recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
***Ganggangsullae*** (Hangul: 강강술래) is a 5,000-year-old traditional Korean dance. It was first used to bring a good harvest and has become a cultural symbol for Korea. The females in Jeollanam-do usually dance this the most. Chuseok, the Korean style holiday a bit like the American Thanksgiving, is often known as the special day for this dance.

History
-------

The dance is thought to have come from about 5,000 years ago when the Koreans believed that the Sun, Moon, and Earth controlled the world. The people (almost always girls in hanboks) would dance under the brightest full moon of the year in order to bring a good harvest.

In the 16th century, when the Japanese were attacking Korea, Korea's Admiral Yi Sun-sin ordered women to do this dance. He told them to do this because he wanted to trick the Japanese into overestimating them. The women were said to have worn military uniforms and danced on Mount Okmae (옥매산).

On February 15, 1966, **ganggangsullae** was included in the list of the *Important Intangible Cultural Properties of Korea* #8.

Description
-----------

Traditionally, this dance performed without any instruments. Young and old women dance in a circle at night under the moonlight. They go outside in hanbok, traditional Korean clothing, hold hands, make a circle, and start rotating clockwise. The lead singer sings a line. Then, the rest of the people all sing, 'ganggangsullae'. Then the lead singer sings another line, and the rest of the people reply, 'ganggangsullae'. This is probably where the name of the song came from. As the dance continues, the tempo of the song can get faster. They sing about their personal hardships, relationships, and wants. During the dance, the women also play some games. The ganggangsullae can last until dawn.

Related pages
-------------

* Pungmul
**Habituation** is a basic activity whereby an animal responds less to repeated stimuli. It is a primitive kind of learning.

The learning that underlies habituation is a basic process of biological systems. Animals do not need conscious motivation or awareness for it to occur. Habituation enables organisms to distinguish meaningful information from background stimuli.

Habituation occurs in all animals, as well as in the large protozoan *Stentor coeruleus*. The decrease in responding is specific to the habituated stimulus. For example, if one was habituated to the taste of lemon, their responding would increase significantly when presented with the taste of lime.

Two factors that can influence habituation include the time between each stimulus, and the length of time the stimulus is presented. Shorter intervals and longer durations increase habituation, and *vice versa*.

Human example
-------------

Habituation need not be conscious. For example, a short time after a person dresses, the stimulus clothing creates disappears from our nervous systems and we become unaware of it. In this way, habituation is used to ignore any continual stimulus. This sort of habituation can occur through changes in sensory nerves themselves, and through negative feedback from the brain to peripheral sensory organs.
Butyric acid, a short-chain fatty acid
A **fatty acid** is a carboxylic acid (-C(=O)OH), with a long unbranched hydrocarbon tail. It is studied in organic chemistry and biochemistry. 

Fatty acids are important sources of body fuel. When metabolized, they yield large quantities of ATP. Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. In particular, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids. 

Fatty acids may be either saturated or unsaturated. Unsaturated compounds have reactive double bonds; saturated ones do not.

Fatty acids are aliphatic monocarboxylic acids derived from, or contained in, an animal or vegetable fat, oil, or wax. Natural fatty acids commonly have a chain of four to 28 carbon atoms (usually unbranched and even numbered), which may be saturated or unsaturated. This would include acetic acid, although this is not usually considered a fatty acid (not a lipid). 

The blend of fatty acids in mammalian skin, together with lactic acid and pyruvic acid, are distinctive. They allow animals with a keen sense of smell to identify individuals.

Related pages
-------------

* Essential fatty acid
**Intrusive thoughts** are obsessive (repeating) unwanted thoughts that someone has that make them feel sad, angry, annoyed, embarrassed, depressed, or even suicidal that led them to feel anxiety or sometimes, even panic attacks. It is normal for everyone to have intrusive thoughts, though some people find it very hard to move on from them because they feel so real.

Intrusive thoughts are most common in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), which is when someone with OCD gets intrusive thoughts that give them extreme anxiety and cause them to do the same ritual over and over again because they feel like bad things will happen if they don't do it. The difference between someone who has OCD and someone who does not is most people without OCD are able to ignore the thoughts, but people with OCD feel like they are holding them back and will not leave them alone. Intrusive thoughts are also associated with depression, body dysmorphic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Film scanner, for photographic slides
In computing, an **image scanner** is a device used to transfer images or text into a computer. There are special models for scanning photo negatives, or to scan books. In the computer, the signal from the scanner is transferred to a digital image. This image can then be edited, printed, etc. All scanners have special parts which are used to take a picture from an object.

Charge-coupled device or Contact Image Sensor parts take the light from the object and change it into a digital signal. The digital signal is then transferred to the computer memory or is read in the scanner's processor. With some software it can be changed to a compressed digital image, like JPEG or PNG. Text printed or written by hand can be changed to ASCII code by an OCR program.

Types
-----

The main types of scanner 

* *Desktop scanner* (flatbed scanner). This is probably the most popular type. An object to be scanned (picture, image, text sheet) is put on the glass. Under the glass, there is a moving Image Sensor.
* *Hand scanner*. The device is moved on the paper by hand. It was popular during the 1990s.
* *Rotary scanner* (drum scanner) used for fast scanning large numbers of sheets of paper.
* *Smartphone scanner* scans a document by taking a photo with the smartphone's camera.

Producers
---------

* Canon
* HP
* Lexmark
* Mustek
* Plustek
* Other

Related pages
-------------

* Digital camera

Other websites
--------------

* Scanning tips
* More tips on scanning Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
* HP scanning
The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***jale**, **Jale**, and **ژاله***.

The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***Jale***.

**Jale** (also spelled **Jaleh**, or **Zhaleh**, Persian: ژاله‎) is a common feminine given name and surname of Persian and Turkish origin, used in Iran and Turkey, meaning hail stone. Jale is an exquisite name originating from Turkish and Persian cultures. It is a gender-neutral name, suitable for both boys and girls. The name Jale holds great historical and cultural significance in the communities where it is prevalent. The name Jale translates to "dew" or "dewdrop." Dew is a natural occurrence where atmospheric moisture condenses on surfaces like leaves, grass, and flowers. It symbolizes freshness, purity, and new beginnings. Dewdrops are also regarded as symbols of life, growth, and rejuvenation. This is a unique name (not in the top 1000 newborn names in the US in 2021).

Notable people with the name include:

People
------

* Jale, Jaleh Movaghar (born 1953), a grand daughter of Hossein Movaghar , see Iranian Television producer
* Jaleh Amouzgar (born 1939), Iranian historian

* Jaleel White, American actor
Different varieties of jam.
**Jam** is a condiment. It is usually made from pressed fruit, sugar, and sometimes pectin. Most jams are cooked. After making, jam is normally put into an airtight jar.

Usually a jam contains as much sugar as it contains fruit. The two parts are then cooked together to form a gel.

In the European Union, the jam directive (Council Directive 79/693/EEC, 24 July 1979) sets minimum standards for the amount of "fruit" in jam. It also expanded the definition of fruit. This was done to take several unusual kinds of jam made in the EU into account. For this purpose, "fruit" is considered to include fruits that are not usually treated as fruits, such as tomatoes; fruits that are not normally made into jams, such as melons and watermelons; and vegetables that are sometimes made into jams, such as: rhubarb (the edible part of the stalks), carrots, sweet potatoes, cucumbers, and pumpkins. This definition continues to apply in a later directive, Council Directive 2001/113/EC (20 December 2001).

According to Canadian food and drug regulation (CRC), jam and jam products must at least have 45% of the named fruit and 66% of water-soluble solids. In addition, it may contain added pectin, pectinous preparation, or acid ingredient. Also, reasonable amount of a Class II preservative, a pH adjusting agent, and an antifoaming agent is acceptable. However, the jam product shall not contain apple or rhubarb.

Marmalade is jam made from oranges and tends to have pulp and peels.

Jelly is different from jam as it is made from mostly juice instead of fruit.

Fruit butters are made from slow cooking fruit to a smooth consistency.

Joan Miró used blackberry jam as an art medium.

As a gel, jam is neither a solid or a liquid. It can contain chunks of fruit which are solids. Once opened and out of the fridge the gel becomes more like a liquid, and is able to decay.

Other websites
--------------

* National Center for Home Food Preservation - How do I...Jam & Jelly
* Council Directive 2001/113/EC (20 December 2001)
Northeastern University playing hockey against the University of Massachusetts Amherst
**Hockey East** is a group of American colleges and universities who play NCAA Division I hockey against one another every season. Before the Notre Dame men's hockey team (in Indiana) joined in 2013, all of the members were in New England. The champions are automatically invited to the NCAA Division I men's and women's hockey tournaments.

In all, 12 schools are members of Hockey East. Seven of these have men's and women's teams that both play in the conference. Four do not have a women's team playing at the NCAA level, although one of these four will move its women's club team to the NCAA level in 2015. One school has its women's team only in Hockey East, with its men's team in another conference.

The current members are listed below. Unless otherwise noted, these schools have both men's and women's teams in the conference.

* Boston College
* Boston University
* University of Connecticut (women only; men play in Atlantic Hockey through the 2013–14 season)
* University of Maine
* University of Massachusetts Amherst (sometimes called "UMass") (men only)
* Merrimack College (men only; women will join in 2015–16)
* University of New Hampshire
* Northeastern University
* University of Notre Dame (men only)
* Providence College
* University of Massachusetts at Lowell (often called "UMass Lowell") (men only)
* University of Vermont

In July 2014, Connecticut, now a member only for women's hockey, will move its men's team into Hockey East. One year later, Merrimack, a member in men's hockey only, will upgrade its women's team from club to full varsity status and move that team into the conference.
**HD 8673** is a binary star system in the constellation of Andromeda. It has an apparent magnitude of 6.34 and absolute magnitude of 3.56. It is 124.5 light years away from us. They are moving away from us with a heliocentric radial velocity (speed) of 19 km/s. A smaller object, possibly a exoplanet or brown dwarf, was found orbiting around them in 2005.

The main (primary) star is classified as an F7 V star. It is almost the same to the Sun but a bit bigger, with a mass of 1.36 times the mass of the Sun and 1.52 times the Sun's size. The star is about 1.5 billion years old and is spinning quickly, with a projected radial velocity of 26.9 km/s. It is emitting off 3.4 times more light than the Sun and has an effective temperature of 6,340 K.

In 2011, speckle interferometry measurements suggested that there might be another star close to this one. But more observations showed that it was wrong. Later, a smaller star was found orbiting the main (primary) star. This star is about one-third to half the size of the Sun and is far away from the main star, about 35 to 60 times farther than the Earth is from the Sun.
***Frogger*** is an arcade video game made in 1981 by Konami. The player must play as Frogger to get to home. The player must cross a road and a river. If the player is hit by a car or falls into the water, the player must start over. *Frogger* is very popular and there are many newer *Frogger* games.

Gameplay
--------

The player guides a frog using a joystick (a game controller). The frog starts at the bottom of the screen. The frog must first cross a busy road. There are cars that go left and right on the road. If a car hits the frog, it dies and the player must start again. Once the frog crosses the road, the frog must cross a river. There are logs and turtles that move left and right in the river. The player must jump on top of the logs and turtles to reach the other side. If the player reaches the other side, he gets extra points and can try again.

There are many ways that the frog can die:

1. If a car hits the frog, the frog dies.
2. If the frog falls in the water, the frog dies.
3. Sometimes, there are snakes, otters, and alligators in the water. If an animal hits the frog, the frog dies.
4. Sometimes, the turtles go under the water. If the frog is riding on a turtle when it goes under the water, the frog dies.
5. If the frog goes off the edge of the screen, the frog dies.
6. The frog can not land in the same spot twice at the top of the screen. If it does, the frog dies.
7. There is a timer. If the time runs out, the frog dies.

If the frog dies, the player can try again. Once the frog dies too many times, the game is over.
A **headset** is a headphone with a microphone. People can listen to sound with headphone and can record sound with a microphone. A headset is easy to use because it can be used without hands, just like a telephone. A person only needs to put the headset on his/her head and then can talk with a mic. Many people use headsets at the computer so they can converse and type easily. Headsets normally have only one speaker like a telephone, but also can be made with speakers for both ears.

New type of Headset
-------------------

Nowadays there are wire headset and wireless headset, which means there's no wire between the computer and the headset. It works by radio waves. A wireless headset can be put in a pocket or a bag easily due to its small size. This can be used for soundproofing.

History
-------

The inventor of the headset is Nathaniel Baldwin, but his version could not be sold to people. The second headset is the US Army's headset for airplane pilots in World War I.

How headsets work?
------------------

Headset is made up of two parts. They are input part and output part. From input part, headset receive sound signal. And from output part, headset receive sound signal and generate sound.


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Headsets***.
Green Mover Max
Regular and vintage Hiroden streetcars
Hiroden cars 651 and 652, which survived the atomic bomb  and were still running in Hiroshima as of 2015
Damaged and derailed Hiroden 651 on August 9, 1945
Hiroden bus
The **Hiroshima Electric Railway Co. Ltd.** (広島電鉄株式会社, *Hiroshima Dentetsu kabushiki gaisha*). is a company in Japan. It runs streetcars and buses in and around Hiroshima Prefecture, and is commonly referred to as "Hiroden" for short.

The company has a diverse collection of trams from various parts of Japan and Europe, which has earned it the nickname "The Moving Streetcar Museum".

From January 2008 the company has accepted PASPY, a smart card ticket system.

This is the longest tram network in Japan, with 35.1 km (21.8 mi).

On 6 August 1945, Hiroshima was devastated by the atomic bombing during World War II. The bombing resulted in the deaths of 185 employees of the local tramway company and caused damage or destruction to 108 out of its 123 trams. However, within just three days, the tramway system resumed operations. Remarkably, three trams that survived or were rebuilt after the bombing are still in operation even 75 years later..

Other websites
--------------

* Hiroshima Electric Railway
* Streetcars in the Hiroden system

Template:Hiroden Streetcar Lines and Routes

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The **Gran Valira** is the biggest river in Andorra. It flows through the capital, Andorra la Vella, and exits the country in the south near the Spain–Andorra road border crossing.

The Gran Valira is a tributary to the Segre, a tributary to the Ebro. It flows into the Segre in La Seu d'Urgell, Spain.

Geography
---------

The Gran Valira river has a length of 41.4 kilometres (25.7 miles), only 9 kilometres (5.6 miles) outside Andorra, and a drainage basin with an area of 591.6 square kilometres (228 square miles) for the whole Valira system including the Valira d'Orient and the Valira del Nord rivers.

Its average yearly discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) is 33.70 cubic metres per second (1,190 cubic feet per second) at La Seu d'Urgell in the Catalonia, Spain.

The Valira river has the shape of *Y*. The upper branches are the *Valira del Nord* an the *Valira d'Orient* rivers. They join in Escaldes-Engordany and, from here, the river is called the *Gran Valira*.

### Valira del Nord

Le Valira del Nord river is also called *Valira de la Massana*, *Valira de Ordino* or *ribera de Ordino*. It starts in the *Estanys de Tristaina*, a group of 3 lakes in northwestern Andorra, in the Ordino parish at an altitude of 2,306 metres (7,566 feet) above sea level. From here, the river flows to the centre of the country, flowing through the villages El Serrat, Les Salines, Llorts, Arans, La Cortinada, Ansalonga, Ordino, La Massana, Anyós and Engordany (part of Escaldes-Engordany). Its main tributaries are the *Sorteny* and *Arinsal* rivers.

### Valira d'Orient

The Valira d'Orient river is also called *Valira de Encamp*, *Valira de Canillo* or *Valira de Soldeu*. It starts in the *Cirque des Pessons* in northeastern Andorra, in the Encamp parish. From here, the river flows through the villages Soldeu, El Tarter, L'Aldosa, El Vilar, Canillo, Molleres, Les Bons, Encamp et Escaldes (part of Escaldes-Engordany). Its main tributary is the *Madriu* river.

### Gran Valira

The Gran Valira river starts with the confluence of the two previous rivers in Escaldes-Engordany. It flows through the towns Andorra la Vella, Santa Coloma, La Margineda, Aixovall and Sant Julià de Lòria. Then it flows into Spain where it is joined, by the left side, by its main tributary, the Runer river.

Finally, it flows into the Segre river in La Seu d'Urgell.

Gallery
-------

* Gran Valira flowing through Sant Julià de LòriaGran Valira flowing through Sant Julià de Lòria
* The Valira d'Orient flowing through EncampThe Valira d'Orient flowing through Encamp
* The Valira in Andorra la VellaThe Valira in Andorra la Vella
* Bridge over the Valira in La MarginedaBridge over the Valira in La Margineda
The red things are galls produced by a gall mite on a leaf
Gall produced by an insect on a vine
Galls can also appear on skeletal animals and in the fossil record. Two galls with perforations on a crinoid stem from the Middle Jurassic of southern Israel
 Oak apple or oak gall is a large, round, gall commonly found on species of oak, 2–5 cm in diameter. They are caused by chemicals injected by the larva of certain kinds of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae
Eucalyptus leaf gall
Oak marble galls, one with a gall fly exit hole and another with *Phoma gallorum* fungal attack
A **gall** is a growth on the surface of plants and other lifeforms. They are caused by various parasites, such as fungi, bacteria, insects and mites. 

Plant galls are abnormal growths of plant tissues similar to benign tumors or warts in animals.

What causes a plant gall can often be known without the actual agent being there. Many types of gall have typical structures. This is true of many galls produced by insects and mites. 

Insect galls on plants give some herbivorous insects their own microhabitat. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect. Galls are the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The gall may contain nutritious starch and other tissues. Galls often give the insect physical protection from predators.

Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae or the adults of the insects into the plants. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must seize the time when plant cell division occurs quickly. The growing season, spring in temperate climates, is longer in the tropics.

Human use
---------

Galls can be used by humans, and have been since ancient times. One use is to collect the pigment which many galls make. The galls are rich in resins and tannins, from which dyes and inks can be made. Galls can be used to make a mordant for dyeing: mordants make the dye on the cloth permanent. Also, permanent black ink can be made from galls, and that has been done for a long time.

The larvae inside the galls may be used as food or as fishing bait, and some galls have medicinal uses.

Gallery
-------

* Rose bedeguar gall on a wild rose in summer.Rose bedeguar gall on a wild rose in summer.
* Neuroterus albipes forma laeviusculus*Neuroterus albipes* forma *laeviusculus*
* Leaf galls on Rhododendron ferrugineumLeaf galls on *Rhododendron ferrugineum*
* Pineapple gall on Sitka spruce.Pineapple gall on Sitka spruce.
The seal of the old United States Immigration and Naturalization Service
The **United States Immigration and Naturalization Service** (**INS**) was an agency of the Department of Justice from 1933 to 2003. The agency ceased to exist under that name on March 1, 2003. This is when most of its responsibilities were transferred to three new agencies. These were the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). All were within the newly created Department of Homeland Security, as part of a major government reorganization following the September 11 attacks of 2001.

History
-------

In 1890, the federal government, rather than the individual states, regulated immigration into the United States. The Immigration Act of 1891 established a Commissioner of Immigration in the Treasury Department. Immigration was transferred to the United States Department of Commerce and Labor after 1903 and the Department of Labor after 1913. In 1940, with increasing concern about national security, immigration and naturalization was organized under the authority of the Department of Justice.

In 2003 the administration of immigration services became the responsibility of the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS), which existed only for a short time before changing to its current name, the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS).
Ancestral Haplogroup   Haplogroup A (Hg A)  Haplogroup B (Hg B) All of these molecules are part of the ancestral haplogroup.   
At some time, a mutation occurred in the ancestral molecule, mutation A, which produced a new lineage. This is haplogroup A, defined by mutation A.   
Later, a new mutation, mutation B, occurred in a person carrying haplogroup A. Mutation B defined haplogroup B. Haplogroup B is a subgroup of haplogroup A. Both haplogroups A and B are subgroups of the ancestral haplogroup
A **haplogroup** is a group of single chromosomes, or single DNA strands, which share a common ancestor. They have the same mutation in all versions.

Haplogroups show deep ancestral origins dating back thousands of years.

In human genetics, the haplogroups usually studied are Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups. Both can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed only from father to son, while mtDNA is passed only from mother to children. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutations with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.

Related pages
-------------

* J1 (Y-DNA)
galls on an oak leaf caused by a wasp
**Gall wasps**, also called **gallflies,** are the family (Cynipidae) of the order Hymenoptera. They are in the Apocrita suborder of wasps. 

About 1300 species of this small creature (1-8 mm) are known worldwide, with about 360 species of 36 different genera in Europe and some 800 species in North America.

Plant galls
-----------

The larvae of most gall wasps develop in plant galls they induce themselves.

The plant galls develop after the female insect lays the eggs. The inducement for the gall formation is largely unknown. The hatching larvae nourish themselves with the nutritive tissue of the galls, in which they are well-protected from external environmental effects. 

70% of the known species live in oak trees. One can find galls on nearly all parts of such trees, some on the leaves, the buds, the branches, and the roots. Other species of gall wasps live in eucalyptus trees, rose bushes or maple trees, as well as many herbs.

Reproduction and development
----------------------------

Most species have an alternation of generations, with a two-sex generation and a parthenogenic generation each year.

Parasitism
----------

A gall provides the developing wasp with a safe refuge for this most vulnerable stage of its life cycle. However, other wasps have found a way to penetrate this defence and parasitise the larva(e) within. 

Some of these parasitoids use their long, hardened egg-laying tube (ovipositor) to bore into the gall and lay an egg on the helpless gall maker. These parasitoids may, in turn, be preyed upon by other wasps, hyperparasitoids.
Galina Vishnevskaya with Mstislav Rostropovich
**Galina Vishnevskaya** (born Leningrad, October 25, 1926 - December 11, 2012) was a Russian opera singer and recitalist.

Birth
-----

Vishnevskaya was born in Leningrad, the town which is now called St Petersburg. In 1952 she won an important competition singing a song by Rachmaninoff and an aria by Verdi. She soon became a member of the famous Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow.

Career
------

In 1960 she sang the part of in Aïda at the National Theatre in Sarajevo. In 1961, she made her first appearance at the Metropolitan Opera as Aïda and the next year she sang in the Royal Opera House in the same role. In 1964 she sang Aïda at La Scala.

Vishnevskaya was married to the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich from 1955 until his death in 2007. Her husband, as well as being a great cellist and conductor, was also an excellent pianist and he accompanied her for her recitals. They were very close friends of Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten and performed a lot of their works. She made many recordings including the main part in Shostakovich's opera Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District and in Britten's *War Requiem*. She had not been allowed to take part in the first performance of the *War Requiem* because the Soviet politicians would not let her sing together with the baritone Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau because he was German.

Retirement
----------

In 1974, they left the Soviet Union because they had criticized the Soviet government. They settled in the United States and Paris. In 1982 she retired from singing in opera. Her last role was in Paris where she sang Tatyana in Tchaikovsky's *Eugene Onegin*.

After the collapse of communism and the Soviet Union she and her husband were allowed to return from exile and live in Russia again. In 2002 she opened her own opera theater in Moscow: The Galina Vishnevskaya Opera Center.

Other websites
--------------

* The Vishnevskaya-Rostropovich Foundation homepage

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* Norway
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* BnF data
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* SNAC
* IdRef

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Further information: Hominid

A fossil hominid exhibit at the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City
The **hominids** are members of the biological family **Hominidae** (the **great apes**). This family includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label, and people use it in different ways. Sometimes people mean to include humans in the category of "great apes," and sometimes they mean non-human apes. *Homo sapiens* is definitely a hominid, as judged by all modern reference works.

Hominids range in weight from 48 kg to 270 kg. Males are larger than females. Hominids are primates with no tails, strong bodies, and well-developed forearms. Their thumbs (and big toes, except in humans) oppose the fingers, and form a grip. All digits have flattened nails.

At present, the family Hominidae includes four genera and eight species. However, if fossil hominids were included, all of the Australopithecines and the genus *Homo* would be members of the Hominidae family. Today, nonhuman great apes live only in the rainforests of equatorial Africa, Sumatra and Borneo.

The first hominid fossils are from the Miocene period. Archaeologists found these in Asia and Europe. Also in Asia, they found fossils of a huge version of the orangutan called *Gigantopithecus*, which is now extinct. Fossils also show that Neanderthals were in Europe and western Asia for at least half a million years before modern humans appeared.

Classification
--------------

Scholars do not agree on exactly how to classify the family Hominidae.

### Past versions

In the past, the family Hominidae have been classified this way:

* Family **Hominidae**: Great apes
	+ Subfamily Ponginae
		- Genus *Pongo* – orangutans
	+ Subfamily Homininae
		- Genus *Gorilla* – gorillas
		- Genus *Pan* – chimpanzees
		- *Australopithecus*† and other extinct relatives
		- Genus *Homo* – humans

### Modern version

A more recent classification shows humans and the Australopithecines as distinct from the rainforest apes. Two major reference works have supported this approach.

Superfamily Hominoidea

Family Hylobatidae
Genus *Hylobates*
Family **Hominidae**
Subfamily Ponginae
Genus *Pongo*
Subfamily Gorillinae
Genus *Gorilla*
Subfamily Homininae
Tribe Panini
Genus *Pan*
Tribe Hominini
Subtribe Australopithecina/Hominina
Genus *Ardipithecus*
Genus *Australopithecus*
Genus *Kenyanthropus*
Genus *Sahelanthropus*
Genus *Orrorin*
Genus *Paranthropus*
Genus *Homo*

Related pages
-------------

* Human timeline
* Human evolution
***Homo ergaster***, also called **"African *Homo erectus*"**, is an extinct chronospecies of *Homo* which lived in eastern and southern Africa during the early Pleistocene, between 1.8 million and 1.3 million years ago.

There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification and ancestry of *H. ergaster*. However, it is now widely accepted as the direct ancestor of Asian *Homo erectus*, *Homo neanderthalensis*, *Homo heidelbergensis*, and hence *Homo sapiens*.

It is one of the earliest members of the genus *Homo*, possibly ancestral to, or sharing a common ancestor with, *Homo erectus*. Some paleoanthropologists consider *H. ergaster* is just the African variety of *H. erectus*. There are Asian fossils of *H. erectus*, which was the first human species to spread from Africa.

The name *ergaster* means "workman", in reference to the Acheulean hand axe industry developed by the species. The species' period in eastern and southern Africa coincided with the first part of the Pleistocene, the cooling of the global climate and the start of the ice ages. These events would have shrunk the rainforests in Africa, and expanded the savannahs and open forests to which *ergaster* was well suited.

* Turkana boy
***Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco*** is the sequel to the 1993 movie *Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey*.

Plot
----

The owners of Shadow the Golden Retriever, Sassy the Himalayan cat (Sally Field), and Chance the American Bulldog (Michael J. Fox) decide to take a trip to Canada. At the San Francisco International Airport, the animals run away after Chance gets free from his carrier. After getting away from airport police, the animals are in San Francisco, with home on the other side of the Golden Gate bridge.

As they are trying to get home, Chance falls in love with a street Kuvasz named Delilah (Carla Gugino) who's never had a human family. He thinks humans are bad since he was left alone by his owners, and at first does not agree to help Shadow, Sassy, and Chance because they are "pets". After they return home, a sad Chance is soon together with Delilah. The family accepts her as their newest pet.

Cast
----

* Robert Hays - Bob Seaver
* Kim Griest - Laura Seaver
* Kevin Chevalia - Jamie Seaver
* Veronica Lauren - Hope Seaver
* Benj Thall - Peter Seaver

### Voice cast

* Ralph Waite - Shadow
* Michael J. Fox - Chance
* Sally Field - Sassy
* Michael Bell - Stokey
* Tisha Campbell - Sledge
* Adam Goldberg - Pete
* Carla Gugino - Delilah
* Tommy Lasorda - Lucky Lasorda
* Tress MacNeille - French Poodle
* Ross Malinger - Spike
* Al Michaels - Sparky Michaels
* Jon Polito - Ashcan
* Sinbad - Riley
* Stephen Tobolowsky - Bando
* Bob Uecker - Trixie Uecker

Other websites
--------------

* *Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco* on IMDb
***Homo luzonensis*** is the name given to some fossil bones of a hominin. The place of discovery was in the north of Luzon, a large island in the Philippines.

The remains are about 67,000 years old. They are small bones and teeth from Callao Cave. Researchers think they are from a hitherto unknown species. At least one expert, Aida Gómez-Robles, "is hesitant to unequivocally say the find represents a new species".

Discovery
---------

The archaeologist who found the remains is Armand Mijares. He had dug in Callao Cave in 2003, but he stopped at a little more than one meter deep. He said that the discovery of *Homo floresiensis*, a hominin from about 50,000 BP found in Indonesia in 2004, led him to return to the cave in 2007. About a meter and a half below where he had stopped before, his team found fossil bones. One of the bones was a human metatarsal, a foot bone.

At first, Mijares thought the fossil bone could belong to a small *Homo sapiens*. But after more digging in 2011 and 2015, he and his team recovered more bones and some teeth. These remains from at least three individuals were seen as too different to belong to *Homo sapiens*. Therefore, scientists working on the material have said it is a new species.
The **Government of the Italian Republic** is the constitutional body that heads the executive branch of Italy. Its fundamental regulation is located in Title III of the Italian Constitution.

It is composed of the President of the Council of Ministers and the Ministers, who form the Council of Ministers. Subsecretaries of State generally also form part of the Government, some of whom assume the role of deputy ministers.

It has its official headquarters in the Chigi Palace in Piazza Colonna in Rome. Other headquarters of the representation of the Italian Government are Villa Doria Pamphilj, Villa Madama and the Farnesina Palace, all located in Rome.

The Draghi Government, in charge since February 13, 2021.
The current cabinet, called the Draghi Government, named after its President of the Council Mario Draghi, came into force on February 13, 2021 after being sworn in at the Quirinal Palace.

Overview
--------

The Government is a constitutional body as provided by the Italian Constitution in articles 92, 93, 94, 95 and 96 and insofar as it contributes, in a position of independence from other state bodies, to the formulation of the political direction. Title III, section II, of the Constitution determines its discipline and functions. In general, the government also includes deputy secretaries of state, some of whom may be given the title of deputy ministers.

It is chaired by the President of the Council of Ministers, who ranks fourth in the order of precedence of Italian positions (after the President of the Republic, the President of the Senate, the President of the Chamber of Deputies

President of the Council of Ministers
-------------------------------------

The president of the Council of Ministers has a position of pre-eminence over the other members of the government. He has the task of forming the government once the mandate has been received by the head of state and of electing the ministers. If he resigns, the whole government will have to resign too.

In government, one or more ministers may hold the position of Vice President of the Council of Ministers, elected by the Council of Ministers. His task is to replace the latter when the President is absent or has a temporary impediment.
The red kangaroo is the largest extant macropod and is one of Australia's heraldic animals, appearing with the emu on the coat of arms of Australia.
The **fauna of Australia** is different from that of Asia. Some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 90% of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are *endemic to Australia*.

The fauna is quite different from that of New Zealand, but is similar to that of New Guinea. That comes about because New Zealand is a volcanic oceanic island with no historical connection with Australia. Its animals have not come from Australia. On the other hand, New Guinea is an island on the same continental plate as Australia, and on the same side of the Wallace line. This was discovered by Alfred Russel Wallace, and explained in a famous series of books. These two huge islands were both part of the ancient continent of Gondwana, and were not (until modern times) inhabited by animals from Asia. As Gondwana broke up, its two main pieces had marsupial mammals. Eutherian mammals had not arrived from Eurasia. 

This high level of endemism is explained by the continent's long geographic isolation and its tectonic stability (few earthquakes, volcanoes and recent mountain formations). Australia has few placental mammals. Marsupials occupy many of the ecological niches which placental animals occupy elsewhere in the world.
Marsupials are a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums and dasyuromorphs. 

Australia is home to two of the five known species of monotremes and has numerous venomous species, which include the platypus, spiders, scorpions, octopus, jellyfish, molluscs, stonefish, and stingrays. Uniquely, Australia has more venomous than non-venomous species of snakes.

The settlement of Australia by Indigenous Australians was between 48,000 and 70,000 years ago. Research in 2011 using DNA suggested an arrival around 50,000 years ago. Europeans came from 1788, and significantly affected the fauna. Hunting, the introduction of non-native species, and land-management practices involving the modification or destruction of habitats have led to many extinctions. Some historical examples include the paradise parrot, pig-footed bandicoot and the broad-faced potoroo. Unsustainable land use still threatens the survival of many species. To protect the survival of its fauna, Australia has passed wide-ranging federal and state legislation and established protected areas.
**George Boleyn** (1504? - May 17 1536) was the brother of his famous sister Anne Boleyn and his other sister Mary Boleyn. His parents were Thomas Boleyn and Elizabeth Howard.

Biography
---------

George was born in 1504, probably in Blickling, although it is unsure. George Boleyn was well known for serving the King (Henry VIII ), he was most favored by him. His sister, Anne, became queen because of the help of his Uncle (The Duke of Norfolk) and his Father (Thomas Boleyn). His two sisters, Anne Boleyn (Second wife of Henry VIII), and Mary Boleyn (Mistress of the King) were his only two friends. They spent much time together. He married Jane Parker, also known as Lady Jane Rochford. He was not happy with his marriage, he was only engaged to her by their Uncle. As a Boleyn/Howard (Howard, Mothers maiden name) he had to obey. His obedience towards his family made him unhappy. He refused to sleep with his wife, so instead spent many nights with his sisters in Anne's rooms. Mary would be there, for she was Anne's lady in waiting. All three of the Boleyns were very close.

Downfall
--------

George Boleyn had a very close relationship with his sister Anne. He was also close with his other sister, but Mary focused more on her family with her husband (William Stafford). George and Anne's downfall happened when Henry VIII accused them of incest. Mary Boleyn was not with them at the time of their exile. She chose to hide because of her children. If she had not hidden herself, she too would have been killed. It was likely a false charge by Henry VIII so he could get rid of Anne Boleyn. George's wife claimed that George and Anne had an affair. At her own execution, Lady Jane Rochford claimed that "God has permitted me to suffer this shameful doom as punishment for having contributed to my husband's death. I falsely accused him of loving in an incestuous manner, his sister, Queen Anne Boleyn. For this I deserve to die."
The **glass frog** (or **glassfrog**) is the common name for the frogs of the amphibian family **Centrolenidae**. Most glass frogs are a lime green color. For some glass frogs the skin on the stomach area is transparent. The insides, including the heart, liver, and gastrointestinal tract can be seen through the skin. This is the reason for the common name.

Characteristics
---------------

Glass frogs are generally small, ranging from 1.9 to 7.6 centimetres (0.75 to 2.99 in) in length. The frog is known to eat its own young. They are green in color over most of their bodies. The skin along the lower surface of the body is translucent.

Glass frogs are similar in appearance to some green frogs of the genus *Eleutherodactylus* and to some tree frogs of the family Hylidae. Hylid tree frogs have eyes that face to the side, whilst those of glass frogs face forward.

Distribution
------------

These frogs live from southern Mexico to Panama. They are through the Andes from Venezuela and the island of Tobago to Bolivia. Some species are in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins, the Guiana Shield region, southeastern Brazil, and northern Argentina.

Biology
-------

Glass frogs are mostly arboreal. They live along rivers and streams during the breeding season. Many live in montane cloud forests of Central and South America. Some species also live in Amazon and Chocóan rainforest and semi-deciduous forests.

The eggs are usually put on the leaves of trees or shrubs. The leaves hang over the running water of mountain streams, creeks, and small rivers. One species leaves its eggs over stones close to waterfalls. After they hatch, the tadpoles fall into the waters below. The tadpoles are long, with powerful tails and low fins, suited for fast flowing water. Outside of the breeding season some species live in the canopy.

Genera
------

*Cochranella albomaculata* from Costa Rica
Family **CENTROLENIDAE**

* Subfamily Centroleninae
	+ Genus *Centrolene* Jiménez de la Espada, 1872
	+ Genus *Chimerella* Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
	+ Genus *Cochranella* Taylor, 1951
	+ Genus *Espadarana* Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
	+ Genus *Nymphargus* Cisneros-Heredia & McDiarmid, 2007
	+ Genus *Rulyrana* Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
	+ Genus *Sachatamia* Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
	+ Genus *Teratohyla* Taylor, 1951
	+ Genus *Vitreorana* Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
* Subfamily Hyalinobatrachinae
	+ Genus *Celsiella* Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
	+ Genus *Hyalinobatrachium* Ruiz-Carranza & Lynch, 1991 - "True" Glass Frogs
* Subfamily Allophryninae

Incertae sedis *Ikakogi* Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
**Glasnost** (Russian: гла́сность) was a policy that called for increased openness in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union. It was introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the second half of the 1980s. Glasnost is often paired with Perestroika (restructuring), another reform instituted by Gorbachev at the same time. The word "glasnost" has been used in Russian at least since the end of the 18th century.

The word was often used by Gorbachev for policies he believed might reduce corruption at the top, and moderate the abuse of power by the Central Committee. Russian human rights activist and dissident Lyudmila Alexeyeva explained glasnost as a word that "had been in the Russian language for centuries. It was in the dictionaries and lawbooks as long as there had been dictionaries and lawbooks. It was an ordinary, hardworking, nondescript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice of governance, being conducted in the open".

Glasnost can also refer to the specific period in the history of the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information.
**George Brettingham Sowerby I** (12 August 1788 – 26 July 1854) was a British naturalist, illustrator, and conchologist (expert on shells).

He was the second son of James Sowerby. With his brother James De Carle Sowerby he continued his father's work on fossil shells. They published the last parts of the *Mineral Conchology of Great Britain*.

Sowerby published about 50 papers on molluscs and started several comprehensive, illustrated books on the subject, the most important the *Thesaurus Conchyliorum*, a work that was continued by his son, George Brettingham Sowerby II and his grandson George Brettingham Sowerby III.

Works
-----

Partial list

* *A Conchological Manual* (1839)
* *Thesaurus Conchyliorum*
* *Illustrated Index of British Shells* (1859)

Related pages
-------------

* Sowerby family

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