recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Crimean War
The **Crimean War** (1853–1856), also called the **Eastern War** (Russian: Восточная война), was fought between the Russian Empire against the French Empire, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire. Most of the fighting, including the Battle of Balaclava, happened in Crimea, but some of it was what is now western Turkey and around the Baltic Sea. 

The Crimean War is sometimes called the first "modern" war since its weaponry and tactics were used for the first time and affected all later wars. It was also the first war to use a telegraph to give information to a newspaper quickly.

Background
----------

The Ottoman Empire was declining by the mid-1800s. The war started after the Ottoman Empire decided that France, not Russia, had the right to protect Christians in the Holy Land near the area of modern-day Israel.

Russia sent an army to take part of Ottoman Romania and so the British and the French allies sent an army and a navy to help the Ottomans. When the allies got to their camp in Gallipoli, Russia retreated and so the allies decided instead to take back Crimea, where Russia had its naval base. Russia had taken Crimea from the Ottoman Empire in an earlier war.

Results
-------

The Allies won the war in Crimea but gave it back to Russia in return for Russia giving back other places and promising not to have a navy on the Black Sea. 

The Crimean War was a very important point in the history of warfare since new weapons were used. It was also the first war to be reported by the press via photography and journalists. Another very important factor was that it was the first war with real field hospitals, which were started by Florence Nightingale.

After it lost the war, Russia decided to make changes, including increasing its development of weaponry and ending serfdom in 1861.

Related pages
-------------

* Florence Nightingale
* Elizabeth Thompson

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Crimean War***.

* Austria Chronology Crimean War Archived 2008-10-24 at the Wayback Machine
* France Chronology Crimean War Archived 2008-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
* Great Britain Chronology Crimean War Archived 2008-07-31 at the Wayback Machine
* Italy Chronology Crimean War Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
* Russia Chronology Crimean War Archived 2008-09-17 at the Wayback Machine
* Turkey Chronology Crimean War Archived 2008-10-03 at the Wayback Machine
**Lidio John Fogolin, Sr.** (born February 27, 1926 in Fort William, Ontario - d. November 29, 2000) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player for the Detroit Red Wings and Chicago Black Hawks of the NHL.

Playing career
--------------

Lee Fogolin started his professional career with the Omaha Knights of the USHL in 1946. The next year he played for the Indianapolis Capitals of the AHL. He saw his first NHL action for the Detroit Red Wings in the 1948 playoffs. He began the 1949 season with Indianapolis before being called up to the NHL full-time.
He played the next 3 seasons with Detroit winning the Stanley Cup with them in 1950. In 1951 he was traded to the Chicago Black Hawks along with Steve Black for Bert Olmstead and Vic Stasiuk. He played the final 6 years of his career on less than impressive Chicago Black Hawks teams. In 1957 he signed on as a player-coach of the Calgary Stampeders of the WHL. He broke his elbow that season and decided to retire at its conclusion to concentrate on coaching full-time.

Coaching career
---------------

Lee Fogolin coached 1 season in the WHL in 1957. He did not return to coaching until 1971 with the Thunder Bay Twins of the USHL where he stayed for 2 seasons.

Trivia
------

* Lee Fogolin Sr. played in 2 NHL All Star Games in 1950 and 1951.
* His son Lee Fogolin Jr. won 2 Stanley Cups with the Edmonton Oilers in 1984 and 1985.
* His grandson Michael Fogolin played for the Prince George Cougars in the WHL and died in his sleep on May 26, 2004 of a possible heart condition.

Other websites
--------------

* Lee Fogolin Sr. career statistics at The Internet Hockey Database
* Lee Fogolin Sr. biography at Legends of Hockey (archived)
* Picture of Lee Fogolin's Name on the 1950 Stanley Cup Plaque Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
Tench are common freshwater fish throughout temperate Eurasia.
**Freshwater fish** are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 1.05%.

Freshwater fish differ from saltwater fish in several respects. Their gills must be able to diffuse dissolved gases while keeping the salts in the body fluids inside. Their scales reduce water diffusion through the skin: freshwater fish that have lost too many scales will die.

Threats
-------

### Habitat destruction

Dams can create issues for freshwater habitats.
Freshwater fish also die from habitat destruction. Dams not only interrupt linear water flow and cause major geological channel shifts, but also limit the amount of water available to fishes in lakes, streams and rivers and have the potential to change the trophic structure because of these alterations of the habitat and the limitations to movement and connectivity.

The purpose of a dam is to impound (store) water, kill freshwater fish, wastewater or liquid borne materials for any of several reasons, such as flood control, human water supply, irrigation, livestock water supply, energy generation, containment of mine tailings, recreation, or pollution control.

Coolwater fish
--------------

Coolwater fish species prefer water temperature between the coldwater and the long warmwater species, around 60 to 80 °F (16–27 °C). They are found throughout North America except for the southern portions of the United States. Common coolwater species include muskellunge, northern pike, walleye, and yellow perch.

North American fish
-------------------

### Endangered species

The Mekong giant catfish, an example of a critically endangered species.
About four in ten North American freshwater fish are endangered, according to a pan-North American study, the main cause being human pollution. Since 1989, the number of fish species and subspecies to become endangered has risen from 40 to 61.

Related pages
-------------

* Telescopefish
* Evolution of fish
* List of prehistoric bony fish genera
Gatwick's south terminal
**London Gatwick Airport** (IATA: **LGW**, ICAO: **EGKK**) is London's second largest airport and the second busiest airport in the United Kingdom after Heathrow. It is the world's 22nd busiest airport in terms of passengers per year (7th in terms of international passengers). It is also often quoted as the world's busiest single runway airport, although strictly speaking it now has a second 'stand-by' runway, which can only be used when the main runway is out of use.

Overview
--------

Gatwick is in Crawley, West Sussex (it used to be Charlwood, Surrey) 5 km (3 miles) north of the town centre, 46 km (28 miles) south of London and 40 km (25 miles) north of Brighton.

Gatwick is owned and operated by a group of companies, led by Global Infrastructure Partners (GIP), after its previous owner BAA was forced to sell the airport by the Competition Commission due to its dominance in London and the South East, also owning Heathrow Airport.

With about 200 destinations, the airport handled over 34 million passengers with 263,363 aircraft movements in 2006. It was said that during 2007 Gatwick broke through the 35 million barrier for the first time in its history.

Usually, Charter airlines do not operate from Heathrow and therefore use Gatwick as their main base for London and the South East.

For the past 30 years, many flights to and from the USA have also used Gatwick because of the restrictions on access to Heathrow that were enshrined in the 1977 Bermuda II bilateral air services agreement between the UK and the US.

The airport is a major operational base for British Airways, easyJet and Virgin Atlantic. The airport is also a major base for a number of charter airlines including First Choice Airways, Thomas Cook Airlines, Thomsonfly and XL Airways. Runway 8L/26R is mostly used as a taxiway. 

London Gatwick has a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence (Number P528) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction.

Other websites
--------------

* Gatwick Airport Archived 2012-06-26 at the Wayback Machine
The **Musaceae** are a family of flowering plants in the order Zingiberales. The family is native to the tropics of the Old World. The plants are large herbs with very big leaves; the lower parts of the leaves form a false stem so they look as trees.

The species of this family are native to the tropics of Africa, East Asia, Australia and South Pacific; some of them, like bananas and plantains, are grown in all tropical countries for their fruits.

Description
-----------

These are perennial herbaceous plants; they are not very tall. The lower parts of the big leaves are closely packed making a false stem (*pseudostem*) that is not made of wood. The true stems grow underground; it is called a rhizome or a corm. The false stems die after flowering and producing fruits and are replaced by new false stems rising from the underground corm.

The flowers have bracts and grow in groups (inflorescences) and are pollinated by insects, birds, bats and treeshrews.

Fruits are berries with many hard seeds but the fruits of commercial bananas and plantains do not have seeds because they are steriles.

Genera
------

The French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu created this family in 1789.

There are three genera in this family:

* *Ensete*
* *Musa*
* *Musella*

Acceptance of *Musella* has varied; as of May 2013[update], the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families considers it a synonym of *Ensete*.

Uses
----

In addition to banana and plantain fruits and their products (including alcohol, meal), *Musa* species and varieties are important sources of fibre (abacá, Manila hemp).

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Musaceae***.

Wikispecies has information on: ***Musaceae***.

* F.A. Lohmueller. 2005. The Botanical System of the Plants Archived 2011-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
* *Monocot families* (USDA)
* NCBI Taxonomy Browser
* *Preliminary analysis of the literature on the distribution of wild Musa species* Archived 2008-10-11 at the Wayback Machine
* The Musaceae - an annotated list of the species
A Promenade concert at the Royal Albert Hall in 2004
Cher Lloyd
Historically, the United Kingdom has been a big producer of music. Including church music, traditional folk music and instrumentation of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. The countries of the United Kingdom has its own folk music forms, which is popular until the era of industrialisation. Many British musicians have influenced modern music around the world, and the United Kingdom has one of the world's largest music industries. Genres include pop, rock, also sub-genres like avant-funk, new wave, acid jazz, neo soul, trip hop, dubstep and industrial.

Folk music
----------

Every countries of the United Kingdom has its own. folk music forms. Folk music is an important sub-culture within society.

### English folk music

England has a long history of folk music. During the medieval period there were forms of music, song and dance. A lot of the tradition has been preserved and is practiced. There are a number other forms of music that made subgenres such as British folk rock, folk punk and folk metal, popular in areas such as Northumbria and Cornwall.

### Gaels folk music

#### Ulster/Irish folk music

Ireland, including Northern Ireland, has vibrant folk traditions. The popularity of traditional instruments such as fiddles has remained throughout the centuries even as analogues in Great Britain died out. Perhaps the most famous modern musician from Northern Ireland influenced by folk tradition is Van Morrison.

#### Scottish folk music

Scottish traditional group The Tannahill Weavers
Scottish folk music includes many kinds of songs, including ballads and laments, sung by a single singer with accompaniment by bagpipes, fiddles or harps. Traditional dances include waltzes, reels, strathspeys and jigs. Alongside the other areas of the United Kingdom, Scotland underwent a roots revival in the 1960s. Cathy-Ann McPhee and Jeannie Robertson were the heroes of this revival, which inspired some revolutions in band formats by groups like The Clutha, The Whistlebinkies, The Boys of the Lough and the Incredible String Band.

### Welsh folk music

Wales is a Celtic country that features folk music played at twmpathau (communal dances) and gwyl werin (music festivals). Welsh music also includes male voice choirs and songs accompanied by a harp. Having long been subordinate to English culture, Welsh musicians in the late 20th century had to reconstruct traditional music when a roots revival began. This revival began in the late 1970s and achieved some mainstream success in the UK in the 1980s with performers like Robin Huw Bowen, Moniars and Gwerinos.
**Judy Chicago** (born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1939) is an American artist. She is known for her art work in multiple techniques. She is also known for her activism in the feminist art movement in the 1970s.

Chicago went to school at the Art Institute of Chicago and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).

Work
----

Chicago and Miriam Schapiro created the Feminist Art Program at the California Institute of the Arts. In 1972, Chicago and Schapiro headed the creation of an art installation in an entire abandoned house. It was call *Womanhouse*. It was filled with art created by women.

Judy Chicago The Dinner Party
From 1974 through 1979 Chicago worked on the art installation called "The Dinner Party". It was made of objects that were created in clay and cloth. The object were assembled to create a dining room table with space for 39 people. Each of the 39 places represented an important woman. It was first displayed in 1979 at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. It has been shown at other museums over the years. In 2002, the Brooklyn Museum bought it.

From 1982 through 1985, Chicago made the *Birth Project*. It is a series of images about birth and creation. Then, more than 150 needleworkers embroidered the images.

From 1985 through 1993 Chicago worked on the *Holocaust Project*. The *Holocaust Project* is a mixed-media installation. For this project she worked with other artists including her husband, the photographer Donald Woodman. It was first shown in 1993 at the Spertus Museum in Chicago, Illinois.

Awards
------

In 2002, the National Museum of Women in the Arts held a retrospective of her work. In 2021 Chicago was appointed to the National Women’s Hall of Fame.

Life
----

Chicago's birth name was Judith Sylvia Cohen. She was married to a man named Gerowitz. Several years after his death she changed her last name to Judy Chicago after her place of birth. In 1985 Chicago married Donald Woodman.
Bert Jansch in 2007
**Herbert "Bert" Jansch** (3 November 1943—5 October 2011) was a Scottish singer-songwriter regarded as one of Britain's great folk guitarists. He was born in Glasgow, but his parents were German. After his father left the family they moved to Edinburgh. Jansch made his own guitar by the age of 12. After leaving school he began playing guitar, mainly blues, at various music clubs in Scotland and England.

His first album, *Bert Jansch*, was made in 1965 and quickly became successful. The song "Needle of Death" about drug addiction, created a lot of interest as this was a subject that was not talked about very much at that time. His second album, *It Don't Bother Me*, featured his friend John Renbourn, another great guitar player. The two players became very popular as a duo, and made the very successful album, *Jack Orion*, in 1966. This album had some traditional folk songs, including a version of "Blackwaterside", played in a jazz style. The rock band Led Zepplin later recorded his arrangement of the song.

Jansch and Renbourn made another duo recording in 1966 called *Bert and John*. They started playing with other musicians they met in London, and finally formed a band, Pentangle, with bass player Danny Thompson, drummer Terry Cox, and vocalist Jacqui McShee. Pentangle was instantly successful. Jansch did not enjoy fame, and left the band in 1973. He continued to play and make albums.

Jansch often played on other people's recordings, including the Babyshambles album *Shotter's Nation* (2007). In 2010, despite being ill with lung cancer, he went on tour in the US with American musician, Neil Young. Jansch died of lung cancer in Hampstead, London.

Recordings
----------

Jansch has made many albums including:

* *Bert Jansch* (1965)
* *It Don't Bother Me* (1965)
* *Jack Orion* (1966) with John Renbourn
* *Bert and John* (1966) with John Renbourn
* *Nicola* (1967)
* *The Pentangle* (1968) with Pentangle
* *Sweet Child* (1968) with Pentangle
* *Birthday Blues* (1969)
* *Basket of Light* (1969) with Pentangle
* *Cruel Sister* (1970) with Pentangle
* *Reflection* (1971) with Pentangle
* *Rosemary Lane* (1971)
* *Solomon's Seal* (1972) with Pentangle
* *Moonshine* (1973)
* *LA Turnaround* (1974)
* *Santa Barbara Honeymoon* (1975)
* *A Rare Conundrum* (1977)
* *Avocet* (1979)
* *Thirteen Down* (1980)
* *Heartbreak* (1982)
* *From The Outside* (1985)
* *Leather Launderette* (1989)
* *Sketches* (1990)
* *The Ornament Tree* (1990)
* *Live At The 12 Bar* (1996)
* *When the Circus Comes to Town* (1995)
* *Toy Ballon* (1998)
* *Crimson Moon* (2000)
* *Downunder: Live In Australia* (2001)
* *Dazzling Stranger: The Bert Jansch Anthology* (2000)
* *Edge Of A Dream* (2002)
* *The Black Swan* (2006)

Other websites
--------------

* Official website
**Jecheon AIDS scandal** or **Jecheon AIDS crime** was a well-known sex crime that happened in Jecheon, South Korea. A male taxi driver was arrested by the police on 13 March 2009 for knowingly spreading HIV/AIDS to dozens of women in Jecheon between 2003 and 2009.

The offender was Mr. Jeon, a 27-year-old taxi driver who has HIV. He had sex with many women over five to six years, despite knowing his condition. The police said that his partners included drunken taxi passengers as well as bar girls he came to know while working as a driver. Many of the women were married women, housewives, or divorcees. Jeon rarely used condoms, according to local media.

Jeon said that he had had sex with ten women, but a survey estimated the number at between 70 and 400. His mobile phone, which had been confiscated by police, contained the phone numbers of about seventy women.

Other websites
--------------

* 2009 AIDS-infected taxi driver gets 18 months
* Arrested Taxi Driver Knowingly Spread AIDS in Korea Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine
* AIDS Fear Spreads in Jecheon County
* S. Korea's AIDS-infected taxi driver arrested[*permanent dead link*]
* AIDS flag as cabbie held as sex fiend
Sun letters (red) and moon letters (black) in Arabic
In Arabic and Maltese, consonants are divided into two groups: the **sun/solar letters** (Arabic: حروف شمسية **ḥurūf shamsiyyah**, Maltese: konsonanti xemxin) and **moon/lunar letters** (حروف قمرية **ḥurūf qamariyyah**, Maltese: konsonanti qamrin).

In those languages, all nouns start with the word "al" (الـ) in Arabic or "il" in Maltese. Both words mean "the." If a sun letter comes after the consonant, the "l" sound in "al" or "il" is dropped and is replaced by whatever sound the letter makes. However, if a moon letter comes after, the "l" sound in those words stays.

In Arabic, the word for "the sun" is *ash-shams* because the "sh" sound is a sun letter. Meanwhile, the word for "the moon" is *al-qamar* because the "q" sound is a moon letter.

Rule
----

Below is a chart of the sun and moon letters in Arabic.

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sun letters | ﺕ | ﺙ | ﺩ | ﺫ | ﺭ | ﺯ | ﺱ | ﺵ | ﺹ | ﺽ | ﻁ | ﻅ | ﻝ | ﻥ |
| t | th | d | dh | r | z | s | sh | ṣ | ḍ | ṭ | ẓ | l | n |
| Moon letters | ء | ﺏ | ﺝ | ﺡ | ﺥ | ﻉ | ﻍ | ﻑ | ﻕ | ﻙ | ﻡ | ه | ﻭ | ﻱ |
| ' | b | j | ḥ | kh | ʻ | gh | f | q | k | m | h | w | y |

Writing
-------

The ال *'al-'* is written down in Arabic regardless of how it is pronounced. In the case of sun letters, a mark called the *shaddah* (ـّـ) is written over the sun letter. For moon letters, a mark called the *sukun* (ـْـ)is written over the letter ل *lam* in the *al-.*

Examples| Sun letters | Moon letters |
| --- | --- |
| الشَّمْس | 'ash-shams' | 'the sun' | الْقَمَر | 'al-qamar' | 'the moon' |
| الثِّقَة | 'ath-thiqah' | 'the confidence' | الْمُرْجَان | 'al-murjān' | 'the coral' |

Maltese
-------

Below is a chart of the sun and moon letters in Maltese.

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sun letters | *ċ* | *d* | *n* | *r* | *s* | *t* | *x* | *ż* | *z* |
| Moon letters | *b* | *f* | *ġ* | *g* | *għ* | *h* | *ħ* | *j* | *k* | *l* | *m* | *p* | *q* | *v* | *w* |

If a word starts with any of the moon letters, the word il- stays the same. However, if it stats with a sun letter, the word il-changes to iċ-, id-, in-, ir-, is-, it-, ix-, iż-, iz-.

If a word begins with two consonants, it changes to "l-i-." For example, *skola* (school) becomes ***l-i**skola* (the school).
Albino African Penguin
An albino baby girl in an orphanage in Malawi.
**Albinism** is a condition some people, animals, and plants are born with. This condition is caused by a lack of pigment melanin (colour) in their hair, eyes, and skin. A person or animal with albinism is called an **albino.** Many albino people prefer to be called a "person with albinism". There are ten different types of albinism.

People with albinism can have white or light blonde hair. They can have very pale skin. Their eyes are blue, or rarely pink-ish. People with albinism can have problems such as bad vision, increased sweat and getting sunburnt easily. This is because people with albinism have less pigments in their eyes, skin and hair.

Albinism is rare in the United States. One out of every 20,000 people in the United States has albinism. There are about 15,945 people in the United States who have albinism.

Vision problems in albinism include nystagmus (irregular fast movements of the eyes), strabismus (where the eyes fail to balance) and refractory errors (like being *near-sighted* or *far-sighted*).

In most environments, Albino animals are more easily seen and so may be attacked by predators. They lack the camouflage that the non-albino members of their species have. Also, where colour is a factor in mate selection, they may be at a disadvantage there, too.

Genetics of albinism
--------------------

Albinism is a hereditary condition. It is usually inherited in a recessive pattern; it means, both parents have to give the albinism gene to a child to cause albinism. Parents pass on pairs of genes to their children. One of the pairs of genes is in charge of making melanin. If both of these genes are flawed, then little or no pigment is made. If only one gene is flawed then pigment can still be made.

Famous people with albinism
---------------------------

* Edgar Winter-musician
* Johnny Winter-musician
* Salif Keita-musician

Other websites
--------------


The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***albino***.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Albinism***.

* National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (U.S.-based)
* Albinism in Popular Culture Archived 2005-08-25 at the Wayback Machine
**Elsa Renee Flores** is an American biologist and chemist. She is a member of the editorial board of *Cancer Research,* a very prestigious research journal. She is the leader of the Cancer Molecular Pathobiology study section at the United State's National Institutes of Health. Before this, she served as the co-director of the Metastasis Research Center. She was also the director of the Genes and Development Ph.D. program at *The University of Texas* *MD Anderson Cancer Center.*

Early life
----------

Flores grew up in Corpus Christi, Texas. Her father studied biology and chemistry which sparked her love for science. However, when she had to make a decision for college, she was stuck between science and liberal arts. In the end, she enrolled at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and majored in chemical engineering. Later, she came back as a postdoctoral fellow. As a postdoc she worked in Tyler Jacks's lab. Flores was a graduate student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Career
------

Flores’ maternal grandmother and aunt were both diagnosed with cancer. Her family members' health inspired Flores to study cancer.

Flores was a member of the editorial board of *Cancer Research*.

Flores discovered many ways to tackle cancer that can be used as possible cancer treatments in the future. She studied causes of breast cancer with Helmut Zarbl. At the University of Wisconsin-Madison, she worked in *Paul Lambert's* Lab. She dissected the life cycle of the human papillomavirus- a major cause of cervical cancer.

Flores discovered cancerous tumors could regress with a protein called amylin. This discovery helped her continue her search for the cure for cancer.

Flores holds several patents for inventions to help fight cancer.

Other websites
--------------

* Elsa Flores Labs
* Google Scholar List of Publications
The **Nanjing Presidential Palace** is the palace in Nanjing, China, that was used by China's president when Nanjing was China's capital city in the 1920s and 1930s. Its Chinese name is the *Nánjīng Zǒngtǒngfǔ* (南京总统府). It is located at 292 Changjiang Road in Nanjing's Xuanwu District.

It includes an office block for the Kuomingtang. It was built in March 1853. On 1 January 1912, Sun Yat-sen became the Provisional President of the Republic of China here. After that, it became the official residence of the Jiangsu military governors. It became the office of the Kuomingtang in 1927. After the occupation of Nanjing by Japanese troops in December 1937, the offices of the Kuomingtang served as the headquarters of the Japanese troops. On 23 April 1949, the People's Liberation Army reached Nanjing. They occupied the Presidential Palace on the next day.

The presidential palace includes the West and East Gardens, two classic Chinese gardens. There are many trees and flowers among the pavilions, bamboo, and two lakes.

Nanjing Presidential Palace is near Dahanggong Station (Line 2) and Zhujiang Road Station (Line 1) on the Nanjing Subway.

Sources
-------

* Official webpage, Nanjing Presidential Palace, 2018 (in Chinese)
The **Hawaiian language** (Hawaiian: *ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi*) is the language of native Hawaiians. *Aloha* and *mahalo* are probably its most recognized words. The word *lanai* is also used in English. (That is different from *Lanaʻi*, the name of one of Hawaiʻi's islands.)

Related languages
-----------------

There are related languages in the Marquesas, Raratonga, Samoa, some islands of what is now Fiji and New Zealand. Their languages have changed a lot over the last two thousand years or so. However, native speakers of all these languages can still understand each other.

Letters
-------

The language has only 12 letters (A, E, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, U, W). There are 13 if you count the ʻokina. The ʻokina is a real letter and came from some "K" sounds in old Polynesian languages. The ʻokina is pronounced as a glottal stop, like the break in the middle of the word "Uh-oh". The ʻokina is written as a backward apostrophe (small numeral 6 above and before a vowel).

Dialects
--------

The Niʻihau dialect still uses some T, S, R and "hints" of B sounds. People who live on that island are the only people who still speak Hawaiian only and their dialect is the truest to its roots.

Syllables
---------

Every Hawaiian syllable ends with a vowel. There are some who think that makes the language sound "musical". Some think that final vowels helped the speakers remember chanted traditional stories and genealogies. Most linguists, however, think it is because of internal phonological processes.

There are two forms of each of the five vowels. One is regular, where the vowel is pronounced as a Spaniard would say it. The other is extended, in written form, where a horizontal bar called a kahako is over the vowel. The meanings (and pronunciations) of words spelled the same but with or without the appropriate kahakos or ʻokinas can be very different, sometimes even embarrassing.

Learning
--------

One might think that learning the language would be relatively easy, but that only applies to na keiki (children) who have never learned the 26 letters that English speakers use. There is a children's rhyme that goes on for a couple of minutes (and written, probably a couple dozen lines) that consists of nothing but both versions of the letters a, i and the ʻokina. It talks of him (ia) eating (ai) his (iaia) fish (iʻa). 

When the missionaries made a written form of Hawaiian Language, they did not write the kahakos or ʻokinas; leaving it to the context to make the meanings evident. 

Since the intent was to translate the Bible ("Paipala"), natives forgave some of the confusion created. They still learned how unintended "double entendres" could be funny in written form. When Hawaiian language newspapers started, native-speaking writers and editors were careful to avoid these (the type that was available to "set" did not include such "specialty" characters).
Centrum and Castle from air

**Náchod** is a town with about 20 thousand people. It is in the northeastern part of the Hradec Králové Region in Czech Republic. It is situated on the river Metuje. The whole region is full of natural beauty, historical monuments and cultural places.

History
-------

Náchod was founded in the middle of 13th century by a knight Hron. He built a castle there because it was a good strategic place because of local trade road to Poland. The first written note goes back to 1254.

The most famous sight in Náchod is its castle. It was built in the 13th century and during centuries was rebuilt several times in final Renaissance style. Around the castle are the Piccolomini garden, the English park and bears called Ludvík and Dáša who live in a castle's moat. The castle has been an important cultural centre since the end of the 18th century. 

Náchod is the birthplace of many well-known people. There were born for example an architect Jan Letzel, an actress Libuše Skořepová called Luba Skořepová, a writer, translator and publisher Josef Škvorecký, a writer Václav Erben who become famous for his detective stories with captain Exner, a diver Martin Štěpánek and a moderator Richard Samko.

Sights
------

In addition to the castle, there are other interesting places to visit.

* a square with St. Laurence's church and hotel and theatre Beránek
* the old city hall
* the new city hall
* the city museum

About 4 kilometres away is the stronghold Dobrošov which was one of the most important defences of Czechoslovakian fortification.

Industry
--------

In past, there was a lot of cotton industry. Nowadays there are only a few factories - the rubber factory Rubena and factories producing electric motors Ametek and Atas.

Náchod town has a brewery which makes Primátor brand. The brewery was built in 1872. It got several prizes in last 10 years. However, the brewery was sold on 23 February 2009.
A cloth of woven carbon filaments
**Carbon fiber** (British English: **carbon fibre**) is a type of fiber that is made of carbon atoms. It is also sometimes called **graphite fiber**. It has the highest compressive strength of all the reinforcing materials (composites), and it has a high strength to weight ratio and low coefficient of thermal expansion. The density of carbon fiber is also much lower than the density of steel. Carbon fiber is in the form of several thousand long, thin strands of material that is composed of mostly carbon atoms.

Applications
------------

Tail of an RC helicopter, made of Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly carbon fiber reinforced polymers. Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) is used structurally in high-temperature applications. The fiber is also used to filter high-temperature gases.

Molding a thin layer of carbon fibers significantly improves fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites. This works because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat.

The increasing use of carbon fiber composites is displacing aluminum from aerospace applications in favor of other metals.

Related pages
-------------

* Carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Other websites
--------------

* The Chemistry of Carbon Fiber
* Making Carbon Fiber
* Bacon's breakthrough Archived 2008-01-26 at the Wayback Machine at ACS.org
* Carbon Fiber at pslc.ws
With a higher concentration, molecules will hit each other more easily and so the speed of the reaction will be bigger
**Chemical kinetics**, also called **reaction kinetics**, is the branch of physical chemistry connected with study of how fast chemical reactions go. This includes studying how different conditions such as temperature, pressure or solvent used, affect the speed of a reaction. Chemical kinetics can also be used to find out about reaction mechanisms and transition states.

The basic idea of chemical kinetics is called collision theory. This states that for a reaction to happen, the molecules must hit each other. Ways of increasing the speed of the reaction must therefore increase the number of hits. This can be done in many ways.

With experiments it is possible to calculate reaction rates from which you can get rate laws and rate constants. A rate law is a mathematical expression with which you can calculate the speed of a reaction given the concentration of the reagents.

Order of a reaction
-------------------

the equilibrium is dynamic in nature

There are many types of rate laws, but the most common are:

* zero-order reaction: the speed does not depend on the concentration
* first-order reaction: the speed depends on the concentration of only one reactant
* second-order reaction: the speed depends on the concentration of two reactants, or on the concentration of one reactant squared.

From this data, it is possible to think about the mechanism of the reaction. If it is second-order, for example, then it is likely that both molecules in the reaction are coming together during the rate-determining step. This is the most difficult step in the mechanism to go through, because it has the highest activation energy.

| * v
* t
* e
Basic reaction mechanisms |
| --- |
| Nucleophilic substitution | Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN1) · Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) · Nucleophilic aromatic substitution (SNAr) · Nucleophilic internal substitution (SNi) |
| Elimination reaction | Unimolecular elimination (E1) · E1cB elimination reaction · Bimolecular elimination (E2) |
| Addition reactions | Electrophilic addition · Nucleophilic addition · Free radical addition · Cycloaddition |
| Related topics | Elementary reaction · Molecularity · Stereochemistry · Catalysis · Collision theory · Solvent effects · Arrow pushing |
| Chemical kinetics | Rate equation · Rate-determining step |
**Flossie Donnelly** (born 2007) is an Irish person who studies about the sea environment. She is a school student. She was the first person to bring seabin machines to Ireland. She was making money for two of the machines. Those machines remove plastics from the waters. She appears on the RTE News to show her works.
Donnelly regularly works for climates either outside her school or at the parliament. She makes cleanups near the sea in Dún Laoghaire and Sandycove. It was along the local South Dublin near the seas. She started an environmental group called "Flossie & the Beach Cleaners". It collects money for environmental works. It was when she was eleven years old. With that, she told people about plastic pollution and its results in the sea life. She collected €4,000 for two seabin machines into Ireland. The machines can remove up to 83,000 plastic bags or 20,000 plastic bottles from the sea in one year. On World Oceans Day 2018, she led Ireland's only March for the Ocean event in Dún Laoghaire. She spoke at a TEDx Dún Laoghaire event in October 2018. In October 2019, RTÉjr said that they would follow Donnelly's works to the Citarum River in Indonesia. It is one of the world's dirtiest 'plastic' rivers. She was related to a true story recorded movie named *My Story: The Beach Cleaner.* This was one of her many works for people. She did it with school children in Ireland. It was on the works to stop plastic pollution.
This is a list of the rulers of China from 221 BC to AD 1911. These rulers named themselves 皇帝 (Mandarin: *huangdi*); in English they are called emperors.

All of them were men but Wu Zetian.

This list is not complete. You can help by adding to it.

Rulers of the Qin Dynasty (211–206 BC)
--------------------------------------

**Rulers of the Qin Dynasty:**
Qin Shihuang | Qin Er Shi | Ziying

Rulers of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
--------------------------------------

**Rulers of the Yuan Dynasty:**
Kublai Khan | Temür Khan | Külüg Khan | Buyantu Khan | Gegeen Khan | Yesün Temür | Borjigin Ragibagh | Jayaatu Khan | Khutughtu Khan | Borjigin Rinchinbal | Toghon Temür

Rulers of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
--------------------------------------

**Rulers of the Ming Dynasty:**
Hongwu Emperor | Jianwen Emperor | Yongle Emperor | Hongxi Emperor | Xuande Emperor | Qianlong Emperor | Zhengtong Emperor | Jingtai Emperor | Chenghua Emperor | Hongzhi Emperor | Zhengde Emperor | Jiajing Emperor | Longqing Emperor | Wanli Emperor | Taichang Emperor | Tianqi Emperor | Chongzhen Emperor

Rulers of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)
--------------------------------------

**Rulers of the Qing Dynasty:**
Taizu Emperor | Huang Taiji | Shunzhi Emperor | Kangxi Emperor | Yongzheng Emperor | Qianlong Emperor | Jiaqing Emperor | Daoguang Emperor | Xianfeng Emperor | Tongzhi Emperor | Guangxu Emperor | Xuantong Emperor
**Aquarium fish** are fish used in aquariums. They can be freshwater or saltwater. Some fish, such as the betta, can be aggressive.

List of aquarium fish
---------------------

### Freshwater

#### Goldfish

The goldfish (*Carassius auratus*) is a freshwater ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae of the order Cypriniformes. It is a great fish for aquariums, and is one of the most popular aquarium fish. They have become an invasive pest in parts of North America. The average lifetime of a goldfish is ten to fifteen years.

#### Pike topminnow

The pike topminnow (*Belonesox belizanus*) is sometimes found in the aquarium trade, but it isn't an easy aquarium resident.

#### Green swordtail

The green swordtail (*Xiphophorus* *helleri*) is a freshwater aquarium fish in the family Poeciliidae of the order Cyprinodontiformes. Green swordtails are very popular in aquariums.

#### Pygmy sunfish

*Elassoma*, the pygmy sunfishes, are popular as aquarium fish because of the males' iridescent colors and fascinating breeding behaviors.
**Matthew Boulton** FRS (3 September 1728 – 17 August 1809) was an English manufacturer and the business partner of Scottish engineer James Watt.

In the last quarter of the 18th century, the partnership installed hundreds of Boulton & Watt steam engines. A great advance on the state of the art, they made possible the mechanisation of factories and mills. Boulton applied modern techniques to the minting of coins, striking millions of pieces for Britain and other countries, and supplying the Royal Mint with up-to-date equipment.

Born in Birmingham in 1728, Boulton was the son of a Birmingham manufacturer of small metal products who died when Boulton was 31. By then Boulton had managed the business for several years, and he expanded it considerably at the Soho Manufactory, built by him near Birmingham.

When Watt's business partner, John Roebuck was unable to pay a debt to Boulton, he accepted Roebuck's share of Watt's patent as settlement. He then successfully lobbied Parliament to extend Watt's patent for an additional 17 years. This enabled the firm to market Watt's steam engine. The firm installed hundreds of Boulton & Watt steam engines in Britain and abroad, initially in mines and then in factories.

Boulton was a key member of the Lunar Society, a group of Midlands men in the arts, sciences, and theology. Members included Watt, Erasmus Darwin, Josiah Wedgwood and Joseph Priestley. The Society met each month near the full moon. Members of the Society developed concepts and techniques in science, agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transport that laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution.

Boulton founded the Soho Mint, which he adapted to steam power. He sought to improve the poor state of Britain's coinage. After several years of effort obtained a contract in 1797 to produce the first British copper coinage in a quarter century. His "cartwheel" pieces were well-designed and difficult to counterfeit, and included the first striking of the large copper penny, which continued to be coined until decimalisation in 1971. He retired in 1800, though continuing to run his mint, and died in 1809. His image appears alongside James Watt on the Bank of England's new Series F £50 note.
**Glasgow Prestwick Airport** (IATA: **PIK**, ICAO: **EGPK**) is the second airport serving Glasgow. It also serves the Greater Glasgow area. It is 1 NM (1.9 km; 1.2 mi) northeast of the town of Prestwick in South Ayrshire. It is 32 miles from the city centre of Glasgow.

Prestwick is Scotland's largest airport by size. However, Edinburgh Airport, Glasgow International and Aberdeen Airport all handle more passengers. The year with the most passengers passing through Prestwick was 2007. Since 2007, a lot less passengers pass through Prestwick. 1.3 million passengers passed through the airport in 2011. This was 22% reduction from 2010.

Douglas Fowler McIntyre and the Duke of Hamilton owned the airport at first. These people were the first to fly a plane to the top of Mount Everest in 1933. During and after World War II it was a Royal Air Force base. In 1952 it was made a United States Air Force base.

The airport was made bigger in the early 1960s: the runway was made longer and a new terminal building was made. The new, bigger airport opened in 1964. Today, Glasgow Prestwick is mostly used by Ryanair.

On 8 March 2012, Infratil, the company which owns Prestwick, said that they had placed the airport up for sale. The Chief Executive Marco Bogoievski said that he does not regret selling the airport.

The Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm uses part of the airport. It has 3 Sea King helicopters there for search and rescue. They cover Ben Nevis, the Lakes, Northern Ireland and 200 NM (370 km; 230 mi) past the Irish coast. This force is often called 'HMS Gannet'. 15 officers, 11 ratings, 28 civil servants and 50 civilian staff work at the base.
**Newcomb's paradox** is a thought experiment in philosophy, specifically decision theory. The paradox goes as follows:

> Imagine a super-intelligent entity known as Omega, and suppose you are confident in its ability to predict your choices. (Maybe Omega is an alien from a planet that's much more technologically advanced than ours.) You know that Omega has often correctly predicted your choices in the past (and has never made an incorrect prediction about your choices), and you also know that Omega has correctly predicted the choices of other people, many of whom are similar to you, in the particular situation about to be described.
> 
> 

> There are two boxes: A and B. Box A is see-through and contains $1,000. Box B is opaque, and contains either $0 or $1,000,000. You may take both boxes, or only take box B.
> 
> 

> Omega decides how much money to put into box B. If Omega believes that you will take both boxes, then it will put $0 in box B. If Omega believes that you will only take box B, then it will put $1,000,000 in box B.
> 
> 

> Omega makes its prediction, puts the money in box B ($0 or $1,000,000), presents the boxes to you, and flies away. Omega does not tell you its prediction, and you do not see how much money Omega put in box B.
> 
> 

> What do you do?
> 
>

Argument for only choosing box B
--------------------------------

If Omega is always right, then Omega would only put $1,000,000 in box B when you choose to take only box B. Since $1,000,000 is more preferable than $1,000, only choosing box B makes the most sense and since Omega is always right, then you should choose box B.

Argument for choosing both boxes
--------------------------------

Since Omega has already left, the amount of money in box B won't change based on the decision you make. Regardless of what's in box B, you can always get another $1,000 by walking away by both boxes.
Close-up of traditional fountain pen with an iridium tip
Various contemporary and vintage fountain pens (left to right) Pilot Justus 95, Pelikan Souverän M1000, Montblanc Meisterstück 149, Pilot Heritage 912, Parker Duofold Centennial, Sheaffer Snorkel Admiral, Lamy Dialog 3, Welty, Parker Sonnet, Conway Stewart 55, Waterman Thorobred, Mabie Todd Swan 3220
Lever filler pen made of celluloid by Mabie Todd & Co. New York (1927). Notice the lever
A **fountain pen** is a pen which has a nib and a reservoir of ink. 

The pen draws ink from the reservoir through a feed to the nib.The ink travels by a combination of gravity and capillary action. The nib is the part of the pen that writes on the paper. Different shapes and styles of nibs can change the amount of ink distributed and the thickness of your writing line. Most fountain pens have replaceable nibs. They can come in many different materials and styles and are ranked from extra-fine to extra broad. 

Filling the reservoir with ink may be done manually, by a Pasteur pipette (eyedropper) or syringe. However, usually it is done by an internal filling mechanism which creates suction. A piston mechanism or a vacuum transfers ink directly through the nib into the reservoir. Some pens have removable reservoirs in the form of pre-filled ink cartridges.

Nibs
----

According to Mathur "the modern fountain pen nib may be traced back to the original gold nib which had a tiny fragment of ruby attached to form the wear-point". Nibs tipped with platinum group alloys such as iridium have been used since the 1830s. Today, the main part of the nib are usually made of stainless steel and/or gold The most popular gold content is 14 carat (58⅓%) and 18 carat (75%). The idea is that the nib should be flexible yet firm, and the tip extremely hard-wearing.

Ink reservoir
-------------

Until the early 20th century, the ink in a fountain pen was kept directly in the barrel. The slim barrels were made of hard rubber, which came in two colours, black and red. Ink was put in these barrels with an eye-dropper. To do this, the user had to take off the nib section, put the ink in and replace the nib section. This operation required a quiet secluded place, which some people might not have.

In 1907, Walter A. Sheaffer patented the lever filler. This used a hinged lever set into the pen barrel which pressed down onto a bar which in turn compressed a rubber sac inside, creating a vacuum which pulled ink into the pen. This could be done without removing the nib section.

Introduced in 1912, this innovation was rapidly imitated by the other major pen makers. Parker introduced the button filler, which had a button hidden beneath a blind cap on the end of the barrel. When pressed, it acted on a pressure bar inside to depress the ink sac. Many other firms used a lever set flat along the barrel, which, when pulled, squeezed the rubber sac. It was the rubber sac which made all the difference between the founain pens of the 19th century and those of the 20th century. Other firms used a screw mechanism at the top end of the pen to squeeze the rubber sac.