recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
The **Leeds and Liverpool Canal** runs from Leeds to Liverpool. It is 127 miles (204 km) long. It goes over the Pennines. There are 91 locks on the main line and several small branches. It is the longest continuous canal in the United Kingdom.

It was started when people saw the success of the Bridgewater Canal which opened in 1759–60. It joins the Bridgewater Canal at Leigh, by a branch from Wigan.

James Brindley made the plan, but he died in 1772. Work was started on both sides of the Pennines. This included some impressive engineering like the Bingley Five Rise Locks, Bingley Three Rise Locks and the seven-arch aqueduct over the River Aire. Work stopped in 1781 because the money ran out. It started again in in 1791, on a different route from the earlier plan, and the main line of the canal was finished in 1816. This included the Foulridge Tunnel, which was 1,640 yards (1,500 m) long and was very expensive, and the Burnley Embankment, which is 1,350 yards (1,234 m) long and up to 60 feet (18 m) high.

The Huddersfield Narrow Canal and the Rochdale Canal crossed the Pennines before it was finished.

The most important cargo was always coal, with over a million tons per year being delivered to Liverpool in the 1860s. Because it could have wide boats it competed successfully with the railways throughout the 19th century and stayed open through the 20th century.

In the Second World War a German bomb fell on it in Bootle.

In 2009 a new section was built, connecting it to the docks in the centre of Liverpool, which had become a centre of tourism.
Lefkada from Satellite
**Lefkada** is a Greek island. It is in the west of Greece in the Ionian Sea. It is the fourth largest island of the Ionian Sea after Kefalonia, Corfu and Zakynthos. Its total area is 303 square kilometers. Its population is 23,845 residents according to 2001 Greek census. The largest town of Lefkada is Lefkada (city). Its population is 10,875 people.

Sights - Tourism
----------------

Egremni beach in Lefkada
Lefkada is famous for its beautiful beaches. The island is surrounded by many beautiful beaches with azure-green color. The most impressive beaches are Porto Katsiki, Kathisma and Egremni. All of these beaches are in the west of the island. According to Guardian newspaper the Porto Katsiki beach is one of the most beautiful beaches in Europe.

Every year many tourists visit Lefkada. Tourists come from western European countries, most from Italy. The most touristic village on the island is Nidri which is in the east of the island. Opposite Nidri there are many small green islets. Among them is the islet Scorpios which belonged to millionaire Aristotle Onassis.

History
-------

The German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld, believed that Lefkada was the real country of Odysseus. In Classic period, Lefkada was a colony of Corinth. Later it passed under the Roman rule and Byzantine rule. In medieval era many conquerors passed from the island. In the thirteenth century Venice took the island from Byzantium. The Venetians remained in island for many years. The Turks conquered the island for a brief period but the Venetians took the island back and held it until 1797. Then the Napoleon's France took the island and after the island passed in England. In 1864, the English gave Lefkada to Greece, along with the other Ionian islands.
A drawing of our galaxy, the Milky Way. It is a similar picture to the map the player uses to explore the galaxy in Mass Effect
***Mass Effect*** is an award-winning 2007 science fiction video game published by Microsoft and developed by BioWare. It was released for the Xbox 360 and later on the PC. The game takes place in the year 2183. Players control an elite human soldier called Commander Shepard and are able to explore the galaxy on his or her spacecraft, the *SSV Normandy*.

Plot and Universe
-----------------

*Mass Effect* has a very detailed fictional universe, with many of the concepts based on real science. There are over 20 alien races the player can meet in *Mass Effect*, with more planned for the sequels.

### Themes

The game has a science fiction setting and explores themes such as space, racism, religion and the state of humanity. The main plot of the game involves the classic science fiction idea of robots or AI that have got out of control. According to the lead writer of Bioware, Star Wars, Aliens and Blade Runner were all influences on the games setting and plot.

### Setting

*Mass Effect* is set 180 years in the future in the year 2183. According to the back story humans discovered some ancient technology on Mars. This enabled them to build faster than light spacecraft. With this technology humans explored the whole Solar System. Twenty years before the game begins human explorers find that Pluto's moon Charon, is really a Mass Relay. Mass Relays are the only way to travel from one distant end of the galaxy to the other. Mass Relays are ancient technology created by the Protheans, the now exctict race that once ruled the galaxy. This enables spacecraft and people to be sent across the galaxy.
In music the word **mass** is used for a piece of music, to be sung by a choir. The Roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches use this. There are two very broad kinds of masses: Those using the **Ordinary** are not linked to the Church calendar, they use the same pieces (and words) throughout the year. The Proper covers the parts of the mass that vary through the year. At the start, masses were sung in Latin or Greek. Examples of masses not in English include the Deutsche Messe by Franz Schubert or A German Requiem by Johannes Brahms. 

The usual words that are set to music are known as the **Ordinary**. These are the words of the service which are the same every day. The Ordinary consists of five parts: Kyrie (Lord have mercy upon us….), Gloria (Glory be to thee….), Credo (I believe in God the Father….), Sanctus (Holy, Holy, Holy….) and Agnus Dei (O Lamb of God…).

The words of the mass that are not from the Ordinary are called the **Proper**. These are words that may change in the service from day to day. The Proper consists of the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Offertory and Communion. There are also some words which are special for particular feast days.

In the Renaissance period church composers set the words of the Ordinary mass to music. This music was normally polyphonic: the different sections of the choir (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) all had musical lines which shared the melody and were of equal importance. The words of the Proper were not composed to special music. They were sung to plainchant.

During the last two centuries many composers have written masses which were not meant to be sung in a church service: they are written as concert pieces. Some of them are quite long and fill a whole concert program. Some of the most famous masses are those by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Berlioz, Dvořák, Verdi, Bruckner, Fauré and Vaughan Williams.

Related pages
-------------

* Requiem
Lucky Diamond Rich pictured at the 2008 Montreal Art Tattoo
**Gregory Paul McLaren** (born 1971)[*source?*], who uses the name **Lucky Diamond Rich**, is a New Zealand performance artist, street performer and international arts festival performer. He does sword swallowing and juggles on a unicycle.

The Guinness World Records has said he is "the world's most tattooed person" since 2006. Tom Leppard, from England, was the most tattooed person before him.

Inspiration and first tattoo
----------------------------

He read about and became interested in the most tattooed men and women when he was a young boy. His first tattoo is of a small juggling club, on his hip.

All of him is tattooed, including the insides of his eyelids, mouth, ears and foreskin. Some of his black tattoos has tattooed with white or colour. His tattoos have been drawn on him for more than a thousand hours combined by hundreds of tattoo artists.

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Lucky Diamond Rich at Wikimedia Commons
The crater in winter, photo by Space Shuttle mission STS-9, 1983. North --> lower right
The **Manicouagan crater** is one of the oldest known impact craters. It is in the Côte-Nord region of Québec, Canada.

It was caused by the impact of a 5 km (3 mi) diameter asteroid about 215.5 million years ago, in the Upper Triassic.

The crater is a multiple-ring structure about 100 km (60 mi) across. Its inner ring is its most prominent feature. This is a 70 km (40 mi) diameter annular lake, the Manicouagan Reservoir, surrounding an inner island plateau. It is the earth's fifth largest confirmed impact crater.

Multiple impact event
---------------------

The Manicouagan crater may have been part of a multiple impact event which also formed the Rochechouart crater in France, Saint Martin crater in Manitoba, Obolon' crater in Ukraine, and Red Wing crater in North Dakota. The five craters form a chain, indicating the breakup and subsequent impact of an asteroid or comet, like the impacts of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 on Jupiter in 1994.

Laser argon-argon dating of the glass formed by the impacts, and stratigraphic evidence, support an age of 215 ± 25 mya. The impact places have moved far apart in the intervening 214 million years. Three of the craters—Rochechouart, Manicouagan and Saint Martin—formed a 5,000 km (3,100 mi) chain at latitude 22.8° N, while Obolon' and Red Wing lay on identical declination paths with Rochechouart and Saint Martin respectively. All of the craters had previously been known and studied, but their paleoalignment had never before been demonstrated. The chance that these craters could be aligned like this accidentally are nearly zero.
The Hindenburg in 1936
The Hindenburg shortly after it caught on fire
The **LZ 129 Hindenburg** was a large German airship, built in 1936. It was named in honor of the German field marshal and statesman Paul von Hindenburg. Such airships are called Zeppelin. Along with another Zeppelin, LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin, it was the biggest airship in the world at the time it was built.

The Zeppelin gained lots of publicity and became very famous. The boxer Max Schmeling flew on it back to Germany after defeating Joe Louis in the United States. It was also present during the opening ceremony of the 1936 Summer Olympics which were held in Berlin. This attention was part of the Zeppelin company's plan to offer a fleet of their airships for trans-atlantic service.

The disaster
------------

On May 6, 1937, the Hindenburg was landing in New Jersey after a transatlantic flight, when it burst into flames. 36 people died and many were injured. The Hindenburg was destroyed by the burning of the hydrogen that was inside it. There are many opinions on what started the fire. 

An announcer, Herbert Morrison reported the landing and then screamed and said, "Oh the humanity" after it caught on fire. Morrison's line is now famous around the world as well as photos and film footage of the disaster.

The rock group Led Zeppelin used a picture of the fire for the cover of their self-titled debut album.
Stephen A. Douglas broke with the Democratic party leadership over the Lecompton Constitution.
The **Lecompton Constitution** (1857) was one of four proposed constitutions for the state of Kansas. It was written by pro-slavery people. It included parts to allow slavery in the state. It also had parts to not include free blacks from its bill of rights. It was defeated on January 4, 1858 by a majority of voters in the Kansas Territory. The rejection of the Lecompton Constitution, and the admission of Kansas to the Union as a free state, showed the unusual and fraudulent voting practices. These practices had been used in earlier efforts by bushwhackers and border ruffians to create a state constitution in Kansas that allowed slavery.

The Topeka Constitution was written before the Lecompton Constitution. The Leavenworth and Wyandotte Constitutions were written after the Lecompton Constitution. The Wyandotte Consitution became the Kansas state constitution. The document was written in response to the anti-slavery 1855 Topeka Constitution. That constitution was written by James H. Lane and other free-state people. The territorial legislature was filled mostly with slave owners. They met at the chosen capital of Lecompton in September 1857. They met there to write a document that would compete against the other constitutions. Most actual settlers were anti-slavery. They [boycott]ed the vote. Territorial governor of Kansas, Robert J. Walker, was very pro-slavery. However, he was against the obvious unfairness of the Constitution. He quit being governor so he did not have to enforce it.

President James Buchanan was very pro-slavery, so he supported the Lecompton Constitution when it was sent to Congress. The president received the support of the Southern Democrats. However, many Northern Democrats, led by Stephen A. Douglas, voted with the Republicans to be against the constitution.

Lecompton Constitution, Lecompton Kansas, lecomptonkansas.comThe Lecompton Constitution was drafted and signed in Constitution Hall in Lecompton, Kansas. Today it is a museum operated by the Kansas Historical Society.

Related pages
-------------

* Topeka Constitution
* Wyandotte Constitution
* Bleeding Kansas

Other websites
--------------

* The Kansas Constitution on Wikisource.
* Constitution Hall State Historic Site Lecompton, Kansas
* Historic Lecompton.
* The Lecompton Constitution
Meissner
**Kimmie Meissner** (born 4 October 1989) is a figure skater from the United States. She won the World Championships in 2006 and the United States national championships in 2007. She is the second American woman and the sixth woman worldwide to do a triple Axel jump.

Life
----

### Career

#### Early career

Meissner was a very good skater as a child. In 2003, she won the Novice title at the United States nationals. In 2004, she won the Junior title. In 2005, she won the bronze medal at the Senior level. While this would normally have given her a spot to the World Championships, Meissner was too young to go.

#### Olympics

In 2006, she went to the 2006 Olympics, where she placed 6th. At the Olympics, she was called the future of American skating. The future came quickly. The next month, she won the World Championships, placing ahead of the Olympic silver medalist Sasha Cohen.

#### Four Continents Figure Skating

In 2007, Meissner won the United States championships and the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships, a competition for skaters from countries that are not in Europe.

Popularity
----------

Meissner is a very popular skater, especially in Baltimore, where she is from. She has done shows in Baltimore and is a local celebrity. Meissner has many endorsements, which means she gets money from telling people she uses products. She is also involved with the *Cool Kids*, which is an organization to help kids with cancer.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Kimmie Meissner***.

* U.S. Olympic Team bio
* U.S. Figure Skating biography Archived 2008-05-27 at the Wayback Machine
* International Skating Union biography Archived 2005-02-05 at the Wayback Machine
Badge of the London, Chatham and Dover Railway on Blackfriars Bridge
The **London, Chatham and Dover Railway** (**LCDR**) was a railway company in south-eastern England (registered 1 August 1859). It was previously called the East Kent Railway. 

Its lines ran through London and northern and eastern Kent to form a part of the Greater London commuter network. The railway was always in a difficult financial situation. It went bankrupt in 1867 but was able to continue to operate. Many of the difficulties were caused by competition and duplication of services with the South Eastern Railway (SER). However, in 1898 the LCDR agreed with the SER to share the operation of the two railways and work them as a single system under the name South Eastern and Chatham Railway. Receipts were pooled but it was not a full amalgamation. 

The SER and LCDR remained separate companies until they became part of the Southern Railway on 1 January 1923 (Railways Act 1921).

| * v
* t
* e
The "Big Four" pre-nationalisation British railway companies |
| --- |
| 
* Great Western
* London Midland & Scottish
* London & North Eastern
* Southern

 |
| GWR constituents | 
* Alexandra (Newport and South Wales) Docks and Railway
* Barry Railway
* Cambrian Railways
* Cardiff Railway
* Great Western Railway
* Rhymney Railway
* Taff Vale Railway
	+ *Full list*

 |
| LNER constituents | 
* Great Central
* Great Eastern
* Great Northern
* Great North of Scotland
* Hull & Barnsley
* North British
* North Eastern
	+ *Full list*

 |
| LMS constituents | 
* Caledonian
* Furness
* Glasgow & South Western
* Highland
* Lancashire & Yorkshire
* London and North Western
* Midland
* North Staffordshire
	+ *Full list*

 |
| SR constituents | 
* London and South Western Railway
* London, Brighton and South Coast Railway
* London, Chatham and Dover Railway
* South Eastern and Chatham Railway
* South Eastern Railway
	+ *Full list*

 |
| 
See also
History of rail transport in Great Britain 1923–1947
List of companies involved in the grouping
 |
A **Landmark decision**, or **Landmark court decision**, establishes new precedents that establish a significant new legal principle or concept. Or it changes the interpretation of existing law. In Commonwealth countries, a reported decision is said to be a *leading decision*. This is when it has come to be generally regarded as settling the law of the question involved.

A landmark decision is "a most important case which has establish a law firmly in an area, usually referring to a U.S. Supreme Court case." A landmark decision may have either long-term or short-term significance. Politics, economics or other changes in society may reduce the effects of a landmark decision. A landmark decision is one that changes an entire area of the law during a period of time.

The United States Constitution did not provide for judicial review of laws and court decisions. It was a power the US Supreme court assumed (took) for itself with its first landmark decision. In the decision *Marbury v. Madison* (1803) the court established its "power to say what the law is". The court gave itself the right to interpret the constitution.
**Laubach** is a town in the district of Giessen, in Hesse, Germany. Laubach is known as a "Luftkurort," which means "fresh air resort." Laubach is a small town. It has a population of about 10,000 people. It is 23 kilometres (14 miles) east of the city of Giessen. Surrounding Laubach are the small towns of Hungen, Grünberg, Schotten and Lich.

Solms Castle and Laubach houses
The Laubach woods are part of the foothills of the Vogelsberg (Bird Mountain). Laubach is an area of interest to tourists because it has many historic and colorful half-timbered (*fachwerk*) buildings,. The main attraction is the castle. The castle was built in the thirteenth century. It belongs to the Count Solms-Laubach family. One of the largest private libraries in Europe is inside the castle. The castle library has more than 120,000 books and manuscripts. In the Johann Gutenberg Museum in Mainz is an original Gutenberg Bible which came from the castle library. The castle grounds include a large park. There is a lake for swans in the park. The park is open to the public without charge.

Other buildings of interest
---------------------------

The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Laubach used to be named St. Maria. The oldest part of the church was built in the twelfth century. The church was renovated in the eighteenth century. Inside the church is a baroque organ.

The main street of Laubach is Friedrichstrasse. On this street is the former district courthouse Archived 2007-10-06 at the Wayback Machine, and the city hall, and the Heimat Museum.

The Heimat Museum Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine is the local history museum. It was originally built near the town of Gonterskirchen in 1750 by Count August Solms-Laubach. The building was moved to its present location in 1832. For many years it was a school. Now it is a museum. In the museum is a permanent exhibit honoring Friedrich Kellner.

Laubach people
--------------

Chief Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner (ctr), 1948, Laubach courthouse
* Sophie von Solms-Laubach (1594-1651)
* Philipp Erasmus Reich (1717-1787), bookseller and publisher
* Felix Klipstein (1880-1941), artist

Klipstein grew up in Laubach and Belgium. He studied art in France and Spain. In 1909 he returned to Laubach with his wife, the writer Edith Blass.
* Georg Friedrich Solms-Laubach (1899 - 1969)
* Friedel Münch, head of Münch Motorcycle Works
* Friedrich Kellner, (1885 - 1970)

Kellner was the chief justice inspector in Laubach during WWII. He wrote a secret diary about the misdeeds of the Nazis. He became deputy mayor and first town councilman of Laubach. He was also chairman of the Laubach Social Democratics SPD. A Canadian documentary about Kellner was filmed on location in Laubach.

Laubach in the Media
--------------------

### Literature

* Helmut Nachtigall: *Die Fachwerkhäuser Alt-Laubachs*. Laubach 1975

### Movie

* *My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner*, CCI Entertainment, Toronto, Canada

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Laubach at Wikimedia Commons
**Lauda Air Luftfahrt GmbH**, branded as **Lauda Air** was an Austrian airline headquartered in Vienna, Austria. It operated scheduled leisure flights and charter flights to vacation destinations in Europe, North America, the Caribbean and Southeast Asia.

History
-------

Lauda Air was founded in April 1979 by former Formula 1 driver and champion Niki Lauda. They began operations in 1985 with air taxi and charter services. 

Authorization for regular operations was given in 1987. In 1990 it was authorized to carry out international flights. In 1989 Lauda Air began its first long-range flight from Vienna to Sydney and Melbourne via Kuala Lumpur. Daily flights to Miami via Munich, to Dubai and to Cuba followed.

It became a 100% owned subsidiary of Austrian Airlines in December 2000. They had 35 employees (as of March 2007). In 2005 the flight operations were taken over by Austrian Airlines. Lauda Air is used currently as the brand that operates the charter flights of the Austrian Airlines Group.

Niki Lauda has started a new airline named Niki. For its part, the Austrian Airlines Group will make a decision whether to integrate the entire Lauda Air Charter Flight fleet into the common Austrian Airlines design or not, at the beginning of 2007. The goals would be to identify itself as a single airline (simplicity) and to avoid advertising of Niki Lauda's new airline. This would mean the total disappearance of Lauda Air.

Incidents and accidents
-----------------------

* On 26 May 1991, Lauda Air Flight 004, operated by a Boeing 767-300ER registered as OE-LAV, named after *Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart*, crashed in Thailand shortly after take-off from Don Mueang International Airport in Bangkok, due to the uncommanded deployment of one of its thrust reversers. This accident resulted in the deaths of all 223 passengers and crew.
The **Katiti Aboriginal Land Trust** is a land trust for a block of land in the southwest of the Northern Territory, Australia. It was created through the Katiti Land Claim in 1980. The trust's owners include Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara and Luritja people. The block of land is officially referred to as **Northern Territory Portion 1818**. It borders the larger Petermann Land Trust area and Uluṟu–Kata Tjuṯa National Park to the north and west, and two pastoral stations to the east and south: Curtin Springs and Mulga Park. The town of Yulara is excluded from the Land Trusts, and sits between the Katiti block and Uluṟu–Kata Tjuṯa National Park.

The trust is named after Katiti (English: Bobbie's Well), a natural spring located about 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) south of Lake Amadeus. This spring was first written about by Baldwin Spencer and Francis James Gillen. They visited it in 1894 on their way to Uluṟu, and recorded the name "Kurtitina" (more accurately, **Katitinya**). The prospecting expedition led by Lawrence Wells visited the spring in 1903, and Herbert Basedow marked it on his maps as "Curtyteena".

History
-------

Before the 1970s, the area of land now held by the Katiti ALT was considered crown land by the government. The region to the southwest had been declared an Aboriginal reservation in 1920. An area of land around Uluṟu and Kata Tjuṯa had been made into the Ayers Rock–Mt Olga National Park in 1958. The Katiti block, however, was considered unused. In 1976, the Australian Federal Government passed the Aboriginal Land Rights Act. This law allowed Aboriginal communities to claim ownership of unused land, and to be granted freehold title to that land if they could show that they had a historical association with it. Section 4 of the act gave the Minister for Aboriginal Affairs the power to establish Land Trusts to look after the title.

The Katiti Land Claim was formally submitted in 1979. The claim was for a larger area than what is held by the Trust today, and included the Ayers Rock–Mt Olga National Park. It was sumbitted by the Central Land Council on the behalf of several hundred people, most of whom lived at Muṯitjulu. The people were granted legal ownership to the block of land now held by the Katiti ALT on 30 September 1980. They were not granted the title to Ayers Rock–Mt Olga because it was already being used as a national park. They were, however, recognised as the park's traditional owners (**nguraṟitja**). Also excluded from the property granted were a 104 km2 (40 sq mi) area surrounding the resort town of Yulara, and a 3 km2 (1.2 sq mi) area covering the Petermann Road, which provided tourist access to Uluṟu.

Petermann Road was later replaced by the Lasseter Highway, and the government transferred the title to the old road to the Katiti ALT on 23 February 1990. Legal ownership over the national park's land was eventually granted to its traditional owners in 1985, and the title to this area is held by the Uluṟu–Kata Tjuṯa Aboriginal Land Trust. Ownership of the Yulara area was the subject of a court case, which ended in 2006.
**Sir Paul Getty** KBE (/ˈɡɛti/; born **Eugene Paul Getty**; 7 September 1932 – 17 April 2003), was known widely as **John Paul Getty Jr.**. 

He was a British philanthropist and book collector. He was the third of five sons born to J. Paul Getty (1892–1976), one of the richest men in the world at the time. His mother was J. Paul Getty's fourth wife, Ann Rork. The Getty family's wealth was the result of the oil business. One of his sons, Mark Getty, co-founded the visual media company Getty Images.

At birth, he was given the name Eugene Paul Getty, but in later life, he adopted other names, including Paul Getty, John Paul Getty, Jean Paul Getty Jr. and John Paul Getty II. 

In 1973, his son John Paul Getty III was held captive in Italy, as J. Paul Getty refused to pay a ransom. In 1986, he was awarded an honorary knighthood for services to causes ranging from cricket, to art and to the Conservative Party. His honorary knighthood would eventually become substantive when he became a British citizen. 

A long-time Anglophile, he became a British citizen in 1997. In 1998 he changed his name by deed poll when he renounced the first name Eugene and wished to be known as Sir Paul Getty, KBE.
A bottle of Laudanum
A bottle of Laudanum used in pharmacies, in the 19th century. The bottle can hold 5 litres, which shows how common it must have been
**Laudanum** is the name of a tincture containing opium. A tincture is usually an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Laudanum is dissolved extracts from the opium poppy (*Papaver somniferum* Linnaeus) in alcohol (ethanol).

Paracelsus thought that it was good for treating almost anything. According to Paracelus, laudanum consists of about 9 parts wine, and one part opium. Other ingredients, such as henbane, mandrake and deadly nightshade were commonly added. Since its discovery in the 16th century, laudanum was often used to treat different diseases. Its popularity and use is comparable to the modern drug aspirin. Its main effect was that of the opium: it was a painkiller, and a sedative. 

The main problem is that opium causes addiction. This was only understood in the 19th century. Towards the end of the 19th century, there were good alternative drugs. England banished opiates from open sale in the 1920s, and Germany regulated their use in 1929. 

Laudanum, like other opiates was used as a painkiller, and a sedative. Until the 1970s it was used to treat clinical depression. Laudanum is dangerous to children as it is easy to get an overdose. Today, laudanum is still used to treat severe cases of diarrhea which sometimes occur with chemotherapy.

  


| * v
* t
* e
Cough and cold preparations (R05) |
| --- |
| Expectorants | 
* Potassium iodide
* Althea root
* Antimony pentasulfide
* Creosote
* Guaiacolsulfonate
* Guaifenesin (+ oxomemazine)
* Ipecacuanha (Syrup of ipecac)
* Levoverbenone
* Senega
* Tyloxapol
* Ammonium Chloride

 |
| Mucolytics | 
* Acetylcysteine#
* Ambroxol
* Bromhexine
* Carbocisteine
* Domiodol
* Dornase alfa
* Eprazinone
* Erdosteine
* Letosteine
* Mannitol
* Mesna
* Neltenexine
* Sobrerol
* Stepronin

 |
| Cough suppressants | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Opium alkaloids,opioids,and derivatives | 
* Codeine#
* Dextromethorphan
* Heroin
* Hydrocodone
* Laudanum
* Methadone
* Acetyldihydrocodeine
* Benzylmorphine
* Butorphanol
* Dihydrocodeine
* Dimemorfan
* Droxypropine
* Ethylmorphine
* Hydromorphone
* Isoaminile
* Levomethadone
* Levopropoxyphene
* Nicocodeine
* Nicodicodeine
* Normethadone
* Noscapine
* Pholcodine
* Thebacon
* Tipepidine

 |
| Other | 
* Benzonatate
* Diphenhydramine
* Alloclamide
* Benproperine
* Bibenzonium bromide
* Butamirate
* Clobutinol
* Clofedanol
* Cloperastine
* Dibunate
* Dimethoxanate
* Dropropizine
* Fedrilate
* Fominoben
* Glaucine
* Levodropropizine
* Meprotixol
* Moguisteine
* Morclofone
* Nepinalone
* Oxolamine
* Oxeladin
* Pentoxyverine
* Pipazetate
* Prenoxdiazine
* Piperidione
* Zipeprol

 |

 |
| 
* #WHO-EM
* ‡Withdrawn from market
* Clinical trials:
	+ †Phase III
	+ §Never to phase III

 |
The **Marecchia** (Latin: *Ariminus*) is a river of the Emilia-Romagna region. The city of Rimini gets its name from the Latin name of the river.

Its low course marks the end of the Padan Plain (Italian: *Pianura Padana*).

Geography
---------

The Marecchia river has a length of 70 km (43 mi), and a drainage basin with an area of approximately 500 km2 (193 sq mi).

Its discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) depends of the season: in the autumn could be as high as 1,200 m3/s (42,000 cu ft/s) but is very low during summer. Most of the time, the discharge is about 11 m3/s (390 cu ft/s).

### Course

The Marecchia river flows through a valley named after it, *Valmarecchia*. The river starts at about 1 km (0.6 mi) west of *Viamaggio* (*comune* of Pieve Santo Stefano) and about 4 km (2.5 mi) southwest of the *comune* of Badia Tedalda, in the province of Arezzo (Tuscany), in the *Alpe della Luna* at an elevation of 1,454 m (4,770.3 ft) above sea level.

At about 3 km (1.9 mi) to the northeast of Badia Tedalda, the river flows into the Emilia-Romagna region, in the Casteldelci *comune*, province of Rimini. Then it flows through Ca 'Raffaello, an exclave of Badia Tedalda; to the north of here, the Senatello river flows into the Marecchia as a left tributary. Later, in *Ponte Masa*, the Masa river flows from the right into the Marecchia.

Shortly after *Torello*, the San Marino river flows as a right tributary and, after the Verucchio *comune*, the Ausa flows also from the right.

Between the *frazioni* (Italian subdivisions of a municipality) of *Rivabella* and *San Giuliano*, in Rimini, the Marecchia river ends in the Adriatic Sea.

The **Bridge of Tiberius** (Italian: *Ponte di Tiberio*) or **Bridge of Augustus** (Latin: *Pons Augustus*) is a Roman bridge in Rimini. Its construction began in the times of Augustus but was finished in 20 AD in the times of Tiberius.

Main tributaries
----------------

The tributaries of the Marecchia river are:

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| **Left tributaries**:* Senatello
 | **Right tributaries**:* Massa
* San Marino
* Ausa
 |

Gallery
-------

* Mouth of Marecchia in RiminiMouth of Marecchia in Rimini
* The Marecchia river in RiminiThe Marecchia river in Rimini
* The bridge of Tiberius across the Marecchia in RiminiThe bridge of Tiberius across the Marecchia in Rimini
* The bridge of Tiberius at nightThe bridge of Tiberius at night

View of Valmarecchia from Verucchio

Related pages
-------------

* List of rivers of Italy

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Marecchia river***.

* Fiume italiani: *Fiume Malrecchia* (in Italian)

| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata |
| --- |
| International | 
* VIAF

 |
| National | 
* Israel
* United States

 |
This is a list of towns and cities in Paraguay.

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Contents | Top - 0-9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z |

A
-

Abaí • 
Acahay • 
Aguaray • 
Alberdi • 
Alto Verá • 
Areguá • 
Asunción • 
Atyrá • 
Ayolas

B
-

Bella Vista, Amambay • 
Benjamín Aceval

C
-

Caacupé • 
Caaguazú • 
Caapucú • 
Caazapá • 
Cambyreta • 
Capiatá • 
Capiíbary • 
Capitán Bado • 
Capitán Mauricio José Troche • 
Capitán Meza • 
Capitán Miranda • 
Caraguatay • 
Carayaó • 
Carmen del Paraná • 
Cerrito • 
Ciudad del Este • 
Concepción • 
Coronel Bogado • 
Coronel Martínez • 
Coronel Oviedo • 
Curuguaty

D
-

Desmochados • 
Doctor Botrell • 
Doctor Cecilio Báez • 
Doctor Eulogio Estigarribia • 
Doctor Juan Manuel Frutos • 
Doctor Moisés Bertoni • 
Doctor Pedro P. Peña

E
-

Edelira • 
Encarnación

F
-

Fernando de la Mora • 
Fernheim Colony • 
Filadelfia • 
Fuerte Olimpo

G
-

General Artigas • 
General Delgado • 
General Elizardo Aquino • 
General Eugenio A. Garay • 
General Francisco Álvarez • 
General Higinio Morínigo • 
General Isidro Resquín • 
General José Eduvigis Díaz • 
Guarambaré • 
Guayaibi • 
Guazu-Cua

H
-

Hernandaríaz • 
Hohenhau • 
Horqueta • 
Humaitá

I
-

Independencia • 
Isla Pucu • 
Isla Umbú • 
Itacurubí de la Cordillera • 
Itacurubí del Rosario • 
Itanará • 
Itapé • 
Itapúa Poty • 
Itaquyry • 
Itauguá • 
Iturbe

J
-

José Falcón • 
José Fasardi • 
José Ocampos • 
Juan Emilio O'Leary

K
-

Katueté

L
-

La Pastoria • 
La Victoria • 
Lambaré • 
Laureles • 
Leandro Oviedo • 
Limpio • 
Luque

M
-

Mariano Roque Alonso • 
Mariscal Estigarribia • 
Mariscal Francisco Solano López • 
Mayor José Dejesús Martínez • 
Mayor Otaño • 
Mayor Pablo Lagerenza • 
Mbaracayú • 
Mbocayaty • 
Mbocayty del Yhaguy • 
Mbutuy • 
Mbuyapey • 
Menno Colony • 
Menno • 
Minga Guazú

N
-

Nanawa • 
Natalicio Talavera • 
Natalio • 
Neuland Colony • 
Nueva Alborada • 
Nueva Germania • 
Nueva Italia • 
Nueva Londres

Ñ
-

Ñacunday • 
Ñemby • 
Ñumí

O
-

Obligado

P
-

Paraguarí • 
Paso de Patria • 
Paso Yobai • 
Pedro Juan Caballero • 
Pilar • 
Pirayú • 
Pozo Colorado • 
Presidente Franco • 
Primero de Marzo • 
Puerto Pinasco

Q
-

Quiindy • 
Quyquyho

R
-

Raúl Arsenio Oviedo • 
Repatriación

S
-

Salto del Guairá • 
San Alberto • 
San Bernardino • 
San Cosme y Damián • 
San Estanislao • 
San Ignacio Guasú • 
San José de los Arroyos • 
San Juan Bautista de Ñeembucú • 
San Juan Bautista, Misiones • 
San Juan del Paraná • 
San Lorenzo • 
San Pablo • 
San Pedro de Ycuamandiyú • 
San Pedro del Paraná • 
San Rafael del Paraná • 
Sapucaí

T
-

Tacuaras • 
Tacuatí • 
Tavaí • 
Tebicuarymí • 
Tomás Romero Pereira • 
Tres Corrales • 
Trinidad

U
-

Unión

V
-

Vaquería • 
Veinticinco de Diciembre • 
Villa Elisa • 
Villa Franca • 
Villa Hayes • 
Villa Oliva • 
Villalbín • 
Villarrica • 
Villeta

Y
-

Yabebyry • 
Yaguarón • 
Yataity • 
Yataity del Norte • 
Yatytay • 
Ybycuí • 
Ybytimí • 
Yegros • 
Ygatimi • 
Yhú • 
Ypacaraí • 
Ypané • 
Ypehú • 
Yuty
***Laws of Form*** is a book by George Spencer-Brown published in 1969. It is about logic, mathematics, and philosophy. The mathematical systems that Spencer-Brown presented in the book are known by the names "calculus of indications", "distinction calculus", and often just "LOF".

*Laws of Form* grew out of the author's work in electronic engineering. The book has been published in several editions and translations and has never gone out of print. A short book, its mathematical part is only 55 pages long.

Spencer-Brown's philosophy was influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, R.D. Laing, Charles Sanders Peirce, Bertrand Russell, and Alfred North Whitehead.

Reception
---------

*Laws of Form* was listed in the *Whole Earth Catalog* in 1969 and quickly became a cult classic. The calculus of indications and the primary algebra may be regarded as a way to think about a fundamental activity of the mind, namely, the ability to *distinguish* or to *draw distinctions*. The book argues that this ability is the foundation of human cognition and consciousness. According to Spencer-Brown, the primary arithemetic and primary algebra reveal new connections among logic, mathematics, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mind.

Mathematical ideas
------------------

Let 0 and 1 be the two basic primitive values of Boolean algebra. Let *AB* denote a binary operation of Boolean algebra. Let (*X*) stand for the Boolean complement of *X*. Then the calculus of indications is simply Boolean arithmetic reduced to the two equations 11=1 and (1)=0. These are the only "axioms" in *LoF*.

The primary algebra is mainly a simpler notation for Boolean algebra, except for one thing. In Boolean algebra, () is not defined. () is "empty" complementation (the complementation of "nothing"). On the other hand, in the primary algebra () is defined, and stands for one of 0 or 1. (()) stands for the other primitive value, and is the same thing as the blank page.

Let *A* and *B* be any two expressions of the primary algebra. The primary algebra is made up of equations of the form *A*=*B*, and these equations are treated in the same way as the equations of the number algebra taught in all schools. Standard methods of logic seldom use equations. *LoF* argues that doing elementary logic with the primary algebra is easier. In particular, if *A* is a tautology in logic, then one of *A*=() or *A*=(()) holds in the primary algebra.

*Laws of Form* proves the following fact about the primary algebra:

* Cannot prove both *A*=*B* and *A*/=*B*. Hence the primary algebra is free of contradiction (is *consistent*);

* Can always prove whichever of *A*=*B* and *A*/=*B* happens to be true. (The primary algebra is *complete*.)

Hence the primary algebra is a well-behaved piece of mathematics. It can be useful even if the philosophy and cognitive science of *LoF* are wrong or uninteresting.

Other websites
--------------

* Laws of Form Web Site
* Spencer-Brown Form : MathWorld
* Logical Graph Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine : PlanetMath
* Logical Graph : Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms
* Louis H. Kauffman, *Box Algebra, Boundary Mathematics, Logic, and Laws of Form*
Jared Diamond (2007)
**Jared Mason Diamond** (born September 10, 1937) is an American author and biologist. His book *Guns, Germs, and Steel* won a Pulitzer Prize in 1997.

Life
----

Diamond was born in Boston, Massachusetts. His father was a doctor and his mother was a teacher. He received his college degree from Harvard University in 1958, and then he received a doctorate degree from the University of Cambridge in 1961.

In 1966, he became a teacher at UCLA, a university in Los Angeles, California. He has also traveled to some islands called New Guinea, which are far away from the United States, in the South Pacific Ocean. Diamond is famous for knowing a lot about the birds that lived on that island, and he has traveled there many times.

Writing
-------

Diamond writes about science in ways that people can understand, and he has written many articles for magazines like *Discover* in the United States.

He also writes books. One of his first books was called *The Third Chimpanzee*, which talked about the way that people evolved from monkeys, and how many things are the same between humans and monkeys.

His most famous book is *Guns, Germs, and Steel*. In his book, Diamond explained why he thought that different parts of the Earth had people on them at different times, and why some people in some parts of the world had more science or farming than people in other parts of the world. The book went over thousands of years of human history.

In 2004, he wrote another book, called, *Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed.* In this book, Diamond wrote about why he thought that some groups of people from many hundreds of years ago were able to have their groups get very big and strong, while other groups fell apart. His book talked about what people today can maybe learn from the studying the problems from history.

### Books

* *Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed* (2005), ISBN 0-670-03337-5.
* *Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies* (1997), ISBN 0-393-31755-2.
* *Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality* (1997), ISBN 0-465-03127-7.
* *The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal* (1992), ISBN 0-06-098403-1.
* *The Birds of Northern Melanesia: Speciation, Ecology, & Biogeography* (with Ernst Mayr, 2001), ISBN 0-19-514170-9.
* *Avifauna of the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea*, Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. 12, Cambridge, Mass. pp. 438 (1972).

Family
------

* Diamond is married to a woman named Marie. Her grandfather was an important man in the country of Poland. She also had an uncle named Raphael Kalinowski, who became a saint.
* Diamond and his wife Marie have two sons, named Josh and Max. They both go to university. Josh goes to Duke University, and Max goes to Northwestern University.
**Massader** of Palestine is the arm of the Palestinian Investment Fund for Development of Natural Resources and Infrastructure Projects. The company plays an important role in developing large-scale strategic projects that aim to develop and use Palestinian natural resources (hydrocarbon resources and renewable resources) and provide various sources of national energy sources, in addition to developing the basic infrastructure for the electricity sector, all with the aim of establishing a firm foundation for an independent Palestinian state.

The company aims to develop the natural resources of Palestinian oil and gas, develop productive infrastructure for the electricity and water sectors, contribute to achieving economic independence in the energy and water sectors, reduce the level of dependence on imported supplies, contribute to enabling the development of heavy industries such as cement and steel.

The Middle East Solar Energy Industries Association Award
---------------------------------------------------------

Massader has won the award for the best solar energy project, from Middle East Solar Industry Association, for the project of installing photovoltaic panels on the roofs of 500 schools and universities throughout Palestine, for a total of 35 megawatts of solar energy.
**Lauren Esposito** is the world's only female scorpion expert.  She studies arachnology at the California Academy of Sciences. She one of less than a dozen scorpion specialists in the world. She identifies new types of scorpions that have not been seen before. She teaches a field biology course at Columbia University. She has the nickname "The Scorpion Queen."

  

She is the co-founder of the network 500 Queer Scientists. Now, Esposito is also an arachnologist and assistant curator at the California Academy of Sciences. Esposito also pushed for more women to be included as biologists.

Early Life
----------

Lauren Esposito grew up in El Paso, Texas. Her parents were biologists. She enjoyed exploring the bugs in the dirt near her home. She also liked looking at bugs in the sand at her grandparents’ house in the Bahamas. She grew up fascinated by bugs and never lost that passion.

She graduated from the University of Texas in 2003. While she was a student Esposito interned in arachnology at the American Museum of Natural History. She also volunteered doing research in the Chihuahuan Desert.

She holds a Ph.D. in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from the City University of New York.  Her Ph.D. program was taught by the City University of New York and the American Museum of Natural History.

Career
------

Esposito co-founded Islands & Seas. Islands & Seas is a science and education nonprofit. It builds field stations where scientists, tourists, and locals can work together to conserve natural resources. The first field station was in a small fishing village, San Juanico, in Baja California Sur. The English name for the town is Scorpion Bay, the name of Esposito’s favorite animal.

Esposito is now at the California Academy of Sciences. She studies scorpion taxonomy, or what different kinds of scorpions exist. She tests and compares different scorpion's DNA. She "milks" scorpion venom for study. She studies their behavior before they sting. She also studies using their venom to cure cancer. She travels and searches for news kinds of scorpions.

Esposito and a postdoctoral fellow, Dr. Sarah Crews, have collected arachnids on nearly every island in the Caribbean, and completed a number of ecological and evolutionary research projects. New species comprise approximately 30 to 50% of the animals they collect there.

She and Aaron Goodman have identified six species of scorpions that live in treetops.

Advocacy
--------

Esposito advocates for the importance of scientific research.

She also wants science to be inclusive. She the co-founder of the network 500 Queer Scientists. 500 Queer Scientists is a website showing that LGBTQ+ people work in the sciences.