recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**Marie Clotilde of France** (23 September 1759 – 7 March 1802) was Queen of Sardinia as wife of Charles Emmanuel IV. She was the sister of Louis XVI. On 10 April 1808, Pope Pius VII, declared Queen Clodile a Venerable the causes of her beatification and canonization continue.

Life
----

Baptied as *Marie Adélaïde Clotilde Xavière*, she was born at Versailles and known as **Madame Clotilde**. She was a daughter of Louis, Dauphin of France, only son of Louis XV, and Maria Josepha of Saxony. Because she was overweight, Marie Clotilde was nicknamed *Gros-Madame*. She was raised with her sister Élisabeth.

Marriage
--------

On 27 August 1775, Louis XVI had his sister Marie Clotilde married in Versailles to Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont, eldest son of Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and of his wife Maria Antonia of Spain. Marie Clotilde had been taught Italian while at Versailles. In Savoy, jokes were made about her weight. Although the union was political, Marie Clotilde and Charles Emmanuel were devoted to each other. However they had no children.

In 1796, her husband became king. Marie Clotilde and her husband fled to Naples and lived as guests of the wealthy Colonna. Marie Clotilde died on 7 March 1802. Charles Emmanuel later abdicated on 4 June 1802 in favour of his younger brother, Victor Emmanuel. Marie Clotilde was buried in the Church of Santa Caterina a Chiaia in Naples.

Titles, styles, honours and arms
--------------------------------

### Titles and styles

* **23 September 1759 – 27 August 1775** *Her Royal Highness* Marie Clotilde de France, *Grand daughter of France*
* **27 August 1775 – 16 October 1796** *Her Royal Highness* The Princess of Piedmont
* **16 October 1796 – 7 March 1802** *Her Majesty* The Queen of Sardinia

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Marie Clotilde of France at Wikimedia Commons
***City of Women*** is a 1980 fantasy movie.

Marcello Mastroianni plays Snàporaz.

Plot
----

A man named Snàporaz wakes up during a train ride. He has a brief affair with a woman in the bathroom. But it's cut short when the train stops. The woman gets off. Snàporaz follows her into the woods. He follows her to a Grand Hotel packed with women. He winds up in a conference. But his presence is rejected. He then seeks refuge in an elevator with a woman named Donatella. She offers him her assistance.

Donatella leads Snàporaz into a gym. She forces him to provide roller skates. Snàporaz is yet again insulted by angry women who circle around him in roller skates and practice testicle-kicking on a dummy.

Snàporaz makes his exit down a flight of stairs. He falls down and badly hurts himself. He falls into the domain of a woman tending to the hotel's furnace. The woman tries to rape him. But the rape is stopped by the woman's mother. The mother gives out corporal punishment to the daughter.

Cast
----

* Marcello Mastroianni as Snàporaz
* Anna Prucnal as Elena
* Bernice Stegers as Woman on train
* Donatella Damiani as Donatella (Woman on roller skates)
* Iole Silvani as Motorcyclist
* Ettore Manni as Dr. Xavier Katzone
* Fiammetta Baralla as Onlio
* Hélène G. Calzarelli as Feminist
* Isabelle Canto de Maya
* Catherine Carrel as Commandant
* Stéphane Emilfork as Feminist
* Marcello Di Falco as Slave
* Silvana Fusacchia as Skater
* Gabriella Giorgelli as Fishwoman of San Leo
* Sylvie Meyer as Feminist
* Dominique Labourier as Feminist
* Marina Confalone as Feminist
* Marina Hedman as Girl of 'Giro della Morte'

Release and reviews
-------------------

The movie was released through New Yorker Films in the United States on April 8, 1981. It got very good reviews from critics. But it didn't make much money at the box office.

The movie was rated **R18** in New Zealand for sex scenes.

Other websites
--------------

* *City of Women* on IMDb
**Coal liquefaction** is a process of changing coal into liquid hydrocarbons: liquid fuels and petrochemicals. This process is often known as "Coal to X" or "Carbon to X", where X can be many different hydrocarbon-based products. However, the most common process chain is "Coal to Liquid Fuels" (CTL)

Coal liquefaction is the process of converting solid coal into liquid fuel. This process has been developed as a means to utilize coal resources that are otherwise difficult to access and transport. The resulting liquid fuel, called synthetic crude oil, can be refined into a variety of fuels, including diesel, gasoline, and aviation fuel.

The process of coal liquefaction involves heating and pressurizing coal in the presence of a solvent. The solvent is used to extract the liquid components of the coal, which are then condensed and processed into synthetic crude oil. The crude oil can then be refined into various fuels, depending on the specific needs of the market.

While coal liquefaction has the potential to provide a significant source of energy, there are also significant environmental and economic concerns associated with the process. For example, the process releases significant amounts of greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change. Additionally, the process is energy-intensive and often requires large amounts of water, leading to concerns about water scarcity in certain regions. The high costs associated with coal liquefaction also make it less economically viable than traditional crude oil production.

Despite these concerns, coal liquefaction continues to be an area of research and development in the energy industry. Researchers are working to develop more efficient and environmentally sustainable methods of coal liquefaction, with the goal of reducing the environmental impact of the process and making it more economically viable.

In conclusion, coal liquefaction has the potential to provide a significant source of energy, but also has significant environmental and economic concerns. Further research and development is needed to make the process more sustainable and economically viable, and to ensure that the energy produced from coal liquefaction is used in a responsible and sustainable manner.

Specific liquefaction technologies generally fall into two categories: direct (DCL) and indirect liquefaction (ICL) processes.
A greyish-brown round object with some pits and horizontal lines. The coal ball is on a white paper. The background contains a white sheet of paper, tape, and a mug on an office desk.A coal ball
Portrait of Sir Joseph Dalton HookerSir Joseph Dalton Hooker, who along with Edward William Binney was the first to report on coal balls
A **Coal ball** is a permineralised life form that is full of calcium, magnesium and occasionally iron sulfide. They generally have a round shape. Coal balls are not made of coal, even though they have the name "coal ball".

In 1855, two English scientists, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney, found coal balls in England. Because of that, the initial research on coal balls was done in Europe. Coal balls were found and identified in North America in 1922. Since then, coal balls have been found in other countries and several theories on their formation have been proposed.

Marie Stopes and D.M.S. Watson also examined coal ball samples. They agreed that coal balls formed *in situ*. They also added that interaction with a marine environment was necessary for a coal ball to form.

Coal balls are in coal seams across North America and Eurasia. North American coal balls are in more places than in Europe. The oldest coal balls were found in Germany and former Czechoslovakia.

In 1962, Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson found signs of marine animal remains in North American coal balls.

The quality of the preservation of organic material depends on the speed of the burial process and the degree of compression before undergoing permineralisation. Generally, coal balls resulting from remains that have a quick burial with little decay and pressure have a higher preservation degree. However, plant remains in most coal balls show various signs of decay and collapse.

Analysis
--------

Thin sectioning was an early procedure used to analyse fossilised material contained in coal balls. The ball was cut into thin sections with a diamond saw. Then it was flattened and polished with an abrasive. Then it was examined under a microscope. This is the procedure which was carried out by Hooker and Binney. The time needed, and the poor quality of samples produced, led to a more convenient method.

The new method, first used in 1928, is called the "liquid peel technique".

Related pages
-------------

* Fossil
* Petrified wood
Heron Island from helicopter
A **cay** (also spelled **key**; both pronounced alike as "key" English pronunciation: /kiː/) is a small, low island made of mostly sand or coral and on top of a coral reef.

The English word *cay* comes from the Spanish word *cayo* and this from the Taíno word *cayo* meaning "small island". The English words *key* and *quay* (which means wharf) come from the old French *kai* meaning "sand bank". Because it is a Taíno word, "cay" (and the other forms) are used mainly in the Caribbean, but the type of island is in tropical seas where there are coral reefs.

Sand cays are built on the edge of the coral reefs, opposite the direction from which the wind blows most of the time. Because of that, cays are often elongated. Tides and wind (and sometimes sea birds) deposit coral debris. Weather affects the formation of cays greatly. Large tides bring much more debris onto the cay and make it larger, while a hurricane destroys a cay.

Some cays are very large; Cayo Coco, north of Cuba, is about 370 km2. Those large cays are being used for tourism because they have beaches with white sand and the presence of coral reefs.

Notes and references
--------------------

1. ↑  "...cayos en esta lengua son islas" ("...cays in this language are islands") Las Casas, Bartolomé de (1965). *Historia de las Indias, Libro I, Cap. XL* (in Spanish). Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica.

Other websites
--------------

* Montague, Artur, *El elemento español en el vocabulario inglés: prolegómenos a una lista.* AIH. Actas IV (1971). (in Spanish)
* Online Etymology Dictionary
Distribution of present-day continents in the Pennsylvanian and Permian. Dark green = *Glossopteris*
Etching depicting some of the most significant plants of the Carboniferous. 
**Coal forests** were huge areas of wetlands which covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas in the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and Permian times.

At the time most continents were crowded together in the supercontinent Gondwana. They lay on the path of tropical rainfall. As vegetable matter from these forests decayed, enormous deposits of peat accumulated, which later changed into coal. Now those continents are wide apart, but they have the coalfields which those ancient forests left behind.

Much of the carbon in the peat deposits produced by coal forests came from photosynthetic splitting of carbon dioxide. This released oxygen into the atmosphere. This increased the oxygen level, perhaps as high as about 35%. This had the effect of making the air more easily breathable by animals with limited respiratory systems. This may explain the size of *Meganeura* compared to modern dragonflies.

The coal forests covered tropical Euramerica (Europe, eastern North America, northwesternmost Africa) and China. Eventually, climate change devastated these tropical rainforests. The so-called Carboniferous rainforest collapse was caused by a cooler drier climate which broke up the rainforest ecosystem. The cause of this change was mountain uplift, no doubt caused by the continental plates squeezing against each other. During most of the rest of Carboniferous times, the coal forests were restricted to North America (such as the Appalachian and Illinois coal basins) and central Europe.

At the very end of the Carboniferous period, the coal forests underwent a resurgence, expanding mainly in eastern Asia, notably China. They never recovered fully in Euramerica. The Chinese coal forests continued to flourish well into Permian times.

Kinds of plants found in coal measures
--------------------------------------

* *Glossopteris*
* *Calamites*
* *Lepidodendron*
* *Sphenopsida*
* Pteridosperms
* Ferns

Later coal measures
-------------------

The conditions which led to the late Carboniferous coal measures returned twice later on. These occasions were in part of the Jurassic period, and the Eocene. The later Jurassic left coal measures in parts of Europe and Australia. The Waloon coal measures are where the fossils of *Iguanodon* were found. The coal in Queensland, Australia is from the same time. 

Conditions in the Paleocene and Eocene were also favourable to plant growth. The coal from this time is found in Chile, Nepal and in the so-called Eocene Okanagan Highlands in British Columbia and Washington State.
**Clyde** and **Willis**, created by Andrew Hendrich Wilson, are the title characters of the American-British-Chinese comedy television show The Clyde and Willis Show. The creator of the show, Andrew Wilson thought of the idea while he was drawing two stick-mans in his early years. He then thought of an idea about making the two stick-mans into a comic. He then animates the comic to the two characters we know to this very day.

They first appeared in the 2015 missing pilot episode "Clyde and Willis".o

Clyde Harrison
--------------

**Clyde Arthur "Claude" Harrison**, is a "Psychopathic", stupid and a sometimes whimsical Britain character that moved to America from England with his best friend, Willis Hennig. He is sometimes a violently psychopath who always freaks out and smash things when he is angry and he has a disorder.

Clyde and his best friend Willis live in the same house and together they are roommates, or "ROOMIES" they call it. Clyde is sometimes also a jerk to his friends and will be a total punk sometimes.

He is mostly related to the 90s adult-kids cartoon character Ren Hoek from the 1990s cartoon series, The Ren and Stimpy Show. They both are psychopaths and sometimes will insanely happy.

Willis Hennig
-------------

**Willis Thompson "William" Hennig**, unlike Clyde, he is a much more intelligent, smart, and crazy person. He and Clyde are the best friends in the show. He would be crazy and loud sometimes like Clyde. He sometimes would also be a complete idiot.

He is related to the 90s adult-kids cartoon character Stimpson "Stimpy" J. Cat from the 1990s cartoon series, The Ren and Stimpy Show. He is sometimes smarter and sometimes an idiot. His friend, Clyde, described him as a "idiot of intelligence".

He always hates it when his friend Clyde says his catchphrase: "LOOK OVER THERE".

He has two brothers and a sister. His brothers, Sammy and Johnny would sometimes annoy Willis at the same time, and Willis wish they didn't exist in his world.
Map of the Chukchi Sea.
Spring breakup of sea ice on the Chukchi Sea.
**Chukchi Sea** is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded on the west by the De Long Strait, off Wrangel Island, and in the east by Point Barrow, Alaska, beyond which is the Beaufort Sea. The Bering Strait forms its southernmost limit and connects it to the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The main port on the Chukchi Sea is Uelen in Russia. The International Date Line crosses the Chukchi Sea. It is moved east to avoid Wrangel Island as well as the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug on the Russian mainland.

The sea has an area of about 595,000 km² (230,000 mi²). It can only be travelled about four months of the year. The Chukchi Sea has very few islands compared to other seas of the Arctic. Wrangel Island is at the northwestern limit of the sea, Herald Island is near its northern limit, and a few small islands are along the Siberian and Alaskan coasts.

The sea is named after the Chukchi people. The live on its shores and on the Chukotka Peninsula. The Chukchi worked at fishing, whaling and the hunting of walrus in this cold sea.

In Siberia places along the coast are: Cape Billings, Cape Schmidt, Amguyema River, Cape Vankarem, the large Kolyuchinskaya Bay, Neskynpil'gyn Lagoon, Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Enurmino, Chegitun River, Inchoun, Uelen and Cape Dezhnev.

In Alaska, the rivers flowing into the Chukchi Sea are the Kivalina, the Kobuk, the Kokolik, the Kukpowruk, the Kukpuk, the Noatak, the Utukok, the Pitmegea, and the Wulik, among others. The most important rivers flowing in from its Siberian side are the Amguyema, Ioniveyem, and the Chegitun.

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Chukchi Sea at Wikimedia Commons

Coordinates: 69°N 172°W﻿ / ﻿69°N 172°W﻿ / 69; -172
The **College Board** is a group that manages standardized tests in the United States, like the SAT, to test students' abilities in certain subject areas. It was founded in 1900, known then as the **College Entrance Examination Board** (**CEEB**).

Tests
-----

### SAT/PSAT

See the main article: SAT
The SAT is a test for entrance to colleges and universities. It is a standardized test managed by the College Board, and developed, published, and scored by the Educational Testing Service (ETS). It is fee-based, costing about $50. It competes with the ACT, another standardized test for college admissions.

### Accuplacer

The College Board Accuplacer test is a placement test on the computer that tests students on their reading, writing, and math skills.

Programs
--------

### Advanced Placement Program

See the main article: Advanced Placement Program
The College Board **Advanced Placement Program** is a program that gives high school students a chance to take college level classes, preparing them for college. It also helps admissions to college. The program lets students get college credit for high scores on AP exams. The college can still choose whether or not to give credit.

### CLEP

The **CLEP**, or the **College Level Examination Program**, is a program that lets students show that they know college-level material through exams in college courses.

### SpringBoard

**SpringBoard** is a program created by the College Board to prepare students who will take AP or college courses later. The program offers pre-AP and AP teaching and learning strategies across school and classwork. The material is for grades 6th to 12th.

Related articles
----------------

* School
* University
* College
* Educational Testing Service
* ACT, Inc.

Other websites
--------------

* Official website
* International website
In music, a **call and response** is a series of two parts usually played or sung by different musicians. The second part is heard as a comment about or an answer to what the first has sung. This mimics or makes fun of how people talk back and forth to each other. Call and response uses the simple musical form of a verse and then a chorus used in many cultures or traditions. These songs are usually energetic and fun to listen to.

Popular music
-------------

Call and response singing is common in modern Western popular music. This is because of the influence of African music. Some cross-over rhythm and blues, jazz, soul, rock 'n' roll and rock music have a call and response style, as well.

One of the best known is the song "Ooh Poo Pah Doo", written and first recorded by Jessie Hill. The song is said to be "a nonsensical yet rollicking call-and-response workout that perfectly captures the energy of French Quarter life", by a reviewer for Allmusic. The song is so popular, it has over 100 cover versions recorded and performed live over the years by other popular musicians.

Other popular examples are The Who's song "My Generation, from the album of the same name", and "Black Dog" by Led Zeppelin.

Folk music
----------

Call and response is common in folk and choral singing of many people, especially in African musical cultures. In the West, it is most often seen in African-American work songs, military marches, and Québecois folk songs. The style is also used in dance-songs of various European countries including France (particularly Brittany) and the Faroe Islands.

In Cuban music and other latin music genres such as salsa, call and response between the lead singer and the chorus is called *coro-pregón.*

Example
-------

A singer makes a musical statement, and then the musical chorus answers together. American bluesman Muddy Waters uses call and response in one of his best known songs, "Mannish Boy". The entire song is almost entirely leader/chorus call and response.

* CALL: Waters' vocal: "Now when I was a young boy"
* RESPONSE: (Harmonica / rhythm section riff)
* CALL: Waters': "At the age of 5"
* RESPONSE: (Harmonica / rhythm section riff)

Related pages
-------------

* Origins of the blues
* Polyrhythm
* Samba
* Afro-Haitian
* Rhythm game

Other websites
--------------

* Call and Response: Archived 2015-09-05 at the Wayback Machine Phrasing Ideas for Creating Memorable Guitar Solos
* Gospel Music History Archived 2017-04-22 at the Wayback Machine - Gospel Music Encyclopedia citing the origins of the different types of call and response and different gospel music style
***Code of the Samurai*** (*Code of the Samurai*, ****Shinsengumi Gunrou Den****, lit. The Legend of Shinsengumi) is an hack and slash video game for the PlayStation 2. Developed by Red Entertainment and published by Sega and Midas Interactive Entertainment, in Japan and Europe respectively.

Overview
--------

Player can play as Soji Okita and Hijikata Toshizo, where their mission began to getting breed bandits in Kyoto. Each time you played Okita, an arrow will be displayed insanity, while you face the ronin. And at the same time, you can make a gap attack you created, and your attack will level-up instantly. For example, if you choose Harada Sanosuke *Sanosuke Harada*, the attack power will increased significanly, but the defense power will slow down decreases.

List of Shinsengumi characters
------------------------------

### Main characters

* Soji Okita
* Harada Sanosuke
* Hijikata Toshizo

### Villain characters

* Ryoma Sakamoto
* Izou Okada
* Saigō Takamori

Other websites
--------------

* Official Site of Code of the Samurai Archived 2012-08-31 at the Wayback Machine
"**City on the Edge of Forever**" (also known as "**Flashbacks**") is the seventh episode of the second season of the American animated television series *South Park*. The 20th episode of the series overall, it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on June 17, 1998. Series co-creator Trey Parker wrote the episode with writer Nancy M. Pimental. Parker also directed the episode. It guest stars Henry Winkler, Jay Leno, and Brent Musburger. In the episode, the boys reminisce about past experiences as their school bus is left hanging on the edge of a cliff. Ms. Crabtree leaves to look for help, but she forgets about the children when she meets a truck driver named Marcus.

Plot
----

Eric Cartman, Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, and Kenny McCormick get on the bus after the school bell rings. While they are riding the bus, it comes to a dead stop. At first, Cartman thinks the bus is out of gasoline, but he then realizes Ms. Crabtree has stopped the bus. Stan and Kyle both look out the window. They see that the bus is on the edge of a cliff. All the kids on the bus begin running around in fear, and the bus moves every time they move around. Ms. Crabtree urges the kids to stay calm; she gets out of the bus to go get help.

In the time she is gone, the kids begin playing with each other, until Stan tries to get everyone to calm down or else the bus will begin to tip over and fall off the cliff. The edge of the bus (which was keeping the bus from falling off the edge) is soon scraped off, and the bus tips over, but not so much that it falls down the cliff. 

While walking back to school to get help from the principal, Ms. Crabtree meets a truck driver named Marcus. Marcus helps her have a career as a stand-up comedian, but she leaves when she remembers she must save the kids on the bus. 

The bus falls off the cliff into a tub of ice cream, and Cartman wakes up in bed. He realize he was dreaming the whole time. Then Stan wakes up in bed, and he realizes he was dreaming about Cartman having a dream. The last scene shows Ms. Crabtree and Marcus. Ms. Crabtree knows it is all a child's dream but wants to enjoy it while she can.

Cultural references
-------------------

Many parts of this episode, including the title and one time when a kid in a red shirt leaves the bus, only to be eaten by monsters, are references to *Star Trek'*s original 1960s show.
**Childlessness** is not having a child. Since the 1970s, there are more childless people. There are two kinds of childlessness, voluntary and involuntary.

Voluntary childlessness is when people choose to not have children. People do this for several reasons, which include:

* Celibacy (not having sexual intercourse)
* Not wanting to have a child (see Childfree)
* Not having enough money to take care of a child
* Being too old to have a child

Voluntary childlessness is sometimes called childfree.

There are also several reason for involuntary childlessness, including:

* Infertility, which means they are unable to biologically have children.
* the death of an infant or child either before, during, or shortly after birth.

Options for involuntary childlessness
-------------------------------------

Sometimes a couple can have a child through artificial insemination, when a sperm is place in a woman's uterus immediately after ovulation. Another option is in vitro fertilization (or IVF). In this process, a sperm and an egg are placed together until fertilization happens, then the egg is put into the uterus.
**Cipriano de Rore** (born in Ronse, Flanders, 1515 or 1516; died Parma, September 1565) was a composer who lived in the Renaissance period. He was Flemish, but spent all his adult life in Italy. The name de Rore is a proper Flemish name, not a name that has been changed to look Italian. He was one of the most important composer of madrigals in the 16th century.

Life
----

There is very little known about Rore's early life. He was born in a small town called Ronse (Renaix) in what is now Belgium. It is possible that he had music lessons in Antwerp. We think that he was taken to Italy by Margaret of Parma in 1533 as one of her servants. Margaret, who was an illegitimate daughter of Charles V, was very wealthy and she married into the Medici family. Rore probably continued to learn about music in Italy.

In his music publications de Rore is called a "disciple" of Adrian Willaert. We do not know whether this means that he had lessons from Willaert, or just that he learned to compose by studying Willaert’s music. His first book of madrigals was published in 1542, and then two books of motets were published.

In 1546 Rore went to Ferrara, where he was *maestro di cappella* (choirmaster) He wrote a great deal of music in Ferrara. He worked for the Duke Ercole II d'Este. He composed masses, motets, chansons, and lots of madrigals, some of which were about things that happened in the court at Ferrara. The duke awarded him an important honour. Rore also wrote music for Albrecht V of Bavaria who lived in Munich.

He left his job in Ferrara and went back to Flanders where he found his home town Ronse had been destroyed in a war. He went back to Ferrara, but could not get his old job back. After another visit to Flanders he returned to Italy and got a job in Parma, but the music in that town was not very good. For a short time he had a very important job of
*maestro di cappella* at St. Mark's. Adrian Willaert had just died. However, Rore only kept this job for a year, returning to Parma in 1564 and dying there the next year.

Works and influence
-------------------

Rore is best known for his Italian madrigals, but he also wrote a lot of church music, including masses and motets. He learned from studying the music of Josquin. His madrigals are based on the style of Willaert. He enjoyed writing thick counterpoint and making the voices imitate one another a lot. Most of the words he set were serious words, not lighthearted and amusing. He often used chromaticism. He developed his musical style a lot during his lifetime. His music was very important in the development of the Italian madrigal, and it led the way to the madrigals of Monteverdi.
**Booker T. & the M.G.'s** are a rhythm and blues (R&B) band that are important in the history of soul music. They started in 1960 when they played instrumental music for singers. They did not sing themselves. They worked at Stax Records, and played music on hundreds of important records by famous singers such as Wilson Pickett, Otis Redding, Bill Withers, Sam & Dave, Carla Thomas and Rufus Thomas and Johnnie Taylor.

They also make their own records. As they do not sing, these are instrumental records - music without singing. In 1962 they made a record called "Green Onions" which was a single, and this was a success. People liked the sound of their music, and by the mid-1960s, bands in America and in Great Britain were trying to copy their sound.

People liked them so much and felt they were so important they were given an award of being named in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992.

Persons in the band
-------------------

Persons in the band when they started in 1960 were Booker T. Jones (organ and piano), Steve Cropper (electric guitar), Lewie Steinberg (bass guitar), and Al Jackson, Jr. (drums).

Steinberg left the band in 1965, and Donald "Duck" Dunn joined the band. Since Al Jackson, Jr. was murdered in 1975, the band have used several drummers.
For the short novel by Charles Dickens, see A Christmas Carol.
Children singing Christmas carols
A **Christmas carol** (also called a **noël**, from the French word meaning "Christmas") is a carol (song or hymn) whose lyrics are on the theme of Christmas. They are traditionally sung on Christmas itself or during the surrounding holiday season.

History
-------

Carols were first sung thousands of years ago in Europe. They were sung by pagans at the celebration of the Winter solstice. Later, medieval carols were sung in elaborate formal rituals (such as the Catholic Mass). As they are known today, Christmas carols date back to about the 19th century. The tradition of going from house to house was not a part of Christmas caroling at first. It dates back further to Anglo-Saxon traditions. the word *wassail* comes from the Anglo-Saxon toast *Wæs þu hæl*, meaning "be in good health". Wassailing likely predates the Norman conquest in 1066. The wishing of good fortune to neighbors produced the song "Here We Come-A-Wassailing". Another song, "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", also comes from the Wassailing tradition. The two forms, singing and wassailing, came together during the Victorian era in England. They produced the modern custom of Christmas caroling. Today Christmas carols are a very known tradition.

Christmas carols in classical music
-----------------------------------

In the 1680s and 1690s, two French composers added carols into their works. Louis-Claude Daquin wrote 12 noels for the organ. Marc-Antoine Charpentier wrote a few instrumental versions of noels, plus one major choral work "Messe de minuit pour Noël". Other examples include:

* Ralph Vaughan Williams: *Fantasia on Christmas Carols*, 1912.
* Victor Hely-Hutchinson: *Carol Symphony*, 1927.
* Benjamin Britten: *A Ceremony of Carols* (for choir and harp), 1942
* Christina Rossetti's poem "In the Bleak Midwinter" has been set to music by (amongst others) Gustav Holst (1905) and Harold Darke (1911).
* Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki quotes the Christmas carol "Silent Night" in his Second Symphony, nicknamed the *Christmas Symphony*.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Christmas carols***.

* Here We Come a-wassailing, YouTube
* 30 Favourite Christmas Carols - Their Origins and History
Monarch caterpillar
 Proleg,*Papilio machaon*
A **caterpillar** is a young butterfly or moth that has just hatched out of its egg. A caterpillar is a kind of larva. When it is older, the caterpillar will turn into a pupa (also known as a chrysalis), and then later the pupa will turn into a butterfly.

Caterpillars usually have three pairs of small, but noticeable, true legs at the front and up to 5 pairs of fleshy false legs at the back.

Caterpillars are commonly found feeding on leaves, but they are also found inside living stems and branches or on the roots of plants and dead wood.

Most caterpillars are shades of green or brown and are relatively hairless, although in many families caterpillars are very hairy and often brightly coloured. Some species are pests of growing plants, carpets, woollens, organic fabrics and stored food products.

Caterpillars are an important source of food for birds and other invertebrates and many species help dead animals and plants decompose.

Gallery
-------

Examples of different kinds of caterpillars.

* 
* 
* 
* Sphinx ligustri*Sphinx ligustri*


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Caterpillar***.
Coat of Arms of Central African RepublicCoat of Arms of Central African Republic
Coat of Arms of Central African EmpireCoat of Arms of Central African Empire
The **Coat of Arms of the Central African Republic** is divided on five fields, its small cardiac shield contains the golden star, symbol of African freedom and aspirations to unite the continent. The star is located on contour of the "Black Africa". The silver head of the elephant on green background and green Baobab tree on a silver background represents strenght and rich Fauna and Flora of the Central Africa. Three diamonds on yellow field symbolizes mineral richness, they are also a reference to national motto of the Central Africa "*Unite Dignite, Travail*" (Unity, Dignity, Work) placed on a blue ribbon under the shield. The hand on fourth blue background is emblem of Independent movement founded in 1952 by Barthélemy Boganda. The pointing finger of the hand indicates on a star – symbol of freedom. Above the shield is "Sun of the Freedom" and on its background the date of 1 december 1958 (French: 1 DECEMBRE 1958), on this day was founded autonomic republic of Central Africa. The slogan above the sun in Songo language is "*Zo Kwe Zo*" which means "*Human is equal to human*". The coat of arms is complemented by two flags and republican *Order of Merit.*
A **coelacanth** is a type of fish in the Sarcopterygii, the lobe-finned fishes. They are a sister group to those fish which evolved into tetrapods. Their fossil record goes back 400 million years, before any land vertebrates had evolved.

There are at least two species of coelacanths living in the Indian Ocean. Scientists thought they had been extinct for 80 million years until one was caught off the east African coast in 1938. However, fisherman in the Comoros islands had been catching it for a very long time and called it *gombesa*.

Characteristics
---------------

The coelacanths are the closest link between fish and the first amphibians which made the transition from sea to land in the Devonian period (408–362 million years ago). Whereas the fishapods lived near the shore in muddy water, the coelacanths lived in open water. The modern species are predators that live in the deep ocean.

### *Latimeria*

*Latimeria* is the only living genus of the otherwise fossil coelacanth fish. It is probably the best-known Lazarus taxon. That such a creature could have been unrecorded for so long is rare, but perhaps the cold depths of the West Indian ocean (in which the Coelacanth lives), and the few predators it has, may have helped the species survive. Its disgusting taste means that fishermen did not deliberately try to catch it, that is, before scientists started offering rewards.

The population living off Tanzania is threatened by Japanese trawlers, but the fish is not edible. They are simply caught in trawls by accident. More than 20 have died this way, and their total numbers cannot be large.

#### Scientific study

*Latimeria* was first found by scientists in 1938 by Marjorie Courtenay Latimer, the curator of a small museum in the South African port town of East London. She was visiting a fisherman who would let her search through his boat's catch for interesting specimens. Another one was found off the Comoros islands in 1952. The largest specimen was about 1.8 metres (~6 ft).
In law, **codification** is the process of collecting and restating the law of a jurisdiction. They are listed, usually by subject, forming a legal code (a codex or book of law). Codification is the defining feature of civil law jurisdictions.

History
-------

Ancient Sumer's Code of Ur-Nammu was compiled c. 2100-2050 BC. It is the earliest known surviving civil code. Three centuries later, the Babylonian king Hammurabi enacted the set of laws named after him.

Religious laws such as the Torah were codified. Important codifications were developed in the ancient Roman Empire, with the compilations of the Lex Duodecim Tabularum. Much later the Corpus Iuris Civilis was assembled. These codified laws were the exceptions rather than the rule. During much of ancient history the Roman laws were left mostly uncodified.

The first *permanent* system of codified laws could be found in China. This was with the compilation of the *Tang Code* in AD 624. This formed the basis of the Chinese criminal code. This was then replaced by the *Great Qing Legal Code*. This code was in turn abolished in 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China. The new laws of the Republic of China were inspired by the German codified work, the *Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch*. A very influential example in Europe was the French Napoleonic code of 1804.

Another early system of laws is Hindu law framed by Manu and called as Manu Smriti. They date back to the 2nd century BC. The use of civil codes in Islamic Sharia law began with the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century AD.
For other uses, see Conjugation (disambiguation).
**Conjugations** are forms of verbs that are changed to agree with the subject that is doing the action described by the verb. Usually most of the word stays the same, but the endings change. Most conjugation systems follow some sort of pattern within the language.

Example: French verb for 'to eat'- "manger" (stem: mang)
("manger" is the infinitive of the verb. The infinitive is the un-conjugated form of the verb, literally the "to do" something form such as *to* walk, *to* play, *to* eat. In English one does not say "I like eat" one must say "I like *to* eat". In both English and French ("J'aime *manger*") the infinitive form of the verb would be used in this case.

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| **English** | **French** |
| I eat | je mange (mang + e) |
| You(informal) eat | tu manges (mang + es) |
| He/She eats | il/elle mange (mang + e) |
| You(formal) eat | vous mangez (mang + ez) |
| We eat | nous mangeons (mang + eons) |
| They eat | ils/elles mangent (mang + ent) |

The pattern here is that the "er" is removed from the verb and replaced with a different ending depending on the subject(who's doing the eating). This pattern is good for many French conjugations, but not all, and in other languages, conjugation patterns are going to be very different.

Related pages
-------------

* Declension

Other websites
--------------

* conjugation.com All English verbs conjugated in any tense, any form, any voice
* Conjugation of over 7,000 English verbs.
* Online Conjugator for 85 different languages
The **coefficient of restitution** (**COR**, also denoted by **e**), is the ratio of the final to initial relative speed between two objects after they collide. It is also defined as the ratio velocity of separation to velocity of approach.

The value is almost always equal to 1or less than 1 due to initial translational kinetic energy being lost to rotational kinetic energy, plastic deformation, and heat. Mathematically

Coefficient of restitution (e)= Velocity of separation/Velocity of approach. Coefficient of restitution is always =1<1. Coefficient of restitution was postulated and developed by Sir Isaac Newton.

Range of values for *e* – treated as a constant
-----------------------------------------------

***e*** is mostly a positive, real number between 0 and 1:

***e* = 0**: This is known as perfectly *inelastic* collision. It implies that kinetic energy along the common normal is 0. Kinetic energy is converted to heat or work done in deforming the objects.

**0 < *e* < 1**: This is a *inelastic* collision, in which some kinetic energy is dissipated. It can also achieve both in practical and in mathematical calculation.
**Central Mount Stuart** is a mountain in the south of the Northern Territory, Australia. It can easily seen from the nearby Stuart Highway, which is about 6 km away. The mountain is made from dark red sandstone.

The mountain is named after the explorer John McDouall Stuart who reached the area on 22 April 1860. He worked out that a point about 4 km (2.5 miles) south-southwest of the mountain was the centre of Australia. Modern geographers do not agree with this and now place the centre at Finke.

Stuart climbed to the top on 23 April 1860, writing in his journal: 

> *"Took Kekwick and the flag, and went to the top of the mount, but found it to be much higher and more difficult of ascent than I anticipated...Near the top of the cone I placed a small bottle, in which there is a slip of paper, with our signatures to it, stating by whom it was raised. We then gave three hearty cheers for the flag, the emblem of civil and religious liberty, and may it be a sign to the natives that the dawn of liberty, civilization, and Christianity is about to break upon them."*
> 
> 

The slip of paper was found in 1871 by John Ross during the building of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line. It is now in the Library of South Australia.

Stuart called the mountain Central Mount Sturt, after his former expedition leader Charles Sturt. The name was changed on a suggestion from the Governor of South Australia, Sir Richard MacDonnell. This happened soon after Stuart's return to Adelaide at the end of the expedition. *Central Mount Stuart* is the name that was printed in the published expedition journal.

Other websites
--------------

* Image of Central Mount Stuart on Google Maps
**Cinchonism** or **quinism** is poisoning from an overdose of cinchona alkaloids. Cinchona bark is the source of quinine and quindine. Quinine is used to treat malaria. In small amounts it is used in tonic water to give a bitter flavor. Cinchoism can be caused by medical doses of quinine or quindine.

Signs and symptoms
------------------

Symptoms of mild cinchonism can include:

* flushed and sweaty skin
* ringing of the ears (tinnitus)
* blurred vision
* hearing loss
* confusion
* reversible high-frequency hearing loss
* headache
* abdominal pain
* rashes
* drug-induced lichenoid reaction (lichenoid photosensitivity)
* vertigo
* dizziness
* dysphoria
* nausea
* vomiting
* diarrhea.

Large doses of quinine can cause: 

* skin rashes
* deafness
* sleepiness
* blindness
* anaphylactic shock
* disturbances in abnormal heart rhythm
* death from cardiotoxicity.

People treated with quinine may also suffer from low blood sugar and hypotension (low blood pressure).

Most symptoms of cinchonism (except in severe cases) are reversible and disappear once quinine is withdrawn.
The **Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis** is the leader of London's Metropolitan Police Service. Sir Mark Rowley has been appointed to the position in 2022.

The Commissioner is known as the highest-ranking police officer in the United Kingdom, although their powers are generally over the Metropolitan Police Service's area run: the Metropolitan Police District. However, unlike other police forces the Metropolitan Police has certain things they must do nationally such as leading counter-terrorism policing and the protection of the Royal Family and high members of Her Majesty's Government. The person who holds the job also reports to the Home Secretary and the public nationally amongst many others (the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime, the Mayor of London, Londoners), different to smaller police forces who are only reportable to residents and their local Police and Crime Commissioner or police government.

The rank is usually referred to as the Metropolitan Police Commissioner, the Met Commissioner or simply just "Commissioner". 

The Commissioner's annual salary without pension contributions or allowances from 1 September 2016 is £270,648 + £2,373.
*The Madonna of Santa Trinita* hangs in the Uffizi in the same room as a Madonna by Cimabue's pupil Giotto and another by his rival from Siena, Duccio.
Cimabue designed the *Christ in Majesty* in Pisa Cathedral. It is a mosaic of little gold and coloured tiles.
**Cimabue**, (c.1240 - c.1302), was a painter from Florence in Italy who worked in the Late Medieval period. His real name was **Cenni di Peppi**. He painted large icons in the Byzantine style and was the first great painter in the city of Florence. The only works of art that are known to be definitely by Cimabue are the mosaic of Christ in Majesty in Pisa Cathedral and two very large ruined frescos in the Church of St Francis in Assisi.

The most famous painting that is believed to be by Cimabue is the "Madonna of Santa Trinita" which is an altarpiece that was done for the Church of the Holy Trinity. It is now in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. He is also believed to have painted two large crucifixes which hung in the Church of St Domenic in Arezzo and the Church of the Holy Cross (Santa Croce, Florence). The crucifix of Santa Croce was ruined in a flood and is now in the church's museum.

The biographer Giorgio Vasari wrote about Cimabue's life, 250 years after his death. He wrote that one day Cimabue was walking in the country when he saw a little shepherd boy scratching a picture of a sheep onto a rock. The drawing was so good that Cimabue went to the boy's father and begged that he might take the boy as his apprentice and teach him to paint. The boy was Giotto, who became a very famous painter, and who is thought of as the very first painter of the Italian Renaissance.
Mounted City of London officer
City of London police vehicle
The **City of London Police** is the police force responsible for law enforcement within the City of London, including the Middle and Inner Temple. 

The service responsible for law enforcement within the rest of Greater London is the Metropolitan Police Service, a separate organisation. 

Nationally, as a result of the Fraud Review 2008, the force was recognised as the lead police force for fraud and granted funding from government to further develop its capabilities nationally and internationally. The police authority is the Corporation of London.

The City of London area has a resident population of 8,043 with 4,421 households. These numbers are increased by the daily influx of approximately 300,000 commuters working in the City, and many tourists. 300,000 cars passing through the square mile a day.

The Force has 1,200 employees, including 813 police officers, 85 Special Constables, 48 Police Community Support Officers and three police stations (in Snow Hill, Wood Street and Bishopsgate). The City of London Police is the smallest territorial police force in England, both in terms of geographic area – the square mile centre of London – and the number of police officers.

Counter-terrorism
-----------------

Counter-terrorism is the Force’s top priority, because the threat of terrorist activity to the City, and therefore to the economic and psychological wellbeing of the nation, is a real risk.

The Force is the lead organisation responsible for planning and operating the anti-terrorist measures known as the Ring of Steel. Regular police officers in the Ring of Steel cordon are guarded by other officers armed with Heckler & Koch MP5 semi-automatic submachine guns.

As well as the 'Traffic and Environmental zone' (the Ring of Steel), the Force carries out both high visibility and covert patrols, educates the security staff of City companies, and has an advanced Camera Watch system. There is ANPR (automatic number plate reading) within the City. The Force says "A wide range of unarmed and armed tactics are available to the Force to counter any perceived threat".