recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Scholar's rock, 11th century
**Chinese scholars' rocks** (供石 or **gōngshí**), also known as **scholar stones** or **viewing stones**, are small naturally shaped rocks which are traditionally valued by Chinese scholars.

Scholars rocks can be any color. There are a wide variety of sizes. Scholars rocks can weigh hundreds of pounds or less than one pound. The term also means stones which are placed in traditional Chinese gardens.

History
-------

Four important qualities for the rocks were recognized in the Tang dynasty. They are: thinness (*shou*), openness (*tou*), perforations (*lou*), and wrinkling (*zhou*).

Chinese scholar's rocks influenced the development of *suseok* in Korea and *suiseki* in Japan.

Origin
------

The origin of the stone is a notable feature.

Lingbi stone feom Anhui. Ming Dynasty, 15th century
* Lingbi stone (*Lingbishi*) from Lingbi, Anhui province, limestone

* Taihu stone (*Taihushi*) from Lake Tai, Jiangsu province, limestone

* Yingde stone (*Yingshi* or *Yingdeshi*) from Yingde, Guangdong province, limestone

Evaluation
----------

The evaluation of a scholar's rock identifies subtlety of color, shape, markings and surface. The qualities which are prized include

* awkwardness or odd symmetry
* resonance or ringing when struck
* represents or resemblance to landscape or figure
* texture
* moistness or glossy surface

The stone may be displayed on a wooden base that has been carved specifically for the stone. The stones are a traditional subject of Chinese paintings.

Related pages
-------------

* Suiseki
* Bonsai
* Penjing
* Standing stone

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Scholar's rocks at Wikimedia Commons

* Scholar's rock at Metropolitan Museum of Art
**Chinese loanwords** are loanwords borrowed into non-Chinese languages, especially East Asian languages. Since China introduced writing to the Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages, each language had also borrowed many Chinese loanwords. Since all the languages have very different sound systems from each other, they all have different systems for pronouncing Chinese loanwords (though there are many words that sound similar to each other). These are called **Sino-Xenic pronunciations**. These are similar to how loanwords from Latin and French sound differently when spoken in English. 

At one point, all these languages only wrote in Chinese characters. Today, Japanese is the only non-Chinese language that writes in Chinese characters in everyday life. Chinese characters, or *kanji* in Japanese, can be used to write both native Japanese words and Chinese loanwords. Today, Korean uses Chinese characters, or *hanja* in Korean, only for Chinese loanwords (when writing only in hangul is too ambiguous) and writing out one's own name. Today, Vietnamese does not use Chinese characters at all, but only uses the Latin alphabet, or *chữ Quốc ngữ* in Vietnamese. Chinese characters are only used as a decoration in Vietnam today, and they are studied by only a few Vietnamese.

Sino-Xenic pronunciations in different East Asian languages
-----------------------------------------------------------

This chart will compare the pronunciations of Chinese vocabulary terms in Mandarin, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese.

| Traditional Chinese character(s) | Mandarin | Japanese | Korean | Vietnamese | English meaning |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 茶 | chá | cha | cha | trà | tea |
| 中國 | Zhōngguó | Chūgoku | Jungguk | Trung quốc | China |
| 道教 | Dàojiào | Dōkyō | Dogyo | Đạo giáo | Daoism |
| 電話 | diànhuà | denwa | jǒnhwa | điện thoại | telephone |
| 大學 | dàxué | daigaku | daehak | đại học | university |
| 跆拳道 | táiquándào | tekondō | taekwǒndo | Taekwondo | Taekwondo |
| 拉麵 | lāmiàn | rāmen | ramyǒn | ramen | ramen noodles |
| 神 | shén | kami | sin | thần | god, deity |
| 杀人 | shārén | satsujin | sal-in | giết người | murder |
| 犬 | quǎn | inu | gyeon | chó | dog |
The front of a boat is called the **bow**, while the rear of a boat is called the **stern**. When looking towards the bow (while on the boat), the left-hand side of the boat is the **port** side. **Starboard** is the corresponding word for the right side of a boat.

Parts of a Boat: Boating Terminology
------------------------------------

Port side view of the US Coast Guard ship *Barracuda*
**Port** and **starboard** are nautical terms for left and right, respectively. Port is the left-hand side of or direction from a vessel, facing forward. Starboard is the right-hand side, facing forward. Since port and starboard never change, they are clear references that do not depend on which way the observer is facing.

History
-------

The term *starboard* comes from the Old English *steorbord*, meaning the side on which the ship is steered. Before ships had rudders on their center-lines, they were steered with a steering oar at the stern of the ship. Because more people are right-handed it was placed on the right-hand side. The term is similar to the Old Norse *stýri* (rudder) and *borð* (side of a ship). Since the steering oar was on the right side of the boat, it would tie up at wharf on the other side. For this reason the left side was called *port*. 

Formerly *larboard* was used instead of *port*. This is from Middle English *ladebord* and the term *lade* is related to the modern *load*. *Larboard* sounded very similar to *starboard* and in 1844 the Royal Navy ordered that *port* be used instead. *Larboard* continued to be used well into the 1850s by whalers. In Old English the word was *bæcbord*, which is used in other European languages, for example as the German *backbord* and the French term *bâbord* (derived in turn from Middle Dutch).

Navigational lights
-------------------

Oncoming boat indicating its port (red) and starboard (green) sides
At night, the port side of a boat or aircraft is indicated by a red navigation light at the bow. The opposite side of the bow has a green one to help avoid collisions. The *International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea* state that a ship on the left must give way to a ship on its right. If the courses of two boats are intersecting, the helmsman usually gives way to a red light by going around the stern of the stand-on vessel (the vessel that does not need to change course). A saying for this is:

> 
> "If to starboard red appear,  
>  
> 'tis your duty to keep clear...  
>  
> Green to green, red to red  
>  
> perfect safety, go ahead."
> 
> 
>

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Boat positions***.

* Port and Starboard, Left or Right?
* The Origin of Port and Starboard
The **Chinese economic reform** (Chinese: 改革开放; pinyin: *Gǎigé kāifàng*; literally: "**reform and opening-up**") refers to the economic reforms in the People's Republic of China between the 1970s and 1990s. They were led by the Communist Party of China and Deng Xiaoping and started in December 1978. They were also called "Socialism with Chinese characteristics".

Why reform?
-----------

Before the eighteenth century, China had one of the world's largest and most advanced economies. Adam Smith agreed. However, Chinese economy began to slow down and even got worse by the 20th century. This was due to things like the First Sino-Japanese War and Second Sino-Japanese War.

Other than that, in 1978 the Chinese economy was on the brink of disaster as a consequence of the decisions of Mao Zedong.

How did they reform?
--------------------

The Communist Party began to fix the economy. It introduced market principles in 1978.

Part 1: In the 70s and 80s, they stopped requiring everybody to farm and stopped sending young people to the countryside. They also opened China to foreign investment, allowing people to start businesses. However, most businesses remained owned by the government.

Part 2: In the 80s and 90s, the PRC allowed much more private control of business (less government control, privatization). They removed price controls, protectionist policies, and regulations. Still state monopolies in banking and petroleum remained.

What happened next?
-------------------

The private sector grew remarkably, becoming 70% of China's gross domestic product by 2005. From 1978 until 2013, unprecedented growth happened, with the economy increasing by 9.5% each year.

After 2005, Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao controlled the economy more heavily, reversing some reforms. Xi Jinping undid some more reforms by allowing the government greater control in some areas of the economy.

Chinese society changed a lot because of these reforms. They greatly reduced poverty and increased average income. They have also led to China's rise as a world power.
This is a rhythmite: obvious repeat pattern, with limestone blocks with shale in between them. Blue Lias cliffs at Lyme Regis, Dorset
Lower Lias at Nash Point, Glamorgan, Wales
The **Blue Lias** is a formation of rocks mostly in south west England and parts of south Wales. It is part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.

It is part of the Lias Group. The Blue Lias consists of a sequence of limestone and shale layers. It was laid down in late Triassic and early Jurassic times, between 195 and 200 million years ago. The Blue Lias is famous for its fossils, especially ammonites. Also found were remains of a number of dinosaurs, and the pterosaur *Dimorphodon*.

The Blue Lias alternates between limestone, (with some clay), and mudstone. These alternations are caused by short-term climatic variations, thought to be caused by Milankovitch cycles. The blue/grey colour is given by iron pyrite.

A bit higher, these limestone-mudstone alternations change into a clay member. The deposition of a clay-rich mudstone member shows it was laid down in a deeper marine environment.

Related pages
-------------

* Lower Jurassic
The **cinereous shrew** (*Sorex cinereus*) is a type of shrew. It is found in Alaska, Canada, and the northern United States. It is also called the **masked shrew** or the **common shrew**.

Description
-----------

It is grey-brown in colour. It light grey belly and a pointed snout. It has a long tail. Its body is about 9 cm in length including a 4 cm long tail. It weighs about 5 g. They can live up to two years.

Distribution
------------

It lives in most of northern and southern North America to the Rocky Mountains in the west, and to the Appalachians in the east. This species was introduced into Newfoundland in the late 1950s. It can be found in many types of habitats like arid grasslands, places with lots of water, woodlands, and tundra. It mostly lives in humid places and with lots of plants to hide in.

Feeding
-------

Cinereus shrews eat insects, worms, snails, small rodents, salamanders, and seeds. They can only live for a few hours without food because of their high metabolism.

Predators
---------

Predators include larger shrews, hawks, owls, shrikes, snakes, herons, foxes, leopard frogs, bluebirds, brown trouts, and weasels.

Behavior
--------

The cinereus shrew can be diurnal or nocturnal depending on the weather. It digs tunnels but also uses tunnels made by other small mammals. It uses dry grass to make nests in these tunnels. It does not like other shrews to come into its territory.

Reproduction
------------

Cinereus shrews breed from May to September. Females give birth to 6 to 7 young ones. The young ones are born hairless and do not have claws. They become sexually mature at two months. But they wait until their first spring to breed.
**Carambola** (*Averrhoa carambola*), also known as **star fruit**, is a tropical fruit. The fruit grows on trees that are native to India, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. Star fruit is common in the south of Asia, Australia and all of the islands around Australia. The tree is also grown in tropic islands.

Origins and distribution
------------------------

The carambola has been growing in parts of Asia for hundreds of years. It may have first been in Sri Lanka and Moluccas. Malaysia grows the most carambola in the world and it also grows in Bangladesh.

Because of insects and disease, whole carambolas cannot be taken into the USA. In the USA, star fruit is grown in Florida, Texas, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, California, Texas, Arizona, Puerto Rico and Hawaii. 

Starfruit and slices

Taste
-----

Star fruit tastes best ripe (yellow with a little green). It will also be brown on the five edges and feel hard. If the star fruit is overripe it will be yellow with brown spots. You can eat all of the fruit, even the skin. It is sweet and very juicy. The taste is a little bit like a subtle mix of papaya, orange and grapefruit.

Cultivation
-----------

The Carambola is a tropical fruit. In Northern India, it grows up to 4,000 feet in elevation. It prefers a total exposure to the sun but requires high humidity and a total of 70 inches or more of rainfall a year. It requires good drainage of the soil.

Carambola trees are planted 20 feet or more from each other. They grow fast and makes fruit when they are four or five years old. The rain during Spring makes the amount of fruit lower. In perfect conditions, Carambola can make from 200 to 400 pounds of fruit a year. The fruit is picked mainly during the months of June, July, and August.

Major pests are fruit flies, ants, and birds. In the United States, they are also vulnerable to frosts. 

Carambolas still on the tree
**Clara Ponsatí i Obiols** (born in 1957 in Barcelona) is a Catalan economist. She was appointed Counsellor of Education of the Generalitat of Catalonia by President Carles Puigdemont the 14 July 2017.

Biography
---------

Ponsatí was born in Barcelona in 1957. She was the daughter of Josep Maria Ponsatí i Capdevila and Montserrat Obiols i Germà. After studying in the Faculty of Economics of the UB. In 1988 she got the terminal degree from the Department of Economics, of the University of Minnesota, (Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA), where she remained several years as a teacher.

Of liberal trend, Ponsatí directed the Institute of Economic Analysis of the CSIC (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas) between 2006 and 2012, where she was a teacher as well. She has been a visiting teacher in the universities of Toronto, San Diego and Georgetown. The year 2013 the Spanish government exercised a veto against her, after she exposed her opinion about the independence of Catalonia in different mediae.
A Christogram placed on a grave cross
IHS on the coat of arms of Pope Francis.
The **Christogram IHS** is a monogram symbolizing Jesus Christ.

From Greek it is an abbreviation of the name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ (Jesus).

In Eastern Orthodox Church the Christogram is composed with letters *X,* *P*, *I* and *X* arranged into the cross. They are the first letters of one from two words in Greek language: *Christ* and *Jesus Christ*.

In the Western culture there exist the compositions: "**IHS**" and also "**IHC**" being the first letters (iota-eta-sigma) of the name Jesus in Greek alphabet: ΙΗΣΟΥΣ (Ίησοῦς or ΙΗϹΟΥϹ with lunated sigma). The abbreviation in form "**IHS**" appeared in first time on the coins of Justinian II on the turn of the 7th and 8th centuries.

The order of Jesuits, in other words the Society of Jesus (*Societas Iesu*), adopted *IHS* as its fixed emblem - the symbol in 17th century. There appeared also Latin interpretations of the abbreviation *IHS*, among others:

* *Iesus Humilis Societas* - Humble Society of Jesus,
* *Iesus Hominum Salvator* - Jesus, Savior of men,

and also:

* *In hoc signo* vinces- By this sign you shall conquer.

These developed inscriptions were most likely formed because in the Middle Ages people mistakenly read the letter **E** as **H**. [*source?*]

According to a legend, this inscription with the cross was seen by emperor Constantine the Great in his sleep before the battle against Maxentius in 312 on the Ponte Milvio.

Commentators unfriendly to the Catholic Church sometimes interpret the abbreviation **IHS** as derived from the solar idols of the Egyptian mythology: Isis, Horus and Seth. Nevertheless, present scientific knowledge does not confirm such interpretations.
A **clione** is a genus of sea slug. They are also called sea butterflies and sea angels.

There are 16 species of Clione. They live in the ocean. The body is small, and the brain and heart are pink so they show through the clear body. People like to put them in aquariums.

Name
----

It is said that it was discovered by Captain Fipp of England in 1773 during whale watching off the coast of Greenland carrying the King of England.  The origin of the name is said to be "Clio" which means "a blessing woman", one of the nine goddesses of literary arts in Greek mythology, Muses.  The official name is Clione Limacina. It means the goddess of the sea like a slug. Clione is known as "the angel of drift ice" or "the fairy of drift ice", which is said to come with drift ice and leave with drift ice.  It is translucent, has a red head and tail, and has spread wings, making it a mascot of the Sea of Okhotsk in winter.

Food
----

Children of Clione eat plankton and become carnivorous when they grow up a little. The food they eat is limited, and they only eat Limakina, who is the same companion and has a shell. Six tentacles come out from the head and capture the Limacina.  And it is a method of slowly absorbing the nutrients of the Limakina and eating it. They eat like a devil regardless of appearance.

Life cycle
----------

Fertilization occurs 4 hours after copulation, and the female lays jelly-like eggs into the sea. The phytoplankton is breeding season at that time therefore, Clione's spawning season is off the coast of Vancouver in spring. The Sea of Okhotsk has a spawning season from late autumn to early summer.

It is reported that the number of eggs laid is approximately 150 to 200 in the small group with a body length of 1 cm and  approximately 1200 to 2800 in the large group with a body length of 4 to 8 cm.  And Clione matures in about one year and is said to have a life span of  two to three years.

Range
-----

Clione is a bipolar distribution species that is distributed in the cold waters of the waters surrounding the Arctic and Antarctica.  Its distribution is shallower than 200m on the surface of the open ocean in cold waters.
Charles Koechlin
**Charles Koechlin** (pronounce:"Ke-klin" with "klin" to rhyme with French "vin"), (born Paris, November 27 1867; died Le Canadel, December 31 1950) was a French composer, teacher and writer on music. He wrote a very large amount of music, but very little of it was published because he was more interested in helping younger composers than making himself well-known. Some of his best works include his symphonic poems and his film music.

His life
--------

Koechlin was born in Paris, the youngest child of a large and rich family. His mother’s family came from the Alsace near the French border with Germany, and he was proud of his Alsatian background. His grandfather on his mother’s side had started a cotton textile firm in Mulhouse and his father worked in the textile business. When Koechlin was 14 his father died. He showed an interest in music, but his family wanted him to be an artillery officer. However, he had tuberculosis and had to spent six months getting better in Algeria. After finishing his schooling he was allowed to enter the Paris Conservatoire in 1890. Two years later he was studying composition with Massenet, and in 1896 he was a pupil of Gabriel Fauré. Ravel was a pupil in the same class. Fauré had a big influence on Koechlin who wrote a book about him and helped him to arrange some of his music for orchestra.

Koechlin became a freelance composer and teacher. He married Suzanne Pierrard in 1903 and they had five children. At first he was comfortably off, but after World War I the family lost a lot of money and they had to sell their country house.

Koechlin had very free views about music, and this is probably why he never got a teaching job at the Piano Conservatoire. He also agreed with some things that the Communists thought. He did not like modern inventions like the telephone and radio. He looked like an old Russian patriarch with his long beard. He dressed in velvet trousers, sandals and a shepherd’s cape for bad weather. He liked outdoor activities such as swimming and mountaineering. He was offered the Legion d’honneur in 1940 but refused it.

His music
---------

Koechlin composed in a variety of styles, even changing the style during a piece. He often liked quiet music with long chords which are played for the sounds they make rather than for giving the music a traditional shape. Sometimes there were no barlines in his music. He often composed in his head while on a train or climbing a mountain.

His works for orchestra include *Les Bandarlogs* which was based on the *Jungle Book* by Rudyard Kipling. Kipling’s "Bandarlog" are a troupe of monkeys in the forest. The music describes the monkeys, but Koechlin also gives it another meaning: he is criticising music critics, comparing them to monkeys. In the *Seven Stars Symphony* each movement is about a famous film star. They include Greta Garbo, Marlene Dietrich and Charlie Chaplin. He wrote a lot of chamber music and piano music, including some dances for Ginger Rogers.

Sources
-------

Robert Orledge, *Charles Koechlin (1867-1950) His Life and Works* (London, 1989)
Scheme of a black box
For other uses, see Black box (disambiguation).
A **black box**, in science and engineering, is a box whose inside working is not known.

It is a device, system or object with input and output. There is no knowledge of its internal workings. The way it works is "opaque" (black). Almost anything might be referred to as a black box: a transistor, an algorithm, or the human brain.

Ashby expains that the term arose when a decision had to be made about opening an engineering box. The question was whether to return the box for repair, or just scrap it. Could this be decided without opening the box? There can be many reasons why a complex system cannot be repaired in the field, and even opening up some systems is a big deal. The question also comes up in surgery on brain damage patients. The more that can be discovered before operating, the better.p86

The opposite of a black box is a system where the inner components or logic can be seen. It is sometimes known as a clear box, a glass box, or a white box.
**Bokeh** (from the Japanese word "boke" which means "blur") is the appreciation of the blurred backgrounds seen in photography, it is also used to describe the quality of such out-of-focus backgrounds in camera lenses.

The picture at the bottom was taken with a very small aperture, whereas the picture at the top was taken with a big aperture.
Bokeh is not a special technique but rather a natural effect caused by what photographers (people who take pictures) call a narrow depth of field, it simply means that the more light a camera lens lets in, the more blurry the background can be, distance between the subject and lens also affects bokeh, if the subject is far enough away, there will be no bokeh.

Quality
-------

The quality of bokeh can be "good" or "bad", while it may vary due to different tastes, good bokeh is usually defined as being "smooth" as the background seems to "melt", whereas bad bokeh is usually defined as being "blobs" of light that make up the background.

Usage in optics
---------------

The term "bokeh" is hardly used in optics, experts in the field refer to it as defocus, as bokeh is related to lens focus, meaning a picture completely made of bokeh is just an out-of-focus picture.

Shape
-----

Some camera lenses have a bokeh that looks like it "swirls" around the subject, often called swirly bokeh, it is used in portrait photography, and is caused by lens defects, though some special camera lenses are designed to have it.

Bokeh also takes on the shape of the aperture which the light passes through, making most bokeh circular in shape, which also means a lens "mask" made of black paper that has a certain shape cut into it can be placed over a camera lens to make the bokeh shape conform to that of the shape cut into the paper (for example, a love heart).

Catadioptric lenses (camera lenses and telescopes that use both mirrors and lenses) make a ring-shaped bokeh due to the presence of a mirror in the middle of the lens.

Usage in photography
--------------------

Bokeh is used in all kinds of photography, but it's most common in nature, portrait and sports photography, photographers find it useful as it can "isolate" the subject away from the background, making the subject the main part of the picture.

This portrait has swirly bokeh seen at the edges
Donut-shaped bokeh produced by some camera lenses and telescopes that use both mirrors and lenses (catadioptric)
Example of the formation of a caldera, the pictures show Mount Mazama's eruption timeline
Crater Lake in Oregon
A **caldera** is a volcanic feature formed by the collapse of land surface after a gigantic volcanic eruption. In such an eruption the volcano's magma chamber is empty enough for the ground above it to drop.

A caldera may look like a volcanic crater except that a crater is made by blasting outward, not by collapsing inward. The word *caldera* comes from the Portuguese language, meaning "cauldron". Some complex features are made by both processes.

When Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of material, covering much of North America in debris up to two metres thick. By comparison, when Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, it released 1000 times less material.

The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia.

About 75,000 years ago, the Toba catastrophe released about 2,800 km3 of ejecta. This was the largest known explosive eruption within the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose suggested that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000 – 20,000, resulting in a population bottleneck. Others suggested that the human race was reduced to about five to ten thousand people. 
However, there is no direct evidence that the theory is correct  and some evidence that it is not.

Larger calderas
---------------

Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known. At La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, the 5,000 km3 Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single major eruption about 27.8 million years ago.

At some points in time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene periods) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic).

Satellite image of Santorini. Clockwise from center: Nea Kameni; Palea Kameni; Aspronisi; Therasia; Thera
* Ngorongoro is a caldera.
* The Hawaiian Islands are formed by a caldera
*Cyanistes caeruleus*
The **blue tit** (*Cyanistes caeruleus*) is a passerine songbird in the family Paridae. It is 10.5 to 12 cm (4.2 to 4.8 inches) long. 

The blue tit is a widespread and common resident breeder. It lives throughout temperate and subarctic Europe and western Asia in deciduous or mixed woodlands. It is a resident bird; most do not migrate.

Behaviour
---------

Blue and great tits form mixed winter flocks, and the former are perhaps the better gymnasts on the slender twigs. A blue tit will often ascend a trunk in short jerky hops, imitating a treecreeper. As a rule the bird roosts in ivy or evergreens, but in hard weather will shelter in a hole. Blue tits are very agile and can hang from almost anywhere.

The blue tit has an average life expectancy of 1.5 years 

### Diet

Eating peanuts from a garden bird feeder
The blue tit is a destroyer of pests. It is fond of young buds of various trees, and may pull them to bits in the hope of finding insects. No species, however, destroys more coccids and aphids, the worst foes of many plants. It also eats leaf miner grubs and green tortrix moths (Tortricidae). Seeds are eaten, as with all this family.

### Learning

An interesting example of culturally transmitted learning in birds was the phenomenon dating from the 1960s of blue tits teaching one another how to open traditional British milk bottles with foil tops, to get at the cream underneath. This behaviour has declined recently because of the replacement of doorstep delivery by supermarket purchases of milk, and by hard-topped containers instead of the old bottles.

Sources
-------

1. ↑  "*Parus caeruleus*". *IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1*. International Union for Conservation of Nature. 2009. Retrieved 13 August 2011.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Cyanistes caeruleus***.

* The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (Blue tit)
* Blue tit videos, photos & sounds Archived 2016-04-04 at the Wayback Machine on the Internet Bird Collection.
The **cacao tree** is a small tree originally grown in tropical South America. It only grows to 4 to 8 meters in height. Its seeds are called cocoa and are used to produce cocoa butter, chocolate drinks, and chocolate. Now the trees are grown in plantations in many tropical countries.

Cultivation
-----------

Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Indonesia. Each country produces about 15%, with smaller amounts coming from Brazil, Nigeria, and Cameroon.

A tree begins to bear fruit when it is 4 or 5 years old. In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste.

Cocoa beans in a cacao pod
There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. For details of processing, see cocoa.

Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.

Other websites
--------------

* The food of the Gods - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg
**Cabrillo Beach** is a historic beach in San Pedro, California. 
Cabrillo has two separate beach areas.

Lifeguards
----------

Los Angeles City and Los Angeles County Lifeguards are responsible for the beach and ocean safety in and around the Cabrillo Beach area.

Geography
---------

Cabrillo Beach is next to the Los Angeles Harbor and is only a short boat ride away from Catalina Island.

Water Sports
------------

Cabrillo Beach is a popular destination for those interested in water sports, such as windsurfing, kayaking and SCUBA diving. 
Cabrillo Beach is known by windsurfers as "Hurricane Gulch" because of its predictably strong winds.

Landmarks
---------

It is also home to a few famous landmarks, namely the 1.75 mile Los Angeles Breakwater which ends at the Angeles Gate Lighthouse, the recently restored Cabrillo Beach Bathhouse, and the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium. The Angels Gate Lighthouse is home to the annual Angel's Gate Lighthouse Swim competition, held by Lifeguards and San Pedro residents each summer.
The ancient **Chinese musical system** depends on very ancient mathematics used to determine sound frequencies. The easiest way to explain it is to work through a real example.

Suppose that somebody wanted to make a musical instrument that could play any song in the ancient Chinese system. Here are the instructions:

Make a wooden box 105 cm long and 60 cm wide. Put guides for the strings near each end of the box, and fix it so that these two guides are 99 cm apart. 
Multiply 99 cm by 2/3, which is 66 cm. Place a fret all the way across the box on the 66 cm line.  

Multiply 66 cm by 4/3, which is 88 cm. Place a fret along the 88 cm line.  
 
Multiply 88 cm by 2/3, which is 58.66...6 cm. Place a fret along this line.  
 
Multiply 58.66...6 cm by 4/3, which is 78.22...2 cm. Place a fret along this line.   

Multiply 78.22...2 cm by 2/3, which is 54.148148...148 cm. Place a fret along this line.  

Multiply 54.148148...148 cm by 4/3, which is 69.531 cm. Place a fret along this line.  

Multiply 69.531 cm by 2/3, which is 46.354 -- and which is too short, so double it to get 92.708 cm. Place a fret along this line.  

Multiply 92.708 cm by 4/3...  

Multiply the previous answer by 2/3...  

Keep going until you have put down eleven frets.

Counting the frequency on the open string and the frequencies on the fretted strings, for each string there will be 12 defined frequencies.

Tune the bottom string to some basic frequency. Tune the next string to the frequency of the bottom string at the first fret. Tune the third string to the bottom string's second fret. Keep going until you have tuned all twelve strings. 

When you pluck these strings at all the fretted and unfretted positions, you will get 144 frequencies. Some of them will be duplicates, but not as many as you might think because this system is not like the Equal tempered system now used for almost all Western music.

Out of each twelve frequencies on a single string, you can make many selections of either five frequencies (for the pentatonic scales) or seven frequencies (for the heptatonic scales).

Here is a chart showing how frequencies and scales can be produced. The frequency of 440 hertz could have been any other frequency. Once this frequency is chosen, it is multiplied by the ratios to produce the first column of frequencies. Each of these 12 frequencies is used to start its own column. (See the dotted red line for one example.) Any five frequencies in a column can be chosen to make a pentatonic scale, as long as they are not right together and are not more than two apart. 

In the United States, students are taught the scale whose notes are named: "do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and ti." Those seven (known to many from the "Doe, a deer, a female deer" song) produce a **major scale.** In Western music we also use a **minor scale** fairly frequently. But we only have those two. Chinese traditional music uses five different scales of five notes each. It also has pentatonic scales, but they are not discussed in this article. 

How the scales are produced
**Clay animation** is one of many ways to make a stop motion animation. Each animated piece, either character or background, can be formed and reformed into different shapes. People making a clay animation usually use something soft, like Plasticine clay. 

An example of clay animation showing people sitting near a campfire.
Most animation is made the same way, whether it is cel animation or stop motion. Each frame, or still picture, is recorded on film or digital media and then played back quickly. When played back at a frame rate of more than 10–12 frames per second, the human mind sees the series of slightly changing, rapidly playing images as movement. To us it seems as if the object is moving by itself. This way of tricking the mind into seeing "movement" is the way that all moving images work, from zoetrope to movies to videogames. The way CGI animations are made is different from the frame by frame method.

How it is done
--------------

In clay animation, each object is made in clay, usually around a wire skeleton called an armature. The object is put on the set (background) and a still picture (one frame of film) is taken. The object or character is then moved slightly by hand. Another picture is taken, and the object is moved slightly again. This is repeated over and over. To get the best results, special care is taken to make sure that each frame is the same as the one before. For example, the lighting has to be the same and the object has to be put back in exactly the right place. The only thing that should be different is the slight change the animator makes to the object.

Making a stop-motion animation using clay is hard work. Normal movies use 24 frames per second (frame/s). Animation usually uses "doubles" or "twos"; that is using two frames for each shot. This means that 12 changes are made for one second of movie. For a 30-minute movie, there would be about 21,600 stops to change the objects for the next frame. For a full-length (90-minute) movie, there would be about 64,800 stops. IF some of the parts were done with only a single, not double frame, there would be even more stops. Great care must be taken to make sure that the object is not moved by accident. For full-length movies, animators now use rubber silicone and resin-cast objects. One foam-rubber method has been called *Foamation* by Will Vinton.

Examples of clay animation
--------------------------

Some famous clay animation movies have been made. Examples include:

* Gumby
* Wallace and Gromit
* Robot Chicken
* Bob the Builder
* Clay Studio of Sviridov Max

Claymation
----------

The word "**Claymation**" is a registered trademark in the United States. It was registered by Will Vinton in 1978 to describe his clay animation films. The word is often used incorrectly to describe any clay animation movie.
***Brochevarevarura*** (transl. Who shall save the day?) is a 2019 Indian Telugu-language movie. It is a comedy about crime. Vivek Athreya wrote and directed the movie, and Vijay Kumar Manyam produced it under Manyam Productions. The film stars Sree Vishnu, Nivetha Thomas, and Satyadev Kancharana. Priyadarshi and Rahul Ramakrishna also have small parts. It released on June 28, 2019.

Plot
----

Three students meet a woman whose father controls her life. They try to help her escape him, but they all get into trouble.

Cast
----

* Sree Vishnu as Rahul
* Nivetha Thomas as Mithra
* Nivetha Pethuraj as Shalini
* Satyadev Kancharana as Vishal
* Priyadarshi as Rakesh "Rocky"
* Rahul Ramakrishna as Rambabu "Rambo"
* Srikanth Iyyengar as Radha Krishna, Mitra's father
* Harsha Vardhan as CI Srinu, Radha Krishna's friend
* Sivaji Raja as Rahul's father
* Shafee as Constable Ashok Kumar
* Dinesh Koushika as Soori
* Jhansi as a physics teacher
* Raj Madiraju as a film producer
* Ajay Ghosh as a kidnapper
* Chevella Ravi as a beggar
* Rajesh Khanna
* Appaji Ambarisha Darbha as Vishal's father

Remake
------

*Brochevarevarura* was remade in many other languages. In Kannada, it is called *Govinda Govinda*. Tilak directed it and Shailendra Babu and Ravi R Garini produced it. It stars Sumanth Shailendra, Bhavana, and Kavitha Gowda. Sunny Deol bought the right to remake the movie in Hindi. The Hindi movie stars his son Karan Deol in the most important part. The film is titled Velle. Deven Munjal directed it. It stars Karan Deol, Anya Singh, Abhay Deol, and Mouni Roy.
**Brigitte Bardot** (French IPA: [bʀi'ʒit baʀ'do]) (born 28 September 1934) is a French actress, former fashion model, singer, animal rights activist, and considered one of the most important sex symbols of the 1950s and 1960s. She was one of the few actresses from Europe to which the American media paid attention.

Life and career
---------------

Born in Paris, into a well to do family, her father was an industrialist and her mother a housewife. She received a strict education but was allowed to take ballet lessons hoping to become a professional classical dancer.

In 1949, at the suggestion of a family friend, she began working as a fashion model and ended up making the cover of *Elle* magazine in May 1950. This led to her being noticed by movie director Yves Allegret who offered her a role in one of his movie. The movie was never made but during the audition she met his young assistant Roger Vadim. Her family was strongly against the relationship but finally gave in and they married in 1952.

That same year, she began her acting career and appeared in two films; *Le trou normand* and *Manina, fille sans voile*.

In the ensuing years, she appeared in small parts in various movies in France, Italy and England. Her career really took off in 1956, when she appeared in Vadim's movie *Et Dieu créa la femme* (*An God created Woman*), written especially for her, which made her an instant star and an international sex-symbol. From then on, her every move made headlines around the world. In 1958, she bought a house "La Madrague" in Saint Tropez, then a quiet fishermen village, which has since then become a highly touristic destination.

Other notable movies have included; *En cas de malheur* (1958), *La vérité* (1960), considered by many her best role, *Vie Privée* (1962), *Le mépris* (1963), *Viva Maria* (1965), etc. She also enjoyed success as a singer but mostly through recordings and television appearances.

In 1973, she decided to retire from entertainment and devote herself to her real passion the animal rights, which she continues today. She created her own foundation in 1986.

During the 1990s, she published her autobiography and other books in which she spoke openly about her political views on such things as immigration and Islam in France, mixed marriages and homosexuality, which created considerable controversy. She has angered many people who are part of these groups and was fined for incitation to racial hatred.

Bardot had four husbands and other romantic partners. After her divorce from Vadim in 1957, she married actor Jacques Charrier in 1959, with whom she had her only child, a son Nicolas, born on 11 January 1960. They divorced in 1962. Her third husband, from 1966 to 1969, was German millionaire Gunter Sachs. She has been married to Bernard d'Ormale, a right-wing political organizer, since 1992.

Other websites
--------------


Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: ***Brigitte Bardot***

* Brigitte Bardot on IMDb
* Brigitte Bardot Foundation Archived 2005-06-14 at the Wayback Machine for the welfare and protection of animals
* Brigitte Bardot at TV.com
**Claridge's** is a 5-star hotel in Mayfair, London. It was founded in 1812 as Mivart's Hotel, demolished and rebuilt in 1898 by its new owner Richard D'Oyly Carte. This was done to install modern facilities such as lifts and *en suite* bathrooms. It became part of D'Oyly Carte's Savoy Group of hotels.

Claridge's is now owned by the Maybourne Hotel Group, which also owns the Berkeley and the Connaught, two other luxury hotels in London. Claridges has 203 rooms and suites, is hugely expensive. Rooms start at USD $904 per night, suites start at USD $1,791 per night, penthouses start at USD $7,000 per night. However, hotel booking websites do show lower prices at some times of the year.

To a visitor the best aspect is the interior design in art deco style. There is a huge central area or atrium, where afternoon tea is served, and coffee after breakfast and dinner. There are two large restaurants, and various bars and other facilities.

The BBC 2 produced a three-part television documentary about Claridge's, called *Inside Claridge's*, shown in 2012..
Bombard-Mortar of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, Rhodes, 1480–1500. The bombard was used for close defense of the walls (100–200 meters) at the Siege of Rhodes. It fired 260 kg (573 lb) granite balls. The bombard weighs about 3,325 kg (7,330 lb).
A **bombard** is a large-caliber, muzzle-loading, medieval cannon or mortar. It was used in sieges for throwing heavy stone balls. The name **bombarde** was used in a French historical text around 1380. The modern term *bombardment* comes from this.

Bombards were usually used during sieges to hurl various things into enemy forts. Items such as stone or metal balls, burning materials and weighted cloth soaked in quicklime or Greek fire are have been written about.

The name comes from medieval Latin and French words from an earlier Greek word meaning the making of a humming noise.

Famous examples
---------------

A famous example of a bombard is Mons Meg, a large weapon built around 1449 and used by King James II of Scotland. It was very powerful and used for bringing down castle walls. Mons Meg could fire 180 kg (397 lb) shots and was one of the largest bombards in its time. It is now on public display at Edinburgh Castle. Other known bombards include two wrought iron weapons, the Pumhart von Steyr and Dulle Griet. There were also weapons cast in bronze, the Faule Mette, Faule Grete, and Grose Bochse. The Tsar Cannon is a late 16th century show-piece.

The Dardanelles Gun was built in the Ottoman Empire in 1464 by Munir Ali. It weighed 18.6 t and was 518cm long. It could fire stone balls of up to 63cm diameter.

Bombards were replaced by weapons using smaller calibre iron shells with more powerful gunpowder.

Gallery
-------

* "Hand bombard", 1390–1400"Hand bombard", 1390–1400
* 200kg wrought iron bombard, circa 1450, Metz, France. It was made by forging together iron bars, held in place by iron rings. It fired 6kg stone balls. Length: 82cm.200kg wrought iron bombard, circa 1450, Metz, France. It was made by forging together iron bars, held in place by iron rings. It fired 6kg stone balls. Length: 82cm.
* The Dardanelles Gun.The Dardanelles Gun.
* Mons Meg at Edinburgh Castle, mid-15thCMons Meg at Edinburgh Castle, mid-15thC
* Mons Meg cannonballsMons Meg cannonballs

Further reading
---------------

* Schmidtchen, Volker (1977a), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", *Technikgeschichte*, **44** (2): 153–173
* Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", *Technikgeschichte*, **44** (3): 213–237
* Smith, Robert Douglas; DeVries, Kelly (2005), *The artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477*, Boydell Press, ISBN 9781843831624
A **class action**, **class suit**, or **representative action** is a type of lawsuit. One of the parties is a group of people who are represented collectively by one member of that group. 

The class action originated in the United States. It is still mainly a U.S. phenomenon. However, several European countries with civil law have made changes to allow consumer organizations to bring claims on behalf of consumers. 

In 1991 China passed the "Civil Procedure Law" that allows class actions. In Brazil class action suits have been brought against industries, banks. and other organizations. They have been used against environmental damage, product defects and false advertising to name a few. Unlike the US, Brazilian judges award much smaller amounts for damages.

The predecessor of the class action was called a "group litigation". They were used in England from the 13th century. It involved groups of people suing or being sued in a court. Group cases were easier to handle than numbers of individual cases, because of the slow and difficult travelling at that time. Judges travelled round a circuit, and might visit a town only once or twice a year. By the 18th century individual lawsuits became the norm.