recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Ayers Rock, also known as Uluru
**Azaria Chamberlain** (11 June 1980 – disappeared on 17 August 1980) was an Australian baby who was born in Mount Isa, Queensland, and went missing in 1980 near Ayers Rock, Northern Territory, Australia. The family were camping in a tent at the base of the rock. Her mother, Lindy Chamberlain, said that she had been taken by a dingo and killed. Police said that Lindy Chamberlain had murdered the baby and had lied about the dingo. After a long trial which was reported around the world, Chamberlain was convicted of murder and sent to jail. Chamberlain kept arguing that she was innocent. On August 24, 1980 Wally Goodwin found Azaria's bloodstained jumpsuit, booties, nappy and singlet near the base of the Rock near a dingo's den, the case was reopened since the 1980s.

After a long legal battle which involved three inquests, three appeals and a royal commission, she was released. In 2012, a fourth inquest found that Azaria had been taken by a dingo, and the death certificate has now been changed to show this. The inquest noted that there had been other dingo attacks in the region.

Lindy Chamberlain was released from jail on February 7 1986, but not cleared until September 15 1988, at which time Lindy and Michael (her husband) were declared innocent of all charges. She and Michael were divorced on June 27 1991. She met Rick Creighton on a speaking tour of the United States in February 1992 and married him on December 20 1992.

Azaria in popular culture
-------------------------

The disappearance of Azaria became one of the most argued about events in Australia. Many people thought that a dingo would be unable to kill a baby. This meant that the mother must have lied. People in Australia say "a dingo stole my baby" as a joke, when they think someone is lying. After a dingo killed a nine-year-old boy on Fraser Island in 2001, people have had to rethink their beliefs about dingos.

Author John Bryson wrote a book about the case, called *Evil Angels.* This was later made into a movie called *Evil Angels* and starred Meryl Streep and Sam Neill. The movie was released in other countries as *A Cry in the Dark.*

In 2005, a woman called Erin Horsburgh said that she was really Azaria Chamberlain and wanted police to do a DNA test to check. But police said that the woman was lying and they did not need to check. This created interest in the media, but there was no truth to the story.
The **electric eel**, *Electrophorus electricus*, is a species of fish. It can weigh up to six pounds. It can give electric shocks of up to six hundred fifty watts of electricity. The animal uses these shocks both for hunting and to defend itself. It lives in the stagnant muddy river bottoms of the Orinoco and the Amazon, and uses low-voltage electric fields to find its prey.

The electric eel is an apex predator in the parts of South America where it lives. This means it usually has no enemies except other animals of its own species. It can kill animals larger than itself. Its electric organs evolved from muscles, and make up four fifths of its body.

Despite its name, the electric eel is not an eel. It is a knifefish. It is an obligatory air breather (must breath air). This makes sense, because the muddy water is very low in oxygen, and it needs oxygen to power its electric organs.

Because they can shock, very few of these fish are kept as pets. But if the eel repeatedly shocks, its electric organs become completely discharged. Then a person can touch it without being shocked.

Other species
-------------

* *Electrophorus varii* (Amazon conger)
* *Electrophorus voltai* (voltage conger)

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Electric eels at Wikimedia Commons
The **Defense Intelligence Headquarters** (情報本部, Jōhōhonbu) is a military intelligence and signal intelligence agency of the Japanese government, under the jurisdiction of the Japanese Ministry of Defense. It is currently one of the biggest Japanese intelligence agencies.

The DIH is under the jurisdiction of the Joint Staff and is controlled by the Defense Intelligence Committee, which is made up of the Chiefs of Staff of the JGSDF, JMSDF and JASDF along with the Chief of Staff, Joint Staff, State Minister of Defense and the Minister of Defense.

Command
-------

Command of the DIH was given directly to the Japanese Minister of Defense in March 2006. The deputy officer is usually a civilian officially appointed by the MOD.Four Defense Intelligence Officers (DIOs) are also appointed with three being colonels from the JGSDF or the JASDF with one a civilian official.

SIGINT
------

The SIGINT facilities managed by the Chobetsu (Chosa Besshitsu) or the Annex Chamber, Second Section, Second Investigation Division in English, from 1958 to 1997 is managed by the DIH. Command of the SIGINT division is usually filled by a senior officer from the NPA.

Role
----

The main role of the DIH is to collect information and analyse for planning defense and operation policy. The agency collect information from open sources, signals and image intelligence as well as from other Japanese government ministries, Japanese embassies and other affiliated ministries and organizations. In addition, they also gather intelligence through surveillance activities.

Seal
----

The seal of the DIH consist of the following symbols:

* Pheasant – Quality of intelligence gathering at high speed
* Red oval shapes around Earth – Positions of spy satellites
* Lightning – Radio waves
* Star – Section and Stations of the DIH
*Conus textile*
***Conus*** is a large genus of small to large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs, with the common names of *cone snails*, *cone shells* or *cones*.

Shaped, as the name suggests, like a cone, many species have colorful patterning on the shell surface. *Conus* snails are mostly tropical in distribution. Geologically speaking, the genus is known from the Eocene to the present.

All *Conus* snails are venomous. They hunt and eat marine worms or molluscs. The larger ones prey on small bottom-dwelling fish. Cone snails use a hypodermic-like modified radula tooth and a venom gland to attack and paralyze their prey before eating it. The tooth is sometimes likened to a dart or a harpoon. It is barbed and can be extended some distance out from the mouth of the snail, at the end of the proboscis. They can "sting" humans, and should be handled with great care or preferably not at all.

Cone snail venoms are mainly peptides. The venoms contain many different toxins that vary in their effects; some are extremely toxic. The sting of small cones is no worse than a bee sting, but the sting of some larger species can be serious, occasionally even fatal to humans. Cone snail venom may be a source of new, medically important substances.

Some Cone snails are no longer living, like Conus adversarius. 

Shells of cone snails
Global map of the flux of heat, in mW/m2, from Earth's interior to the surface. The largest values of heat flux coincide with mid-ocean ridges, and the smallest values of heat flux occur in stable continental interiors.
**Earth's internal heat budget** is about heat that comes from the Earth itself, not heat from the Sun. 

The flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface is estimated at 47±2 terawatts (TW). It comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts. There is the *radiogenic heat* produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust. Secondly, there is the *primordial heat* left over from the formation of Earth.

As many people know, the deeper down you go, the hotter the Earth gets. Mine shafts are a good example of this.

Radiogenic heat
---------------

The evolution of Earth's radiogenic heat flow over time
This is still being produced. but its amount reduces very slowly as time passes. Remember, these radioactive elements are produced in supernovae, and are quite different from the Sun, which is mostly hydrogen. The planets are completely different from the Sun, historically and in their make-up.

Primordial heat
---------------

Primordial heat is the heat lost by the Earth as it continues to cool from its original formation, in contrast to its still actively-produced radiogenic heat. 

The Earth core's heat flow—heat leaving the core and flowing into the overlying mantle is thought to be due to primordial heat. It is estimated as 5–15 TW.
For the military strategy, see Defence in depth.
A graphical representation of the onion model of Defense in Depth, a concept in Information Security.
**Defense in Depth** (also known as **layered security** and **layered defense**) is an information assurance (IA) concept. It uses multiple layers of security controls (defenses) placed throughout an information technology (IT) system. The multiple layers are not of the same security tool. It uses several different kinds of security with each protecting against a different security attack.

Background
----------

Defense in depth is originally a military strategy. It seeks to delay rather than prevent the advance of an attacker by yielding space to buy time. The National Security Agency (NSA) changed the concept to be a comprehensive approach to information and electronic security.

The placement of protection mechanisms, procedures and policies is intended to increase the dependability of an IT system. Multiple layers of defense can prevent espionage. They also prevent direct attacks against critical systems. In terms of computer network defense, defense in depth measures should not only prevent security breaches but also buy an organization time to detect and respond to an attack.

Onion model
-----------

Defense in depth has long been explained by using the onion as an example of the various layers of security. The outer layer contains the firewall. Middle layers contain various controls. The data is in the center protected by the other defenses.

A newer concept is the kill chain. Borrowed from the military it is a method of detecting and breaking an opponent's kill chain. Lockheed Martin adapted this concept to information security, using it as a method for modeling intrusions on a computer network.

Related pages
-------------

Using more than one of the following layers constitutes defense in depth.

* Antivirus software
* Authentication and password security
* Biometrics
* Encryption
* Firewall (networking)
* Hashing passwords
* Intrusion detection systems (IDS)
* Logging and auditing
* Multi-factor authentication
* Vulnerability scanners
* Physical security (e.g. deadbolt locks)
* Internet Security Awareness Training
* Virtual private network (VPN)
* Sandboxing
* Intrusion Protection System (IPS)

Other websites
--------------

* Defense in Depth has Always Been a Valid Concept
Joseph Stalin and Maxim Gorky in conversation (1931).

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Conversation***.

A **conversation** is two or more people talking about something. It is spontaneous, usually unplanned, though the people may have interests in common. 

Conversations are one of the basic types of human communication. They can be about any subject, and do not necessarily have any fixed purpose. They allow people with different views of a topic to learn from each other. A conversation may be contrasted with formal presentations. A talk or speech, for example is an oral presentation by one person directed at a group. It is basically a one-way communication.

Conversations do not have to happen in person, they can happen over the telephone or on the Internet.

Banter
------

Banter is short witty sentences that bounce back and forth between individuals. Often banter uses clever put-downs and witty insults. It can contain misunderstandings (often intentional), zippy wisecracks, zingers, flirtation, and puns. The idea is each line of banter should "top" the one before it. It is a verbal war of wit without any physical contact.

Related pages
-------------

* Conversation analysis
* Consensus
* Intensity of preference

Other websites
--------------

* Advice Archived 2009-09-08 at the Wayback Machine on initiating conversations and links to conversational organizations Archived 2009-10-10 at the Wayback Machine
* Article on developing basic communication skills Archived 2008-06-09 at the Wayback Machine
* Conversation Cafè, devoted to creating a "culture of conversation."
* Empathic listening skills
* Lifehack howto on Small Talk Archived 2010-01-05 at the Wayback Machine
* "The art of conversation", *Economist*, 19th December 2006
The **Divide and Conquer algorithm** (also called the **Divide and Conquer method**) is a basis for many popular sorting algorithms. An algorithm is simply a series of steps to solve a problem. The general idea of divide and conquer is to take a problem and break it apart into smaller problems that are easier to solve. 

This idea can be seen in many popular algorithms. A helpful way to think of this idea, would be when a person looks through a dictionary. For example, if they are looking for the word "Dog", and land on a page with the word "Firetruck", the person knows that all the pages to the right of firetruck will not contain dog. They know this because D comes before F in the alphabet. This logic allows a person to spend less time searching, because every time they arrive on a page with the wrong letter, they know that they can eliminate the pages to their right or their left. This is an example of diving a problem up into smaller pieces. If one were to apply this concept in programming, one might start with an ordered list. If they wanted to search through that list, they would start near the center of that list. Simple logic would determine if the desired element is to the right or the left of the middle element, or in some cases it may even be the middle element. From there, each time this algorithm searches, it decreases the size of the list by half. This makes searching through the list extremely efficient.
**Ermengarde-Blanche of Anjou** (c. 1018–1076), was a French noblewoman who was first Countess of Chateau-Landon and secondly Duchess of Burgundy. She is also called *Hermangarde* in some sources. Ermengarde-Blanch was the heiress of the countship of Anjou and is an ancestress of the House of Plantagenet.

Life
----

Ermengarde-Blanche was the daughter of Count Fulk III of Anjou and Hildegarde. She was involved in two marriage alliances that greatly benefited her father and brother as counts of Anjou. She was first contracted to marry Geoffrey II, Count of Gâtinais, called *Ferréol*, who was also lord of Château-Landon. It was important marriage to return Château-Landon to the counts of Anjou. It took between twelve and eighteen months to arrange the marriage. Meanwhile Fulk paid a great deal of attention to Château-Landon. He and his wife, Hildegarde, founded the abbey of Le Ronceray. Originally a church dedicated to St. Mary, Hildegard was very active in its rebuilding into an abbey. They gave the abbey many gifts including the forest of Lattay. They gave more gifts to this abbey than any other church or religious house. Her two sons of this marriage, Geoffrey III and Fulk both became counts of Anjou after her brother Geoffrey II Martel. Among her descendants are the Plantagenet (or Angevin) kings of England.

After her husband Geoffrey died Ermengarde-Blanche married Robert I Capet, Duke of Burgundy. Robert was the son of King Robert II of France. Because both Ermengarde and her second husband Robert Capet were both descendants of Ingelger, they were related by blood. This was found in charts prepared at the monastery of Saint-Aubin at Angers between 1048 and 1052. The ancestral charts show how closely the Angevin and Capet families were related. The charts were probably created over concerns of who Ermengarde and Robert's daughter Hildegarde could or could not marry. Ermengarde-Blanche died at Fleury-sur-Ouche on 18 March 1076. Robert died three days later at the same place on 21 March 1076.

Family
------

Together she and Geoffrey II had the following children: 

* Hildegarde de Château-Landon, she married c.1060 Joscelin I, Lord of Courtenay.
* Geoffrey III of Anjou.
* Fulk IV, Count of Anjou

She married secondly Robert I, Duke of Burgundy. Together they had a daughter:

* Hildegarde (c. 1056–1104), who married Duke William VIII of Aquitaine
The **Elizabeth Cross** is an award within the British honours system that is issued to the next of kin of a service man or woman who died due to enemy action or terrorism since 1949. The award comes with a memorial scroll that contains the dead persons name, when they died and has the Queen's signature on it. It is the most recent medal, honour or award to bear the name of a reigning monarch of the United Kingdom since the George Cross. It is not an award for valour or bravery. It is in the shape of a cross with four equal sides that contains flowers at the end of each arm that represents the four countries within the union of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The medal also contains a laurel wreath behind the cross and bears the dead person's name on the back. The medal comes with a miniature (small version) medal for day wear. The medal can only be worn by the next of kin and for anyone else to wear it (even if related to the person who died) is a criminal offence.

Related pages
-------------

* Victoria Cross
* George Cross
* George Medal

Other websites
--------------

* Link to image of award Archived 2012-10-18 at the Wayback Machine
* Link to image of memorial scroll Archived 2012-10-18 at the Wayback Machine
* Link to image of award and miniature Archived 2012-10-18 at the Wayback Machine
Coordinates: 37°16′N 24°33′E﻿ / ﻿37.26°N 24.55°E﻿ / 37.26; 24.55

Ermoupolis
**Ermoupolis** is a Greek town. It is on the island Syros and it is the capital of Cyclades islands. Ermoupolis has 13.496 people. Ermoupolis has many beautiful old buildings which note the wealth, which there was in the past. Several buildings have a big architectural value, such as ermoupolis' town hall and Apollon theater. Around Ermoupolis there are many places where Catholic people live. The existence of Catholic people has dates back in the Franks and Venetian rule in Middle Ages.

History
-------

Ermoupolis was founded in the first decades of 19th century and it was developed quickly. Ermoupolis was built next to the Catholic old town Ano Syros. Soon, it became the biggest port of Greece and an important commercial center. The development of the city stopped when Piraeus port developed.

Interesting destinations
------------------------

Ermoupolis has many interesting places, which the visitors can see. Near Ermoupolis there are many beautiful villages and beaches. Near Syros are the islands, Mykonos and Tinos which they are very touristic. 

| * v
* t
* e
Capitals of Greek prefectures |
| --- |
| Athens | Thessaloniki | Patras | Heraclion | Larissa | Volos | Ioannina | Chalkida | Livadeia | Lamia | Messolonghi | Amfissa | Kalamata | Tripoli | Nauplion | Sparta | Pyrgos | Corinth | Karpenisi | Karditsa | Trikala | Arta | Igoumenitsa | Preveza | Chania | Agios Nikolaos | Rethymno | Kozani | Grevena | Kastoria | Florina | Edessa | Veroia | Katerini | Polygyros | Kilkis | Serres | Drama | Kavala | Alexandroupoli | Xanthi | Komotini | Leukada | Corfu | Argostoli | Zakynthos | Rhodes | Chios | Mytilene | Samos | Ermoupolis  |  |
**Elizabeth Blackwell** (3 February 1821 – 31 May 1910) was a British physician. She was the first female doctor in the United States and Europe.

She was born in Bristol, England, on 3 February 1821. When she was young, her family moved to America. At first, she was a teacher. She became a doctor in 1849. She founded her own hospital in New York. In 1874 she started a medical school for women in London with Sophie Jex-Blake and promoted women's rights.

She never married and opposed slavery.

In 2013 the University of Bristol launched the Elizabeth Blackwell Institute for Health Research.

Elizabeth Blackwell lost sight in one eye in 1851.
Blackwell wrote many books including Medicine as a Profession for Women and Address on the Medical Education for women.

Other websites
--------------

* An online history at the National Institutes of Health, including copies of historical documents
* An online biography Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine of Elizabeth Blackwell, with links to more articles on Blackwell and others in her famous family, plus links to many resources on the Internet
* Biography from the National Institutes of Health
Vergeer at the 2010 US Open
**Esther Mary Vergeer** (born 18 July 1981, Woerden) is a Dutch wheelchair tennis player. Vergeer has not lost a match in singles since February 2003. She has won 39 Grand Slam titles, five Paralympic Gold Medals and 21 Masters titles. Vergeer has been the world number one since 1999. Vergeer is also a former wheelchair basketball player. She was part of the team which won the European Championships in 1997.

Early life
----------

In March 1988 after a swimming lesson Vergeer became dizzy and passed out. Vergeer was just six years old at the time. Doctors found out that Vergeer was bleeding in her head. The bleeding had caused Vergeer to pass out. Vergeer had the blood removed. Six weeks later she went home. Yet the next year in June Vergeer had more headaches. She also had pressure behind the eyes and pain in her neck. The doctors could not find what was wrong. They sent her home. In October, doctors found Vergeer to be bleeding in her head again. They drained the blood. The doctors also found that Vergeer had an Vascular myelopathy. This abnormality caused the strokes that Vergeer experienced. On the 15 of January 1990, after a nine-hour operation Vergeer was unable to move her legs. The operation took place near to her spinal cord. Vergeer had one final operation in March but still could not move her legs.

Wheelchair tennis
-----------------

Vergeer won her eleventh British Open singles title beating Griffieon in the final. Against Griffieon, Vergeer beat her for the forty ninth time. It was the first time that Vergeer had beaten her without losing a game. The tournament win was Vergeer's tenth US Open USTA Wheelchair tennis championships. Vergeer won her sixth U.S. Open by beating van Koot. Vergeer was good enough to reach both the singles and doubles events at the Masters.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Esther Vergeer***.

* Official site
* bio – file interview with Esther Vergeer

|
|  |
| Preceded byDaniela di Toro |  **ITF Wheelchair Tennis World Champion**2000–2010 | Succeeded byIncumbent |
|
| Preceded byFirst Award |  **Female Player of the Year**2001–2003 | Succeeded byDaniela di Toro |
|
| Preceded byVinny LauwersMartin Braxenthaler |  **Laureus World Sportsperson of the Year with a Disability**20022008 | Succeeded byMichael MiltonDaniel Dias |
|
| Preceded byFirst awardJiske Griffioen |  **Year End Number 1 – Doubles Award**2003–20042007–2008 (with Griffioen) | Succeeded byFlorence GravellierKorie Homan |

| Persondata |
| --- |
| Name | Vergeer, Esther |
| Alternative names |  |
| Short description | Dutch wheelchair tennis player |
| Date of birth | 1981-07-18 |
| Place of birth | Woerden, The Netherlands |
| Date of death |  |
| Place of death |  |
Adjectives and Adverbs can be **comparative** in English and some other languages. When people are talking about two or more nouns, they can compare them (say the differences between them). The word which explains how they compare is called the **comparative**. They can also compare actions using adverbs.

Examples: (The comparative is in **bold**).

* John is tall, but Mark is **taller**
* An hour is **longer** than a minute.

Many words can be made into a comparative by adding *er* to the end of the word. 

* cool - cooler
* big - bigger
* wet - wetter
* dark - darker

Words that end with the letter 'Y' can still be made into a comparative, but people change the 'Y' to an 'I' and then add 'ER'.

* happy - happier
* fluffy - fluffier
* angry - angrier
* costly - costlier

Some words cannot be made into a comparative by adding 'ER' Instead we use the word **more** in front. Most of these words have three or more syllables, such as *beautiful*, *reliable*. 

If people are not sure about a word, it is always acceptable to say "more" (something), such as "more beautiful", "more expensive".

Warning: The 'ER' ending and the word "more" together cannot be used. 

* I am happier than you. - Correct.
* I am more happy than you. - Correct.
* I am more happier - WRONG. (Double comparative)

Related pages
-------------

* As
* Like
Figure of the jaw of an Indian elephant and the fossil jaw of a mammoth from Cuvier's 1798–99 paper on living and fossil elephants
**Comparative anatomy** is the scientific comparison of animal bodies. The purpose of comparative anatomy is to see their working structure, and to decide upon the phylogenetic relationships between different groups of animals. The separation of animals into phyla is done mainly by comparative anatomy: see List of animal phyla.

The main techniques used are dissection and microscopy. **Dissection** is an ancient method used to find out the inside structure of a living thing (usually done after it is dead). It is still used by medical students to learn about the details of the human body. Simple microscopes were first invented in the 17th century, and the compound microscope (still used today) became available in the 19th century. The purpose of microscopy is to let us see the small details of structure. Also, the careful comparison of large collections of animals (usually in museums) is often done.

The great era of comparative anatomy was from about 1800 to about 1950. It was used by those who did not believe in evolution, such as Georges Cuvier, and by those who did, such as Thomas Henry Huxley. Charles Darwin himself used comparative anatomy as the main tool in his work on barnacles. Nowadays, the main method used to find out relationships is molecular evolution, which uses DNA sequence analysis. However, for many research purposes, zoologists still dissect animals. To get a degree in biology, you need to know about the structure of animals (and plants).
Some people say that all empirically validated psychotherapies have similar outcomes, no matter what their components are. This is known as **Dodo bird verdict**, or **Dodo bird conjecture** in psychotherapy. Saul Rosenzweig introduced the concept in 1936, and named it after Dodo, a character from Lewis Caroll's book Alice in Wonderland. The topic is controversial. It only became widely known with new research evidence, in the 1970s.

History
-------

Carroll, Lewis, "Chapter 3: The Caucus Race and a Long Tale", *Alice's Adventures in Wonderland*, Everybody has won, and all must have prizes.
Saul Rosenzweig introduced the terminology in 1936 to illustrate the notion that all therapies are equally effective. Rosenzweig borrowed the phrase from Lewis Carroll's 1865 book, *Alice in Wonderland*. In the setting, some characters become wet and, in order to dry themselves, the Dodo Bird decided to issue a competition: everyone was to run around the lake until they were dry. Nobody cared to measure how far each person had run, nor how long. When they asked the Dodo who had won, he thought long and hard and then said, "Everybody has won and all must have prizes." In the case of psychotherapies, Rosenzweig argued that common factors were more important than specific technical differences, so that (on the Dodo bird conjecture) all therapies are winners; they all produce equally effective outcomes.
In 1974, Lester Lubarsky, Barton Singer and Lise Luborsky published the results of one of the first comparative studies: They showed that there were only few significant differences in the outcome of different psychotherapies. After the study was published, there were many other similar studies: some agreed with the Dodo bird verdict, others didn't.

In very basic terms, the Dodo bird debate is focused on the following: Can different components of specific treatmenrs lead to the fact that some of these treatments perform much better than others, for specific disorders? Those supporing the Dodo bird verdict say that all treatments are equivalent, because they all have "common factors". Critics say that the different therapies use different techniques, and these differences are important. For this reason, for a given problem, some therapies produce results that are not equivalent to the others.

Importance
----------

The outcome of the Dodo bird debate is very important for the future of clinical psychology. For one, policymakers have to know how effective each existing psychotherapy is in order to be able to decide which therapies should be supported. This controversy may also lead government officials to no longer fund psychological treatments and other public health measures.

Related pages
-------------

* Anti-psychiatry
* Carl Rogers
* Peer review
* Placebo
The **Dodder**, ***Cuscuta***, is a genus of about 100–170 species of parasitic flowering plants. 

Recent genetic research has shown that it is correctly placed in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. 

The genus is found throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the world. Most species live in subtropical and tropical regions. The genus is rare in cool temperate climates, with only four species native to northern Europe.

Appearance
----------

Dodder can be identified by its thin stems. They look leafless, with the leaves reduced to minute scales. 

From mid-summer to early autumn, the vines can produce small fruit that take the same color as the vine, and are about the size of a common pea. It has very low levels of chlorophyll; some species, such as *Cuscuta reflexa*, can photosynthesize slightly. Others such as *C. europaea* are entirely dependent on the host plants for nutrition.

*Cuscuta europaea* in flower
Dodder flowers range in color from white to pink to yellow to cream. Some flower in the early summer, others later, depending on the species. The seeds are tiny, and produced in large amounts. They have a hard coating, and can survive in the soil for 5–10 years or more.

Life habit
----------

Dodder seeds sprout at or near the surface of the soil. Germination occurs without a host, but the seedling must reach a green plant quickly. Dodder grows toward the smell of nearby plants.

If a plant is not reached within 5 to 10 days of germination, the dodder seedling will die. Before a host plant is reached, the dodder, as other plants, relies on food reserves in the embryo; the cotyledons are very small.

*Cuscuta* on acacia tree in Punjab, Pakistan

Parasitism
----------

After a dodder attaches itself to a plant, it wraps itself around it. If the host contains food useful to dodder, the dodder produces 'haustoria' that insert themselves into the host. The original root of the dodder in the soil then dies. 

The dodder can grow and attach itself to multiple plants. In tropical areas it can grow continuously, and may reach high into the canopy of shrubs and trees. In temperate climates it is an annual plant, restricted to low vegetation that can be reached by new seedlings each spring.

Dodder is parasitic on a very wide variety of plants, including a number of agricultural and horticultural crop species, such as alfalfa, flax, clover, potatoes, chrysanthemum, dahlia, trumpet vine, ivy and petunias, among others.
The growth rings of a tree. Each ring represents one year; the outside rings, near the bark, are the youngest.
Drill for dendrochronology sampling and growth ring counting
**Dendrochronology** is **tree-ring dating**. It is a method of dating which uses the patterns of **growth rings** in trees. In many types of wood, the time rings were formed can be dated to the exact calendar year. 

Dendrochronology has three main uses: 

1. radiocarbon dating, where it is used to calibrate radiocarbon ages.
2. archaeology, where it is used to date old buildings, etc.
3. palaeoecology, where it is used to determine certain aspects of past climates

In some parts of the world, it is possible to date wood back a few thousand years, or even many thousands. The maximum for "fully anchored chronologies" is a little over 11,000 years from present. The term "fully anchored chronology" means the dates are absolutely certain.

History
-------

Dendrochronology (word derived from Greek δένδρον, *dendron*, "tree limb"; χρόνος, *khronos*, "time"; and -λογία, *-logia*) was developed during the first half of the 20th century originally by the astronomer A.E. Douglass, who founded the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona. Douglass researched sunspot activity. He expected changes in solar activity would affect climate patterns on Earth. The climate would be recorded by tree-ring growth patterns.

The phenomenon of tree rings and their relationship with wet and dry years had been noticed before Douglass. There is a brief note in one of Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks, and Charles Babbage in 1837 came up with the same idea.

How it works
------------

Many trees in temperate zones make one growth ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Through a tree's life, a year-by-year ring pattern is formed which reflects the climatic conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring. A drought year may result in a very narrow one. 

Alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. Problems like this are fixed by comparing one part of the world with another. Missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees: the only recorded instance of a missing ring in oak trees occurred in the year 1816, also known as the Year without a Summer.

Trees from the same region will tend to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given period. These patterns can be compared and matched ring for ring with trees growing in the same geographical zone and under similar climatic conditions. Following these tree-ring patterns from living trees back through time, chronologies can be built up, both for entire regions, and for sub-regions of the world. Thus wood from ancient structures can be matched to known chronologies (a technique called cross-dating) and the age of the wood determined precisely. 

The tree-ring dates can be extended back to 26,000 BP by using other methods. Those other methods use marine sediment layers and growth rings in corals.
Cultural Materialism is a way to understand why and how societies change. It grew in popularity by Marvin Harris in 1968 through his book The Rise of Anthropological Theory. It brings together many different ideas such as Marxism, cultural evolution, and cultural ecology. 

In order to understand societies as a cultural materialist, you need to first divide up societies into three parts: infrastructure, structure, and superstructure. 

Infrastructure provides the footing for the following parts, providing basic needs for the society.

Structure, is the well being of a society’s political, social, economic organizations.

Superstructure is the way ideas are used within symbols in a society.
  



  

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1. ↑  Harris, Marvin (1968). *Harris M. The Rise of Anthropological Theory: a history of theories and culture*. New York: Crowell. p. 806.

1. ↑  Erickson and Murphy, Paul and Liam (2016). *A History of Anthropological Theory*. University of Toronto Press.
Dominique Crenn
**Dominique Crenn** (born 1965) is a French chef. Crenn is the only woman to have earned 3 Michelin stars at her restaurant. Crenn’s restaurant is called Atelier Crenn, and is located in San Francisco. Dominique Crenn moved from France to the US at around age 20. She already had experience with cooking when she was younger, learning how to bake from her grandmother. One thing she is very famous for is her creative but luxurious food she also likes putting on a show. For example, she likes to cook in front of you, or make the food look really beautiful.

Feminism
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In the first cookbook she wrote called Atelier Crenn, she writes about her struggles and successes.  When she first started working in a restaurant she noticed that there were very very few women. over the course of her career, she had to deal with male chefs and a lot of discrimination. In an interview with David Green, she says quote "I will cut them" as a joke. She says that she does not like to fight physically or with violence. She will fight back with words. Another fact about her is that she fully supports the march of dimes.
Döbereiner's lamp.
Döbereiner's lamp:   
a. glass cylinder  
b. open bottle  
c. wire  
d. zinc  
e. stopcock  
f. nozzle  
g. platinum sponge
**Döbereiner's lamp** is one of the first lighters. It was developed in 1823 by the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner. The lighter was produced until around 1880. The Heidelberg Castle and also the Deutsches Museum (*German Museum*) still have original Döbereiner lamps to show.

The lighter works based on a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. In the glass cylinder (*a* in the picture on the right) is sulfuric acid. In the open bottle (*b*) is zinc and at the top is a valve. With the lever (*f*), the bottle will be opened. Then, the sulfuric acid flows into the bottle. When it reaches the Zinc, a reaction starts. It produces hydrogen.

{\displaystyle \mathrm {Zn+H\_{2}SO\_{4}\longrightarrow Zn^{2+}+SO\_{4}^{2-}+H\_{2}\uparrow } }

The hydrogen can go out of the bottle at the top. Next to the valve, there is platinum. The hydrogen gas has to bypass the platinum. The hydrogen and the oxygen from the air react because of the catalytic effect of platinum. The gas mixture (called oxyhydrogen) then burns, because the reaction is exothermic, and produces water.

{\displaystyle \mathrm {2\ H\_{2}+O\_{2}\longrightarrow 2\ H\_{2}O} }

To stop this reaction, the bottle only needs to be closed, that means the lever needs to be released. The hydrogen can no longer go out of the bottle and pushes the sulfuric acid back into the glass cylinder.
***Daphnia*** are small, planktonic crustaceans, between 0.2 and 5 mm in length. *Daphnia* are members of the order Cladocera. They are one of the several small aquatic crustaceans often called water fleas because of their jumpy swimming style. They live in various aquatic environments ranging from acidic swamps to freshwater lakes, ponds, streams and rivers.

Anatomy & physiology
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### Circulation

*Daphnia* have open circulatory systems. Instead of having blood vessels, the daphnia have a fluid called haemolymph. The haemolymph is pumped throughout the body cavity (which is called a haemocoel).

### Nervous system

The *Daphnia*’s nervous system consists of a brain that has two or three pairs of ganglia. Ganglia are nerve cells that tend to cluster up. The nervous system also has nerve rings that go round the oesophagus. Last of all, it has a paired ventral nerve cord.

### Reproduction

The *Daphnia* reproductive system is parthenogenetic. The female daphnia produce eggs without mating. That means that their eggs can grow without being fertilized. The female daphnia carries its 50 or so eggs in the brood chamber, until they are ready to hatch. *Daphnia* can still mate, the only difference is that the "mated" eggs have an extra hard shell that can protect them from harsh conditions for a long time. These eggs are called cysts, and they can hatch when conditions are favorable again, which is usually around spring.

Other
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*Daphnia* spp. are a popular live food in tropical and marine fish keeping.

Other websites
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* Van Bergen, Yfke. 2004. Daphnia breaths easy. *Journal of Experimental Biology* **207**, i-ii
The **Elizabethan Religious Settlement** was Elizabeth I’s answer to the religious quarrels that developed during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. 

This answer was given in two Acts of the Parliament of England. The Act of Supremacy of 1559 confirmed the English church’s independence from Rome. The Act of Uniformity 1559 decided about the form of the English church.

Often it was seen as the end of the English Reformation and the foundation of Anglicanism. But some historians think that England only became a Protestant nation on a popular level many years later. There seem to have been great divisions in the population and among the clergy for a long time afterwards.

Related pages
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* Church of England
* Reformation

Other websites
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* The Legacy of the Reformation: A New Approach Archived 2008-01-21 at the Wayback Machine
* Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603), Elizabethan Religious Settlement[*permanent dead link*]
* Elizabeth's Act of Uniformity (1559)
* Documents Illustrative of English Church History
**Det Kvindelige Velgørende Selskab** was an organization in Denmark. It was established in 1815 when king Frederick VI of Denmark had been inspired while visiting the Congress of Vienna in Austria The organization was finally disestablished on 28 October 2004 after a meeting inside the Garnison Church in Copenhagen. Queen Marie of Denmark was appointed protector of the organization. That position was then held by someone from the Danish royal family. Queen Marie's birthday was always celebrated as an observance by the organization. They gave awards to domestic workers who had been in long-time service. Most other domestic workers used to leave by the age of 25-30 to form their own family. The organization also ran a school for housemaid girls. In 1828 they also opened Denmark's first daycare center.

The organization was disestablished as their activity had been outdated. However the housemaid girls at some places had been replaced by modern nanny girls.

When the organization was disestablished, Niels Gustav Bardenfleth published the book *For lang och tro tjeneste. Det Kvindelige Velgørende Selskab 1815-2004*.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, the inspiration typically used in the depiction of Erzulie

**Erzulie** (sometimes spelled **Erzili** or **Ezili**) is a family of loa in Voodoo.

Overview
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The Erzulie is a family of loa that are often associated with water, femininity and feminine bodies.

*Erzulie Fréda*, the Rada aspect of Erzulie, is the African spirit of love, beauty, jewelry, dancing, luxury, and flowers. She wears three wedding rings, one for each husband - Damballa, Agwe and Ogun. Her symbol is a heart, her colors are pink, blue, white and gold. Her favorite sacrifices include jewelry, perfume, sweet cakes and liqueurs.

*Erzulie Dantor* is the main loa of the Petro family in Voodoo. She is often depicted as a fearsome black woman. Her favourite sacrifices include jewels, golden rings, rum and black pig (for her birthday).

In popular culture
------------------

Erzulie, Damballa, Baron Samedi and Papa Legba, all appear in the *WildCats* original comic series. They also appear in Terry Pratchett's book *Witches Abroad* (1991). A powerful voodoo woman in novel *Witches Abroad* is named Erzulie Gogol.

In the Broadway show *Once On This Island*, Erzulie is one of the 4 main gods that guide and influence the main character.

Erzulie is depicted in Zadie Smith's 2005 novel *On Beauty*.

Erzulie and other popular Loa together with the adepts of Voodoo are depicted in Andrei Gusev's 2020 novel *Our Wild Sex in Malindi*.
Esa-Pekka Salonen in (2008)
**Esa-Pekka Salonen** (born 30 June 1958) is a Finnish conductor and composer. He is conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Philharmonia Orchestra in London. He and his family live in Los Angeles, California.

Life
----

Salonen was born in Helsinki, Finland. He studied at the Sibelius Academy in Helsinki, learning the French horn, composition and conducting. Later he studied composition with several composers including Einojuhani Rautavaara.

He started conducting in 1979 with the Finnish Radio Symphony Orchestra, mainly in order to conduct his own compositions. In 1983 he was asked at short notice to conduct the Philharmonia Orchestra when Michael Tilson-Thomas was ill. This concert made him well known as a conductor.

Salonen was principal conductor of the Swedish Radio Symphony Orchestra from 1984 to 1995.

He first conducted in the United States in 1984 with the Los Angeles Philharmonic. In 1989 he became Principal Guest Conductor of the orchestra and soon became music director. He has had this title ever since.

In 1992 he took the orchestra to the Salzburg Festival where they gave concert performances and well as playing in the opera house for the opera *Saint-François d'Assise* by Olivier Messiaen. They toured throughout the United States, Europe, and Asia, and performed at the Lucerne Festival in Switzerland, the BBC Proms in London, in Cologne for a festival of Salonen's own compositions, and in 1996 at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris for a Stravinsky festival conducted by Salonen and Pierre Boulez. The orchestra sounded very good in the Paris concert hall, and it made people realize that they needed a better concert hall in Los Angeles. Soon the Walt Disney Concert Hall was built there.

In 2008 Salonen became the main conductor of the Philharmonia Orchestra. He will leave his job with the Los Angeles Philharmonic in 2009. He wants to have more time to compose.

Salonen married Jane Price who used to play with the Philharmonia Orchestra. They have three children.

Other websites
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* Esa-Pekka Salonen - Official Website Archived 2008-03-11 at the Wayback Machine
***Desert Island Discs*** is a biographical and factual radio programme produced by Bob Symes. It is broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom. It was first broadcast on the BBC Home Service on 29 January 1942.

Each week a person (called a "castaway") is asked to choose eight pieces of music, a book and a luxury item that they would take if they were to be cast away on a desert island (an island that is not lived on by humans). They discuss their lives and the reasons for their choices.

More than 3,000 episodes have been recorded. There aren't that many castaways, though, because a few castaways have appeared more than once. Some programmes had two people as the castaway.

The programme was created by Roy Plomley. After Plomley's death in 1985, the programme was presented by Michael Parkinson. From 1988 to 2006, it was presented by Sue Lawley. Since 2006, the show has been presented by Kirsty Young. She interviewed illustrator Quentin Blake on her first show, broadcast on 1 October 2006.

The light music composition by Eric Coates called "By the Sleepy Lagoon" is the signature tune of the programme.

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Desert Island Discs***.

* Desert Island Discs at BBC Radio 4
* Sue Arnold, "The Lagoon Show", *The Observer*, London, 17 March 2002