recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
A geologic cross section of the Grand Canyon. Black numbers correspond to groups of formations and white numbers correspond to formations (click on picture for more information).
Strata of the Grand Canyon
A **formation**, or rock formation, is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. 

A formation consists of a certain number of rock strata. They have similar lithology (rocks), sedimentary facies (appearance) or other properties. Formations are not defined on the thickness of the rock strata, and the thickness of different formations can therefore vary widely.

The concept of formally defined layers or strata is central to stratigraphy. A formation can be divided into 'members' and are themselves packed together in 'groups'.

Formations were initially described as time markers, based on relative dating and the law of superposition. The divisions of the history of the Earth were the formations described and put in chronological order by the geologists and stratigraphers of the 18th and 19th centuries. 

Rock formations are formed by sedimentary deposition in environments which may persist for hundreds of millions of years. For example, the Hammersley Basin in Pilbara, Western Australia, is a Proterozoic sedimentary basin where up to 1200 million years of sedimentation is preserved intact. Here, up to 300 million years is represented by a single unit of banded iron formation and shale.

In order
--------

* Stratigraphic **groups**
	+ **Formations**
		- **Members**
			* **Stratum** (the smallest unit)
**Geometer moths** are a large family of moths in the Lepidoptera. Over 23,000 species have been described. Most of them are nocturnal: only a few are active during the day. 

The imagos (adults) have wingspans between 10 millimetres (0.39 in) and 70 millimetres (2.8 in). Their caterpillars move in a special way, they seem to "measure the earth". For this reason, the caterpillars are sometimes called **inchworms**. 

A well-known species is the peppered moth (*Biston betularia*). Many species are classified as pests.

Adults
------

*Selenia tetralunaria*
Many geometrids have slender abdomens and broad wings which are usually held flat with the hindwings visible. They look a bit like butterflies, but in most respects they are typical moths. Most fly at night. They have a frenulum to link the wings, and the antennae of the males are often feathered. They blend into the background with camouflage. In some species, females have reduced wings.

Caterpillars
------------

Movement of a gemoeter moth caterpiillar
Most caterpillars have four pairs of feet in their central section but geometer moth caterpillars only have two. This means that they are unable to move like the other caterpillars. They use the front pair of feet to hold on to a support, and then they pull the rest of their body up close. Next, they use the pairs of feet in the back part of their body to hold on, and push the front part forward. This means they are often in a position which looks like the Greek letter Omega, as can be seen in the photo.

Sources
-------

* Scoble M.J. ed. 1999: *Geometrid moths of the world: a catalogue*. CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 0-643-06304-8
**Geoffroy's cat** (*Leopardus geoffroyi*) is a wild cat native to southern and central South America. It is about the size of a domestic cat. The species is relatively common in many areas, but is considered to be "near threatened" by IUCN.

The cat was examined and described by the early 19th century French anatomist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. He collected it on an expedition to South America.

Ecology and distribution
------------------------

Geoffroy's cats live in the Andes, Pampas (scrubby forest parts), and Gran Chaco landscape. They are found from southern Bolivia to the Straits of Magellan, at heights from sea level to 3,300 metres (10,800 ft). They prefer open woodland or scrubland habitats with plenty of cover, but are also found in grasslands and marshy areas. Although they are able to climb trees, they rarely do so, except to leave faeces to scent mark their territory.

Geoffroy's cat is nocturnal. It eats rodents, hares, small lizards, insects, and occasionally frogs and fish. Like other small cats, it is a solitary hunter, and only comes together during the mating season. Females have territories ranging from 2 to 6 square kilometres (0.77 to 2.32 sq mi), while males have larger ranges, reaching up to 12 square kilometres (4.6 sq mi).
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram showing the luminosity classes.
The Sun, as it would look without the Earth's atmosphere. It is a typical example of a GV star
A **GV star**, or **yellow dwarf**, is a main-sequence star. It is of spectral type G and luminosity class V on the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. The term *yellow dwarf* is a misnomer, because G-type stars actually range in color from white, for more luminous types like the Sun, to only very slightly yellow for the less massive and luminous G-type main-sequence stars. See spectral classification for a chart of star color by light type. 

GV stars are small (about 0.8 to 1.0 solar masses) and have a surface temperature of between 5,300 and 6,000 K. Like other main-sequence stars, a GV star turns hydrogen to helium in its core by means of nuclear fusion.

Our Sun is the most commonly known (and most easily seen) example of a GV star. Each second, it combines around 600 million tons of hydrogen to helium, changing about 4 million tons of matter to energy. Other GV stars include Alpha Centauri A, Tau Ceti, and 51 Pegasi.

Our own Sun looks yellow through the Earth's atmosphere due to Rayleigh scattering. Without that, it would look white. Even though the name "dwarf" is used to compare yellow main sequence stars from giant stars, yellow dwarfs like the Sun are 90% brighter than all of the stars in the Milky Way (which are largely orange dwarfs, red dwarfs, and white dwarfs).

A GV star fuses hydrogen nuclei together and release energy for around 10 billion years. After the hydrogen is used up, the star will grow to many times its earlier size and become a red giant like Aldebaran. Eventually the red giant will lose its outer layers of gas, which will become a planetary nebula, while the inside of the star (also known as the core) will cool and shrink into a small, very dense white dwarf.

Other articles
--------------

* Red dwarf
* Brown dwarf
**Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier** (23 August 1769–13 May 1832), usually called **Cuvier**, was a French naturalist and zoologist.

Cuvier was a very important figure in scientific circles in Paris during the early 19th century. He helped establish the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology by comparing living animals with fossils. He proved extinction was a fact. He was the most influential person believing in catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century. His most famous work is the *Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation* 1817; translated into English as *The Animal Kingdom*.

Cuvier was a member of the elite Académie française and the French Academy of Sciences. He is remembered for strongly opposing the evolutionary theories of Lamarck and Geoffroy. Cuvier believed there was no evidence for the evolution of organic forms, but there was evidence for successive creations after catastrophic extinction events.

Some of Cuvier's most influential followers were Louis Agassiz, and Richard Owen. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

He was the elder brother of Frédéric Cuvier (1773–1838), also a naturalist. Cuvier died in Paris, of cholera.
See also: Ancient Kangleipak and Medieval Kangleipak
The Temple of Shri Govindaji in the "Palace Compound" in Imphal, was the center of Meitei Vaishnavism of the Meitei Hindus in modern Kanglei world.
Appearance of the Coat of arms of Manipur in the Flag of Manipur
The history of **Modern Kangleipak** or **Modern Manipur** covers the history of Manipur from the Seven Years Devastation from the Burmese Empire to the present day.

Seven Years Devastation
-----------------------

See the main article: Seven Years Devastation
The Burmese invaded Manipur several times but the most notable one was in 1819, during the reign of King Marjit. The Burmese occupied Manipur from 1819 to 1826. During this time, Manipur was devastated and there was chaos and anarchy everywhere. This dark period is called Chahi Taret Khuntakpa (Seven Years Devastation).

Manipuri Levy
-------------

There were exploitations of the Manipuri Levy, which was the first standing army of Manipur, born out of Manipur National Struggle against the Burmese rule during the Seven Years Devastation.

Anglo-Manipuri War
------------------

See the main article: Anglo-Manipuri War

In the year 1891, the historic Anglo-Manipuri war (Manipur's National Liberation Struggle) took place. The Manipuri soldiers showed their might in the losing battle, sacrificing their lives for the motherland. The combat ended with British victory.

Japanese bombing
----------------

See the main article: Battle of Imphal

Japanese bombing in Imphal took place several times in the history of Manipur, thereby creating high casualties to the people of Manipur. The first bombing was in the year 1942, heralding the beginning of the Second World War in Manipur.

Related pages
-------------

* Flag of Manipur
* Coat of arms of Manipur

Sources
-------

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*

Further reading
---------------

* 
* 
* 
*
***Freedom of Worship*** is a painting of Norman Rockwell and is one of his series of four paintings called the *Four Freedoms*. Rockwell was inspired to make these paintings since he heard the *Four Freedoms Speech* of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt of January 6, 1941.

Background
----------

This painting was made public in *The Saturday Evening Post* of February 27, 1943, along with an essay of Will Durant. The other paintings of the *Four Freedoms* series are *Freedom of Speech*, *Freedom from Want* and *Freedom from Fear*, and were shown in other editions of the paper.it is a very good pintor(norman Rockwell)

Rockwell needed various attempts to end up with this version of the painting. Former versions showed a number of customers in a barbershop, all with another religious and racial background. He found it to be difficult to make clear images that showed how a person of a certain religion looks like. He finally chose a neutral location where people of different race worship in their own religion. He took Vermont neighbors as models for his series.

The paintings toured through the United States with the motto *Buy War Bonds*. All together 1.2 million Americans saw the paintings and 132 million dollar was collected to be used in World War II.

The painting can be found in the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts.
In the Sanskrit language, **guru** means teacher. Eastern religions, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and newer movements such as Transcendental Meditation use *guru* as a title. They give it to a teacher (or guide) of religious matters. 

In Western usage, any person who has followers may be called a guru, even if he is followed for things other than religion or philosophy. A person with knowledge or expertise may be called a guru if he influences by personal teaching. Modern terms which have a rather similar meaning are mentor and tutor.

Satguru
-------

Many Hindus have a satguru as well.The word "guru" means the one who removes the darkness from our heart. Satguru means true guru or true teacher. The title means that his students know that the guru can be trusted and will lead them to enlightenment. A satguru is a great soul who has realized God and is able to lead others along the path. God shines out from the satguru more brightly than from other people because he is very pure and enlightened. The satguru is devoted full time to religious life, is unmarried and has given up all possessions, personal life, family and friends. He has received an initiation from his satguru that gives him great spiritual power and authority. He can teach parents how to raise children, adults how to avoid problems and overcome any challenge in life, and in general he can make people feel close to God.

Examples of gurus
-----------------

* Lao Zi
* Chuang Tzu
* Dalai Lama
* Gurdjieff
* Krishnamurti
* Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh
* Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
* Deepak Chopra
**G-sharp minor** is a minor scale based on G♯. For the harmonic minor, the F♯ is raised to Fdouble sharp.

Its key signature has five sharps.

Its relative major is B major.

The melodic and harmonic versions of the scale are written in with accidentals as necessary.

G-sharp minor is usually not used in orchestral music except to modulate, but it is more common in keyboard music, like Scriabin's sonatas. For orchestration of piano music (writing it so an orchestra can play it), sometimes the music is transposed to G minor or A minor. If G-sharp minor must be used, B-flat wind instruments should have their part written in B-flat minor, not A-sharp minor. 

In a few scores, 5-sharp key signatures in the bass clef are written with the sharp for the A on the top line.

Scales and keys
---------------

| * v
* t
* e
Diatonic Scales and Keys |
| --- |
| Circle of fifthsCircle of fifths | 

|  | Flats | Sharps |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Major | minor | Major | minor |
| 0 | **C**, **a** |
| 1 | **F** | **d** | **G** | **e** |
| 2 | **B♭** | **g** | **D** | **b** |
| 3 | **E♭** | **c** | **A** | **f♯** |
| 4 | **A♭** | **f** | **E** | **c♯** |
| 5 | **D♭** | **b♭** | **B** | **g♯** |
| 6 | **G♭** | **e♭** | **F♯** | **d♯** |
| 7 | **C♭** | **a♭** | **C♯** | **a♯** |
| 8 | **F♭** | **d♭** | **G♯** | **e♯** |

 |
| The table shows the number of sharps or flats in each scale. Minor scales are written in lower case. |
Ghezo was a king of the Dahomey in Benin in the 19th Century. After Ghezo’s father Agonglo died, Ghezo’s brother Adandozan became king. In 1818, Adandozan jailed Francisco Félix de Souza, a slave trader from Brazil but de Souza escaped and made a deal with Ghezo to launch a coup d’état to force Adandozan to abdicate. Officially, Ghezo was regent for Adandozan’s son Dakpo but then in 1838, Ghezo declared his own son Glele heir apparent. Dakpo and Adandozan decided to fight Ghezo to change this and the fight started a fire which killed Dakpo making Ghezo official king of Dahomey.

War with Oyo
------------

An empire called the Oyo had had the Dahomey pay taxes to them every year since 1730. Then in 1823, Ghezo refused to pay the tax the Oyo wanted. When the Oyo sent an ambassador to Ghezo to change his mind, Ghezo killed him. The Oyo then went to war with Ghezo and the Kingdom of Dahomey. Ghezo defeated and killed the Oyo leader Ajanaku and won the war.

Other Wars
----------

After beating the Oyo, Ghezo created his own empire which was based on slavery. Ghezo had people captured and enslaved so to escape him people ran away to a place called the city of Abeokuta. Ghezo started to wage war against Abeokuta to get slaves. 

Then in 1849, a man named William Winniett from the British Empire sent someone named Frederick Forbes to Ghezo to convince King Ghezo to end the slave trade. Ghezo ignored this and went back to attacking Abeokuta. After he lost in 1852, Ghezo decided to ban the slave trade but he went back to the wars against Abeokuta in 1858.

Controversy over the Slave Trade
--------------------------------

Because the British Empire wanted the Dahomey to end the slave trade it was a major controversy. One faction known as the Fly faction said that the Dahomey should end the slave trade like the British wanted. But King Ghezo and the Elephant faction said that they should keep the slave trade. Ghezo wanted to continue to sell slaves to Francisco Félix de Souza. In 1852, Ghezo still signed a treaty with the British Empire to end the slave trade. But in 1857, Ghezo brought it back.

Death
-----

In 1859, Ghezo died, either of smallpox or because he was killed by his enemies and his son Glele replaced him as king.
**G-flat major** is a major scale based on G-flat. Its key signature has six flats.

Its relative minor is E-flat minor, and its parallel minor is G-flat minor. This is usually replaced by F♯ minor because G♭ minor's two double-flats make it generally impractical to use.

Its enharmonic equivalent is F-sharp major, whose key signature also has six accidentals. In writing music in E major for B-flat instruments, it is preferable to use a G-flat rather an F-sharp key signature.

Ascending and descending **G-flat major** scale.
G-flat major is sometimes used as a main key for piano works, such as the impromptus of Chopin and Schubert, but rarely for orchestra.

Austrian composer Gustav Mahler liked to use G-flat major in his symphonies.

Scales and keys
---------------

| * v
* t
* e
Diatonic Scales and Keys |
| --- |
| Circle of fifthsCircle of fifths | 

|  | Flats | Sharps |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Major | minor | Major | minor |
| 0 | **C**, **a** |
| 1 | **F** | **d** | **G** | **e** |
| 2 | **B♭** | **g** | **D** | **b** |
| 3 | **E♭** | **c** | **A** | **f♯** |
| 4 | **A♭** | **f** | **E** | **c♯** |
| 5 | **D♭** | **b♭** | **B** | **g♯** |
| 6 | **G♭** | **e♭** | **F♯** | **d♯** |
| 7 | **C♭** | **a♭** | **C♯** | **a♯** |
| 8 | **F♭** | **d♭** | **G♯** | **e♯** |

 |
| The table shows the number of sharps or flats in each scale. Minor scales are written in lower case. |
**G-sharp major** is a major scale based on the musical note G sharp. Its key signature has six sharps and one double sharp.

To make reading easier, G-sharp major is usually written as its enharmonic equivalent of A-flat major. However, it does appear as a secondary key area in several works in sharp keys, for example in the Prelude and Fugue in C sharp major from Bach's Well-Tempered Klavier, Book 1. The G sharp minor Prelude and Fugue from the same set end with a Picardy third in G sharp major. 
G sharp major is used for a short time in several of Chopin's nocturnes in C sharp minor.

Scales and keys
---------------

| * v
* t
* e
Diatonic Scales and Keys |
| --- |
| Circle of fifthsCircle of fifths | 

|  | Flats | Sharps |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Major | minor | Major | minor |
| 0 | **C**, **a** |
| 1 | **F** | **d** | **G** | **e** |
| 2 | **B♭** | **g** | **D** | **b** |
| 3 | **E♭** | **c** | **A** | **f♯** |
| 4 | **A♭** | **f** | **E** | **c♯** |
| 5 | **D♭** | **b♭** | **B** | **g♯** |
| 6 | **G♭** | **e♭** | **F♯** | **d♯** |
| 7 | **C♭** | **a♭** | **C♯** | **a♯** |
| 8 | **F♭** | **d♭** | **G♯** | **e♯** |

 |
| The table shows the number of sharps or flats in each scale. Minor scales are written in lower case. |
The **giant squid** (*Architeuthis dux*) is a genus of deep-ocean dwelling squid. Giant squid can grow to a tremendous size: recent estimates put the maximum size at 12 metres (39 ft) or 13 metres (43 ft) for females and 10 metres (33 ft) for males from caudal fin to the tip of the two long tentacles.

There is a larger squid, known as the Colossal Squid.

Until 2005, nobody had ever seen a giant squid that was alive. Only dead giant squids had been found. On 30 September 2004, researchers from Japan took the first images of a live giant squid in its natural habitat. Several of the 556 photographs were released a year later. The same team successfully filmed a live adult giant squid for the first time on December 4, 2006.

There is no agreement as to how many species there are. The Kraken is also believed to be a giant squid,

History
-------

For many years, people would hear stories from fishermen about giant squids at sea. According to the stories, an enormous squid would wrap its arms around a whale, causing a terrible fight to start. Whalers said that sometimes, when they caught a whale, it would have scars as big as dinner plates on its body. Other times, when they cut open the stomach of some of their whales, they would find squid arms as long as 30 ft with suckers up to four inches wide. The whalers who told these stories either chopped up the squid parts to eat or use as bait, or they threw them back out to sea before scientists were ever able to examine them. However, in 1861, a French ship was able to bring back parts of a giant squid so scientists could study them.

Then, in the late 18th century, several giant squids washed up on shore, proving that giant squids really exist. After that, many giant squids were found washed ashore or dead at sea. Scientists grew very interested in these mysterious creatures, but few ever saw them alive. Scientists think they spend most of their time in deep, cold ocean.

The giant squid specimen preserved in a block of ice at the Melbourne Aquarium
In December 2005, the Melbourne Aquarium in Australia got the intact body of a giant squid, preserved in a giant block of ice. It had been caught by fishermen off the coast of New Zealand's South Island that year.

The number of known giant squid specimens was close to 600 in 2004, and new ones are reported each year.
Three temperature records. the Greenland ice core project sequence (red) showing the Younger Dryas event at around 11.0 ka BP. The vertical axis shows changes in O18 (oxygen 16), which is a temperature proxy for the water which ended up in the ice core.
A **Heinrich event** is one of the events which occurred during the coldest point of *Bond Cycles* in which many icebergs were discharged into the North Atlantic and melted.

Evidence for this can be found in the north Atlantic sediment cores which show poorly sorted, angular and contain rocks. These were originally in the icebergs but dropped to the bottom of the ocean when the icebergs melted.

Heinrich events are a possible trigger to the onset of mini ice ages which follow a long period of thaw. An example might be the Younger Dryas, a brief cold period from about 12.8 thousand years ago to about 11.5 thousand years ago.

The Younger Dryas stadial is thought to have been caused by the collapse of the North American ice sheets, although rival theories have been proposed.
A portrait of Heinrich Schliemann
The 'Mask of Agamemnon', discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876.
**Heinrich Schliemann** (January 6, 1822, in Neubukowin, Germany - December 26, 1890, in Naples) was a German archaeologist. He is famous for his work in discovering the ancient city of Troy.

Life
----

Heinrich Schliemann was born in Neubukowin, Germany. His father, Ernst Schliemann, was a minister. His mother, Luise Therese Sophie Schliemann, died in 1831 when Heinrich was 9 years old. When his mother died, Heinrich lived with his uncle in Neustrelitz. He went to a grammar school in the town for about a year. His father paid the school fees. Heinrich was very interested in history and was encouraged by his father to read history books. After he left school, he worked in a shop in Fürstenberg for about five years. He worked hard as an apprentice, but he continued to read in his spare time.

He was not able to work as an archaeologist at this time, so he moved to a company which imported and exported products. In this job, he visited many different countries around the world, and learnt to speak English, French, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Swedish, Italian, Greek, Latin, Russian, Arabic, and Turkish. His ability to speak languages was very important in his job. He later studied Latin and Ancient Greek in Paris.

In 1850, Heinrich's brother, Ludwig Schliemann, died, having got rich in the California Gold Rush. He moved to Sacramento, where he opened a bank, just like his brother. The new bank bought gold dust and sold it on to make money. In six months, the bank bought and sold millions of dollars' worth of gold dust.

Heinrich married his wife, Ekaterina, in 1852, but the marriage was troubled. Ekaterina kept encouraging her husband to make more money, but Heinrich felt that they were rich enough.

His work
--------

Nobody knows how Heinrich became an archaeologist, but he continued to travel to see famous historical icons around the world. He even disguised himself to get into Mecca, the holy Muslim city. He became very interested in Troy, which was involved in a big dispute at the time. He was inspired by many people in the city, especially Ferdinand Fouqué and Frank Calvert, who he met in 1868.

Many reports have said Heinrich buried a 'treasure' he found in Troy, dubbed Priam's gold.
**Gomal River** (Urdu: دریائے گومل) is a river in Afghanistan and Pakistan, with its headwaters in the south-east of Ghazni.

Within Pakistan, the Gomal river surrounds South Waziristan agency, forms the boundary between Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan. From South Waziristan, the river enters the Gomal Valley in Tank District at a place known as Girdavi, Murtuza which is inhabited by the Miani tribe. It is mainly here that the water of Gomal is used to cultivate the lands in Gomal Valley through Zam system (Rod Kohi). The river passes then through the Damaan plain in Kulachi Tehsil and later on through Dera Ismail Khan Tehsil, It then joins the Indus River 20 miles south of Dera Ismail Khan

Tributaries
-----------

The **Kundar River** is located in Balochistan, Pakistan. The meltwater from the Sulaiman Mountains forms the Kundar River and it flows through Balochistan and drains into the Gomal River. The two principal drainage channels of the Zhob District are the Zhob River and the Kundar River, both flow into the Gomal River. The general direction of the rivers is from Southwest to northeast. The Zhob River rises at Tsari Mehtarazai pass, the watershed a distance of about 400 kilometers. The broad plain of the Zhob River is occupied by the alluvial formation. The Kundar River rises from the central and highest point of the TobaKakar range, a few kilometers northeast of the Sakir. It constitutes boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan territory for a considerable length. The other subsidiary rivers or streams are the Baskan, Chukhan, Sri Toi, Sawar, Surab, etc.

The **Zhob River** (Urdu: دریائے ژوب) is located in Balochistan, Pakistan. The meltwater from the Sulaiman Mountains forms the Zhob River which flows through Balochistan and drains into the Gomal River near Khajuri Kachadd. Zhob city is located on banks of Zhob river.

Related pages
-------------

* List of rivers of Pakistan
*Stegomastodon* at the Smithsonian
The **Gomphotheres** were a varied family of extinct elephant-like animals (proboscidea). The early species had four tusks, and scratches on the teeth suggest they ate rough vegetable matter.

They had a wide distribution. They were common in North America during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, 12–1.6 million years ago. Some lived in parts of Eurasia, Beringia and, after the Great American Interchange, South America.

Beginning about five million years ago, they were gradually replaced by modern elephants. The last two South American species, in the genus *Cuvieronius*, did not become extinct until about 9000 years ago. *Stegomastodon* remains have been dated as recently as 6,000 years ago in the Valle del Magdalena, Colombia. 

Gomphotheres survived in Mexico and Central America until the end of the Pleistocene. 

The arrival of mankind in the Americas about 11,000 years ago is generally credited for the loss of large species of all kinds of animals. The details of this are unknown. 

 *Platybelodon* skeleton in a Hubei, China, museum
The relationship between the Gomphotheres and modern elephants is also unknown. The similarities might be due to descent, or might be due to parallel evolution, that is, to similar lifestyles.
**Immunity** is the ability of the body to defend itself from 'foreign bodies'. This means rejecting infections, clearing up dust which gets in the lungs, and killing cancer cells. 

Immunity is of two types. Innate immunity protects the host against infection, but has no 'memory', and so gives no long-term immunity.

The second type is adaptive immunity, which does have a kind of 'memory'. It does give long-term protection against specific pathogens.

All animals, plants and fungi have some innate immunity. Vertebrates also have adaptive immunity.

People can be immunised from some diseases by having a vaccination 
(injection of some dead or weakened virus, or bacteria that causes the disease). Vaccination builds on the natural immune system to make a person resist certain diseases. By doing so, the body reacts more quickly to fight the virus/bacteria when it comes.

History of immunology
---------------------

Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.

In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.

This and other observations of acquired immunity was later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory.

It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century. Humoral immunity (antibodies) and cellular immunity (T cells and dendritic cells). were all recognised.

Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Mechnikov.

Humoral immunity
----------------

Humoral immunity is immunity that is done by macromolecules. Antibodies, complement proteins, and certain antimicrobial peptides are in extracellular fluids.

Cell-mediated immunity
----------------------

This is an immune response which does not involve antibodies. Cell-mediated immunity is the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen.
The **hermit crab** is a type of crab that does not have a hard shell. They use old shells for protection. They especially like old whelk shells. When the hermit crab grows in size, it finds a larger shell.

Description
-----------

The hermit crab is a crustacean, but it is very different from other crustaceans. While most crustaceans are covered from head to tail with a hard exoskeleton, the hermit crab is missing part of its exoskeleton. The back part where its abdomen is located, is soft and squishy. Thus, the minute a hermit crab molts into an adult, it sets out to find a shell in which to live.

To get into the shell, the hermit crab squeezes in backwards, using its four back legs to enter the shell. The back legs have hooks that anchor the hermit crab into the shell without difficulty. The next four legs are used for walking, while the front two are its chelipeds. The chelipeds are not equal in size: one is big and other is small. The larger one is used for grabbing prey and guarding the entrance to its shell. All together, hermit crabs have a total of ten legs, including the chelipeds and the rear legs used to anchor to the shell.

There are about 500 different species of hermit crabs around the world, and they have different colors, often with patterns like stripes and dots on their bodies. Most hermit crab species live on the ocean floor, but many live on land. Female terrestrial (land based) hermit crabs must return to the sea to breed.

Diet
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Hermit crabs are omnivores (eating plants and animals) and scavengers (eating dead animals that they find). They eat worms, plankton, lime chips, and organic debris.

Fossil Record
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Hermit crabs first appeared in the Cretaceous period, before the Dinosaurs became extinct (died out). Fossils have been found where they have used Ammonite shells.

Reproduction
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The reproductive (sexual) organs of hermit crabs are located near and just below the animal's heart and open to the outside at the base of the last pair of walking legs in the male. In the female, they are located at the base of the middle pair of walking legs. Female hermit crabs usually lay their eggs shortly after copulating (mating) but they can also store sperm (male sexual cells) for many months. The eggs are fertilised as they are laid by passing through the chamber holding the sperm. The eggs are carried and hatched in a mass attached to the abdomen inside the shell. The number of eggs is usually large, but depends on the animal's size.

As pets
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Basic needs to keep pet Hermit Crabs: 

* Humidity gauges (humidity: 75- relative)
* Temperature gauges (temperature: 70-75 °F)
* Substrate: sand, coconut fiber (must be deep and soft enough to dig in so that crabs can molt)
* Minimum of a 5 gallon tank for one crab; and 10 gallon tank for about 20 crabs
* Shells (shells are changed during growth)
* Separate molting tank[dubious – discuss]
* Fresh water dish
* Salt water pool for submerging (aquarium salt)
Graphite
**Graphite**, like diamond, is an allotrope of carbon. They are very similar to each other but the different structures of the molecule affect the chemical and physical properties. Graphite is made of layers of carbon atoms. These layers can slide over each other very easily. This means that it is very soft. It is a dull gray in appearance. Due to the delocalized electrons between the layers, it can conduct electricity very well.

Graphite can be formed from coal put under high heat and pressure. Also, graphite can be turned into diamond with enough heat and pressure. This is how synthetic (man-made) diamonds are made.

Most graphite comes from mines in northeastern China. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Canada and the United States. It is also called **Lead Black** because it looks like the metal lead. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789 originating from the Greek language.

It can be used as a lubricant to make mechanical devices run smoother. The most common use of graphite is the "lead" in a pencil, which also has clay.

High-purity graphite is used as a neutron moderator in some nuclear reactors, such as RBMKs and AGRs.

Related pages
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* Carbon
*Ghosts* in the middle of play.
***Ghosts*** (Finnish: Kummituspeli, Swedish: Spökspelet) is a board game designed by Alex Randolph for two players, released in 1982 by Milton Bradley.

Gameplay
--------

The game takes place on a 6×6 board representing a haunted castle. Both players are given eight ghosts, of which four are good (marked by a blue dot) and four are evil (marked by a red dot). The ghosts are assembled in two rows of four at the player's own edge of the board. At each of the four corners is an exit from the castle.

The idea of the game is that neither player knows which of the other player's ghosts are good and which are evil. Facing the front, all ghosts look the same. The dots are only on the back. The players can arrange the good and evil ghosts how they wish at the start of the game.

The game is turn-based. On his or her turn, each player moves one ghost one square, either up, down, left or right. A ghost may capture an opponent's ghost by moving to its square. Only when a ghost is captured does the opposing player know whether it is good or evil.

If a player captures all four of the opposing player's good ghosts, he or she has won the game. But if a player captures all four of the opposing player's evil ghosts, he or she has lost the game. The game can also be won by moving one of the good ghosts through one of the exits at the opposing side of the board.

The strategy of the game play involves mainly trying to guess which of the opponent's ghosts are which by their movement patterns and trying to fool the opponent with confusing movement patterns.
**Village School** (commonly **VS**) is the oldest public alternative high school in New York State. It was judged very good by the Center for the Study of Educational Alternatives at Hofstra University. The American School Board Journal gave the Magna Award to the School for its excellent, unique, high school program. As a member of the Coalition of Essential Schools, the Village School and its staff work closely with other member schools and with the education faculty of Brown University. The Village School is officially recognized by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools and certified by the New York State Education Department. There are about 50 students enrolled in the Village School each academic year.

Village School is one of three high schools in the Great Neck School District, which includes Great Neck North High School and William A. Shine Great Neck South High School. VS offers its 46 students an individualized system where students earn credits as they meet curriculum goals that have been established by their teachers. Original, performance, and published documents are assessments of these goals have long been part of a Village School student's academic history. About 99 percent of the students continue their education at four-year schools.

The alternative school provides education for grades 9-12. Many types of students attend the Village School. The Village School's catalogue describes the students saying, 

> 
> All have at least average ability, some have exceptional learning abilities and artistic talents, while others have special educational needs. Students who may have felt lost and isolated in a large school often thrive in the smaller and more personalized setting of the Village School.
> 
> 
> 

The school describes itself as a "college preparatory public high school dedicated to encouraging academic success through a non-traditional, innovative curriculum". Co-founder Arnie Langberg has been called "one of the most important pioneers in the field of public alternative education." The admissions process at Village School is comprehensive. Each student takes part in an on-campus interview and is accompanied by a parent. The children are hand picked and visit the school twice before being considered a candidate for this program.
The **Habitation at Port-Royal** was an early French colonial settlement. Today it is a National Historic Site in Port Royal in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia.

The settlement
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Port Royal was founded by the French explorer Champlain after half of his men had died of Scurvy in his first settlement. Champlain worked with the Algonquain tribe to found Port Royal and, in return, fought with them and the Hurons against the Iroquoians. 

In May, 1613 the Jesuits moved on to the Penobscot River valley and in July, the settlement was attacked by Samuel Argall of Virginia. Argall returned in November that same year and burned the Habitation down while the settlers were away nearby. Poutrincourt returned from France in spring 1614 and found *Port-Royal* in ruins. The settlers were living with the Mi'kmaq. Poutrincourt then gave his holdings to his son and returned to France. Poutrincourt's son gave the settlement to Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour upon his own death in 1623.

Replica construction
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A replica of the settlement was built in 1939-1940. Today, this replica serves as the cornerstone of Port-Royal National Historic Site of Canada, and together with the nearby Fort Anne National Historic Site of Canada in Annapolis Royal, continues to remind of this important historic region for Canadians and visitors.

* EntranceEntrance
* BlasonBlason
* CourtyardCourtyard
* Outside viewOutside view

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Habitation at Port-Royal***.

* Censuses of Canada - 1665 to 1871 - Early French Settlements Archived 2004-08-09 at the Wayback Machine
* Port-Royal National Historic Site of Canada Archived 2007-06-14 at the Wayback Machine
* Acadian Ancestral Home - repository of Acadian history and genealogy
* Saint Croix Island International Historic Site
* An Essay on Port Royal Archived 2008-04-09 at the Wayback Machine
Picture of an analytical ICP viewed through green welder's glass
An **inductively coupled plasma** (**ICP**) is a type of plasma source. Electromagnetic induction creates energy in the source by causing ions to circulate. Movement of the ions generates energy in the form of heat.

Operation
---------

Inductively coupled plasma sources usually use argon as a fuel. Unfortunately, most ICP sources require at least 5 L/min of argon. This makes inductively coupled plasma a rather expensive source. The argon atoms are ionized with a spark from tesla coil. These ions will circulate due to the magnetic field to produce heat and high temperatures. This will cause additional ions to be formed from the argon fuel. After a period of time, the torch will reach temperatures between 6 000 and 10 000 Kelvin.

Applications
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The high temperatures produced by ICP make it a popular source for many scientific experiments. This source had the advantage of providing strong signals and only small amounts of noise or interference. Also, the data obtained from experiments using an inductively coupled plasma source is often linear. This makes it easy for scientists to determine the amount of something in a sample. Some of the most common applications are 

* ICP-AES, a type of atomic emission spectroscopy
* ICP-MS, a type of mass spectrometry.
* ICP-RIE, a type of reactive-ion etching.

ICP-AES
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Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy is one of the most common applications of ICP. The plasma source is used to heat a sample. At high enough temperatures, electrons in the sample atoms will gain enough energy to move into an excited state. Energy is released in the form of photons when electrons "fall" from the excited state to a lower energy. The lower energy state is usually called the ground state of an atom.

The wavelength of the emissions are determined by a detector. Most atoms will emit light at different wavelengths so scientists may use this information to identify atoms in a sample. The intensity of emission is related to the amount of an atom in the sample. Scientist may use the wavelength and intensity to determine both the identity and amount of an atom. ICP-AES is often used for the detection of toxins, such as heavy metals. It may also be used for chemical studies.

Detection
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Inductively coupled plasma source may be used for the detection of approximately 60 different elements. These include most alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, metalloids, all transition metals, and some f-block elements.

Related pages
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* Plasma (physics)

Other websites
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* Inductively Coupled Plasma by Traci Bradford and M. Nicole Cook Archived 2008-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
**The Stock Exchange of Hong Kong Limited** (sometimes shortened to **SEHK**), is a stock exchange located in Hong Kong. It is East Asia's and Asia's third largest stock exchange in terms of market capitalization behind the Tokyo Stock Exchange and Shanghai Stock Exchange, and the sixth largest in the world before Euronext. As of 31 October 2016, SEHK had 1,955 listed companies, 989 of which are from mainland China (Red chip, H share and P chip), 856 from Hong Kong and 110 from other countries and region (e.g. Macau, Taiwan, Malaysia, United States, Singapore, etc.)  Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing owns SEHK and is itself listed on SEHK.

The physical trading floor at Exchange Square (Hong Kong) closed in 2017, due to the shift towards electronic trading. By 2014, it accounted for less than 1% of trade volume.

The logo of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange inside the Exchange Square
**Hong Kong Stock Exchange** (Traditional Chinese: **香港交易所**, also **港交所**; sometimes shortened to HKEX ; **SEHK**: 0388[*permanent dead link*]) is a stock exchange in Hong Kong.

It is mostly owned by Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing, which also controls Hong Kong Futures Exchange Limited (HKFE) and Hong Kong Securities Clearing Company Limited.
The Feldherrnhalle on the Odeonsplatz
Lions at the Feldherrnhalle by Wilhelm von Rümann
Statue commemorating the Franco-Prussian war inside the Feldherrnhalle
The **Feldherrnhalle** (Field Marshals' Hall) is a large loggia in Munich, Germany. It was made similar to the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence, Italy The building was commissioned in 1841 by King Ludwig I of Bavaria. He had it built to honour the tradition of the Bavarian Army.

In 1923, it was the site of the brief battle that ended Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch. During the Nazi era, it was a monument to members of the Nazi party who died there.

Structure
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The Feldherrnhalle was built between 1841 and 1844. It was built at the southern end of Munich's Ludwigstrasse. It is next to the Palais Preysing and east of the Hofgarten. Before it was built, the Gothic *Schwabinger Tor* (gate) was in that place. Friedrich von Gärtner built the Feldherrnhalle> He was requested to do so by King Ludwig I of Bavaria.

The Feldherrnhalle was a symbol of the honours of the Bavarian Army. It included statues of two military leaders; Johann Tilly and Karl Philipp von Wrede. Tilly led Bavarians in the Thirty Years War. Philipp von Wrede led the fight against Napoleon. The statues were created by Ludwig Schwanthaler.

R
A group by was added to the centre of the monument in 1892, after the Franco-Prussian War it represented the victory over France. The lions were created by Wilhelm von Rümann. They were added in 1906.

Site of the Beer Hall Putsch
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The Feldherrnhalle was the scene of a conflict on 9 November 1923. It was between the Bavarian State Police and the followers of Adolf Hitler. This was the end of the Nazis' failed attempt to take over the Bavarian State. That is commonly referred to as the *Beer Hall Putsch*. In the gun battle, four policemen and fourteen marchers were killed. Many more were wounded, including Hermann Göring.

Nazi memorial
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Stamp from Nazi Germany that shows the Feldherrnhalle, and the words "Remember november 9 1923".
After the Nazis took power in 1933, Hitler turned the Feldherrnhalle into a memorial to the Nazis killed there. A memorial to the killed men was put up on its east side. It is opposite the location of the shootings. This monument was called the *Mahnmal der Bewegung*. It was designed by Paul Ludwig Troost. The square in front of the Feldherrnhalle (the Odeonsplatz) was used for SS parades and rallies. New SS recruits took their oath of loyalty to Hitler in front of the memorial.

After the war
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At the end of the war, the Feldherrnhalle was changed back to how it was earlier. Local people smashed the *Mahnmal der Bewegung* to pieces on 3 June 1945. In the 1950s, a plan to move Bavaria's memorial to the unknown soldier to the Feldherrnhalle was ended. There was concerns that neo-Nazis would meet at the site.

On 25 April 1995, Reinhold Elstner set himself on fire in front of Feldhernhalle. He did this to protest against "the ongoing official slander and demonization of the German people and German soldiers".