recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Mossel Bay, South AfricaThe **Pinnacle Point Man** is a name given to a group of Homo sapiens believed to have lived in a cave at Pinnacle Point 164,000 years ago. This cave is near Mosselbaai/Mossel Bay on the south coast South Africa. Discoveries in the cave show that these early humans were able to work with haematite pieces, and used ochre to paint their bodies. The discovery challenges the widely held belief that modern human behaviour began only 45,000 years ago. It also challenges the view that this behaviour was reached through a "large cultural leap".

Because the African climate became cool and dry, the food resources were reduced dramatically. This was the reason why the Pinnacle Point man moved to the shores. There, they could eat marine creatures like mussels, snails and crabs. These men also used amazingly subtle tools. Microliths were mounted on wood shafts

The Discovery
-------------

Excavations in progress in one of the Pinnacle Point Caves, 2011
The startling discovery was made in 2007 by an international team, including the palaeoanthropologist Curtis Marean from the *Institute of Human Origins* of the Arizona State University and three graduate students of the *School of Human Evolution and Social Change*. They came to the conclusion that humans living in the cave started to eat new foods. They added shellfish and other marine resources to their diet. The cause for this evolution was the climate change. It is the first evidence that mankind was able to this. The report in the magazine Nature also reports that the evidence for using coloured pigments was also found. This is much earlier than the earliest known usage which had been from 70,000 years ago.

The findings give rise to the assumption that living near the coast has caused the changes.

### Searching for beginnings

The evidence shows that Homo sapiens evolved in Africa 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. At that time, the world was in an ice age, and Africa was a desert. But as archaeologica sites dating to that time period are rare in Africa, palaeonthologist Curtis Marean looked at different information. He studied geologic formations, the sea currents, climate data and much more. As a result, he was able to pinpoint his research to destinations like the Pinnacle Point cave, where the findings have been made.

Other websites
--------------

* Tagesspiegel vom 18.10.2007
* Paleoanthropologist Curtis Marean in Cave 13B at Pinnacle Point in South Africa Archived 2008-09-14 at the Wayback Machine
The very detailed image of the Pinwheel Galaxy by the Hubble Space Telescope.
This image of M101 combines data in the infrared, visible, ultraviolet and x-rays from four NASAs space telescopes. This view shows that both young and old stars are evenly distributed along M101s tightly-wound spiral arms.
The **Pinwheel galaxy** (**Messier 101**, **M101** or **NGC 5457**) is a face-on unbarred spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Major, the Great Bear.

The galaxy is 21 million light-years (six megaparsecs) away from us. It was first discovered by Pierre Méchain on March 27 1781. Charles Messier verified its position and included it in the *Messier Catalogue* as one of the last entries.

In 2006, NASA and the ESA released a very detailed image of the Pinwheel Galaxy, which was the largest and most detailed image of a galaxy by the Hubble Space Telescope at the time. The image was composed from 51 individual exposures, plus some extra ground-based photos.

Interesting features
--------------------

On August 24 2011, a Type Ia supernova, SN 2011fe, was discovered in M101.

A remarkable property of this galaxy are its huge and extremely bright H II regions, of which about 3,000 can be seen on photographs like the Hubble image. H II regions have numbers of short-lived young and massive blue stars formed from clouds of high density molecular hydrogen. These regions give off huge amounts of ultraviolet light that ionizes the surrounding gas. 

The galaxy contains ULX-1 (an ultra-luminous X-ray source), which is a relatively small black hole, just 20 to 30 times the mass of our Sun.
An **N-type semiconductor** is a type of material used in electronics. 

It is made by adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor such as silicon or germanium. The impurities used may be phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth or some other chemical element. They are called donor impurities. 
The impurity is called a *donor* because it gives a free electron to a semiconductor. The purpose of doing this is to make more charge carriers, or electron wires available in the material for conduction. The final material is a lot more conductive than the original silicon or germanium.

Introduction
------------

Semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium have four electrons in their outer shell. The outer shell of electrons is called the valence shell. The four electrons are used by the semiconductor atom in forming bonds with its neighbouring atoms. This leaves a low number of electrons available for conduction. 

Pentavalent elements are those elements which have five electrons in their outer shell. To make the n-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurities like phosphorus or arsenic are added. Four of the impurities' electrons form bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms. This leaves one electron free. The resulting material has a large number of free electrons. Since electrons are negative charge carriers, the resultant material is called an n-type (or negative type) semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity that is added is called a 'dopant' and the process of addition is called 'doping'.

Manufacture
-----------

N-type semiconductors are manufactured by doping pure semiconductor material. The amount of impurity added is very small compared to the amount of semiconductor. The way this new semiconductor works is changed by controlling the quantity of the dopant.

Related pages
-------------

* Semiconductor
* P-type Semiconductor

Other websites
--------------

* The Doping of Semiconductors - Hyperphysics
The Venus Flytrap is one of a small group of plants that are capable of rapid movement
*Mimosa pudica* folding leaflets inward
**Rapid plant movement** means quick movement of plant structures, usually under a second. 

For example, the Venus Flytrap closes its trap in about 100 milliseconds. Some other carnivorous plants, such as the bladderworts, also have a rapid response to insects.

The Dogwood Bunchberry, *Cornus canadensis*, has a flower which opens its petals and fires pollen in less than 0.5 milliseconds. The record is currently held by the White Mulberry tree, *Morus alba*, whose leaves are used to cultivate silkworms. It is also notable for the rapid release of its pollen, which is launched at over half the speed of sound. The stamens act as catapults, releasing stored elastic energy in just 25 µs. "This is the fastest motion yet observed in biology, and approaches the theoretical physical limits for movements in plants".

The very widespread genus *Impatiens* gets its common name, "touch-me-not", from its seed capsules. When the capsules mature, they "explode" when touched, shooting seeds several metres away.
A comparatively slow-moving plant is *Mimosa pudica*, which closes its leaflets in a graceful sequence.

These rapid plant movements contrast with the more common, and much slower "growth-movements" of plants. They are called *tropisms*. 

Charles Darwin in 1880 published his last work before his death, *The Power of Movement in Plants*.

Related pages
-------------

* Charles Darwin's books
Rock cave on Cave Hill, Mount Cole State Forest
The Ferntree Waterfalls, Mount Cole State Forest, Victoria, Australia
The **Mount Cole State Forest** is in western Victoria, Australia, near the town of Beaufort. The forest is around Mount Cole, which formed 390 million years ago. The Indigenous Australians, the Beeripmo balug people, called it *Bereep-bereep*, which means *wild*. The forest covers an area of 12,150 hectares, including the forest around Mount Lonarch.

The forest is on a plateau which is above grassy plains. The plateau is about 760 metres above sea level. High peaks in the forest include Mount Buangor (1,090 metres), Mount Cole (899 metres) and Ben Nevis (877 metres).

The main trees in the southern part of the forest are Messmate (Eucalyptus oblique), Manna Gum (Eucalyptus viminalis), and Blue Gums (Eucalyptus st johnii). In the north, which is drier, there are Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melliodora), and Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorryncha). There is also the rare Mount Cole Grevillea, Grevillea montis-cole. On the high peaks there are groups of Snow Gums (Eucalyptus pauciflora).

There have been 130 different birds seen in the forest. Animals include kangaroos, wallabies, echidna, koalas and possums. In 1954, 160 koalas were set free in the forest to as part of a plan to re-establish the animals in Victorian forests. In the 19th century, deer were introduced and Sambar deer are still living in the wet gullies in the south of the forest.

Activities in the forest include camping, walking, four wheel driving, horse riding, and bird watching.

The purpose of the forest is to supply good quality hardwood logs for sawmills. The management plan for the forest also protects the water catchments of several creeks which supply water to nearby towns.

Mount Buangor State Park
------------------------

An area of 1,940 hectares, the Mount Buangor State Park, was protected from logging in 1973. This park includes the waterfalls on Middle Creek, and the large rock faces and caves on Cave Hill.

Mount Cole State Forest in clouds, looking from Middle Creek, Victoria, Australia
The **Quadrivium** is the medieval education which led to the Master of Arts (MA) degree. The Quadrivium follows the Trivium in a liberal arts education.

The quadrivium consisted of four disciplines which were related to mathematics:

* Arithmetic (numbers)
* Geometry (space)
* Music (time: harmonics)
* Astronomy (time and space)

These four studies compose the secondary part of the curriculum outlined by Plato in *The Republic*.

All the education was done in Latin, which educated pupils learnt at school, or from a private tutor. Latin was the *lingua franca* (universal language) of mediaeval Europe: even the Bible could only be read in Latin. Since the quadrivium was taught in universities, only boys could take it (because only males took part in universities). The teaching was done by priests. If girls wanted education, it had to be done in their homes. In the modern form of liberal arts in the United States, both sexes are taught, although there are still a few single-sex institutions.
Potassium chromate
**Potassium chromate** is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is K2CrO4. It has potassium and chromate ions.

Properties
----------

It is a yellow crystalline solid. It is an oxidizing agent in an acidic condition. It is toxic though, because it contains chromium in its +6 oxidation state. It can be destroyed by reaction with reducing agents. It is very rarely found in the ground. It reacts with lead nitrate to make lead chromate, a yellow pigment.

Preparation
-----------

It is made by reacting chromium trioxide with potassium hydroxide. It can also be made by oxidation of potassium hydroxide and chromium(III) oxide.

Occurrence
----------

Potassium chromate is found very rarely as a mineral. It dissolves easily in water. It is only found in very dry places.

Uses
----

It is used to test for chloride ions. It can also be used to make lead chromate for paint.

Safety
------

Potassium chromate is very toxic. It is a carcinogen. It reacts with reducing agents violently when in acid.

Related pages
-------------

* Dichromate
* Sodium chromate
* Chromium(III) oxide
The **oystercatcher** is a species of bird that lives around Europe and Asia. They usually eat shellfishes that are found on beaches and mud. The Eurasian Oystercatcher uses its sharp bill to open the shells of oysters and mussels. It cuts the muscle between the two halves of the shell together, or it crashes the shell against a rock and eats the oyster inside.

Lifestyle and adaptations
-------------------------

The oystercatcher has the heaviest bill (= beak) of any living wader. They have "resource polymorphism": they have some different beak types, and each type is used for a different kind of feeding. Unusually, the polymorphism is not genetically determined. It seems individuals are able to change their beak to suit their food. They do, of course, inherit an ability to adapt their feeding behaviour.

"Stabbers" work by jabbing their bill tips between the valves of a mussel's shell. "Hammerers" open mussel shells by banging down on them; some hammerers only break the dorsal side, others only break the ventral side. Still others feed on worms, and they have narrow, tweezer-like bill tips.

The bird's bills grow at 0.4 mm per day, which is four times as fast as human fingernails. Individuals forced to switch from mussel-eating to worm-eating were able to change their bill shape in 10 days.

With bills like that, oystercatchers are dangerous opponents for other birds. They can fight off predators, and often raid other birds to steal their catches. "They attack other birds at an average of five-minute intervals during low tide". They get as much as 60% of their food by theft.

Oystercatchers may live to 35 years.
**Romanization of Greek** is a way to write the Greek language (either Ancient or Modern Greek) with the Roman alphabet. That can be done by mapping either letters (called transliteration) or sounds (called transcription. The Greek name Ἰωάννης can be transliterated as *Johannes*, which became John in Modern English. In Modern Greek, it is generally written Γιάννης, which transliterates to *Yannis*. The masculine Greek word Ἅγιος or Άγιος might variously appear as *Hagiοs*, *Agios*, *Aghios* or *Ayios*, or it might simply be translated as "Holy" or "Saint" in English forms of Greek placenames.

Traditional English renderings of Greek names originated from Roman systems that were established in antiquity. The Roman alphabet was a form of the Cumaean alphabet, which was itself developed from the Euboean script, which used Χ as /ks/, Η as /h/, and variant forms of Λ and Σ that later became L and S. When the Euboean script was used to write the classical Greek alphabet, ⟨κ⟩ was replaced with ⟨c⟩, ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ became ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ were simplified to ⟨i⟩ (more rarely, corresponding to an earlier pronunciation, to ⟨e⟩) and ⟨u⟩. Aspirated consonants like ⟨θ⟩, ⟨φ⟩, initial-⟨ρ⟩, and ⟨χ⟩ simply wrote out the sound: ⟨th⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, and ⟨ch⟩. Because English orthography has changed so much from the original Greek, modern scholarly transliteration now usually renders ⟨κ⟩ as ⟨k⟩ and the diphthongs ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩. Modern scholars also increasingly render ⟨χ⟩ as ⟨kh⟩.[*source?*] Greek sounds greatly changed, and Modern Greek sounds quite different from Ancient Greek. That also has had an influence on the terms used in English and other languages and had led to a number of different romanizations for names and placenames in the 19th and the 20th centuries. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT) issued its system in co-operation with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1983. The system was adopted (with minor modifications) by the United Nations' Fifth Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names at Montreal in 1987, by the United Kingdom's Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN) and by the United States' Board on Geographic Names (BGN) in 1996, and by the ISO itself in 1997. Romanization of names for official purposes, as with passports and identity cards, were required to use the ELOT system within Greece until 2011, when a legal decision permitted Greeks to use irregular forms (such as "Demetrios" for Δημήτριος) provided that official identification and documents also list the standard forms (as, for example, "Demetrios OR Dimitrios"). Other romanization systems are the BGN/PCGN's earlier 1962 system and the system employed by the American Library Association and the United States' Library of Congress.
**Romanization** or **Latinization** of Ukrainian is how to write the Ukrainian language in Latin letters. Latin letters are the type that are currently used for this article.

This makes the language easier for non-Ukrainian people to read and pronounce.

There are two different kinds of Romanization. These methods are transliteration, representing written text, and transcription, representing the spoken words.

Transliteration
---------------

Transliteration is the letter-for-letter representation of text using a Latin writing system.

The International scholarly system, also called scientific transliteration, is most often seen in linguistic publications about Slavic languages. Each character represents one phoneme, one meaningful unit of sound. This is based on the Croatian Latin alphabet.

Transcription
-------------

Transcription is the representation of the spoken word. Phonetic transcription represents every single sound, or phone, and can be used to compare different dialects of a language. It is more specifed as the Transliteration.

Table of latinization Ukrainian letters
---------------------------------------

Common systems for latinization Ukrainian| Cyrillic | Scholarly | Nationala | French | German | Alternative |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| А а | a | a | a | a | a |
| Б б | b | b | b | b | b |
| В в | v | v | v | w | v (Before vowels), w (Before Consonants) |
| Г г | h | h, ghb | h | h | q |
| Ґ ґ | g | g | g | g | g |
| Д д | d | d | d | d | d |
| Е е | e | e | e | e | e |
| Є є | je | ie, yec | ie | je | je |
| Ж ж | ž | zh | j | sh | zh |
| З з | z | z | z | s | z |
| И и | y | y | y | y | y |
| І і | i | i | i | i | i |
| Ї ї | ji | i, yic | ï, yi | ji | ji |
| Й й | j | i, yc | i | j | j |
| К к | k | k | k | k | k |
| Л л | l | l | l | l | l |
| М м | m | m | m | m | m |
| Н н | n | n | n | n | n |
| О о | o | o | o | o | o |
| П п | p | p | p | p | p |
| Р р | r | r | r | r | r |
| С с | s | s | s | s, ss | s |
| Т т | t | t | t | t | t |
| У у | u | u | ou | u | u |
| Ф ф | f | f | f | f | f |
| Х х | x *or* ch | kh | kh | ch | x |
| Ц ц | c | ts | ts | z | c |
| Ч ч | č | ch | tch | tsch | ch |
| Ш ш | š | sh | ch | sch | sh |
| Щ щ | šč | sch | chtch | schtsch | sch |
| Ю ю | ju | iu, yuc | iou | ju | ju |
| Я я | ja | ia, yac | ia | ja | ja |
| Ь ь | ′ | ’ | – | – | j |
| ’ | - | "| – | – | h |

a Notes for the Ukrainian National system
* Transliteration can be rendered in a simplified form:
	+ Doubled consonants *ж, х, ц, ч, ш* are simplified, for example Запоріжжя→*Zaporizhia*.
	+ Apostrophe and soft sign are omitted, except for *ьо* and *ьї* which are always rendered as *’o* and *’i*.

b. *gh* is used in the romanization of *зг* (*zgh*), avoiding confusion with *ж* (*zh*).  

c. The second variant is used at the beginning of a word.
The **National Serbian Clarinet Association** (**NSCA**, Serb. *Национална српска кларинетистичка асоцијација*/*Nacionalna srpska klarinetistička asocijacija*) is an association established in 2015, by Serbian clarinetists. Most of the founders were members of the International Clarinet Association (ICA) and European Clarinet Association (ECA) who are active professional performers of classical music. There are also students and clarinetists who perform other genres of music.

Aims
----

The main aims of the NSCA, declared in its Founding Act and Statute, include assembling Serbian clarinetists interested in researching the clarinet and clarinet literature, organizing clarinet-related events, and collaborating with foreign clarinetists and clarinet associations.

Board of Directors
------------------

The Board of Directors consists of:

* Andrija Blagojevic, clarinet professor at the University in Kosovska Mitrovica, the first clarinetist in Serbia who joined the ICA and ECA and the International Clarinet Association National Chairperson for Serbia since 2009, who serves as president of the NSCA Board;
* Predrag Nedeljkovic, bass clarinettist of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra, the most important Serbian orchestra;
* Milan Orlovic, principal clarinetist of the Nis Military Orchestra;
* Darko Percevic, clarinet teacher at Music School "Stevan Mokranjac" in Negotin, who got his master’s degree from the Zürcher Hochschule der Künste in Switzerland and is currently pursuing his post-master’s degree at the University of the Arts in Belgrade, Serbia;
* Mihailo Samoran, second and E-flat clarinetist of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra and doctoral student in both clarinet performance and chamber music at the University of the Arts in Belgrade.

Council
-------

The Council members are: Nicholas Cox (UK), Heike Fricke (Germany), James Gillespie (USA), Andrea Massimo Grassi (Italy), Alan R. Kay (USA), Joze Kotar (Slovenia), Milan Milosevic (Canada), Jean-Marie Paul (France), Kyrill Rybakov (Russia), Vladimir Skorokhodov (Belarus), Robert Spring (USA), Stephan Vermeersch (Belgium), Eva Wasserman-Margolis (Israel), Anton Weinberg (UK) and Floyd Williams (Australia).

Sources
-------

* European Clarinet Association - News Archived 2016-11-29 at the Wayback Machine
* European Clarinet Association Newsflash, July 2016, Retrieved on July 16, 2018
Mark A. Hershkovitz is an American curator and biochemist.
This author is usually abbreviated «Hershk.» when citing a botanical name.

Taxa by M A Hershkovitz
-----------------------

Calandrinia jompomae

Cistanthe amaranthoides (Phil.)Carolin ex Hershk.

C arenaria (Cham.) Carolin ex Hershk.

C calycina Carolin ex Hershk.

C.celosioides (Phil.)Carolin ex Hershk.

C.cephalophora (I.M.Johnston)Carolin ex Hershk.

C.coquimbensis (Barneoud)Carolin ex Hershk.

C.cymosa(Phil.) Hershk.

C densiflora (Barnéoud)Hershk.

* Phemeranthus spinescens Phemeranthus spinescens

C.monandra

Works
-----

Hershkovitz, M.A. & Zimmer, E.A. 2000. Ribosomal DNA evidence and disjunctions of western American Portulacaceae Mol. Phylogenetics and Evolution 15(3): 419–439.

Hershkovitz M.A. Arroyo M.T.K, Bell C. and Hinojosa L.F 2006
Phylogeny of Chaetanthera (Asteraceae: Mutisieae) reveals both ancient and recent origins of the high elevation lineages Archived 2019-05-05 at the Wayback Machine Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 41: 594-605.
Pevensey, Sussex, England
**Pevensey** is a village and civil parish in the Wealden district of East Sussex, England. The main village is located 5 miles (8 km) north-east of Eastbourne, one mile (1.6 km) inland from Pevensey Bay. The settlement of **Pevensey Bay** forms part of the parish. It was here that William the Conqueror first landed on and invaded England in 1066 after crossing the English Channel from Normandy, France.

Name
----

The name *Pevensey* was first recorded in 947 as *Pefenesea*, meaning "River of [a man named] Pefen". It comes from the Anglo-Saxon personal name *Pefen* plus *eã*, meaning "river". This is probably a reference to the now largely silted-up marshes.

History
-------

Pevensey Castle
In the 290s the Romans built a fort at Pevensey, which they named Anderitum. In 471 Saxons attacked Pevensey and the fort was abandoned for centuries. When William the Conqueror invaded England in September 1066, he landed at Pevensey. The bay provided a safe haven for his fleet of 700 ships. The English army had been awaiting Duke William's arrival on the south coast all summer. With supplies running short King Harold allowed his soldiers to return home. When Harald Hardrada the king of Norway invaded northern England in late September, King Harold gathered his army and moved north to York, 250 miles away, to meet the invaders. William, meanwhile, moved his army and fleet to Hastings and built a castle while he awaited Harold and his army.

After the Battle of Hastings the Roman fort at Pevensey was occupied by the Normans. It was given to Robert, Count of Mortain (William's half brother). Robert de Mortain built his castle there. The castle was besieged several times during the 11th–13th centuries. Queen Elizabeth I ordered that it be demolished but the order was ignored. As late as 1942 small additions were made to the castle for the defence of Britain. It became a lookout over the channel for German aircraft during World War II. Today the castle is in the upkeep of English Heritage.
**Quantity** or **amount** is how much of something there is that can be counted or measured.

Counting
--------

Whole numbers (1, 2, 3 ...) are used to count things. This can be done by pointing to each one. As things are pointed to, a number is said. Start with the number one. Each time another thing is pointed to, the next whole number is used. When the last thing in a group it pointed to, that number is the quantity of the group.

Measuring
---------

Measuring is done with a ruler or a machine. We put a ruler next to a thing to measure how long it is. We put things on a scale to measure their mass. Other machines are used to measure other quantities such as temperature, speed, electric current, and so on.

### Decimal numbers

When measuring things, a whole number might not be the best answer. A distance might be longer than 5 meters, but less than 6 meters. Meter sticks are marked off in parts of a meter. Decimals are formed by marking off a ruler in ten equal parts. Each part is a tenth. 5.2 meters is a little bit longer than 5 meters. 5.7 meters is a little bit shorter than 6 meters. Each of these tenths can be marked with ten smaller parts. The one hundred centimeters on a meter stick are done this way; by marking ten equal parts, then marking ten equal parts of each of those parts.

### Fraction numbers

Fractions are used when there are parts of a whole number. The dial on a machine may be marked with four parts between each whole number. A scale with a bag of potatoes may show five and three-quarters kilograms. This would be almost six kilograms.

### The words "amount" and "number"

People often use the word "amount" when they should say "number". The words "number" and "amount" should be used if a particular number could be put: e.g.

* A large amount of sand (because you cannot say "three thousand sands")
* A large number of people (because you could say there were 3547 people).
A **phase** is one part of a cycle or change that goes in a circle. For example, the moon has phases. 
   

The seasons of the year, spring, summer, fall, and winter, are also phases. The planet Venus has phases, like the moon: Galileo showed that the phases of Venus meant it must go around the Sun, not the earth.

Graphs can be made for things that have phases. Things that have phases change in some regular way from time to time. For example, a pendulum in a clock moves from some position (called its "displacement") to the left (labelled -x with algebra), to the bottom, and then to some position to the right (labelled +x with algebra). Two pendulums may have the same length, but unless they begin swinging at the same time and place they will not move together. One may be swinging left while the other swings right. When something like that happens the two vibrations are **"not in phase."**

Graphing displacement of pendulum against time
Two pendulums may have the same period but not be swinging together. The pendulums are said to be out of phase with each other.
*Lunaspis*, one of the small early Petalichthyids, from Lower Devonian shales
The **placoderms** (*Placodermi*: Greek = *plated skin*) were a class of armoured prehistoric fish, which lived from the mid Silurian to the end of the Devonian period. Their head and thorax were covered by armoured plates; the rest of the body was scaled or naked, depending on the species. Placoderms were among the first jawed fish, the Gnathostomata. A 380 million year old fossil of one species is the oldest-known example of live birth.

The placoderms were hugely successful in the Devonian period, which is sometimes called the 'Age of Fish'. In the Upper Devonian, a series of extinction events devastated the marine fauna. As the placoderms were predators, this caused a swift decline in their numbers, and the class was entirely extinct by the end of the Devonian.

The main source of placoderm fossils is the Old Red Sandstone continent. This, in the Devonian, was a united North America and western Europe and the continental shelf areas around it. Fossils from these strata in Scotland were collected since the 18th century, and Louis Agassiz wrote the first survey of fossil fish. A century later, Eric Stensiö showed that placoderms were genuine jawed fish.

Remarkable fossils have more recently been found in the Gogo formation of northern Western Australia. This is a former Upper Devonian reef system, where well-preserved fossils of 25 species have been found. The relationship between the placoderm and other jawed fish is still not clear. Most placoderms were benthic predators, near the bottom of the water column. The largest types, such as *Dunkleosteus* and *Gorgonichthys* were 6 metre-long top predators in the middle and upper pelagic zones.

Related pages
-------------

* *Materpiscis*
A side (original)
B side (original)
some details
The **Phaistos disc** is a bronze age artifact. The disc is about 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in diameter and is made of clay. It is covered with many symbols. It is from the civilization of Minoa on the Greek island of Crete, possibly from the 2nd millennium BC. 

The symbols cover both sides of the disc. They show everyday things. They were stamped onto the disc, pressed into the clay when it was still soft. They run in a spiral. This disc is the first known "printed" work in history; in the sense that there was a re-usable set of characters and drawings. It is the only artefact of its kind. Many questions have been asked about the disc, about its purpose, and if the signs shown actually represent writing.

In total, there are 242 tokens on the disc, taken from a set of 45 unique signs. There are arranged in 61 groups, separated by lines. Groups are between two and seven stamps long. Because the "text" is very short, and the disc is unique, it is likely that it will not be deciphered.
Nicolás de Ovando
**Nicolás de Ovando** (Brozas, 1460 – Seville, 1511) was a Spanish soldier from a noble family and a knight of the Order of Alcántara. He was governor of Hispaniola from 1502 until 1509.

Early life
----------

Nicolas de Ovando was born in 1460 in the town of Brozas, in Extremadura, Spain. His family was very religious and, when young, he joined the military religious *Order of Alcantara* where, in 1478, he was named *Comendador de Lares* (*Commander of Lares*), a very important position in the Order.

Governor of Hispaniola
----------------------

As *Commander of Lares*, he was very appreciated by the Spanish Catholic Kings and, in particular, by Queen Isabella. On 3 September 1501 (Oviedo said in 1502), he was named as Governor of Hispaniola and of all lands discovered in America.

On 13 February, 1502 he went out of the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain to go to the Hispaniola island with a fleet of 32 ships. On the fleet, there were 2,500 people, including priests, soldiers and colonists (some of them with their families), who were going to live in the Hispaniola. Among those colonists was Bartolomé de las Casas, later known as the *Protector of the Indians*, and also Francisco Pizarro, who conquered the Inca Empire.

The plan of Ovando was to develop the West Indies economically and expand the Spanish influence in the region.

Ovando got in Santo Domingo on 15 April 1502.

Administration
--------------

The administration of Ovando in Hispaniola was one of great cruelty toward the Taíno Indians. When the Spaniards came to the island in 1492, the native population was 400,000 (estimated) but in 1508 there were only 60,000 Indians.

Because the new colonists needed more workers for the gold mines and farms, they brought, as slaves, Indians from the *Lucayas* (now, the Bahamas) islands. Then they brought slaves from Spain (*Ladinos*, that is, of Africa origin but born in Spain); those were the first African slaves brought to America.

Ovando founded several cities (or ordered their foundations) on Hispaniola, among them: Compostela de Azua (or Azua de Compostela), Santa María de la Vera Paz, Bayajá (today, Fort Liberté, in Haiti), Salvatierra de la Sabana (today, Les Cayes, in Haiti), Salvaleón de Higüey, Cotuí, Puerto Plata, Santa Cruz de Hicayagua (today, Santa Cruz del Seibo, Dominican Republic).

Ovando sent Andrés Morales to explore completely the Hispaniola island. Morales made the most complete map of the island. Sebastián de Ocampo was sent to find out if Cuba was an island or part of the continent; after 8 or 10 months, Ocampo came back with the information that Cuba was an island. In 1508, Juan Ponce de León was sent with 50 men to conquer the island of San Juan (now the island of Puerto Rico).

In 1509, Ovando went back to Spain where he was made *Comendador Mayor* ("Head Commander") of the Order of Alcantara. During a meeting of the Order in Seville, Spain, he died on 29 May 1511 (Oviedo said in 1518). He was buried in the Church of San Benito, in the city of Alcántara, Extremadura, Spain.
The **Sportvereinigung Braunau** was a football club from the Upper Austrian district capital of Braunau am Inn. On 31 January 2002, the club went bankrupt was dissolved. From the 1993/94 season until the club was dissolved, the club played eight and a half seasons in the second-rate First Division.

History
-------

The SV Braunau was founded in 1919 in the team room of the Braunau barracks. The colors were black and white. The first friendly match against SV Ried took place in the summer of this year. In the 1920/21 season, the young club won the championship title in the 2nd class Gau Salzburg, which as one of three second classes served as the foundation for the Upper Austria-Salzburg League, which was then organized by the Football Association for Upper Austria and Salzburg. In addition, SV Braunau played friendly games in the early years, mostly against teams from neighboring Bavaria and the state of Salzburg.

After the game was completely stopped in 1940 SV Braunau was started again in 1945 and took part in a championship for the first time. The next years were characterized by regular promotions and relegations in Upper Austrian football. 1991 SVB started to march through. They won the 2. Landesliga and next season the Landesliga. 1992/93 they reached also the promotion to the 2. Bundesliga.

At the end of the 1990s Braunau struggeled with debts of 3.5 million schillings. They changed its purchase policy and became a kind of training club for youth players of SV Salzburg who were not accepted into the professional squad of the Bundesliga club. Until the financial crash in January 2002 Bernd Winkler, Alexander Schriebl, Manfred Pamminger and Gerhard Breitenberger and others came to Braunau from Salzburg. All of them became important players.

At the end of 2000 Braunau could not pay the players' salaries for a long time. On 30 January 30 the club stopped playing and was finally was dissolved. The league was then played to the end with nine clubs, and all SVB games in the second half of the season were scored 0:3 for the other team.

Ground
------

The club played its home games in the local *Grenzlandstadion Braunau*. The capacity is 7500 people.

Honours
-------

* 1993 -2002: First Division (2nd tier)
* 2× Champion Upper Austria: 1992, 1993
* ÖFB- Cup Quarter finals :1998/99
**Milenio Televisión** is a Mexican television cable news channel owned by Grupo Multimedios.

Programming
-----------

The news programming uses the resources of the Milenio newspaper, one of the largest in the country. Programming is 24 hours a day. They have news, analysis and specialized programs. The channel is available in various pay TV systems at Mexico and the US, and on the internet. Milenio has also been available on the second digital subchannels of Multimedios television stations, as well as those of XHIJ-TDT and XHILA-TDT.

Production
----------

The network produces newscasts for Los Angeles called *Noticias 22 Milenio*. The newscasts air weekdays from 3 to 4 p.m. daily from 7 to 8 p.m. and daily from 10 to 11:30 PM (Pacific Time). on KWHY-TV 22.

History
-------

During 2012, Milenio Television began broadcasting on Digital Television on 12.2 of XHAW-TDT; until 2015 it moved to 12.2 of XHSAW-TDT. In 2017, it changed to channel 13.2. In February 2018, due to the change of XHAW-TDT from 12.1 to 6.1, XHSAW-TDT returned to 12.1 and Milenio Television in 12.2.

In 2016, Milenio Televisión's open signal increased when it was authorized to be transmitted as part of the multiprogramming of the main channel in the cities of: Torreón, León, Nuevo Laredo, Ciudad Victoria, Tampico and Matamoros.

As a result of the IFT-6 tender, Multimedia won frequencies in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Durango, Ciudad Juarez and Monclova, Milenio Televisión is available at stations in those cities.

Other websites
--------------

* Milenio Televisión
***Prosopis tamarugo***, commonly known as **tamarugo**, is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae. It is found only in the dry northern regions of Chile.

Description
-----------

*Prosopis tamarugo* are trees that could grow up to 30 m (98 ft) tall but usually they are, on average, 15 m (49 ft) tall and the trunk is 50–80 cm (20–31 in) wide. The young branches have spines. Flowers grow together in inflorescences and their pollination is made by bees.

Where it grows
--------------

The plant grows only in the Pampa del Tamarugal, some 70 km (43 mi) east of the city of Iquique.

The Pampa del Tamarugal is a plain between 19°33' S and 21°50' S, and an altitude from 300 to 1,200 km (190 to 750 mi).

Even if the Pampa del Tamarugal is very dry, the *Prosopis tamarugo* can use the relatively shallow ground water.

Uses
----

The wood and dry leaves of *Prosopis tamarugo* are used as firewood; the wood is also used for lumber. Leaves and fruits are used as food to animals, mainly to ruminants as cattle, sheep and goats.

Fruits are sweet and people can eat them.

Gallery
-------

* LeavesLeaves
* FruitsFruits
**Rosalind Franklin** (Notting Hill, London, 25 July 1920 – London, 16 April 1958) was a British biophysicist. She was known for helping to discover the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin was about 15 years old when she knew that she wanted to become a scientist. She attended St. Paul's Girls' School and then continued school at Newham College in Cambridge. At Newham College she got a Ph.D in physical chemistry. She worked on coal, studies of RNA, and viruses. She was one of the first people to do X-ray crystallography on DNA. She also spent several years working in Paris studying crystals. [3] She discovered the size, shape, and arrangement of molecules. She dedicated her life to discovering more about molecules. 

In 1951, she moved to London. She joined a group of scientific researchers at King's College. Her assignment was to take pictures of DNA. She looked at the structure and function of DNA in the pictures. This job was very difficult because technology was simple at that time. During this job, Franklin worked with a man named Raymond Gosling. He was also trying to photograph the DNA. Franklin also had to work with Maurice Wilkins. The scientists had many arguments, but Franklin kept working. Instead of working with Wilkins, Franklin liked to work with Gosling. She created X-ray pictures that showed that DNA is shaped like a double helix.

In 1951, Franklin presented her idea about the shape of DNA at a conference. A biologist named James D. Watson went to her conference. Watson and Francis Crick were biologists. They were also studying the shape of DNA. They were building 3D examples of the helix shape.  

Watson and Crick used Franklin's work in their work to discover the structure of DNA. Their final model was presented in 1953. They did not say that Franklin's thoughts helped them complete their work. She also discovered the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus 

 a couple of years before she died.

Franklin died from ovarian cancer in 1958. Nobel Prizes are not awarded after a person's death, so she was not considered for the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. It was awarded to Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins. 

|  |
| --- |
| Double Helix
* William Astbury
* Oswald Avery
* Lawrence Bragg
* Francis Crick
* Erwin Chargaff
* Jerry Donohue
* Rosalind Franklin
* Raymond Gosling
* Frederick Griffith
* Phoebus Levene
* Friedrich Miescher
* Fred Neufeld
* Sir John Randall
* Alex Stokes
* James Watson
* Maurice Wilkins
* Herbert Wilson
 |
| * v
* t
* e
 |
Illustration by Gustave Doré, c.1862
"**Rickey with the Tuft**" or "**Riquet with the Tuft**" (French: *Riquet à la houppe*) is a fairy tale by Charles Perrault. It was first published in Paris in 1697 by Claude Barbin in *Histoires ou contes du temps passé*, a collection of eight fairy tales by Perrault. The story is about an ugly but intelligent gnome prince who bestows wit on a beautiful but stupid princess in return for marriage. She renders Rickey handsome. The tale is not of folk otigins, but is a literary fairy tale. It has Cupid and Psyche and Beauty and the Beast elements. Similar tales include Catherine Bernard's version of the tale in her 1695 novel *Inès du Cordoue*, and Marie-Jeanne Lhéritier's "Ricdin-Ricdon". Another similar tale is Giambattista Basile's "Lo Cattenaccio" (The Padlock) from *Pentamerone*.

Story
-----

A fairy gives an ugly prince named Rickey the gift of conferring wit upon the one he loves the best. He comes to a kingdom with two princesses. The elder one is beautiful but unintelligent. The younger one is intelligent but ugly. The elder princess is saddened that her ugly but smart sister receives more attention than her. One day as the elder princess is walking in the forest to ease her sorrow, she is approached by Rickey who has fallen in love with her. Rickey asks how a person so beautiful can be so sad. She tells him she is sad because she is beautiful but stupid. Rickey bestows intelligence on her for a promise of marriage. A year later, Rickey returns to marry her. She refuses on grounds that he cannot hold her to a promise made before she gained her wisdom. The princess then tells him that she was gifted at birth with the power to transform her lover into a handsome man by the same fairy who helped him. The princess thinks of all Rickey's good qualities and at once he is transformed. The king has his daughter married to Rickey who has already made preparations for the wedding.

Other websites
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* Works related to Riquet with the Tuft at Wikisource
* Media related to Riquet à la houppe at Wikimedia Commons
Potassium hydroxide pellets
**Potassium hydroxide** is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is KOH. It contains potassium and hydroxide ions.

Properties
----------

It is a white powder. It dissolves easily in water to make a basic solution. It is corrosive to skin. It reacts with acids to give potassium salts. It is less common than sodium hydroxide. About 700,000 tons are made each year. It is hygroscopic, meaning that it absorbs water from the air and forms a solution. It is very hard to get the water out again. It releases heat when it is dissolved in water, similar to sodium hydroxide. It gradually reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form potassium carbonate. It melts easily. It feels greasy when it gets on the skin because it makes soap from the fat in your skin. It is made when potassium reacts with water.

Preparation
-----------

It is made by electrolysis of a potassium chloride solution. It can also be made by reacting calcium hydroxide with potassium carbonate. The calcium carbonate precipitates and is filtered, leaving potassium hydroxide.

Uses
----

It is used to make soap. It is also used in organic chemistry. It can be used to make fertilizers and other potassium compounds. It is used to make diesel from plants. It is used in alkaline cells and nicads as an electrolyte. It can be used to identify mushrooms.

Related pages
-------------

* Sodium
* Sodium carbonate
* Bicarbonate
**Mérindol** is a commune of 1,923 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. The town has a Mediterranean climate with hot and dry summers and mild winters. It does not rain very often and snow is rare. Protected by the Luberon, a mountain range, the town is sheltered from the mistral, a cold dry wind that blows from the north. The town was first built on a hill which was easy to defend. After the town was destroyed in 1545, it was rebuilt on the plain, near the river.

History
-------

A ferry was in use to cross the Durance River in the year 1240. Mérindol was abandoned, probably because of plague, in the 15th century.

In the late Middle Ages, Louis II of Provence sold the land to the lords of Abacus-Cental and Rocca Sparviera. They moved in farming families from Piedmont. The farmers were followers of Pierre Vaudes (Peter Waldo). They were part of a group, known as the Vaudois or Waldensians, who had separated from the Catholic Church in 1170. They believed in a simple life based on a line in the Gospel of Matthew. This put them in opposition to the rich and powerful church. In 1530, a Dominican priest, Jean de Roma, began a campaign against the Vaudois because he said they were heretics. His gangs attacked the town and burnt many houses and killed many of the people.

In 1540, de Roma arrested a flour miller from Mérindol, took his mill, and then burned the man at the stake. On November 18 1540, 19 more people were sentenced to death by burning at the stake, and the town was ordered to be completely destroyed. A group from the town went to the king to save the people and the village. He gave them until 1545 AD to give up their religion and rejoin the Catholic Church. On April 18 1545, the village was completely burned and about 12 of the Vaudois still living there were killed. Over one week there were attacks on 11 other small villages, and it is thought that about 3000 people were killed. Many of the Vaudois from Mérindol were able to escape and ran away to Switzerland.

The Path of Memory
------------------

The Path of Memory
In 1977, members of Vaudois organizations in Germany, France and Italy built a path in memory of the people who had been killed for their religious beliefs. The path leads to the ruins of the Vaudois church.
Mong Kok in Kowloon, which is part of Hong Kong, is one of the most densely populated places in the world.[*source?*]
Mongolian landscape. Mongolia is one of the least densely populated countries in the world. Most of its land is unlivable for humans. The land is mostly not arable and cannot support more people.
The **population density** of a country or city or other place is a number showing how crowded that place is. It is got by dividing the population by the area. For example, France has a population of 60,561,200, and an area of 551,695 square kilometres, so its population density is about 109.8 persons per square kilometre.

A number of factors affect population density. For example, the climate. Greenland has a very low population density because people cannot live on its large glacier (ice sheet) or survive in such frigid temperatures.

Many cities are near rivers, because the first settlers wanted somewhere close to water to start a society. Areas around rivers often have a high population density.

The population density of New York City is 10,292 persons per square kilometre. Other places, such as large countries, can have very low population densities. The population density of Canada is only 3.8 persons per square kilometre because it is such a big country.

The country with the highest population density in the world is Monaco, with 16,620 persons per square kilometre. The country with the lowest is Greenland, which has only 0.03 persons per square kilometre.

World map by population density

Related pages
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* Population growth
* Overpopulation