recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**Wikimedia Commons** is a website owned by the Wikimedia Foundation, based on a wiki. Anybody can upload images, sounds, videos, and other multimedia files to the website. The files uploaded to Wikimedia Commons can be used by any other Wikimedia Foundation project, like Wikipedia or Wiktionary. For example, Wikipedia uses images on Wikimedia Commons to include pictures in their encyclopedia articles. The files can also be freely used by anyone else because they have free licenses.

Wikimedia Commons has categories, which are groups of files that have something in common or similar. For example, there is a category for pictures of cats. Wikimedia Commons is a multilingual website, meaning that it can be used in every language. However, some parts of Wikimedia Commons are only in English, like names of categories.

Wikimedia Commons also has sound files. Not all of these are music. For example, there are recordings that read words out loud. These files are used in Wiktionary, a free dictionary, to teach people how to say words.

For every file on Wikimedia Commons, the person who made it has to let everybody use it and change it as much as they want, including companies (see Creative Commons).

The tenth million file uploaded
Wikimedia Commons reached 10 million files on April 15, 2011.

Improvements
------------

The Wikimedia Foundation was given money to make it easier for people to use their websites. They used some of this money to make the UploadWizard, a new system for uploading files on Wikimedia Commons. People started using the UploadWizard in December 2010.

The UploadWizard also teaches new uploaders about copyright law. It has a tutorial for users to read so that they can check if the file they are uploading is violating copyright. Most uploads are by the UploadWizard.

Before, Wikimedia Commons only let people upload one file at a time. The UploadWizard lets people upload multiple files at the same time and include all the required information about each one.

Logo
----

The logo of Wikimedia Commons has a red circle inside a blue circle. There are many small blue arrows pointing from the blue circle to the red circle in the middle, and one big blue arrow pointing upwards. The small blue arrows represent the different projects of the Wikimedia Foundation. The large arrow is to show that Wikimedia Commons is constantly improving.

This logo was chosen in a vote in 2004.

Other websites
--------------

* Wikimedia Commons
* Simple English version of the Main Page
* 2004 logo vote


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Wikimedia Commons***.

| * v
* t
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Projects of the Wikimedia Foundation |
| --- |
| Wikibooks **·**  Wikimedia Commons **·**  Wikidata **·**  Wikinews **·**  Wikipedia **·**  Wikiquote **·**  Wikisource **·**  Wikispecies **·**  Wikiversity **·**  Wikivoyage **·**  Wiktionary **·**  Meta-Wiki |  |
***Garner v. Louisiana***, **368 U.S. 157 (1961)**, was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court. On December 11, 1961, the court unanimously ruled that Louisiana could not convict peaceful sit-in protesters who refused to leave dining establishments under the state's "disturbing the peace" laws.

Background
----------

African-American students from Southern University sat at a "whites only" segregated lunch bar at Sitman's Drugstore in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The manager called the Police after the students quietly remained even though they were asked to move to another counter. After ordering the black patrons to leave, the Police arrested them and charged them with disturbing the peace. The claim was that their behavior could "foreseeably disturb or alarm the public," according to the state's "disturbing the peace" statute.

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People defended the student demonstrators as did the Kennedy administration's Justice Department, which filed a legal brief on their behalf.

Opinion of the Court
--------------------

In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled in the African-American students' favor, arguing the state violated due process of law under the Fourteenth Amendment and finding there was no evidence the students' behavior could have foreseeably disturbed the peace. In his written opinion, Justice John Marshall Harlan compared sit-in demonstrations to verbal expression as a form of free speech. 
Justice William O. Douglas in his concurring opinion said, "For the police are supposed to be on the side of the Constitution, not on the side of discrimination. Yet if all constitutional questions are to be put aside and the problem treated merely in terms of disturbing the peace, I would have difficulty in reversing these judgments. I think, however, the constitutional questions must be reached and that they make reversal necessary." 

*Garner v. Louisiana* was an important case for the Civil Rights Movement, and one of many civil rights cases argued before the Warren Court (1953-69). 
Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce."
Evin prison, Tehran, Iran
**Roya Saberi Negad Nobakht** (Farsi: رویا صابری نژاد نوبخت) (born c. 1967) is a Iranian-British housewife who was put in prison after she returned to Iran to visit her family. While living in England, she wrote on Facebook that Iran was "too Islamic". The Iranian government put her in prison and accused her of "insulting Islamic sanctities", a crime that carries death penalty.

Roya was born in Iran. In 1998 she emigrated to England. Since 2008, she has lived in Stockport, near Manchester, England. In 2013 Roya returned to Iran to visit her family. Two weeks after she arrived, she flew to the city of Shiraz and was arrested by cyber police at the airport. Roya's husband, Daryoush Taghipoor, found out his wife was in prison when he traveled to the Middle East to look for her.

Arrest
------

Roya was taken to Tehran and held at the notorious Evin prison. In June 2014, Roya was tried by Branch 28 of the Revolutionary Court, and sentenced to 20 years in prison.

Seven other Facebook users were arrested along with Roya. The other seven names are Amir Golestani, Masoud Ghasemkhani, Fariborz Kardarfar, Seyed Masoud Seyed Talebi, Amin Akramipour, Mehdi Reyshahri, and Naghmeh Shahisavandi Shirazi.

In June 15 2016 five of the defendants called the "Facebook activists" were released from prison. After applying "Article 134", her sentence was reduced to five years, however she is still in Evin Prison. She is in poor health and has frequent seizures.

Iran is accused of using innocent civilians as hostages to get payments from western countries. In January 2016, the U.S. government paid Iran $1.7 billion in cash. At the same time, Iran released five American citizens.
The logo of Heckler & Koch.
**Heckler & Koch** (**H&K**, *Heckler und Koch*) is a German firearm manufacturing company. They make many guns such as the MP5 series submachine gun and the rifle G3. Heckler and Koch are one of the most famous weapon manufacturers and deliver weapons to many government agencies such as German Armed Forces or the US Army.

The company is in Oberndorf in the state of Baden-Württemberg, but also has locations in the United Kingdom, France and the United States. The company motto is "*Keine Kompromisse!*" (No Compromise!). H&K makes firearms for many military and paramilitary units and counter-terrorism and hostage rescue teams.

Products
--------

* Pistols: VP70, P9, P8, P7, USP, Mk23, P2000, P30
* Rifles: G11, G3, G36, XM8, HK416, HK417, PSG-1, G28
* Submachine guns: MP5, MP7, UMP
* Machine guns: LMG36, MG4, HK21
* Grenade launchers: GMG/GMW, HK69, AG36, HK P2A1

Other websites
--------------

* H&K Global website Archived 2008-02-01 at the Wayback Machine
Sir Stamford Raffles
Raffles Hotel in Singapore
Sir **Stamford Raffles** FRS (Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles 5 July 1781 – 5 July 1826), was the founder of the city of Singapore. He is one of the most famous Britons who expanded the British Empire.

Early years
-----------

Raffles was born on the ship *Ann* to Captain Benjamin Raffles and Anne Raffles. Although his family was in debt, they managed to give him money for his education. When he was 14, he started working as a clerk in the British East India Company. The company sent him to Southeast Asia to look for another port as the trade between Britain and China was increasing.

He married Olivia Mariamne Fancourt. She was the widow of Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, an assistant surgeon in Madras who had died in 1800.

Founding of Singapore
---------------------

When the British East India Company sent Raffles to Southeast Asia, the company already had two ports, Penang and Bencoolen. However, these ports were far from the main trading area, the Straits of Malacca. Dutch ports, Malacca and Java, were closer to the trading area, which made them able to control the trade. They cut off the trade between Penang and the important trading centres at the Malay Archipelago.

The British East India Company thus needed a new port south of Malacca to protect British ships, and they chose Singapore, which was then a small fishing-port. Singapore had a lot of drinking water and a good location, in the centre of the Straits of Malacca. It was in an area not controlled by the Dutch. The deal was settled by Raffles making an agreement with the traditional rulers of the area to pay them money in return for the right to build, expand and use the port. Singapore eventually grew to be the important trading city-state it is today. Raffles held the title of Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1813 to 1816.

* The most famous hotel in Singapore is called *Raffles*.
**Leopold II** (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909) was King of the Belgians. He was born in Brussels. He was the second (but oldest surviving) son of Leopold I and Louise of Orléans. He succeeded his father to the throne on 17 December 1865. He was king until his death.

Biography
---------

Leopold is mainly remembered as the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State. He lay claim to the Congo, an area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He treated the people badly in order to make money. His harsh rule was responsible for the deaths of between five and 10 million Congolese people. The Congo became one of the most infamous international scandals of the early 20th century. As a result, Leopold II was forced to give control of it to the government of Belgium. Despite owning and ruling it as a dictator, Leopold II never visited the Congo Free State and Africa.

Personal life
-------------

Leopold II married Archduchess Marie Henriette of Austria, in Brussels on 22 August 1853.

On 15 November 1902, Italian anarchist Gennaro Rubino tried to assassinate Leopold. Rubino fired three shots at the King. The shots missed Leopold and Rubino was immediately arrested. Leopold II had a wedding ceremony with Caroline Lacroix, a prostitute, on 14 December 1909, five days before his death. This was not legal under Belgian law.

He was succeeded as King of the Belgians by his nephew Albert, son of his brother Philippe.

Titles and styles
-----------------

* **9 April 1835 – 17 December 1865** *His Royal Highness* The Duke of Brabant, Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Duke in Saxony.
* **17 December 1865 – 17 December 1909** *His Majesty* The King of The Belgians. Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke in Saxony.
A **woodwind instrument** is an instrument belonging to the **woodwind family**. Traditionally they were always made of wood, although some of them are now made of metal or plastic.

In an orchestra there are four main types of woodwind instrument. Each of these also has related instruments of different sizes:

The flute is the highest of the four main instruments. The lowest note is Middle C and it has a range of 3 octaves. The piccolo is the smallest and highest instrument in the orchestra. It plays one octave higher than the flute. There is also an alto flute which sounds a fifth lower than the ordinary flute. Flutes are still sometimes made of wood, but mostly they are metal.

The oboe can play slightly lower than the flute. There is a larger version called the cor anglais (which means: "English horn").

The clarinet plays nearly an octave lower than the flute. The bass clarinet plays an octave lower than the clarinet.

The bassoon is the lowest of the four main members, but the contrabassoon plays right down to the bottom B flat of the piano.

The recorder is one of the oldest and most popular woodwinds and has been used to great effect by greats, such as Bach, Telemann and Vivaldi. The general public is normally only familiar with the plastic, child's version of the recorder, but professional and high-quality recorders are still made of wood.

The saxophone may look like a brass instrument, but it is played like a clarinet and therefore it is a woodwind instrument. It is usually played in bands and jazz groups.

Use
---

Woodwind instruments are played in several ways. The flute is played by blowing across the top of the mouthpiece. It is like blowing across the top of an empty bottle. The oboe and bassoon both have a double reed. It is like blowing through a drinking straw. Bagpipes have double reeds which are inside the mouthpiece ("enclosed reeds"). The clarinet and saxophone have single reeds which are clamped against the opening of the mouthpiece.

In comparison, brass instruments are all blown in the same way: by blowing against a cup-shaped mouthpiece. This is why the saxophone cannot be called a brass instrument, although it is made of brass.

The way that a player shapes his mouth to blow an instrument is called the "embouchure". Woodwind instruments have several different embouchures.

In an orchestra there may be two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons. In larger orchestras, particularly from the Romantic period onwards, there may be three or four. Sometimes the extra instruments such as the piccolo are used. If, for example, in an orchestral piece the third flute is marked "doubling piccolo", it means that the person playing flute 3 will also play the piccolo. However, if the piccolo plays at the same time as flute 3 they will obviously need an extra player for the piccolo part.

Woodwind instruments in an orchestra often have short solos. These will be played by the first player (the "section principal").
A harvest mouse
Capybaras
**Rodents** (from Latin *rodere*, 'to chew') are a very successful group of paleocity. They form the order **Rodentia**. 

They have no more than 2 incisors. These keep growing, and must be kept worn down by gnawing (eroding teeth by grinding them on something hard); this is the origin of the name, from the Latin *rodere*, "to gnaw", and *dent*, "tooth".

Most rodents are small. Examples of commonly known rodents are mice, rats, chipmunks, and squirrels. Some other small rodents sometimes kept as pets are Guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils.
Examples of larger rodents are porcupines, beavers, and the largest living rodent, the capybara, which can grow to between 105 and 135 cm (40-55 in) in length, and weigh 35 to 65 kg (75-140 lbs).

Almost half of all mammal species are rodents. More examples of rodents are voles, prairie dogs, groundhogs, and chinchillas.

Rabbits, hares, and pikas are sometimes called rodents, because they also have teeth that keep growing. But in 1912 biologists decided to put them in a new, separate order, Lagomorpha, because they have two extra incisors in their upper jaw.

Shrews are sometimes called rodents, because they look like mice, but that is not correct. They are in the order Insectivora.

Taxonomy
--------

There are more families than these. The list includes the more common families.

* Order **Rodentia**
	+ Suborder Anumaluromorpha
		- Family Anomaluridae
		- Family Pedetidae
	+ Suborder Castorimorpha
		- Family Castoridae (*Beavers*)
		- Family Geomyoidea (*Pocket gophers*, *Kangaroo rats and mice*)
	+ Suborder Hystricomorpha
		- Family Ctenodactylidae
		- Family Hystricidae
		- Family Myocastoridae
		- Family Caviidae
		- Family Chinchillidae
		- Family Cuniculidae
	+ Suborder Sciuromorpha
		- Family Aplodontiidae: mountain beaver
		- Family Gliridae (also Myoxidae, Muscardinidae): dormice
		- Family Sciuridae: squirrels, including chipmunks, prairie dogs, & marmots
	+ Suborder Myomorpha
		- Superfamily Muroidea
		- Superfamily Dipodoidea
			* Family Dipodidae

Related pages
-------------

* *Josephoartigasia*

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Rodentia***.

Wikispecies has information on: ***Rodentia***.

* UCMP Berkeley: Introduction to the Rodentia
*
**Eric Victor Burdon** (born 11 May 1941) is an English rock singer. He is known for his very loud screaming and performing. 

He began his career in the early 1960s with the R&B/blues-based punk rock band The Animals. They had hits such as "House of the Rising Sun", "See See Rider", "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood", "Inside Looking Out", "We Gotta Get Out Of This Place", "Don't Bring Me Down" and "It's My Life".

He later formed "Eric Burdon & The Animals" in 1967. He continued to have chart success with songs like "San Franciscan Nights", "When I Was Young", "Good Times", "Sky Pilot", "Monterey" and "Ring of Fire".

In late 1969, he formed the radical funk/soul/jazz band "Eric Burdon & War". They had hits with "Spill the Wine", "Tobacco Road", "Paint it Black" and "They Can't Take Away Our Music". He left them during their European tour in early 1971 to start a solo career, which has seen him in the genres of heavy metal, glam rock, new age, pop rock, reggae, hip hop and many more.

After some successful world tours and acting roles in movies, he went on to record with Brian Auger as a psychedelic fusion rock band in the 1990s. 

After forming several groups such as "Eric Burdon Band" or "The New Animals", he released his first solo album in many years, *My Secret Life* (2004), which had many musical directions, like hard rock, jazz, progressive and folk.

In the following year he released *Athens Traffic Live* and *Soul of a Man*.
The **Orange Julius** is an American fast food, hot dog and fruit drink beverage restaurant chain. The company began its business operations in Los Angeles, California in 1926. Orange Julius is known for a popular drink named after the restaurant. The beverage is blended ice, powdered egg whites, milk, orange juice and vanilla flavoring.

History
-------

The drink grew from an orange juice stand that was opened in 1926 by Julius Freed. Original sales were only about $20 each day (that equals almost $290 in 2020 United States dollars). Three years later, Bill Hamlin, Freed's real estate broker, developed a blend that made the acidic orange juice not bother his stomach as much. Freed's stand began giving out the drink. It had a more bubbly and smoother texture. The sales at the stand went up when the new drink was introduced. The sales increased to just over $100 per day.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Orange Julius was always sold from a variety of outlets. They included county and state fairs along with standalone Orange Julius stands.

The Orange Julius chain was bought out by the International Dairy Queen Corporation in 1987. IDQ, a subsidiary for Berkshire Hathaway, has the rights to all Orange Julius stores. It has expanded the chain so its drinks are offered and sold from most of its Dairy Queen stores.

Naming and mascot
-----------------

During the 1970s and 1980s, Orange Julius beverage stands used the images of a devil having a pitchfork around an orange. Their slogan was "A Devilish Good Drink". The devil images looked almost like Sparky (the Sun Devil). The actual Sparky was the mascot used by Arizona State University. The Orange Julius business retired the logo and mascot when threats of a lawsuit came from members of the ASU almuni association.
Adjustable spanner
Adjustable wrenches from 1892 (bottom) to today (top)
An **adjustable wrench** (US) or **adjustable spanner** (UK) is a wrench with a "jaw" of adjustable width. It can be used with different sizes of fastener head (nut or bolt). This type of tool may have other names in other parts of the world. 

Several people are claimed as its inventor. Edwin Beard Budding (1796–1846), an engineer from Stroud, England, is one. On 22 September 1885 Enoch Harris received US patent 326868 for his spanner that permitted both the jaw width and the angle of the handles to be adjusted and locked. Some countries refer to it as a "Swedish key" after Swedish inventor Johan Petter Johansson. In 1891 he got a patent for an improved adjustable spanner which is still used today. Johansson improved the 1842 invention of another English engineer Richard Clyburn.

Monkey wrenches
---------------

Monkey wrench (left) compared to Stillson or pipe wrench (right)
A **monkey wrench** is a heavyweight wrench in which the jaw width is set by a spinning ring fixed under the sliding lower jaw. In 1840, Worcester, Massachusetts knife manufacturer Loring Coes invented it. It was based on the wrench used on English 18th-century coach wheels. Coe patented it in 1841 and the tools were advertised and sold in the United States as "monkey wrenches".

Related pages
-------------

* Wrench
The **Federal Republic of Cameroon** was established on 1 October 1961 as a result of the union between the Republic of Cameroon, former French Cameroon and the Southern Cameroons, part of the former British Cameroon. The existence of the two Cameroon is a major consequence of the World War I which also took place on Cameroonian soil.

The Federal Republic of Cameroon lasted from 1 October 1961 to 20 May 1972 and was made up of two states :

* East Cameroon (former Cameroon under French rule),

* West Cameroon (former Southern Cameroons, part of Cameroon under British rule).

History
-------

### From multiparty to one-party system

On 11 November 1961, Ahmadou Ahidjo invited the other parties in the Assembly to join the UC to found a single Cameroonian party in order to develop the Cameroonian society and economy: "I say straight away that it is desirable that in Cameroon there should be a large unified party. In any case, I personally wish it after an agreement between the different parties that exist. A great unified national party into which Cameroonians would freely enter, after being convinced. A party in which there is democracy, freedom of expression, freedom of discussion; a party in which there can be several tendencies, with the understanding that the minority supports the opinions of the majority. The Union of the Peoples of Cameroon led by Theodore Mayi Matip, the Cameroon Socialist Party led by Charles Okala and the Cameroon Democrats Party led by André-Marie Mbida refused to accept the President's authoritarian drift3.

On 27 April 1962, John Ngu Foncha and Ahmadou Ahidjo formed the 'National Unity Group' which included all the deputies of the Federal Assembly and the UC-KNDP Coordination Committee whose goal was to suppress political pluralism in the two federated states.

Institutions
------------

### Executive

The electorate votes for a five-year mandate by direct universal suffrage and secret ballot for the President of the Federal Republic and a Vice-President from a different federal state than the President. The president is the head of the armed forces, the state and the federal government.

### Legislative

The Federal Assembly is composed of 50 deputies calculated on the basis of 1 deputy per 80,000 residents. They are distributed as follows: 40 deputies for East Cameroon and 10 for West Cameroon. In East Cameroon, the 40 deputies were divided according to regions: 14 deputies for the North, 10 for the Centre-South, 8 for the West, 5 for the Littoral and 3 for the East.

### In Western Cameroon

West Cameroon has an Assembly of Traditional Leaders and a Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Assembly of Western Cameroon is composed of 37 representatives.

### In East Cameroon

As the traditional power has not been officially recognized in the political arena of the former French Cameroon, the Legislative Assembly of this part of the Federal Republic of Cameroon is unicameral.
**Eugene Wesley "Gene" Roddenberry** (August 19, 1921 – October 24, 1991) was an American screenwriter and producer. He is best known as the creator of *Star Trek*, an American sci-fi series. He was sometimes called the "Great Bird of the Galaxy" because he helped start Star Trek.  He was one of the first people to have his ashes "buried" in space.

Personal life
-------------

Gene Roddenberry was born in El Paso, Texas in 1921. His parents were Eugene Edward Roddenberry and Caroline Glen. He grew up in Los Angeles, California, where his father worked in the police. He became interested in engineering and got a pilot's license. In 1941, he joined the United States Army Air Force. He flew many combat missions as a bomber pilot and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and Air Medal. 

After he left the military, he became an airline pilot with Pan American World Airways. He then stopped flying in 1949 so he could write television shows. While writing he also worked in the police so he could provide for (look after) his family. In 1956, he quit his job as a policeman to write full time.

Roddenberry was married twice and had three children. He married Eileen Rexroat first, and they were married for 27 years. They had two daughters, Darlene (1947-1995) and Dawn (1953-). In the 1960s, he also started romantically seeing Nichelle Nichols  and Majel Barrett (1932-2008). He divorced Rexroat and married Barrett in Japan in a traditional Shinto ceremony on August 6, 1969. They had a son, Eugene Wesley, Jr. Roddenberry's marriage to Barrett lasted until his death in 1991.

He died in 1991 of heart failure. He was 70 years old. In 1992, some of his ashes were sent into space on board the Space Shuttle Columbia. In 2012, some more of his ashes will be sent into space with his wife Majel's ashes.

Sources
-------

1. ↑  Biography of Gene Roddenberry Archived 2008-04-15 at the Wayback Machine - URL accessed 15 March, 2009
2. ↑  The New York Times - "A Final Turn-On Lifts Timothy Leary Off" - URL accessed 15 March, 2009
3. ↑  "SOLDIERS OF VISION: We Don't Stop When We Take off the Uniform" Archived 2009-03-03 at the Wayback Machine - URL accessed 15 March, 2009
4. ↑  Nichelle Nichols, Beyond Uhura: Star Trek and Other Memories, G.P. Putnam & Sons, New York, 1994.
5. ↑  Ashes of 'Star Trek' Creator's Widow to Fly in Space - URL Accessed 15 March, 2009
This political cartoon shows destruction of a political "straw man" issue in the 1900 US presidential campaign
**Straw man** is a type of incorrect reasoning, in which a **changed** (usually **exaggerated**) version of someone else's argument is proved wrong, and it looks as if the **real** argument has been proved wrong.
Sometimes such an easy to disprove argument is simply invented. Straw man can be understood also as the mentioned argument itself. The name suggests a human figure made of straw that is easy to destroy.

The straw man argument can have many forms. The fallacy of attacking a straw man can also arise from an honest mistake.

Examples
--------

An everyday conversation:

* Alice: *Taking a shower is beneficial.*
* Bob: *But hot water may damage your skin.*

Bob attacked the **non-existing** argument: *Taking an **extremely hot** shower is beneficial*. And because such an argument is obviously false, Alice might start believing that she is wrong because what Bob said was clearly true. But her **real** argument was not disproved, because she did not say anything about the temperature.

* Alice: *I didn't mean taking an extremely hot shower.*

Alice noticed the trick and defended herself.

History
-------

The origins of the term are unclear. An 1898 definition refers to men who stood outside courthouses with a straw in their shoe in order to indicate their willingness to be hired to give evidence in a court trial.

In the 1900 US presidential election campaign, the issue of Imperialism became a "straw man" issue when President McKinley accepted his party's nomination. Cartoonist William Allen Rogers focused on the destruction of this issue in a September issue of *Harper's Weekly*.

Gallery
-------

* Logic diagram or argument map shows traffic congestion straw man with possible responses highlighted in redLogic diagram or argument map shows traffic congestion straw man with possible responses highlighted in red

Other websites
--------------

* "Straw Man" at FallacyFiles.org
***Godzilla 1985*** is a 1985 Japanese-American sci-fi-action kaiju film directed by R. J. Kizer and Koji Hashimoto, as a alternate sequel of the re-edit version called *Godzilla, King of The Monsters* in 1956, starring Raymond Burr as Steve Martin reprise his role in his final film.

Plot
----

in 1985, a Japanese fishing boat called *Yahata Maru* by a freak storm coming out by a volcano erupting somewhere in the night. a sea louse killed one of those crew and stabbed the louse. Godzilla attacking by a Russian Submarine by some sailors surrounded by the monster.
Godzilla wrecked the whole nuclear power plant and tries to sips the radiation, then by a birds surround communicating Godzilla follow it.
claiming uses of ultra sonic-image of Godzilla was responsible to destroy the nuclear power plant middle of the night probably stated Godzilla is a giant 80-meter dinosaur that communicates the birds appealing into the Mt. Mihara. then in Tokyo Bay, Godzilla berserks through Tokyo. Super X follows through JSDF and target Godzilla surrounds the city. they using a bird device that connects Godzilla stalks the buildings and slammed his tail. Super X shoots Godzilla onto the mouth with cadium missles and subdue the creature. US Army launching the missle to shoot the Russian missle onto the space and explosion overly the atmosphere. a storm tries to resurrect Godzilla, then Super X shoots Godzilla again. Godzilla pushes the Sumitomo building passes and Super X crashes the building crushed. and finally a sonar follows Godzilla onto the Mihara, suddenly erupted and explodes the volcano and suicidally felled Godzilla down.

Cast
----

* Raymond Burr as Steven Martin
* Ken Tanaka as Goro Maki
* Yasuko Sawaguchi as Naoko Okumura
* Yosuke Natsuki as Professor Makoto Hayashida
* Keiju Kobayashi as Prime Minister Seiki Mitamura
* Shin Takuma as Hiroshi "Kenny" Okumura
* Warren J. Kemmerling as General Goodhoe
* James Hess as Colonel Raschen
* Travis Swords as Major McDonough
* Crawford Binion as Lt Oswald
* Justin Gocke as Kyle Martin
* Tony Plana as Goro Maki (voice)
* Paul Wilson as Professor Hayashida (voice)
* Andy Goldberg as Hiroshi (aka Kenny) Okumura (voice)
* Lara Cody as Naoko Okumura (voice)
* Gregory Snegoff as Newscaster/Pilot/Government Official (voice)
* Kenpachiro Satsuma as Godzilla

Other websites
--------------

* *Godzilla 1985* on IMDb
**Snowy River National Park** is a national park in Victoria (Australia), 323 km east of Melbourne. The park includes much of the Snowy River.

A lot of the park is a protected wilderness area, with no access for vehicles. The park in the Little River Gorge area, has one of the last natural habitats for the endangered Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby. Numbers for this species are estimated as extremely small, with the rugged terrain making it difficult to count the population. Over 250 species have been found in the park, 29 are rare or threatened in Victoria. These include the Long-footed Potoroo, Spotted Quoll (Tiger Quoll), Giant Burrowing Frog and Eastern She-oak Skink.

Little River Gorge
------------------

Little River Gorge is Victoria's deepest gorge. The Little River drops 610 metres from the Wulgulmerang plateau over a distance 14 km to where it joins the Snowy River at a height of 122 metres above sea level.

McKillops Bridge
----------------

McKillops Road is the northern park boundary, with the Alpine National Park to the north of the road. The road is not suitable for caravans, trailers and large trucks because it is steep and winding. At McKillops Bridge the road which crosses the Snowy River near its junction with the Deddick River. A camping site near McKillops Bridge has excellent spots for swimming. It is also a good place to begin canoe and raft trips through the rugged gorges downstream. It is the start for the 18km Silver Mine Walking Track and the short Snowy River Trail.
types of plastid
Chloroplasts visible in the cells of *Plagiomnium affine*
A **plastid** is a self-reproducing organelle of plants and algae. A **plastome** is the DNA genome of a plastid.p341 They are like tiny machines inside cells: each makes or stores important chemicals used by the plant. 

Examples of plastids are: 

* Chloroplasts: photosynthesis; other plastids may have developed from chloroplasts. Etioplasts are chloroplasts which have not been exposed to light.
* Chromoplasts: pigment synthesis and storage.
* Leucoplasts: colourless, make terpenes such as resin. Sometimes they develop into more specialized types of plastid:
	+ Amyloplasts: starch storage
	+ Elaioplasts: fat storage.
	+ Proteinoplasts: store & modify protein.
		- Statoliths: detect gravity.

Plastids in algae
-----------------

Plastids in algae and hornworts may differ from plant plastids. In algae, the term "leucoplast" is used for all unpigmented plastids and their function differs from the leucoplasts of plants. 

Glaucocystophytic algae contain muroplasts, which are similar to chloroplasts except that they have a cell wall, similar to that of prokaryotes. Rhodophytic algae contain rhodoplasts, which are red chloroplasts which allow the algae to photosynthesise to a depth of up to 268 metres.

Genetics and evolution
----------------------

Plastids are one of the many different types of organelles in the cell. In endosymbiont theory, plastids originated as cyanobacteria. This was first suggested by Mereschkowsky in 1905. Schimper in 1883 had said chloroplasts closely resembled cyanobacteria.

Almost all chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event. Mitochondria also derive from symbiosis, but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista. The chloroplast is surrounded by a double-layered composite membrane with an intermembrane space; further, it has reticulations, or many infoldings, filling the inner spaces. The chloroplast has its own DNA, which codes for redox proteins involved in electron transport in photosynthesis.
Ceratopsia
The **Ceratopsia** are the horned dinosaurs of the order Ornithischia. *Triceratops* is the best-known, and one of the largest. They are a group of herbivorous, beaked dinosaurs which thrived in what is now North America and Asia, during the Cretaceous period.

An early ceratopsian: *Psittacosaurus*
Typical protoceratopsid: *Protoceratops* skeleton at the Wyoming Dinosaur Center
Side view of *Triceratops horridus* skeleton cast, Senckenberg Museum.
Ancestral forms of this group lived earlier, in the Jurassic. Early members, such as *Psittacosaurus*, were small and bipedal. 

Later members, including *Centrosaurus* and *Triceratops*, became very large quadrupeds. They developed elaborate facial horns and a neck frill. The frill served mainly to protect the vulnerable neck from bipedal predators like Tyrannosaurus, who attacked from above. 

The frill was no doubt also used in display, thermoregulation, the attachment of large neck and chewing muscles or some combination of the above. 

Ceratopsians ranged in size from 1 meter (3 ft) and 23 kilograms (50 lb) to over 9 meters (30 ft) and 5,400 kg (12,000 lb).

*Triceratops* is by far the best-known ceratopsian to the general public.
Spaghetti Junction
Passing under the interchange are the Cross City railway line and the Tame Valley Canal, both of which were actively used
**Spaghetti Junction** is a motorway interchange in Birmingham, England. It is junction 6 of the M6 motorway.

The junction's official name is **Gravelly Hill Interchange**, but this name is not used very often. The junction links the M6 with the A38(M) motorway which passes through Birmingham. The interchange was opened in 24 May 1972, and was given its popular name by local journalists.

The junction covers 30 acres, serves 18 routes and includes 4 km (2.5 miles) of slip roads. There are five levels, and it flies over two railway lines, three canals and two rivers. It took nearly four years to build it, against an estimated three years. It cost £8 million, which is a deceptively small amount. It can only be understood by realising the extent of monetary inflation during the past half century.

The junction has had a lot of repair work done a number of times since it was built. There is very heavy traffic through the junction, and there were some alleged cost-saving measures during its construction.
**Interest** is the cost for borrowing money or the payment for lending money. Usually, this is fixed as a percentage of the amount of money borrowed (which is called *interest rate*).

Simple and Compound interest
----------------------------

If the interest charged on $100 is 1 percent per year then every year the borrower must pay $1. If the $1 is not added to the amount owed then the borrower is paying simple interest. If simple interest of 1 percent is paid each year at the end of 100 years the borrower would have paid $100 in interest, $1 each year, and would still owe $100. If the $1 is added to the $100 the amount owed will increase to $101. 1 percent interest on $101 will be more than $1. This is called compound interest. Compound interest will cause the amount to grow each year. As the amount grows larger more is paid as interest each year and added to the total. If compound interest of 1 percent is paid on a loan of $100 each year the amount of interest paid will slightly increase and after 70 years the amount owed will have grown to $200 and the interest payment will have increased to $2.

### Rule of 72

1 percent compound interest on $100 will cause the amount to double to $200 in about 72 years. That is called the rule of 72 which can be used to figure out how fast something grows. The rule can be used to figure out how fast anything that always grows exponentially at the same rate will double in size. Suppose a kangaroo grows 12 percent a year; dividing 12 into 72 gives 6, so the kangaroo will double in size in 6 years. If the kangaroo grew 6 percent a year it would take 12 years for its size to double. If it only grew 2 percent it would take 36 years for its size to double.

Usury
-----

At some times in the past, or in some places today, it has been illegal to make a person pay interest on a loan. It was, or is, against some religious rules. If the interest that a person must pay is too high, this is called usury. This is often illegal today, even when lower interest is legal.

Other meanings of interest
--------------------------

Interest can also be the care or concern that someone has for something or someone. If someone cares about something, they "have an interest" in that thing, or they "find it interesting". If something is beautiful, or funny, or new, that might make the thing interesting. However, a very important concern, for example love or hate, is more than an interest. An interest can also be a task that someone likes to do or watch, like a game or a hobby.

If someone has a legal right to something (usually money or property) they have an interest in that thing. This is also true for someone who shares a right with others, or a person who has a future right to something. For example, if some brothers and sisters will be given a house after their parents die, each of them "has a financial interest" in the house, even if the parents are still living.
**Siegmund Nissel** (January 3, 1922 – May 21, 2008) was aBritish violinist who played second violin in the famous Amadeus Quartet.

Siegmund (Sigi) Nissel was born in Munich to a Jewish family from Vienna. He began playing the violin at the age of 6. His mother died when he was 9. He was taken by his father to Vienna, where his teachers included Max Weissgärber. Soon the political situation became dangerous for Jews in Austria and so, in 1938, the young Nissel was sent from Vienna to Great Britain.

When World War II started Nissel was interned on the Isle of Man. There he met the violinist Peter Schidlof and later Norbert Brainin. They played a lot of music together. Then they were set free because they were talented musicians. They studied with the famous violin teacher Max Rostal. There they met the British cellist, Martin Lovett whose wife was a pupil of Rostal. The four men played string quartets together, with Peter Schidlof now playing viola. At first they called themselves the Brainin Quartet, but then Nissel had the idea of the name Amadeus Quartet (Amadeus being one of Mozart's names).

The Amadeus Quartet (which their friends often called the Wolf Gang), gave its first concert in the Wigmore Hall, London in 1948. The hall was full and hundreds of people were turned away. After this concert they were invited to perform all over the world. They became the most famous string quartet group of their time. They made about 200 recordings. They were especially known for playing quartets by the great classical composers Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert and Brahms, but they also played works by 20th-century composers such as Bartók and Benjamin Britten (who wrote his third quartet for them).

Nissel was the one who organized all the business side for the group.

When Schidlof died from a heart attack in 1987, the Amadeus Quartet no longer existed. Nissel became a well-known teacher of young quartets at the Royal Academy of Music.

Although he had an operation for a brain tumour in 1960 and also a heart bypass he lived to the age of 86. He was a family man who had a wife, son, daughter and three grandchildren. He had many honours including an OBE (1970), and honorary doctorates from York University and the Royal Academy of Music

Further reading
---------------

* Muriel Nissel, *Married to the Amadeus: Life with a String Quartet*, [ISBN 1-900357-12-7], Giles de la Mare Publishers Limited, 1998 (a memoir of her "marriage" to the Amadeus by Nissel's wife)
Soprano Jenny Lind  
by German painter Eduard Magnus, 1862
**Jenny Lind** (**Johanna Maria Lind**, Stockholm, 6 October 1820 –  Wynd's Point, Herefordshire, 2 November 1887) was a Swedish opera singer. She was nicknamed the **"Swedish Nightingale"**. She was in great demand in opera roles throughout Sweden and northern Europe during the 1840s, and became the protégée of Felix Mendelssohn. After two acclaimed seasons in London, she announced her retirement from opera at the age of 29.

In 1850, Lind went to America at the invitation of the showman P. T. Barnum. She gave 93 concerts for him and then continued to tour under her own management. She donated her proceeds to charities, mainly the endowment of free schools in Sweden. With her husband, Otto Goldschmidt, she returned to Europe in 1852. They had three children. She gave occasional concerts over the next two decades, settling in England in 1855. From 1882, for some years, she was a professor of singing at the Royal College of Music in London. She was the inspiration for Hans Christian Andersen's "The Nightingale". Lind died on 2 November 1887 in Herefordshire, England, of cancer. She is buried in the Great Malvern Cemetery.

Daguerreotype of Lind taken in New York in 1850

Other websites
--------------

* Profile about Jenny Lind
* The jennylind.org website Archived 2017-05-20 at the Wayback Machine

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There are two ways to measure GDP (total income of a country) of different countries and compare them. One way, called GDP at exchange rate, is when the currencies of all countries are converted into USD (United States Dollar). The second way is GDP (PPP) or GDP at **purchasing power parity** (**PPP**).

PPP
---

### Uses

Purchasing power parity (PPP) is measured by finding the values (in USD) of a basket of consumer goods that are present in each country (such as pineapple juice, pencils, etc.). If that basket costs $100 in the US and $200 in the United Kingdom, then the purchasing power parity exchange rate is 1:2.

### Examples

For example, suppose that Japan has a higher GDP per capita (US$18) than the US (US$16). This means that the average Japanese person makes $2 more than the average American. However, this does not necessarily imply that the Japanese are more affluent. Suppose that one gallon of orange juice costs $6 in Japan, and $2 in the US, i.e. $6 buys a good in Japan that can be purchased in the US for $2. 1 gallon of orange juice is taken as a reference good in this example. Simply, 1 gallon of orange juice can be bought in Japan, versus 3 gallons in America, with an equivalent amount of money. We can calculate a PPP index for Japan vs. the US equal to 1/3.  According to orange juice prices, Americans have stronger purchasing power, or are able to buy more value with their money. The US has a PPP-adjusted GDP of $16, which has not changed since it is the reference currency. Japan's GDP, however, is only $6 when adjusted for PPP. This is calculated by multiplying Japan's unadjusted GDP by the PPP index. In reality, a much wider range of goods that includes much more than just orange juice is taken to calculate the PPP index, so that it accurately reflects the average cost of living.

Daily life (application)
------------------------

Now apply this to daily life. The orange juice represents the previously mentioned "basket of goods" which represents the cost of living in a country. Therefore, even if a country has a higher GDP per capita (individual income), that country's people may still live poorer if the cost of living is higher.

  

There are some problems with how PPP is calculated using the market basket. Because people in different countries buy different goods, it can be very hard to create an accurate market basket. This means that PPP does not always represent the exact real value of money in different countries.