recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
***Stepmom*** is a 1998 American comedy and drama movie. It has themes of terminal illness and friendships between couples.

Plot
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Jackie and Luke Harrison are a divorced New York City couple. They try hard to co-parent their daughter Anna and son Ben. The couple helps the kids deal with the lifestyle change. Luke is a lawyer, He is living with his girlfriend for one year, Isabel Kelly. Isabel is a successful fashion photgrapher his junior by several years. Isabel has never wanted to be a mother. However, she tries hard to make Anna and Ben more around her. Anna rejects Isabel's overtures. Ben likes Isabel, though he makes things harder with his mischief. Isabel behaves with contempt. She is very cautious around Jackie. She believes Jackie compensates too much for the divorce when she spoils her children.

Jackie is a former publisher. She has become a stay-at-home mom. Jackie treats Isabel coldly. She (Jackie) sees Isabel as an immature, selfish and overly ambitious career woman. Jackie also has plans to hurt Luke. This is seen during fights on Isabel's ability to parent.

It becomes obvious Jackie was battling cancer for some time. The cancer is now set to kill her.

Isabel and Anna's relationship begins improving. They bond over shared hobbies, like painting and music.

On Christmas morning, the family get together to celebrate. Jackie is now bedridden. She shares emotional moments with her children. Jackie tells them she will remain with them as long as they remember her.

Cast
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* Julia Roberts as Isabel Kelly
* Susan Sarandon as Jackie Harrison
* Ed Harris as Luke Harrison
* Jena Malone as Anna Harrison
* Liam Aiken as Ben Harrison
* Lynn Whitfield as Dr. Sweikert
* Darrell Larson as Duncan Samuels
* Mary Louise Wilson as School Counselor
* Andre B. Blake as Cooper
* Herbert Russell as Photo Assistant
* Jack Eagle as Craft Service Man

Reception
---------

*Stepmom* got mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes sets the approval rating of the movie at 46%.

Despite the substandard critic reviews, the movie took in over $91 million in the United States. Across the world, it took in over $159 million. The movie was released on Christmas Day 1998.

Susan Sarandon was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for the Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama. The San Diego Film Critics Society gave her an award for the Best Actress for her role in *Stepmom*. Ed Harris received an award for Best Supporting Actor from the National Board of Review for his role in that same movie.
The word **treble** is used, especially in British English, to mean the singing voice of a boy or girl. Often it is called **boy soprano**, but since there are also many girls who sing in cathedral and church choirs these days, the word treble is now used to describe the voice of either sex.

A boy can sing treble until he reaches puberty. At puberty he starts to become a man and his voice range will go down (we say that his voice "breaks"). He will then become a tenor, baritone or bass, or he may even train to be a countertenor. A girl’s voice also changes when she reaches puberty, but the change into a grown-up female voice is more gradual than with a boy, and it is still within the soprano or alto range.

Boys who join a cathedral choir or the choir of a large church will have to work hard to develop their voice and learn to sing musically. They often start this training aged 7 or 8, and they may only have four or five years before their voice starts to break. They do not usually become famous as soloists, but the Welsh treble Aled Jones became very famous for about three years and made many recordings before his voice broke in 1987.

The word ‘treble’ is used for children singing in a Classical Music style, especially church music. Although children do not usually sing in opera, occasionally a treble is used for the part of a very small boy, e.g. in Debussy’s opera *Pélléas et Mélisande*.
The **Treaty of Warsaw** (German: *Warschauer Vertrag*) is a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed on December 7, 1970 and ratified by the German Bundestag on May 17, 1972.

In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border - the Oder-Neisse line. This was a very sensitive topic at the time as Poland was concerned that one day a German government would lay claim to some of the territory Germany lost after World War II. Poland took over this territory to replace eastern Poland, which the Soviet Union had conquered in 1939. A lot of that land was east of the Curzon Line, and Poland kept it after the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921).

Chancellor Willy Brandt was heavily criticized by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, which indeed were in favour of such a claim, accusing him of abandoning German interests. The Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed by a reunited Germany in the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990.

In the FRG at the time this treaty was signed it was not seen as the last word on the border, because article IV stated that previous treaties like the Potsdam Agreement were not superseded by this latest agreement, so the provisions of this treaty could be changed by a final peace treaty between Germany and the Allies of World War II as provided for in the Potsdam Agreement.

Other websites
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* Text of the treaty (PDF file, (in German))
Mateo Alemán
**Mateo Alemán y de Enero** (Seville, Spain, 1547 – 1615? in Mexico) was a Spanish writer.

He graduated at Seville University in 1564 and later studied at Salamanca and Alcalá. From 1571 to 1588 held a post in the treasury. He was descended from Jews who were made to converted to Catholicism after 1492. One of his forebears had been burned by the Inquisition for secretly continuing to practice Judaism. In 1599, he published the first part of *Guzmán de Alfarache*. It was a well liked book which was printed in at least sixteen editions in five years.

In 1571 he married Catalina de Espinosa. It was not a happy marriage. He was constantly in money difficulties and was imprisoned for debt at Seville at the end of 1602.

In 1608, Alemán moved to America. It is said that he worked as a printer in Mexico. His *Ortografía castellana* (1609), published in Mexico, contains ideas for the reform of Spanish spelling. Nothing is known of Alemán after 1609, but it is sometimes believed that he was still living in 1617.
West Mercia Police Badge
Map of the area the service covers
**West Mercia Police** is a territorial police service that polices Herefordshire, Shropshire and Worcestershire. It was known as **West Mercia Constabulary** until it was renamed in 2009. Its name comes from the area it polices formerly being the western part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia.

It was formed on 1 October 1967. It was created when Worcestershire Constabulary, Herefordshire Constabulary, Shropshire Constabulary, and Worcester City Police merged together.

It is the fourth largest police service in England and Wales.

The service has around 2,000 police officers, 200 police community support officers, 1,500 police staff, and 400 special officers.

Their headquarters is at Hindlip Hall on the outskirts of the city of Worcester.

Gallery
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* West Mercia Police helmetWest Mercia Police helmet
* West Mercia Police HQ, WorcesterWest Mercia Police HQ, Worcester
* West Mercia Police BellWest Mercia Police Bell

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**Vicki Escarra** is an American director of welfare organizations. She was the CEO of Feeding America and is leading Opportunity International since 2012.

Life
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Escarra was born around 1955 in Decatur in Georgia. She obtained a bachelor degree in psychology at Georgia State University. Furthermore, she completed the *Executive Management Program* at Columbia University and the *Executive Leadership Program* at Harvard University.

Since 1973 she worked for Delta Air Lines. Here her career rose, and finally she became the director of the customer service. At that moment she directed over 52,000 employees. In 2002 she was honored with the YWCA Women of Achievement Award.

Since 2003 she was a member of the board of the banking firm A. G. Edwards, and also of several other boards like for the Association of Professional Women and the Committee of 200. From 2004 to 2006 she worked as a chairman of the Atlanta Convention & Visitors Bureau.

From 2006 to 2012 she was director of Feeding America, an organization behind two hundred food banks in the United States and Puerto Rico with programs like soup kitchens and shelters. The organization feeds tens of millions of Americans that do not have enough food to buy themselves. For her work for Feeding America she was honored in 2009 with a Four Freedoms Award in the category *Freedom from want*.

Since 2012 Escarra leads Opportunity International, an international organization that works in the field of micro finance, insurance and training of small companies in twenty countries in the Third World.
**Monoplacophora**  is a class of molluscs. They have a cap-like shell and live on the bottom of the sea.

They were well-known as a fossil group from the Cambrian to the Devonian. One species was dredged up from the Pacific Ocean off Mexico in 1952. It was found to be a Monoplacophoran, and given the genus of *Neopilina*. This was one of the most remarkable modern discoveries of a 'living fossil', and a Lazarus taxon. 

More than that, they are the most extreme example of the *pull of the recent*, which is a term in palaeontology. All fossil groups have a first and last appearance in the fossil record but, for living species, their last appearance is the present day. This may be very much later than their last appearance as a fossil. The discovery of the living monoplacs extended their time range by 400 million years.

The anatomy of *Neopilina* shows "serially repeated structures" such as gills. Serial repetition of anatomical structures such as gills and muscles may have evolved once in the common ancestor of chitons and monoplacophorans. It suggests the ancient ancestor of molluscs had bilateral symmetry, and segments.
Coordinates: 40°6′N 21°4′E﻿ / ﻿40.100°N 21.067°E﻿ / 40.100; 21.067
**Samarina** (Greek: Σαμαρίνα, Aromanian: *Samarina, Xamarina, San Marina*) is a village and a former municipality in Grevena regional unit, West Macedonia, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Grevena. Its population primarily consists of Aromanians (sometimes called Vlachs). It attracts many tourists due to its scenic location and beautiful pine and beech forests. The population was 378 people as of 2011.

Samarina is located on Mount Smolikas, the highest of the Pindus range and the second-highest mountain in all of Greece, at an altitude of 1380–1515 meters.

History
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In 1917, Samarina participated together with other 12 villages in an attempt to create an autonomous area which much later was described as Principality of the Pindus.

Samarina was the birthplace of Alcibiades Diamandi and Nicolaos Matussis, leaders of the Vlach "Roman Legion", who promoted a local autonomous Aromanian nationalist area during World War II. This was also called in some cases the Principality of the Pindus, although this name is mainly used for the events of 1917 in Samarina.
**William Thomas Lawrence** (May 7, 1788 – October 25, 1859) was a U.S. Representative from New York. He was the brother of Samuel Lawrence. Born as the son of Jonathan Lawrence in New York City, William attended the common schools.

Life
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He engaged in mercantile pursuits. During the War of 1812, Lawrence served in the Fourth Regiment and (commander the American forces at Fort Bowyer), New York State Artillery. He moved to Cayuga County in 1823 and started farming. He was in the Justice of the Peace in 1838. Fort Bowyer was commanded by Major William Lawrence not William T. Lawrence. William Lawrence was from Maryland. He first served with the 4th Infantry and then the 2d Infantry from April 1802 until he was transferred to the 8th Infantry in May 1815. Information from Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army 1789-1903. Fort Bowyer was defended by the 2d Infantry not the 4th Infantry.

Lawrence was elected as a Whig to the Thirtieth Congress (March 4, 1847 – March 3, 1849).

Death
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He died at his country home near Cayutaville on October 25, 1859. He was interred in the family cemetery on the Shore Road, in the Borough of Queens, New York City.

Sources
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* United States Congress. "William T. Lawrence (id: L000142)". *Biographical Directory of the United States Congress*.

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The **Samaritans** is a charity in the United Kingdom and Ireland. They are a support group for those at risk of suicide.

History
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*The Samaritans,* was founded on November 5, 1953 by Chad Varah, a vicar. He started as a man "willing to listen". His approach was considered controversial at the time. "Everyone thought suicidal people were mad," he said. "But they just needed to be listened to." Today there are over 21,000 volunteers in 201 locations. Varah retired from the Samaritans in 1986.

Services
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Sign promoting Samaritans near a payphone in the United Kingdom
A large amount of Samaritans' work is a telephone hotline, which is open 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. They also offer a drop-in service for face-to-face discussion. Samaritans also offer confidential Email support. The Samaritans volunteers are trained in counselling skills, so they do not judge people.

Confidentiality
---------------

Samaritans have a strict code of confidentiality, even after the death of a caller. Unless the caller gives consent to pass on information, it will be broken only in rare circumstances.

International reach
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Through its email service, Samaritans' work has extended well beyond the UK and Ireland, and Australia as messages are received from all around the world.
**Monophyly** means common descent from a single ancestor.
Biologists have introduced a kind of taxonomy called cladistics. The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved.

If there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is **monophyletic**. (Greek: "of one race").

A group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called **polyphyletic**. Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups. If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called **paraphyletic**. All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many.

The grouping of reptiles **plus** birds is monophyletic.
Example: all species in the genus *Homo* have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known. Thus the genus *Homo* is monophyletic.

If, on the other hand, it were discovered that *Homo habilis* had developed from a different ancestor from *Homo sapiens*, and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic. Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms.

Example of polyphyletic group: Sea slugs.

Polyploidy
----------

Sometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy. There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once). For example, *Salsify*, the hybrid goat's-beard, (*Tragopogon miscellus*) has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington.

Also, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species. Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
Monocyte under a light microscope (40x) from a peripheral blood smear surrounded by red blood cells.
**Monocytes** are a type of white blood cell, part of the human body's immune system. They are usually identified in stained smears by their large two-lobed nuclei. They are a kind of reserve cell which turn into macrophages and immune helper cells called dendritic cells.

Monocytes work at two speeds in the immune system: 

1. To gradually replenish resident macrophages and dendritic cells under normal conditions, and
2. To move quickly (~ 8-12 hours) to infected tissue in response to inflammation signals. There they divide and differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells to cause an immune response.

Half of all monocytes are stored as a reserve in the spleen; the rest are circulating or in tissues.

Physiology
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Monocyte
Monocytes are produced by the bone marrow from stem cell precursors called *monoblasts*. Monocytes circulate in the bloodstream for about one to three days and then typically move into tissues throughout the body. They make up three to eight percent of the leukocytes in the blood. 

Monocytes which migrate from the bloodstream to the tissues will then differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells, which then stay in the tissue. Macrophages are responsible for protecting tissues from foreign substances. They are cells that possess a large smooth nucleus, a large area of cytoplasm and many internal vesicles for processing foreign material.

Monocytes and their macrophage and dendritic cell progeny serve three main functions in the immune system. These are phagocytosis, antigen presentation and cytokine production.

1. Phagocytosis is the process of uptake of microbes and particles followed by digestion and destruction of this material. Monocytes are also capable of killing infected host cells using antibodies.
2. Microbial fragments that remain after such digestion can serve as antigens. This process is called *antigen presentation* and it leads to activation of T lymphocytes. These mount a specific immune response against the antigen.
3. Other microbial products can directly activate monocytes and this leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
A child that has xeroderma pigmentosum
To get xeroderma pigmentosum, both of your parents must have a part of the bad DNA.
**Xeroderma pigmentosum** is a rare genetic disorder.

Ultraviolet (UV) light damages the DNA in skin cells. Normally the DNA damage is repaired. But if a person has a defective repair gene, the DNA is not repaired.

Consequences
------------

This disease causes the skin to be sensitive to sunlight. A person with this disorder must always stay out of the sun, or they will get a sunburn. People with this disease are often called a "Moon child" because they can only go outside during the night. This disease is present in both genders and in all races, with one in 250,000 people living in the US having this disease. A Japanese person is about six times more likely to have this disease.

This disorder is found in one in 250,000 people. People with xeroderma pigmentosum are about 1,000 times more likely to get skin cancer.

There is no cure for xeroderma pigmentosum. The symptoms can be minimized if you do not go outside into sunlight. Fewer than 40% of individuals with the disease survive beyond the age of 20. Some XP victims with less severe cases do manage to live well into their 40s.

People that have xeroderma pigmentosum are sensitive to UV light from the sun, and have dry, flaking skin and pigmented spots that can become skin cancer. 

Other symptoms include:

* Sunburn when in sunlight.
* Making of freckles at a young age
* Skin cancer
* Eyes that are sensitive to the sun and are irritated and clouded
* Blistering of the skin
* Limited growth of hair on the chest and legs
* Dry, scaly skin

The most important part of treatment is avoiding going into sunlight. You may have to wear protective clothes and wear sunscreen.

Technical note
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XP can be caused by mutations in any one of eight genes. Seven of these genes help repair of ultraviolet-induced photoproducts.
Ancient wind catcher in the Middle East
The central tower of the Palace of Westminster. This octagonal spire was for ventilation: it was to draw air out of the Palace. Its design was to disguise its function.
Ventilation system
**Ventilation** is the introduction of fresh air, usually from the outside, into a space, while sending stale air back out. Fans and pumps, vent grates and air flow tunnels are common in these structures.

The simplest systems are called "natural ventilation," which usually means that they get their airflow through vents opening to the outside. Mechanical systems are more popular for industry. Mechanical systems are able to regulate other things, including temperature, relative humidity, and oxygen levels.

Uses
----

Fresh air prevents issues like mold and bacteria growth, as well as the spread of disease. It helps eliminate dust, which can lead to cleaner living standards. Single rooms can sometimes be ventilated by opening a window or door, but this isn’t as successful for larger structures.

Ventilation usually collaborates with heating and cooling systems, but not always and they aren’t only limited to buildings. Vehicles frequently have ventilation systems that control air circulation and air quality.

History
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In ancient Persia, structures called windcatchers were built to create natural ventilation. These structures are a traditional method in Persia. They became very popular and are still in use across the Middle East.
**Nehemiah Grew** (26 September 1641 – 25 March 1712) was an English plant anatomist and physiologist, the "Father of Plant Anatomy".

Grew graduated from Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1661, and ten years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden University. 

He began work on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in 1670 his essay, *The Anatomy of Vegetables begun*, was communicated to the Royal Society. The following year he was elected a Fellow. In 1672, when the essay was published, he settled in London, and soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. 

In 1673 he published his *Idea of a Phytological History*, which consisted of papers he had communicated to the Royal Society in the preceding year, and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as Secretary of the Royal Society. He edited the *Philosophical Transactions* in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he published by request a descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved at Gresham College.

In 1682 appeared his great work on the *Anatomy of Plants*, which also was largely a collection of previous publications. It was illustrated with eighty-two plates, with an appendix of seven papers mostly of a chemical character. The *Anatomy* is especially notable for its descriptions of plant structure. He described nearly all the key differences of morphology of stem and root, showed that the flowers of the Asteraceae are built of multiple units, and correctly said that stamens are male organs. *Anatomy of Plants* also contains the first known microscopic description of pollen.

Much of Grew's pioneering work with the microscope was done at the same time as that of Marcello Malpighi. The two reportedly borrowed freely from one another. Grew's work on pollen was more extensive than that of Malpighi. It led to the discovery that size and shape is different between species, whereas pollen grains within a species are all alike. This discovery is central to the field of micropaleontology.
This article is about the publishing term. For other uses, see Template (disambiguation).
For the list of templates used in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Template messages.
A **template** is a tool that shows the shape of something or it is a tool to help make something. It can separate the form of something from the things inside it.

These are plastic templates to make curved lines on paper
In drawing, a template can be a wood, plastic or metal tool that is used to help make marks with a pen or pencil. Lines can be drawn on paper, or on metal or wood to make the same shape many times.

In publishing for example, a template is a layout made by someone else to give an idea what to write in different parts of a book or story. A simple publishing template can have spaces for the words, for pictures, for the story title (name), and for the name of the publication.

Humans or machines can use templates. Some computer programs that work with the Internet use a template to separate the way the program works from the way it shows the words and pictures. It can be a way to copy words and pictures. In computer programming, templates save time because the programmer does not need to write the same words over and over.

When doctors plan to give a person a new bone joint made of metal or plastic, they can use a template in the shape of the new joint. This type of template is put on an x-ray picture of the person to help to decide the size of joint needed.

Related pages
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* Computer programming
**Robert David Bennett** (12 September 1875 - 26 September 1932) was an Australian criminal and sex offender. He was convicted of the rape of a young girl in Western Australia in 1911 and, despite receiving a life sentence for the crime, he was released in June 1914 under controversial circumstances.

He would later be hanged at Pentridge Gaol on 26 September 1932, being the first execution there, he had first arrived in Australia on 4 June 1886.

His criminal career began when he was sentenced to life in 1911 for rape, but released only six years later. He then went in for armed robbery with an accomplice, Angus Murray, got caught, and was sentenced to 15 years.

The two men escaped from jail in 1923. Murray got clean away, committed a murder during a bank robbery, and was hanged in 1924. Bennett was quickly caught and made to serve his full sentence. Within days of his release he raped a four-year-old girl, for which he earned the dubious distinction of becoming the last man executed for rape in Australia.
**Samarkand**  It is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province.

The city is on the old Silk Road between China and the West, and is an Islamic centre for scholarly study. In the 14th century, it became the capital of the empire of Timur (Tamerlane), and is the site of his mausoleum, the Gur-e Amir. The Bibi-Khanym Mosque remains one of the city's most famous landmarks. The Registan was the ancient centre of the city.

Most of the inhabitants of this city are Persian-speaking and speak the Tajik Persian dialect. This city is one of the historical centers of the Tajik people in Central Asia, which in the past was one of the important cities of the great empires of Iran.

In 2001, UNESCO added the 2,750-year-old city to its World Heritage Site list as *Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures*.

History
-------

Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world, prospering from its location on the trade route between China and the Mediterranean (Silk Road). At times Samarkand has been one of the greatest cities of Central Asia.

Started about 700 BC by the Persians, Samarkand has been one of the main centres of Persian civilization from its early days. Maracanda was the ancient Greek name for it Alexander the Great conquered the city in 329 BC. 

Downtown with Bibi Khanym mosque
### Medieval history

At the start of the 8th century, Samarkand came under Arab control. Under Abbasid rule, the legend goes, the secret of papermaking was learned from two Chinese prisoners in 751. This led to the first paper mill in the Islamic world being founded in Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world, and from there to Europe.

Samarkand was sacked by the Mongols under Genghis Khan in 1220. Some of the people survived, but later, Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol attack. The town took many decades to recover from these disasters. In *The Travels* of Marco Polo, where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road, Samarkand is described as "a very large and splendid city..." He also writes about a Christian church in Samarkand, which miraculously remained standing after a portion of its central supporting column was removed.

In 1370, Timur the Lame, or Tamerlane, decided to make Samarkand the capital of his empire, stretching from India to Turkey. During the next 35 years, he built a new city and populated it with artisans and craftsmen from all of the places he had conquered. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarkand grew to have a population of about 150,000.

### Modern history

In 1499, the Uzbek Turks took control of Samarkand. They moved the capital to Bukhara and Samarkand went into decline. The city came under Russian rule in 1868. The Russian section of the city was built after this point, largely to the west of the old city.

The city later became the capital of the Samarkand Oblast of Russian Turkestan and grew in importance still further when the Trans-Caspian railway reached the city in 1888. It became the capital of the Uzbek SSR in 1925 before being replaced by Tashkent in 1930.
The **United States Navy Sea, Air, and Land Teams**, commonly known as **Navy SEALs**, are the U.S. Navy's special forces. Their acronym is derived from their ability to operate at sea, in the air, and on land. In the War on Terrorism, SEALs have been utilized almost exclusively for land-based missions. All SEALs are male members of the United States Navy. The CIA, more specifically its Special Activities Division, often recruits operators from the SEAL Teams. Joint Navy SEALs and CIA operations go back to the famed MACV-SOG during the Vietnam War. Joint operations have continued, as seen in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and in the finding and killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan on may 1st through 2nd 2011.

The Navy SEALs were formed in the second world war. The United States Navy found the need for covert, elite operations. As a result, the Amphibious Scout and Raider School was established in 1942 at Fort Pierce, Florida. The Scouts and Raiders were formed in September of that year, nine months after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

World War II
------------

The first group included Phil H. Bucklew, the "Father of Naval Special Warfare," in whose honor the Naval Special Warfare Center building is named. Started in October 1942, this group saw action in November 1942 during Operation Torch, the first allied landings in Europe, on the North African coast. Scouts and Raiders also helped during landings in Sicily, Salerno, Anzio, Normandy, and southern France.

A second group of Scouts and Raiders was started on 7 July 1943. Their first mission, in September 1943, was at Finschafen on New Guinea. Later operations were at Gasmata, Arawe, Cape Gloucester, and the East and South coast of New Britain. 

The third Scout and Raiders organization operated in China. Scouts and Raiders were to fight with the Sino-American Cooperative Organization, or SACO. They conducted a patrol of the upper Yangtze River in the spring of 1945 and, disguised as coolies, conducted a detailed three-month patrol of the Chinese coast from Shanghai to Kitchioh Wan, near Hong Kong.

Vietnam
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See the main article: Vietnam War
President John F. Kennedy, aware of the situations in Southeast Asia, recognized the need for special operations in the fight against guerrilla warfare. In a speech to Congress on 25 May 1961, Kennedy spoke of his respect for the United States Army Special Forces. In the speech he announced his intention to spend over $100 million to strengthen U.S. special operations forces and expand American capabilities in unconventional warfare. Some people have assumed this was the start of the SEALS, but they had already long been active.
*Megatherium* NHM
Mastodon, 2.5 to 3 meters (8-10 feet) at the shoulder and weighing 3500 and 5400 kilograms (4-6 tons)
**Megafauna** are large animals. The word is most used for the Pleistocene megafauna – the large land animals of the last ice age, such as mammoths. It is also used for the largest living wild land animals, especially elephants, giraffes, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elk, condors, etc.

Its use is connected with the discussion about the Holocene extinctions after the ice age. Most of the large land animals which were alive 12,000 years ago are now extinct, and there is much discussion as to what has caused this. The two main theories are hunting by humans, and climate change. Together, these reasons are enough to explain why these previously successful animals are now extinct. Elephant birds on Madagascar were certainly hunted to extinction, as were the Moas in New Zealand. Archaeological sites with evidence of moa hunting are all over New Zealand. The moas became extinct about five hundred years ago. The moas had survived being hunted by Haast's Eagle, but they did not survive being hunted for food by the Maoris.

For many others the climate changes may have been the main reason for their extinction.
Fragment showing the Praetorian Guard, c. 50 AD. At all stages of the Republic and Empire foot soldiers in action carried a shield

**The Roman army** is the military of ancient Rome, the forces used by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire. Its infantry for much of its history was the Roman legion. Rome also had a navy. The size of the army in the late Roman Empire was about 128,000 – 179,200 men. It was very well organized. The main Roman soldiers in the Empire were the legionaries. The legions were separated into centuries, made up of 80 soldiers and 20 other men who remained in the camp to cook and do other chores.

Other soldiers in the army were called the *auxilia*. Auxilia were non-citizens who mainly came from the Roman provinces. They were paid less than legionaries and did not usually wear armor but at the end of their service, which was a minimum of 25 years, they were given Roman citizenship.

The army had cavalry units called Equites. Their men were rich enough to have horses and more expensive weapons. Being few, they were less important in battle than the infantry.

Weapons and equipment
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Modern replica of lorica segmentata type armor
The soldiers of the Roman army wore helmets and body protection. In the early to mid-Republican era, legionaries usually bought their own equipment. *Hastati*, the first line of soldiers, usually had breastplates, called a *cuirass*, and some wore *lorica hamata*, or chainmail. The richer principes, the second line of soldiers, could afford *lorica hamata* but they were sometimes seen wearing the cheaper *cuirasses*. Both hastati and principes were each armed with a *gladius* – a short, 60 centimeter (two foot) sword, and each had two *pila* – short spears.

The third line of soldiers, the Triarii, had a *hasta*, a two meter long spear. They were also armed with the *gladius* and had an early form of the *lorica segmenta* or iron band armor. All legionaries had a large rectangular shield, the *scutum*, which had rounded corners.
By the late Republican period, all legionaries carried a *gladius*, two *pila*, a new, larger *scutum*, and wore chainmail. *Lorica segmentata* was only commonly worn between the 2nd and 3rd century.

Larger weapons such as the ballista (large crossbow) and the Onager (catapult) were used in larger battles.

From the Second Punic War onward, Roman armies had units of non-Italian mercenaries, such as Numidian light cavalry, Cretan archers, and Balearic slingers. Roman armies had previously lacked these kinds of troops.

Roman soldiers in "tortoise" formation* Trajan's Column
* (plaster cast)
Column of Marcus AureliusCarvings from monuments of the 2nd century AD in Rome

Training
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The main thing a member of the Roman Army needed was athletic ability. Soldiers were expected to march about 36 km (24 miles) in five hours. They also had to be fit to fight well and cope with any injuries.

New soldiers would do two sessions of military drill and give their oath of loyalty to their Commander and Emperor. Every day the whole of the legion would practice running, jumping, sword fighting and javelin throwing.
Roman conquest of Britain.
The **Roman conquest of Britain** began in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius. His general Aulus Plautius became first Governor of Roman Britain (Latin: *Britannia*). 

Britain had been the target of invasions by the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It had diplomatic and trading links with the Romans after Julius Caesar's expeditions in 55 and 54 BC. Roman economic and cultural influence was already part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, in the south.

Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, Britain was not invaded. Augustus prepared invasions in 34 BC, 27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms. Strabo's *Geography*, written during this period, says that Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered.

By the 40s AD, the political situation in Britain was apparently in some chaos.  Caligula planned a campaign against the Britons in 40, but it never happened. Caligula's preparations made Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at *Bononia* (modern Boulogne-sur-Mer) that provided a model for the one built soon after at Dover.
***The Southern Vampire Mysteries*** is an adventure, mystery, and romance book series written by author Charlaine Harris. In the story scientists have invented a fake blood for vampires to drink, giving them a chance to live with humans peacefully. Sookie Stackhouse, the main character, meets a vampire in her hometown of *Bon Temps* (a made up place in Louisiana) and falls in love, however she must also solve the mysterious deaths in her town, using her ability to hear people's thoughts.

The book series was first published in 2001, and there are currently eight books all together. In 2007 a television show was created about the books called *True Blood*, which is on HBO.

Books
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* *Dead Until Dark* (2001)
* *Living Dead in Dallas* (2002)
* *Club Dead* (2003)
* *Dead to the World* (2004)
* *Dead as a Doornail* (2005)
* *Definitely Dead* (2006)
* *All Together Dead* (2007)
* *From Dead to Worse* (2008)
* *Dead and Gone* (2009)
* *A Touch of Dead* (October 2009)
* *Dead in the Family* (May 2010)

Other websites
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* Charlaine Harris official website
**Molecular evolution** is the process of evolution in DNA, RNA, and proteins. 

Molecular evolution emerged as a scientific field in the 1960s as researchers from molecular biology, evolutionary biology and population genetics sought to understand the structure and function of nucleic acids and protein. Some of the key topics have been the evolution of enzyme function, the use of nucleic acid changes as a molecular clock to study species divergence, and the origin of non-functional or junk DNA. 

Recent advances in genomics, including whole-genome sequencing, and bioinformatics have led to a dramatic increase in studies on the topic. In the 2000s, the role of gene duplication, the extent of adaptive molecular evolution versus neutral genetic drift, and the identification of molecular changes responsible for various human characteristics especially those pertaining to infection, disease, and cognition.

Molecular study of phylogeny
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Molecular systematics is the process of using data on the DNA, RNA, or proteins to resolve questions in phylogeny and taxonomy. The idea is to place groups in their correct position on the evolutionary tree. This corrects their biological classification from the point of view of evolution. The technique has already led to major changes in the taxonomy of living things, including the names for higher categories, which had been stable for well over a century.

Molecular systematics has been made possible by techniques for sequence analysis. This gives the exact sequence of nucleotides or bases in either DNA or RNA. At present it is still expensive to sequence the entire genome of an organism, but it has been done for over 100 species.
**Materialize NV**, based in Leuven, Belgium, is a company active in the field of 3D printing, offering both software and parts manufacturing.

Overview
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Materialize was founded in June 1990 in Louvain2 by Wilfried Vancraen3.

In 1991, the company released the first elements of the Mimics software suite, and in 1992 the Magics software suite. The first of these suites, Mimics, transforms stacks of 2D images (eg DICOM files) into a 3D model and calculates the area of these 3D models. Initial data can be obtained by computed tomography, confocal microscopy, microtomography or microscopic tomography (micro-CT or µCT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) via image segmentation. 

The second, Magics, makes it possible to optimize the printing result, to simulate the process, to manage the mesh structures, to generate supports, to import data, for example in CAD formats and to export them, in particular in 3D STL files. These software suites then evolve regularly2,4.

At the same time, the company sets up web services allowing its customers to express manufacturing needs or to pilot 3D prints.
Coordinates: 52°24′N 0°44′E﻿ / ﻿52.400°N 0.733°E﻿ / 52.400; 0.733

The **Thetford Hoard**, or **Thetford Treasure**, is a hoard of Romano-British metalwork found at Gallows Hill, near Thetford in Norfolk, in November 1979. It is now in the British Museum.

Dating from the mid- to late-4th century AD, this hoard is a collection of thirty-three silver spoons and three silver strainers, twenty-two gold finger rings, four gold bracelets, four necklace pendants, five gold chain necklaces and two pairs of necklace-clasps, a gold amulet designed as a pendant, an unmounted engraved gem, four beads (one emerald and three of glass), and a gold belt-buckle decorated with a dancing satyr. A small cylindrical lidded box made from shale also belonged to the hoard.

Discovery
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The find was made under unfortunate circumstances. The site had been recently cleared for building work, and the finder was using a metal-detector without the knowledge and permission of the owners of the site. The discovery was made late on a November day, in failing light. The finder recovered the material in great haste, probably overlooking some small items, because he knew he had no legal right to search in that area. He did not, as the law requires, report his discovery to the authorities. Instead, he unwisely attempted to sell the objects he had found to private buyers.

By the time archaeologists learned of the find several months later, the place had been built over, which made proper archaeological investigation impossible. It was not even possible to question the finder about the circumstances: by the time the material arrived at the British Museum for study, he was terminally ill, and he died about a month later, in July 1980.

There were persistent rumours that the treasure originally included coins, and probably the group as we see it now is incomplete. The full account of the circumstances of the discovery is told in the standard catalogue.
Mannargudi is a town in Thiruvarur district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the headquarters of the Mannargudi Taluk. The town is located at a distance of 20km from the district headquarters Tiruvarur and 310 km from the state capital Chennai. Mannargudi is known for the Rajagopalaswamy temple, a prominent Vaishnavite shrine.Mannargudi is administered by a municipality established in 1866. As of 2011, the municipality covered an area of 11.55 km2 (4.46 sq mi) and had a population of 66,999. Mannargudi comes under the Mannargudi assembly constituency which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years and it is a part of the Nagappattinam constituency which elects its Member of Parliament (MP) once in five years. Roadways are the major mode of transportation to the town and it also has rail connectivity. The nearest seaport, Nagapattinam Port, is located 52 km (32 mi) from Mannargudi, while the nearest airport, Tiruchirappalli International Airport, is located 97 km (60 mi) from the town.
**Scordatura** in music is a technique in which players of string instruments tune their strings to different notes from a normal tuning. The word "scordatura" is an Italian word which means "mistuning". It was used for lutes, guitars, viols and instruments of the violin family.

Using a scordatura tuning made the instrument sound different. For example: a string tuned to a slightly higher note will sound louder and brighter because it is tighter. Care has to be taken not to tune it too high otherwise it will break. Scordatura also made it possible to play unusual chords or combinations of notes in string-crossing (when the bow moves quickly from one string to another).

When a composer writes for an instrument using scordatura tuning he shows at the beginning of the music what notes the strings must be tuned to. The music is then written, not as it sounds, but so that the player can read it as if the instrument were being played normally, e.g. if a G string is tuned up to G# and the composer wants a G# he simply writes a G, but it will sound G#.

Violin with strings crossing over one another for Biber's *Resurrection* sonata

Scordatura in the Baroque period
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Scordatura tuning was mainly popular in the Baroque period from 1600-1750. Composers such as Heinrich Biber often used it. He composed a group of sonatas for violin and accompaniment called the "Rosary Sonatas". In each sonata the violin is tuned in a different way. In Sonata XI (called *Resurrection*) he even asks the violinist to make the two middle strings cross over between the bridge and the tailpiece so that the violin is tuned to two Gs and two Ds.

Scordatura in the Classical Period
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In the classical period a famous example of scordatura is Mozart’s, "Sinfonia Concertante" for Violin, Viola and Orchestra in which he asks the viola to tune all four strings a semitone higher than usual. This makes it sound louder and brighter so that it matches the brightness of the violin, especially as the violin is playing with normal tuning in the key of E flat, which sounds a soft key (because the key of Eflat hardly uses any "open" strings).

Later examples
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In the late 19th century and 20th century there are examples of composers using scordatura. In his Fourth Symphony Mahler asks the violin soloist (the leader of the orchestra) to play on a violin tuned to Gsharp-D-A-Eflat. The music is describing a poor beggar playing a violin. The violin soloist needs a second instrument for this, so that he can swap quickly back to a normal violin.

Saint-Saëns asks the solo violin in *Danse Macabre* to tune the E string to Eflat to make it sound like the devil.

Zoltán Kodály wrote a sonata in B minor for solo cello, for which the cellist has to tune down the two lower strings to F# and B instead of G and C. This helps to make a very dark, rich sound when playing B minor chords.