recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**Mombasa** is the second largest city in Kenya; about 1.3 million people live there. It is a major port city, and has an international airport. 

Mombasa has a tropical savanna climate (*As* in the Köppen climate classification). Mombasa is a tourism-based city.

Geography
---------

Map of Mombasa's extent.
Mombasa is a coastal town with flat topography. The town of Mombasa is centred on Mombasa Island, but extends to the mainland. The island is separated from the mainland by two creeks.

Demography
----------

Downtown Mombasa
Mombasa city has a population of 1,208,333 in 2019.

Mombasa has a cosmopolitan population, with the Swahili people and Mijikenda predominant. Other communities include the Akamba and Taita Bantus as well as a significant population of Luo and Luhya peoples from Western Kenya. The major religions practised in the city are Islam, Christianity and Hinduism. Over the centuries, many immigrants and traders have settled in Mombasa, particularly from the Middle East, Somalia, and India.

Economy
-------

Mombasa is a centre of coastal tourism in Kenya. Many people visit the Old Town and Fort Jesus.

Mombasa is a major trade centre and home of large seaport. The Kenyan Dock Worker's Union is in Mombasa and has 5,000 members. Other local industries include an oil refinery with a capacity of 80,000 barrels (13 ML) a day, and a cement factory capable of producing over 1.1 million tons per year.

Transport
---------

Moi International Airport serves the city of Mombasa. Flights to Nairobi and other Kenyan, European and Middle Eastern destinations depart from the airport each day. 

Mombasa currently has a modern railway station that replaced the century-old station built by the British. Kenya Railways transports passengers and cargo between Nairobi to Mombasa. The journey takes approximately five hours between the two cities.

Mombasa's port is the largest in East Africa, with two oil terminals.

In popular culture
------------------

In the film *Out of Africa*, Mombasa is the train destination as the seaport for voyages to Europe via the Suez Canal.

*One-Way Ticket to Mombasa (Menolippu Mombasaan)* is a 2002 Finnish film directed by Hannu Tuomainen.

In the Indian movie *Mr. India*, Mombasa is mentioned in the popular song "Hawa Hawaii".

Mombasa is featured in the 2010 movie, *Inception*, where Cobb meets Eames and Yusuf before the job takes place.

Most of the events in the 2017 story "Consummation in Mombasa" (by Andrei Gusev) take place in Mombasa and in the nearest district Mtwapa.

In the US, the Walt Disney World resort recreated a Kenyan village in the Africa section of the Disney's Animal Kingdom theme park named "Harambe", which is modelled after Mombasa. The village features a store called the "Mombasa Marketplace".
**Hawaiian Punch** is the name of a brand of sweetened fruit punch drinks owned by Dr Pepper/Seven Up, Inc. (DPSU). It was created in 1934 by A.W. Leo, Tom Yates, and Ralph Harrison as an ice cream topping, and customers later discovered that it was an appealing drink when mixed with water.

In 1962, the character of Punchy was introduced in a commercial for Hawaiian Punch, eventually becoming the product's mascot. His long-time saying is "Hey, how about a nice Hawaiian Punch!"

It currently comes in the following flavors:

* **Fruit Juicy Red:** the original flavor
* **Green Berry Rush:** strawberry and kiwifruit
* **Mazin' Melon Mix:** melon
* **Bodacious Berry:** berry
* **Tropical Vibe:** orange
* **Wild Purple Smash:** grape and berry

The drink has its name because some of original recipe's main ingredients come from Hawaii.

The Fruit Punch
---------------

**The Fruit Punch** is the name of a brand of sweetened fruit punch drinks owned by Dr Pepper/Seven Up, Inc. (DPSU). It was created in 1928 by Los Angeles, California, and Red Buttons as an ice cream topping, and customers later discovered that it was an appealing drink when mixed with water.

In 1988, the character of Peep was introduced in a commercial for The Fruit Punch, eventually becoming the product's mascot. His long-time saying is "Hey! How about a nice Fruit Punch!"

### Cast

* Keith Scott - Peep
* Frank Gorshin - Quack

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Dr Pepper Snapple brands |
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| Soda | 
7-Up • A&W Cream Soda **·**  A&W Root Beer •  Barrelhead Root Beer •  Cactus Cooler •  Canada Dry •  Canfield's Diet Chocolate Fudge •  Crush •  Diet Rite •  dnL •  Dr Pepper •  Floats (drink) •  Gini (soft drink) •  Hires Root Beer •  IBC Root Beer •  Nehi •  RC Cola •  Ricqlès •  Schweppes •  Squirt •  Stewart's Fountain Classics •  Sun Drop •  Sunkist •  Sussex Golden •  Tahitian Treat •  Vernors •  Wink |
| Juices, teas, and others | 
Dejà Blue •  Hawaiian Punch •  Mott's •  Nantucket Nectars •  Raging Cow •  ReaLemon •  Snapple •  Yoo-hoo  |
| Beverage mixers | 
Mr and Mrs T •  Rose's  |
A portrait of the Rani painted on ivory, c. 1857
**Lakshmana,** the **Rani** of **Jhansi** (19 November 1828 — 18 June 1858) was an Indian queen and warrior.

She was one of the greatest leaders of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and, became for Indian nationalists a symbol of resistance to British rule in India.

Great Life
----------

Manikarnika is born into a Maratha family. She was married to Gangadhar Rao, the Maharaja of Jhansi, in 1842, and became the Rani of Jhansi. After her marriage, Manikarnika became Lakshmibai, named in honour of the goddess Lakshmi. Before her marriage, she was known as Chabili (meaning "jolly ways"). In September 1851, Rani Lakshmibai had a son, Damodar Rao. He died at the age of four months. On the day before the Raja's death in November 1853, he adopted his cousin's child. His name was Anand Rao but, was renamed Damodar Rao, after their actual son. The Raja wrote a letter to the British government of India requesting that his widow should be recognised as the ruler of Jhansi after his death during her lifetime. After the death of her husband the head of the British government refused to allow her adopted son to become raja and Jhansi was ruled by the British. This was done by the "Doctrine of lapse" - if an Indian ruler died without a male child his adopted son would not succeed him; but the personal property of that king goes to his adopted son.

After all the British in Jhansi had been killed by Indian troops in June 1857 the Rani took over the administration provisionally until the British returned. She had to form an army to defeat the invading forces of Orchha and Datia. In March 1858, British forces led by Sir Hugh Rose came to Jhansi to take back the city from the Rani who now wanted independence. Jhansi was besieged and taken after strong resistance. Many of the people of the city were killed in the fighting and afterwards. The Rani escaped to Kalpi and jointly with the Maratha general Tantya Tope then seized Gwalior. In the battle of Kotah ki Serai in which their army was defeated Rani Lakshmibai was wounded and died on 18th June 1858.

More information
----------------

* Edwardes, Michael (1975) *Red Year: the Indian Rebellion of 1857*. London: Sphere; pp. 111-126
* Meyer, Karl E. & Brysac, Shareen Blair (1999) *Tournament of Shadows*. Washington, DC: Counterpoint; pp. 138-145

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Rani Lakshmibai***.

* Timeline from the birth of Lakshmibai until her death
* Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi
* Rani Laxmi Bai

| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata |
| --- |
| International | 
* FAST
* ISNI
* VIAF
* WorldCat Identities

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| National | 
* Israel
* United States
* Poland

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**Los Andes** is a Chilean commune and city; it is the capital and main city of the Los Andes province, in the Valparaíso region.

History
-------

Los Andes was founded in July 31, 1791 as **Villa Santa Rosa de Los Andes** by Ambrosio O'Higgins, Governor of Chile, in a place called *Las Piedras Paradas* ("The Standing Stones"). The town was named after Saint Rose of Lima, the first Catholic saint of the Americas.

Geography
---------

The commune of Los Andes is in the upper part of the valley of the Aconcagua river, at and altitude of 833 m (2,733 ft) above sea level. The commune has an area of 1,248.3 km2 (482.0 sq mi). It is at 15 km (9 mi) from San Felipe, at 84 km (52 mi) from the national capital of Santiago and at 146 km (91 mi) from Valparaíso, the capital of the region.

The commune is bordered on the north and northeast by the San Esteban commune, on the east by Argentina, on the south by the Calle Larga commune, on the southwest by the Rinconada commune and on the west and northwest by the San Felipe commune.

| Places next to Los Andes, Chile |
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|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Santa María commune | San Esteban commune | San Esteban |
| San Felipe commune | 
**Los Andes**
 | Argentina |
| Rinconada commune | Calle Larga commune | Argentina |

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The city of San Felipe is along the Aconcagua river, the main river of the province and of the Valparaíso region.

Population
----------

As of 2002[update] (last national census), there were 60,198 people living in the commune, giving it a population density of 48.2 inhabitants/km².

The city of Los Andes has an urban area of 16.42 km2 (6.34 sq mi) and a population, in 2002, of 55,127 inhabitants.

Its inhabitants are called *Andinos* (women, *Andinas*).

Related pages
-------------

* Communes of Chile
* Provinces of Chile

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Los Andes, Chile***.

* Territorial division of Chile (in Spanish)
* Gobierno Regional de Valparaíso Archived 2016-12-03 at the Wayback Machine Official website (in Spanish)
* Municipalidad de Los Andes website Archived 2018-09-12 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish)
**Vredefort crater** is the largest *verified* impact crater on Earth. That means we know for certain it was caused by an asteroid or meteorite strike. The crater is in the Free State Province of South Africa. 

In 2005, the Vredefort Dome was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites as a natural site of geologic interest.

Formation and structure
-----------------------

The asteroid that hit Vredefort was one of the largest ever to strike Earth since the Hadean eon. The Vredefort hit was some two billion years ago. The bolide is thought to have been about 5–10 km (3–6 miles) in diameter. 

The crater has a diameter of roughly 250–300 km (160–190 mi), larger than the 200 km (120 mi) Sudbury Basin and the 170 km (110 mi) Chicxulub crater. This makes Vredefort the largest known impact structure on Earth. If the Wilkes Land crater in Antarctica is an impact crater then it is the largest known at 500 km (310 mi) diameter.

The Vredefort crater's age is about two billion (109) years old, which puts it in the Palaeoproterozoic era. It is the second-oldest known crater on Earth, a little less than 300 million years younger than the Suavjärvi crater in Russia. In comparison, it is about 10% older than the Sudbury Basin impact (at 1.849 billion years).

It was originally thought that the crater was formed by a volcanic explosion, but in the mid 1990s evidence showed that it was the site of a huge bolide impact. Telltale shatter cones were discovered in the bed of the nearby Vaal River. 

The Vredefort crater site is one of the few multi-ringed impact craters on Earth, although they are more common elsewhere in the Solar System. Perhaps the best-known example is Valhalla crater on Jupiter's moon Callisto, although Earth's Moon has a number as well. Geological processes, such as erosion and plate tectonics, have removed most multi-ring craters on Earth.

The nearby Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC) and Witwatersrand Basin were created during this same period, leading to speculation that the bolide was big and fast enough to cause local volcanism. The BIC is where most of the world's known reserves of platinum group metals (PGMs) are found, while the Witwatersrand basin holds most of the known reserves of gold.

The Vredefort dome in the center of the crater is home to three towns: Parys, Vredefort and Koppies.
**Matthew Wayne Shepard** (December 1, 1976 – October 12, 1998) was an American college student who was murdered while attending the University of Wyoming. At the trial for the two attackers, the men were accused of targeting Shepard because he was gay.

Murder
------

On October 7, 1998, Shepard met two people named Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney at the Fireside Lounge. McKinney and Henderson decided that they would give Shepard a ride home. They drove the car to a remote, rural area, then robbed and tortured Shepard, beating him with a pistol. They tied him to a fence post and left him there to die. They also found out where Shepard lived and they planned to burglarize his house. Shepard was found by a cyclist named Aaron Kreifels, who thought Shepard was a scarecrow at first. Shepard was in a coma and suffered fractures to the back of his head and the front of his right ear. He had severe damage to his brain stem, a part of the brain which controls the body's heart rate, body temperature, and other important functions. He died at 12:53 a.m. on October 12, 1998.

Matthew Shepard Act
-------------------

A hate crimes law named the Matthew Shepard Act was first introduced on March 20, 2007. The bill passed the House of Representatives and the Senate but then-president George W. Bush said that he would veto the legislation if it had reached his desk. As a result, the legislation was dropped. It was again brought up on April 2, 2009. The Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr Hate Crimes Prevention Act was passed by President Barack Obama on October 28, 2009.
Decorative Tudor brick chimneys, Hampton Court Palace, UK
 A wall constructed in glazed-headed Flemish bond with bricks of various shades and lengths
A pallet of bricks stacked without mortar
An old brick wall in English bond laid with alternating courses of *headers* and *stretchers*
A **brick** is a man-made building material used to make walls and make places to walk. It is a single unit of a kneaded clay-bearing soil, sand and lime, or concrete material, fire-hardened or air-dried, used in masonry construction.

Bricks are made mostly of clay. They are put into molds or cut with wires, and then baked in an oven. The color of a brick depends on the clay from which it was made.

Masons build brick walls. They join bricks together using mortar.
Bricks can be assembled into many different patterns. The most common pattern is called "running bond". A row of bricks is called a course. 

Bricks used outdoors on the ground are called "pavers". Engineering bricks are used for high load-bearing walls, and for damp-proof courses. They are more expensive, and are made of better clays and fired at a higher temperature.

History
-------

The oldest shaped bricks found date back to 7500 B.C. They have been found in Çayönü, a place in the upper Tigris area in south east Anatolia, close to Diyarbakir. A bit later, between 7000 and 6395 BC, bricks come from Jericho and Catal Hüyük. 

*Fired* bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials. They have been used since about 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities. Sun-dried mud bricks are much older, and quite satisfactory in hot, dry climates. Fired bricks are much more resistant to cold and moist weather conditions. They allow permanent building in regions where the harsher climate prevents the use of mud bricks.

Most bricks from all places tend to be about the same size: ~9 x ~4¼ x ~2½ inches or 250 × 120 × 65 mm. This is because they are picked up by the brickie in one hand, while in his other hand is a trowel with cement on it.

### Cement

Just as bricks are ancient (probably Neolithic in origin), so is cement. That is (in comparison) a more recent invention. The ancient Greeks and Romans used cement. Older civilizations knew, however, that bricks needed to be stuck together. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs. Bitumen comes out of the ground naturally in a few places. It is a black oily substance of organic origin, like oil or pitch.

In Ancient Egypt, stone blocks were cemented together with a mortar made of sand and roughly burnt gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O), which often contained calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

Other images
------------

* A brick floor in an Ancient Roman marketA brick floor in an Ancient Roman market
* Modern pavement, in SienaModern pavement, in Siena
* Brick making in MadagascarBrick making in Madagascar
* Woman of Tanzania carrying bricks on her headWoman of Tanzania carrying bricks on her head
The border between the United States and Mexico spans four U.S. states, six Mexican states, and has over twenty commercial railroad crossings.
Border at Tijuana (right) and southern California (left)
The **United States–Mexico border** is the international border between the United States and Mexico. 

It runs from Imperial Beach, California, and Tijuana, Baja California, in the west to Matamoros, Tamaulipas, and Brownsville, Texas, in the east. It covers a variety of terrains, ranging from major urban areas to inhospitable deserts. 

From the Gulf of Mexico it follows the course of the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte) to the border crossing at El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. Westward from there it crosses vast tracts of the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Desert. Then it crosses the Colorado River Delta, west to San Diego and Tijuana before reaching the Pacific Ocean. The US-Mexican border is considered an open border.

The border's total length is 3,169 km (1,969 mi), according to figures given by the International Boundary and Water Commission. It is the most frequently crossed international border in the world, with approximately three hundred fifty million (350,000,000) crossings per year.
Electron micrograph of rough endoplasmic reticulum network around the nucleus (shown in lower right-hand side of the picture). Dark small circles in the network are mitochondria.
**1** Nucleus  
**2** Nuclear pore  
**3** Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)  
**4** Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)  
**5** Ribosome on the rough ER  
**6** Proteins that are transported  
**7** Transport vesicle  
**8** Golgi apparatus  
**9** Cis face of the Golgi apparatus  
**10** Trans face of the Golgi apparatus  
**11** Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus
**Endoplasmic reticulum** (**ER**) is a cellular organelle. It is the transport network for molecules going to specific places, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The endoplasmic reticulum is in cells that have a nucleus: in eukaryote cells but not in prokaryote cells. It takes these forms:

* **Rough endoplasmic reticulum** (**RER**), so called because it is studded with ribosomes, and secretes proteins into the cytoplasm.
* **Smooth endoplasmic reticulum** (**SER**). Among its functions is the production of proteins and steroids, the maintenance of plasma membranes, and a pathway for molecules to move along.

Similar to the ER is the **sarcoplasmic reticulum** (**SR**) found only in muscle cells. The SR stores and pumps calcium ions. The SR contains large stores of calcium, which it releases when the muscle cell is stimulated. Another type of cytoplasmic network is the plate-like Golgi apparatus.

The lacey membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 by scientists using an electron microscope.
Majorian (Latin: Iulius Flavius Valerius Maiorianus, c. 420 - 7 August 461) Was a Western Roman emperor from 1 April 457 - 2 August 461. Majorian was a skilled general and was probably the last hope for the survival of the crumbling Western Roman Empire as he was able to reconquer much of southern gaul and much of Hispania back under Roman Control. In 7 August 461, Majorian was deposed by a germanic roman general Ricimer and was killed.

During his reign, Majorian was able to secure several succesful campaigns in Gaul and Hispania reconquering much of both provinces and bringing it back under Roman Control. In 460 Majorian went to Hispania and ordered to build as massive fleet for preperations for an invasion of Africa, but before he was able to put his plans into action, his redied fleet was burned most of it destroyed and only leaving a few warships in a good state. After the incident, Majorian abandons his plans for a possible reconquest of Africa and instead focused on retaking Gaul and Hispania instead.
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|  | Sans-serif font |
|  | Serif font |
|  | Serif font(serifs in red) |

The Gill Sans typeface is used throughout the London Underground system.
Simple sans serif capitals on a late nineteenth-century memorial, London.
In typography, a **sans serif** typeface is one that does not have the tiny feet called "serifs" at the end of strokes. 
The term comes from the French word *sans*, meaning "without" and "serif" from the Dutch word *schreef* meaning "line".

Sans serif typefaces have been used since the 18th century, but became most used in the twentieth century as the modern art movement developed. Most designers of typefaces were artists. Some were outstanding in other artistic fields, and were part of the wider artistic culture of their times.

The apostle of sans serif was Jan Tschichold (2 April 1902 Leipzig, Germany – 11 August 1974 Locarno, Switzerland), a German-Swiss graphic designer. 
Tschichold not only designed typefaces, he showed how they could be used in the design of book printing. He was a chief designer for Penguin Books after the Second World War.

Sans serif faces are most used for display signs, advertising and for headings in books. Although they seem to work well for the text in books, they are much less used for that purpose.

Other names for sans serif
--------------------------

* Egyptian
* Antique
* Grotesque
* Doric
* Gothic (not to be confused with blackletter)
* Lineale, or linear
* Simplices
* Swiss
The word **amateur** is normally used to mean: somebody who does something (e.g. a job) without being paid for it.

The opposite of an amateur is a **professional**. He (or she) will expect to be paid a professional fee for the job.

The word "amateur" comes from a French word meaning: "lover of". An amateur is someone who does something (e.g. play the piano, football) because they enjoy doing it. They are not doing it in order to be paid. It is not how they earn money to live.

People often forget the real meaning of the word "amateur". It is often mistakenly used to mean: someone who is not good at something. On the other hand, an amateur might be described as having done a very "professional" job, i.e. done it as well as someone who is paid.

Although one might expect a professional to be better than an amateur, this is not always the case. Someone might be a very good amateur pianist, possibly better than some professionals.

In some jobs it would be impossible for amateurs to be allowed to work. One cannot have amateur doctors or lawyers. In some areas, however, amateurs have been very useful in fields including computer programming and astronomy and birdwatching. Wikipedia, for example, is written by amateurs.

Sport
-----

In some sporting events, all players are professional or all are amateur. Many events mix professional and amateur participants. 

In some sports (e.g. tennis or football) in the past, amateurs and professionals would not compete against one another. This was not always because amateurs were thought to be not as good as professionals. In some countries, such as Great Britain in Victorian times, this was because of social class distinction. Amateur cricketers were rich gentlemen from the upper classes who did not want to associate with people from lower classes. This attitude slowly changed during the 20th century. 

Until the 1970s most Olympic events were for amateurs. Athletes were disqualified if they received money for the event, or in some cases even if they had been paid for sporting events outside the Olympics.

Related pages
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* Hobby
* Amateur radio
* Volunteering
Map of the Province of Imperia, with Seborga marked in red
**Seborga** is a small village in Italy, located near the border with France. It is a commune within the Province of Imperia. Seborga's main economic activities are agriculture and tourism. Seborga has an annual festival dedicated to Saint Bernard, the town's patron saint. It has a population of around 300.

Principality of Seborga
-----------------------

Flag of the Principality of Seborga
In the early 1960s, Giorgio Carbona claimed that Seborga was historically a principality and was not formally included in the 1861 Italian unification. As such, he claimed that the town and its surrounding territory was an independent country from Italy. He was elected as the Prince of Seborga.

There has been no formal recognition of Giorgio Carbone's claims and no country currently recognises Seborga, making it a micronation.

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Liguria · *Comuni* of the Province of Imperia |
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* Airole
* Apricale
* Aquila d'Arroscia
* Armo
* Aurigo
* Badalucco
* Bajardo
* Bordighera
* Borghetto d'Arroscia
* Borgomaro
* Camporosso
* Caravonica
* Castellaro
* Castel Vittorio
* Ceriana
* Cervo
* Cesio
* Chiusanico
* Chiusavecchia
* Cipressa
* Civezza
* Costarainera
* Diano Arentino
* Diano Castello
* Diano Marina
* Diano San Pietro
* Dolceacqua
* Dolcedo
* Imperia
* Isolabona
* Lucinasco
* Mendatica
* Molini di Triora
* Montalto Carpasio
* Montegrosso Pian Latte
* Olivetta San Michele
* Ospedaletti
* Perinaldo
* Pietrabruna
* Pieve di Teco
* Pigna
* Pompeiana
* Pontedassio
* Pornassio
* Prelà
* Ranzo
* Rezzo
* Riva Ligure
* Rocchetta Nervina
* San Bartolomeo al Mare
* San Biagio della Cima
* San Lorenzo al Mare
* Sanremo
* Santo Stefano al Mare
* Seborga
* Soldano
* Cosio di Arroscia
* Taggia
* Terzorio
* Triora
* Vallebona
* Vallecrosia
* Vasia
* Ventimiglia
* Vessalico
* Villa Faraldi

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|  | Sans-serif font |
|  | Serif font |
|  | Serif font(serifs in red) |

From left to right: a serif typeface with serifs in red, a serif typeface and a sans-serif typeface
A **serif** is a term in typography. If a letter is made of a line or lines, a serif is a tiny decorative line on the ends of letter's 'limbs'. Thus, in the illustration on the right, each serif letter has a serif on the end of its lines. Alphabetic typefaces either have serifs or not. Those without are called sans-serif.

The design of our typefaces started in the 15th century, when the early printers used moulds from which letters made of lead were produced.

However, the original source of the serif may be in monumental inscriptions. Serifs are on the letters at the base of Trajan's column (built 107~113 AD), and are clearly illustrated in standard textbooks on typography. Indeed, older literature often describes typefaces with serifs as *Roman*. The word *serif* seems to be an early 19th century innovation.

Related pages
-------------

* Typography
* Sans serif
* Font
**Saluga and Ghazal protected area** is one of the nature reserves in southern Egypt and is considered the smallest, as its area does not exceed half a kilometer in the form of islands groups in the Nile River. 

The reserve is located in Aswan Governorate, specifically at the first waterfall, about 3 km north of Aswan Reservoir. In south of it, there is the island of Suhail, and to the north there are the islands of Esposarte, Amun and the Botanical Garden (El Nabatat Island).

The name is taken from the two most important islands in the reserve. Saluja Island, which means (waterfall) in Nubian language, while the name Ghazal Island seems to refer to one of the ancient plants that were growing on these islands.

The region declared a nature reserve by decision of the Prime Minister of Egypt in 1986. With the aim of preserving the biological diversity of endangered animals, plants and mammals.

The Environment
---------------

The reserve contains a variety of living creatures from the animal and plant kingdoms despite the small size of the reserve and its presence in the middle of the Nile. Among the most famous animals in the reserve are camels, goats, wild donkeys, hyenas, and the red fox (the Egyptian fox) which, although it does not live mainly in the islands of the reserve but lives in the West Bank of the Nile and crosses the river by swimming to build a hole on the islands of the reserve. Sixty species of resident and migratory birds live in the reserve as well, some of which are threatened with extinction. The most famous of these rare birds is the black ibis, which became the symbol of the reserve. The plant life in the reserve is more varied and clear, as there are more than 90 different types of plants. The reserve is characterized by stunning landscapes that combine the often quiet vegetation with the water surface of the Nile, which made it an important tourist attraction.

Saluga\_and\_ghazal.jpg
Coordinates: 25°58′02″S 27°39′45″E﻿ / ﻿25.96716°S 27.66245°E﻿ / -25.96716; 27.66245

Skull of a juvenile male *Australopithecus sediba*
The **Cradle of Humankind** is a World Heritage Site. It was first named by UNESCO in 1999. The site is about 50 kilometres northwest of Johannesburg, South Africa in the Gauteng province, and occupies 47,000 hectares (180 sq mi).

The site's limestone caves, including the Sterkfontein Caves, were where fossils were found. A 2.3-million year-old fossil *Australopithecus africanus* (nicknamed 'Mrs. Ples') was found in 1947 by Robert Broom and John T. Robinson. The find followed the 1924 discovery of the juvenile *Australopithecus africanus* skull, 'Taung Child', by Raymond Dart, at Taung in the North West Province of South Africa, where excavations still continue.

The name *Cradle of Humankind* reflects the fact that the site has produced a large number, as well as some of the oldest, hominid fossils ever found, some dating back as far as 3.5 million years ago. Sterkfontein alone has produced more than a third of early hominid fossils ever found.

Recent work
-----------

The remains of several partial skeletons of a previously unknown Australopithecan species were found in 2008 near Johannesburg. They have been dated to about two million year ago (mya). A recent re-examination of two partial skeletons of *Australopithecus sediba* has led to its identification as close to the origin of the genus *Homo*. Not all palaeoanthropologists agree this is a new species.

A new analysis shows this species had a human-like pelvis, hands and teeth, and a chimpanzee-like foot. In six separate research reports, palaeontologists reported on the anatomy of a juvenile male skeleton, MH1, a female skeleton, known as MH2, and an isolated adult tibia or shinbone, known as MH4. The findings suggest that some species of australopithecine climbed trees, some walked on the ground, and some did both.

"Its small heel resembles that of a chimpanzee more than it does a human. This suggests it likely walked with an inward rotation of the knee and hip, with its feet slightly twisted. This primitive way of walking might have been a compromise between upright walking and tree climbing, the researchers suggest, since *A. sediba* seems to have had more adaptations for tree-climbing than other australopithecines".
Colleagues in England investigated the teeth. Like other parts of the skeleton, the teeth are a mosaic of primitive and human-like features.
**Karl Skerlan** (3 January 1940 – 7 February 2017) was an Austrian football player. He played for Austria between 1958 and 1964. He also played for club teams mainly Wiener Sport-Club and Admira Energie Wien.

Career
------

Karl Skerlan came to the Wiener Sport-Club from the small Burgenland club ASV Kittsee in 1957. In this season he became champion. For two years(41 games in a row) he remained undefeated with his team and was able to win the championship in 1958/59. Karl Skerlan also achieved great success with the Dornbachers in the European Cup. The highlight was the legendary 7-0 victory over the Italian champions Juventus Turin, in which he also scored a goal.

In 1961, Karl Skerlan decided to move to Admira Wien. The first title win at the new club was in the 1964 cup. In 1966 he was able to win the double with the club. 

At the end of his career, after a year at the German regional league club FK Pirmasens, Karl Skerlan went to SC Schwarz-Weiß Bregenz in the first and second leagues and was also a player-coach there. 1969/70 he reached the club cup semi-finals, where the team was only - after two draws against Linzer ASK - lost by drawing of lots against them.

International
-------------

He played 14 matches for the Austrian national football team and scored 3 goals. His first appearance was on 19 November 1958 in a 2-2 against Germany. His last match was on 11 October 1964 in a 1-0 against Russia.

Team Management
---------------

Skerlan managed FC Vorarlberg between 1 December 1973 and 30 June 1975. This was the only management he performed during his career.

Honours
-------

* 2 × Quarterfinals European Cup: 1959, 1960
* 3 × Austrian Champion: 1958, 1959, 1966
* 2 × Austrian Cup: 1964, 1966
* UEFA Euro 1960: Quarterfinals
* 14 matches and 3 goals for Austria 1958 to 1964

Other websites
--------------

* Karl Skerlan at National-Football-Teams.com
* Karl Skerlan at WorldFootball.net
Some bats are frugivores
A **frugivore** is an animal that prefers to eat fruit.

Plant and frugivore relationship
--------------------------------

The fruit is part of a plant's sexual reproduction cycle. Plants spend a lot of energy and nutrients in creating fruit. Fruit is produced to attract animals into eating the fruit. The animal digests the pulp but not the seeds, ensuring the plant's genes are spread wherever the animal goes. Seeds can also be germinated by falling near the mother plant. Some seeds must pass through the digestive system (the stomach and intestines) before they can germinate.

Frugivores have also evolved in different ways to eat different fruit; some use teeth, others long beaks or short beaks.

Examples of frugivores
----------------------

Many birds eat both fruits and insects which makes them omnivores. Mammals may eat both fruits and protein, or eat mostly fruit or nectar, such as many bats. One primate group is essentially herbivore/frugivore, the Owl Monkeys. They live in a non-seasonal area of the Amazon that supports a constant supply of fruiting trees. Elsewhere, an exclusively frugivore diet is impossible and is supplemented by insects or rougher plant matter. Some people say that humans are frugivores; this is unlikely given the evolution of man in the dry tropical region of the Rift Valley. However, the climate in the Rift valley at the time of our evolution was likely a tropical rainforest. That said, almost all primates and even carnivores will travel great distances to feast when a fruit tree has dropped its ripened fruit. Many species will remember the exact fruiting date and location of a fruiting tree which highlights fruits great nutritional benefit. Some people promote a frugivore diet for humans.

Further reading
---------------

* Levey, D. J. W. R. Silva, and M. Galetti (editors) 2002. *Seed dispersal and frugivory : ecology, evolution, and conservation* New York : CABI Pub. 511 p. ISBN 0-85199-525-X

Other websites
--------------

View on diet and health at NHE Self-Health Care Systems: Biological Adaptations
Long Valley
Map of the Long Valley Caldera
**Long Valley Caldera** is a depression in east California next to Mammoth Mountain. The valley is one of the Earth's largest calderas, the result of a gigantic volcanic eruption. The valley is about 20 miles (32 km) long (east-west), 11 miles (18 km) wide (north-south), and up to 3,000 feet (910 m) deep.

Long Valley formed 760,000 years ago when a supervolcanic eruption released very hot ash that later cooled to form the Bishop tuff that is common to the area. The eruption emptied the magma chamber under the area, so it collapsed. The second phase of the eruption released pyroclastic flows that burned and buried thousands of square miles. Ash from this eruption blanketed much of the western part of what is now the United States. It is not expected to explode again in such a manner.

The explosion released 600 cubic kilometres (140 cu mi) of material from vents inside the margin of the caldera. By way of comparison, the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption released 1.2 cubic kilometres (0.29 cu mi). This eruption had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 7.

In April 2006, three members of the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area ski patrol died while on duty. All three died from suffocation by carbon dioxide when they fell into a fumarole on the slopes of the mountain while attempting to fence it off.
***World Idol*** was a one-time version of *Pop Idol*. It featured eleven contestants, who each were winners of a version of *Pop Idol*. Ten countries and one multi-country unit took part in the contest. 

The performance show was broadcast on Christmas Day 2003, with the results show aired on New Year's Day 2004. After presenting the competitors, viewers from the 11 participating countries were allowed to vote by telephone, but not for the participant from their home country.

British presenters Ant & Dec hosted the show on most English speaking countries, while local presenters hosted for their own country in the local language. 

The winner was based on points. Based on the results of each country's public vote, each country awarded a number of points from 1 to 10 to each other country, using each number once (for example, first place of a vote got 10 points while last place got 1 point).

Leaderboard
-----------

| No. | Territory | Performer | Song | Points |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **1** | Norway Norway | Kurt Nilsen | "Beautiful Day" | 106 |
| **2** | United States United States | Kelly Clarkson | "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman" | 97 |
| **3** | Belgium Belgium | Peter Evrard | "Lithium" | 83 |
| **4** | South Africa South Africa | Heinz Winckler | "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing" | 80 |
| **5** | United Kingdom United Kingdom | Will Young | "Light My Fire" | 72 |
| **6** | Canada Canada | Ryan Malcolm | "He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother" | 62 |
| **7** | Australia Australia | Guy Sebastian | "What a Wonderful World" | 56 |
| **8** | Poland Poland | Alicja Janosz | "I Don't Know How to Love Him" | 55 |
| **9/10** | Germany Germany | Alexander Klaws | "Maniac" | 45 |
| Arab League Arabia | Diana Karazon | "Ensani Ma Binsak" | 45 |
| **11** | Netherlands Netherlands | Jamai Loman | "Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word" | 36 |
Laurentia, also called the North American craton.
Palaeomap of North American and Scandinavian cratons, basement rocks, and orogenic belts
**Laurentia** is a large continental craton. It forms the ancient geological core of the North American continent. 

Originally, it included the core of Greenland and the northwestern part of Scotland, known as the Hebridean Terrane. Laurentia is also called the **North American Craton**. It is a modern geological feature, and it is also a very ancient geological core made of igneous rock. It is nearly four billion years old.

At times in the past, Laurentia has been part of larger continents and supercontinents. It is an assembly of smaller tectonic plates which merged early in the Archaean era. As the plates moved together, a huge range of mountains formed. Much later, in the Proterozoic era, small plates and oceanic islands collided with and fused with the ever-growing Laurentia. Together they made the huge, stable craton we see today as the north and center of North America and the west of Greenland.

Over a billion years ago, the Grenville Orogeny in the Canadian Shield made jagged peaks, higher than any of today's mountains. Millions of years of erosion have changed these mountains to rolling hills.

The remaining, western, part of North America was added much later, after Pangaea split up, and the Americas moved west from Eurasia and Gondwana.

The craton is named after the Laurentian Mountains, a range to the north of the St. Lawrence River.

Rocks as seen today
-------------------

The cratonic rocks are metamorphic and igneous, while the overlying sedimentary rocks are composed mostly of limestones, sandstones, and shales. These sedimentary rocks were deposited from 650 to 290 million years ago. In eastern and central Canada, much of the stable craton is exposed at the surface.

The southwestern portion of Laurentia consists of Precambrian basement rocks deformed by continental collisions (violet area of the image above). This area has been subjected to considerable rifting as the Basin and Range Province and has been stretched up to 100% of its original width. The area has a history of major volcanic eruptions.
Effect of high heels: normal shoe (top) compared with heels (below)
Basic court shoe, the most common type of high heeled shoe. Heels usually wider than in this illustration.
Shoes for Latin dancing: very stable heels
Sandals with stable high heels
Mid-length heels
Wedgies
Extreme stiletto heels
**High heels** are shoes where the heels are much higher than the toes. They are a fashion item, usually for women. Cowboy boots and 'Cuban heels' are shoes worn by men with high heels.

Look
----

Mid-height heels are from 2½ to 3½ inches (6.2 to 8.5 cm). They are an intermediate between standard heels and *stiletto heels*, which are from 4 to 10 inches. The extreme heels are made of steel, and very narrow at the base: 0.4 inches or less. These have been widely criticised for the health risks regular wear would bring. They have also been criticised by feminists. If the soles of the shoes are also raised, then they are a quite different kind of shoe: the *platform shoe*.

Wedgies or, more properly, shoes with wedge heels, are a compromise type. They raise the heels, and are much more stable than standard high heels. 
Wedges for women were popularized by Salvatore Ferragamo who introduced the design to the Italian market in the late 1930s.

Assessment
----------

### Advantages

Reasons **for** wearing high-heels, which are almost exclusively aesthetic, include:

* They change the angle of the foot with respect to the lower leg, which accentuates the appearance of calves
* They change the wearer's posture, requiring a more upright carriage and altering the gait in what is considered a seductive fashion
* They give you extra height - Heelser Archived 2022-11-04 at the Wayback Machine
* They make the legs appear longer
* They make the foot appear smaller
* They make the toes appear shorter
* They make the arches of the feet higher and better defined
* They make the lower leg muscles more defined

### Disadvantages

Reasons **against** wearing high-heels, which are almost exclusively health and practicality reasons, include:

* they may cause foot pain
* they increase the chance of sprains and fractures
* they may create foot deformities, including hammertoes and bunions
* they may cause unsteady walking
* they may shorten the wearer's stride
* they may make the wearer unable to walk on some surfaces

Conclusion
----------

There are so many types of shoe, and so many differences between people that no type will suit everyone. It is obvious that the higher the heel, the riskier the shoe. The more sensible versions are quite safe; the extreme versions seen on fashion show catwalks are not for everyday wear. A lot depends on their use. Nurses tend to wear flat shoes; office staff may prefer high heels. Despite the critics, high heels have been around for a long time, and are probably going to stay.

* Imelda Marcos: a collection of 2700 pairs of shoes.
**Warsaw** is a city in Hancock County, Illinois, United States. The population was 1,510 at the 2020 census. People know the city for its historic downtown and the Warsaw Brewery.

History
-------

The city of Warsaw began in 1814. Future president Zachary Taylor founded Fort Johnson on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River across from the mouth of the Des Moines River. Fort Johnson was occupied only for a few weeks before it was burned. In 1815 another military camp, Fort Edwards, was built nearby at a different location. Warsaw became an important fur trading post and one of the earliest European-American settlements in western Illinois.

During the 1840s, Warsaw was one of the centers of opposition to the Mormons at Nauvoo. Thomas C. Sharp, who edited the *Warsaw Signal* at this time lead the anti-Mormons. The Mormons tried to set up a settlement at Warren, a site just south of Warsaw. In 1841 Willard Richards moved to Warsaw to oversee the settlement of Warren, but due to the public response to writings by Sharp and other problems, the Mormon settlement was abandoned in 1842. In October 1844, a great gathering was announced in Warsaw. Although it claimed to be a "wolf hunt," people knew that the "wolves" to be hunted were the Mormons. When Governor Thomas Ford heard about it, he sent militia troops to disperse the gathering. Most Mormons left the area for Utah in 1846.

The city has a well-preserved downtown with a number of remaining historic businesses. Founded by German immigrants, the Warsaw Brewery opened in 1861 and operated for more than 100 years, ending production in 1971. The facility was renovated and reopened in 2006 as a bar and restaurant.

Notable residents
-----------------

* John Milton Hay, an American statesman, diplomat, author, journalist, and private secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln, was raised in Warsaw. He served as United States Secretary of State from 1898 to 1905 under presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt.
* Illinois politician Benjamin F. Marsh represented the area and is buried in Warsaw.
**Polycarbonate** is a transparent (something which can be seen through) thermoplastic. This material is tough and stable. It can resist a high temperature of 138°C (280°F) and a low temperature of -40°C (-40°F). It is stain resistant and non-toxic. The weight of polycarbonate is one sixth of glass. 

Industries use polycarbonate for making different products, from bulletproof windows to CDs and DVDs. The main advantages of polycarbonate are high strength and light weight.

Industries use clear polycarbonate to make glasses. This is because it has very good transparency and durability. Lenses made from clear polycarbonate can be thinner than lenses made from regular glass.

Companies that make electronic equipment use polycarbonate to make the cover of mobile phones, laptops and other products. Although polycarbonate is not poisonous, the process of making polycarbonate uses toxic chemicals. (See Bisphenol A).

Related pages
-------------

* DVD
* Compact disc
* Laptop

| * v
* t
* e
Health issues of plastics and polyhalogenated compounds (PHCs) |
| --- |
| Plasticizers: Phthalates | 
* DIBP
* DBP
* BBP (BBzP)
* DIHP
* DEHP (DOP)
* DIDP
* DINP

 |
| Miscellaneous plasticizers | 
* Organophosphates
* Adipates (DEHA
* DOA)

 |
| Monomers | 
* Bisphenol A (BPA, in Polycarbonates)
* Vinyl chloride (in PVC)

 |
| Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs | 
* PBDEs
* PCBs
* Organotins
* PFCs
	+ Perfluorooctanoic acid

 |
| Health issues | 
* Teratogen
* Carcinogen
* Endocrine disruptor
* Diabetes
* Obesity
* Polymer fume fever

 |
| Pollution | 
* Plastic pollution
	+ Rubber pollution
* Great Pacific garbage patch
* Persistent organic pollutant
* Dioxins
* List of environmental health hazards

 |
| Regulations | 
* California Proposition 65
* European REACH regulation
* Japan Toxic Substances Law
* Toxic Substances Control Act

 |