recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Cell membrane
Make-up of a eukaryote cell membrane
The **cell membrane** is a thin flexible layer around the cells of all living things. It is sometimes called the **plasma membrane** or cytoplasmic membrane.

Its basic job is to separate the inside of cells from the outside.
In all cells, the cell membrane separates the cytoplasm inside the cell from its surroundings. Animal cells are contained in just a membrane. Bacteria, fungi and plants have strong cell walls as well, which support the cell and block the passage of large molecules.

Structure
---------

The phospholipid bilayer
The membrane is made up of a thin layer called the 'phospholipid bilayer'. This has two layers of phospholipid molecules with phosphate heads on the surfaces and lipid (oil) tails on the inside. The outside heads mix with water, but the tails reject water.

Other proteins and lipids can be added to the cell membrane. By these changes, the cell can adjust what it brings in or puts out. Some proteins are always stuck into it, these are called *integral* membrane proteins. It also has some which are only sometimes stuck onto it. These are called peripheral membrane proteins. The outer layer protecting the inner cell.

Function
--------

 Transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of a lipid vesicle. The two dark bands around the edge are the two leaflets of the bilayer. Historically, similar images confirmed that the cell membrane is a bilayer
The membrane is selectively permeable. It is active and regulates (adjusts) what comes in and what goes out of the cell. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either *passive*, occurring without the input of cellular energy, or *active*, requiring energy.

### Proteins in the membrane

See the main article: Membrane protein
Proteins within the membrane are key to its working. These proteins mainly transport chemicals and information across the membrane.

The membrane contains many proteins. The surface proteins can act as gates. They let some chemicals into the cell and let other chemicals leave the cell. It is estimated that up to a third of the human proteome may be membrane proteins. Some of these proteins are linked to the exterior of the cell membrane. An example of this is the CD59 protein, which identifies cells as "self" and thus inhibits their destruction by the immune system.
Cytokinesis illustration
Cilliate undergoing cytokinesis, with the cleavage furrow being clearly visible.
*Cytokinesis* is the division of cells after either mitosis or meiosis I and II.

During cytokinesis, the *cytoplasm* (the liquid center of the cell that holds the *organelles* into place) splits into two equal halves, and the cell becomes two daughter cells. This occurs right after the beginning of anaphase (in mitosis and in meiosis I and II).

Cell division continues during telophase (in mitosis and in meiosis I and II) until the cell has completely divided. mitosis and meiosis II starts again after cytokinesis. A new and complete nucleus has been formed in each of the two cells.

Cytokinesis in plants
---------------------

Animal cell telophase and cytokinesis
In plants cytokinesis is slightly different. As plant cells cannot move apart because of their cell wall, a cell plate begins to form during late anaphase and throughout telophase. 

When the cytoplasm and organelles are divided evenly between the two new cells, the plate then becomes less flimsy and soon becomes another cell wall separating the daughter cells. Cytokinesis splits the cell wall, unlike animal cells, where it splits the cytoplasm. The cell wall grows later as the two new cells expand.
Close-up of a corduroy jacket
**Corduroy** is a strong fabric. It is made of twisted fibers. When woven, the fibers are parallel to one another in ridges. This makes the corduroy look striped. Corduroy is used to make clothing, including trousers, jackets and shirts. It is also used for furniture, including couches.

The ridges in the fabric are called "wales". Corduroy can have from 1.5 to 21 wales per inch. It usually has between 10 and 12 wales per inch. Corduroy with fewer wales per inch is more often used to make trousers and for furniture. Corduroy with more wales per inch is usually used for clothing worn above the waist.

Some people think the word *corduroy* comes from the French words *corde du roi* (*the cord of the King*). There is no evidence that this is true.

Other names
-----------

Other names are used for corduroy. Some of those names are corded velveteen, elephant cord, pin cord, Manchester cloth and cords.

In continental Europe, corduroy is often called "Manchester" or "Cord".
Cheste location (red) into the Valencian Community. The area in green is the *comarca* (Hoya de Buñol)
coat of arms
**Cheste** (Valencian: *Xest*) is a city in Spain. It is in the Valencian Community. It is 26 kilometres (16 miles) west of Valencia and about 350 kilometres (220 miles) east of Madrid. It covers 71.4 square kilometres (27.6 square miles). In 2008, 8,127 people lived there according to the National Institute of Statistics census.

Demography
----------

| Population over time |
| --- |
|  | 1857 | 1887 | 1900 | 1910 | 1920 | 1930 | 1940 | 1950 | 1960 | 1970 | 1981 | 1991 | 1996 | 2001 | 2006 | 2007 |
| Population | 4,732 | 5,548 | 6,039 | 5,826 | 6,110 | 5,101 | 5,100 | 5,210 | 5,221 | 5,966 | 7,424 | 6,726 | 6,857 | 7,027 | 7,425 | 7,872 |

Economy
-------

Cheste's main industry is agriculture, specifically the vineyards. Cheste is also known for the MotoGP's Circuit Ricardo Tormo, built in 1999.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Cheste***.

* Cheste's city hall website (in Spanish)
**Colbert Michael Hamels** (born December 27, 1983) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball (MLB). He previously played for the Philadelphia Phillies from 2006 to 2015, and the Texas Rangers from 2015 to 2018.

The Phillies drafted him out of high school in the first round of the 2002 MLB Draft (17th), and he began his career in the Phillies minor league system.. He was the top pitcher in the Phillies' minor league system in 2006.

In May 2006, Hamels made his major league debut for the Phillies. After securing a long-term spot as a member of the Phillies starting rotation in his rookie season, he made large strides in the 2007 Major League Baseball season and won the Phillies' top major league pitcher award. He was the top pitcher on the team entering the 2008 season, and during the Phillies' postseason run, during which they ultimately won the 2008 World Series over the Tampa Bay Rays, he won the World Series Most Valuable Player Award. After the 2008 season, Hamels signed a three-year contract with the Phillies. His statistics declined over the next two seasons, struggling through a tumultuous 2009 campaign and somewhat bouncing back in 2010, however still not approaching his 2008 numbers. Over the next few seasons, Hamels was joined by fellow All-Star pitchers including Roy Halladay, Cliff Lee, and Roy Oswalt and flourished with them, putting up some of his top career seasons before suffering from poor run support in 2013. With the decline of his aging teammates, the team missed the postseason for the next few years, but Hamels remained one of the Phillies' consistent stars. Hamels was traded to the Texas Rangers in 2015, and he subsequently sparked their run to the AL West title that season. He spent parts of four seasons with the Rangers, including an All-Star season in 2016, before being traded to the Cubs in 2018.
**Cytokines** are a group of signalling molecules made by cells. They help to control the immune system and fight disease. They are similar to hormones and, as we learn more about each, distinctions between the two are fading.

Cytokines carry signals locally between cells, and these signals have an effect on other cells. They are made of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The cytokines are a large family of polypeptide regulators that are produced throughout the body by many groups of cells.

Some well-known cytokines include interferon, prostaglandin and interleukins. Cytokines can be detected using the ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.

Cytokines work by signal transduction. Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Then cascades of signals inside the cell changes cell functions. This may include the regulation of several genes, the production of other cytokines, or an increase in surface receptors for other molecules.

Related pages
-------------

* Cytokine storm
* Signal transduction
* Signal (biology)
**Carers Allowance** is a Social Security benefit for people in the United Kingdom who care for disabled people but are not paid to do so. 

It was started as Invalid Care Allowance in 1976, and married women were not eligible then. The European Court in 1986 decided that this was unlawful sexual discrimination and the law was changed. 

To qualify a person must show that they care for a disabled person for at least 35 hours a week. There is no definition of caring. Only one person can claim to care for each disabled person. The disabled person must be getting one of these benefits:

* middle or highest rate Disability Living Allowance care component;
* Attendance Allowance
* Personal Independence Payment daily living component (either rate);
* Constant Attendance Allowance at or above the normal maximum rate with an Industrial Injuries Disablement Benefit, or basic (full day) rate with a War Disablement Pension;
* Armed Forces Independence Payment
* the middle or higher rate of Child Disability Payment (Scotland)
* the daily living component of Adult Disability Payment (Scotland).

The weekly payment is £69.70 per week from April 2022 to 2023. It is taxable and counts as earned income. This is less than most other benefits. 

People under 16, in full-time education, or or getting a State Pension cannot get it. A person cannot get it if they earn more than £132 per week (after deductions including tax, national insurance and certain expenses) They can claim Universal Credit and will get extra as a carer. There is no earnings limit for carers on Universal Credit.

About 5 million people said in the 2021 census that they were unpaid carers. Only 977,506 claimed Carer's Allowance in 2022, according to Carer's UK. in a 2023 survey 41% had to give up paid work completely. 23% had reduced the hours they worked. 14% were using food banks. More of the people getting Carer’s Allowance said they were struggling to make ends meet than those who weren't.
***Darwinopterus*** (meaning "Darwin's wing") is a genus of pterosaur, discovered in China and named after Charles Darwin. It is the first known pterosaur to display features of both long-tailed (rhamphorhynchoid) and short-tailed (pterodactyloid) pterosaurs. *Darwinopterus* is a transitional fossil between the two groups.

Between 30 and 40 fossil specimens have been found, all collected from the Tiaojishan Formation, which dates to the Middle Jurassic, 160 million years ago (mya). The type species, *D. modularis*, was described in February 2010.

Two additional species, *D. linglongtaensis* and *D. robustodens*, were described from the same fossil beds in December 2010 and June 2011, respectively.

The specimens showed sexual dimorphism: the males had crests on their heads, and narrower hips than the females.

Mosaic features
---------------

This genus, and its near relatives, show a combination of 'primitive' (basal) and 'advanced' (derived) pterosaurian features. This is characteristic of transitional fossils ('missing links'), and is called modular evolution or mosaic evolution.

*Darwinopterus* had long tails and other features of rhamphorhynchoids, they also had distinct pterodactyloid features, such as long vertebrae in the neck and a single skull opening in front of the eyes.

Eggs
----

The specimen preserved along with an egg gave information on the reproductive strategies of *Darwinopterus* and pterosaurs in general.

Like the eggs of later pterosaurs and modern reptiles, the eggs of *Darwinopterus* had a parchment-like, soft shell. In modern birds, the eggshell is hardened with calcium carbonate, completely shielding the embryo from the outside environment. Soft-shelled eggs are permeable to water, and allow significant amounts to be absorbed into the egg during development. Eggs of this type are more vulnerable to the elements and are typically buried in soil. 

David Unwin, a co-author of the paper, suggested that *Darwinopterus* probably laid many small eggs at a time and buried them. Juveniles could fly upon hatching, and required little to no parental care.

These results imply that reproduction in pterosaurs was more like that in modern reptiles and significantly differed from reproduction in birds.
***Crotalus viridis*** (commonly known as the **prairie rattlesnake or desert rattlesnake**) is a species of venomous Pit vipers. There is currently only six subspecies recognized, not including the nominate subspecies like the hopi, and others.

Description
-----------

* Adult male,    at National park in North AmericaAdult male, at National park in North America
* Adult,  in National park.Adult, in National park.
* Crotalus viridis Adulte Weibchen.    This is the new word for German.Crotalus viridis Adulte Weibchen. This is the new word for German.
* RattleRattle
* The prairie rattler's cousin,  the cascabel,  is another venomous species.The prairie rattler's cousin, the cascabel, is another venomous species.

The Prairie Rattlesnake usually grows up to the length of around 100 centimeters (3.3 ft). Prairie Rattlesnakes in Montana can sometimes grow up to the length of 120 centimeters (3.9 ft), but the longest ever found was 151.5 centimeters (4.97 ft) long. They are usually light brown in color with some patches of dark brown.

Feeding
-------

Prairie Rattlesnakes eat mainly small mammals like ground squirrels, mice, rats, small rabbits, and prairie dogs. Young Prairie Rattlesnakes eat amphibians, and small reptiles.

Reproduction
------------

Female Prairie Rattlesnakes are viviparous, and can give birth to around 3-25 young at a time. The young are born around between August and October.

Behavior
--------

Prairie Rattlesnake are diurnal in cool weathers, and nocturnal in hot weathers. They have a very powerful and deadly venom which they only use if attacked. Like other rattlesnakes they shake their tail to make a rasping sound which warns enemies.

Common names
------------

The Prairie Rattlesnake is also called the "Western Rattlesnake", the "Plains Rattlesnake", the "Black Rattler", the "Confluent Rattlesnake", the "Missouri Rattlesnake", the "Spotted Rattlesnake", the '' Desert Rattlesnake'', and the "Western Pacific Rattlesnake".

Where they live
---------------

It is also found in southwestern Canada, south to the United States of America, and northern Mexico. In Canada it is found in Alberta, and Saskatchewan, in the United States of America it is found in eastern Oregon, eastern Washington, southern Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and eastern Arizona, in Mexico it is found in northern Coahuila, and northwestern Chihuahua.

Subspecies
----------

Not including the nominate subspecies, *Crotalus Viridis Viridis*, the Prairie Rattlesnake only has one subspecies: the "*Hopi Rattlesnake*" (Crotalus Viridis Nuntius) which is found in northeastern and north-central Arizona, and New Mexico.
This montage of different images is an example of a derivative work
**Derivative work** is a phrase used in copyright law. It is a piece of work (for example: a novel, a song or a painting) that is based on what someone else created.

Copyright law says that if someone writes a book, draws a picture, or writes a song, then it belongs to them. Other people are not allowed to copy it unless the person who created it says that they can. This is important because it means the person who created the work can sell what they created and get money.

A derivative work is one that is based on something else. If a person watches a movie, and then writes a story about the people in the movie, that story is a derivative work. If after hearing a song, someone sings the same tune with different words, the song they sung is a derivative work.

In the law, if someone else has a copyright on something, no one is allowed to create a derivative work unless they say it is allowed. So if someone watches a movie, they are not allowed to write a story about the people in the movie unless the people who made the movie give them permission.

This only applies to the things that are known about by the person creating the work. If a movie is made, but they do not go and see the movie, and then they write a book that has the same story as the movie, that is not a derivative work.
View from Cape Tribulation on the sand beach
**Cape Tribulation** (16°04′S 145°28′E﻿ / ﻿16.067°S 145.467°E﻿ / -16.067; 145.467) is both a headland and small town in northern Queensland, Australia 110 km (68 mi) north of Cairns. It is in the Daintree National Park and the Wet Tropics World Heritage area. The first people to live in the area were the Kuku Yalanji. The first European to settle in the area was John Moffat in 1880 who set up a farm to grow food for the miners in the west.

There is a sealed road to the area from the south from the Daintree River Ferry. To the north there is a four wheel drive unsealed road, called the Bloomfield Track. This goes to the Bloomfield River, Wujal Wujal, Bloomfield Falls and Cooktown. It is often closed during the wet season (Feb-Apr). 

Tribulation means trouble and great suffering. Cape Tribulation was named by British explorer Lt. James Cook on 10 June 1770 after his ship ran into a coral reef near the headland; "...because here began all our Troubles..."

Cape Tribulation is in a rainforest and it gets a lot of rain. In 2006, the rainfall recorded was over 5.7 metres.

Most people visit the area during the dry season between July and November. There are four main resorts to stay in as well as several smaller bed and breakfast places. The town has two small supermarkets, two ATMs, one takeaway food outlet and five restaurants. During the wet season marine stingers are common so people swim in the many waterholes. There are crocodiles in the creeks.

The Great Barrier Reef is very close to the coast, only 19 km (12 mi) due east. There are two boats that take visitors to the reef. Other activities available are guided night walks, 4 wheel drive tours, horseriding, kayaking, jungle surfing, tropical fruit tasting and crocodile cruises.

Other websites
--------------

* Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service website. - Cape Tribulation section Archived 2008-05-07 at the Wayback Machine
A schematic of a half-wave dipole antenna that a shortwave listener might build.
The **dipole antenna** is one of the most important and commonly used type of radio antenna. It is widely used on its own. It is also used in many other radio antenna designs where it forms the radiating or driven element for the antenna.

Basic facts dipole antenna
--------------------------

The dipole antenna is made of two poles into which radio frequency current flows. This current and the voltage causes an electromagnetic or radio signal to be radiated. Being more specific, a dipole is usually an antenna that uses a resonant length of conductor. This conductor is cut so it can be connected to the what is sending the signal. For resonance, the length of the conductor is an odd number of half wavelengths long. In most cases a single half-wavelength is used.

Length of a dipole antenna
--------------------------

A dipole antenna ("rabbit ears") on top of a television
The length of a dipole is very important for selecting the frequency that the antenna will work at. The antenna is an electrical half wavelength, or multiple of half wavelengths. This is not the same length as the wavelength for a signal travelling through air. There are a number of reasons for this. This means that an antenna will be a small amount shorter than the length calculated for a wave moving in air.

For a half wave dipole, the length for a wave moving in air is calculated. This number is multiplied by a factor "*A*". *A* is normally between 0.96 and 0.98. It is affected by the ratio of the length of the antenna to the thickness of the wire or tube used poles.

Uses of dipole antennas
-----------------------

Dipole antennas are used for many different things. These include television antennas (commonly referred to as "rabbit ears"), shortwave radio antennas and whip antennas.
**Catherine Deneuve** (born 22 October 1943) is a French actress. She is the daughter of two well-known actors. She has two sisters; Françoise Dorléac (1942-1967) and Sylvie (born 1946), also both actresses, the former was killed in a car accident. She has a maternal half-sister, Danielle (born 1937).

She began acting on movies as a teenager. Her first major role is in Jacques Demy's 1964 movie *Les Parapluies de Cherbourg*. She has since then worked with some of the greatest movie directors, notably Roman Polanski's in *Repulsion* (1965), and Luis Buñuel's in *Belle de Jour* (1967) and *Tristana* (1970) and François Truffaut's in *Le Dernier Métro* (1982). She made a commercial for the perfume *Chanel No 5*. She is a close friend of fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent.

She married British photographer David Bailey from 1965 to 1972. She has had relationships with movie director Roger Vadim (1928-2000), with whom she had a son, Christian Vadim (born 1963), and Italian actor Marcello Mastroianni (1924-1996), with whom she had a daughter, Chiara Mastroianni (born 1972). Both her children are actors.

Other websites
--------------

* Catherine Deneuve on IMDb
A **chest X-ray** or  **chest film** an x-ray of the chest used to diagnose diseases of the chest. X-rays are among the most common medical images. Doctors use them to diagnose problems.

Like all radiography methods, chest x-rays use ionizing radiation. The chest x-ray process makes a chest x-ray photo. The photo shows the inside of the chest.

Problems identified
-------------------

Conditions commonly identified by chest radiography| * Pneumonia
* Pneumothorax
* Interstitial lung disease
* Congestive heart failure
* Bone fracture
* Hiatal hernia
 |

Chest x-rays are used to find many diseases inside the chest. A doctor can use an x-ray to examine bones, lungs, heart, and great vessels. Pneumonia and congestive heart failure are commonly diagnosed by chest radiograph. Chest x-rays are used to screen for job-related lung disease, for example in mining where workers breathe dust.

Gallery
-------

* Chest X-ray PAChest X-ray PA
* Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced.Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced.
* Lateral chest x-rayLateral chest x-ray
* Chest X-ray PAChest X-ray PA
* Chest x-rayChest x-ray
* A chest radiograph showing bronchopulmonary dysplasia.A chest radiograph showing bronchopulmonary dysplasia.
**Carmelo Flores Laura** (likely born July 16, 1906 – June 9, 2014) was a centenarian from Bolivia, who some believed to be born in 1890. That would have made him the person living to be the oldest ever known. However, other documents was found, that indicated he was actually born in 1906. Flores himself only said that he was about 100 years or more, which in that case was correct.

Laura was born on July 16, 1906 in Bolivia.

Carmelo Flores Laura worked for the rancher who owned Frasquia, a rural area of Bolivia near Lake Titicaca, until 1952. At that time, the government seized the land and redistributed it to peasants such as Flores. He has lived there since, never traveling father than La Paz, 80 kilometres (50 mi) from his home.

Flores had three children, one of which is alive as of 2013 (Cecilio, aged 67). He has 40 grandchildren and 19 great-grandchildren. His wife died in the 2000s.

The Bolivian government was said to be planning to officially honor Flores as "a living heritage" of the Bolivian people.

A police ID card and entry in the civil registry stating Flores was born on July 16, 1890 were shown to reporters. The longest fully documented lifespan in history is 122 years and 164 days, achieved by France's Jeanne Calment.

Flores himself only said "I should be about 100 years old or more," when asked about his age. The Gerontology Research Group found a baptismal certificate that indicated Flores was actually 107 years rather than 123.

Laura died in an Andean village in Bolivia, aged 107.
Not to be confused with Daze.

***Dazed*** (formerly ***Dazed & Confused***) is a bi-monthly British style magazine founded in 1991. It covers music, fashion, film, art, and literature. Dazed is published by Dazed Media, an independent media group known for producing stories across its print, digital and video brands. The company's portfolio includes titles *AnOther*, Dazed Beauty and NOWNESS. The company's newest division, Dazed Studio, creates brand campaigns across the luxury and lifestyle sectors. Based in London, its founding editors are Jefferson Hack and fashion photographer Rankin along with former art director Ian C Taylor.

Background
----------

*Dazed* was begun by Jefferson Hack, Ian C Taylor and Rankin in collaboration with the photographers Jamie Parissis and Marshall Aver while they were studying at London College of Printing (now London College of Communications). Beginning as a black-and-white folded poster the magazine soon turned full colour and was promoted at London club nights. The Norwegian photographer and later Hells Angel Marcel Lelienhof was involved with the magazine in the first editions, as was the stylist Katie Grand
. 

Today it is an independent youth culture magazine, distributed globally, covering fashion, art, music and lifestyle. There has been some discussion regarding the choice of title, but it is generally considered to have been inspired by the Led Zeppelin song of the same name.
**Carcharhinidae**, also known as the **requiem sharks**, is a family of sharks in the order Carcharhiniformes. 

There are currently 60 species of requiem sharks which are grouped into 12 genera. Some of the most familiar species in this family are the lemon shark, the blue shark, the tiger shark, the bull shark, and the whitetip reef shark.

Requiem sharks are found in temperate and tropical oceans, and many species are worldwide. Some live in the open ocean (oceanic whitetip shark), while some live in freshwater rivers and lakes (bull shark).

All species of requiem sharks have a head of normal shape. Their eyes have a nictitating (winking) membranes. They have caudal fins with the upper lobe being larger than the lower but not very long, two spineless dorsal fins, the first one usually much larger than the second in most of the Atlantic species, an anal fin, a caudal peduncle which doesn't have lateral keels, and sharp, bladelike teeth with a single cusp. 

Almost all species of requiem sharks have a similar diet of fish, octopus, marine mammals and seabirds. Since they look similar, it is usually hard to tell one species from another.

Evolutionary history
--------------------

The oldest member of the family is from the early Cretaceous of France. Only a few examples of the group are known from before the beginning of the Cenozoic. Modern carcharinid sharks have extensively diversified in coral reef habitats.

Genera
------

A lemon shark 
A tiger shark 
A blue shark 
A whitetip reef shark 
There are 12 genera in the family **Carcharhinidae**:

* *Galeocerdo*
* *Scoliodon*
* *Carcharhinus*
* *Glyphis*
* *Lamiopsis*
* *Nasolamia*
* *Negaprion*
* *Prionace*
* *Rhizoprionodon*
* *Loxodon*
* *Isogomphodon*
* *Triaenodon*
***Diprotodon*** was the largest marsupial that ever lived, or at any rate, the heaviest. Its family, the Diprotodontidae, existed from at least 1.6 million years ago until extinction some 40,000 years ago. So it lived through most of the Pleistocene epoch. Its forebears lived in the late Oligocene to early Miocene roughly 23 million years ago.

*Diprotodon* looked like a rhino without a horn. Its feet turned inwards like a wombat’s, giving it a pigeon-toed appearance. It had strong claws on the front feet, so it may have been able to dig up roots to eat. Footprints of its hairy feet have been found, so we know it had fur like a horse rather than being bald like a rhino. *Diprotodon* is found in sites all over Australia, but not in Tasmania. 

Female skeletons have been found with babies where the mother's pouch would have been. The largest specimens were hippopotamus-sized: about 3 metres (9.8 ft) from nose to tail, standing 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall at the shoulder and weighing about 2,790 kilograms (6,150 lb).

The animal was semi-aquatic with a life-style rather like a hippo. Its extinction may have been caused by the extreme drought conditions, as well as pressure from the first Aboriginal Australians.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Diprotodon***.

Wikispecies has information on: ***Diprotodon***.

* Australia's lost kingdom on *Diprotodon optatum*
* Regional Council of Goyder page on the genera Archived 2007-08-11 at the Wayback Machine
* Museum Victoria on the Diprotodontids Archived 2010-01-04 at the Wayback Machine
* Description of Price's research
**Diplom** (from Greek Δίπλωμα *diploma*) is a high level degree awarded for learning. It is awarded in European countries such as Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Estonia, Croatia, Serbia, Ukraine, Belarus and Greece. It is a similar award to the Bachelor's and Master's degrees in other countries. 

The Diplom was first awarded when the *Technische Hochschulen* became a university. 

The diplom is slowly being replaced by a system that awards Bachelor's and Master's degrees. Bachelor's degrees, sometimes called *Bakkalaureus* in Germany, are thought of as a "small Diplom".

Germany / Austria
-----------------

The Diplom may be awarded by the two types of German university. At a University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule), the diploma degree is called a *Diplom (FH)* and normally takes four years to study and gain work experience. At a *Universität* the degree is called a *Diplom* or sometimes a *Diplom (Univ.)* and takes four or five years. These years are called "regular study time" (*Regelstudienzeit*) but study for the universität normally takes longer.

The *Diplom* is the first university award for many students. There has been no Bachelor's degree in the German/Austrian educational system. 

To win the Diplom certificate, a student must pass the tests for the *Hauptstudium* (main study time) after the *Vordiplom*, then one or more *Studienarbeit* (study research projects), and then write a *Diplomarbeit* (diploma thesis). The curriculum of diplom studies at a University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule) is focused on using (applying) the science. The Universität is focused on learning.

A student must have a *Diplom* before studying for a PhD (*Doctorate*). The diplom qualifies a student to study for a doctorate in most other countries.

This chart is a guide to the number of years of university study needed in a diplom system to begin studying for a doctorate:

| 1st year | 2nd year | 3rd year | 4th year | 5th year | 6th year | 7th year | 8th year | 9th year |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Vordiplom | Diplom (FH) with best grades | additional work | Doctorate |
| Vordiplom | Diplom (FH) | Masters | Doctorate |
| Vordiplom | Diplom (Universität) | Doctorate |  |

**Note**: For the Diplom (FH) a student has to spend two years with a company where he or she does not study before studying for a doctorate. These years are shown as "additional work" in the table.

**Also note**: A Diplom student can begin the doctorate without the additional work if their work has been good enough. Normally a Master's course is taken before a doctorate.

Related pages
-------------

* Magister
* German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)
***Bullet to the Head*** is a 2012 action thriller movie. Sylvester Stallone and Christian Slater star. The earlier plays a hitman.

Plot
----

In New Orleans, hitman Jimmy Bobo and his partner Louis Blanchard kill a corrupt former Washington, D.C. policeman, Hank Greely. Bobo leaves a prostitute, Lola, alive. Later, at a bar, Blanchard is murdered by a man named Keegan. The man also threatens to kill Bobo.

Bobo and Detective Taylor Kwon meet each other in a bar. Kwon informs Bobo he knows Bobo and Blanchard killed Greely. Bobo leaves, and Kwon tries to follow him. Kwon is attacked by corrupt cops who were ordered by a man named Robert Morel to prevent Kwon from further investigating about Greely. Bobo rescues Kwon and takes him to a tattoo parlor. There, Bobo's estranged daughter, Lisa, treats Kwon's wounds. They later go to a massage parlor, where Bobo interrogates a middleman named Ronnie Earl, the man who hired Bobo and Blanchard on Morel's behalf. Ronnie Earl tries to kill Bobo. Bobo then kills Ronnie Earl, though his gun jams.

Bobo and Kwon agree to work together. They kidnap Morel's lawyer Marcus Baptiste and take him to Bobo's house. Baptiste is forced to give them a USB flash drive, which details Morel's plans to acquire housing projects and demolish them. Baptiste reveals Keegan is an ex-mercenary hired to be Morel's enforcer. After that, Bobo shoots him in the head.

Cast
----

* Sylvester Stallone as James "Jimmy Bobo" Bonomo
* Sung Kang as Detective Taylor Kwon
* Sarah Shahi as Lisa Bonomo
* Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje as Robert Nkomo Morel
* Christian Slater as Marcus Baptiste
* Jason Momoa as Keegan
* Jon Seda as Louis Blanchard
* Holt McCallany as Hank Greely
* Brian Van Holt as Ronnie Earl
* Weronika Rosati as Lola
* Dane Rhodes as Lieutenant Lebreton
* Marcus Lyle Brown as Detective Towne
* Douglas M. Griffin as Baby Jack

Reception
---------

Rotten Tomatoes gave *Bullet to the Head* a 47% rating. Metacritic gave the movie a 48 score, meaning "mixed or average reviews". Jay Weissberg of *Variety* magazine called it a "kickass actioner driven by personality rather than plot."

Box office
----------

*Bullet to the Head* was Stallone's worst opening weekend box office in 32 years. The movie only took in almost $22 million, failing to bring back its $55 million budget.

Awards
------

Stallone was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor in this movie.
**Crewe railway station** is a railway station in the town of Crewe in Cheshire, England. It opened in 1837 and is one of the most significant train stations in the world. It has twelve platforms and a modern passenger entrance containing a bookshop and ticket office. It is a major junction on the West Coast Main Line and acts as a rail gateway for North West England. It is a Grade II listed building.

The station is managed by Avanti West Coast, who also provide the majority of trains that stop there. Northern Trains, East Midlands Railway, West Midlands Trains and Transport for Wales also provide regular trains from the station. CrossCountry provide one early morning train a day.

Crewe's location was chosen after Cheshire towns Winsford and Nantwich had rejected a proposal for the station to be built there. 

As a result of the station's significance, the town of Crewe is now famous for its railways and railway infrastructure. The town's football club, Crewe Alexandra, is nicknamed The Railwaymen.
Portrait of Prince DiponegoroPrince Diponegoro
**Diponegoro** was a Javanese prince who opposed the Dutch rule in Indonesia. He was the eldest son of Sultan 
Hamengkubowono III. Diponegoro was born at Yogyakarta in 1785 and died at Makassar in 1855. During the Dutch rule, a ruler like his father had lost many rights such as the ability to lease land. Instead, he was paid by the Dutch to keep peace. This was an indignity to his father. This led to an open battle headed by Diponegoro himself using guerrilla tactics, which was called the Java War. It lasted for five years, from 1825 until 1830. During that period Diponegoro had successfully led battles, ambushing Dutch camps and raiding food supplies. Over the period of five years, more than 200,000 people were dead because of the war. In 1830, he was sent away by the Dutch to Manado, then moved to Ujungpandang, and he spent the rest of his life there. After being held by the Dutch in Fort Rotterdam in Ujungpandang for 25 years, he died there in 1855.

Other websites
--------------

1. Cache Coins Indonesian web page translated here into English
2. TokohIndonesia[*permanent dead link*] Another Indonesian web page translated into simple English
The **Counter-Reformation** was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church which began in the 1500s. It covered the following five areas:

1. Doctrine (ideology)
2. Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration
3. Religious orders
4. Spiritual Movements
5. Political Dimensions

The Counter-Reformation began after Martin Luther's Reformation. In reaction, Catholics  reaffirmed some points of faith that the Protestants' objections had put in danger. These included the validity of the seven sacraments. The Protestants had reduced the sacraments to only two, Baptism and the Eucharist. Protestants deny the doctrine of transubstantiation, which is seen as making Mass less important. Some reformation era groups had rejected the Mass entirely. Luther's view was somewhere between that of the more radical reformers and the Catholic view. Luther wrote that without faith neither Baptism nor the Eucharist is sufficient for salvation. The Counter-Reformation specifically re-affirmed the Catholic understanding of the mass. 

On other issues, Catholics effectively accepted some of the Protestant complaints. Penance became a private confession and repentance from sin instead of outward actions. This served to correct the corrupt practice of selling forgiveness. This type of forgiveness, called Indulgence was the immediate cause of Luther's protests against abuses in the Catholic church. 

As a result of the Counter Reformation, other abuses, such as Simony were also greatly curtailed. Thus the Protestant movement served not only to create new expressions of the Christian faith, but also to correct problems in the Catholic church which led to its revitalization. 

Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits went across the world to spread the Catholic faith. The Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition was also created, to revitalize the work of suppressing heresy.

Related pages
-------------

* Protestant Reformation
* Council of Trent
* Vatican II
Carlos Juan Finlay
**Carlos Juan Finlay** (December 3, 1833 – August 20, 1915) was a Cuban physician and scientist who started the interest in yellow fever research.

Early life and education
------------------------

Finlay was born Juan Carlos Finlay y Barres, in Puerto Príncipe (now Camagüey), Cuba. His family is of French and Scottish heritage. In 1853 he went to Jefferson Medical college in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He graduated in 1855. He finished his studies in Havana and in Paris. Later he moved to Havana and started a medical practice.

Professional career
-------------------

Finlay continued his work in the 1870s. He was the first to come up with the idea that a mosquito was a carrier for a disease that causes yellow fever. He discovered that the spread and cause of yellow fever was from a mosquito. The mosquito would bite a person with the disease and would then bite and infect a healthy person. A year later Finlay identified the mosquito of the genus Aedes as the insect transmitting yellow fever. His research led to the control of the mosquito population as a way to control the spread of the disease.

Dr. Finlay was a member of Havana's Royal Academy of Medical, Physical and Natural Sciences. He was fluent in French, German, Spanish, and English, and could read Latin. He was interested in a lot of things but his main interest was yellow fever. He wrote 40 articles on this disease. His theory was that an intermediary host was responsible for the spread of the disease. As a result of his work, Dr. Finlay was nominated seven times for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, but it was never awarded to him. He received the National Order of the Legion of Honour of France in 1908.

In 1990, the Walter Reed Commission confirmed what Carlos found. Reed was known to all as being the one that discovered the connection of yellow fever and the mosquito but he gave the credit to Finlay. He used Finlay's information to help with his research. Soon Finlay became the chief health officer of Cuba from 1902 to 1909.

Finlay died from heart failure caused by pneumonia in his home in Havana, Cuba.
An Arapaho warrior counting coup on U.S soldier, touching him with his rifle butt
**Counting coup** refers to the winning of prestige in battle by the Plains Indians of North America. Warriors won prestige by acts of courage in the face of the enemy. Any blow struck against the enemy counted as a coup.

An act of bravery
-----------------

Counting coup could be with a hand, any part of the body, or with an object. The most prestigious act was to touch or strike an enemy warrior, leave him alive, then escaping unharmed. Touching the first enemy to die in battle or touching the enemy's defensive works also counted as coup. Counting coup could also involve stealing an enemy's weapons or horses tied up to his lodge in camp. Risk of injury or death was required to count coup. After a battle or exploit, the people of a tribe would gather together to recount their acts of bravery and "count coup." Coups were recorded in some tribes by putting notches (cut marks) in a coup stick. A coup stick was often a willow rod with a feather on the end. But coup could be counted with any object.

Other uses
----------

Another form of counting coup emerged during the air battles of World War I. A allied pilot who shot down five enemy aircraft was given the status of ace. The exception was that the British never formally adopted the ace system. Informally, however, a British pilot who had shot down ten enemy planes was considered an ace. Generally "counting coup" is counting victories.

Other websites
--------------

* Counting Coup; Encyclopedia of the Great Plains
* Counting Coup; Native Heritage Project
**Data compression** is a set of steps for packing data into a smaller space, while allowing for the original data to be seen again. Compression is a two-way process: a compression algorithm can be used to make a data package smaller, but it can also be run the other way, to decompress the package into its original form. Data compression is useful in computing to save disk space, or to reduce the bandwidth used when sending data (e.g. over the internet).

Lossless compression
--------------------

Lossless compression packs data in such a way that the compressed package can be decompressed, and the data can be pulled out exactly the same as it went in. This is very important for computer programs and archives, since even a very small change in a computer program will make it unusable.

This type of compression works by reducing how much waste space is in a piece of data. For example, if you receive a data package which contains "AAAAABBBB", you could compress that into "5A4B", which has the same meaning but takes up less space. This type of compression is called "run-length encoding", because you define how long the "run" of a character is. In the above example, there are two runs: a run of 5 A's, and another of 4 B's.

The problem with run-length encoding is that it only works on long pieces of the same value of data. If you receive a package with "ABBAABAAB" inside, that can be compressed into "1A2B2A1B2A1B"; but that's longer than the original! In this case, there's another method that can be used: checking how often a particular value comes up in the whole data package. This is often called frequency compression.

The most common kind of frequency compression is called Huffman coding, after the scientist who came up with the idea. The basic plan is to give each distinct value in a piece of data a code:- values that crop up all the time get shorter codes, and values that only show up once or twice get longer codes.

### Examples of lossless compression

* Archiving formats: Zip, GZip, bZip2, 7-Zip, etc.
* Images/diagrams: GIF, PNG, PCX
* Audio: FLAC, WavPack
* Video: FFV1, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC High Predictive Profile
* Program compressors: UPX

Lossy compression
-----------------

For some types of data, lossy compression can go much further; this is most often the case with media files, like music and images. Lossy compression loses some of the data so that there's less to store. Depending on what information is lost, people do not notice it is missing. As a result, it can simply be removed from the data.

Of course, this will not work for computer programs and other such data where every piece is important; throwing away pieces of a computer program is generally unhealthy for the program. 

### Examples of lossy compression

* Images: JPEG
* Audio: MP3, Windows Media
* Video: MPEG, DivX, Windows Video
**Cosmogony** is any theory of the origin of the universe.

Examples
--------

### Physics

The Big Bang theory states that the universe originally expanded from a point.
In astronomy, cosmogony is the study of the origin of things like the universe, the Solar System, or the Earth–Moon system. The popular cosmological model for the birth of the universe is the Big Bang theory.

It is generally accepted that the universe began as a singularity, and when the singularity of the universe started to expand, the Big Bang occurred, which began the universe.

People disagree on the origins of the singularity.

It may be like a black hole, which is a singularity sincegravity in a black hole becomes boundless.

Others like Stephen Hawking say "time" did not exist and was only born with the universe. Hence the universe does not have an origin story. Time did not exist before the creation of the universe.

There is currently no theoretical model that explains the earliest moments of the universe's existence (during the Planck time). This is because we lack a testable theory of quantum gravity. Still, some researchers in string theory, M theory, and loop quantum cosmology have some ideas.

### Mythology

There are certain myths that also propose how the universe was created: for example creation myths in the Bible, the Dào Dé Jīng, and other genesis stories. These usually involve

* a supreme being or god
* birth via sex between male and female gods
* or birth via the cosmic egg

The Eridu Genesis, written on Sumerian tablets, is one of the oldest creation myths. The universe was created from a sea (Abzu). In Greek mythology, Zeus created the universe from chaos. Aztec creation has four versions of earth being created and destroyed, before settling the fifth and current earth. In Bushongo creation, the great god Bumba vomited up the sun, then the earth and everything else.

It is not the same as cosmology
-------------------------------

Cosmology studies the universe in general. You can still study the universe without thinking about its origin, which is what cosmonogy studies specifically.