recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Not to be confused with Kingdom of the Franks.

The **Kingdom of France** (Old French: *Reaume de France*; Middle French: *Royaulme de France*; French: *Royaume de France*) is the name given to various political entities of France in the Middle Ages and modern times. According to historians, three major events started the Kingdom of France: the advent of Clovis I in 481, the Treaty of Verdun and the election of Hugues Capet in 987. The kingdom lasted until 1792 and was briefly restored in 1814 to 1815 and then from 1815 to 1848.

The King of the Franks, Clovis I, sealed the alliance of Frankish Kingdoms with the Catholic Church at his baptism. That alliance was perpetuated in the Kingdom of France by the crowning of kings at Reims, which made them monarchs by divine right. The first Capetians were anxious to crown their eldest son in their lifetime because their authority was limited in reality to the Ile de France. It was not until Philippe Auguste that their official acts called it the Kingdom of France and that they are able to make a real act of authority throughout the kingdom. Their territory was the feudal fiefs of which king of Western France had been the suzerain since the 843 division of the Carolingian Empire.

The gradual integration of the feudal fiefs into the royal domain required the establishment of a royal administration. Louis IX attached the main importance to its role as justiciary. The *parlement*, the high court of justice, was put in place. The Hundred Years' War allowed Charles VII to establish an army and permanent taxes. Richelieu and Louis XIV strengthened the royal authority in the provinces by bringing the local governors of the nobility under their stewardship and by delegating to them stewards appointed by the king.

The tendency of royalty to exercise more and more absolute power could be challenged in times of turmoil, civil wars and the reigns of minor kings. The dispute took a more pronounced character on the occasion of the diffusion of the philosophy of enlightenment and of the values that it carried: government of reason, separation of powers, individual liberties. The French Revolution led to the establishment of a French constitutional monarchy. However, the different formulas experienced failure in 1792, 1830 and 1848, which ended the French monarchy.
**Roman Schramseis** (29 March 1906 – 10 December 1988) was an Austrian footballer. He played as defender mainly for SK Rapid Wien. He also played for the Austrian national football team.. He was part of the Wunderteam.

Career
------

Roman Schramseis began his career at ASV Hertha Vienna in 1922. He experienced narrow relegation in 1924 and in 1925 immediate promotion back to the first division. 1925 he moved to the then champions Rapid Vienna in Hütteldorf. With Rapid he reached 1927 and 1928 the Mitropacup final but lost versus Sparta Prague and Ferencvárosi Torna Club. 1930 they reached again the final and won versus Sparta Prague.

1933 he went to France and played for FC Rouen. Roman Schramseis returned to Vienna in 1934 and played one league game at SC Wacker Wien before he re-amateurished and played for the Gewerkschaftsbund Mariahilf and the SK Semperit company team .

International career
--------------------

He played 18 matches for the Austrian national team. He debuted on 6 May 1928 versus Hungary. His last match was on 24 April 1932 also versus Hungary. He did not play again because he played abroad.

Managing career
---------------

In 1937 he moved to Grün-Weiß Salzburg, where he also worked as a football coach. In 1942 he was a trainer at a Reichsbahnausbesserungswerkes.

Other websites
--------------

* (in German) Rapid Archiv

| * v
* t
* e
Austrian Wunderteam players |
| --- |
| 
* Rudolf Hiden
* Roman Schramseis
* Karl Rainer
* Josef Blum
* Karl Sesta
* Georg Braun
* Johann Mock
* Josef Smistik
* Leopold Hofmann
* Karl Gall
* Walter Nausch
* Karl Zischek
* Friedrich Gschweidl
* Matthias Sindelar
* Anton Schall
* Adolf Vogl
* Manager: Hugo Meisl/Jimmy Hogan

 |
A tumbleweed (*Lechenaultia divaricata*)
Several plant species that grow in arid, steppe-like environments use the wind to propagate. The structure that is pushed by the wind is usually called **tumbleweed**. This structure will detach from its root or stem and will roll on the ground. In most such species, the tumbleweed consists of the whole plant apart from the root system. Sometimes, only a hollow fruit or inflorescence detaches. Tumbleweed species occur most commonly in steppe and arid ecosystems, where frequent wind and the open environment permit rolling easly.

Most tissues of the tumbleweed structure are dead. This needs to be the case, because the structure needs to degrade and fall apart so that its seeds or spores can escape during the tumbling. Sometimes they germinate after the tumbleweed has come to rest in a wet location. In this case, many species of tumbleweed open mechanically, releasing their seeds as they swell when they absorb water.

The tumbleweed diaspore disperses seeds. This stategy is not limited to the seed plants; some species of spore-bearing cryptogams—such as *Selaginella*—form tumbleweeds, and some fungi that resemble puffballs dry out, break free of their attachments and are similarly tumbled by the wind, dispersing spores as they go.

Young tumbleweed blooming in the Mojave desert in April, after an extremely wet winter season

Examples
--------

* A Kali tragus tumbleweed caught against a fenceA *Kali tragus* tumbleweed caught against a fence
* Amaranthus albus*Amaranthus albus*
* Brunsvigia bosmaniae in flower in the veld, showing the globular umbels of tumbleweed Amaryllidaceae*Brunsvigia bosmaniae* in flower in the veld, showing the globular umbels of tumbleweed Amaryllidaceae
* Mass of Salsola tumbleweeds caught behind a fenceMass of *Salsola* tumbleweeds caught behind a fence
* Anastatica, a North African desert tumbleweed*Anastatica*, a North African desert tumbleweed
* Selaginella lepidophylla, a North American desert tumbleweed*Selaginella lepidophylla*, a North American desert tumbleweed
* A tumbleweed in Chelan, WashingtonA tumbleweed in Chelan, Washington

Other websites
--------------

* Video showing a massive displacement of tumbleweed in the Mojave desert.
* Howard, Brian Clark (2015-12-17). "Watch a Plague of Tumbleweeds Blow Across the West". National Geographic.
The **Bradley fighting vehicle** Is an armored vehicle in service with the United States army.The Bradley is made for use by infantry. Like the previous M113 vehicle family the BFV will eventually be the base of a large range of support vehicles. The bradley comes in two types, the M2 Bradley Infantry Fighting vehicle and the M3 Bradley Cavalry Fighting Vehicle. It is currently being manufactured by BAE systems.

The BFV is lightly armored and fully tracked.It is adequately armoured to protect against small arms and artillery fragments.The bradley has good cross country mobility being fast enough to keep up with the m1 abrams.The bradley's main arment is the 25mm m242 chain gun and anti tank TOW missiles.The main gun along with the missiles are useful against most armored targets.The TOW missile system can destroy lightly armored vehicles up to 2.3 miles away. It's firing ports are armed with several mounted m16 rifles.the M2 version can contain infantry that can dismount and fight on foot.

Specifications
--------------

Service: US Army

Engine: Cummins VTA-903T diesel

Armament: 25 mm M242 chain gun; TOW anti-tank missile; 7.62 mm M240C machine gun

Crew: 3 crew, 6-man infantry squad

Range: 300 miles

Maximum Speed: 41 mph
Kolyma river in Siberia, Russia.
The **Kolyma River** is a river in northeastern Siberia, Russia. It flows through parts of the Sakha Republic, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, and Magadan Oblast. The Kolyma river starts where the Kulu and Ayan-Yuryakh rivers meet in the Okhotsk-Kolyma Upland. It then flows south in the Upper Kolyma Highlands and north in the Kolyma Lowland, a flat area with many lakes. Finally, it empties into the Kolyma Gulf of the East Siberian Sea. The river is frozen for about 250 days each year, from October to early June.

The Kolyma river is 2,129 kilometers (1,323 miles) long, and its basin covers 647,000 square kilometers (250,000 square miles). The river's average discharge at Kolymskoye is 3,254 cubic meters per second, with a high of 26,201 cubic meters per second in June 1985 and a low of 30.6 cubic meters per second in April 1979.

History
-------

Siberia shown in green within the map of Russia.
In 1640, Dimitry Zyryan traveled overland to the Indigirka river in Sakha republic. In 1641, he sailed down the Indigirka, explored the Alazeya river, and encountered the Chukchis for the first time. He returned to the Indigirka in 1643, sent tribute to Yakutsk, and revisited the Alazeya region. In 1645, he was appointed land administrator of the Kolyma region of Siberia. He returned and died in 1646. In 1641–42, Mikhail Stadukhin, with Semyon Dezhnyov, journeyed overland to the upper Indigirka, built boats, sailed down the Indigirka, met Zyryan, and separated. Stadukhin reached the Kolyma region in 1644 and returned to Yakutsk in 1645.

Baron Eduard Von Toll conducted geological surveys in the Kolyma basin in 1892–94 for the Russian Academy of Sciences, covering 25,000 kilometers in a year. The Kolyma is famous for Gulag labor camps and gold mining, depicted in Varlam Shalamov's "The Kolyma Tales." After the camps closed, subsidies and industries declined, leading to migration. Remaining locals now rely on fishing and hunting.

In August 1929, the Nanuk crew visited Kolyma, and in August 1991, the first Americans since then, Wallace Kaufman and Rebecca Clay, traveled from Ziryanka to Green Cape. In February 2012, scientists reported growing plants from 30,000-year-old Silene stenophylla fruit found near the Kolyma River in permafrost.
**Lady Frances Brandon** (16 July 1517 – 20 November 1559) was the daughter of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. She was married to Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk and had three daughters: Jane, Mary and Katherine. Her daughter Jane became the Queen of England for nine days.

Life
----

Frances Brandon was a cruel, abusive mother to her children and a bold wife to her husband, Henry Grey. She had spent her childhood with her mother and was very close to Catherine of Aragon, so she was against Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. In 1533, she married Henry Grey and soon she had two children who died young before having Lady Jane Grey in 1537, Katherine in 1540, and Mary in 1545.
In 1554, just weeks after her daughter Lady Jane Grey's and her husband Henry Grey's execution, Frances married again. This time it was to Adrian Stokes. Many people were shocked about this marriage, because Adrian was far below Frances's status. Historians believe that Frances was pregnant at the time of their marriage because she gave birth to a child about six months later. This child did not survive and Frances had two others. None of these last three children lived past a year.

Death
-----

Frances became increasingly large similar to her uncle Henry VIII. Because of this, she died in 1559 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
**Willibald Kirbes** (29 June 1902 – 3 February 1990) was an Austrian footballer. He played as a forward for different teams from Vienna, mainly for SK Rapid, and the Austrian national football team.

Career
------

The winger came to Rapid from the lower-class club Freiheit 14. He played his first games in the highest league in the 1922–23 season, in which the club also became Austrian champions. He had a regular place in the team from 1925 onwards. The team won the 1927 Austrian Cup versus FK Austria Wien, where he scored a goal in the 3-0 win. In the 1928–29 season, Rapid became champion,in the cup final there was a close 2:3 against Vienna, despite a goal from Kirbes. 1932 he finally went to FC Libertas Vienna, which he accompanied through their five first division years.

International
-------------

Kirbes made his debut for the Austrian national team on 6 May 1928 in a game against Hungary in Budapest. He scored a goal. The match was the only one he played for the national team.

Honours
-------

* 1 × Mitropacup: 1930
* 1 × Mitropacup runner up: 1928
* 3 × Austrian Champion: 1923, 1929, 1930
* 1 × Austrian Cup: 1927
The **governor of Illinois** is the head of state and government of the U.S. state of Illinois and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor is also the chairperson of the state government cabinet.

J. B. Pritzker is the 43rd and current governor of Illinois, in office since January 2019.

Power and duties
----------------

The governor has the duty to enforce state laws and the power either to approve or veto bills passed by the Illinois General Assembly to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons except in cases of treason and impeachment.

Eligibility and requirements
----------------------------

Under the Constitution of Illinois, a person must:

* Be at least 25 years old
* a United States citizen
* live in Illinois for at least 3 years

Election process
----------------

The governor is elected by the people through the popular election to a four year term, along with the lieutenant gubernatorial candidate or the incumbent lieutenant governor as their running mate. The candidate or incumbent governor must have the majority of the popular vote in order to win the election.

Line of succession
------------------

If the governor dies, resigns or is impeached from office, the lieutenant governor ranks first in the line of succession and will assume the office, powers and duties as governor.
**András Bozóki** (born 23 January 1959) is a Hungarian sociologist and politician. He served as Minister of Education between 2005 and 2006. He is professor of political science at Central European University. His research areas are types of political change, political systems, Central European politics, political ideologies, the history of ideas and the political role of the intelligentsia.

Academics
---------

He studied at Eötvös Loránd University and obtained a doctorate in law in 1983 and a degree in sociology in 1985. After graduation, he got a teaching position at the university, where he taught at the Department of Sociology of Law (since 2013 named as Department of Law and Social Theory). In 1988-89, he was a fellow at UCLA's Department of Sociology. In 1992, he defended his doctoral dissertation in political science at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

Since 1993, he has been a full-time lecturer at the Central European University, participating in the development of the doctoral program in political science.

He was a visiting professor (Deák Chair) at Columbia University in New York (2004, 2009, 2015), University of Nottingham (1993), Smith College in Massachusetts, Mount Holyoke College and Hampshire College (1999 –2000), University of Tübingen (1999-2001), University of Bologna (2008) and the University of Ljubljana (2013).

He worked as a researcher at the Institut für die Wissenschaften von Menschen (IWM) in Vienna (1990–1991 and 2018), the Wisschenschaftskolleg in Berlin (Andrew Mellon Fellow, 1993–1994), the European Institute of Sussex University in Brighton (1998), the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study (NIAS) (1998), the European University Institute (EUI) in Florence (Jean Monnet Fellow, 2000-2001 and Fernand Braudel Fellow, 2012), and Södertörns University in Stockholm (2008).

Politics
--------

In 1985, he participated in the opposition event of the European Cultural Forum, and in 1987 he was at the Lakitelek meeting, in May 1988 he was the founder of the Free Initiatives Network, between 1988-1993 he was a member of Fidesz. In 1989, he participated in the National Round Table negotiations, where he represented the Opposition Round Table and was a member of the working committee dealing with the creation of legal guarantees excluding violent solutions. 

From January to May 1990, he was the spokesperson of Fidesz, in 1991-1992 he was an expert of the party's parliamentary faction, in 1993 he left Fidesz. Between 2003 and 2004, he was a member of the advisory board of Prime Minister Péter Medgyessy. From February 2005 to June 2006, he was Minister of Education in the first Gyurcsány government.

Media
-----

Between 1989-1992 he worked as the founding editor of newspaper *Magyar Narancs*. In the 2000s, he was a columnist for Magyar Hírlap and then Figyelő.
**Duroplast** is a resin plastic made up mixing formica and bakelite reinforced with fibres (either cotton or wool) or glass fibres.

Uses
----

Duroplast was used by Eastern European automobile manufacturer VEB Sachsenring Automobilwerke Zwickau to produce the body of the popular Trabant motor car, toilet seats, and parts for the BMW X3.

Duroplast was first used in the body of the IFA F8 and later also the AWZ P70 or Zwickau P70 and later used in the body of the Trabant. Apart from the use in cars duroplast was also used to make suitcases.

Properties
----------

Duroplast is light, flexible, and strong. It was also made of recycled material, cotton waste from Russia and phenol resins from the East German dye industry making the Trabant the first car with a body made of recycled material Archived 2015-07-03 at the Wayback Machine. Because it can be made in a press similar to shaping steel, it's easy to produce.

Critics
-------

Duroplast cannot be completely recycled, and burning it produces toxic fumes, so disposing of the bodies of old Trabants is a problem. There are stories of pigs, sheep or other domestic farm animals consuming duroplast.

A Berlin biotechnology company claims that it has developed a solution to the duroplast problem: a bacterium that will eat a Trabant in 20 days and leave only compost.[*source?*]
In the last years the Duroplast was smashed and put cement blocks for pavement construction.
**Dravida Kazhagam** (or **Dravidar Kazhagam**, "Dravidian Organization") was one of the first Dravidian parties in India. The party was founded by Periyar. Its original goals were to eradicate the ills of the existing caste system including untouchability and to obtain a "Dravida Nadu" (Dravidian nation) from the Madras Presidency i.e. a separate nation from India for Dravidian people alone.

Dravidar Kazhagam gave birth to many other political parties including Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. Dravidar Kazhagam is now headed by K.Veeramani.

Foundation and Ideology
-----------------------

The roots of the Dravidar Kazhagam lie in the Self-Respect Movement and Justice party, founded by Periyar E. V. Ramasamy. Periyar formed the Self-Respect Movement in 1925, breaking in the process from the Indian National Congress party, of which he had been a member until then. The Justice Party, formed in 1916, also claimed to promote similar interests. The two entities merged in 1938 under Periyar's leadership. The name was changed to Dravidar Kazhagam in 1944.

Its central theme was to remove the degraded status imposed on Dravidians, and to denote this, the party adopted a black flag with a red circle inside it, the black signifying their degradation and the red denoting the movement for upliftment.It opposed Brahminical social, political and ritual dominance, and aimed to form a separate country of Dravida Nadu, to include either all of South India or the predominantly Tamil-speaking regions.
Caesars Palace, a popular casino on the Las Vegas Strip
A **casino** is a gambling establishment. Casinos are places for gambling. 

Gambling has been a part of human history for a very long time. It seems that in every society, even in ancient times, people have enjoyed games that involve luck. Famous places and times in history, like Ancient Mesopotamia, the time of the Greeks and Romans, and the eras of Napoleon in France and Queen Elizabeth in England, are known to have had gambling.

The first known place in Europe that was like a modern casino was called the Ridotto. It opened in Venice, Italy, in 1638. The government started it to control gambling, especially during the festive carnival season. It was closed in 1774 because it was thought to be causing financial problems for the wealthy people of the city.

Casino in Aalborg, Denmark
In the United States, early places for gambling were called saloons. These saloons were important in cities like New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago, and San Francisco. In saloons, people could meet to talk, have a drink, and gamble. For a while, gambling was illegal in the US, but in 1931, Nevada made it legal again. This is where America's first legal casinos started. Later, in 1976, New Jersey also allowed gambling, making Atlantic City a major gambling destination.

There are lots of casinos in the US state of Nevada and especially in the area of Las Vegas called the "Strip". Other places famous for their casinos is Monte Carlo in Monaco and Macau in China.

Regulations
-----------

In Mexico, gambling is regulated by the Gaming Regulations. These regulate all gambling games and are governed by the law. The National Lottery is ruled by its own regulations.

Gambling in Canada is regulated on the Federal level by the Criminal Code of Canada whose Section 201-207 gives the laws relating to betting and gambling.

Types
-----

Roulette ball
In the most casinos gambling halls are divided into two types: a hall of traditional games and a games room. Games that have gained the most popularity in casinos around the world: roulette, blackjack, poker, baccarat, punto-banko, craps, slot machines etc.

In 1994 the internet brought forth the web's first online casino named the Gaming Club. It was developed by Microgaming software and is still operating with active players today. Microgaming became one of the internet casino industry's largest providers of online gambling software early on. Internet casinos are currently legal and regulated in the United Kingdom and some parts of the United States.
Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria
**Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria** (31 October 1636 – 26 May 1679) was a Wittelsbach ruler of Bavaria and an elector (Kurfürst) of the Holy Roman Empire from 1651 to 1679.

Biography
---------

He was born in Munich and was the eldest son of Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria and Maria Anna of Austria a daughter of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. 

On 8 December 1650 he married Henriette Adelaide of Savoy, daughter of Victor Amadeus I of Savoy and Christine Marie of France. The couple had seven children. 

Still a minor he succeeded his father in 1651, his mother and his uncle Albert VI of Bavaria served as regents of Bavaria for three years. 

Ferdinand Maria was crowned on 31 October 1654. He was an absolute monarch. He allied with France. Ferdinand Maria supported the wars of the Habsburgs against the Ottoman Empire with Bavarian forces (1662-1664). During the Franco-Dutch War since 1672 Bavaria became neutral. The marriage of his eldest daughter Maria Anna and her cousin *Louis, Grand Dauphin* in 1680 cemented the alliance with France. Ferdinand Maria modernised the army and introduced the first Bavarian local government code. He made Bavaria a rich nation. 

He died in Schleissheim Palace and was succeeded by his son Maximilian II Emanuel. He is buried at the Theatiner Church.

Issue
-----

* Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria (28 November 1660 – 20 April 1690) married Louis, Grand Dauphin and had issue; King Juan Carlos I of Spain descends from her.
* Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (11 July 1662 – 26 February 1726), next Elector of Bavaria; married Maria Antonia of Austria and had issue; married Theresa Kunegunda Sobieska and had issue.
* Luise Margarete Antonie of Bavaria.
* Ludwig Amadeus Victor of Bavaria.
* Kajetan Maria Franz of Bavaria.
* Joseph Clemens of Bavaria (5 December 1671 – 12 November 1723) Elector and Archbishop of Cologne.
* Violante Beatrice of Bavaria (3 April 1673 – 3 June 1731) married Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany.
**Kira Oleksandrivna Rudyk** (born October 14, 1985 in Uzhhorod) is a Ukrainian politician and current leader of the political party "Golos" and since 2019 a member of the Ukrainian parliament.

Biography
---------

Born on 14 October 1985 in Uzhhorod, Rudyk graduated in 2008 from the Faculty of Informatics of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy with a degree in Information Control Systems and Technologies. She worked in several IT companies in Ukraine and the United States, and went from being a tester to a top manager.

### Education

In 2002 she entered the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, majoring in Information Technology.

### Career and business

In 2005, in the third year of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, Kira got a job at Software MacKiev.

In 2016 she started developing Ring Ukraine. At one time, Kira persuaded the head of the American startup Ring to open an office in Ukraine. In 3 years, Kira has transformed a small branch of the international company Ring Ukraine into a large company with about a thousand employees and three offices in different cities of Ukraine.

2018 - Amazon enters into a $ 1 billion Ring acquisition, facilitated by Kira Rudyk. Under her leadership, the company has grown from 10 to 1,000 employees.
Nadezhda Mandelstam in 1925
**Nadezhda Yakovlevna Mandelstam**, born as *Nadezhda Yakovlevna Hazin*, (31 October 1899 in Saratov - 9 December 1980 in Moscow) was a Russian writer and the wife of poet Osip Mandelstam.

She grew up in Kiev, after she studied art.

She married Osip Mandelstam in 1921, and lived in Ukraine, Saint Petersburg, Moscow, and Georgia. Osip wrote a poem about the Russian leader, called *Stalin Epigram*. It angered the Russian government, and in 1934 he was arrested, and ordered to live in Cherdyn, Perm region and later to Voronezh. The government of Russia often used internal exile (sending people to live in small towns hundreds of miles from the big cities) instead of sending people to prison. Nadezhda went into exile with Osip.

Osip Mandelstam was released but arrested again in 1938. Before the government could decide where to send him he died in a camp near Vladivostok.

After this Nadezhda Mandelstam never lived in the same place for long, and she often changed jobs. She did this to hide from the NKVD (Russian Secret Police). When she was living in Kalinin the police came to arrest her her, but she had moved to a new house the day before.

She decided to spend her life collecting and publishing all of her husband's poems, and most of the poems she *learned by heart* (memorised).

After Stalin died Nadezhda Mandelstam published he book and was allowed to return to Moscow in 1958.

In 1979 she gave her archives (letters, books and photographs) to Princeton University in the United States of America. Nadezhda Mandelstam died in 1980 in Moscow, aged 81.

Books by Nadezhda Mandelstam
----------------------------

* *Hope against Hope* (ISBN 1-86046-635-4)
* *Hope Abandoned* (ISBN 0-689-10549-5)
A model of atmospheric circulation on Earth. These winds would be expected during the spring or autumn equinox.
**Atmospheric circulation** is a large-scale movement of masses of air. The origin of these processes is the sun's radiation. The sun waves radiate the short-wave radiation. The earth absorbs only a part of this energy. The other part is radiated back to the atmosphere and to the universe. The back radiation is long-waved. The thermal energy is distributed thanks to the circulation of the air on the surface of the earth.

The demonstration of circulation varies from year to year, but the basic climatologic structure is almost constant. We recognize 3 cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell and the Polar cell. The movement of air masses is influenced by coriolis force. It means that the air diverts to the west.

Hadley cell
-----------

The earth and ocean are intensively radiated in the equatorial areas. The hot and usually moist air rises. It is called convection. This process creates a low pressure area along the equator. The area is also called the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The hot air goes to both south and north and gets colder. When the air is cold enough, it goes down to the surface again. This creates deserts and semi-deserts of the subtropics. Reaching latitude 30 degrees, the masses of air return to the rainy equator.

Polar cell
----------

The air on 60 degrees of latitude is colder and drier than the air on the equator. On the other hand, the rising movements are still possible. The character of processes is similar to the Hadley cell. The warmer air goes up, and falls down on the poles. This air comes back to the equator.

Ferrell cell
------------

The movements between 30 and 60 degrees are more complex. Temperature is not the main reason of this circulation. The air in this temperate zone cell moves according to the differences between moving masses in Hadley and Polar cells. Prevailing winds are generally westerly.

The existence of the Ferrel cell is disputed in  and

Other websites
--------------

* Intertropical Convergence Zone Archived 2010-12-25 at the Wayback Machine
Cosplay of the Mandarin.
The **Mandarin** is one of the main antagonists of the Marvel Comics universe, serving as the main antagonist of the *Iron Man* franchise and media, and a major antagonist in the *Avengers* franchise. The character was created by Stan Lee and designed by Don Heck, first appearing in *Tales of Suspense* #50 (Feb. 1964).

Formerly a poor vagrant and criminal raised in poverty, he would eventually come across ten mystical rings (later revealed to be technology from the Makluan race) and take their power as his own. With his new abilities, he would reinvent himself as an aristocratic criminal mastermind seeking to expand his empire and conquer the world. He is notable for his role in Tony Stark/Iron Man's creation, having orchestrated the kidnapping that would lead to him creating his first set of armor, and for causing multiple other pivotal moments in the hero's life.

He serves as the main antagonist of *Iron Man: Enter the Mandarin*, the *Dragon Seed Saga*, *Iron Man: The Future*, and several other storylines. He is the archenemy of Iron Man, and an enemy of several other heroes, including War Machine, the Hulk, Captain America, Deadpool, Black Panther, Shang-Chi, and the Avengers.

Adaptations
-----------

The Mandarin has appeared in several forms of media. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), Guy Pearce and Ben Kingsley portrayed an imposter and actor of the character in *Iron Man 3* (2013) respectively, and Tony Leung portrayed the "real" character **Xu Wenwu** in *Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings* (2021). In 2009, The Mandarin was ranked as IGN's 81st-greatest comic book villain of all time.
**Numismatics** is the study and collecting of coins and the history behind the coins. A **Numismatist** is either a collector of coins or a scholar who studies the history of coins.

Origin of Word
--------------

The term comes from a word meaning "of coins." The original word is French (numismatique), which itself is from a Latin origin (numismatis).

History of Numismatics
----------------------

Coin collectors may have existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus may have been an example. The first known book about coin collecting was in 1514, "De Asse et Partibus", by Guillaume Budé. However, only royalty really enjoyed coin collecting until the 19th century. That's when professional organizations started to sprout, like the American Numismatic Society in 1858.

Modern Numismatics
------------------

**Modern numismatics** is a sub-field that focuses on when coins started being stamped by machines (around 17th century on). Because of its focus, modern numismatics is more popular with collectors than with historians. Other subfields/variants include exonumia (focus on coin-like objects), notaphily (focus on paper money instead of coins), and scripophily (focus on stocks and bonds instead of coins).
The High School Republican National Federation, also known as the High School Republicans or HSReps, is a group led by students that wants to get young people involved in politics and help elect Republicans. Members of HSReps all over the country do things like join in political events and help out with Republican election campaigns.

History
-------

The High School Republican National Federation started in April 2022. It's run by students and helps local high school Republican groups work together better. It was made by bringing together different state groups that were already part of their state parties. Their goal is to fight for their beliefs in schools, talk to voters to get Republicans elected, and plan for a strong future. Some of these groups are called 'Teen Republicans,' but they all follow the same ideas set by the National Federation..

Organization
------------

The High School Republican National Federation has groups in different states and cities all across the country. Some of the biggest groups are in New Jersey, Nebraska, and North Carolina. Altogether, they have around 10,000 members who are active. The main group oversees all the High School Republicans. It's run by a National Board made up of different leaders like a chairman, co-chairman, and others. They're in charge of making sure the group grows and supports Republican ideas. There's also a National Committee with representatives from each state to help with leadership.

Local chapters at high schools and counties work at a grassroots level to rally young people behind causes. Local High School Republican chapters have organized candidate forums, registered voters, and helped to elect Republicans in their own communities.

Involvement
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During elections, High School Republicans go door-to-door to talk to people, make phone calls, and tell others about Republican candidates.. These students help out in different campaigns, like those for Congressman Don Bacon, Heidi Ganahl, and others.

High School Republicans in different states are also getting involved in making laws. For example, in December 2023, the New Jersey High School Republicans went to Trenton, New Jersey, to talk about a new law called the Involve our Youth Act. This law would let high school students take time off school for activities that help their community. They worked together with the New Jersey High School Democrats to try to make this law happen..

Related Pages
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* Young Republicans
* College Republicans
* Teen Age Republicans
* Republican Party
* High School Democrats of America
* College Democrats
Not to be confused with Turkic peoples.

The **Turkish people** (Turkish: *Türkler*), or **Turks**, are the world's largest Turkic ethnic group; they speak different dialects of the Turkish language and live mainly in Turkey and Cyprus. There are Turkish communities in the Balkans as well.

Culture
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### Religion

The Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey, is a religious building.
Turkish people are predominantly Sunni Muslims, the largest branch of Islam. Many Turks are practising its Hanafi denomination. The most followed branch after Sunnism is Alevism-Bektashism, few belive in Tengrism.

### Traditions

Turkish traditions can be found in Turkey but can also be found in other Turkic countries. This includes Turkish Oil Wrestling, Sünnet-Partys of Boys, Belly dance, Karakucak Guresh, Camel wrestling etc.

Diaspora
--------

The Turkish people are populated in the former Ottoman Empire. They form a majority in Turkey and Northern Cyprus. They are a big Turkish diaspora. There are also large Turkish minorities in the Balkans, the Caucasus, and the Arab world.

Turkish people are the largest minority group in Bulgaria. There are large Turkish communities in the Western Thrace region of Greece, the Dobruja region of Romania, the Akkar region in Lebanon as well as in North Macedonia. Turkish people are also the largest ethnic minority group in Austria, Denmark, Netherlands, and in Germany (see Turks in Germany).
The **hooded seal** (*Cystophora cristata*) is an arctic pinniped. It is found only in the central and western North Atlantic. It ranges from Svalbard in the east to the Gulf of St. Lawrence in the west.

The male has a peculiar inflatable bladder on the head. This bladder hangs between his eyes and down over his upper lip in the deflated state. In addition, he can inflate a large balloon-like sac from one of his nostrils. The bulge develops when the seal is four years old. The male can blow up this bulge, so that it is the size of its head.

The hooded seal can live to about age 30 to 35.

Size
----

Adult males are 2.6 metres (8 ft 6 in) long on average, and weigh 300–410 kg (660–900 lb). Females are much smaller: 2.03 metres (6 ft 8 in) long and weighing 145–300 kg (320–661 lb). The colour is silvery; the body is scattered with dark, irregular marks. The head is darker than the rest of the body, and without marks.

Offspring
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Hooded seal pup (next to researcher) on ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
Pups are about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long at birth and weigh about 24 kilograms (53 lb). They are born on the ice from mid-March to early April. They are born with a slate blue-grey coat with a pale cream color on the belly. They moult after about 14 months. Nursing of the pup lasts for an average of only 4 days. This is the shortest lactation period of any mammal. During the 4 days the pup doubles in size, gaining around 7 kg/day. This is possible because the milk that they drink has a fat content of 60%. The female pup will mature between ages 3 and 6. The male pup will mature between ages 5 and 7.
**Damien Steven Hirst** (born 7 June 1965) is an English artist. He is one of the Young British Artists (YBAs). They became famous during the 1990s. He is reported bust on my face ly the United Kingdom's richest living artist. In 2010 the *Sunday Times* estimated his wealth at £215 million. During the 1990s he worked together with famous art collector Charles Saatchi. Hirst and Saatchi had disagreements, and they ended their friendship in 2003.

Death is a central theme in Hirst's works. He became famous for a series of artworks in which dead animals are preserved in formaldehyde. The animals included a sheep, a cow and a shark. The best-known of these was *The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living*. This was a tiger shark immersed in formaldehyde in a transparent display case. He has also made "spin paintings". These were created on a rotating canvas. And "spot paintings", which are rows of randomly coloured circles created by his assistants.

In September 2008, Hirst sold all the artworks of a show during one auction at Sotheby's. This had never been done before by a living artist. The auction made him £111 million ($198 million), breaking the record for an auction by a single artist. It also broke Hirst's own record with £10.3 million for *The Golden Calf*, an animal with 18-carat gold horns and hooves, preserved in formaldehyde.

Since 1999 some of Hirst's works have been claimed to be plagiarised. It was discovered that his sculpture *Hymn* was closely based on a child's toy. Hirst was sued by the original creator of the toy, and the case was settled out-of-court.
**Shaun T** (born May 2, 1978), is an American motivational speaker, fitness trainer, fitness motivator, businessman, television personality and choreographer. He is best known for his home fitness programs for adults and children which include T25, Insanity and Hip-Hop Abs.

Life and career
---------------

Shaun T was raised in Deptford, New Jersey. He grew up playing football, baseball and running track. He attended Rowan University where he received his bachelor's degree in Sports Science and minored in Theater/Dance. While there, he was initiated into Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. After gaining 50 pounds in his freshman year of college, Shaun T became interested in fitness and changed his course of study. He now lives in Phoenix, Arizona.

His career began as a health and fitness specialist. He also became a personal trainer and health program manager at Wyeth and also worked at a number of fitness chains, including Equinox Fitness. Shaun T began dancing in college, at 21 years old. He was required to teach an aerobics class which was part of his Sports Science degree and then became an aerobics instructor. After graduating from Rowan University, he moved to Los Angeles where he worked as a choreographer, dancer and trainer. His first professional work as a dancer was for Mariah Carey. Shaun T was teaching a fitness class at Equinox Fitness where he was approached by representatives of Beachbody and asked him to submit a demo for a workout video.

Shaun T has been openly gay since October 2012 and is married to Scott Blokker.

Home fitness programs
---------------------

### Insanity

Carl Daikeler and Jon Congdon launched the Beachbody fitness company in 1998. They were looking for new fitness workout home videos. They approached Shaun T who submitted a demo which would later be called "Insanity", released in 2009. It was termed "the hardest workout put on DVD". It was sold through TV ads. Because of the difficulty of the workout and its popularity, Shaun T has been a guest on *The Oprah Winfrey Show*, *The Tyra Banks Show*, *Doctors* and the *Dr. Oz Show*.

### Hip-Hop Abs

Shaun T's first work for Beachbody, Hip Hop Abs was released in 2003. In 2007, it was the top-selling workout video in the United States.

Videography
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* 2021: Let's get up!
* 2019: Transform :20
* 2017: Shaun Week
* 2015: Cize (Exercise video series, tagline "The end of exercise")
* 2014: Insanity Max 30 (Exercise video series)
* 2013: Focus T25 (Exercise video series)
* 2012: Insanity: The Asylum Vol. 2 - Elite Training Series (Exercise video series)
* 2011: Insanity: The Asylum (Exercise video series)
* 2009: Insanity (Exercise video series)
* 2008: Rockin' Body (Exercise video series)
* 2008: Shaun T's Fit Kids Club (Exercise video for ages 7 and up)
* 2008: Get Real with Shaun T (Exercise video for pre-teens)
* 2007: Hip Hop Abs (Exercise video series)

Related pages
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* Beachbody

Other websites
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* Shaun T Fitness: Official Site
* Shaun T's official Facebook page
**Operation Lyari** was a government-led crackdown against local gangs and crime syndicates in the Lyari area of Karachi, Pakistan. Part of the broader Karachi Operation, it aimed to restore law and order in the region plagued by violence and criminal activities.

### Background

Karachi, as Pakistan's largest city with a population exceeding 20 million, has a diverse demographic makeup, contributing to complex ethnic and political dynamics. Ethnic tensions and rivalries have historically led to sporadic violence, exacerbated by factors such as migration from various regions of Pakistan and neighboring countries.

### Ethnic and Political Dynamics

The city is home to a mix of ethnic groups, including Mahajirs, Sindhis, Pashtuns, Balochis, and others, each with its own political affiliations. Political parties such as the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) and Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) have strongholds in specific communities, shaping the city's political landscape.

### Operations

Operation Lyari commenced in response to escalating violence attributed to local gangs, particularly in the Lyari area. Led by Sindh Rangers and supported by various law enforcement agencies, the operation targeted gang leaders and criminal networks responsible for extortion, drug trafficking, and other illicit activities.

#### 2012 Operation

The initial phase of the operation in 2012 faced challenges, including stiff resistance from entrenched gang members. Despite initial progress, the operation was temporarily halted amid political interventions and negotiations.

##### 2013 Operation

Following a change in government, a renewed effort was made in 2013 to curb violence in Karachi, including Lyari. Pakistan Rangers, with support from the federal and provincial authorities, intensified operations, resulting in significant arrests and disruptions to criminal networks.

### Outcome

Operation Lyari led to a substantial decrease in crime rates in the Lyari area, with the arrest or elimination of key gang leaders. The operation marked a significant milestone in efforts to restore peace and stability in Karachi, although challenges persist in addressing underlying socio-economic issues contributing to crime.
The **Shapley Supercluster** or **Shapley Concentration** (**SCl 124**) is the largest concentration of galaxies in our nearby universe. 

It is a gravitationally interacting unit 650 million light years away (z=0.046). This means it pulls itself together, instead of expanding with the universe. It is an overdensity in the distribution of galaxies in the constellation of Centaurus.

History
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In the late 1920s, Harlow Shapley and his colleagues at the Harvard College Observatory started a survey of galaxies in the southern sky, using photographic plates obtained at the 24-inch Bruce telescope at Bloemfontein, South Africa. He found a 'cloud' in the constellation of Centaurus to be the most striking concentration of galaxies.

In recent times, the Shapley Supercluster was rediscovered, in a survey of galaxies at the University of Cambridge in England. In this paper, the supercluster was named after Shapley, in recognition of his pioneering survey of galaxies in which this concentration of galaxies was first seen. Around the same time, others had noticed a remarkable concentration of clusters in the Abell catalogue of galaxy clusters: they had named it the *Alpha concentration*.
A statue of Kannagi holding a silambu.
**Silambu** (Tamil: சிலம்பு; Malayalam: ചിലമ്പ് /cil’əmpɨ̆/), or **Gaggara** (Tulu: ಗಗ್ಗರ), is an anklet worn and used in many different ways on the Indian subcontinent.

Etymology
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According to Jeyaraj, the word 'silambu' is derived from the verb 'silambal', meaning 'to make sound'.

Description
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The silambu is filled with beads or small balls that make noise when the wearer moves or dances. It may be worn on the ankle or the leg. When worn on the leg, it is called *kālchilambu* in Tamil.

Some silambu are made of copper and use iron balls to make sound. Others are made of silver.

In dance
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In Tamil Nadu, a traditional dance called Kai Silambu Attam is danced at the temple during the Amman festival or Navratri festival. During this dance, the dancers wear silambu on their ankles and also hold them in their hands. They have different styles of jumping in their dance. This vibration produces sound in the silambu.
Nautch and Kandyan dancers may wear silambu.

In literature
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The main character of the epic Silappatikaram (a story of Silambu) is based on Kannagita's attempt to sell her anklet Silambu. The title comes from the name of the anklet.

In festivals
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Silambu are sometimes placed on cows' legs during the Pongal festival.

Gallery
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* Anklets, Tamil NaduAnklets, Tamil Nadu