-Baltistan, was 'Not Free'. In 2009 as part of the *Gilgit-Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order Act of 2009*, the region was granted self-rule for the first time with an elected legislature in its history. The Republic of India says that Gilgit-Baltistan is a part of the former Princely state of Kashmir and Jammu and an 'integral part' of India. It regards the disputed region as Indian territory.
**Zakia Shahnawaz Khan** (Urdu: زکیہ شاہ نواز خان‎; born 5 March 1946) is a Pakistani politician who has been the member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab since May 2013.

Early life and education
------------------------

Khan was born on 5 March 1946 in Isakhel.

She received her education from St Denys High School, Murree and Queen Mary College, Lahore and completed matriculation level education.

Political career
----------------

Khan was elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab on a reserved seat for women in Pakistani general election, 1977.

She was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab on a reserved seat for women in Pakistani general election, 1985.

She was elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as a candidate of Pakistan Muslim League (N) on a reserved seat for women in Pakistani general election, 2013. In June 2013, she was added in the provincial cabinet of Chief Minister Shahbaz Sharif and was made Provincial Minister of Punjab for Population Welfare. In November 2016, she was made Provincial Minister of Punjab for environment protection.
**École Centrale Paris** (**ECP**; also known as **École Centrale** or **Centrale**) was a French grande école in engineering and science. It is in a campus of Chatenay-Malabry.

Its courses can lead to the following French and European degrees:

* *Ingénieur Centralien de Paris* (Centralien Graduate engineer Masters level program) ;
* Master of Science & PhD doctorate studies ;
* *Mastères Spécialisés* (MS) ;
* Massive Online Open Courses.

Courses are performed mainly in French and English languages. Students at the school come from more than 50 countries.

Most of the 2000 students at École Centrale de Paris live in dedicated housing buildings near to the research labs and metro public transport.

Admission
---------

Admission to the "Centralien engineering Programme" at École Centrale de Paris is possible after two or three year scientific undergraduate studies and requires success in either: 

* an admission exam for Bachelors of Sciences (2-year curriculum)
* a French nationwide selective exam with *numerus clausus* : concours Centrale-Supelec (3-year curriculum including at least 2 years in France)
* a selective application as per *Top Industrial Managers for Europe* (TIME) double degrees procedures applicable in Europe (2+2-year curriculum, including 2 years in France)

The *Centralien Programme* usually lasts three years and results in a Master's degree. It involves doing work in other countries. Thus undergraduate studies plus the Centralien Programme account for more than a cumulated 300 ECTS credits as applicable in the European education system. Graduate students enrolled in the TIME double degree procedure are required to spend two years at École Centrale de Paris and spend two years in the TIME-partner institute for a total of four years resulting in a double master's degree.

More reading
------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***École centrale de Paris***.

* Official website
Andy Warhol in 1975
**Andy Warhol** (**Andrew Warhol, Jr.**; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was one of the most famous American artists of the latter half of the 20th century. Many people think that Warhol is the "bellwether of the art market".

1979 BMW Group 4 M1 painted by Andy Warhol
Warhol was born **Andrew Warhola, Jr.** in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on August 6, 1928. He graduated from the Carnegie Institute of Technology before moving to New York City. His first big break was in August 1949 when he was asked to illustrate an article in Glamour Magazine. He dropped the 'a' from the end of his name when the credits read "Drawings by Andrew Warhol". Warhol was also famous for painting Campbells' and Watties' soup cans. He painted about 300 different paintings. .He originally worked as a commercial artist. He designed things like advertisements and window displays for stores. He soon became famous as an artist in the Pop Art movement, in which everyday objects and media images were used. One of his most famous paintings is his colourful portrait of American movie star, Marilyn Monroe. After she died, he was deeply moved and wanted to create some sort of memorial.

In 1968, Warhol was shot by Valerie Solanas. He was known for his The Factory studio in New York City where most of his work was created.

In 1987, Warhol was in a hospital in New York City after an operation on his gallbladder. He died in his sleep from a sudden post-operative cardiac arrhythmia, aged 58. His family sued the hospital for inadequate care, saying that the arrhythmia was caused by improper care and water poisoning.

Other websites
--------------


Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: ***Andy Warhol***

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Andy Warhol***.

* Andy Warhol Print at Adam's Auctioneers
* Warhol Foundation in New York City
* Andy Warhol Collection in Pittsburgh
* Time Capsules: the Andy Warhol Collection
* Documentation of recent exhibitions of work by Andy Warhol Archived 2018-11-05 at the Wayback Machine
* The work of Andy Warhol Archived 2021-02-03 at the Wayback Machine spoken about by David Cronenberg on UbuWeb
* Andy Warhol on IMDb
* Warhol in Paris—slideshow by *The First Post*
* Andy Warhol makes a digital painting of Debbie Harry at the Commodore Amiga product launch press conference in 1985
* Andy Warhol: A Documentary film by Ric Burns for PBS

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Bowler hat, mid-20th century
The **bowler hat** is a hard felt hat with a rounded crown.

It was originally designed to protect the head from blows. One story is that the British soldier and politician Edward Coke, the younger brother of the 2nd Earl of Leicester had it made in 1849. Its purpose was to protect his gamekeepers' heads from low-hanging branches while on horseback. The keepers had previously worn top hats, which were easily knocked off and damaged. 

The bowler hat was popular with the working class during the Victorian era, and later on with the middle and upper classes in Britain and the eastern United States. In Britain, they are worn as civilian dress by Guards officers.

Outside the United Kingdom
--------------------------

The bowler hat is a traditional part of womenswear among the Quechua and Aymara peoples of South America
The bowler was the most popular hat in the American Old West. It was "the hat that won the West". Both cowboys and railroad workers preferred the hat because it would not blow off easily in strong wind while riding a horse, or when sticking one's head out the window of a speeding train. It was worn by both lawmen and outlaws, including Bat Masterson, Butch Cassidy, Black Bart, and Billy the Kid. In America the hat came to be commonly known as the *derby*, and Wild West outlaw Marion Hedgepeth was commonly referred to as "the Derby Kid".

The bowler, called a *bombín* in Spanish, has been worn by Quechua and Aymara women since the 1920s, when it was introduced to Bolivia by British railway workers. For many years, a factory in Italy manufactured the hats for the Bolivian market, but they are now made locally. Another region where the bowler hat is worn is the Niger Delta area of Nigeria.

Popular culture
---------------

The bowler makes regular appearances. It was part of John Steed's outfit in *The Avengers* British TV series, and Oddjob's favourite weapon in the original *Goldfinger* film. It was worn by *Charlie Chaplin* and Stan Laurel in movies.