recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Portrait of Vittoria Colonna by Girolamo Muziano
**Vittoria Colonna** (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara, was an Italian noblewoman and poet.

Biography
---------

Vittoria Colonna was born at Marino, Lazio, Italy in 1490. She was a daughter of Fabrizio Colonna and Agnese di Montefeltro. In 1509 she married Francesco Ferrante D'Avalos, who was the Marquis of Pescara. He was a knight and was often absent from home. He took part in many battles and wars. He was taken prisoner by the French in 1512. In 1525 he died from wounds after the battle of Pavia. From that time Colonna, a childless widow, lived in a nunnery although she did not become a nun. She was the most admired woman poet in Italy during the Renaissance. Vittoria Colonna died in Rome in 1547.

Works
-----

The first edition of Colonna's book of poems, named *Rime* (*Rhymes*) was published in 1538. They turned out to be very popular. There were twelve editions of the book published before she died. Vittoria Colonna was admired for her poetry by Ludovico Ariosto. She was a friend of many other poets and artists, Jacopo Sannazzaro, Pietro Bembo, Baldassare Castiglione and especially Michelangelo. Colonna wrote sonnets, *canzone* (songs) and short poems in ottava rima. She wrote also a longer poem named *Capitolo del trionfo di Cristo* (*The chapter about the Triumph of Christ*).

Other websites
--------------

* Poems by Vittoria Colonna (In Italian).
* 2005 - Vittoria Colonna e Michelangelo (In English) at YouTube
A Kumano shrine in Kurashiki, Okayama

  

A **Kumano shrine (熊野神社, *Kumano Jinja*)** is a type of Shinto shrine that honors the three Kumano mountains: Hongū, Shingū, and Nachi. There are over 3,000 Kumano shrines in Japan, and each one receives its kami from another Kumano shrine through a process called *bunrei* (分霊) or *kanjō* (勧請).

The Kumano cult originally came from the Kumano Sanzan shrine complex in Wakayama Prefecture.

Kumano Sanzan
-------------

Nachi Falls and Seiganto-ji
The Kumano Sanzan shrines are considered the main shrines among all Kumano shrines and are located between 20 to 40 kilometers from each other. They are linked by the pilgrimage route called Kumano Kodō (熊野古道). In addition to the three shrines, there are two Buddhist temples, Seiganto-ji and Fudarakusan-ji, that are also part of the Kumano Sanzan complex.

The Kumano region has been significant religiously since ancient times, even before modern religions in Japan. It is known as a place for physical healing. Initially, each Kumano shrine had its own form of nature worship, but in the 10th century, they began to be worshipped together as the three deities of Kumano under the influence of Buddhism.. During the time when Japanese kami were believed to be emanations of buddhas, known as the honji suijaku theory, the three deities of Kumano became associated with Buddhas. Kuniyasutamahime, one of the deities, was associated with Sahasrabhūja Avalokiteśvara (also known as Senju Kannon, meaning "Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara"), Bhaisajyaguru (Yakushi Nyōrai), and Amitābha (Amida Nyōrai). The site of Kumano became a unique example of the fusion between Buddhism and Japanese indigenous religion known as shinbutsu-shūgō.. After the three shrines were associated with Buddhism, the Kumano Sanzan site gained popularity and attracted many worshipers, making it a popular pilgrimage destination.. During the 11th century, pilgrims who visited the Kumano Sanzan site were mainly members of the imperial family or aristocrats. However, by the 15th century, the majority of the pilgrims were commoners.. In the past, the pilgrimage to Kumano was also known as the "Kumano ant pilgrimage" (蟻の熊野参り, Ari no Kumano mairi). This was because the pilgrims could be seen walking in long lines, winding through the valleys, and resembling a trail of ants.

Related pages
-------------

* Kumano Shrine (Yamagata)
* *The Tale of the Heike*
* *Acts of Worship*

Sources
-------

* D. Max Moerman, *Localizing Paradise: Kumano Pilgrimage and the Religious Landscape of Premodern Japan*. Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 0674013956ISBN 0674013956
* Moerman, David (1997). The ideology of landscape and the theater of state: Insei pilgrimage to Kumano (1090–1220), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 24 (3-4), 347-374

Other websites
--------------

* Japanese Wikipedia article "ja:熊野神社" accessed on June 12, 2008
* Tanabe City Kumano Tourism Bureau Archived 2011-09-25 at the Wayback Machine
An example of a fishing lure
A **fishing lure** is an object used to catch fish. It is tied to the end of a fishing line. A fishing lure is made to look like something a fish would eat. They move in a special way and have certain colors. Lures have fishing hooks attached to them. 

They are usually used with a fishing rod. When a lure is used, it is cast, or thrown, out into the water and pulled back in. A good fisherman can cast the lure into places where the fish hide, like under logs.

There are many types of fishing lures. Most of them are made to look like dying, injured, or fast fish. They can be made of wood, plastic, rubber, metal, cork, feathers, animal hair, and other things. Some are shiny so that they catch the fish's attention.

Fishing lures can come in many different types such as a jig or a popper. A jig will usually have a weight attached to it so it can float at the right height. A popper is a lure used to attract trout and bass. A popper has a colorful design in the front to attract fish. Fishing lures can be very expensive as some are sold for thousands of dollars. 

The fishing lure was invented in 1890 by a man named James Heddon. He created the fishing lure by accident by taking a big piece of wood and carving a frog shape into it and taking the lure and attaching it to his line. Then he threw it in the water and immediately caught a bass. The next day he started a company called the Heddon Company and the era of the fishing lure was born.

Other websites
--------------

* History of fishing lures
* List of popular lures Archived 2010-03-23 at the Wayback Machine
Siti Musdah Mulia in 2007
**Siti Musdah Mulia** (born March 3, 1958 in Bone, South Sulawesi Selatandari) is an Indonesian professor of religion and an activist for women's rights. In 2007 she received the International Women of Courage Award.

Life
----

Mulia came from a family with a strong religious tradition. She went to an Islamic boarding school. Her father and father-in-law are Islamic religious leaders. 
Mulia's father was H. Mustamin Abdul Fatah, a battalion commander in Darul Islam the insurgent Islamic State led by Abdul Kahar Muzakkar. Her mother was Hj. Buaidah Achmad, the first girl in her village to graduate from an Islamic boarding school, Pesantren Darud Da'wah wal Irshad in Pare-Pare. 

Mulia graduated from As`adiyah Islmaic high school in South Sulawesi in 1973. In 1997, she received a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Islamic political thought from the State Islamic University. She was the first woman to receive this degree.

Work
----

In 1999, Mulia became a research professor at the Indonesian Institute of Sciences. She is also a professor of Islamic Political Thought at the School of Graduate Studies of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University in Jakarta, Indonesia.

From 1999 to 2007 Mulia was the senior advisor of the Minister of Religious Affairs. In 2004 this group started to write the Compilation of Islamic Law. This draft of Indonesia’s Islamic code included banning polygamy and child marriage. Because of this, Mulia got death threats.

From 2000 to 2005 Malia was head of the Council of Indonesian Ulema.

Malia believes in "the right of women to interpret Islamic teachings, the right of women to become an ulema, and the right of women to correct religious missions".

List of Works
-------------

Mulia is the author of many books. 

* Reformist Muslima (2004)
* Islam Criticizes Polygamy (2003)
* Islam and the Inspiration of Gender Equity (2005)
* Islam and Human Rights (2010)
* Woman Portrait in the Lecture of Islam (2000)
* Islam and Mass Media (2000)
* Gender Equality and Justice in the perspective of Islam (2001)
* Islamic State: The Political Thought of Haikal (2002)
* Women and Politics (2003)
* Reformist Muslim Women : Islam Litigates Polygamy (2004)
* Religion-reform-inspired Muslim Women (2005)
* Islam and Violence Against Women (2006)
* Islam and The Inspiration of Gender Equity (2007.

Awards
------

* International Women of Courage 2007
* Yap Thiam Hien Human Rights Award 2009
* International Prize for the Woman of the Year (Italy)
Fragonard's self-portrait
**Jean-Honoré Fragonard** (5 April 1732 in Grasse – 22 August 1806 in Paris) was a French artist. He is remembered as one of the most important French painters of the rococo style. He was a pupil of François Boucher, and developed Boucher's style further. At first he did historical paintings, but soon gave up on these.

He then painted things that were light-hearted, and slightly erotic. His works include *The Swing*, *A Young Girl Reading*, and *The Secret Meeting*. Together with Boucher and Antoine Watteau, he is one of the principal painters of French Rococo. He lost his wealth during the French Revolution. After the revolution, the painting style was different, because he had trouble adapting, he died a poor man.

Gallery
-------

* Self-portrait, 1769Self-portrait, 1769
* Adoration of the Shepherds (1775)Adoration of the Shepherds (1775)
* Girl playing with dogGirl playing with dog
* The LockThe Lock
* The SwingThe Swing
* Blind Man's BluffBlind Man's Bluff
* The SwingThe Swing
* Confession of LoveConfession of Love

Related pages
-------------

* List of French painters
The **Sphynx** is a breed of cat. It does not have much hair or fur on its body, but it is not truly hairless. The skin is soft because it has a fine layer of down. It may or may not have whiskers. The skin is the color the fur would be. This cat has all the same coat patterns found on other cats, such as a calico or tabby. The pattern is just seen on the Sphynx skin. Because they have no coat, they lose more body heat than cats with fur. This makes them feel warm when touched. They also like to seek sun or warm places because they are naturally cold.

The lack of hair can cause health issues with kittens in the first weeks of life because they can get sick with respiratory infections. Good breeders should not let their kittens go to new homes without being at least 14 weeks of age. This is to make sure the kitten is mature enough to cope in a new environment.

History
-------

Sphynxes are friendly and not shy.
The Sphynx was not the first hairless domestic cat. Some were seen in other places around the world for at least 90 years.

The Sphynx breed began in 1966, in Toronto, when a hairless kitten, named Prune, was born to a black and white shorthair cat, named Elizabeth, in Ontario, Canada. The kitten was mated with its mother, so one more naked kitten was born. Along with a few naked kittens found later, the hairless breed began.

A natural birth of a Sphynx cat happened on a Minnesota farm. The owners found hairless kittens in several litters of their domestic shorthair barn cats in the mid-1970s. Two hairless female kittens born in 1975 and 1976, named Epidermis and Dermis, were also an important part of developing the breed. More hairless cats were found in Texas, Arkansas, and Minnesota. So, the modern Sphynx breed began with the Canadian cats and the Minnesota cats.

The first breeders did not know much about cat genetics and they had some problems. The gene pool was small and many kittens died. Many of the females had seizures.

Behavior
--------

Sphynx cat looking in a mirror
Sphynx taking a bath.
Sphynxes are friendly and not shy. They have a lot of energy, intelligence, curiosity, and love for their owners. They are one of the more dog-like breeds of cats. They run and greet their owners at the door and are friendly when meeting strangers.

Caring for a Sphynx
-------------------

Even though Sphynx cats do not have a coat to be brushed, they do need a bath once a week to wash off oils that get on their skin. They should not be left outside and need to be an indoor cat. First, sunlight can give them a sunburn. Secondly, they cannot keep warm when outside, so some owners dress them in warm clothes in the winter.

Other websites
--------------

* Sphynx Cat Breeders / TICA HCM Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine
* Sphynx Cat Information and links
Vatel.
**François Vatel** (French pronunciation: ​[fʁɑ̃swa vatɛl]) (1631 – 24 April 1671) was the majordomo (in French, *maître d'hôtel*) of Nicolas Fouquet and prince Louis II de Bourbon-Condé.

Life
----

Vatel was born either in Switzerland or in Paris in 1625, 1631, or 1635. Many people credit him with creating *crème Chantilly* (Chantilly cream), but this is wrong. There is no documentation of this which appeared during his lifetime, and the whipped, flavored cream was known at least a century earlier. 

Vatel served Louis XIV's superintendent Nicolas Fouquet in the inauguration *fête* at the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte that took place on 17 August 1661.

Vatel was responsible for organizing a banquet for 2.000 people, in honor of Louis XIV. The banquet took place in April 1671 at the Château de Chantilly. Madame de Sévigné wrote in a letter, that Vatel was very upset, because the seafood he had ordered, did not arrive on time. Because of this, and other small problems, he committed suicide by running himself through with his sword; his body was discovered when someone came to tell him of the arrival of the fish.

This incident is thought to be the origin of the idiom "died for want of lobster sauce", a phrase meaning to die or be devastated due to a minor disappointment or mishap.

Popular culture
---------------

In 2000, Roland Joffé made a movie about *Vatel. In it, Gérard Depardieu plays Vatel.* According to the movie, Vatel committed suicide when he realized he was nothing more than property in the eyes of the nobility, his social superiors.

Further reading
---------------

* Dominique Michel 1999.*Vatel ou la naissance de la gastronomie* (Editions Fayard)
* Patrick Rambourg 1999. *Recettes du Grand Siècle* (Editions Fayard)
* Mathilde Mottoule 2006. *Vatel ou l'origine d'un mythe*.
Werner Leich in 1989
**Werner Leich** (born January 31, 1927 in Mühlhausen) is a Protestant clergyman. From 1978 to 1992 he was the bishop of the Evangelical Church in Thuringia, for the greater part during the era of the German Democratic Republic.

Life
----

From 1942 to 1945 Leich was a voluntary member of the German Luftwaffe with the rank of Fahnenjunker. He volunteered to "*battle for the salvation of Germany*". After World War II he finished his school and from 1947 he started studying theology at the University of Marburg and Heidelberg University.

In 1951 he started his career as a clergyman. A year later he married Trautel, with whom he has a son and daughter. Since 1960 he was a member of the Synod of the Evangelical Church. He was vice-president of the synod from 1967 to 1978 and bishop of the state of Thuringia from 1978 to 1992. In that year he retired.

During a lot of his career, he had to deal with being able to worship God in an environment of anti-religious communism. He described it as "a lot of times we did hide being Christians".

Autobiography
-------------

* 1992: *Wechselnde Horizonte. Mein Leben in vier politischen Systemen.* (in German)
Kushabhau Thakre 
For the princely state, see Bhopal State.
**Bhopal** is the capital of Madhya Pradesh, India, and the second largest city of the state, after Indore. Bhopal is also called the City of Lakes. It is the headquarters of Bhopal District. It is in the central part of India.

The city is believed to have first been called Bhojpal, named after the King of Bhoj. According to this theory, it was later changed to Bhopal.

Bhopal has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637 ft).

Bhopal Disaster
---------------

See the main article: Bhopal disaster
In 1984 a poisoned gas was leaked from a private chemical factory at night when a worker was cleaning out a clogged pipe connected with a tank containing gas. The tank had 42 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) that was leaked at midnight and leaving more than 5,000 people and animals dead. Many people also became sick and they are still suffering from deadly diseases. This has been called as "World's worst industrial disaster".

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Bhopal at Wikimedia Commons
This article is about the island. For the country, see Republic of Cyprus. For the disputed territory, see Northern Cyprus.
Areas of Cyprus; the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus zone is red, the Republic light blue, the buffer zone greenish, and the naval bases dark blue
**Cyprus** is a Mediterranean island off the coasts of Syria and Turkey. It is the third-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea; Sicily and Sardinia are larger. It is slightly larger than Puerto Rico. Geographically, it is part of Asia and in the Middle East, but for political reasons, it is sometimes counted as being part of Europe. Cyprus was part of the Byzantine Empire for hundreds of years. The Greek god Aphrodite was from Cyprus. There are two states on the island:

* The Republic of Cyprus (internationally recognized) is also part of the European Union. Most of the world considers the whole island to be the Republic of Cyprus. Greek is the most spoken language in the Republic of Cyprus.
* The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is the northern part of the island. The only nation that recognizes this entity is Turkey.

These states are separated by a buffer zone, which is controlled by the United Nations. In addition to the two countries, there are Akrotiri and Dhekelia, two territories on the south zone which are under British control, and which are used as military bases. 

The island has been Greek for thousands of years of recorded history, many empires have ruled Cyprus. They include Assyria, ancient Egypt Persia, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the Byzantines, Arab caliphates for a short period, France, the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Cyprus is often described as an 'unsinkable aircraft carrier' due to its strategic position in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Dr. Seuss draws a picture of the Grinch in 1957
***How the Grinch Stole Christmas!*** is a children's story. It was written by Dr. Seuss. It is written in rhymed verse. Dr. Seuss drew the pictures. It was published in 1957 as a book by Random House. It was also published in a magazine called *Redbook*. The book criticizes the commercialization of Christmas. It also makes fun of those who profit from exploiting the holiday. An animated television program of the story was made in 1966. Boris Karloff narrated the How the Grinch Stole Christmas (TV Special). The character then appeared in the television specials Halloween is Grinch Night and The Grinch Grinches The Cat in the Hat. He also was a recurring villain in The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss, an educational show for kids, and had a small part in the Broadway play Seussical. In 2000 a movie was made based on the book. Jim Carrey played the Grinch. And in 2018, another movie based on the book was made, which was *The Grinch*. Benedict Cumberbatch plays the Grinch in that one.

Story
-----

The Grinch is a nasty creature who lives high on a mountain with his dog Max. He hates the happy people of Whoville and their Christmas celebrations and goes to Whoville to steal all the presents, decorations, and food. He doesn't think Christmas will come because he has been so mean, but Christmas comes all the same. He realizes that Christmas is more than just presents and decorations. His heart grows three sizes larger. He reforms and returns all the presents and trimmings. The people of Whoville welcome him.
Statue of Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, from the exterior of Canterbury Cathedral
**Lanfranc** (1005 x 1010 at Pavia — 24 May 1089 at Canterbury) was a cleric, teacher and jurist who became Archbishop of Canterbury under William the Conqueror.

This celebrated Italian jurist gave up his career to become a monk at Bec in Normandy. In 1070 he became the Archbishop of Canterbury in England. This was the peak of an extraordinary life.

Life
----

Lanfranc was born in the early years of the 11th century at Pavia in Italy. His father, Hanbald, held a rank equivalent to a magistrate. He was orphaned at an early age. Lanfranc was trained in the liberal arts. He crossed the Alps, and took up the role of teacher in France and eventually in Normandy. About 1039 he became the master of the cathedral school at Avranches. He taught for three years with much success. 

In 1042 he gave this up to become a monk in the newly founded Bec Abbey. He became the first prior of Bec Abbey in 1045. He became a friend of William, Duke of Normandy and by 1050 his counselor. Lanfranc then became the abbot of St Stephen in Normandy.

In 1067, when Maurilius, Archbishop of Rouen, died, Lanfranc declined the position. He would not have been able to do so without the consent of William I. It is likely William had something bigger in mind for Lanfranc. In 1070 Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury was deposed by papal legates. William brought Lanfranc from Normandy to England to become the Archbishop of Canterbury.
Birinus being made a bishop by Archbishop Asterius.
**Birinus** († 650), also **St. Birinus** was a missionary to Wessex and the first Bishop of Dorchester. His feast day is celebrated on December 3rd.

Career
------

Birinus may have been a Lombard by birth. He was sent by Pope Honorius I to help convert pagans in Anglo-Saxon England. The pope first sent him to Genoa. There 
Archbishop Asterius of Milan consecrated Birinus as a bishop. Birinus arrived in southern Britain c. 634. He had planned to go to the midlands of England to preach there. But when he found the Gewisse in Wessex were completely pagan, he decided to stay with them. He began to convert the Gewisse (West Saxons) to Christianity. In 635 King Cynegils of Wessex was baptized by Birinus and King Oswald of Northumbria agreed to be his Godfather. This may have been a condition of the marriage between Oswald and Cynegils's daughter, Cyneburh. He gave Bishop Birinus the city of Dorchester and several churches so he could convert the pagans in Wessex. 
In c. 647–48 Birinus founded a church at Winchester which later became Winchester Cathedral. Birinus died in 650. He was buried at Dorchester.

Relics of St. Birinus
---------------------

After 660 there were no more West Saxon Bishops at Dorchester. Along with part of Berkshire it was taken over by Mercia. The new see for Wessex was now at Winchester. Some time around 690–700 Bishop Hedda of Winchester had the relics (bones) of St. Birinus moved from Dorchester to Winchester. Up to this time Bishop Birinus had been considered a minor saint. In 1223 monks of Dorchester abbey located the tomb of a former Bishop. The body was dressed in the garments and tunic of a bishop so they believed it was St. Birinus. At the time of the discovery miracles were claimed. One claim was that a dumb child could suddenly speak English and French. The monks sent their findings to Rome. The pope wrote to Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury asking him to manage the translation. But a problem caused the ceremony to be delayed. Archbishop Langton discovered the body had already been moved to Winchester c. 700. Both Dorchester and Winchester claimed to have the relics of Bishop Birinus. For that reason two feast days were observed for him, December 3rd and 4th. The Catholic Church recognizes December 3rd. A shrine was created for him in the 14th century. It was later destroyed, but it has been rebuilt since.
Kazimir Malevich, *Black Circle*, 1913, Oil on canvas, State Russian Museum, St Petersburg
Theo van Doesburg 1917, *Composition VII (the three graces)*
Geometric, but not simple: Painted ceiling of the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus
*Broken Obelisk* by Barnett Newman is in the grounds of Rothko Chapel, Houston.
**Geometric abstraction** is a form of abstract art based on the use of geometric forms in non-representational compositions. This art is not meant to depict our everyday visual world, but instead uses the shapes of basic geometry.

Wassily Kandinsky, one of the forerunners of pure non-objective painting, was among the first modern artists to explore this geometric approach in his abstract work. Other examples of pioneer abstractionists such as Kazimir Malevich and Piet Mondrian have also embraced this approach towards abstract painting.

Geometric abstraction is not just an invention of 20th century avant-garde artists or movements. It is present in many cultures throughout history both as decorative motifs and as art pieces themselves. 

Islamic art, in its prohibition of depicting religious figures, is a prime example of this geometric pattern-based art. It existed centuries before the modern movement in Europe, and in many ways influenced this Western school. Geometric patterns were often used in the architecture of Islamic civilisations from the 7th century-20th century, to visually connect spirituality with science and art. 

Abstract art has also historically been likened to music in its ability to convey emotional or expressive feelings and ideas without reliance upon or reference to recognizable objective forms already existent in reality. Wassily Kandinsky has discussed this connection between music and painting, as well as how the practice of classical composition had influenced his work, at length in his seminal essay *Concerning the Spiritual in Art*.

Expressionist abstract painting, as practiced by artists such as Jackson Pollock, is the opposite of geometric abstraction. 

Artists who have worked extensively in geometric abstraction include Josef Albers, Theo van Doesburg, Wassily Kandinsky, Kazimir Malevich, Piet Mondrian, Barnett Newman, Kenneth Noland, Bridget Riley, Alexander Rodchenko, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, among others.

Related pages
-------------

* Suprematism
* Constructivism
* Abstract art

Other websites
--------------

* Geometric Arts Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine
* Easy Abstract Painting Archived 2021-08-27 at the Wayback Machine
**Nestorius** (Greek: Νεστόριος; c. 386 – c. 451) was Archbishop of Constantinople from 10 April 428 to 22 June 431. His views were popular in the East.

History
-------

Nestorius objected to the popular custom calling the Mary (the mother of Jesus), *Theotokos*, meaning the mother of god. He believed that Jesus had two parts, one human and one divine. This belief, now called Nestorianism, was different to those held by Cyril of Alexandria, who said that Jesus was both man and god at once. Nestorius said that Cyril was a heretic. At the Council of Ephesus he wanted Cyril charged with heresy. Most of the bishops who agreed with Nestorius came from the eastern churches, and did not arrive at the council meeting before the decision was made. Most of the bishops who were at the meeting agreed with Cyril, and Nestorius was removed from his position as archbishop and sent into exile in Egypt. 

In the east, the churches still supported Nestorius, and did not accept his removal. As a result, they set up their own group of churches, known as the Assyrian Church of the East, in Persia.
A fragment of a wall block.  
 
The hieroglyphs 'Son of Ra' are over the cartouche of the birth-name of Thutmos III. 18th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London
**Thutmose III**  (Thutmose means "Thoth is born") was the sixth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. 

Thutmose III was pharaoh in name for almost 54 years (24 April 1479 BC to 11 March 1425 BC) from the age of two and until his death at age fifty-six. 

For the first 22 years of his reign, he was coregent with his stepmother and aunt, Hatshepsut. She was also pharaoh, and probably the actual ruler for the first part of his reign. During the final two years of his reign, he appointed his son and successor, Amenhotep II, as his junior co-regent. His firstborn son and heir to the throne, Amenemhat, died before Thutmose III.

As the sole ruler of the kingdom after the deaths of Thutmose II and Hatshepsut, he created the largest empire Egypt ever had. 17 campaigns were conducted. He conquered lands from the Niya Kingdom in northern Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia.

Whether the Egyptian empire covered even more areas is less specific. Earlier Egyptologists, most recently Ed. Meyer believed that Thutmose had also subjugated the islands of the Aegean Sea. This can no longer be upheld today. Conquest of Mesopotamia is unthinkable; whether tribute sent from Alashia Cyprus was more than occasional gifts

When Thutmose III died, he was buried in the Valley of the Kings. Other kings from this period in Egypt were also buried there.
This is a Korean name; the family name is *Lee*.
**Lee Myung-bak** (pronounced /ˌliː ˌmjɜŋˈbak/) Hangul: 이명박; born 19 December 1941) was President of South Korea from 2008 to 2013. He was the CEO of Hyundai Engineering and Construction. In 2002 Lee declared his candidacy for Seoul Mayor, and won the election. After he became president, he said, "I will give Seoul a complete makeover." He was elected the President of South Korea on 19 December 2007. This was the same day as his birthday. It was also the same day he married his wife, Kim Yoon-ok. So, on their 37th wedding anniversary and his 67th birthday, Lee became President of South Korea. He finished his service in February 2013. Lee has three daughters and one son.

Lee Myung-bak was born on December 19, 1941 in Japan. After the end of World War II in 1945, his family came back to his father's hometown Pohang, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea. Lee went to night school at Dongji Commercial High School.

On March 26, 2010 an explosion destroyed the South Korean warship Cheonan. This killed 40 men. Six men also disappeared. They are thought to be dead. An investigation into the sinking blamed North Korea. They said that a torpedo fired by a North Korean submarine had sunk the ship. North Korea said it had nothing to do with the Cheonan's sinking. They said they were not guilty. Lee said their denial was "laughable". He stopped all trade between the north and south. He also asked the United Nations to help them against North Korea. He also began sending radio messages to North Korean people.

Lee Myung-bak is a Christian and goes to the Somang Presbyterian church. When he was a mayor, he once declared that Seoul was a "holy place governed by God". He has been much criticized for his beliefs. Buddhist people protested that Lee was a threat to their religion.

Lee has also been criticized for not giving enough political freedom to the people. For example, the police limited demonstrations. But Lee said, "I fully understand the protestors' point of view on the matter". He added, "Protesting culture has a deep root in democracy of Korea and despite the ongoing political upheaval of this country, the enthusiasm that the protesters showed is one side ... we embrace (approve) and this will ... be a positive (good) drive of Korea's development."

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Lee Myung-bak at Wikimedia Commons
* "Official Website". *english.president.go.kr*. Archived from the original on 20 February 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
**David Livingstone** (19 March 1813 – 4 May 1873) was a Scottish medical missionary with the London Missionary Society. He wanted to be a missionary, but he could not get many people to convert to Christian beliefs, so instead, he explored and charted much of southern and eastern Africa. He gave the Victoria Falls their name. He named them after his queen, Queen Victoria.

In Africa
---------

As an explorer, Livingstone had some advantages. He usually travelled lightly, and he was able to reassure chiefs that he was not a threat. Other expeditions had many soldiers armed with rifles, and even more people hired to carry supplies. They were often seen as military incursions or were mistaken for slave-raiding parties. Livingstone travelled on most of his journeys with a few servants and porters, bartering for supplies along the way. He only had a couple of guns for protection. He preached a Christian message but did not force it on unwilling ears. He understood the ways of local chiefs, and got permission to go through their territory. He was often hospitably received and aided, even by Mwata Kazembe.

Livingstone believed in trade, and wanted to see Christian missions established in central Africa. His motto on the base of the statue dedicated to him at Victoria Falls, was "Christianity, Commerce and Civilization". The reason he emphasised these three was that they would form an alternative to the slave trade, which was still rampant in Africa at that time. It would give the Africans some dignity when they met Europeans. The abolition of the African slave trade was his main hope. Around this time he believed the key to achieving these goals was the navigation of the Zambezi River as a Christian commercial highway into the interior. He returned to Britain to try to get support for his ideas, and to publish a book on his travels. The book brought him fame as one of the leading explorers of the age.

Livingstone died near a lake, in what is now Zambia.

The journeys of Livingstone in Africa between 1851 and 1873

Works
-----

* Livingstone, David (1905) [1857]. *Journeys in South Africa, or travels and researches in South Africa*. London: Amalgamated Press.
* Livingstone, David and Waller, Horace (ed) 1874. *The last journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to his death*. Two volumes, London: John Murray.

Sources
-------

* Holmes, Timothy 1993. *Journey to Livingstone: exploration of an imperial myth*. Edinburgh: Canongate Press. ISBN 978-0-86241-402-3; scholarly biography
* Jeal, Tim 1973. *Livingstone*. London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-37208-0

Other websites
--------------

* Wikisource logo Works written by or about David Livingstone at Wikisource
* Works by David Livingstone at Project Gutenberg
* A brief biography of David Livingstone
**Midwestern Career College** (MCC) is a junior college in Illinois offering various associates degrees, certification in certain auxiliary medical fields, and courses in English as a Second Language. It has campuses in Chicago, Naperville and Evergreen Park.

Academics
---------

The college grants associates of applied science degrees in three business-related areas, one information technology area, and five medical-related areas. It also has programs leading to certification in multiple specialties relating to medicine. The school offers English language training for foreign students, including a program specifically for healthcare professionals.

Accreditation and approvals
---------------------------

Midwestern Career College is approved by the following accrediting bodies: 

* Division of Private Business and Vocational Schools of the Illinois Board of Higher Education (IBHE).
* Illinois Board of Higher Education (IBHE) to operate and to grant certain Associate of Applied Science degrees.
* Accredited by the Commission of the Council on Occupational Education.

Other websites
--------------

* Official website
***Stegastes variabilis***, commonly known as the **Brazilian cocoa damselfish**, is a species of damselfish in the family Pomacentridae. They live on coral reefs in the western Atlantic Ocean and off the coast of Brazil. They normally do not live with other fish.

Taxonomy
--------

The genus name is Greek for *stegastos.* It means covered. In the past, the Caribbean cocoa damselfish was believed to be in the same species as the Brazilian cocoa damselfish, This is not true, the population from the Caribbean is genetically different.

Description
-----------

The Brazilian cocoa damselfish is in the shape of an oval that is pressed in at the sides. It grows to about 12.5 cm (4.9 in) long. The top of the head and the snout have many blue stripes. The top of the body is generally dark brown, blue or brown. It has shades to yellow on the lower body. The sides have bars of vertical dark lines. They have two small black spots on their bodies. One is above the pectoral fins. The other on the top of the caudal peduncle. The large dorsal fin has twelve spines and between fourteen and seventeen soft rays. The anal fin has two spines and between twelve and fifteen soft rays. The caudal fin is forked and has rounded lobes.

Distribution and habitat
------------------------

Brazilian cocoa damselfish are found near Brazil in the western Atlantic Ocean. They do not migrate. These fish have a depth range of 0–30 m (0–98 ft).

Ecology and behaviour
---------------------

### Feeding

Adults mainly eat benthic algae. They also eat sponges, ascidiacea and anemones. The young of the species eat invertebrates such as harpacticoid copepods and nemerteans.

### Breeding

In the breeding season, the female lays eggs on the seabed. The eggs attached to empty shells, stones or other objects. They are then fertilized by the male. He then guards them, aerates them and chases away intruders. The fish are aggressive when they are breeding. There is also a distinct pairing during the breeding.
Image from Howe's Historical Collection
**John "Johnny Appleseed" Chapman** (September 26, 1774 - March 11, 1847) is an American folk hero. He was a Christian missionary and pioneer. His nickname came from the fact that he planted apple trees throughout the American Midwest. Many people consider him an early conservationist or "tree-hugger". He wandered the country, usually barefoot, and with a cooking pot on his head for most of his adult life, planting apple trees, teaching the Bible, telling stories, and befriending Native Americans, wild animals, and other settlers. Many stories have been told about him and his journeys, as well as art, books, and later movies, which makes him a folk hero. He was born in Leominster, Massachusetts and is buried in Johnny Appleseed Park in Fort Wayne, Indiana.

Facts
-----

John Chapman is said to have been in the Wilkes-Barre region some time in the 1790s, practicing his profession as a nurseryman, but just when he embraced the Swedenborgian faith and began his missionary activities we cannot be sure, though it is probable that it was before he ever reached western Pennsylvania. There are some early accounts of John speaking of his own activities as "a Bible missionary" on the Potomac when he was a young man, and Johnny was seen for two or three consecutive years along the banks of the Potomac in eastern Virginia, picking the seeds from the pomace of the cider mills in the late 1790s.The apple seeds that Johnny obtained were free, as the cider mills wanted there to be more apple trees planted to improve their business.

At the time of his death, Johnny Appleseed left an estate of more than 1,200 acres of nurseries, and he left these to his sister. He additionally had four plots located in Allen County, Indiana, which was a nursery that included 15,000 trees. 

Records show that John Chapman appeared on Licking Creek, in what is now Licking County, Ohio, in 1800, when he was twenty-six years old. He had probably come up the Muskingum River to plant near the Refugee Tract, which would soon fill up with settlers, when Congress actually got around to granting the lands. In April, 1798, the Continental Congress had ratified resolutions to donate public lands for the benefit of those who had left Canada and Nova Scotia to fight against the British in the Revolutionary War. The lands were actually set apart in 1801 and patents issued in 1802. Grants of land ranging from 160 acres to 2,240 acres were awarded according to the exertions of the patentee in the War. Johnny, with true Yankee enterprise, went ahead and planted his nurseries before the refugees arrived. Licking County, then a part of Fairfield, contained only three white families. By the time families were ready to settle the area, Johnny's tracts of land were ready for market.

Other websites
--------------

* Archived 2011-02-08 at the Wayback Machine
Crab in action on a sea urchin
**Crabs** are a form of decapods (having eight walking legs and two grasping claws), along with lobsters, crayfish and shrimps. Crabs form an order within the decapods, called the Brachyura. Their short body is covered by a thick exoskeleton.

They are an extremely successful group, found all over the world. They are basically heavily armored shell-breakers. Most crabs live in sea-water, but there are some who live in fresh water, and some who live on land. The smallest are the size of a pea; the largest (the Japanese spider crab) grows to a leg span of 4 metres. About 7,000 species are known.

Structure and life-style
------------------------

### Body

Crabs have short tails. A crab's tail and reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax. It is folded under its body, and may not be visible at all unless the crab is turned over. Usually they have a very hard exoskeleton. This means they are well protected against predators. Crabs are armed with a single pair of claws. Crabs can be found in all oceans. Some crabs also live in fresh water, or live completely on land.

### Pincers

Anatomical drawing of crab, labeling walking legs, carapace, eye, antenna, rostrum chelipeds, propodus, carpus, and merusAnatomy of a *fiddler crab*
The pincers (claws) of crabs are their most important weapons. They have at least three functions. The pincers' role in eating is to seize and subdue the prey. If the food is a shellfish (mollusc), then the pincers can exert force to open or break the mollusks shell. Pincers are also used in fighting between males, and for signalling to other crabs.

### Food

Crabs are omnivores, they eat almost anything they find. Often this is algae, but animal food is essential for its good health and development. They will eat molluscs, other crustaceans, worms, fungi and bacteria.

Crabs as food
-------------

Crabs are prepared and eaten all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species just the claws and/or legs are eaten. In some regions spices improve the culinary experience. In Asia, Masala Crab and Chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the United States state of Maryland, blue crab is often eaten with Old Bay Seasoning.

For the British dish *Cromer crab*, the meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding a flour mix, creating a crab cake. Crabs are also used in *bisque*, a French soup.

Evolution
---------

True crabs appear in the fossil record in the Lower Jurassic. They are part of the 'Mesozoic marine revolution', in which a number of sea-floor predators evolved.

### Tailpiece

The closest relatives of the crabs are anomurans, a crustacean group which includes animals such as hermit crabs, king crabs and squat lobsters. They look a lot like crabs and many have the word 'crab' in their name, but are not true crabs. Anomurans can be told apart by the number of legs: crabs have eight legs, along with two claws or pincers, while the last pair of an anomuran's legs is hidden inside the shell, so that only six are visible.
Father **Juan Crespí** (March 1, 1721–January 1, 1782) was a Spanish priest who explored what is now the state of California. He entered the Franciscan order at the age of seventeen. He came to America in 1749, and joined Francisco Palóu and Junípero Serra in exploring. In 1767 he went to the Baja Peninsula and was placed in charge of the Misión La Purísima Concepción de Cadegomó. In 1769 he joined the Portola expedition of Gaspar de Portolà and traveled by land, while Father Serra went by boat and got there 8 days later to occupy Monterey; he was the first to write about Franciscan friars meeting with people who already lived there. Later, he went through the area known today as Ventura County, in January and Orange County on July 22 of that year. He was priest of the expedition to the North Pacific led by Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774. His diaries, first published in H. E. Bolton's *Fray Juan Crespi* (1927, repr. 1971), and published in the original Spanish with facing page translations as *A Description of Distant Roads: Original Journals of the First Expedition into California, 1796-1770* (2001) provided valuable records of these expeditions. One chapel he built, at the Misión San Francisco del Valle de Tilaco in Landa, is reported as still standing.

Other websites
--------------

* Juan Crespi at Find a Grave
The People's Republic of China claims that the island of Taiwan is part of its territory, but the Republic of China (which was the government that controlled all of China from 1911 to 1949) still claims the land as theirs, and does still control Taiwan.

See also: Political status of Taiwan
Many people say the government stops people from having freedom of speech, freedom of religion and other political rights that people in other countries have. China still has one-party rule, and is not a democracy.

Territorial disputes
--------------------

The following territories are claimed by China (PRC and/or ROC) and by another country or more.

* Diaoyu Islands (with Japan)
* Nansha Archipelago (with Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines)
* Xisha Archipelago (with Republic of China and Vietnam)
* South Tibet - parts of Arunachal Pradesh (with Republic of India)
* Aksai Chin - part of Kashmir (with Republic of India)

Lost territories (Unequal treaties)
-----------------------------------

Unequal treaties were forced onto Asian countries when European imperialism reached Asia. 
The list includes claims from PRC and ROC, as well as unofficial historical claims.
*Note: Japan's and Korea's unequal treaties have been resolved since the end of WWII.*

* Mongolia (lost to independence)
* Tuva (lost to Russian Empire)
* Outer Manchuria (lost to Russian Empire)
* Kyrgyzstan (lost to Russian Empire)
* parts of Kazakhstan (lost to Russian Empire)
* parts of Myanmar (lost to British Empire)
* Bhutan (lost to British Empire)
* Hong Kong (lost to British Empire) (returned to PRC with effect from 1 July 1997 under the Sino-British Joint Declaration)
* Macau (lost to Portugal) (transferred to PRC on 20 December 1999)
* Tonkin & Northern Annam (lost to France)
* Ryukyu Islands (lost to Japanese Empire)

Related pages
-------------

* 1989 Tiananmen Square protests
* List of Chinese dissidents
* Movies banned in China
* Websites blocked in China
* Falun Gong