recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
In music, the **pitch** of a note means how high or low the note sounds. For example, a violin usually has a higher pitch than a string bass. Pitch mostly depends on the frequency of the sound — how fast the air vibrates back and forth. In physics, frequency is measured in a unit called Hertz. A note that is vibrating at 261 Hz will be caused by sound waves that vibrate at 261 times a second. This will be Middle C on the piano. 

Not all musical instruments make notes of a certain pitch. Many percussion instruments like drums, triangles and cymbals are instruments used for rhythms. They do not play tunes because they have no definite pitch (although often a definite pitch can just be heard when listening carefully.)

Some musicians have a sense of **absolute pitch** or **perfect pitch**. This means that they always know what note is being played, even without comparing it to another note. Having a sense of absolute pitch does not necessarily make someone a good musician, although it can be very useful.

There is evidence to suggest that well-known composers of classical music, such as Haydn, Beethoven, Mozart, and Bach, had developed and perhaps even mastered their sense of pitch.

Pitch is not exactly the same as frequency. Frequency is used as a scientific means for measuring and changing sound and its possible pitches. Pitch is a more psychological quality. It depends on how the ear perceives sounds, and how the brain interprets them.

Related pages
-------------

* note (music)
* musical notation
* scale (music)
* wave (physics)

Other websites
--------------

* Pitch (music) Citizendium
Number 6 San Francisco 49ers placekicker Joe Nedney in action in a preseason game against the Green Bay Packers on August 16, 2008
The **placekicker**, also called a **kicker**, is the player in American and Canadian football who is responsible for the kicking duties of field goals and extra points. In many cases, the placekicker also serves as the team's kickoff specialist or, more rarely, punter, as well. A kicker is often called the most valuable player on the team. This is because in many cases, he scores the most points in a game. Each time his team gets to the 35 yard line or closer, they have a chance to score 3 points. Each time their team makes a touchdown, the kicker comes in to make the extra (1) point. A kicker is a member of the special teams.

Job requirements
----------------

To be a kicker in the NFL requires strong legs. The kicker also needs excellent concentration and coordination. A kicker is the only member of a team who can move the ball with their feet. But the kicker is often the smallest member of the team. Probably the most important requirement is "nerves of steel". You have to kick the ball perfectly while being rushed by the other team.

Hero or ?
---------

The kicker is the only player on a team who has the opportunity to score points each time he goes out on the field. Kickers today often use a soccer-style kick instead of a straight ahead kick. If he makes a great kick he is a hero. If he misses he is a chump|. An entire game can be won or lost by the kicker. A kicker cannot afford to miss too many field goals or they can find themselves traded off the team.

Other websites
--------------

* The 10 Best Kickers of All Time
* NFL Career Field Goal % Leaders
***Pithovirus*** is a genus of giant virus which infects amoebae. It is a double-stranded DNA virus, and is a member of the clade of large DNA viruses. It was first described in 2014 after a viable specimen was found in a 30,000-year-old ice core harvested from permafrost in Siberia, Russia.

It is 50% larger in size than the previous largest known viruses, but *Pandoravirus* has the largest viral genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA.
*Pithovirus* has a thick, oval wall with an opening at one end. Internally, its structure resembles a honeycomb.

Its genome
----------

The genome of *Pithovirus* has 467 different genes, more than a typical virus but far less than *Pandoravirus*. Its genome is much less densely packed than any other known virus. Two-thirds of its proteins are unlike those of other viruses. Despite the physical similarity with *Pandoravirus*, the *Pithovirus* genome sequence shows that it is barely related to that virus. It more closely resembles members of some other virus families. These families all contain large icosahedral viruses with DNA genomes. The *Pithovirus* genome has 36% GC-content, similar to the *Megaviridae*, in contrast to greater than 61% for pandoraviruses.

### Replication

The *Pithovirus'* genome is one circular, double stranded DNA (dsDNA) chromosome of about 610,000 base pairs (bp.) Its DNA translate into 467 different proteins. The genome encodes all the proteins needed to produce mRNA; these proteins are present in the purified virions.

*Pithovirus* does its entire replication cycle in its host's cytoplasm, not the more typical method of taking over the host's nucleus.

Discovery
---------

*Pithovirus sibericum* was discovered in a 30,000-year-old sample of Siberian permafrost. The virus was discovered buried 30 m (98 ft) below the surface of a late Pleistocene sediment. It was found when riverbank samples collected in 2000 were exposed to amoebae. The amoebas started dying and were found to contain giant viruses. The authors said they got the idea to probe permafrost samples for new viruses after reading about an experiment that revived a similar aged seed two years earlier.

Although the virus is harmless to humans, its viability after being frozen for millennia raised concerns that global climate change and tundra drilling operations could lead to potentially dangerous viruses being unearthed. Other scientists deny that this poses a real threat.
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where people run around an area to certain control points given on a map. There are lots of types of orienteering and the most popular type in Britain and the US is called **Foot Orienteering**. In orienteering people use a special map which shows where they have to go and in what order. People are timed and the person who is quickest wins. The word *Orienteering* comes from orientering, which is a word that comes from Sweden.
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Orienteering is developed by International Orienteering Federation (IOF).

IOF recognizes the following types of orienteering:

* Foot-orienteering
* Ski-orienteering
* MTB-orienteering (Mountain-Bike Orienteering))
* Trail-orienteering

History
-------

Orienteering started in Sweden. It was meant to get people in the army to get ready for war. The first large orienteering event was when 220 people went orienteering in a place near Stockholm.

About sixty years ago, people started orienteering in Europe, Asia, North America, Australia, and New Zealand and in 1967 a group of people started to meet up in the United States of America to make an orienteering club.

There are now orienteering groups for 67 countries.

Foot-Orienteering
-----------------

Foot-Orienteering is one of the IOF recognised orienteering types. The athlete covers the distance of his course only using his feet.

The IOF organises World Orienteering Championships (WOC) every year and the European Orienteering Championships once every two years. The first WOC was held in 1966 in Finland. Only 10 nations took part in the first WOC.

Ski-Orienteering
----------------

Ski Orienteering is where the competitor Cross-Country Skis around paths and tracks trying to find the controls.

Mountain bike orienteering
--------------------------

Mountain bike orienteering or MTBO that you can say is a sport where you cycle through the forest on small paths and trying to find the controls.

The Olympics
------------

In the year 1996 some people decided to start to try to have orienteering as a sport in the Olympic games. It has yet to become a sport in the Olympics.

As a skill
----------

Orienteering is also done as a life skill. It is used in training of many countries' armed forces. Often, soldiers have to do orienteering courses at night or in the rain. Orienteering is also part of Scoutcraft in many branches of Scouting. Many Scouting groups require learning orienteering to make higher ranks.
The concert hall at the Maltings, Snape
**Snape Maltings** is a group of buildings including a famous concert hall in the village of Snape, Suffolk. Many concerts are given in the Maltings. Every year the Aldeburgh Festival has many of its concerts there. The composer Benjamin Britten used to live in Aldeburgh with the singer Peter Pears. They started a music school for young people. The Britten-Pears Foundation still continues today, with many concerts based in the Maltings. This foundation gives young musicians a chance to learn from famous music teachers and perform at concerts. Many of them have recently graduated from a music college.

The buildings on the site are mostly from the 19th century. They are built on the banks of the River Ore. Originally they were built to make barley and beer. When the barley had been malted it used to be sent to London and exported to Europe. The Maltings closed during the 1960s. Since then the buildings have been restored and rebuilt to include the famous concert hall. It was opened in 1967, burnt down in 1969, and rebuilt in 1970. 

The **Holst Library** is connected to the Maltings and is named in honour of Imogen Holst, the daughter of Gustav Holst, who was a close friend of Benjamin Britten and an artistic director of the Aldeburgh Festival from 1956 to 1977.

The concert hall is a place for concerts and many other community activities during the year. Aldeburgh Music have concerts in June, and in August the Snape Proms take place. These are concerts at which some audience can by cheap tickets and sit on the floor at the front. They often take rugs to sit on.

Related pages
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* Aldeburgh Festival
* Benjamin Britten
* Peter Pears

Other websites
--------------

* Archived 2007-08-24 at the Wayback Machine
The **SS Potrero del Llano** was a Mexican oil tanker built in 1912, it served under the administration of Petróleos Mexicanos (**Pemex** for its acronym), it would be torpedoed by a U-boot off the coast of Florida, and it would also be one of several oil tankers sunk which would push the entry of Mexico into the Second World War on the Allied side.

Historial and Sinking
---------------------

The *Potrero del Llano* would be built in England and had previously served a Belgian company based in Antwerp *SA d'Armement, d'Industrie & de Commerce*, from 1921 to 1930 when it had been sold to the *Società Italiana Transporti Petroliferi* of Genoa and would be renamed *Lucifero*. She would be decommissioned by the Mexican Government in 1940 and she would be renamed *Potrero del Llano* (name of a locality in Veracruz) and registered at the Port of Tampico.

The German submarine U-564, which was circling the Florida coast under the command of Captain Reinhard Suhren, at 7:17 a.m. on May 14, 1942, the Potrero del Llano with a load of 6,132 tons of petroleum, at first he thought it was an Italian flag ship, but realizing that it had the Eagle of the Mexican Shield, he decided to sink it, which would happen killing 13 crew members, only 22 survived and would be rescued by a US coastal ship that would take them to Miami, among the survivors was *José Reyes Sousa*, survivor of the SS Las Choapas, which would be sunk by the U-129, one month later.

Other websites
--------------

Helgason, Guðmundur. "Potrero del Llano (steam tanker)". *German U-boats of WWII - uboat.net*. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
A **need** is a thing that, when a living being, plant or animal does not have it, it is not able to live.
A thing that someone wants to have, but is able to live when they do not have it, is called a want.

Every person has the same basic needs for the body.
Humans have bodily needs of water, food, clothing, and shelter to live.
The need for water is the most important because a person will die very quickly when they do not have drinking water. In a warm place food is the next most important need.
In a cold place, the need for clothes or shelter may be next most important because a person will soon die when they do not have these. 

Other human needs are not so certain. They are mostly needs for the mind. It is often said that a person needs love, family, and friends. These needs are for personal relationships. They may also be wants. It is true that a life may be better with these things, but some friends can be bad, or bad sometimes. Good relationships can make life very happy. Thinking about a need that is not possible can make a person very unhappy.

Some of the study of philosophy is about questions like "What are the needs of a human?"

Some scientists study the needs of human or animal minds and bodies. The study of the mind is called psychology - *words about the mind*. The study of bodily needs is part of medicine.

Related pages
-------------

* Economics
* Wikipedia:Basic English alphabetical wordlist
The **Mortier de 12 pouces Gribeauval** (Gribeauval 12-inch mortar) was a French mortar. It was made using the Gribeauval system developed by Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval. It was part of the siege artillery. The measurement of the mortar is given by the diameter of the ball. It is measured using the French ancient system of measurement, in which 1 pouce (1 inch) is equal to 2.707 cm. The Gribeauval system was a new way of making artillery as a single piece of metal and then drilling a bore hole. This meant they could be made much lighter and more accurate.

The Mortier de 12 pouces Gribeauval was first used during the American Revolutionary War from 1780-82. It was used during the Siege of Yorktown in 1781. It was later used in by the French army during the wars that followed the French Revolution and during the Napoleonic Wars.

A Gribeauval coastal mortier de 12 pouces, with pear-shaped chamber. This shape helped power and range, 1806, Toulon.
The Mortier de 12 pouces used a cylindrical chamber. Although this was quite efficient, it used to wear easily. This shape was later replaced by the Gomer system using a conical chamber.

Some of the Mortier de 12 pouces were used for coastal defense, in which case they were fixed on solid metal platforms.

Related pages
-------------

 Media related to Mortier de 12 Gribeauval at Wikimedia Commons
A **run out** is a way of getting a batter out in cricket. It involves hitting a wicket with the ball when no batsman is in the ground of that wicket; the batsman who is out is the one who is nearest to that ground, or if both batsmen are in a ground, the batsman who reached that ground second. Run outs can happen when batters are trying to score runs by running between the two grounds.

Mankading
---------

When a bowler is readying himself to bowl, the ball becomes live; if the nonstriker leaves the ground at the bowler's end before the bowler has thrown the ball, then the bowler can hit the wicket in this ground with the ball to "mankad" the nonstriker.

Stumping
--------

A stumping is a special type of run out in which the wicketkeeper (the fielder with gloves behind the striking batter) hits the wicket in the ground at the striker's end with the ball when the striker is out of that ground.

Stumpings are not allowed on no-balls; a striker who is not trying to run can only be run out on a no-ball if the wicketkeeper has another fielder help him.
*This article is about the orchestral suite by Claude Debussy. For other musical compositions called "Nocturne", see Nocturne.*
***Nocturnes*** is a piece of music for orchestra by the French composer Claude Debussy. There are three movements. A female chorus also sings in the last movement. Debussy finished writing "Nocturnes" on 15 December  1899.

The music
---------

The three movements each have a title. They are:

* I. *Nuages* ("Clouds")
* II. *Fêtes* ("Festivals")
* III. *Sirènes* ("Sirens")

A large portion of Debussy’s music, including his nocturnes, is inspired by the works of the Impressionist painters. The word nocturne (from the Latin *nocturnus*) usually describes a piece that is inspired by the night. However, Debussy's Nocturnes do not follow this patter; rather, they capture the way light is shown in Impressionist paintings.

'Nuages' is about the clouds in the sky and the way they move slowly in grey colours with a little white.

'Fêtes' is a very lively picture of a group of people having a celebration and dancing. A procession is heard arriving. The music of the procession gradually gets louder, mixes with the music of the dancing, then it gradually dies away as the procession disappears into the distance.

'Sirènes' describes the sea and the many rhythms that can be heard when we listen to it. The moonlight shines on the sea, and the mysterious song of the Sirens is heard as they laugh.

First performances
------------------

The Lamoureux Orchestra conducted by Camille Chevillard gave the first performance of *Nuages* and *Fêtes* in Paris in 1900, and they played the first performance of all three movements the next year. Some of the listeners found it hard to understand at first, but today "Nocturnes" is one of Debussy’s most popular works.

The music lasts for about 22 minutes.


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Nocturnes (Debussy)***.
The **prime number theorem** is a theorem from number theory. Prime numbers are not distributed evenly across the number range. The theorem formalizes the idea that the probability of hitting a prime number between 1 and a given number becomes smaller, as numbers grow. This probability is about n/ln(n), where ln(n) is the natural logarithm function. This means that the probability of hitting a prime number with 2n digits is about half as likely than with n digits. For example, among the positive integers of at most 1000 digits, about one in 2300 is prime (ln 101000 ≈ 2302.6), whereas among positive integers of at most 2000 digits, about one in 4600 is prime (ln 102000 ≈ 4605.2). In other words, the average gap between consecutive prime numbers among the first *N* integers is roughly ln(*N*).

Fifteen-year old Carl Friedrich Gauss suspected that there was a link between prime numbers and logarithms in 1793. Adrien-Marie Legendre also suspected such a link in 1798. Jacques Hadamard and Charles-Jean de La Vallée Poussin proved the prime number theorem in 1896, over a century after Gauss.
**Sapphire** is a type of the mineral corundum, an aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Sapphires are the same as rubies, except that they are not red.

Sapphire can be found in the ground or it can be made in large crystal. Blue sapphires are the most famous kind, but they can be many different colors, like amber and orange. 

Sapphires have a long history. Tradition says that the tablets of the Ten Commandments were made of sapphire, so strong a hammer could not break them, and would break instead if it hit them. The ancient Persians believed that the earth sat on a big sapphire and that the big sapphire made the sky blue.

A lot of ancient people thought rubies made people calm down, as well as cure their bruises.

Sapphires have been used by kings and queens for a long time as a symbol of luck, virtue, wisdom, and holiness. Princess Diana and Princess Anne both received sapphire engagement rings and the British Crown Jewels are full of large blue sapphires, the symbol of kind and wise rulers.

Sapphires represent September. It symbolizes telling the truth and doing what you said you would.

Sapphire is actually just corundum and is one of the hardest minerals on the hardness scale. Since sapphire is the second hardest mineral in the hardness scale, it is sometimes used as a polishing tool. 

This mineral is found in gem gravel deposits. These deposits are formed from the heat of metamorphic or igneous rock plateaus. The places where sapphire is formed abundantly are Myanmar, Thailand, India and Sri Lanka. The most costly and beautiful sapphires are shipped from Kashmir, India. In other words, sapphire is mostly found in Asia. Recent findings of sapphire have taken place in Australia, Kenya, and Tanzania. 

Sapphire was the first mineral to be lab grown in a strategy called "flame fusion". Another strategy, slightly harder to use, "flux growth" was used to lab grow sapphire.

Heating yellow, light yellow, or colorless sapphire from 1500-1900oc can turn into a dark yellow, gold, golden brown, orange, or a reddish brown colored sapphire. There is a specific kind of sapphire called Star sapphires have whitish pieces of rutile or silk as some call it. Star sapphires can be heated to remove the blue color of sapphire and can be heated even more to get the blue color back and remove the white silk.
Orlando Figueroa
**Orlando Figueroa** (b. September 9, 1955) was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico. When he was a child he loved to learn how mechanical toys worked. When he was in elementary school, he spent most of his time building things and looking for solutions to problems. In high school he was in advanced mathematics. He fell in love with space after that. He would gaze at the stars and moon and would try to imagine what it would be like to travel into space.

After high school Figueroa attended the University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez and in 1978, he earned his Bachelors Degree in Mechanical Engineering. While at school in Puerto Rico he took a few advanced courses in Mechanical Engineering at the University of Maryland, College Park.

Works
-----

In 1982, Figueroa was hired by NASA and was named Head of the Cryogenics Technology Section at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. Among the other positions that Figueroa has held are Lead Cryogenic Engineer for the Cryogenic Optical Assembly of the Cosmic Background Explorer, Manager for the Superfluid Helium On Orbit Transfer Shuttle Experiment, Manager for the Small Explorer Project, Manager for the Explorer Program and Director of the Systems, Technology and Advanced Concepts Directorate.

In 1997, Figueroa was a member of the Senior Executive Service of the U.S. Federal Government. On September 2003, he was the Director for the Solar Systems Division in the Space Science at NASA Headquarters and he also held the position of Director for Mars Exploration.

Accomplishments
---------------

As Director of Mars Exploration, Figueroa led a team of hundreds of scientists, engineers and program specialists in one of the agency's most important projects to determine if life ever existed on Mars. The program's plan is to put humans on Mars. Under his directorship the Mars Explorer Rover mission launched Spirit and Opportunity in 2004. The launching of two rovers within days of each other had never been done before, and it was accomplished in three years. 

In August 2005, Figueroa was the Director for System Safety and Mission Assurance at the Goddard Space Flight Center. In October 2005, Figueroa was named Director of Applied Engineering and Technology at Goddard. He was responsible for 1,300 employees and provided guidance on engineering and system technology. In January 2010, he became Deputy Center Director for Science and Technology of Goddard Space Flight Center. Mr. Figueroa now lives in Maryland with his family.
**Salem district** is a district in Tamil Nadu, South India. Salem is the district headquarters and other major towns in the district include Mettur, Omalur and Attur. Salem is surrounded by hills and the landscape dotted with hillocks. Ancient Salem Nadu ruled by Mazhavar kings.

Population
----------

According to 2011 census of India, Salem district had a population of 3,482,056 with a sex-ratio of 954 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 16.67% and 3.43% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the district was 65.64%, compared to the national average of 72.99%.

Education
---------

Salem district has many educational institutions including government schools, private schools and hundred years traditional institution Government arts college ,Government arts college for women and the Government College of Engineering and Periyar University.

Industries
----------

The Salem handloom industry is one of the most ancient cottage industries and producing quality saree, doti etc out of silk yarn and cotton yarn. More than 75,000 handlooms are working and the total value of cloth produced per annum is estimated at Rs.5,000 crores. With more than 125 spinning mills, with modern weaving units and garment units Salem established itself as one of the major textile center in Tamil Nadu .
**Polymyalgia rheumatica** ("PMR", sometimes called just **polymyalgia**) is a syndrome or condition. It causes pain in the joints and muscles of the upper body. Normal arm and leg movements may be affected.

Most people with PMR have pain during the morning. Sometimes the pain is in the late afternoon or evening. About 15% of people having PMR may also have temporal arteritis. The condition may prevent the normal use of the arms and/or legs.

PMR affects more women than men. PMR usually happens in people age fifty and older. People under age 50 can be affected, although rarely.

One blood test usually performed is the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) which measures how fast the patient's red blood cells settle in a test tube. The faster the blood cells settle, the higher the ESR value, which means inflammation is present. 

Prednisone is the drug of choice for PMR. Treatment duration is often more than one year. If the patient does not have dramatic improvement after three days of 10–20 mg oral prednisone per day, the diagnosis should be reconsidered. Sometimes relief of symptoms occurs in just a few hours.
Ornamental trailing plant on a trellis: (creeping groundsel).
*Vanda*: an orchid.
The white garden at Sissinghurst
An **ornamental plant** is decorative: it is grown for how it looks, and not for other values. The term is often shortened to **ornamental**, used as a noun

Ornamental plants are plants that are grown for decoration. They are on display in gardens, landscapes and inside houses. They can be used indoors as cut flowers or potted plants. The cultivation of ornamental plants comes under floriculture and tree nurseries, which is a major branch of horticulture.

Ornamental plants are usually grown in the flower garden, or as house plants. They are usually grown for the display of their flowers. Other common ornamental features include leaves, scent, fruit, stem and bark. In all cases, their purpose is for the enjoyment of gardeners and visitors. Ornamental plants may be used for landscaping, and for cut flowers. The cultivation, called floriculture, is a major branch of horticulture. 

Ornamental plants come in a range of shapes, sizes and colours suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and gardening needs. They are also often chosen for specialised looks or feels in landscape gardening.

Darwin was deeply interested in plants all his life. Several of his books are on plant physiology, and orchids were a passion for him.

Outstanding gardens can be an attraction for visitors. The white garden at Sissinghurst Castle was created by poet and writer Vita Sackville-West (1892–1962), and is still bringing in the paying visitors.

Related pages
-------------

* Cultivar
* Domestication
* List of garden plants
**Septicemic** (or **septicaemic**) **plague** is a deadly blood infection. It is one of the three main forms of plague (the other two being the bubonic and penumonic). It is caused by the bacterium *Yersinia pestis*.

Septicemic plague can cause the blood to form small blood clots through the body. Without treatment it is almost always fatal. The death rate in medieval times was 99-100 percent. Septicemic plague is the rarest of the three plagues that struck Europe in 1348, the other forms are bubonic and pneumonic plague. This disease is caused mainly by the bite of an infected rodent or insect. In rare cases it can also enter the body through an opening in the skin or by cough from another infected human. 

In septicemic plague the bacteria grow quickly in the blood, causing severe sepsis. The endotoxins cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). This is tiny clots of blood throughout the body which stops the blood getting to some areas. This causes the cells in the area to die. DIC uses up the bodies ability to make blood clot, so that it can no longer control bleeding. This means there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which can cause red and/or black patchy rash and coughing up or vomiting of blood (hemoptysis/haemoptysis). There are bumps on the skin that look somewhat like insect bites. These bumps are usually red, and sometimes white in the center. Early treatment with antibiotics reduces the death rate to between 4 and 15 percent. People that get this disease must receive treatment in at most 24 hours or they will die. In some cases, people may even die on the same day they get the disease.

Symptoms
--------

* Abdominal pain
* Bleeding due to blood clotting problems
* Diarrhoea
* Fever
* Low blood pressure
* Nausea
* Organ failure
* Vomiting

Note: Septicemic plague may cause death before any symptoms occur

Septicemic plague in Medieval times
-----------------------------------

The septicemic plague was the least common of the three plagues that occurred from 1348 to 1350. Like the others, the septicemic plague spread from the East through trade routes on the Black Sea and down to the Mediterranean Sea. Major port cities such as Venice and Florence were hit the hardest. The three plagues that are part of the Black Death were a major factor in the Peasant's Revolt of 1381.

Related pages
-------------

* Septicemia
* Meningococcemia
* Bubonic Plague
* Pneumonic plague
* Black death

Other websites
--------------

Google Health - Plague  

HowStuffWorks - "Septicemic Plague"
The 25-pounder.
The **Ordnance QF 25-pounder**, or the **25-pounder**, was a British howitzer. It was used during the Second World War. It started being used right before the war started, and was better than previous British howitzers. The gun was better because it could fire at both long and short distances, and could be moved easily. It was the British Army's main artillery gun until the 1960s. Some groups used it for training up until the 1980s. The guns were produced slowly, but 12,000 were made by 1945.

Design
------

The 25-pounder was made because the British Army wanted to replace the 18-pounder and 4.5-inch howitzer. These artillery guns had been in use for a long time, and were too old to be useful against new guns. The 25-pounder was made when the British Army made a weapon that combined the best features from both older weapons. The resulting idea was a gun that could fire howitzer rounds as fast as the 18-pounder. The shell for the 25-pounder was planned to weigh about 30 pounds, and be about 3.75 inches thick.

Making the 25-pounder before the Second World War was hard, because there was not enough money to fund building new guns. The British Army made the decision to change the barrels of the 18-pounders into new ones, and then change the rest of the gun later when money was available. This barrel fired shells that weighed about 25 pounds, and were 3.45 inches thick. It was placed on the carriage (a platform that could be rotated) of newer 18-pounders when it was fired. This made the gun put most of the recoil force into the ground, making it more stable when it fired. The platform gave the gun a smooth surface to rotate on when it was firing, which let soldiers operating it move the barrel faster.
Pediatric Patient
**Pediatrics** is the specialty of medicine that cares for infants, children, and adolescents. The ages can vary from the early months until 18-21. A person who works in pediatrics is called a **pediatrician**. 

Pediatricians can be primary care doctors or they can be specialists.

Pediatricians take care of diseases that children get. They also make sure that children develop normally and try to prevent illness. One of the most important ways that children's diseases can be prevented is by immunization. Immunization is also called vaccination.

In the nineteenth century, one in five children died before the age of five. Most of these deaths were from infectious diseases. Today *some* of these deaths are prevented by treating disease when it happens. Most of it is from preventing disease with immunizations.

Pediatricians also try to prevent other diseases and injury before they happen. They teach parents about safety and nutrition. They may teach older children or *adolescents* about avoiding injury or addiction to alcohol and tobacco. Because childhood is such a time of change, prevention is a major part of pediatrics.

Types
-----

Many pediatricians work as primary care doctors. This type of pediatrician conducts regular health and wellness checkups. They also diagnose and treat a wide range of common health conditions, give vaccinations, and provide appropriate health advice to young people and their parents or caregivers.

* Adolescent medicine specialists focus on care during adolescence around age 11 to 21.
* Pediatric oncologist specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of different types of cancer in children.
* Pediatric cardiology refers to cardiac irregularities in a child who is 18 years old. It also covers all types of heart conditions and diseases that occur in childhood.
* Pediatricians treat children and adolescents who have musculoskeletal disorders, such as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and chronic pain.
* Neonatologists look after new born babies who need hospital care.
The Palacio Real
The **Palacio Real de Madrid** (**Royal Palace of Madrid**) is the official home of the King of Spain. It is located in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the largest palaces in western Europe.

King Felipe V had the palace built to replace the Alcazar that was burned down. It is made of limestone and granite. It was supposed to look a little like the Palace of Versailles in France. Juan Bautista Sachetti was in charge of building the palace. They started to build it in 1738. Carlos III moved into the palace in 1764. It took a hundred years to decorate all the rooms.

Spanish kings lived there until 1931 when King Alfonso XIII was forced to leave Spain. The Royal Palace is still used for special ceremonies. Letizia was supposed to walk on a red carpet from the Royal Palace to the cathedral for the wedding with Prince Felipe but it rained so she was taken in car.

Fifty of the rooms in the palace are open for public visits. Visitors enter the palace from the Plaza de la Armería. Some of the rooms that can be seen are: the 'porcelain' room, 'throne' room and 'clock' room. There is a royal army museum in the palace.

Location
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The Almudena Cathedral is nearby the palace.

The Royal Alcazar of Madrid was originally on the site.
The Floral Hall of the Royal Opera House
inside
The **Royal Opera House** is a famous opera house in London. Sometimes it is called "Covent Garden" because it is in the area of London called Covent Garden. The Royal Opera House is the home of the Royal Opera and the Royal Ballet. There is an orchestra which plays there for all the operas and ballets.

The building that is now the Royal Opera House is the third building in that place. The first theatre to be built there in 1732 was burnt down in 1808. The second theatre opened in 1809 but was burnt down in 1856. Today's building was built in 1858, although a lot of it was rebuilt between 1996 and 2000. The auditorium (the main part where the audience sits) is nearly the same, but all the backstage rooms are new: the dressing rooms, rehearsal rooms, office space etc. There is an extra small theatre called the Linbury Theatre which is used for smaller performances. Together with the new restaurant areas it has helped to get more young people to come.

The Royal Opera House seats 2,268 people. There are seats downstairs (the stalls), four tiers of boxes, a balcony and a gallery.

The conductor ("Musical Director") of the Royal Opera House Orchestra is Antonio Pappano who is a young British conductor.

Other websites
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* Royal Opera House
**Mohali** is a city in the Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar district, Punjab, India. It is the headquarters of Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar district. It was officially named after Sahibzada Ajit Singh as SAS Nagar ("The City of Sahibzada Ajit Singh"). He was the eldest son of Guru Gobind Singh. It is still known popularly as 'Mohali'.

Demographics
------------

As per 2011 census Mohali had a population of 176,170. In this males were 92,301 and females were 83,869. The literacy rate was 91.96% per cent. The sex ratio of Mohali is 909 females per 1000 males. Sikhism is the majority religion in Mohali. About 51.53% of the people are Sikhs. Hinduism is the second most followed religion here. 45.5% people in Mohali are Hindus. Minority religions here are Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Jains.

Religious places
----------------

* Gurdwara Singh Shaheedan
* Shri Thakur Dwara Mandir (Hanuman Mandir)
* Mandir Mata Raj Rajeshwari, located near the Khadhi Bhandaar office
* Shiv Mandir
* Jamia Masjid
* Badri Narayan Mandir
* Gurdwara Akal Ashram
* Sri Guru Harkrishan Sahib Gurdwara
* Sohana Hospital
* Sai Mandir
* Jamia-e-Ali Masjid
* Sahib Ganj Masjid
* Durga Mata Mandir
* Sri Hanuman Mandir
Santorini caldera from the air.
**Santorini caldera** is a large, mostly submerged caldera. It is in Greece, in the southern Aegean Sea, 120 kilometers north of Crete. Visible above water is the circular Santorini island group.

The caldera measures about 12 by 7 km (7.5 by 4.3 mi), with 300 m (980 ft) high steep cliffs on three sides. There are two small volcanic islands at the center of the caldera, Nea ("New") Kameni and Palea ("Old") Kameni. The main island, Santorini has an area of 75.8 km2 (29.3 sq mi) km2.

The extraordinary beauty of Santorini's high walls, draped by whitewashed villages, combined with a sunny climate and clear air, have made it a magnet for tourists and volcanologists.

Geology
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The South Aegean Volcanic Arc includes the volcanoes of Methana, Milos, Santorini and Nisyros.
The volcanic complex of Santorini is the most active part of the South Aegean Volcanic Arc. This marks the subduction of the African tectonic plate underneath the Aegean part of the Eurasian tectonic plate, at a rate of up to 5 cm per year in a northeasterly direction. It has earthquakes at depths of 150–170 km.

Non-volcanic rocks are exposed on Santorini at the Profitis Ilias Mountain, Mesa Vouno, the Gavrillos ridge, Pirgos, Monolithos and the inner side of the caldera wall between Cape Plaka and Athinios.

The Kameni islands at the center of the caldera are made of lava rocks.

Volcanology
-----------

The caldera wall of Santorini island.
The caldera is composed of overlapping shield volcanoes, cut by at least four partially overlapping calderas, of which the oldest southern caldera was formed about 180,000 years ago. The subsequent Skaros caldera was created about 70,000 years ago, and the Cape Riva caldera about 21,000 years ago. The current caldera was formed about 3600 years ago during the Minoan eruption.

Palea Kameni and Nea Kameni were formed as a result of multiple, initially submarine eruptions at the center of the caldera.

Although dormant, Santorini is an active volcano. Numerous minor and medium-sized, mainly effusive eruptions have built the dark-colored lava shields of Nea and Palea Kameni inside the caldera.

Their last eruption was in 1950, and now only smoke and gases come out. GPS instruments have registered renewed deformation around the caldera in 2011 and 2012.

The huge Minoan eruption of Santorini in the 17th century BC may have inspired the legend of Atlantis. It was rated 7, the highest score for a historical eruption, in the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program's Volcanic Explosivity Index.
**Pitch** is a type of polymer. It can be natural or man-made. It can be gotten from petroleum, coal tar, or plants. Pitch made from plants is also called resin. Some things that are made from plant resin are also known as rosin.

Properties
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Pitch is very viscous. It has a viscosity approximately 230 billion times that of water. An experiment was done by the University of Queensland. The experiment is called the pitch drop experiment. In the experiment, pitch was put in a glass funnel and allowed to slowly drip out. Since the pitch was allowed to start dripping in 1930, only nine drops have fallen. The eighth drop fell on 28 November 2000, and the ninth drop fell on 17 April 2014.

Uses
----

Pitch was used to help caulk the seams of wooden sailing vessels. It was used to cover earthenware containers to preserve wine. Pitch may also be used to make wooden containers waterproof. It is also used in making torches that use fire.

It is used for polishing high-quality optical lenses and mirrors. Some types of pitch is used in making jewellery.
**Sarah Jane Smith** is a fictional character in the British television series *Doctor Who* and its related spin-offs. She is played by Elisabeth Sladen. Sarah Jane was a companion of the Third and Fourth Doctor. 
She is an investigative journalist. Sarah Jane Smith is one of the companions who travelled the longest with the Doctor; Sarah Jane is also one of the most popular and well known companions. 

Sarah Jane appeared in two spin-offs: *K-9 and Company*, and the as the main character of the ongoing series *The Sarah Jane Adventures*. Sarah Jane also appeared in the new *Doctor Who* series with the Tenth Doctor ("School Reunion", "The Stolen Earth", "Journey's End").

History
-------

She first appeared in 1973 in *The Time Warrior*, and then travelled with the Third Doctor. After the Doctor regenerated, she travelled with the Fourth Doctor. At the end of *The Hand of Fear*, the Doctor had to go back to Gallifrey, where Sarah Jane was not allowed to go. Sarah Jane left the TARDIS and the Doctor, and returned to Earth.

Sarah Jane was a regular companion of the Third and Fourth Doctor, on the programme from 1973 to 1976 (seasons 11 – 14). She returns in the Fifth Doctor story "The Five Doctors" (1983), the 30th anniversary story *Dimensions In Time* (1993), and most recently in the episodes "School Reunion" (2006), and "The Stolen Earth"/"Journey's End" (2008), alongside the Tenth Doctor, and other companions of his era. The Tenth Doctor also featured in her own TV series "The Sarah Jane Adventures".

Other websites
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* Sarah Jane Smith at the Tardis Index File

| *Doctor Who* |
| --- |
| Series and Spin-offs | 
* *Doctor Who*
* *Torchwood*
* *The Sarah Jane Adventures*
* *K-9 and Company*

 |
| Characters | 
* The Doctor
* Companions
* The Master
* Daleks
* Cybermen

 |
| Companions | 
* Susan Foreman
* Barbara Wright
* Ian Chesterton
* Vicki
* Steven Taylor
* Katarina
* Sara Kingdom
* Dodo Chaplet
* Polly
* Ben Jackson
* Jamie McCrimmon
* Victoria Waterfield
* Zoe Heriot
* Liz Shaw
* Jo Grant
* Sarah Jane Smith
* Harry Sullivan
* Leela
* K-9
* Romana
* Adric
* Tegan Jovanka
* Nyssa
* Turlough
* Kamelion
* Peri Brown
* Melanie Bush
* Ace
* Grace Holloway
* Rose Tyler
* Adam Mitchell
* Jack Harkness
* Mickey Smith
* Martha Jones
* Donna Noble
* Astrid Peth
* Amy Pond
* Rory Williams
* River Song
* Clara Oswald
* Bill Potts

 |
This article is about the railway station in England. For the station in New York, see Scarborough (Metro-North station). For the station in Ontario, see Scarborough GO Station.

**Scarborough railway station** is a railway station in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It opened in 1845. It is one of the eastern termini (end stations) of the North TransPennine route operated by First TransPennine Express. It is also at the northern end of the Yorkshire Coast Line. It has the longest station seat in the world, 152 yards (139 m) in length.

Until 1950 it served a line to Pickering. Until 1965 it served a line from Whitby.

Services
--------

From Monday to Saturdays there is normally an hourly First TransPennine Express service to York, Leeds, Manchester Piccadilly and Liverpool Lime Street. There is a two-hourly service to Bridlington and Hull on the Yorkshire Coast Line.

On Sundays there is a two-hourly service to York and beyond. There is also a summer only two-hourly service to Hull.

Two Class 185 Desiro DMUs (from Liverpool Lime Street) and a Class 222 Meridian DEMU (from London St Pancras International stand at Platforms 3-5.
East Midlands Trains provide a limited direct summertime service to St Pancras International along the Midland Main Line. It goes via Sheffield and Leicester.

Other websites
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* Images of England — details from listed building database (447308)
* The Flying Scotsman arriving in Scarborough - Webshots.com


| Preceding station |   | National Rail |   | Following station |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Seamer |  | First TransPennine ExpressNorth TransPennine |  | *Terminus* |
|  | Northern RailYorkshire Coast Line |  |
| York |  | East Midlands TrainsLondon-ScarboroughSummer Saturday only |  |

| **This station offers access to the Cleveland Way** |
| --- |
| Distance to path | 1 mile |
| Next station anticlockwise | Whitby 21 miles |
| Next station clockwise | Filey 7 miles |
The **Poincaré Conjecture** is a question about spheres in mathematics. It is named after Henri Poincaré, the French mathematician and physicist who formulated it in 1904.

The sphere (also called the 2-sphere, as it is a 2-dimensional surface, although it is usually seen as inside a three dimensional space) has the property that any loop on it can be contracted to a point (if a rubber band is wrapped around the sphere, it is possible to slide it down to a point). Mathematicians say that the 2-sphere is simply connected. Other spaces do not have this property, for example the donut: a rubber band that goes around the whole donut once cannot be slid down to a point without it leaving the surface.

Mathematicians knew that this property was unique to the 2-sphere, in the sense that any other simply connected space that does not have edges and is small enough (in mathematician terms, that is compact) is in fact the 2-sphere. It is no longer true if we remove the idea of smallness however, as an infinitely large plane is also simply connected. Also, a regular disk (a circle and its interior) is simply connected, but it has an edge (the bounding circle).

The conjecture asks whether the same is true for the 3-sphere, which is an object living naturally in four dimensions. This question motivated much of modern mathematics, especially in the field of topology. The question was finally settled in 2002 by Grigori Perelman, a Russian mathematician, with methods from geometry, showing that it is indeed true. He was awarded a Fields Medal and the $1 million Millennium Prize for his work, both of which he declined.

The Poincaré conjecture can also be extended to higher dimensions: this is the generalised Poincaré conjecture. Surprisingly, it was easier to prove the fact for higher-dimensional spheres: In 1960, Smale proved it to be true for the 5-sphere, 6-sphere and higher. In 1982, Freedman proved that it was also true for the 4-sphere, for which he was awarded a Fields Medal.