recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Arnold Sommerfeld (1935)
**Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld** (December 5, 1868 in Königsberg, East Prussia – April 26, 1951 in Munich) was a German mathematician and theoretical physicist.

Education
---------

Sommerfeld was the son of a practical physician. After finishing school in 1886, he started studying mathematics at the University of Königsberg. In 1891 he wrote his doctorate thesis about arbitrary functions in mathematical physics. Afterwards he had to serve in the army.

Then he went to Göttingen. He became assistant at the institute for mineralogy, but was still interested in mathematical physics.

Works
-----

In 1894 he became the assistant of Felix Klein. The year after he wrote his habilitation about the mathematical theory of optical diffraction and became docent for mathematics in Göttingen.

In 1897 Sommerfeld married. In the same year he became ordinary professor for mathematics at the mining college of Clausthal. Three years later he got a professorship at the Technical University of Aachen.

In 1906 he became professor for theoretical physics in Munich, were he stood for his lifetime. While he was professor in Munich, he travelled twice around the world - in 1922/23 he was guest professor in Wisconsin and travelled afterwards through India, China and Japan, in 1928/29 he made a journey through the US as a university teacher.

He started taking out a pension in 1935, but he still worked until 1940. There was a lot of trouble choosing the person who should follow him. Sommerfeld wanted to have Werner Heisenberg to follow him, but in the time of the Nazi regime the job could only go to a person who taught the so-called German Physics, which included a kind of mysticism. Sommerfeld tried to prevent that.

Sommerfeld died in 1951 in a traffic accident.

Works
-----

* *Theorie des Kreisels*. 4 volumes (with Felix Klein), Leipzig 1897-1910
* *Atombau und Spektrallinien*. Braunschweig 1919
* *Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik*
	+ Vol. 1: *Mechanik*. Leipzig 1943
	+ Vol. 2: *Mechanik der deformierbaren Medien*. Leipzig 1945
	+ Vol. 3: *Elektrodynamik*. Wiesbaden 1948
	+ Vol. 4: *Optik*. Wiesbaden 1950
	+ Vol. 5: *Thermodynamik und Statistik*. Wiesbaden 1952
	+ Vol. 6: *Partielle Differentialgleichungen der Physik*. Leipzig 1945

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--------------

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**Arch Resources**, Inc. NYSE: ACI, previously known as **Arch Coal**, is the second-largest coal producer in the United States, claiming to hold 12% of America’s coal supply (140 million tons in 2005). The company's mines are in Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Virginia. The corporate headquarters are in St. Louis, Missouri.

The company claims a large reserve of coal that has not been mined yet. It is a total of 3.1 billion tons of mostly low-sulfur coal.

Arch Coal shares are traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol ACI.

History
-------

Arch Mineral Corporation began in 1969, as a partnership between Ashland Oil (now Ashland, Inc.) and the Hunt family of Dallas. Arch Coal was formed in July 1997 when the privately held Arch Mineral merged with the publicly traded Ashland Coal, Inc. which had been formed in 1975 as a subsidiary of Ashland Oil.

In June 1998, Arch Coal purchased the coal fields and mines of the Atlantic Richfield company, which were mostly in the central Rocky Mountains.

Other websites
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* Arch Coal, Inc. official website
* Company profile at Google Finance
The **alpine newt** (*Ichthyosaura alpestris*) is an amphibian. It is a Salamander (Urodela or Caudata). The alpine newt is one of five newts in Germany.

Description
-----------

Early in the year, alpine newts mate. During that time, the males have a blue color on their sides but not too much to overlap their white-black-spotted flank. Their belly is a bright orange.
The females are more camouflaged to their marshy environment. They are a mottled brown with barely visible, black spots.

The biggest of the males can reach up to nine, and the females up to twelve centimeters in length. After the mating season, they return to their natural color of the mottled brown.

Life and habitat
----------------

The alpine newt typically lives in forests with good access to water in hilly to mountainous regions. They are mostly absent in forest-poor areas. They often occur in thick deciduous forests, as well as parland and natural gardens. Outside the spawning season, the Alpine Newt is a land animal. During the day it stays in all kinds of undergrowth, but during the mating season in cool water (forest pools, artificial pools). After the adults come out of winter dormancy, the alpine newts immediately take themselves to the spawning pools.

Location
--------

The spread of the alpine newt is constricted to Central Europe and parts of mountainous Southern Europe as well as an isolated area on the Iberian Peninsula.

There is also some introduced wild populations in the UK

Endangerment
------------

After a steep decrease in the alpine newt population in the 1960s-70s, they have recovered their numbers a bit. Surveillance in the surrounding area of Cologne (approximately 50m above sea level) showed an increase in alpine newt numbers, but the numbers of newts in breeding pools seemed to decline. In home gardens, newts are settling in pools in which there may be a high reproduction rate. If fish are in these ponds, the population will be completely wiped out. However, a small pool of 150 litres volume had more than 60 alpine newt tadpoles of different sizes at the beginning of July 2003. They were likely spawned from just one female.

Taxonomy
--------

The alpine newt has been usually placed into the *Triturus* genus. García-París | display-authors = etal split the genus Triturus into three, and placed the alpine newt into its own genus *Mesotriton*. Also the subspecies *T. a. inexpectatus* was elevated to species status. However this split has not been completely accepted yet. Originally 9 subspecies of the alpine newt were recognized.
Tectonic map of southern Europe and the Middle East, showing tectonic structures of the western Alpide mountain belt
The **Alpine orogeny** (sometimes **Alpide orogeny**) is the building of mountain ranges in central and southern Europe and west Asia.
This mountain-building phase started in the later Mesozoic era. It happened as the two large continents Africa and India (plus a smaller plates) moved north and collided with Eurasia. This happened at the end of the Mesozoic era, and is slowly continuing today.

So this slow collision sqeezed the Eurasian plates, and caused mountains to build from the western edge far into Asia. These are the mountain ranges of the Alpide belt. They include (from west to east) the Atlas, the Rif, the Baetic Cordillera, the Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennine Mountains, the Dinaric Alps, the Hellenides, the Carpathian Mountains, the Balkan Mountains, the Taurus, the Armenian Highlands, the Caucasus, the Alborz, the Zagros, the Hindu Kush, the Pamir, the Karakoram, and the Himalayas.

The Alpine orogeny also led to more distant and smaller geological features such as the chalk hills in southern England and northern France (the 'Weald–Artois Anticline'). The remains of this can be seen in the chalk ridges of the North and South Downs in southern England. Its effects are visible on the Isle of Wight, where the chalk and overlying Eocene strata are folded to near-vertical, as seen at Alum Bay and Whitecliff Bay, and on the Dorset coast near Lulworth Cove.

The Alpine orogeny was the last of the three major phases of orogeny in Europe that made its geology. The Caledonian orogeny which formed the Old Red Sandstone continent was the first. The second was the Variscan orogeny. That was when Pangaea formed as Gondwana and the Old Red Sandstone continent collided in the middle to late Palaeozoic.
**Arctic ecology** is the science that studies the ecology of the arctic. The arctic is all land and water north of the Arctic Circle (66 33’). This area is very cold and has little rain. In the winter there is almost no sunlight. The growing season, when farmers can grow crops, is very short.

The arctic biomes are taiga, boreal forest, and tundra. Many of the ecosystems in the arctic are fragile, and can be easily destroyed. These ecosystems are being hurt by global warming.

Environment
-----------

The arctic environment includes both land and water. Two important parts of this environment are sea ice and permafrost.

Sea ice is ice that floats in the ocean. It is made of frozen seawater. It is important because animals live and sleep on the ice, especially in winter. Sea ice lasts all year and never melts completely. There is less ice during the summer than during the winter.

Lots of land in the arctic is frozen all year long. Permafrost is a substrate (layer of soil) that has been frozen for two or more years. The dirt on top of the permafrost is called the "active layer". This dirt melts during the summer and is important for plants to grow.

Food Chain
----------

In the arctic region there is less food. The algae is eaten by small insects. These insects are eaten by plankton. These are eaten by small fish these are eaten by big fish. Now, these are eaten by seals. Seals are at last eaten by polar bears.
Arnulf II *the Young* Count of Flanders.
**Arnulf II of Flanders** (c. 961–987), called **Arnulf the Young** was a French nobleman and the Count of Flanders. He ruled from 965 until his death. He ruled a much smaller County of Flanders than his father.

Career
------

Arnulf II, born about 961, was the son of Baldwin III, Count of Flanders and Mathilde. She was the daughter of Herman, Duke of Saxony. His father Baldwin III died in 962 when Arnulf was just an infant. His grandfather, Arnulf I, was still alive and ruling Flanders. When Arnulf I died three years later (965), the regency was held by his kinsman Baldwin Balso. The regent Balso died in 973.

By the time Arnulf reached his age of majority in 976, Flanders had lost some of the southern territory acquired by Arnulf I. His grandfather had given some parts of Picardy to King Lothar of France to help make sure his grandson, Arnulf II would succeed him. Arnulf I also Boulogne as a fief to his nephew, Arnulf II, Count of Boulogne. Then early in Arnulf's minority King Lothar had taken Ponthieu and given it to Hugh Capet, and the first counts of Guînes had established themselves there. Arnulf died on 30 March, 987, just 26 years old.
Shortly after Arnulf's death his widow married Robert II, King of France as his first wife.

Family
------

In 968 he married Rozala of Lombardy, daughter of Berengar II of Italy, and had two children:

* Baldwin IV (980–1035), who succeeded his father.
* Mathilde, who died before 995.
An airbag
An **airbag** is a part of the safety restraint system in cars. Airbags are bags that rapidly fill with air when an accident happens. That way they can prevent injuries that occur when the driver hits a hard object.

An airbag is a useful vehicle safety device. Airbags are used in the world increasingly because in accidents, it can help passengers reduce shock.
When the sensor feels a strong shock, the gas device explodes. This gas fills the bag immediately.

History of airbags
------------------

An American inventor, Dr. Allen S. Breed, invented and developed a key component for automotive use. Breed Corporation then marketed this innovation first in 1967 to Chrysler. A similar "Auto-Ceptor" crash-restraint, brandon, developed by Eaton, Yale & Towne Inc. for Ford was soon offered as an automatic safety system in the USA. The Italian Eaton-Livia company offered a variant with localized air cushions.

All cars used the airbag nowadays was originally invented by a Japanese man Mr. Kobori and he took the world patents.

The first patent on an inflatable crash-landing device for airplanes was filed during World War II. In 1973, the first commercial airbags appeared in a run of 1,000 Chevrolet Impalas. Since model year 1998, all new cars sold in the United States have been required to have airbags on both driver and passenger sides. To date, statistics show that airbags reduce the risk of dying in a direct frontal crash by about 30 percent. Today, some cars have six or even eight airbags.

How airbags work
----------------

First, moving objects have momentum (the product of the mass and the velocity of an object). If no outside force acts on an object, the object will continue to move at its present speed and direction (because of inertia). Cars consist of several objects, including the vehicle itself, loose objects in the car and, of course, passengers. If these objects are not restrained, they will continue moving at whatever speed the car is travelling at, even if the car is stopped by a collision.
Stopping an object's momentum requires force acting over a period of time. When a car crashes, the force required to stop an object is very great because the car's momentum has changed instantly while the passengers' has not (there is not much time to work with). The goal of any supplemental restraint system is to help stop the passenger while doing as little damage to them as possible.
What an airbag wants to do is to slow the passenger's speed to zero with little or no damage. The constraints that it has to work within are huge. The airbag has the space between the passenger and the steering wheel or dashboard and a fraction of a second to work with. Even that tiny amount of space and time is valuable, however, if the system can slow the passenger evenly rather than forcing an abrupt halt to their motion.

Motorcycle airbag
-----------------

In 2006 the airbag was set up for a motorcycle. This was in the Gold Wing by Honda.

The second airbag device for motorcyclist is an inflatable airbag jacket was invented by Tamás Straub in 1976.
**Abū ‘Abdillāh ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Nāṣir ibn ‘Abdillāh ibn Nāṣir al-Sa’dī** from al-Sa’dī, the Shaykh, descended of the Tamīm tribe, was born in the town of ʿUnaizah in al-Qaṣīm on the 12th of Muḥarram in the year 1307H. His mother died when he was four years old, and his father died when he was seven. As a result, he grew up an orphan but he had a stable upbringing. He was an Islamic Scholar from Saudi Arabia. And also was a teacher and a author in Unaizah, Saudi Arabia. He authored more than 40 books in several different fields including tafsir, fiqh, and 'aqidah.

He had already attracted attention at a young age with his intelligence and his strong enthusiasm for learning. After the death of his father, he had read the Qurʾān, then thoroughly memorised it by the time he was eleven years old. Then he began learning from the learned men of his town and those who visited it. He worked hard until he acquired a respectable amount of knowledge in every field. When he reached the age of twenty-three, he began teaching. Like that, he used to both learn and teach, and the entirety of his time was spent doing that. It was like that until in the year 1351H, he was placed in charge of education in his town, and became a mentor for all the students.

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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: ***Abdul-Rahman al-Sa'di***

* Media related to Abd ar-Rahman ibn Nasir as-Sa'di at Wikimedia Commons
* Biodata at MuslimScholars.info

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The **Armenian Revolutionary Army** (ARA) was a terror organization. Its last attack occurred in 1985.

The Lisbon Five
---------------

5 Armenian gunmen  (known as "Lisbon Five") attacked the Turkish embassy in Lisbon in 27 July, 1983. The first Armenian was killed by security guards at the start of the attack. The wife and the son of Osman Ozturk, the Turkish chargé d'affaires, and a Portuguese policeman also died in the assault, 4 people were injured. Portugal's Interior Minister Eduardo Perella said the government received intelligence information "that Armenian groups might attack Wednesday and beefed up security at diplomatic missions". 
The Armenian Revolutionary Army claimed responsibility for attack.

In a message dropped in the mailbox of The Associated Press office in Lisbon, the group said: "We have decided to blow up this building and remain under the collapse. This is not suicide... but rather our sacrifice to the altar of freedom". The group said the attack had been carried out because "Turkey and its allies refused to acknowledge the genocide of Armenians".
A ten-week-old fetus, surrounded by the amniotic sac, which is filled with amniotic fluid
The **amniotic sac** holds a fetus while it is developing during pregnancy. The amniotic sac is filled with **amniotic fluid**, which protects the fetus.

Development
-----------

The amniotic sac starts to form and fill with amniotic fluid just days after a woman gets pregnant. At first, the amniotic fluid is made from the mother's plasma (the liquid part of her blood).

At first, the amniotic fluid is made mostly of water with electrolytes (salts). However, by the 12th to the 14th week of pregnancy, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, phospholipids, and urea are all in the amniotic fluid. These things help the fetus grow.

As the fetus gets bigger, more amniotic fluid gets created. By the time the baby is born, there is about one liter of amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac.

Purpose
-------

### The amniotic fluid

The amniotic fluid is very important in protecting the fetus and helping the fetus grow:

* It acts like a cushion, so the fetus does not hit the side of the mother's abdomen
* It lets the fetus float and move around, which helps the muscles and bones grow
* It keeps the fetus warm
* It contains nutrients that help the fetus grow

After the fetus is about four months old, when the kidneys start to work, the amniotic fluid serves another important purpose. The fetus swallows amniotic fluid. This fluid passes through the fetus's digestive system and urinary system and gets urinated out into the amniotic fluid. This helps the fetus "practice" swallowing, digesting, and urinating before being born.

### The amniotic sac

The amniotic sac has two layers, which have two different jobs. The inside layer holds in the fetus and the amniotic fluid. The outside layer attaches to the umbilical cord, so that blood and oxygen from the mother can get through the amniotic sac and to the fetus.

Testing
-------

See the main article: Amniocentesis
A sample of amniotic fluid can show whether a fetus has certain genetic disorders or infections. A test called an amniocentesis can take a sample of amniotic fluid with a needle and study it for problems.

Birth
-----

When a woman starts to give birth, the amniotic sac should break and the amniotic fluid will leak out the woman's vagina. This is often called the time when a woman's "water breaks." Doctors call it "rupture of membranes."

Once the baby is born, the amniotic sac is pushed out of the woman's vagina in the afterbirth, along with the placenta.
Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCTs) at Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport
**Air traffic control** (**ATC**) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and in the air. The main job of ATC is to *separate* aircraft to prevent crashes and to make sure aircraft are running on time and as fast as possible. In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role (as in the United States), or actually be run entirely by the military (as in Brazil). Air traffic control was first introduced at London's Croydon Airport in 1921. Archie League, who controlled aircraft using colored flags at what is today Lambert-St. Louis International Airport, is often considered the first air traffic controller.

Preventing crashes is done by what is called *separation*. This means that the aircraft are kept apart by a minimum distance at all times. Modern aircraft also have collision avoidance systems that see nearby aircraft and warn pilots if other planes are too close. This system is a backup for when air traffic control is not available or if something goes wrong with ATC. Air traffic controllers also can provide information to pilots. But pilots do not have to follow commands of ATC. They can make changes in order to keep plane safe.

Air traffic control service is not provided in uncontrolled airspace. Uncontrolled airspace is usually between ground and 1000 feet except areas near airports. These areas are part of controlled airspace.

Areas for ATC
-------------

* "Ground Control" is responsible for all aircraft and vehicles on all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas and aprons.
* "Clearance Delivery" is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft. This is important for safe flying via planned route. Clearance Delivery has to cooperate with the Ground Control and the Area Control centre.
* "Tower Control" gives clearance to arriving and departing aircraft. All aircraft on runways and airfield traffic circuit are directed by Tower Control too.
* "Approach Control" is responsible for airplanes in airspace near airport. There is big density of airplanes. That is reason why approach is the most difficult job in compare to another ATC service.
* "Area Control Centre" separates airplanes in controlled airspace between airports.

Other websites
--------------

* Air Traffic control -Citizendium
**Andrew Horatio Reeder** (July 12, 1807 – July 5, 1864) was the first governor of the Territory of Kansas.

Early Life
----------

Reeder was born on July 12, 1807 in Easton, Pennsylvania. He went to school in Lawrenceville, New Jersey. He became a lawyer in 1828 in Pennsylvania. In 1831, he married Frederika Amalia Hutter. They had three sons and seven daughters.

Kansas
------

Reeder supported the idea of popular sovereignty (where people in a state would decide whether a state becomes free or slave) about slavery. On June 29, 1854, President Franklin Pierce asked Reeder to be the governor of the Kansas Territory. He said yes. He would stay governor until August 16, 1855. 

On March 30, 1855, many pro-slavery people from Missouri illegally voted in Kansas. Those people wanted Kansas to become a slave state. This caused a lot of violence between Missouri and Kansas, known as Bleeding Kansas. Reeder did not approve the results. He set up new elections.

President Franklin Pierce asked Reeder to quit. This is because Reeder did not let Kansas become a slave state.

Pennsylvania
------------

Reeder came back to Pennsylvania. He was a part of the Republican Party. He stayed in politics and law. He died in Easton, Pennsylvania on July 5, 1864. He is buried in Easton Cemetery.
Map of Alderney and the camp-sites
The **Alderney concentration camps** were built and operated by Nazi Germany during its World War II occupation of the Channel Islands. The Channel Islands were the only British Commonwealth soil to be occupied by the Nazis. The Nazis built four concentration camps on Alderney Island, subcamps of the Neuengamme camp outside Hamburg. They were named after the Frisian Islands: Lager Norderney, Lager Borkum, Lager Sylt and Lager Helgoland. The Nazi Organisation Todt operated each subcamp and used forced labour to build bunkers, gun emplacements, air-raid shelters, and concrete fortifications. The camps started working in January 1942 and had a total inmate population of about 6,000.

The *Borkum* and *Helgoland* camps were "volunteer" (Hilfswillige) labour camps and the labourers in those camps were treated harshly but a little bit better than the inmates at the *Sylt* and *Norderney* camps. The prisoners in *Lager Sylt* and *Lager Norderney* were slave labourers forced to build the many military fortifications and installations throughout Alderney. *Sylt camp* held Jewish enforced labourers. *Norderney camp* housed European (usually Eastern but including Spaniard) and Russian enforced labourers. *Lager Borkum* was used for German technicians and "volunteers" from different countries of Europe. *Lager Helgoland* was filled with Russian Organisation Todt workers.

In 1942, *Lager Norderney*, containing Russian and Polish POWs, and *Lager Sylt*, holding Jews, were placed under the control of the SS Hauptsturmführer Max List. Over 700 of the inmates lost their lives before the camps were closed and the remaining inmates transferred to Nazi Germany in 1944.

War crime trials
----------------

After World War II, a court-martial case was prepared against ex-SS Hauptsturmführer Max List, citing atrocities on Alderney. However, he did not stand trial, and is believed to have lived near Hamburg until his death in the 1980s.
Monument to the antiquarian Sir Richard Colt Hoare in Salisbury Cathedral
An **antiquarian** or **antiquary** (from the Latin: *antiquarius*, meaning related to ancient times) is a student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with particular attention to ancient artifacts. This includes archaeological and historic sites, or historic archives and manuscripts. The essence of antiquarianism is a focus on the empirical evidence of the past. It may be better explained by the motto adopted by the 18th-century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, "We speak from facts not theory".

Antiquarian societies
---------------------

In the 18th century a new form of humanism emerged. Learned men and those interested in history formed new antiquarian societies. They were not associated with universities. They were formed by gentlemen of means and leisure, They had a growing interest in ancient Greece. A fortunate few, mainly Englishmen and Frenchmen, could visit these sites. A lucky few could even afford books illustrating these antiquities. Many early antiquarians were self-taught. These gentlemen scholars prepared papers on their findings and debated these in the society meetings. At times they disagreed with the new academic approach to history. By the end of the 19th century, antiquarianism had been replaced by a number of more specialized academic disciplines. These included archaeology, art history, numismatics, sigillography, philology, literary studies and diplomatics. Today the term is often used in a pejorative sense. It is used to refer to a very narrow focus on historical trivia instead of the actual history. 

An antiquarian may also be someone who collect or study antiques.

Related pages
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* Historian
* Collector
* Connoisseur
* Archaeology

Other websites
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* Antiquarianism and history
**Akshaye Vinod Khanna** (born 28 March 1975) is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi movies. He has received two Filmfare Awards and is the son of late actor Vinod Khanna. After studying in Kishore Namit Kapoor Acting Institute in Mumbai, he made his acting debut in Bollywood in 1997 with the movie *Himalay Putra*. His next release *Border* (1997) emerged as a critical and commercial success, earning him the Filmfare Best Debut Award and a nomination for Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor.

Khanna became famous with starring roles in the musical romantic drama *Taal* (1999), the comedy drama *Dil Chahta Hai* (2001) which won him a Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor, the romantic thriller *Humraaz* (2002) for which he was nominated in the Best Negative Role category, the romantic comedies *Hungama* (2003) and *Hulchul* (2004), the murder mystery *36 China Town* (2006), the action thriller *Race* (2008) and the heist comedy *Tees Maar Khan* (2010), and he continued to draw praise for his performances in the 1999 romance *Dahek*, the 2002 psychological thriller *Deewangee*, the 2007 biographical drama *Gandhi, My Father* and the 2010 action thriller movie *Aakrosh*.

In 2016, after a four-year break from acting, he came back and played an antagonist in the action-comedy movie *Dishoom* and appeared as an investigative cop in two 2017 thrillers, the crime movie *Mom* and the murder mystery *Ittefaq*.
Ararat from Doğubeyazıt
The **Armenian Highland** (also known as the **Armenian Upland** or **Armenian Plateau**) is part of the Transcaucasian Highland and constitutes the continuation of the Caucasus mountains, also referred as eastern Armenia.

The apricot is native to China and spread to Europe through the Armenia Highlands. It came to be known throughout the ancient world as the Armenian fruit. Its botanical name Prunus armeniaca, derives from the Latin vernacular for apricot, armeniacum, which some scholars have linked to its Akkadian name **armanu**.

Many scholars place the Indo-European homeland in the Armenian Highlands and the plateau of Asia Minor to the southwest.
Others believe that it was in Eastern Europe or southern Russia.

Some scholars believe, for example, that the earliest mention of the Armenians is in the Akkadian inscriptions dating to the 28th-27th centuries BC, in which the Armenians are referred to as the sons of Haya, after the regional god of the Armenian Highlands.

Related pages
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* Greater Armenia (political concept)
* Armenian Genocide

Other websites
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* The Armenian empire
* History of Armenia
ASALA Flag
The **Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia** (**ASALA**) was an Armenian militant organization, that operated from 1975 to 1986.
The stated intention of ASALA was "to compel the Turkish Government to acknowledge publicly its alleged responsibility for the deaths of 1.5 million Armenians in 1915, pay reparations, and cede territory for an Armenian homeland".

ASALA was founded in 1975 in Beirut, Lebanon by Hagop Hagopian (Harutiun Tagushian) and Kevork Ajemian, a prominent contemporary writer.

The group's activities were primarily assassinations of Turkish diplomats and politicians in Western Europe, the United States and the Middle East. A failed attack in Geneva on October 3, 1980, in which two Armenian militants were injured resulted in a new nickname for the group, the 3 October Organization. The ASALA's eight point manifesto was published in 1981.

Continuous attacks prompted Turkey to accuse Cyprus, Greece, Syria, Lebanon, and the Soviet Union of provoking or possibly funding the ASALA, though nothing of this sort was ever found to be true.

According to Tessa Hofmann, Turkish officials frequently used the accusation of collaboration with the ASALA and foreign Armenian circles to incriminate extreme left-wing Turkish opposition groups.

Related pages
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* Gourgen Yanikian

Other websites
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* GlobalSecurity site: ASALA
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan established Arabic as the official language of the Umayyad Caliphate in 686 CE
**Arabisation** (or **Arabization**) is a process where the influence of Arabic populations grows in an area. This will mean that the Arab ways of doing things will replace other ways over time. It will also mean that the Arabic lanuage will become more important. Usually, this will also mean that Islam will spread in the area. Non-Arabic populations will be assimilated over time (or leave the area altogether).

Examples where Arabization happened are the south of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal, called Mozarabs), in the Middle Ages (undone by the Reconquista). In the Mahgreb, Arabization drove away many Berber people. Arabization also happened in the Near and Middle East. 

In Sudan and other parts of East Africa, Arabization also took place. In those areas, it was driven by trade.

When Turkish troops and their allies conquered the city of Afrin in Syria, in 2018, they settled Arab people there. According to Kurdish sources, in June of 2018, almost 60 percent of the population of Afrin were Arabs. Before the Turkish troops took the city, the German newspaper, 'Die Welt' reported that ninety percent of the popuation of Afrin had been Kurds.
**Aminet** is the world's largest archive of Amiga-related software and files.

Aminet was originally hosted by several universities' FTP sites, and is now available on CD-ROM and on the web.

In 1 April 2013, Aminet has 80592 packages online.

History
-------

In January 1992, Swiss student Urban Müller start to work with software archive. It had been started by other members of a computer science students' club.

Soon the archive became famous worldwide. In 1995 Aminet has started to distribute on monthly CD-ROMs.

By using a single master site for creating ftp scripts for each slave site, Aminet reduced to a bare minimum for setting up new mirror sites.

Aminet also shows practical use of metadata schema by software repositories. Reports of daily additions to this software archive were posted automatically to Usenet or could be requested as an email newsletter.

Most of the programs on Aminet were public domain or shareware, but software companies made updates and demo versions of their programs available. 

Now Aminet becomes wider by platform specific sites archiving software for AmigaOS 4, AROS or MorphOS only.
The **Aldeburgh Festival** is an English arts festival where classical music concerts take place during the summer. Aldeburgh is in Suffolk in the south-east of England. It is where the composer Benjamin Britten lived with his friend the tenor Peter Pears. A lot of Britten’s music is played at the festival, but music by many other composers can be heard as well. Most of the concerts take place in the Maltings, a concert hall in the village of Snape, not far away from Aldeburgh.

History of the Aldeburgh Festival
---------------------------------

The Festival was started in 1948 by Benjamin Britten, Peter Pears and the librettist Eric Crozier. They started the festival so that the English Opera Group would have a place to perform their operas, but soon the festival became bigger. There were poetry readings, drama performances, lectures and art exhibitions. The first festival was mostly held in Aldeburgh Jubilee Hall, a few doors away from Britten's house in Crabbe Street. His opera *Albert Herring* was performed, as well as his *St Nicolas Cantata*.

Over the years the festival grew. Some of the performances took place in the church, or in churches or other halls in nearby villages and small towns such as Orford and Framlingham. However, the festival needed a large concert hall. In the 1960s the old malthouse (where barley used to be made) in Snape was changed into a concert hall. It was opened by the Queen on 2 June 1967, at the start of the twentieth Aldeburgh Festival. 

Two years later, on the first night of the 1969 Festival, the concert hall was destroyed by fire. Only the main walls remained. For that year the Festival was moved to other local places, but by the next year the hall had been rebuilt and once again it was opened by the Queen, this time at the start of the 1970 Festival.

The Festival today
------------------

The festival is now organized by Aldeburgh Music, which also runs the Britten-Pears Young Artist Programme which gives young musicians a chance to learn from famous music teachers and perform in concerts.

The festival has a nice atmosphere because it is in the country near the sea and marshes. New music is often performed. In the past there have been first performances of several works by Britten: (*A Midsummer Night's Dream* in 1960; *Death in Venice* in 1973) and also Harrison Birtwistle's *Punch and Judy* in 1968.

The Festival's Artistic Director is now the composer Thomas Adès, who was appointed in 1999.
**Ami Elizabeth Radunskaya** is an American mathematician and musician. After high school and before college she played cello for the Oakland Symphony in California for several years. Radunskaya is currently a professor of mathematics at Pomona College. She has been on faculty at Pomona College for over twenty years. She is the president of the Association for Women in Mathematics.

Eduation
--------

Dr. Radunskaya received a bachelor’s degree from the University of California Berkley. She also has a Ph.D. from Stanford University.

Math
----

Dr. Radunskaya discovered her love of math at the age of four. At the start of her career journey, she tried many different things like chemistry and computer science, but she found her way back to her initial love, math. Now, she is a professor of mathematics at Pomona College. She is also the president of the Association for Women in Mathematics.

Music
-----

Dr. Radunskaya started playing the cello at the age of nine where she started a trio with her two other siblings. After finishing high school at the age of sixteen, she spent ten years studying cello and composition. She then joined the Oakland Symphony. At the age of 23, she decided to quit, and instead explore composition and experimental music.

Accomplishments
---------------

Dr. Radunskaya received the 2016 mentor award. She has helped over eighty-two of her students to get their Ph.D.’s in mathematics. She was also a subject in the film: The Empowerment Project: Ordinary Women Doing Extraordinary Things.
**Alfred Edwin Brain** (born Turnham Green, London, 4 February 1860; died London, 25 October 1929), was an English player of the French horn. He was the founder of a great school of English horn playing. His grandson Dennis Brain became perhaps the most famous horn player of all time. He is known as A.E .Brain Sr. (Senior) because one of his sons, who also was a famous horn player, had the same name.

A.E. Brain was born in 1860. His father fought in the Crimean War and was invalid. Alfred was not well educated. When he was 12 he joined the Scots Guards and played the horn in the band. He married in 1880 and had seven children. Two of the children became great horn players: Alfred and Aubrey.

He played in several orchestras, including the Philharmonic Society, the Queen’s Hall Orchestra and Covent Garden. He played a lot for Henry Wood in The Proms. In orchestras he nearly always played fourth horn, so his nickname was "George IV". In 1904 he became a founding member of the London Symphony Orchestra. The four horn players in that orchestra: Adolf Borsdorf, Thomas Busby, Henri Van der Meerschen and A.E. Brain, were often called "God’s Own Quartet" because they blended together so well.

He died in 1929 after a short retirement.
Antimony trioxide
A bag of antimony trioxide
**Antimony trioxide**, also known as **antimony(III) oxide**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Sb2O3. It has antimony and oxide ions in it. It has antimony in its +3 oxidation state.

Properties
----------

Antimony trioxide is a white solid. It is the most common antimony compound. It does not dissolve in water. It reacts with oxidizing agents to make antimony pentoxide and with reducing agents to make antimony or stibine. It reacts with concentrated acids to make antimony(III) salts and dissolves in strong bases.

Occurrence
----------

Valentinite
Antimony trioxide is found in two minerals, valentinite and senarmontite. Valentinite is a white mineral that is sometimes pale yellow.

Preparation
-----------

Antimony trioxide is made when antimony is made. Stibnite is heated with air to make antimony trioxide. It is separated from arsenic by the boiling of the arsenic trioxide before the antimony trioxide boils. Antimony trioxide can also be made by a two step process. Stibnite is burned in air with calcium chloride to make calcium sulfate and antimony trichloride, which is reacted with water to make antimony trioxide.

Uses
----

Antimony trioxide is mainly used as a flame retardant. It is also used to make glass, enamel, and ceramic opaque (not clear). Some pigments have antimony in them. It is also used as a catalyst for making plastics. It is also used as a catalyst for vulcanizing rubber, making it more "rubbery" and less likely to crack.

Safety
------

Antimony trioxide is somewhat carcinogenic. It is somewhat toxic when eaten or breathed in.

Related pages
-------------

* Antimony tribromide
* Antimony pentafluoride
* Bismuth trioxide
Fall in Interior Alaska.
The **Alaska Interior** covers most of the U.S. state's territory. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Mount McKinley (Denali) in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains.

The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, which is Alaska's second-largest city. Other towns include North Pole, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy and Cantwell.

Climate
-------

Northern Lights & Big Dipper at Fairbanks, AK during September.
Temperatures in Interior Alaska change a lot between the seasons. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks are usually around −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures are around 62 °F (17 °C). Temperatures there can get as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as 99 °F (37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−64 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter can ghange a lot also. Long cold snaps can be followed by sudden warmth with temperatures above freezing. this is because of changes in the wind.

Summers can be warm and dry for a long time. This can make it easy for wildfires to start. Weak thunderstorms can produce lightning that starts a fire. These fires are often left to burn if they are far away from where people live. The 2004 season had the most fires. Over 6,600,000 acres (27,000 km2) were burned.

Lakes and peaks of the Alaska Range seen from the Denali Highway
The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (28.7 cm). Most of this is snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska. Most of these storms are blocked or weakened by passing over the mountains. 

The months from May to July in the summer have no darkness at night. They only have a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January are the other way around. They have little daylight. It is light for about 21 hours every day between May 10 and August 2. It is light less than four hours each day between November 18 and January 24. On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis, or "Northern lights" can often be seen dancing in the sky.
A lot of the ground in the Interior has permafrost, meaning that there is a layer of soil that is always frozen.

* Denali seen from a distance of 100 miles (160 km)Denali seen from a distance of 100 miles (160 km)
* Gulkana GlacierGulkana Glacier
* The Tangle Lakes are popular with people using canoesThe Tangle Lakes are popular with people using canoes
Antimony trisulfide
**Antimony trisulfide**, also known as **antimony(III) sulfide**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Sb2S3. It has antimony and sulfide ions in it. The antimony is in its +3 oxidation state.

Properties
----------

Antimony trisulfide is a gray solid. It reacts with hydrochloric acid to make hydrogen sulfide and an antimony(III) compound. It dissolves in potassium hydroxide. It burns in air to make antimony(III) oxide and sulfur dioxide. It is a reducing agent.

Occurrence
----------

Stibnite is the mineral form of antimony trisulfide.

Preparation
-----------

Antimony trisulfide is made in the laboratory by reacting any antimony(III) compound with hydrogen sulfide.

Uses
----

Antimony trisulfide is used in cosmetics; in this area it is called kohl. It is used in pyrotechnics to make a glitter effect. It is also used in the heads of safety matches. It used to be used in flash powder before electronic flashes were used.

Related pages
-------------

* Antimony trichloride
* Bismuth(III) sulfide
A woman holding a red king crab (*Paralithodes camtschaticus*)
**Alaskan king crab fishing** is an event done in the winter in the Bering Sea near Alaska. People fish for many King Crabs. The crabbers fish from boats between 40 and 250 feet (13-75m) in length. They throw steel cages, called pots, over the side of the boat, and the crabs are lured to bait placed in them. When the pots have been on the bottom of the sea long enough they are pulled back onto the boat using a special kind of crane. The crabs in the pots are examined and crabs that are not good enough are put back into the ocean and the rest are put into a tank. When the ship gets back to the shore, the crabs are sold to stores around the world for eating. 

The people working on the boat are paid a lot of money. The amount of money can be from nothing to tens of thousands of dollars depending on how many crab the fishermen caught. Alaskan crab fishing is one of the USA's most dangerous jobs. Because of the big waves and dangerous boats the fishermen work on, some people die every year.

To show people how dangerous crab fishing is, the Discovery Channel made a series called Deadliest Catch about the fishermen. And they also catch a lot of Crabs.

Ocean acidification threatens crabs.
|  |
| --- |
| **Antimatter** |
| **Overview** |
| **Annihilation** |
| **Devices*** Particle accelerator
* Penning trap
 |
| **Antiparticles*** Positron
* Antiproton
* Antineutron
 |
| **Uses*** PET
* Fuel
* Weaponry
 |
| **Bodies*** ALPHA Collaboration
* ATHENA
* ATRAP
* CERN
 |
| **People*** Paul Dirac
* Carl Anderson

| edit |
| --- |

 |

There is an **antiparticle** corresponding to most kinds of particle. It has the same mass and opposite electric charge.

Even electrically neutral particles, such as the neutron, are not identical to their antiparticle. In the example of the neutron, the 'ordinary' particle is made out of quarks and the antiparticle out of antiquarks.

Particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other if they are in appropriate quantum states. They can also be produced in various processes. These processes are used in particle accelerators to create new particles and to test theories of particle physics. High energy processes in nature can create antiparticles. These are visible in cosmic rays and in certain nuclear reactions. The word antimatter properly refers to (elementary) antiparticles, composite antiparticles made with them (such as antihydrogen) and to larger assemblies of either.

History
-------

In 1932, soon after the prediction of positrons by Paul Dirac, Carl Anderson found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a cloud chamber – a particle detector in which moving electrons (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas.

The antiproton and antineutron were found by Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain in 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. Since then the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerators. In recent years, complete atoms of antimatter have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps.

Further reading
---------------

* Feynman, Richard P. The reason for antiparticles, in *The 1986 Dirac memorial lectures*, R.P. Feynman and S. Weinberg. Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-521-34000-4.
* Weinberg, Steven. *The quantum theory of fields, Volume 1: Foundations*. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-55001-7.