recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**André Glucksmann** (French: [ɡlyksman]; 19 June 1937 – 10 November 2015) was a French philosopher, activist and writer. He was a member of the French new philosophers.

Early life
----------

Glucksmann was born in Boulogne-Billancourt, France to a Jewish family. He studied at the École normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud in Lyon, France.

Career
------

Glucksmann became well-known during the 1970s for his support of the Vietnamese boat people. He was an outspoken critic of Nazism and communism.

Later in life, he was known for his views and beliefs of the September 11 attacks. He wrote a book about how god had nothing to do with the 9/11 attacks called *Dostoyevsky in Manhattan*. Glucksmann supported military action in Afghanistan and Iraq. He was highly critical of Russian foreign policy, supporting a call for Chechen independence.

In August 2008 he co-signed an open letter with Václav Havel, Desmond Tutu, and Wei Jingsheng calling upon the Chinese authorities to respect human rights both during and after the Beijing Olympic Games.

Death
-----

Glucksmann died of cancer on 10 November 2015 in Paris, France, aged 78.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***André Glucksmann***.

 Quotations related to André Glucksmann at Wikiquote

* André Glucksmann on IMDb
* Philosopher André Glucksmann: A Dark Vision of the Future of Europe

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Typical Dior evening gown, date unknown but circa 1950.
Dior's house in Granville, now a museum.
Marlene Dietrich in Alfred Hitchcock's *Stage Fright*, 1950. Dress by Dior.
**Christian Dior** (Granville, Manche, Basse-Normandie, 21 January 1905 – Montecatini, Italy, 24 October 1957), was the leading French fashion designer of the post-war world. He was the founder of one of the world's top fashion houses, the *House of Dior* (now *Christian Dior*).

Career
------

During the German occupation of France in World War II, Christian Dior dressed up the wives of Nazi officers and French collaborators. On 8 October 1946 he founded his own fashion house, backed by Marcel Boussac, which became the cotton-fabric magnate.

### The New Look

For his first collection, in early 1947, the phrase *The New Look* was coined by *Harper's Bazaar*, the fashion monthly. Dior's designs were more voluptuous than the economy shapes of World War II, when fabric was rationed.

Dior was a master at creating shapes and silhouettes; he said "I have designed flower women". His look employed fabrics lined with percale (a closely woven plain-weave fabric), boned, bustier-style bodices, hip padding, wasp-waisted corsets and petticoats. This made his dresses flare out from the waist, giving his models a very curvaceous look. 

Some women protested, because his designs covered up their legs, which they did not want during wartime. There was also criticism of Dior's designs, which used a lot of fabric. Opposition ceased as soon as wartime shortages ended. The New Look revolutionized women's dress and reestablished Paris as the center of the fashion world.

### A-line

The term was first used by Dior as the label for his collection of spring 1955. The A-Line collection's feature item, then the "most wanted silhouette in Paris", was a "fingertip-length flared jacket worn over a dress with a very full, pleated skirt". Evening dresses at this time were always worn with petticoats.

Although an A-shape, this silhouette was not identical to what is now understood to embody the A-line idea. That idea was given its definitive expression and popularized by Dior’s successor, Yves Saint Laurent, with his "Trapeze Line" of spring 1958, which featured dresses flaring out dramatically from a fitted shoulder line.

A-line clothes remained popular in the 1960s and 70s, disappeared from fashion almost completely by the early 1980s and were revived by the retro trend of the late 1990s. By that time, 'A-line' was used more loosely to describe any dress wider at the hips than at the bust or waist, as well as a number of flared skirt styles. 'True' A-line shapes on the pattern of Dior and Saint Laurent saw a revival in the early 2000s.
**Punta La Marmora** (Sardinian: *Perdas Carpìas*) is a mountain in the Gennargentu range, Sardinia (Italy).

Name
----

The mountain is named after Alberto della Marmora, an Italian geographer and naturalist who described the island in two works: *Voyage en Sardaigne* (1826) and *Itinéraire de l'île de Sardaigne* (1860).

The name of the mountain, in the Sardinian language, was *Perdas Carpìas*, which means "split stones" because of its rocks of schist which tend to break into pieces.

Geography
---------

The Punta La Marmorea is in the communes of Desulo and Arzana (province of Nuoro), in the *Barbagia* mountain area of inner Sardinia. With its summit at an elevation of 1,834 m (6,017 ft), it is the highest peak on the Sardinia island.

Near Punta La Marmorea, there are other high mountains as *Bruncu Spina* that, with an elevation of 1,829 m (6,001 ft), is the second highest point of Sardinia. They are part of the Gennargentu National Park.

The mountain is formed by metamorphic rocks, mainly shales, from Paleozoic era.

Punta La Marmora is just east of the approximate centre of Sardinia. On a clear day, it is possible to view from the top over a large part of Sardinia and the mountains of southern Corsica.

### Climate

Snowfalls are frequent in winter, usually with an average depth over 2 m (6.6 ft) of snow. Snowfalls are stronger in January and February.

The wind on the summit can reach up to 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph).

Hiking
------

The summit is reached by hiking. The easiest route is from the *Bruncu Spina* mountain where there are ski lifts to get to the top; from there, it is easy to get to the five highest summits of Sardinia, including Punta La Marmora.

Related pages
-------------

* List of Italian regions by highest point

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Punta La Marmora***.

* Europe Ultra-Prominences
**Erich Probst** (5 December 1927 – 16 March 1988) was an Austrian footballer.He played as striker for different teams in Vienna and also abroad.

Career
------

He started with Admira Wien being only 17 years old. After a year with Vienna he signed with SK Rapid Wien. In this time he won the Austrian Championship four times. In his first season with Rapid he scored 28 goals in 23 matches. Although he was always a top scorer he never shot the highest number of goals in the league.

After his time with Rapid he went to Wuppertaler SV in Germany. After the relegation of Wuppertal he went on to Switzerland playing for FC Zürich. In winter 1959 he came back to Austria to SV Austria Salzburg. The club paid 90 000 Austrian schillings, which was the highest till this time. He shot 15 goals and the team could stay in the top league. During his time with Salzburg he played his last match in the national football team. He was the first player of SV Austria Salzburg who ever played for the team.

In the 1960/61 season he was coach of SV Austria but not successful. So he went on to play as striker again. His last clubs were the SAK 1914 in Salzburg and First Vienna FC in Vienna. At all he scored 150 goals in Austrias top league.

International
-------------

He played 19 times for the Austrian national football team and scored 17 goals. His first match was on 27 May 1951 (4:0 versus Scotland) In the qualification match for the FIFA World Cup 1954 versus Portugal he scored 5 goals for the 9:1 win. He was member of the 1954 FIFA World Cup squad which reached the third place. During the tournament he scored six goals and was together with Max Morlock of Germany and Josef Hügi of Switzerland second in the scorer list. During his time abroad he was not player of the team. But in 1960 he played his last match versus France (2:4) where he also scored his last goal for the team. So he was the first national football team player coming from SV Austria Salzburg.

Honours
-------

* **Austrian Football Bundesliga (4):**
	+ 1951, 1952, 1954, 1956
* **Mitropa Cup (1):**
	+ 1951
* Member of the Austrian team for the 1954 FIFA World Cup

| Persondata |
| --- |
| Name | Probst, Erich |
| Alternative names |  |
| Short description | football player |
| Date of birth | 5 December 1927 |
| Place of birth | Vienna, Austria |
| Date of death | 16 March 1988 |
| Place of death |  |
**Nyan Cat** is a moving image on the internet which became famous. It has a cat with a Pop-Tart (a type of food) for a body flying through space, with a colourful rainbow behind it. There is also a song that you can hear when watching the moving image. Nyan Cat was the 5th most watched video on YouTube, the place that has the video, in the year 2011.

Origin
------

### Animated GIF

On April 2, 2011, a person named Christopher Torres put the moving picture, without the song, on his place in the internet. The place is called *LOL-comics*, and the picture is still there. Torres was making pictures, and two different people wanted him to make a cat and a piece of food. He combined the two to make a picture, and then made it a moving picture a few days later.

### The Song

The song was made using The Vocaloid Oliver from Vocaloid in Japan and put onto the internet.

### YouTube video

A YouTube user called "saraj00n"  put the moving picture together with the song and put it onto the internet on April 5, 2011. saraj00n called it "Nyan Cat". Torres wanted the cat to be called "Pop Tart Cat", but because of saraj00n now it's called "Nyan Cat".

Popularity
----------

The original moving picture that saraj00n put onto the internet was seen 90,000,000 times as of January 1, 2013[update]. It's very well known, so other people made their own Nyan Cats. People made songs for their phones, pictures for computers, and progress bars. There are also things for iPhones, Android phones,  Windows Phones, and HP webOS.
There is also a game about Nyan Cat called "Nyan Cat Adventure".
Nyan Cat was in ninth place in a contest for best moving picture on the internet in 2011 by Business Insider.

Other websites
--------------

* The first Nyan Cat moving picture on YouTube by saraj00n, April 5, 2011.
* Nyan Cat's place on the internet
**Fujita Toyohachi** (Kanji: 藤田豊八；Hiragana: ふじたとよはち) is a Japanese writer and professor in East Asian History. He lived from 1869 October 19 to 1929 July 15. He is from Tokushima Prefecture. His (Chinese) pen name name was Jianfeng / Kenfou (劍峰).

He founded a school in Jiangsu, China. He was a teacher at Beijing University (the Imperial University, 京師大學堂), author of Secondary Education East Asian history《中等教育東洋史》and Research on the History of East-West Interactions《東西交涉史之研究（東西交渉史の研究）》。

He collected over 1700 Chinese books. After he died, those were sent to the Toyo Bunko (東洋文庫) and put into a section called Fujita's library「藤田文庫」。

Life
----

In 1869, Fujita was born in Awa Province (Tokushima).

In 1895 he graduated from the University of Tokyo Liberal arts school with a degree in Chinese language studies.

After that he taught the history of Chinese literature at Waseda University, Toyo University, and other schools

In 1896, he cofounded the Dongya Xueyuan (東亞學院, East Asia College) with Oyanagi Shigeta and others. Fujita also founded the journal "Jiangsu Wenxue"《江湖文學》(Jiangsu Literature).

In 1897 he visited Shanghai.

In 1898 he helped create the Dongwen Xueshe (東文學社, East Asian literature society) with Luo Zhenyu.

After 1904 Cen Chunxuan (岑春煊) governor of Guangxi and Guangdong asked Fujita to help with education.

In 1905, he also helped create Suzhou high school (江苏师范学堂). He invited more than 10 teachers from Japan. The Qing dynasty then awarded him a medal. In 1909 Fujita became a professor at the prestigious Beijing University.

In 1912, Japan returned to Japan. He lived in Tokyo and researched the history of east–west interactions. In 1920 he got a PhD in literature.

In 1923 he was professor at Waseda University. He taught the history of east–west sea transportation and the history of the Western regions (China, Xiyu, modern day Xinjiang).

In 1925 he became professor at the imperial Tokyo University and first lecturer on East Asian history.

In 1928 he became a professor and Minister of culture and politics at Taibei Imperial University (臺北帝國大學). In May 1929 he returned to Tokyo to give a lecture on the history of the Xiyu again. But in July he died of kidney failure.

Works
-----

* 東洋史　文学社, 1896－97
* 先秦文学 支那文学史稿 東華堂, 1897
* 東洋歴史物語 アルス (日本児童文庫), 1929
* 東西交渉史の研究 南海篇 岡書院, 1932
* 東西交渉の研究 巻上・下(南海篇,西域篇及附篇) 萩原星文館, 1943

Citations
---------

1. 1 2 3 4 5 6  *《臺灣歷史辭典》*. 臺北市: 遠流. 2004-05-18. pp. 1336、1337頁. ISBN 957-01-7430-7.
**Ancient Greek** was an Indo-European language spoken in Ancient Greece from about 1500 BC to about 300 BC. Ancient Greek and Latin are very important languages. Although they are no longer spoken, they influenced almost all modern European languages.

Greek had many different dialects. Attic Greek was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and the rest of the region of Attica. It was thought to be the purest form of Greek. Later, in the educated Roman world, children were taught Greek as a second language, just as many people now learn English as their second language. **Koine Greek** was the common language of Greeks. It was Attic Greek mixed with several other dialects.

Homer spoke and wrote in an old dialect that was somewhat different from Attic Greek. The *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* are long poems that tell exciting stories about warfare, travel and the Greek gods. In the 5th century BC, some great plays were written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The Golden Age of Ancient Greece inspired literature that has been read for centuries.

Attic Greek
-----------

**Attic Greek** was the dialect that was spoken in Athens and the rest of the region of Attica. It was the dialect most similar to later forms of Greek since it was the standard form of the language. It is studied in Ancient Greek courses because it was the most common dialect.

Changes
-------

All languages change with time, and Greek has changed a great deal over 2500 years. Modern Greek is often said to have started in 1453 AD after Mediedval Greek was spoken.

Unlike Latin, Ancient Greek did not split into many languages, but it is still considered to be a separate language from Modern Greek. The pronunciation has changed; for instance, beta was pronounced "b" in Ancient Greek, but it is pronounced "v" and is called "vita" in Modern Greek. The spelling has not changed much, which gives the appearance of less change than has actually happened. Also, many different vowels and diphthongs merged into "i", the vowel sound in the English word "ski". The tonal system of Ancient Greek has disappeared, but Modern Greek had only recently changed its spelling to match that change.

Despite those changes, much of the language has remarkably survived intact through the centuries. There is a community near Trabzon, Turkey, that speaks a dialect that is closer to Ancient Greek than to Standard Modern Greek.

Beginning of Homer's *Odyssey*

Related pages
-------------

* Greek alphabet
* Greek language
**Christopher Dominic Ahearne** CMG (1886 – 1964) was a colonial administrator. He was a cadet in Straits Settlement Government service in 1910. He was later the Federal Secretary of the Federated Malay States (FMS) in 1936.

Life
----

### Early career

Ahearne was a cadet in Straits Settlement Government service in 1910.
Then he was attached to the Indian Immigrant Department in Penang.
He was appointed as District Officer (Balik Pulau) in 1911. He was also appointed as the District Officer of Balik Pulau in 1916.
In addition, he held several posts of 2nd Assistant Superintendent of Immigrant (Klang and Kuala Lumpur), Assistant Controller of Labour (Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Klang) in 1913 and 1914.
He was Assistant Adviser (Batu Pahut, Johore) in 1919. In 1923 as Second Magistrate in Singapore, Deputy Controller of Labour (Kuala Lumpur) and Deputy Controller of Labour (Penang).

### Duties at the Indian Immigration Committee

In 1925, he was on special duty for Indian Immigration Committee in connection with the Avadi Water Supply and Drainage.
He went to Assam to investigate labour condition in British India.

### Since the 1930s

He was the Controller of Labour for Malaya in 1930.
In 1931, he led the Straits Settlements Delegation to the International Shipping Conference held in Simila.
During the slump, he was the chairman of the Straits Settlements Retrenchment Committee.
In 1933, he led a Malayan delegation to New Delhi to discuss on the immigration questions with the Indian Government.
He was appointed as first Federal Secretary of the Federated Malay States in 1936 to 1939, created by Sir Cecil Clementi.

Honours
-------

Ahearne was appointed Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George (CMG) in 1939.
**Frank Benedict Gerdelman** (born August 4, 1977) is an American professional wrestler. He currently wrestles for Impact Wrestling and competes under the ring name **Frankie Kazarian**.

He is also known for his time wrestling in Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), Ring of Honor (ROH), Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), and All Elite Wrestling (AEW). He was known for his team with Christopher Daniels and Scorpio Sky called Bad Influence (later SoCal Uncensored) .

During his time in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling/Impact Wrestling, Kazarian has been a five-time TNA/Impact X Division Champion and three-time TNA World Tag Team Champion.

Career
------

### All Elite Wrestling

On January 8, 2019, Kazarian signed a contract with All Elite Wrestling (AEW).

Kazarian would enter a tournament along with Scorpio Sky to crown the first AEW World Tag Team Champions. Sky replaced Kazarian's original partner Christopher Daniels after Daniels was attacked by the Lucha Brothers before a match.

They would defeat Best Friends (Trent? and Chuck Taylor) on the October 16 episode of *Dynamite* and The Dark Order (Evil Uno and Stu Grayson) on the October 23 episode of *Dynamite*. On the October 30 episode of *Dynamite*, Kazarian and Sky would defeat the Lucha Brothers (Pentagón Jr. and Fénix) in the finals to become the first AEW World Tag Team Champions. This was Kazarian's first championship in AEW. They would lose the tag titles to Kenny Omega and "Hangman" Adam Page at Chris Jericho's Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager at Sea Part Deux: Second Wave. Sky would leave the team to focus more on singles matches after the loss. Kazarian would go back to teaming with Daniels afterwards. He would team with Sky again for one night when they face FTR (Dax Harwood and Cash Wheeler) for the AEW World Tag Team Championships on the September 30 episode of *Dynamite* but lost.

When teaming with Daniels, Kazarian would cut a promo and say that the tag team would break up the next time that they lost. They would earn a shot at AEW World Tag Team Championships but they ended up losing to The Young Bucks on the May 12 episode of *Dynamite* and had to split up as a tag team.

At the Impact Wrestling pay-per-view Hard To Kill, Kazarian cut a promo and said that he asked to be released from his contract with AEW and wanted to return to Impact Wrestling.

On December 26, 2022, Kazarian had his last match in AEW. He faced Konosuke Takeshita and lost.

### Impact Wrestling

On July 29, 2021, Kazarian would make his return to Impact Wrestling, having originally worked there when it was called Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA).

Other websites
--------------

* Impact Wrestling profile
* Frankie Kazarian on Twitter


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Frankie Kazarian***.
**Algonquin Provincial Park** is a provincial park in Canada. It is the oldest provincial park in the province of Ontario, opened in 1893. It is very large at 7,653 square kilometres (2,955 square miles), and is the third largest provincial park in Ontario after Polar Bear and Wabakimi. The park contains many streams, lakes, rivers, and other water sources. Its forests are a mix of deciduous and coniferous. The variety of environments in the park makes it home to many species of plants and animals, and it is an important park for wildlife research. It is a very popular park with campers because of its size and how close it is to large cities such as Toronto and Ottawa.

In 1992 Algonquin Park became a National Historic Site of Canada.

History
-------

Algonquin Park started as a logging area, where people would come to cut down trees. A group of loggers wanted to make the area a park because of how beautiful it was and to protect the animals that lived there. In 1892 a request was made by five members of the government asking for a park to be opened on the land. The next year in 1893 the park was officially made. It was the first provincial park in Ontario, but when it was opened it was called a national park. It was changed to a provincial park in 1913.

In 1896 a railway was built on the park. In 1898 cottages, lodges and camps started being sold to tourists, and in 1908 the first hotel in the park was built. The hotel was very popular. After that hotel opened others started being built.

Activities
----------

The park is a very popular place for outdoor activities all year. Many people camp in campgrounds on the park. Fishing, hiking, horse riding and canoeing are other popular things to do. In winter people skate on the lakes, and the park opens their own skating rink.

There is also a museum, called the Algonquin Logging Museum, on the park. This museum tells people about the history of the park as well as the logging that happens today. There is a book store, exhibits with information about the park and a remade version of a logging camp from the late 1800s.
**American Airlines Flight 96** was a flight operated by American Airlines. The flight was operated with a McDonnell Douglas DC-10. On 12 June 1972, the flight went into explosive decompression after a cargo door was blown out from the airplane. This incident occurred near the city of Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Because the incident occurred near the city, this incident is sometimes referred to as the **Windsor Incident**.

The incident was caused because of the cargo door. The cargo door was blown out of the plane because the locks of the cargo door failed. When the locks failed, the cargo door blew out and caused rapid decompression in the cargo area of the airplane. This caused the collapse of part of the passenger section of the airplane, which in turn led to some problems with the plane. The rudder of the airplane was jammed to the right, and cable controls to the second engine were separated. Luckily, no hydraulics were broken. Despite having little control of the airplane, Captain Bryce McCormick was successful in landing the airplane at Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport. After the incident, McDonnell Douglas, the maker of the aircraft, made minor changes to the locks of the cargo door. These changes would prove to be not successful with the crash of Turkish Airlines Flight 981. The crash was caused by exactly the same reason as this incident.

Related pages
-------------

* Turkish Airlines Flight 981
A specimen of Proto-Sinaitic script containing a phrase which may mean 'to Ba'alat'. The line running from the upper left to lower right may read *mt l bclt*.
**Proto-Sinaitic** is a Middle Bronze Age script. It is known only from a few inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai Peninsula. 

Because there are so few Proto-Sinaitic signs, little is known with certainty about the nature of the script. The script co-existed with Egyptian hieroglyphs, so it is likely that it represented true writing, but this is not certain. From the shape of the signs, Proto-Sinaitic may be an alphabet, and the ancestor of the Phoenician alphabet, from which nearly all modern alphabets descend.

There have been two major discoveries of inscriptions of the Proto-Sinaitic script. The first was in the winter of 1904–1905 in Sinai by Hilda and Flinders Petrie, dated to circa 1700–1400 BC. The second find was more recently in 1999 in Middle Egypt by John and Deborah Darnell. This is dated to the 18th century BC.

Possible correspondences between Proto-Sinaitic and Phoenician| Proto-Sinaitic | Phoenician | Phoen. value | Phoen. name | Hebrew | Greek | Brahmi | Latin | Cyrillic | Arabic |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | *ʼ* | ʾalp "ox" | א | Α |  | A | А | ا‎ |
|  |  | *b* | bet "house" | ב | Β |  | B | Б, В | ب‎ |
|  |  | *k* | kaf "palm" | כ | Κ |  | K | К | ك‎ |
|  |  | *m* | mem "water" | מ | Μ |  | M | М | م‎ |
|  |  | *ʻ* | ʿen "eye" | ע | Ο |  ? | O | О | ع‎ |
|  |  | *r* | roʾš "head" | ר | Ρ |  | R | Р | ر‎ |
See also: History of the United States § Colonial America
British colonies in continental North America (red) and the island colonies of the British West Indies of the Caribbean Sea (pink), after the French and Indian War (1754–1763) and before the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)
British North America in 1747
British North America in 1775; the Thirteen Colonies are shown in red
**British North America** was the British-owned part of the continent of North America. This term was mostly used before the American Revolution. 

In 1759, after winning the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, Britain took control of the colony of New France. After this, British North America also included New France. 

The term "British North America" was used after the 1783 Treaty of Paris. This ended the American Revolutionary War, and said Great Britain's Thirteen Colonies were independent.

That formed the United States of America. The terms British America and British North America continued to be used for Britain's remaining territories in North America. The term "British North America" came to be used more consistently for the provinces that would eventually form the Dominion of Canada. 

After the American Revolution, some people still used the term to refer to what is now the country of Canada. In fact, the Canadian Constitution was first called the "British North America Act 1867".

Also note that the areas beyond the first American states were not at first part of the United States. For example, areas near the Mississippi were not part of the original United States. They kept their old allegiances to England or France. And, of course, what are now the western states were largely Spanish-speaking until the later United States took them by force. Lastly, the division of North America into a lower part called the United States, and a northern part, called Canada, lay in the future.

Sources
-------

* Cooke, Jacob E. 1993. *Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies*. (3 vols)
* Foster, Stephen, ed. 2014. *British North America in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries* (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion).
* Garner, John. 1969. *The franchise and politics in British North America, 1755–1867* (U of Toronto Press)
* Gipson, Lawrence Henry. 1936–70. *The British Empire before the American Revolution* (15 vols)
* Morton W.L. 1969. *The Kingdom of Canada: a general history from earliest times*.
**Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier** (21 March 1768 – 30 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist. He is best known for starting the investigation of Fourier series. He used them for work on problems of heat flow. Fourier also helped the discovery of the greenhouse effect, by suggesting the atmosphere might act as an insulator.

Life
----

Fourier was born at Auxerre as the son of a tailor. He lost both his parents at the age of 9. He then went on to study at the Convent of St Mark.

He joined the military academy in Auxerre. Aged sixteen, he became a teacher. At age 26, he entered the École normale supérieure in Paris. People like Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Gaspard Monge, and Pierre-Simon de Laplace were among his teachers.

He took part in the French Revolution of 1789. During the Reign of Terror he was almost executed at the guillotine, but the death of Robespierre saved him this fate. He later took part in the French campaign in Egypt and Syria.

Later, as a diplomat, he is put in charge of the scientific background of the Institut d'Égypte. On his return, Napoleon put him in charge of the Isère department.

In 1810, Fourier created the university in Grenoble, and becomes its first head. In 1817, Fourier became a Member of the Académie des Sciences. On the death of Jean-Baptiste Joseph Delambre in 1822 he became head of the mathematics section. In 1826, Fourier was elected to the Académie française.

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Joseph Fourier at Wikimedia Commons

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Classic turning movement. Part of blue force, using the terrain to hide their movement, is attempting to "turn" the red force. The red force has to move to avoid being attacked from two directions
A **turning movement** , also called a **wide envelopment** is a maneuver designed to pass around the enemy's front to strike a vital part of the enemy's rear. It is a military tactic where a command is divided into two parts. The first part holds the enemy from the front while the other part moves around to attack the enemy's rear or flank. Unlike an envelopment or a flanking maneuver, the two forces operate beyond the distance where they could usually support each other. It is often easier for an enemy force to avoid an envelopment than it is to avoid a turning movement. To counter a turning movement, the enemy must either abandon their position or turn to meet the new threat. The turning movement is a variation of the envelopment tactic. Another difference is that the turning movement often seeks to *avoid* enemy contact until they are deep in the enemy's rear. Faced with a new threat in his rear area, the enemy is "turned" out of his defensive position and forced to act.

Examples
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An early example of a turning movement was by Julius Caesar in 48 BC. One of Napoleon I of France's favorite tactics was the "Strategy of Indirect Approach" or the turning movement. One corps of his army would hold the enemy's attention while the main force would move behind the enemy in a wide circle. Ideally he would use the terrain to hide the turning movement. He used this to great effect during his 1805 Ulm Campaign. He repeated his success with this tactic at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806, and at the Battle of Friedland in 1807.

The famous "left hook" maneuver by American and French troops during Operation Desert Storm was another example of a turning movement. Paratroopers of the American 82nd Airborne Division in vehicles along with the French 6th Light Armoured Brigade moved up the flanks. At the same time the 101st Airborne Division made the largest helicopter assault in history in the rear of Saddam Hussein's Republican Guard to cut off their retreat.

Related pages
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* Envelopment
* Pincer movement (also called a double-envelopment)
* Flanking maneuver
* Rearguard
* Attrition warfare
* Feigned retreat
* Preemptive war
* Oblique order
* Shock tactics

Other websites
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* Top 5 Ancient Military Tactics
* 1990-91 Gulf War briefing General Norman Schwarzkopf part 2 (Left hook); YouTube
Entrance plaza at National Museum of Western Art.
*In this Japanese name, the family name is* Matsukata*.*
**Matsukata Kōjirō** (松方 幸次郎, January 17, 1865 - June 24, 1950) was a Japanese businessman and art collector. His collection of French art is the core of Japan's National Museum of Western Art (NMWA) in Ueno, central Tokyo.

Background
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Matsukata was the son of Matsukata Masayoshi who was a Prime Minister of Japan during the Meiji Period.

Career
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Matsukata became president of Kawasaki Shipbuilding Company (*Kawasaki Shōzō*) in 1896.

Art collecting
--------------

Auguste Rodin's "The Thinker" near the entrance of the National Museum of Western Art.
Masukata bought thousands of Western paintings and sculpture including Auguste Rodin's "The Thinker" and "Gates of Hell." The Rodin sculptures in the NMWA entrance plaza were made from the same original casting as at the Rodin Museum in France. In fact, Matsukata actually paid for the best Rodin castings in France today.

Some works collected by Matsukata are today in the French national collection of art.

Matsukata's art collection was first seen by the Japanese public in 1959.

Other websites
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 Media related to National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo at Wikimedia Commons

* National Museum of Western Art website

| Persondata |
| --- |
| Name | Matsukata Kojiro |
| Alternative names | 松方幸次郎 |
| Short description | businessman, art collector |
| Date of birth | 1865 |
| Place of birth |  |
| Date of death | 1950 |
| Place of death |  |
General **Sir James Abbott** (12 March 1807 – 6 October 1896) was a British army officer in colonial India. He became famous in the northwest frontier region of India in the middle part of the 19th century (today this is the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan). He was one of Henry Lawrence's 'advisers' to the Sikhs, after the First Anglo-Sikh War (1846), and then became the first deputy commissioner of Hazara (1849 - 1853). 

James Abbott in Afghan dress, portrait by B. Baldwin, 1841
As part of the Treaty of Lahore signed after the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War, Hazara and Kashmir were going to be transferred to Gulab Singh, Hazara however stayed under the Lahore government and governed by James Abbott. The Pakistani city of Abbottabad was founded by him in January 1853 and is named after him.

James Abbott was the brother of Augustus Abbott and Frederick Abbott, who also served as officers in the forces of the East India Company. His picture was created by the artist B. Baldwin, this picture is located in the National Portrait Gallery in London, though it is not currently on display.

Other websites
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* www.nationalarchives.gov.uk

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|  | *This article includes text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica. Please add to the article as needed.* |
**Resaca Confederate Cemetery** in Resaca, Georgia is home to over 400 confederate soldiers who died during the American Civil War, also known as the War Between the States. This particular cemetery is designated for the soldiers that fought in the Battle of Resaca which took place May 14 and 15, 1864. Although the battle lasted two days, there are only three graves where the death date is listed as May 15, 1864. The remaining graves are listed as May 14, 1864. There are 424 graves marked 'unknown'.

History
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After the battle, a family known as the Green family returned to their plantation and the sight that met them there was almost more than they could bear. The bodies of confederate soldiers were buried in crude makeshift graves all across the yard. Compelled by a since of respect to those who had fallen in action, Mary J. Green and her sister began collecting the bodies to bury properly. Though poverty was rampant the Green daughters wrote friends asking for any amount money they could give. Col. John Green gave his daughters 2.5 acres of land for use as a cemetery for these soldiers. With the money collected and the land provided, the Green daughters and their mother began work on what we now call the Resaca Confederate Cemetery.

The Resaca Confederate Cemetery was founded on October 25, 1866. This cemetery and one in Winchester, Virginia were both dedicated on the same day. Each group thought they were the first confederate cemetery.


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Resaca Confederate Cemetery***.
The Governor-General's Flag (1885–1947) depicted the "Star of India" beneath the Imperial Crown of India on a Union Flag
The **Governor-General of India** was the head of the British administration in British India. He was known as the **Viceroy** because he was the representative of the monarch, who for many years was Queen Victoria. 

The position was created in 1773, with the title of "Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William". In the beginning the officer had direct control only over Fort William, but supervised other British East India Company officials in India. However in 1833 the Governor was given complete control over all of British India and from then on was known as the Governor-General of India.

History
-------

Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of British India from 1773 to 1785.
Many parts of India were governed by the East India Company, which was supposed to be agents of the Mughal Emperor. 

After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the East India Company was abolished and the lands it had overned in the Indian sub-continent ware put under the direct control of the government of Britain. The Governor-General headed the central Government of India in Calcutta and was responsible to the imperial government in London. The rest of the sub-continent was administered by a large number of princely rulers under the supreme authority of Britain. The Governor-General was commonly known as the Viceroy of India because of his secondary role as Britain's representative to these nominally independent princely states.

Although India and Pakistan became independent in 1947, Governors-General stayed on to represent the Monarch of Great Britain until each rewrote their laws to become republics. When Pakistan and India become independent in 1947 King George who had been before then been the Emperor of India became the King of both countries.

However when India became a republic in 1950 he was no longer king of that country, however he remained king of Pakistan until his death in 1952. After that Elizabeth become Queen until 1956 when Pakistan too became a republic.
Relief map of Severnaya Zemlya
Severnaya Zemlya, seen from space.
**Severnaya Zemlya** is an group of islands of about 30 islands in the Arctic Ocean. The islands were known as *Emperor Nicholas II Land*. Severnaya Zemlya was first noted in 1913 and first charted in 1930–32, making it the last group of islands on Earth to be discovered. Politically, the islands are part of Russia's Krasnoyarsk Krai region, but are uninhabited by humans except for an Arctic base. There is a meteorological station on Golomjanny island. Scientists live there for some months of the year.

Severnaya Zemlya splits the Arctic sea into an western part, called Laptev Sea, and an eastern part, called Kara Sea.

A phenomenon called Arctic sea ice decline can be shown on the islands: In the 20th century, the islands were a portion of Eurasia which was always covered by ice. Even as the ice melted in summer, some of the ice remained, and blocked what is called the Northeast Passage. If it were ice free the Northeast passage would permit to naviagate from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean easily. By the late summer of 2012, the permanent ice had reached a record low extent and open water appeared to the north of the archipelago.
**Loreto** is Peru's most northern region. Covering almost one-third of Peru's territory, Loreto is the nation's biggest region. It is also one of the least populated ones, because of its remote location in the Amazon rainforest. Its capital is the city of Iquitos.

Boundaries
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* Northwest: Ecuadorian provinces of Sucumbíos, Orellana, Pastaza and Morona-Santiago
* North: Colombian department of Putumayo
* Northeast: Amazonas Department, also in Colombia
* East: Brazilian states of Amazonas and Acre
* South: Ucayali and Huánuco regions
* West: San Martín and Amazonas regions

Administrative divisions
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The region is divided into eight provinces (*provincias*, singular: *provincia*), which are composed of 53 districts (*distritos*, singular: *distrito*). The provinces, with their capitals in parenthesis, are:

1. Maynas (Iquitos)
2. Alto Amazonas (Yurimaguas)
3. Datem del Marañón (San Lorenzo)
4. Loreto (Nauta)
5. Mariscal Ramón Castilla (Caballococha)
6. Putumayo (San Antonio del Estrecho)
7. Requena (Requena)
8. Ucayali (Contamana)

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Loreto Region***.

* INEI Peru Archived 1997-04-12 at the Wayback Machine
**Renia Spiegel** (18 June 1924 – 30 July 1942) was a Polish-born Jewish girl who kept a diary in which she documents her life during the Nazi persecution. She is a diarist who described life in her school, with her friends, fear of deportation, murder, and being forced to move into a ghetto. She gained some posthumous fame with the 2012 publication of *Renia's Diary: A Holocaust Journal*, in which she documents her life as a Jew during the Holocaust from 1939 to 1942, during the German occupation of Poland in World War II.

Spiegel was born in Uhryńkowce, Poland in modern-day Uhrynkivtsi, Ukraine, in 1924. In September 1939, the Spegiels were trapped in Poland by the German occupation of Poland, with the help of the Soviet Union. Spiegel lost her citizenship and became stateless. As persecutions of the Jewish population increased, Spiegel and her younger sister Arianna were taken into captivity in a ghetto.
On 28 July 1942, Spiegel and her younger sister Arianna escaped the ghetto and Spegiel went into hiding in the attic of her boyfriend's uncle's house, while Arianna was sent to live with her mother in Warsaw. Until her capture and murder by the Gestapo on 30 July 1942, Spiegel kept a diary, in which she wrote in it regularly.

Following her capture Spiegel was murdered by gunshots, along with her boyfriend's parents at around 10:30 p.m.

Life
----

Renia Spiegel was born on 18 June 1924.
**Osmosis** (/ɒzˈmoʊ.sɪs/) is the movement of solvent (liquid) molecules through a membrane, from one solution to another, which happens without an outside force. 

Solvent will move to the side that has a *higher concentration* of *solutes*, or dissolved particles — and thus a *lower concentration* of *solvent*. This happens because the membrane is selectively permeable: the solvent can pass through, but the solute cannot. Solvent molecules move randomly, and so the concentrations on both sides become more equal.

Osmosis can be made to do work. **Osmotic pressure** is the external pressure that must be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute.

Osmosis is important in biological (living) systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large molecules such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides. They are permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids and small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, vacuole or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer. 

Osmosis provides the main way water is gets in and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its environment.

The process of osmosis over a semi-permeable membrane. The blue dots represent particles driving the osmotic gradient
This is a shot from a three dimensional computer simulation of the process of osmosis. The blue mesh is impermeable to the larger balls, but the smaller balls can get through. All the balls are bouncing about

Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic
-----------------------------------

Effect of different solutions on blood cells
Plant cell under different environments
Solutions may have more or less solute per unit of solvent. The one with less is called *hypotonic.* When the two solutions have equal concentration, they are *isotonic.* The one with more is *hypertonic*. When the hypotonic solution is outside the cell, and hypertonic solution inside, the cell becomes swollen and distorted.

Cell membranes
--------------

The plasma membrane of a cell is semi-permeable, which means it allows the entry of certain molecules in or out. It lets small molecules pass through, but blocks larger molecules,. The membrane also has ports or gateways which get certain macromolecules through. This is active transport, which uses energy and is selective. It is the outermost covering of the animal cell, made of proteins and lipids. Example: exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Related pages
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* Reverse osmosis
* Osmoregulation
An alligator gar
The **alligator gar** (*Atractosteus spatula*) is a species of freshwater fish belonging in the genus *Atractosteus* that is closely related to the bowfin. Their common name was derived from their resemblance to the alligators. These gars are often referred to as living fossils.

They have become an invasive species in Mainland China, where it can be purchased as an exotic pet fish. On September 4, 2009, an 3 ft 3 in (0.99 m) alligator gar was found in Tak Wah Park in Tsuen Wan, Hong Kong. Officials with Leisure and Cultural Services removed all the alligator gar from the ponds because they were concerned they would harm children.

Description
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Alligator gar are the largest species in the gar family, and among the largest freshwater fishes found in North America. The alligator gar has a torpedo-shaped body. It resembles that of an alligator, which is a type of reptile.

Distribution
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Alligator gar are a diverse fish species. inhabit a wide variety of aquatic habitats, but most are found in the Southern United States in reservoirs and lakes, in the backwaters of lowland rivers, and in the brackish waters of estuaries, bayous, and bays.

Spawning
--------

As with most ancestral species, alligator gar are long-lived, and sexually late maturing.

Taxonomy
--------

In 1803, Lacépède first described the alligator gar. The old name was *Lepisosteus spatula*, but was changed by E.O. Wiley in 1976 to *Atractosteus spatula*.

In the aquarium
---------------

Despite their large size, they are kept as aquarium fish. These fishes require a very large aquarium or pond. In many areas, it is illegal for alligator gar to become your pets.

Related pages
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* Atractosteus
* Freshwater fish
* Atractosteus africanus
* List of fish common names
* List of prehistoric bony fish genera

Other websites
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* Alligator Gar Ad hoc Technical Committee Southern Division of the American Fisheries Society
* Alligator gar on English Wikipedia

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| Taxon identifiers | * Wikidata: Q522735
* Wikispecies: Atractosteus spatula
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