recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Lottery wheel for choosing conscripts
**Conscription**, also called **draft**, is when a government forces people to enlist in the army or other military service. Usually, only men are conscripted, but in some countries such as Israel, Norway and Sweden, women are as well. A soldier who has been drafted to serve in the army is called a *conscript*. 

Conscription may or may not be compulsory. If compulsory, it may be resisted. Usually, exceptions are allowed. Since men in their late teens and twenties are the main objective, conscription clashes with higher education, and exceptions may be allowed.

The first large, modern conscript army was the French Grand Army after the French Revolution. Conscription soon became a common way of making up the armies. Almost all of the powerful armies in the world except United Kingdom were conscript armies, but during the World Wars, even the British Army used mostly conscripts.

Conscription was introduced in August 1916 in New Zealand during the First World War because the number of men needed to be recruited had not been met.

Problems
--------

Conscription armies are large, but they are often poorly equipped and trained and have poor morale. In combat they usually suffer many casualties. Usually conscripts serve with little pay. Conscription may be considered as a type of forced labour. In some countries, young men who refuse to join the army are sentenced to prison. Many people "dodged" or illegally avoided conscription during the Vietnam War in the United States.

There are arguments for conscription. Some see it as fair since everyone shares the burden of service. A small country with few people can make up a large enough army by conscription. If a country is in the middleof hostile neighbours and war can break up at any time, or if the country is a *buffer state* (between two military powers), training all available young people as soldiers can be a good idea.

The alternatives for conscription are militia or universal conscription systems, as in Switzerland, or a professional army made up from volunteers. The United States gave up conscription during the Cold War. The Vietnam War proved so unpopular that the US Army no longer wanted conscripts, but volunteers, who have better motivation to serve. Most other Western countries followed the American example and gave up conscription. Some countries now have an all-volunteer army, and in Europe, universal conscription remains only in some countries like Finland, Russia and Turkey.

In Germany, conscription for the Bundeswehr was removed in July 2011 after a long discussion in the German Bundestag.

People who oppose conscription because of pacifism idea are called conscientious objectors. Some countries draft conscientious objectors but give them jobs in which they will not have to fight.
A Redear Sunfish (Lepomis microlophus)
**Centrarchidae** or **sunfish** are a family of freshwater ray-finned fish. They belonging to the order Perciformes. The type genus is ***Centrarchus*** (consisting solely of the flier, *C. macropterus*). 

The family's 37 species include many fish familiar to North Americans, including the rock bass, largemouth bass, bluegill, pumpkinseed, and crappies. All are native only to North America. Family members are distinguished by having from five to 13 dorsal spines, which are sharp bones in the dorsal fin. Sizes of most are in the 20 to 30 cm (7.9 to 11.8 in) range. However, some are much smaller, with the black-banded sunfish at just 8 cm (3.1 in) in length, while the largemouth bass is reported to reach almost 1 m (3.3 ft) in extreme cases.

The male of most species builds a nest by hollowing out a depression using his tail, then guards the eggs. Most sunfish are valued for sport fishing. They have been introduced in many areas outside their original ranges, sometimes becoming an invasive species.
A **county council** is the elected administrative body governing an area known as a county. This term has slightly different meanings in different countries.

British Isles
-------------

County councils were responsible for more strategic services in a region, with smaller urban district councils and rural district councils responsible for other activities. The new system was a major modernisation, which became necessary because of the increase of functions carried out by local government in late Victorian Britain.

### England and Wales

In England and Wales, a **county council** is the local government that governs a county.

County Councils were introduced in 1889 in England and Wales by the *Local Government Act 1888*. They took over the administrative functions of the unelected *Quarter Sessions*.

### Scotland

The system was soon extended to Scotland, by the *Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889*, and the island of Ireland by the *Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898*. Except in Scotland, the areas they covered were called administrative counties and were not always the same as the traditional shire counties.

United States
-------------

In the United States, most of the individual states have counties as a form of local government; in nine states, they are headed by a county council. In other states, each county is headed by a county commission or a county board of supervisors.
**David Ricardo** (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a British political economist. He was one of the main thinkers behind Classical economics, together with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill. Today, he is mostly known for his theory of comparative advantage. This theory suggests that a nation should concentrate its resources only in industries where it is *most* internationally competitive and trade with other countries to obtain products not produced nationally. Ricardo promoted the idea of extreme industry specialization by nations, to the point of dismantling internationally competitive and otherwise profitable industries. In this thinking Ricardo assumed the existence of a national industry policy aimed at promoting some industries to the detriment of others. For Ricardo some form of Central Economic Planning was a given.

The Ricardian model of comparative advantage has been challenged by, among others, Joan Robinson and Piero Sraffa. Nevertheless, it remains the cornerstone of the argument in favour of international free trade as a means of increasing economic prosperity. The theory of comparative advantage was the forerunner of the push towards globalization via increased international trade, the guiding theme in economic policy currently promoted by the OECD and the World Trade Organization.
A drawing of an archer firing a crossbow
The **crossbow**, or **arbalest**, is a bow which consists of a bow-like arc called *prod* and cross-wise body called *stock* and trigger mechanism. The crossbow is an invention in which the stock, a piece of wood is mounted on two other crossing pieces. Crossbows shoot short arrows called *bolts* which are similar to arrows. The crossbow was first created by the Chinese people in circa 6 B.C. The crossbow was introduced to China during the Warring States period. This period lasted over three centuries where neighbouring Chinese states fought mercilessly for dominance and territory. Throughout this span of time the crossbow evolved which made it easier to carry and improved firing accuracy. This highly sought after weapon led to the success of the Han and Song empires.

The Greeks invented crossbow separately in 4th century B.C. The Romans called the weapon *arcuballista*. Crossbow was a very popular weapon in the Middle Ages as it was strong and accurate and could be used as a sharpshooter weapon. The Arabs call crossbow *qaws Ferengi*, "Frankish bow", as the Crusaders used crossbow a lot. A good crossbow can shoot the bolt with such immense power that it may pierce armour. Against unarmoured light opponents, even a single bolt may be lethal.

Compared to the ordinary bow, the crossbows have good and bad sides to them. They fire much stronger and much more accurately than ordinary bows, and shooting accurately with a crossbow is easier to learn than shooting with an ordinary bow. On the other hand, because the prod is short and therefore very stiff, a crossbow will take much longer time to load, and a crossbow does not have as good accurate range than a longbow. Many crossbows have crank or windlass mechanisms to pull the string in drawn position. Also many crossbows do have safety mechanisms to prevent an accidental shot.

Crossbow shooting is today a popular sport.
Cao Cao
**Cao Cao** (Chinese: 曹操 155-220) was a Chinese general. He managed to control the last Han Emperor Xian and conquered the whole northern China.

Cao Cao gathered an army in 184 to fight against the Yellow Scarves rebellion. After the Dong Zhuo had seized the Emperor Liu Bian in 189 and deposed him in favour of his brother Liu Xie (Emperor Xian), a coalition of local warlords all over the country arose against Dong. It was called by Cao Cao and led by Yuan Shao, and many powerful warriors joined it.
After Dong Zhuo's death through the hands of his foster son Lü Bu, Emperor Xian was controlled by Dong's associates. He fled to Chang'an (the old capital) in 195 but almost starved to death. Cao Cao saved him in 196 and brought him to his own place at Xuchang.

With the emperor under his control, Cao Cao managed to kill most of the minor warlords in Northern China and was even able to defeat Lü Bu and the powerful Yuan Shao at Guandu in 200. He tried to conquer the south, too, but Liu Bei and Sun Quan opposed him and defeated his forces in the *Battle at Red Cliffs*. Cao Cao led several campaigns against the south, but with fairly low success. Also, he managed to get the famous general Guan Yu killed by Sun Quan's general Lü Meng.

Cao Cao died in 220, and his son Cao Pi followed him in control of the emperor. He eventually deposed him the same year and became Emperor Wen of Wei, making his father posthumously *Emperor Wu of Wei*.

Poetry
------

Art that shows Cao Cao telling a poem before a battle. The art is at the Summer Palace, Beijing
Cao Cao was a poet. Only some of his poetry can be found today.
The **Communist Party of the Russian Federation** (**CPRF**; Russian: Коммунистическая партия Российской Федерации) is a Communist and Marxist–Leninist political party in Russia. It is the second largest political party in Russia. The party is often viewed as the successor of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).

The CPSU was banned in 1991 by then-Russian President Boris Yeltsin after a failed coup attempt. The youth organisation of the party is the Leninist Young Communist League. The party is led by a Central Committee.

The CPRF was founded on 14 February 1993. It is founded as the successor of the Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (CPRSFSR).

As of 2015, the party has 160,000 members. The party's goal is to establish a new, modernized form of socialism in Russia. The party wants to nationalize natural resources, agriculture and large industries.

Ideology
--------

The party believes in Marxism-Leninism and patriotism. The party is known to have extreme patriotism towards Russia. The party is also known to greatly like Joseph Stalin.

Other websites
--------------

* Official website
***Cape Fear*** is a 1991 American psychological thriller movie. It was directed by Martin Scorsese and it was produced by Barbara De Fina. *Cape Fear* was released on November 13, 1991. It is adapted from the John D. MacDonald novel *The Executioners*. It is a remake of the 1962 movie directed by J. Lee Thompson. The movie is about an attorney who is stalked along with his family by a vengeful criminal he had defended in court against rape charges, but was sent to jail for eight years.

Reviews
-------

The movie got positive reviews from critics. It has a 76% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Movie critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the movie 3 out of 4 stars and said that he liked the "Cape Fear is impressive moviemaking, showing Scorsese as a master of a traditional Hollywood genre who is able to mold it to his own themes and obsessions. But as I look at this $35 million movie with big stars, special effects and production values, I wonder whether it represents a good omen from the finest director now at work."

Awards
------

At the 64th Academy Awards, Robert De Niro was nominated in the category of Best Actor and Juliette Lewis was nominated in the category of Best Supporting Actress but neither of them won. At the 49th Golden Globe Awards, De Niro was nominated for Best Actor – Drama and Lewis was nominated for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture.

Cast
----

* Robert De Niro as Max Cady
* Nick Nolte as Sam Bowden
* Jessica Lange as Leigh Bowden
* Juliette Lewis as Danielle Bowden
* Joe Don Baker as Claude Kersek
* Robert Mitchum as Lt. Elgart
* Gregory Peck as Lee Heller
* Illeana Douglas as Lori Davis
* Fred Dalton Thompson as Tom Broadbent
* Zully Montero as Graciella
* Martin Balsam as Judge
* Charles Scorsese as Fruitstand Customer

Other websites
--------------

* *Cape Fear* on IMDb
**Cap-Haïtien**, also known as *Le Cap*, (Kréyòl: *Kap Ayisyen*, *Okap*) is a city in northern Haiti. It is the capital city of the Nord *Département*.

The city is on the coast of the *Cap-Haïtien* Bay, on the Atlantic Ocean, about 260 km north of the Haitian capital Port-au-Prince. The central part of the city is between the bay to the east, and mountains to the west.

Cap-Haïtien is also the chief town of an *arrondissement* (a part of a department) with the same name. The *arrondissement* has three *communes* (a *commune* is like a municipality): Cap-Haïtien, Limonade and Quartier-Morin.

History
-------

On the left side of the river Haut du Cap, Christopher Columbus built a small fort with the rest of the ship *Santa María* when it was destroyed on Christmas Day on 1492; he named the fort as *La Navidad* (in English, "Christmas").

The region around the city had the Taíno name of *Guarico*, the name used by the Spanish colonists for the region and the new city. When French people came from the Tortuga Island to live here, they founded the city in 1670 and the French King Louis XIV named the place as *Cap-Français* in 1711; it was then the capital city of the *Saint-Domingue* colony until 1770 when Port-au-Prince became the new capital city.

The town was destroyed by Spanish people in January 1691, after the Battle of La Limonade; La Limonade is a savanna just to the east of Cap-Haïtien. Later, in 1695, the town was again destroyed by Spanish and English soldiers.

Haiti, known as *Saint-Domingue* during colonial times, was the richest colony of France, and Cap-Français was the richest city in the colony. The city was known then as the "Paris of the west".

During the Haitian Revolution, there was a battle on 18 November 1803 in Vertières, near Cap-Haïtien. In this battle, the army of Jean-Jacques Dessalines defeated a French colonial army led by the Comte de Rochambeau, leading to the independence of Haiti on 1 January 1804.

Cathedral Notre-Dame of Cap-Haïtien.
After the Haitian independence, the country was divided in two parts and the northern part was made a kingdom by Henri Christophe and the name of the city was changed to *Cap-Henry*. Christophe made Milot, a town 15 km to the south of the city, the capital of his kingdom.

The city was named *Cap-Haïtien* after the death of Christophe and when Haiti became again one country.

Economy
-------

Cap-Haïtien is a very important port of northern Haiti; there is also an airport.

Media
-----

### Radio

* Radyo Atlantik FM
* Radio 4VEH (4VEF) AM and FM
* Radio Cap-Haïtien
* Radio Citadelle
* Radio Étincelle
* Radio Gamma (Based in Fort Liberté)
* Radio Lumiere FM
* Radio Méga FM
* Radio Sans-Souci FM
* Radio VASCO FM
* Radio Vénus FM
* Voix de l’Ave Maria
* Voix du Nord
* Radio Paradis
* Radio Nirvana FM
* Radio Hispaniola
* Radio Passion Haïti

### Television

* Télé Vénus
* Télé Paradis
* Chaîne 6
* Chaîne 7
* Chaîne 11
* Télévision Nationale d'Haiti
**Consultation** is a special way of discussing problems and making decisions used by Bahá'ís. 

The word **consult** generally means to talk about something, consider all the facts, and make a decision. To Bahá'ís, consultation also means:

* everyone prays before they discuss
* not preferring one idea over another until all the ideas have been discussed
* not repeating the same things over and over
* making a decision at the end that everyone supports
* if everyone cannot agree, then everyone votes, and the idea that gets the most votes is used
* if someone disagrees with the decision, they act as if they agreed with it until new facts are known (no one undermines the decision of the group)
* if new facts are discovered, or the idea is tried and does not work so well, the group can consult again and consider the new things they know

Consultation is used by Bahá'í elected leaders when they gather in councils to make sure no one person gets to decide everything. Married people consult with their husband or wife to solve difficulties in the marriage. Parents and children may consult, teachers and students may consult, and Bahá'ís all consult as a community when they get together every nineteen days.
**Carle Thulka**, also known as **Lake Maurice**, is a salt lake in South Australia. It is the largest of many salt lakes in the eastern end of the Great Victoria Desert. It is normally dry, except during and after periods of heavy rainfall. When it is full, the lake covers an area of around 2,900 hectares (29 km2). It is part of the geological basin known as the Officer Basin. The smaller Lake Dey Dey is to the north. Since 1985, Carle Thulka is part of the lands belonging to the Maralinga Tjarutja, a southern branch of the Pitjantjatjara. The community of Oak Valley is near the western shore of the lake.

The exposed surface of the lake normally consists of dry clay, silt or sand, covered with a salty crust. The area around Carle Thulka is very dry. Two wells have been drilled to the southeast and northwest of Carle Thulka, to search for uranium and other minerals. Both wells yield very low levels of groundwater. The water contains high levels of salt. It has also been found to contain radium and sediments from the Cambrian era.

History
-------

The lake is named after the explorer Richard Maurice. Maurice went on at least eight expeditions to the Great Victoria Desert between 1897 and 1903. He was not the first European to pass through this region: Ernest Giles and his team had explored the area almost 20 years before. Giles saw the lake in 1875, but he did not give it a name. He described the area as barren, and wrote that he and his team found no game between Carle Thulka and the Western Australian border. Maurice, in his own expeditions, recorded information and collected specimens on the plants, animals and geology of the area. In 1904, a mining surveyor named Frank George led a prospecting expedition through this region. He used Maurice's camels and equipment and travelled northwest of Lake Dey Dey and across the border to the salt lakes in Western Australia. George named Lake Maurice, and he reported that the area was not likely to contain anything suitable for mining.

The area around Carle Thulka was affected by the nuclear-weapon tests done during the 1950s. Dozens of Aboriginal families were removed from their ancestral lands and settled in towns far to the north (Ernabella), south (Yalata and Ooldea) and west (Cundeelee and Warburton). In the late 1940s, a single officer, Walter MacDougall, was sent to warn people in the area of the coming tests. The fallout from the hydrogen bombs was expected to harm or kill anyone within range. Officially, all were forced to leave their lands and were not allowed within 200 km of ground zero. Given that only one officer and an assistant were assigned to warn the people who lived across this huge area, many of the people were never informed, nor did they leave the area. Planes dropped information leaflets across the area, but the natives could not read the leaflets and were wary or afraid of the aircraft.

Other websites
--------------

* Topographic map (1942)
The COVID-19 pandemic first hit the American Midwest state of Iowa in March 2020. The first known cases were three people who had traveled on a cruise in Egypt. They came home to Johnson County on March 3. Cases were first found at meat packing plants and care facilities. By late October, community spread was a concern in the state.

On March 9, 2020, Iowa Governor Kim Reynolds signed a Proclamation of Disaster Emergency.

On April 25, the first testing site was launched in Des Moines under the new initiative *TestIowa.com*.

During a May 6, 2020 meeting with Reynolds, then-President Donald Trump answered to the increased coronavirus testing rate.

Impact
------

Iowa's largest industry is manufacturing. Most manufacturing relates to food. That means the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the meat packing industry is highly disruptive in Iowa.

Iowa State University, the University of Iowa and the University of Northern Iowa expected losses to go past $76 million, $89 million and $28 million, respectively.

As of June 1, 2021, COVID-19 was responsible for more than 6,000 deaths in Iowa.
The **Crotalinae**, also known as the "pit vipers" or "crotaline snakes", are a subfamily of venomous vipers found in Asia and the Americas. There are 23 genera and 155 species which are known. 

They are the only vipers found in the Americas. Some of the snakes which belong in this group are the rattlesnakes, lanceheads and Asian pit vipers.

Pit vipers are unique because all share a common characteristic, This is a deep pit, or fossa, between the eye and the nostril on either side of the head. These pits are extremely sensitive infrared-detecting organs. They give the snakes a sixth sense to help them find and perhaps even judge the size of the small, warm-blooded prey on which they feed.

Pit vipers range in size from the hump-nosed viper, *Hypnale hypnale*, which grows to around 30–45 centimetres (12–18 in), to the South American bushmaster, *Lachesis muta*, which grows to 3.65 metres (12.0 ft). This is the longest venomous snake in the New World. Some pit vipers are arboreal (they live in trees), some are terrestrial, and one species is semi-aquatic: the cottonmouth, *Agkistrodon piscivorus*.

Where they live
---------------

This subfamily of snakes is found from eastern Europe, eastward through Asia to Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. In the Americas, they are found from southern Canada, southward to Central America to southern South America. Members of this group are found in deserts and rainforests.

Reproduction
------------

Pit vipers are mainly viviparous, meaning the females give live birth. It is believed that all oviparous Pit vipers guard their eggs. Many young pit vipers have brightly coloured tails which is different to the rest of their body.

Genera
------

* Moccasins, (*Agkistrodon*)
* Jumping pitvipers, (*Atropoides*)
* Palm-pitvipers, (*Bothriechis*)
* Forest-pitvipers, (*Bothriopsis*)
* Lanceheads, (*Bothrops*)
* Malayan pitviper, (*Calloselasma*)
* Montane pitvipers, (*Cerrophidion*)
* Rattlesnakes, (*Crotalus*)
* Hundred-pace pitviper, (*Deinagkistrodon*)
* Asian moccasins, (*Gloydius*)
* Hump-nosed pit vipers, (*Hypnale*)
* Bushmasters, (*Lachesis*)
* Mexican horned pitvipers, (*Ophryacus*)
* Mountain pit vipers, (*Ovophis*)
* Hognose pit vipers, (*Porthidium*)
* Ground rattlesnakes, (*Sistrurus*)
* Asian lanceheads, (*Trimeresurus*)
* Temple vipers, (*Tropidolaemus*)

Other websites
--------------


Wikispecies has information on: ***Crotalinae***.

 Media related to Crotalinae at Wikimedia Commons
The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached France on 24 January 2020, when the first COVID-19 case in both Europe and France was identified in Bordeaux.

The beginning
-------------

The first five confirmed cases were all people who had recently arrived from China. A Chinese tourist who was admitted to hospital in Paris on 28 January died on 14 February, making it the first COVID-19 death in France. The annual assembly of the Christian Open Door Church between 17 and 24 February in Mulhouse which was attended by about 2,500 people was believed where the virus spread throughout France.

Macron's response
-----------------

On 12 March, French President Emmanuel Macron announced on public television that all schools and all universities would close from Monday 16 March until further notice. The next day, Prime Minister Édouard Philippe banned gatherings of more than 100 people, not including public transport. The following day, the prime minister ordered the closure of all non-essential public places, including restaurants, cafés, cinemas and nightclubs, effective at midnight.

On 16 March, Macron announced mandatory home order for 15 days starting at noon on 17 March. This was extended twice, until 11 May, after which the order would end only if citizens wore face masks.

Emergency
---------

On 2 May, Olivier Véran announced that the government would seek to extend the health emergency until 24 July. Many mayors were against the 11 May lifting of the lockdown, which had been announced by the President a few weeks earlier in a televised address to the nation, and said it was too soon. Veran's bill was discussed in Senate on 4 May.

Cases
-----

As of 13 May[update], France has reported over 140,734 confirmed cases, 27,074 deaths, and 58,673 recoveries, ranking sixth in number of confirmed cases, passing China where the outbreak began.
***Chrono Trigger*** (クロノ・トリガー, *Kurono Torigā*) is a role-playing video game made by Square Soft for the Super NES game console.

Plot
----

*Chrono Trigger* follows a young boy named Crono, who goes to see the Millennial Fair. He meets a girl named Marle at the fair and she follows him. Crono's friend, named Lucca, tests a teleporter at the fair. The machine goes wrong, and sends them back in time. They soon meet new friends and discover more time periods to go to. However, they find out an evil monster named Lavos is destroying the world. It is up to Crono and his friends to stop it.

Gameplay
--------

*Chrono Trigger* is a role-playing game. It was one of the first games to let the player see the enemies on the world before they fight them, and when he or she goes into a battle, the enemies and characters fight without going into a separate battle screen like other RPGs like *Final Fantasy* and *Dragon Quest* did at the time.

Reception
---------

*Chrono Trigger* is thought to be one of the best Super NES games, and one of the best role-playing games too. It got great reviews, praising it for its story, gameplay, and innovation.

Re-releases
-----------

*Chrono Trigger* was first re-released on the PlayStation with *Final Fantasy IV* on *Final Fantasy Chronicles*. It was given good reviews, but reviewers were unhappy with the long load times whenever going into a menu or battle. *Chrono Trigger* was re-released for the Nintendo DS as *Chrono Trigger DS*. It has the same graphics and extras from the PlayStation version along with other extras such as new dungeons.

Other websites
--------------

* Official Japanese website
* Official English website
* The Chrono Wiki
* Chrono Trigger Walkthrough
Crossing over takes place between the chromatids of two homologous chromosomes. Maternal chromatids are red; paternal chromatids are blue. Lines point to the chiasmata (cross overs)
**Crossing over** is a basic concept of genetics and cell biology, often called **recombination**. It occurs during meiosis.

Crossing over is the exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister chromatids during the production of gametes. The effect is to assort (shuffle) the alleles on parental chromosomes, so that the gametes carry *combinations* of genes different from either parent. This has the overall effect of increasing the variety of phenotypes present in a population.

The process can be seen directly in stained cells, and indirectly if there are genetic markers or not on the chromosomes. The visible **crossovers** are called **chiasma** (plural: **chiasmata**), which is Greek for a cross. F. A. Janssens was the first to suggest what chiasmata meant.

The large-scale effect of crossing over is to spread variation through a population. This is the main result of sexual reproduction compared to non-sexual modes of reproduction.

The main advantage to the parents is the greater variety in their offspring. This, it is thought, increases the chance that some of the offspring will survive and reproduce. This has been the subject of much investigation and discussion.
**Coimbatore district** was one of the districts of the erstwhile Madras Presidency of British India. It covered the areas of the present-day districts of Coimbatore, Erode and Tirupur and the Kollegal taluk of present-day Karnataka. It covered a total area of 20,400 square kilometres (7,860 sq mi) and was sub-divided into 10 taluks. The administrative headquarters was Coimbatore city. Most of Coimbatore's inhabitants were Tamil-speaking but there were also large numbers of Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada speaking people.

History
-------

Coimbatore was a part of the ancient Chera kingdom during the Sangam Age. After the Chera kingdom fell, the region was ruled by the Western Gangas and the Hoysalas. Coimbatore came under Muslim rule in the 13th century AD and was a province of the Vijayanagar Empire. After the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire, Coimbatore was ruled by the Madurai Nayaks till 17th century. A series of wars between the Kingdoms of Kingdom of Mysore of Madurai Nayak dynasty resulted in the region coming under the control of Mysore kings till the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Third Mysore War in 1792, Coimbatore became a part of British India.
The district was founded in 1805. In 1868 Nilgiri District was segregated. The Avinashi taluk was formed when Karur was separated from the district and merged with Trichinopoly District. In 1927 and 1929 other readjustments were made. In 1956 the Kollegal taluk was transferred to Mysore State.
***Kalle Stropp och Grodan Boll räddar Hönan*** is a 1987 Swedish animated short film directed by Jan Gissberg about the two eponymous characters created by Thomas Funck. Funck also provides all voices. The film was released theatrically in Sweden on 12 December 1987.It was followed in 1991 by the feature-length film *Charlie Strapp and Froggy Ball Flying High*, made by the same team.

Plot
----

One day Charlie Strapp's good friend The Chicken is kidnapped by two villains Pudding and Karlsson. Charlie Strapp, who has just been invited by Froggy Ball to get in his new car, constructed by Sheet-Niklas and himself mainly out of an old shoe and a well-shaken soda bottle, begins the chase. But the start is miserable as their other friend The Parrot also ends up being kidnapped. It turns out, though, that the kidnappers might not be purely evil after all: they work as stage magicians and just happen to need a hen for a trick they are performing. Charlie Strapp and the others continue to chase the kidnappers through air, on the ground and on water skis until the final showdown. Maybe they can find another trick.

Cast
----

* Thomas Funck-Charlie Strapp, Froggy Ball, The Parrot (Polly The Parrot), Sheet-Niklas (Tin-Can Harry), The Fox (Phil The Fox), Pudding, Karlsson and The Chicken

Other websites
--------------
Alessandro Moreschi (1858-1922) He was the only one to make solo recordings. This photograph was taken about 1880.

A castrato singing

Alessandro Moreschi performs part of Eugenio Terziani's *Hostias et preces*

---

*Problems playing this file? See media help.*

A **castrato** (plural *castrati*) was a type of male singer with a very high voice. The effect was produced either through castration, or because of some hormonal problems. The word *castrato* literally means castrated. Such singers were very sought after in the early days of the opera. Most of the main soprano roles in operas by Handel and other composers of that time were written for castrati. Nowadays they are almost always sung by female sopranos, since there are no castrati left.

The practice of castrating young boys who had good singing voices was quite common in Italy in the 17th century. When castration is done before puberty, the usual effects of puberty will not happen. These include the vocal cords enlarging and growing bigger, and the voice getting deeper as a consequence. 

Even though castration was illegal in many parts of Italy, it was often performed. Many families who were poor had their children castrated because it might give them a better future. 

Once a boy was castrated he would go to a special music school where children learned singing and musical instruments. The castrati pupils were given special treatment. They were fussed over and kept warm to stop them from getting colds. When they grew up they hoped to become famous opera singers. A few of them had very successful careers in opera. They were the great stars of their day, and audiences came to the opera to cheer on their favourite singers. Those who were not good enough to make a career in opera joined church choirs instead.

It is impossible now for us to know what these great castrato voices sounded like, but they must have had very powerful voices and many of the singers were very skilled in singing and adding musical ornamentation to the songs. In the 18th century Italian opera became very popular in England. This was largely due to the German-born composer Georg Friderich Händel who moved to England in 1709 and wrote lots of Italian operas. Many singers who sang in London came from Italy, and many were castrati. The most famous one was called Farinelli. 

The popularity of castrato singers died out in the 19th century. By the mid-19th century they were no opera castrati left, although a few castrati still sang in church choirs. The last one, a man called Alessandro Moreschi, died in 1922 aged 64. There is a recording of his voice made in 1902 which can be heard online, but he may not have been a good singer and he was old when he made the recording, so we cannot judge whether the castrato voice was beautiful by that recording.

Related pages
-------------

* Breeches role

Other websites
--------------

* Alessandro Moreschi at *Internet Archive*
**Clayton Moore** (September 14, 1914 – December 28, 1999) was an American actor.

Career
------

His real name was **Jack Carlton Moore**. He was born in Chicago, Illinois. He began his career as a child, as an acrobat in the circus. In 1938 he went to Hollywood and acted in minor roles in Class B Western movies. In 1947 he was in the movie *Jesse James Rides Again*. He played Jesse James. He also played James in *Adventures of Frank and Jesse James* (1948). He starred in *The Ghost of Zorro* (1949). The other B-movies he starred in were *Cyclone Fury* 1951; *Montana Territory*, 1952, as Commissioner George Ives; and *Gunfighters of the Northwest*, 1954.

The Lone Ranger
---------------

In 1949 he was chosen by ABC Television to play The Lone Ranger. In the series of the same name. His co-star was the actor Jay Silverheels. It was the biggest success of ABC in the postwar period. From 1949 to 1956, 169 episodes were made of The Lone Ranger. His silver bullets, white hat and black mask were icons of the western U.S. In 1979, the company owning the rights to The Lone Ranger forced him to no longer use the character. Judge Vernon Foster said Moore could no longer use his black mask, or advertise as The Lone Ranger. Moore obeyed the judge's decision. In 1987 a star was placed on Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles.

He died on December 28, 1999 from a heart attack in his Los Angeles, California home, aged 85.

Other websites
--------------

* Clayton Moore on IMDb
* Clayton Moore Memorial
* Clayton Moore at The Old Corral (b-westerns.com)
* Clayton Moore, Television's Lone Ranger And a Persistent Masked Man, Dies at 85
In telecommunications, **cleartext** is the form of a message or data which is in a form that is immediately understandable to a human being without additional processing. In particular, it implies that this message is sent or stored without cryptographic protection. The phrases, "in clear", "en clair" and "in the clear" are the same. 

It is close to, but not entirely the same as, the term "plaintext". Formally, plaintext is information that is fed as an input to a coding process, while ciphertext is what comes out of that process. Plaintext might be compressed, coded, or otherwise changed before it is converted to ciphertext, so it is quite common to find plaintext that is not cleartext.

Websites using insecure HTTP send using cleartext, with all data supplied (including usernames and passwords) being sent from the user's computer through the internet using cleartext. Anyone with access to the medium used to carry the data (the routers, computers, telecommunications equipment, wireless transmissions, and so on) may read the password, username, and anything else sent to the website.

Related pages
-------------

* Plaintext
* Ciphertext
**Centre** is one of the ten departments (French: *départments*, singular *départment*) of Haiti. It is in the center of the country, along the border with the Dominican Republic. It is the only department of Haiti that does not border the sea.

Geography
---------

The *Départment du Centre* has an area of 3,675 km². It is bordered to the northeast by the Nord-Est Department, to the northwest by the Nord Department, to the west by the Artibonite Department and to the south by the Ouest Department. It borders the Dominican Republic to the east.

The mountain chains here run from west to east and the most important are the *Montagnes Noires* (in English, "Black Mountains"). There is also part of the *Chaine du Trout d'Eau*.

Lake Peligre, the second largest lake in Haiti, is in this department; it is an artificial lake created with the construction of the Peligre Dam on the Artibonite river.

The main rivers of the department are Boucan Carré, Fer-à-Cheval, Libon, Macacia, Thomonde and La Tombe, and all are tributaries of the Artibonite.

Population
----------

The department had, in the 2003 census, a population of 581,505 persons: 289,028 men and 292,477 women, with only 94,619 (16.27%) living in cities and towns.

The main city is Hinche, the capital of the department.

Administrative division
-----------------------

The department is divided into four *arrondissements* (like districts) and 12 *communes* (like municipalities). The "arrondissements" and their "communes" are:

1. Cerca la Source
	1. Cerca-la-Source
	2. Thomassique
2. Hinche
	1. Hinche
	2. Cerca-Cavajal
	3. Maïssade
	4. Thomonde
3. Lascahobas
	1. Lascahobas
	2. Belladère
	3. Savanette
4. Mirebalais
	1. Mirebalais
	2. Saut-d'Eau
	3. Boucan-Carré
***Deinococcus radiodurans*** is a gram-positive, nonmotile, red-pigmented bacterium. It was originally identified as a contaminant of irradiated canned meat in 1956.

*Deinococcus radiodurans* has the systems for DNA repair, DNA damage export and genetic redundancy. It can recover from desiccation (loss of water) and starvation. It has a very high tolerance to radiation forms like gamma radiation. It is so far known as the most radioactive resistant organism. Thioredoxin reductase is an enzyme found in the cells' response to double-strand DNA breaks.

*D. radiodurans has* a gene sequence that encodes for a protein that is very similar to the RecD enzyme found in *E. coli*. This significant finding suggests that this RecD-like protein in *D. radiodurans* is an important part of the repair system it uses.

It may be possible to make other bacteria as radiation resistant as *D. radiodurans* by changing their genetics. One research team in China is trying to insert an expressive recombinant Mn-SOD protein from *D. radiodurans* into *E.coli* BL21. The real challenge here is making the protein self-sustaining in the new species. The team has "provided the foundations for further studies and applications of the recombinant Mn-SOD".

Genus
-----

The genus *Deinococcus* has 47 species, which share these characteristics. *D. radiodurans* is the one discovered first, and on which most experiments have been done. All members of the genus are radio-resistant.
Information flow in biological systems
The **central dogma of molecular biology** is a phrase by Francis Crick, who proposed the double helix structure of DNA.
It means that information passes from DNA to proteins via RNA, but proteins cannot pass the information back to DNA.

Crick first wrote it in 1958, and repeated it in 1970.

The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information. 

There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are 3×3 = 9 conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3: 

* 3 **general transfers** (believed to occur normally in most cells),
* 3 **special transfers** (known to occur, but only under specific conditions in case of some viruses or in a laboratory), and
* 3 **unknown transfers** (believed never to occur).

The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication), DNA information can be copied into mRNA, (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation).

The dogma is a modern version of the Weismann barrier (after August Weismann). This is the principle that hereditary information moves only from genes to body cells, and never in reverse. Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells.
**Cosmic time**, or **cosmological time**, is the time coordinate commonly used in the Big Bang models of physical cosmology. Such time coordinate may be defined for a homogeneous, expanding universe so that the universe has the same density everywhere at each moment in time (the fact that this is possible means that the universe is, by definition, homogeneous). The clocks measuring cosmic time should move along the Hubble flow.

Cosmic time {\displaystyle t} is a measure of time by a physical clock with zero peculiar velocity (weird speed) without matter over-/under-densities (to prevent time expanding due to relativistic effects or confusions caused by expansion of the universe). Unlike other measures of time such as temperature, redshift, particle horizon, or Hubble horizon, the cosmic time (similar and combining in a way to make something better to the comoving coordinates) is blind to the expansion of the universe.

There are two main ways for establishing a reference point for the cosmic time. The most easy way is to take the present time as the cosmic reference point (sometimes referred to as the *lookback time*).

In a different way, the Big Bang may be taken as reference to define {\displaystyle t} as the **age of the universe**, also known as **time since the big bang**. The current physical cosmology estimates the present age as 13.8 billion years. The {\displaystyle t=0} doesn't necessarily have to go along with a physical event (such as the cosmological singularity) but rather it refers to the point at which the scale factor would dissappear for a standard cosmological model such as Lambda-CDM model. For instance, in the case of inflation, In other words a non-standard cosmology, the hypothetical moment of big bang is still decided using the test result cosmological models which may happen at the same time as the end of the inflationary epoch. For technical purposes, ideas such as the average temperature of the universe (in units of eV) or the particle horizon are used when the early universe is the goal of a study since understanding the interaction among particles is more important and related than their time coordinate or age.

Cosmic time is the standard time coordinate for specifying the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker solutions of Einstein field equations.
8th (?) century Anglo-Saxon sword hilt fitting, gold with garnet cloisonné inlay. From the Staffordshire Hoard
Byzantine cloisonné enamel plaque of St. Demetrios, c. 1100, using the thin-wire technique.
Ming Dynasty cloisonné enamel bowl, using nine colours of enamel
Chinese cloisonné enamel incense burner, 17th/18th centuries
**Cloisonné**, a French word meaning "enclosed", is a metal-working technique. It is an ancient technique for decorating metalwork objects. The resulting objects can also be called *cloisonné*. 

The decoration is formed by first adding compartments or cells to the metal object. This is done by soldering or sticking silver or gold wires or thin strips placed on edge. These are visible in the finished piece, separating the different compartments.

Coloured enamel is the usual filling for the cells. Cloisonné enamel objects are worked on with enamel powder made into a paste, which then is fired in a kiln. In older times inlays of cut gemstones were often used. 

The technique was in ancient times mostly used for jewellery and small fittings for clothes, weapons or similar small objects. They were decorated with geometric or schematic designs, with thick cloison walls. In the Byzantine Empire a technique with thinner wires were developed. This let pictorial images to be made. It was mostly used for religious images and jewellery, and by then always using enamel. By the 14th century this enamel technique had spread to China, where it was soon used for much larger vessels such as bowls and vases. The technique is common in China to the present day. Cloisonné enamel objects using Chinese-derived styles were produced in the West from the 18th century.

The earliest surviving cloisonné pieces are rings in graves from 12th century BC Cyprus, using very thin wire.

An early 20th century art vase
Definitely not the teeth of a grass-eater: more likely a mangrove-eater and/or a generalist plant-eater.
***Deinotherium*** was a large proboscidean related to modern elephants. Their downward curving tusks are notable. They are known from the middle Miocene to the early Pleistocene. *Dinotherium* is put in its own family (the Deinotheriidae) in the Proboscidea. 

There were several species of *Deinotherium* that lived in parts of Africa, Asia and Europe. The *Deinotherium* was larger than today’s elephants.

The way *Deinotherium* used its curious tusks has been much debated. It may have rooted in soil for underground plant parts like roots and tubers, pulled down branches to snap them and reach leaves, or stripped soft bark from tree trunks.

It helps to remember that the Miocene was much warner and wetter than today, and that the Africa of the Miocene had rather different fauna from today. *Deinotherium* was a creature of muddy tropical rivers and forests, not the dry savannahs of today. It also lived in southern Europe and east to the Indian Subcontinent.

Deinotherium fossils have been uncovered at several of the African sites where remains of prehistoric hominid relatives of modern humans have also been found.