recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**Paul Christison Edwards** (born (1955-03-19)19 March 1955) is an English organist and composer of music for the Anglican Church.

Biography
---------

Paul Edwards spent his childhood in the village of Turvey in Bedfordshire. He liked church music, especially the sound of the big organ in the church at Turvey. He became a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral for four and a half years and then spent the same amount of time as lay clerk at Peterborough Cathedral. He has been organist and choir master at several churches in Bedfordshire, including All Saints, Turvey and St. Paul's Church, Bedford. He works as a teacher, piano accompanist and choral singer.

Edwards has made a series of recordings of interesting old organs of North Bedfordshire. He has transcribed and edited ten volumes of 18th century *English Organ Music*. The list of all his compositions has 450 opus numbers. They include about 150 hymn tunes and a large number of anthems. Many of these works have been published in collections including *Hymns for Today’s Church*, *Psalms for Today* and *Carols for Today*. His carol *No Small Wonder*, written in 1983 was published in *Carols for Today* in 1986 and was recorded on LP by Canterbury Cathedral Choir. It was sung at the famous Nine Lessons and Carols service broadcast on the BBC Television by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge in 2000. His music has been recorded on several CDs.

Edwards finds inspiration for his compositions in the English countryside, especially that of Norfolk  He also enjoys driving and photographing busses and coaches.

Other websites
--------------

* 
* Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine

| Persondata |
| --- |
| Name | Edwards, Paul |
| Alternative names |  |
| Short description | English composer and musician |
| Date of birth | 19 March 1955 |
| Place of birth |  |
| Date of death |  |
| Place of death |  |
**Minor planet designations** are number-name combinations given by the Minor Planet Center, a part of the IAU. They are used for dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies such as asteroids, but not comets. They are given to a body once its orbit is secured and unrelated to provisional designations, given when an object is found. 

The two parts of a formal designation are

* a number, historically given in a similar order to the order that it was found, now given only after the orbit is secured
* a name, either the name assigned by the astronomer who found it or, more commonly, the provisional designation.

It looks like this: `(number) Name`, for example (90377) Sedna or (55636) 2002 TX300. According to what the astronomer wants, the brackets are now often removed, as in 90377 Sedna. In practice, however, the number is primarily a catalog entry for any reasonably well-known object. Therefore, the name or provisional designation is generally used in the formal designation: Sedna, 2002 TX300.

The rule for moons of minor planets, such as the formal designation (87) Sylvia I Romulus for the asteroid moon Romulus, is an extension of the Roman numeral convention used, on and off, for the moons of the planets since Galileo's time.

The Minor Planet Center also managed comets but used a different cataloging system.

History
-------

By 1851, there were 15 asteroids, all but one with their own symbol. The symbols were becoming less and less simple, and, as they had to be drawn by hand, astronomers found some of them hard to draw. This difficulty was addressed by Benjamin Apthorp Gould in 1851, who suggested numbering asteroids in the order that they were found, and placing this number in a circle as the symbol for the asteroid, such as ④ for the fourth asteroid, Vesta. This practice was soon coupled with the name itself into an official number-name designation, "④ Vesta", as the number of minor planets increased. By *ca* 1858, the circle had been simplified to brackets, "(4)" and "(4) Vesta", which was easier to typeset. Other punctuation such as "4) Vesta" and "4, Vesta" was also used, but had more or less completely died out by 1949.

The major exception to the convention that the number tracks the order they were or the order that they're orbit was calculated is the case of Pluto. Since Pluto was originally called a planet, it was not given a number until a 2006 redefinition of "planet" that didn't include it. At that point, Pluto was given the formal designation Pluto.

Other websites
--------------

* IAU FAQ on minor planets Archived 2006-02-16 at the Wayback Machine
* MPC explanation of provisional designations
* Dr. James Hilton, *When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?* Archived 2007-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
Minor Threat (1981)
**Minor Threat** was a hardcore punk band from Washington DC from the 1980s. Many other bands which played hardcore punk music in the United States were influenced by Minor Threat's music. Minor Threat's songs were usually short and fast. All of Minor Threat's records were released on the band's own Dischord Records label.

Minor Threat told their listeners they did not use illegal drugs or drink alcohol, which was called being "straight edge."

History
-------

Ian MacKaye, Jeff Nelson, bassist Brian Baker, and guitarist Lyle Preslar formed Minor Threat in 1980. Their first records were *Minor Threat* and *In My Eyes* in 1981. The group toured through the United States.

Their song "Straight Edge" had lyrics (words) that told people they did not use illegal drugs or drink alcohol, which was called being "straight edge." Another song called "Out of Step" tells listeners not to smoke, drink, or have casual sex. People often thought that the band was telling others not to do these things but in interviews the band states that straight edge is a personal decision.

Minor Threat broke up in 1983. 

### Albums

* *Out of Step* (1983)

### Extended Play records

* *Minor Threat* (1981)
* *In My Eyes* (1981)
* *Salad Days* (1985)

Other websites
--------------

* Official Website
* Minor Threat Profile by Dischord Records
Michael Tilson Thomas
**Michael Tilson Thomas** (born December 21, 1944), is an American conductor, pianist and composer. He is the conductor of the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra.

Life
----

Tilson Thomas was born in Los Angeles, California. His grandparents were well known actors of the Yiddish theatre. Tilson Thomas studied at the University of Southern California.

After being assistant conductor at the Bayreuth Festival his first important opportunity came in 1969 when the conductor William Steinberg became unwell during a concert with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Tilson Thomas took over conducting the rest of the concert. He stayed with the orchestra as assistant conductor until 1974, making several recordings with them. He was conductor of the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra from 1971 to 1979. During this time he conducted a series of Young People's Concerts with the New York Philharmonic. From 1981 to 1985 he was the main guest conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra. Tilson Thomas started a new orchestra, the New World Symphony, in Miami, Florida in 1987, to give talented young people a chance to play with a good orchestra. From 1988 to 1995, he was principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra, and since 1995 he has been their main guest conductor. In 1995, he became conductor (music director) of the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra.

Tilson Thomas has conducted many styles of music, especially American music such as that of Charles Ives and Aaron Copland. He also recorded all nine symphonies of Gustav Mahler.

In 2009 Tilson Thomas created the YouTube Symphony Orchestra to give a concert that could be watched on YouTube. The orchestra was made up of young players from 30 different countries.

Tilson Thomas is openly gay.

Other websites
--------------

* Michael Tilson Thomas official website

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The **optic tectum** is a major part of the midbrain of vertebrates. In vertebrates such as fish, reptiles and birds, it is the main visual processor of the brain. 

In mammals, however, most of the work is done in the visual cortex. This is at the back of the cerebral cortex. The tectum does preliminary visual processing, and controls eye movement. When human anatomy textbooks use the term **superior colliculus** they are referring to the tectum. The diagram is based on human anatomy.

Mechanism
---------

Each layer of the tectum contains a topographic map of the surrounding world. If neurons at a point in the map fire, it starts a response towards the corresponding point in space. In primates, the tectum ("superior colliculus") directs eye movements. Visual input from the retina, or "command" input from the cerebral cortex, create a "bump" of activity in the tectal map. If strong enough, this causes an eye movement. 

In primates, the tectum is also involved in generating head turns, arm-reaching movements, and shifts in attention which do not involve any movements. In other species, the tectum is involved in a wide range of responses, including whole-body turns in walking rats, swimming fishes, or flying birds; tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs; fang-strikes in snakes, etc.

In some non-mammal species, including fish and birds, the tectum is one of the largest components of the brain. In mammals, and especially primates, the massive expansion of the cerebral cortex reduces the tectum ("superior colliculus") to a much smaller fraction of the whole brain. It still is the main integrating centre for eye movements.
*Thespesia populnea*
The **portia tree** (*Thespesia populnea*) Family Malvaceae, is a small tree or shrub 5-10 (-20) m high that is pantropical in littoral environments, although probably native only to the Old World. In Hawai‘i and elsewhere in the Pacific it is possibly indigenous, although may have been spread by early Polynesians for its useful wood and fiber.

Common names vary according to the country and include "Indian tulip tree", "Pacific rosewood", "seaside mahoe" (in Florida), *surina* (the "elegant tree"), *suriya* (Sinhala), *bebaru* or *baru baru* (Malay), *milo* or *miro* (in many Polynesian languages), *mako‘i* (Rapanui), *gangaraavi* (Telugu), *poovarasu* (Tamil), and *plaksa* (Sanskrit).

Traditionally it was planted in sacred groves and used for religious sculpture throughout eastern Polynesia. It was used for the rongorongo tablets of Easter Island.

Sources
-------

* Binggeli, P. 1999.Miro Archived 2005-12-22 at the Wayback Machine

Other websites
--------------

* Milo at Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawaii
* description

1. ↑
2. ↑  "hibiscus.org - Thespesia populnea". *www.hibiscus.org*.
3. ↑  Orliac, Catherine. 2005. The Rongorongo Tablets from Easter Island: Botanical Identification and 14C Dating.*Archaeology in Oceania* 40.3.
*This article is about the town. For the band with the same name, see Portishead (band).*

**Portishead** is a town near the sea in North Somerset, England, where about 21000 people live (Local council update July 24, 2007).

Portishead has had a history since Roman times. Its name comes from the words ‘port at the head of the river’. The town was built on the mouth of a small river; the main road in the town once met the water at the top of the river.

Lots of buildings in the town are of a Victorian style.

Portishead's dock and railway lines
-----------------------------------

### Portishead dock

In the 1860s, in the middle of the iron and steel era, a pier and a dock were built for the big boats that could not easily get to Bristol Harbour. The ships brought in expensive items from around the world and took items made in the town to other countries. Many ships carried coal.

In the 1880s Portishead Dock was bought by Bristol Corporation, and was managed as part of the Port of Bristol until it closed.

### Portishead power stations

The Portishead power stations were coal power stations built near the dock. The first power station was built in 1926. It began making electricity in 1929 for the Bristol Corporation. The power station was made bigger in 1948.

A 2nd power station was started in 1949 and began making electricity in 1955.

After 1949, the power stations became part of the country's electricity industry. They used some local coal produced in the Somerset coalfield which was moved by train along the Portishead Railway. The line had opened on 12 April 1867 as the Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway Company; it opened to the dock on 5 July 1879.

The 1st power station closed in 1976, and the 2nd closed in 1982. The dock was closed in 1992.

### Railway stations

Portishead had two train stations for people who lived in the town. The main station was near the centre of Portishead, and the other was at the Pier. The construction of the 2nd power station caused the 1st train station to be removed and another station was opened in the main street of the town on 2 January 1954. The new station closed on 7 September 1964. People who live in Portishead now want the train station to be opened again.

Further reading
---------------

* Awdry, Christopher, (1990). *Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies*. London: Guild Publishing.
* Crowhurst, Ken, (2001). *Images of England: Portishead*, Stroud: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 0-7524-2240-5.
* Smith, Martin, (1992). *The Railways of Bristol & Somerset*, Sherton: Ian Allan Ltd. ISBN 0-7110-2063-9.
* Winter, Michael T. (2005). *The Portishead Coal Boats: A History of Osborn & Wallis Ltd, Bristol*. Lydney: Black Dwarf Publications. ISBN 1-903599-13-X.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Portishead, Somerset***.

* Portishead at the Open Directory Project
* Weston, Clevedon & Portishead Railway
* Portishead and Bristol Lifeboat Archived 2018-04-19 at the Wayback Machine
* Photos of Portishead in 3d (Anaglyphs) Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
**The Rugby Championship** is an annual rugby union competition between the national teams of the sport's four strongest Southern Hemisphere nations—New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, and Argentina. It began in 1996, a year after the sport became professional, as the **Tri Nations**. At the time, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa competed for the Tri Nations Trophy. Beginning in 2012, Argentina joined the competition.

During the Tri Nations era, the contest began in July, during the Southern Hemisphere winter, and ran through September. For most of that era, each team played every other team twice, once at home and once away. Later on, each team played the others three times. When the competition added Argentina, it returned to a pure home-and-away format, with a total of 12 games played. Also, due to a slight change in the sport's calendar, The Rugby Championship now begins in August and runs through October. This format is used except in years in which the Rugby World Cup is played (every four years, in the year before the Summer Olympics). In those years, each team plays the others only once, with a total of six games played.

Teams are awarded competition points for a win, but can also earn 'bonus' points. At the end of the series, the team with the most competition points wins the trophy. The team that wins the competition is usually considered to be the best rugby union team in the Southern Hemisphere for that year.

| Country | Team Name | Win Record |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Australia | Wallabies | 4 |
| New Zealand | All Blacks | 13 |
| South Africa | Springboks | 3 |
| Argentina | Pumas | 0 |

Additional trophies
-------------------

New Zealand and Australia compete annually for the Bledisloe Cup. All Rugby Championship games count as competition games for the Bledisloe Cup.

South Africa and Australia compete annually for the Mandela Plate. Some of the Rugby Championship games count as competition games for the Mandela Plate.

New Zealand and South Africa compete annually for the Freedom Cup. Some of the Rugby Championship games count as competition games for the Freedom Cup.
Cugnot's "steam car", Paris 1769
A **steam car** is an automobile (car) powered by a steam engine. The first automobile, a three-wheeled vehicle, was powered by a steam engine.

History
-------

The steam carriage was invented in 1769 by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, a French engineer. It was a large three wheeled vehicle that used coal to make steam in a boiler. The boiler was mounted in front which made the vehicle unstable.

In the United States, about the time of the American Civil War, a number of inventors were working on steam-powered cars. In England about 1868 J. H. Knight had created a very successful design of steam car. In 1883 in France, Jules-Albert de Dion and Georges Bouton began building steam cars. In 1886 Ransom E. Olds was producing a steam car in the US. In 1899 the Stanley brothers, Francis and Freelan began making the famous Stanley Steamers.

Advantages and disadvantages
----------------------------

Steam engines in cars have a great amount of torque. With all this torque they can accelerate very quickly. Because the torque is available over a broad range of speeds, a transmission wasn't needed. They could also carry heavy loads with ease. The speed of a steam car is controlled by the throttle alone and the engine never stalls. Steam cars had fewer moving parts than gasoline powered cars. Also steam cars are very quiet.

A major disadvantage is that a steam car has to "fire up" its boiler (has to get up to operating temperature). This can take as much as 20 minutes before the car can move. In the winter there was the added problem of water freezing. The open-cycle steam engine in cars and steam locomotives could not go far without adding water. The water turned to steam, which was lost when it exited the engine. Steam condensers were added to these cars later. This converted the steam back to water. It was too late; by then steam cars had lost out to cars with internal combustion engines.

Gallery
-------

* 1903 Locomobile (Bridgeport) steam car1903 Locomobile (Bridgeport) steam car
* 1902 Serpollet Biplace Course Type H1902 Serpollet Biplace Course Type H
* 1903 White model C steam car1903 White model C steam car
* 1911 Stanley Steamer1911 Stanley Steamer
* 1901 steam powered car built by Carl Breer1901 steam powered car built by Carl Breer
* A Doble steam carA Doble steam car

Related pages
-------------

* Stanley Motor Carriage Company
* Locomobile Company of America
* White Motor Company
* Doble steam car
* De Dion-Bouton

Other websites
--------------

* Stanley Steamers
* Early Steam Power The first Automobiles The Steam Cars! Archived 2013-12-25 at the Wayback Machine
Nephthys in red dress

|  |
| --- |
|  |
| Nephthysin hieroglyphs |

**Nephthys** was a goddess with wide power and capacity, and she was often referred to as "The Excellent Goddess." 
She could also be dangerous, able to kill the enemies of the king with her fiery breath. In this capacity, she was considered a protector of the king. .   

Nephthys has a central role in the popular myths of Osiris; it is her magical powers that helps to resurrect his body, as well as to protect and nurture Horus while he is a child.  

She is in some contexts presented as a protector of the dead, in other as protecting the baboon-headed Hapi, one of the 4 canopic jars.  

In the Late Period, she became linked with the goddess, Anuket.

Family
------

According to myth, Nephthys had four siblings. Her parents were Geb the god of the earth and Nut the goddess of the sky. She was the sister of Isis, Osiris, Horus, and sister/twin and consort of Seth. Nephthys was also the mother of Anubis, the jackal-headed one with black skin.

Cult
----

In the 19th Dynasty of the Ramesside Pharaohs, a temple of Nephthys called the "House of Nephthys of Ramesses-Meriamun" was built in the town of Sepermeru, midway between Oxyrhynchos and Herakleopolis, on the outskirts of the Fayyum and quite near to the modern site of Deshasheh.

Other websites
--------------

* ancientegypt.co.uk
* touregypt.net
* pantheon.org Archived 2007-07-14 at the Wayback Machine
* 
* Archived 2010-06-02 at the Wayback Machine
* 

| * v
* t
* e
Ancient Egyptian religion |
| --- |
| Mythology | 
* Paganism
* Pantheism
* Polytheism
* Emanationism
* Soul
* Duat
* Numerology

 |  |
| Deities | 
* Amun
* Amunet
* Anubis
* Anuket
* Apep
* Apis
* Aten
* Atum
* Bastet
* Bat
* Bes
* Four sons of Horus
* Geb
* Hapi
* Hathor
* Heka
* Heqet
* Horus
* Isis
* Khepri
* Khnum
* Khonsu
* Kuk
* Maahes
* Ma'at
* Mafdet
* Mehit
* Meretseger
* Meskhenet
* Min
* Mnewer
* Monthu
* Mut
* Nefertem
* Neith
* Nekhbet
* Nephthys
* Nu
* Nut
* Osiris
* Pakhet
* Ptah
* Qebui
* Qetesh
* Ra
* Raet-Tawy
* Resheph
* Satet
* Sekhmet
* Seker
* Serket
* Seshat
* Set
* Shu
* Sobek
* Sopdet
* Sopdu
* Tatenen
* Taweret
* Tefnut
* Thoth
* Wadjet
* Wadj-wer
* Wepwawet
* Wosret

 |
| Writings | 
* *Amduat*
* *Books of Breathing*
* *Book of Caverns*
* *Book of the Dead*
* *Book of the Earth*
* *Book of Gates*
* *Book of the Netherworld*

 |
| Beliefs | 
* Atenism
* Curse of the Pharaohs
* Funerals
* Offering formula
* Philosophy
* Temples

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Modern hunting rifle
The **rifle** is a gun with a stock to brace against the shoulder and a barrel with twisting grooves. The grooves are called rifling and make bullets spin as they fly through the air. Rifles are made to shoot many different sizes of bullets using different amounts of gunpowder. Rifles are usually made to be able to hit targets at long ranges. Modern rifles are made for many different purposes. Some are made for hunting animals. Some are made for soldiers to use in war. Others are made for police to have in case they need them. Some rifles are made for target shooting.

Types
-----

diagram of a bolt action (about to load a bullet)
Rifles can work in different ways. Some rifles have what is called a bolt action. A small handle is used to move a part of the rifle called a "bolt". By moving the bolt backward, then forward, allows the shooter put a bullet in the chamber ready for firing. It also ejects any spent shells still in the chamber from any previously fired rounds. The rifle in the picture above is a bolt action. Some rifles are semi-automatics, where a bullet is loaded (automatically) and fired each time the trigger is pulled. Some are fully automatic, which work like semi-automatics but allow the shooter to fire more than one bullet at a time by holding down the trigger. The automatic rifle stops firing when the trigger is released or it runs out of ammunition.

Related pages
-------------

* Assault rifle
* Battle rifle
* CornerShot

Other websites
--------------

* Quick Guide to Olympic Shooting
* Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide on Bolt Action Rifles Archived 2006-02-14 at the Wayback Machine
* Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide on Automatic Rifles Archived 2006-02-14 at the Wayback Machine
* UK Air Rifles Archived 2007-03-15 at the Wayback Machine
* Israeli Special Forces Rifles at isayeret.com
* On the AK-47's social and military effect on history Archived 2016-06-02 at the Wayback Machine
* WW2-era Small Arms
* ShootingWiki.org Competition Arms Database


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Rifles***.
The **Texas Two-Step** is a dance that originated in 1845 when Texas was first founded. Within 2 months, the founders of Texas (Davie Rocket, John Menger III, Chris Alamo, and Antonio Sanders) adopted the dance as a staple of Texas heritage. Historians still argue about if the dance originated after the successful Battle of the Bulge or the war of 1899 with Houston.

The dance is performed by putting your lead foot behind your support foot while simultaneously twisting your pelvis in a counter-clockwise motion, being sure to point your toes toward your partner. Keep in mind, the entirety of the dance is completed by two Texas sized steps (around 4.2x as large as a standard U.S. step). What follows these two steps is a series of freestyle movements that vary between performers. For example, Davie Rocket adopted the "Hemisfair" movement, where you proceed to grab your partner by the pinky and swing her around your head similar to the motion of a lasso.

Importance
----------

The Texas Two-Step and other forms of step related lone star dances have become a cultural staple of the state down under. Bordering states have attempted to plagiarize this dance in ways of their own, but to no avail. For example, Louisiana created the Boot Stompin' Bop, until it faded into obscurity in 1923 after the housing market crash. Arkansas native Dick Rutherford created the Whiskey Slammer Toe Spinner, but 2 minutes into the debut of the dance, Dick was shot in the Golden Monkey Saloon. The only dance to remain a southern tradition as much as the Texas Two-Step, is the Texas Two-Step.

Notable Sightings
-----------------

Many notable individuals have been seen in public performing the famous dance. Tom Alamodome, John "Hand-Standin'" Johnson, and Brett were all sighted at Shiner Park performing the moves of the golden days. They were all sighted by Eva Longoria, former Spurs trophy wife.
**Ultralight materials** are very light substances. They include silica aerogels, carbon nanotube aerogels, metallic foams, polymeric foams, and metallic microlattices. The density of air is about 1.275 mg/cm3, which means that the air in the pores greatly lowers the density of the material.

The lightest material ever made was invented in 2011. It is made out of a microscopic micro-lattice of hollow tubes – a criss-cross diagonal pattern with open spaces between the tubes. The researchers say the material is 100 times lighter than Styrofoam and is very strong. The material is **low density**: it has a density of 0.9 milligrams per cubic centimetre. Silica aerogels, the world's lightest *solid* materials, are only as low as 1.0 mg per cubic cm. The metallic micro-lattices are 99.99% air and only 0.01% solid. The metal used is nickel.

"The trick is to fabricate [make] a lattice of interconnected hollow tubes with a wall thickness of 100 nanometers, 1,000 times thinner than a human hair", said Tobias Schaedler.
The material is not just light: it has some elastic properties. When it is squashed, the little tubes are also squashed, but when the pressure is removed, they rebound. A sample squashed to half its height rebounds 98% when the pressure is lifted. That makes the material similar in some ways to elastomers: they are materials used to cushion against shock.
This figure shows how pyramid schemes can be impossible to sustain.
A **pyramid scheme** is a way of making money that cannot continue very long. It involves promising people payment, services or ideals, primarily for enrolling other people into the scheme or training them to take part. It does not supply any real investment or sale of products or services to the public. Pyramid schemes are a form of fraud. For this reason, pyramid schemes are illegal in many countries. 

This type of scheme has existed for at least a century (100 years). The way the scheme is described is sometimes changed to hide what it is doing. Many people believe that multilevel marketing (MLM) is also a pyramid scheme.

Concept and basic models
------------------------

A successful pyramid scheme combines a business that seems real with a simple-to-understand money-making description which is used for profit. The idea is that the first person, Mr. X, makes a payment. To get money, Mr. X has to recruit others like him who will also make a payment. Mr. X gets paid out of money received from those new people (recruits). The recruits go on to involve others. As each new recruit makes a payment, Mr. X gets a part. He is promised always increasing benefits as the "business" expands.
Such "businesses" do not have real products or services. To make them more believable, most such scams have fake letters from successful members and information. Only the first person (sometimes called the "pharaoh") and a very few at the top levels of the pyramid make a lot of money. The amounts get much smaller further down the pyramid. Someone at the bottom of the pyramid loses money. They paid to enter, but cannot get anyone else to join.

The "Eight-Ball" model
----------------------

The "eight-ball" model
Recruiting a large number of others into a scheme can be difficult so a system is used that seems more simple. In this model each person must recruit only two others. However, a larger number of levels is needed before the person gets paid any money. The scheme requires a person to recruit two others, who must each recruit two others, who must each recruit two others. 

The "eight-ball" model contains a total of fifteen members. This scheme has been called the "Airplane Game" and the four tiers labelled as "captain," "co-pilot," "crew," and "passenger" to denote a person's level. 

Such schemes may hide their pyramid nature by calling themselves as "gifting circles" with money being "gifted." The eight passengers must each pay (or "gift") a sum (e.g. $1,000) to join the scheme. This total of $8,000 goes to the captain who leaves the scheme. Everyone remaining moves up one level. There are now two new captains so the group splits in two with each group requiring eight new passengers. A person who joins the scheme as a passenger will not get any money until they advance through the crew and co-pilot levels to captain. Therefore, the participants in the bottom 3 tiers of the pyramid lose their money if the scheme collapses. Popular schemes such as the "Women Empowering Women" do this.

Related pages
-------------

* Ponzi scheme: it is similar but not the same as pyramid scheme
Alcohol flame and its spectrum
**Spectroscopy** is the study of light as a function of length of the wave that has been emitted, reflected or shone through a solid, liquid, or gas. 

To be analysed the chemical is heated, because each chemical glows differently. The various wavelengths of the glow make a color spectrum which differs in some detail from other chemicals. Spectroscopy separates and measures the brightness of the different wavelengths. It can identify the chemicals in a mixture, and determine some other things, such as how hot the thing is.

Spectroscopy allows scientists to investigate and explore things that are too small to be seen through a microscope, such as molecules, and the even smaller subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons. There are special instruments to measure and analyze these light waves.

Methods
-------

Infrared spectroscopy measures light in the infrared electromagnetic spectrum. The highlight of IR spectroscopy is that it is very useful in identifying functional groups of organic molecules. The absorption of infrared light by organic molecules causes molecular vibrations. The vibrational frequencies are unique to the individual functional groups. IR spectra is given graphically by transmittance(%) vs. wavenumber (cm-1)

X-ray crystallography can look at the structure of a crystalline molecule. The electron cloud of each atom diffracts the X-rays thus revealing the positions of the atoms. Various inorganic and organic molecules can be crystallized and used in this method including DNA, proteins, salts and metals. The sample used for analysis is not destroyed.

Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy uses visible and ultraviolet light to look at how much of a chemical is in a liquid. The colour of the solution is the basis for how UV-Vis works. The color of the solution we are working with is colored because of its chemical composition. So the solution absorbs some light colors and reflects other colors, the light it reflects is the color of the solution. UV-Vis spectroscopy works by passing light through a sample of your solution then determining how much light gets absorbed by the solution.

Nuclear magnetic resonance can look at nuclei. It uses the magnetic properties of certain nuclei, the most common being 13C and 1H. The NMR instrument generates a large magnetic field that makes the nuclei act like tiny bar magnets. The nuclei either align with the instruments magnetic field or against it. At this point we have two possible orientations the nuclei could be in α or β. Next the nuclei are exposed to radio waves that make α go to the β orientation. When this change occurs energy is given off and detected. The data is interpreted graphically (Intensity vs. chemical shifts in ppm) by a computer system. NMR does not destroy the sample you use for analysis. Below is a 900 MHz NMR system.

Related pages
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* Absorption spectroscopy
* Astronomical spectroscopy
* Time-domain spectroscopy
* Auger electron spectroscopy
* Cauchy distribution
* Optics

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Spectroscopy***.

* Spectroscopy links at the Open Directory Project
Spectrophotometer
A **spectrophotometer** measures either the amount of light reflected from a sample object or the amount of light that is absorbed by the sample object. **Spectrophotometry** is the quantity based study of electromagnetic spectra.

Design
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Single beam spectrophotometer
In short, the sequence of events in a modern spectrophotometer is as follows:

1. The light source shines on the sample.
2. A fraction of the light is transmitted or reflected from the sample
3. The light from the sample is directed to the entrance slit of the monochromator
4. The monochromator separates the wavelengths of light and focuses each of them onto the photodetector sequentially.

There are two kinds of spectrophotometers: single beam and double beam. A double beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between two light paths. One path containing a reference sample, the other holding the test sample. A single beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light intensity of the beam before and after a test sample is inserted. A double beam machine makes comparison readings easier and more stable. But a single beam machine can have measure a wider range of light frequencies. Single beam machines have simple optical systems and are more compact. When the spectrophotometer is built into another device (like microscopes or telescopes) only single beam machines will work.

Many older spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as "zeroing." The absorbancy of a reference substance is set as a baseline value, so the absorbancies of all other substances are recorded relative to the initial "zeroed" substance. The spectrophotometer then displays % absorbancy (the amount of light absorbed relative to the initial substance).

Spectrophotometers can also measure luminescence. For example, the machine can shine ultraviolet light of one frequency on the sample. This will excite the sample and make it glow. The detectors can then measure the light glowing from the sample at a different frequency.
The genus ***Vampyrum*** contains only one species, the **Spectral bat** (*V. spectrum*). Some alternate names for this species are 'Linnaeus's False vampire bat' and the 'Spectral Vampire bat'. Confusingly, they are not related to the Old World family of large carnivorous bats to be found in the Megadermatidae that are also called false vampires. The animals occur in South America, and Trinidad and Tobago.

This species is the largest bat (Chiroptera) in the New World. Its wingspan is about 80 cm (almost 3 feet). Body length and weight are 125-35 mm and 145-190 grams respectively. Some animals reach wingspans of over a metre. The fur on the upper parts of the bat is normally brown or rust-orange and quite short. The ears are very long and rounded. The large feet are robust, with long curved claws. The muzzle is long and narrow, and the teeth are strong. The Noseleaf is shaped as in the photograph. 

The bats are very good at hunting at night. They are predators. Their prey includes many vertebrates, such as amphibians, reptiles, small birds and mammals- they even hunt other bat species. Insects are also included, especially large crickets, cicadas etc. Surprisingly, a small amount of fruit is also eaten.

When hunting, this species is extremely stealthy. It will often pounce from a position on an above branch onto its prey or fly like some owls by patrolling back and forth along forest edges, suddenly dropping on something in the grass. One young or pup is produced each year, and the mother is very attentive and gentle with her offspring. The male is always in attendance too and will frequently sleep with both mother and young completely wrapped in his wings.

Other websites
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* *Vampyrum spectrum* Archived 2005-04-17 at the Wayback Machine
A young woman with vitiligo
**Vitiligo** is a skin disease that causes the skin to lose its color. It occurs when the melanocytes, cells that give skin their color, die or do not work. This is a problem because these cells protect against the light from the sun.

How is it caught?
-----------------

The exact cause of vitiligo is complex and not fully understood. It may be caused by the immune system, genetic, and environmental factors. 
Vitiligo may also be caused by stress that affects the immune system, leading the body to react and start eliminating skin pigment.

People over 20 years old rarely develop this disease. These patches often occur to both sides symmetrically and may change shape.

Effects of vitiligo
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* color of the skin is lighter because there are no pigments
* purple or golden brown patches on and around the eyes, nose, and mouth
* puffiness of the middle layer of the eye
* quicker graying of hair
* more sensitive to sun

This disease can also affect the mental state of the patient.

Curing it
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As of 2020, doctors do not understand what causes the disease, so right now, it can not be cured. Some things can be done to fight its effects, though. Makeup or cosmetics can cover up the parts of the skin with vitiligo. Also, staying out of the sun to prevent tanning is good. But the treatment given by most skin doctors is cortico steroid cream.
Breakthrough discovery in 2004 allowed for the transplant of melanocytes to vitiligo affected areas, repigmenting the region.

Famous people with vitiligo
---------------------------

* Michael Jackson told Oprah in a 1993 interview that he had vitiligo. He is the most well known person to have had the disease. A lot of people thought that he was lying. He died in 2009, and his autopsy found that he was telling the truth. Apparently, when it got past the point where makeup could have hidden it, he chose to have the rest of the pigment removed.
* Jon Hamm got vitilgo when he was filmed acting for *Mad Men* because of stress.

Related pages
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* Albinism



Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Vitiligo***.
| Vale of White Horse District |
| --- |
| Vale of White Horse*Shown within Oxfordshire* |
| Geography |
| Status: | District |
| Region: | South East England |
| Shire county: | Oxfordshire |
| Historic county: | Berkshire |
| Area:- Total | 578.63 km² |
| Admin. HQ: | Abingdon |
| ONS code: | 38UE |
| Demographics |
| Population:- Total (2005 est.)- Density | Ranked  / km² |
| Ethnicity: | 95.6% White1.4% S.Asian1.2% Chinese or Other1.1% Mixed Race0.7% Black British |
| Politics |
| Vale of White Horse District Council |
| Leadership: | Leader & Cabinet |
| Executive: | Liberal Democrats |
| MPs: | Evan Harris, Ed Vaizey |

The **Vale of White Horse** is a local government district of Oxfordshire in England. The main town is Abingdon, other places are Faringdon and Wantage. There are 68 parishes within the district.

It is a region between the Berkshire Downs and the River Thames. It was named after the prehistoric Uffington White Horse. The district was formed on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972. The area is often referred to as the ‘Vale of the White Horse’.

Geography
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It is the valley of the Ock, a stream which joins the Thames from the West at Abingdon. The Vale is almost flat and well-wooded. Following local usage the vale covers all the ground between the Cotswolds (on the north) and the White Horse Hills. According to the geographical definition, however, the Vale is from two to five miles wide, and the distance by road from Abingdon to Shrivenham at its head is 18 miles.

Sites of interest
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The highest hill of the district is White Horse Hill that is 261 m (856 ft) high. In its northern flank, just below the summit, a gigantic figure of a horse is cut, the turf is removed to show the white chalky soil beneath. This figure gives name to the hill, the range and the vale. It is 114 m (374 ft) long, the neck, body and tail varying little in width.

A panoramic view into the Vale; the White Horse is on the right and Dragon Hill centre right
The Uffington White Horse, as seen from about 600 m (2000 ft), from the cockpit of a glider
***Megazostrodon*** is an early proto-mammal, discovered in Lesotho, southern Africa.

It is one of the first mammals, and appeared in the fossil record about 200/205 million years ago (mya). It did have some non-mammalian characteristics, but overall this animal, and *Morganucodon*, probably show the final stage of the transition between the cynodonts and true mammals.

Characteristics
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It is thought that the animal was nocturnal as it had a relatively much larger brain than its cynodont relatives, and the enlarged areas of its brain were found to be those which process sounds and smells.

Nocturnal activity in an animal of this size virtually requires an increased internal production of heat.p124
From their size and teeth, *Megastrozodon* were probably insectivores, as were all its relatives at the time.p300 Their small size suggests some kind of temperature regulation, which in turn suggests insulation in the form of fur.

The night-time behaviour and insectivorous habits gave these early mammals a niche which did not compete with the reptiles.

These early mammals developed many traits which made them well-suited for an active lifestyle. They developed four types of teeth. There is evidence that the inward-closing movement of the mandible suggests a shearing action to chew food. Their skeletons changed so that their limbs were more flexible (they became less laterally splayed, allowing for faster forward motion) and they developed a shorter ribcage and larger lungs to allow for faster respiration. The structure of their jaw bones changed, the lower jaw becoming a single bone — the dentary. The other bones which once made up the jaw moved to the middle ear to create a hearing system.
**Rapa** or **Oparo** is an island in French Polynesia. It is sometimes called Rapa Iti to distinguish it from Rapa Nui (Easter Island).

History
-------

The first European, who visited the island, was the captain George Vancouver. He visited the island in 1791. The island had an estimated population of about 2000 inhabitants. Four tribes inhabited the island. There were many tribal wars on the island. 

The Rapan people were converted to Christianity in 1826, when six embassadors were sent from Tahiti. Soon after that some slaves were brought to Rapa. It caused an epidemy and in 1867 the island's population had declined to about 120. Since late 1800s, the island's population has steadily grown.

Geography
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The main village of Rapa is Haurei. Nearly all inhabitants of Rapa are living in Haurei. The Bay of Haurei, which is on the western end of the island, is named after the village. The bay's original name was, however, "Oparo" or "Paro". Smaller villages include 'Area. 

Rapa's nearest inhabited neighbor island is more than five hundred kilometers away. Together with Marotiri and some smaller islets, Rapa forms the Bass Islands. Marotiri is 46 miles away from Rapa. 

To the southeast is the uninhabited islet Motu Tauturu. 

Many mountains are in Rapa. The highest of them is Mt. Perau (650 m). Rapa has a land area of forty km².

Rapa is 1240 kilometers away from Tahiti, the main island of French Polynesia.

Demographics
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Most inhabitants of Rapa are Polynesians. Polynesians are believed to inhabit the island in about 1000 BC.

Rapa has a population of 521 inhabitants (1996). Most of them are fishermen. The most spoken language of the island is Rapan. Most children and youth can also speak French. 

Rapan is however an endangered language. It is sometimes considered to be a dialect of Tubuaian.

Culture
-------

The most common form of Rapan folk music is himene tarava. The band The Tahitian Choir is from Rapa and its songs are sung in the Rapan language.
**Yaws** is a tropical infection of the skin, bones and joints. It is caused by the spirochaete bacterium *Treponema pallidum pertenue*.

The disease begins with a round, hard swelling of the skin, two to five centimeters in diameter. The center may break open and form an ulcer. This usually heals after three to six months. After several weeks, or even years later, the joints and bones may become painful, fatigue may develop, and new skin sores may appear. The skin of the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet may become thick and break open. The bones (especially those of the nose) may change shape. After five years or more large areas of skin can die. This leaves large scars.

Yaws is spread by touching the fluid from the sores of a person with the disease. The disease is most common among children, who spread it by playing together.

Other similar diseases are caused by different strains of the same bacterium, such as syphilis (*Treponema pallidum pallidum*). Once the lesions have appeared doctors are able to tell it is yaws. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the best method of diagnosis.

The main way of stopping the disease spreading, is by curing those who have it. This stops them passing it on to others. Where the disease is common, treating the entire community is effective. Improving cleanliness and sanitation will also decrease spread. Yaws can be treated with antibiotics. Without treatment, physical deformities happen in 10% of cases.

Yaws is common in at least 14 tropical countries as of 2012. The disease infects only humans. In the 1950s and 1960s the World Health Organization (WHO) nearly destroyed yaws. Since then the number of cases has increased.

One of the first descriptions of the disease was made in 1679 by Willem Piso. Archaeology shows that yaws may have been present among humans as far back as 1.6 million years ago.