recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Emmental Cheese in the market
That is Emmental cheese and Garlic cheese in Plates 
**Emmental cheese** (sometimes also called **Emmentaler** or **Emmenthal**) is a Swiss cheese. It first came from Switzerland. It is named after the *Emmental*, the valley of a river, near Berne. Emmental cheese was first made around 1353 when Bern joined the confederacy. 

Today, most cheese-producing countries make a cheese called *Emmental cheese* - These cheeses often have little in common with the original though, except for the holes in the cheese. In 1882 was the first time, products could be protected in Europe. Already at that time, Emmentaler was made in countries other than Switzerland.

Emmental cheese is amongst the best-known types of cheese. It is made from cow's milk. Two of the features that make Emmental distinctive are its holes and sweetness. The holes are there because of the way the cheese is made with bacteria which produce the cheese and over time (usually several months) create bubbles of carbon dioxide gas.

Today, Switzerland, France, Austria, and Germany produce Emmental cheeses that have a Protected Designation of Origin. In Switzerland, Austria and Germany, untreated milk is used; most of the other countries use pasteurized milk. About 12 litres of milk are needed to make 1 kg of cheese.

Emmental is produced in loaves of 70–80 kg. Usually, Emmental cheese is left to ripen for a period of 6–7 weeks. Ripening it for 8–12 weeks gives a more spicy (salty) cheese. In Europe, about 464 200 tons of Emmental are produced each year. This means that about 6% of the total amount of milk these countries produce is used to make Emmental cheese. France is the biggest producer of Emmental. In 2005, 247 069 tons were produced there. For this, 13.1% of national milk production was used. About 19% of the production was exported.

French and Swiss people eat the most of this kind of cheese, about 3.3 kg per person per year. Germans eat about half that amount, 1.7 kg per person, per year.

Emmental is also widely used in convenience food products, because it is so widely known.

Other websites
--------------

* How to cook Emmental cheese Archived 2007-10-22 at the Wayback Machine
* Emmental cheese review Archived 2007-12-10 at the Wayback Machine on *Cheese Review*
* Official Website of Swiss Emmental producers
The **emerald ash borer** (*Agrilus planipennis* or *Agrilus marcopoli*) is a shiny green beetle native to Asia. It made its way into the United States on accident and has since been spread to eleven states and to the border with Canada.

The beetle is an invasive species, and a serious pest which destroys ash trees. It has killed at least 25 million ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the ash trees throughout North America.

Adults lay eggs in crevasses in the bark. Larvae burrow into the bark after hatching and consume the living tissue of cambium and phloem. This causes death within two years. The average emerging season for the emerald ash borer is early spring to late summer. Females lay around 75 eggs, but up to 300 from early May to mid-July. The borer's life cycle is estimated to be one year in southern Michigan but may be up to two years in colder regions.

Huge efforts have been made to slow down its spread, but nothing has worked so far. Parasitoid wasps from Asia are being released, and a fungus which kills insects is being tried.
The **Emeishan Traps** is a flood basalt volcanic province in Southwestern China, around Sichuan province. Many igneous rock types can be found there. This is known as large igneous province in geology. Other names for the traps include **Permian Emeishan Large Igneous Province**, and other variations. The Traps are the step-like rock made up of many layers of basalt, which were laid down by successive eruptions of magma. 

The eruptions that lead to the Emeshian traps began about 260 million years ago. The traps are much smaller than the Siberian Traps, which occurred not long afterwards, about 251 million years ago. Despite this, the Emeshian traps were large enough to have an impact on the ecology of the time, and on paleontology. They are part of the mass extinction events towards the end of the Permian period.

The Emeishan Traps are part of the scientific debate on the causes of mass extictions. The end-Guadalupian extinction occurred at almost the same time as the Emeshian Traps were formed. This supports the argument, that volcanism is the main driving force behind mass extinctions. Another theory that has been proposed to explain mass extinctions is that meteor or comet impact events caused them. In this context, the hypothesis is that impact events cause flood basalt eruptions, such as those which generated the Emeshian Traps. This hypothesis is not widely supported.
***Hesperornis***  is an extinct genus of flightless aquatic birds that lived during the Upper Cretaceous (89–65 million years ago).

*Hesperornis* was an important early find in the history of avian paleontology. It was discovered by the paleontologist O.C. Marsh in the late 19th century Bone Wars. 

Famous locations for *Hesperornis* are the Upper Cretaceous marine limestones from Kansas and the marine shales from Canada. The genus probably had a Holarctic distribution.

Anatomy and life style
----------------------

J.M. Gleeson's restoration of *Hesperornis* swimming, 1902
*Hesperornis* was a large bird, reaching up to 1.5 meters (5 feet) in length. It had virtually no wings, and swam with its powerful hind legs. 

Like many other Mesozoic birds such as *Ichthyornis*, *Hesperornis* had teeth in its beak which were used to hold prey (most likely fish).

*Hesperornis* hunted in the waters of such contemporary shelf seas as the North American Inland Sea, the Turgai Strait and the prehistoric North Sea, which then were subtropical to tropical waters, much warmer than today. They probably fed mainly on fish, maybe also crustaceans, cephalopods and mollusks, as do the diving seabirds of today. Their teeth were helpful in dealing with slippery or hard-shelled prey.

On land, *Hesperornis* species may or may not have been able to walk. They certainly could not stand upright like penguins as in the early reconstructions. Their legs attached far at the back and sideways, with even the lower leg being tightly attached to the body (see photo of skeleton). Thus, they were limited to a clumsy hobble at best on land and would have been more nimble if they moved by sliding on their belly or galumphing. The leg skeleton of *Hesperornis* was so thoroughly adapted to diving that their mode on land, and their egg-laying and parental care, is a matter of speculation.

Young *Hesperornis* grew fairly quickly and continuously to adulthood, as is the case in modern birds. More young birds are known from the fossil record of the more northerly sites than from those further south. This suggests that at least some species were migratory like today's penguins, which swim polewards in the summer.

*Hesperornis* was preyed upon by large marine carnivores such as mosasaurs. A *Tylosaurus* specimen contains the bones of a *Hesperornis* in its gut area.
A map showing the extent of Etruria and the Etruscan civilization.
There are three main hypotheses as to the origins of the Etruscan civilization. Autochthonous development *in situ* out of the Villanovan culture, as claimed by the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus who described the Etruscans as indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria. A migration from the Aegean sea, as claimed by a couple of Greek historians: Herodotus, who described them as a group of immigrants from Lydia in Anatolia, and Hellanicus of Lesbos who claimed that the Tyrrhenians were the Pelasgians originally from Thessaly, Greece The third hypotheses is reported by Livy and Pliny the Elder, the Etruscans as related to Rhaetian people to the north and other populations living in the Alps.

German linguist Helmut Rix proposed the Tyrsenian language family, with Etruscan related to the Rhaetic language spoken in the Alps north of Etruria, and to the Lemnian language spoken in Lemons. In particular the Lemnian language could have arrived in the Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.

The latest mtDNA study (2013) suggests that the Etruscans appear to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations.
**Ethnocentrism** is when a person tries to judge the culture of other people from the point of view of their own culture. Ethnocentrism can look at things like language, custom, religion and behavior.

An ethnocentric person will use their own culture as the basis for judging other cultures. They see their own culture as the best and believe other cultures should change to be more like theirs.

The term was first used by sociologist William G Sumner. He defined it as "the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it". (PS this is more exclusive word for "racist")

Ethnocentrism and anthropology
------------------------------

All people tend to use the values of the culture we were born in. One of the main goals of anthropology is to not use ethnocentric ideas. Anthropologists try to see other cultures from the point of view of a person from that culture. This is also known as *cultural relativism*. It is the idea that goes against the idea that some things are always the same in every human culture (human universals). Cultural relativism says that all human action is relative to the culture where the action happens. Anthropologists know that they have to not use the standards of their own culture if they want to understand another society correctly.
False-color image of Las Vegas. Grassland, and vegetation appears in red. 
**False color** (or **false colour**) refers to a group of color methods used to display recorded images in color. A **false-color image** is an image which shows an object in colors different from that which a true-colour photograph would show.

In addition, there is *false color* used for visualization of genuine data.

A photograph shot in color will show the colors in the picture as they appeared on the film, or to the sensor of a digital camera. Since most films and most digital cameras are made to show the world as human color vision would see it, this is known as true-color image. In a **false color** image, the color shown in the image does not correspond to the one the human eye would see. In such an image, color is used for extra information that the eye would not see. Many false color images, for example, show infrared light that humans cannot see.

Examples where color is used to give more informationThis image shows compositional variations of the Moon overlaid as pseudocolor. Bright pinkish areas are highlands materials, blue to orange shades indicate volcanic lava flows. Recent impacted soils are represented by light blue colors; the youngest craters have prominent blue rays extending from them.This image shows compositional variations of the Moon overlaid as pseudo color.A grayscale MRI of a knee – different gray levels indicate different tissue types, requiring a trained eye.A pseudocolor MRI of a knee created using three different grayscale scans – tissue types are easier to discern through pseudo color.
Two Landsat satellite images showing the same region:   
Chesapeake Bay and the city of BaltimoreThis true-color image shows the area in actual colors, e.g. the vegetation appears in green. It covers the full visible spectrum using the red, green and blue / green spectral bands of the satellite mapped to the RGB color space of the image.The same area as a false-color image using the near infrared, red and green spectral bands mapped to RGB – this image shows vegetation in a red tone, as vegetation reflects most light in the near infrared.
**Ger Luijten** (1956 – 19 December 2022) was a Dutch art historian and museum curator. He worked at Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, was head of the art on paper department of the Rijksmuseum and direcotor of Fondation Custodia.

Biography
---------

Luijten was born in 1956. He started a study to become a drawing teacher in Breda in 1977. When he was 23 years old he decided to study art history in Utrecht. In the 1980s he worked as a scientific employee at Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen in Rotterdam. From 1990 to 2010 he worked at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, where he was the head of the art on paper department from 2001. During this period he acquired post-World War II Dutch art. Luijten had the opinion that twentieth-century printmaking and drawing should be acquired in the broadest scope. So next to Mondrian and Armando also less known figurative artists and illustrators like as Peter van Straaten and Dick Bruna. He became in 2010 director of Fondation Custodia in Paris that holds the art collection of the Dutch collector Frits Lugt (1884-1970). Luijten changed Fondation Custodia from a closed study collection into a accesible home for art on paper. Ger was also editor of, among others Simiolus and Print Quarterly.

Luijten was married to art historian Regina Peixeiro. He lived in Paris with his wife and son in the director's house above the Fondation. He died when he was in the Netherlands on 19 December 2022, at the age of 66 from a heart attack.
The ρ Oph cloud complex is a star-forming region in the Gould Belt
The **Gould Belt** is a partial ring of stars local to us in the Milky Way. It is about 3000 light years across, tilted from the galactic plane by 16 to 20 degrees. It has many large and bright O- and B-type stars.

The belt may be the local spiral arm to which the Sun belongs. At present the Sun is about 325 light years from the arm's centre. The belt is thought to be from 30 to 50 million years old, and of unknown origin. Benjamin Gould identified it in 1879.

The belt contains bright stars in many constellations including (in order going more or less eastward) Cepheus, Lacerta, Perseus, Orion, Canis Major, Puppis, Vela, Carina, Crux (the Southern Cross), Centaurus, Lupus, and Scorpius (including the Scorpius-Centaurus Association).

Overview
--------

Star-forming regions with bright O and B stars make up the Gould Belt. These regions include the Orion Nebula and the Orion molecular clouds, the Scorpius-Centaurus OB Association, Cepheus OB2, Perseus OB2, and the Taurus-Auriga Molecular Clouds. 

A theory proposed around 2009 suggests that the Gould Belt formed about 30 million years ago when a blob of dark matter collided with the molecular cloud in our region. There is also evidence for similar Gould belts in other galaxies.

Related pages
-------------

* Radcliffe wave, a recent description of our local area of the galaxy.

Other websites
--------------

* Gould Belt - Astronoo
* Map of the Gould Belt
* 3D evolution of the Gould Belt
* The Spitzer Gould Belt Survey

This template contains clickable linksClickableLocation of Earth(view • discuss)EarthSolar SystemGould BeltOrion ArmMilky WayLocal GroupVirgo SClLaniakea SClOur Universe
The **federal judiciary of the United States** is one of the three co-equal branches of the Federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution. Article III of the Constitution requires the establishment of a Supreme Court and permits the Congress to create other federal courts, and place limitations on their jurisdiction. Article III United States federal judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die.

Courts
------

The federal courts are composed of three levels of courts. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court. It is generally an appellate court that operates under discretionary review, which means that the Court can choose which cases to hear, by granting of writs of certiorari. There is generally no right of appeal to the Supreme Court. In a few situations (like lawsuits between state governments or some cases between the federal government and a state) it sits as a court of original jurisdiction.

The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate federal appellate courts. There are 13 appellate courts that determine if the law was applied correctly in trial courts. In some cases, Congress has diverted appellate jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review.

There are 94 United States district courts. These are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)
The Eureka Flag
The **Eureka Stockade** is the name given to a rebellion by gold miners at Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. It took place at sunrise, on December 3, 1854. The miners came from England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Canada, Italy, Hungary, France, Germany, China and Australia. The miners refused to pay a licence fee to look for gold. The miners said that the money for the licence was a tax, and that if they had to pay tax then they should be represented in the parliament. Irish miner Peter Lalor became the leader of the miners. They built a fort, or stockade, on Bakery Hill above the gold diggings on the Eureka gold lead. They were attacked by the British Army. More than 30 people were killed. The battle went for 20 minutes.

Flag
----

The Eureka Flag in the Ballarat Art Gallery
The miners made their own flag which was flown at the Eureka Stockade. The flag was torn down during the battle and taken away by one of the soldiers. It was given to the Ballarat Art Gallery in the 1890s. Pieces of the flag were sometimes given to important visitors to Ballarat. It is believed that Queen Elizabeth II has a small piece. In the 1973 the flag was restored and put on display at the Art Gallery. The display was opened by the Prime Minister of Australia, Gough Whitlam. The flag has been put on the Victorian Heritage Register and was named an icon by the National Trust in 2006. In August 2010, the Ballarat Art Gallery said that the flag needed further work to keep it safe. It was sent to South Australia to be restored at a cost of more than AU$100,000. The Gallery has built a new airtight case to hold the flag.

The symbol
----------

The flag has often been used as a symbol of rebelion. Trade unions used the flag in their marches. The Prime Minister, John Howard, banned the flag from being flown on building sites.

In 2008, the Football Federation of Australia tried to stop the flag from being flown by supporters of the soccer team, Melbourne Victory. They said it was against their rules for teams to use political symbols. People with the flag would be made to leave the football ground

In 2018, the Eureka flag again divided people in some workplaces. The Australian Building and Construction Commission published examples of slogans and logos that were against the Federal Government's building codes. These images were not allowed to be displayed by workers on projects run by the government. The list of banned images included the Eureka flag.

Many nationalist groups have started to use the flag as a symbol. It was used during the racial riots at Cronulla, New South Wales. People are concerned that it will become a symbol of leaving people out, and not a symbol of Australian democracy.
Gaetano Donizetti
**Gaetano Donizetti** (born Bergamo 29 November 1797; died Bergamo 8 April 1848) was an Italian composer. He was the most famous composer of operas in Italy in the years between the death of Bellini (1835) and the time when Verdi was becoming well-known. Bellini and Donizetti wrote operas in the bel canto style: music with beautiful, smooth melodies.

Donizetti’s family were very poor. His talent was discovered by Simon Mayr who was maestro di cappella (music director) at S Maria Maggiore in Bergamo. He opened a school which trained boys to sing in the church choir and gave them a good musical education. Donizetti learned a lot from Mayr and was always very grateful to him.

Donizetti’s first operas were performed in Venice. A rich lady who realized he was very talented paid so that he did not have to do military service. His opera *Zoraida di Granata* was very successful in Rome and he was given a contract for an opera for Naples. For several years he composed between two and five operas every year. They were not particularly successful. One of the reasons was that the libretti he was given (the words he had to set) were not very good. 

In 1828 he married. None of their three children lived very long and his wife died in 1837 which made him very sad during his last years. This can be felt in his music.

His opera *Anna Bolena* made him internationally famous. It was performed in London and Paris. His opera *Maria Stuarda* was based on a play by Schiller. It was not popular at first. The audience did not like the tragic ending. Today it is recognized as containing some great music, especially in the final scene. After a visit to Paris he returned to Naples to produce *Lucia di Lammermoor* which was based on Scott’s novel *The Bride of Lammermoor*. There is a French version as well as an Italian version of this opera. 

In 1838 he moved to Paris where he had his operas performed in four theatres. Berlioz wrote very critical articles about him in a music journal. Donizetti had gone to Paris hoping that he would earn lots of money so that he could then retire, just like Rossini had done. However, his health was not good and he found it harder to concentrate. He managed to composed *Don Pasquale* which is one of the best comic operas every written, but it does have a lot of music that he had written earlier. He was obviously finding it difficult to think of new ideas. Soon he became really ill. He was suffering from syphilis. He was put in a sanatorium near Paris for 17 months. In 1847 some friends arranged for him to stay with them, but he was very ill by then. He was paralysed and almost unable to speak. His friends looked after him until he died.

He was buried in Bergamo. His remains are now in a church there. The house where he was born is a museum.
For other uses, see Gag (disambiguation).
A **gag** is any thing used to stop a person from speaking. This is done by blocking or muffling the person's mouth and making it difficult for them to move their jaw and tongue in a normal way.

Gags are very commonly seen in BDSM and bondage fantasy. Many different items can be used, ranging from a hand simply clamped over the victim's mouth, to a scarf tied between the jaws, to adhesive tape placed over the mouth and face to seal the lips. There are also many kinds of specially-made gags, which usually strap around or behind the head. Special gags of that kind are usually made from leather or rubber.

In real life it is quite difficult to gag a person in such a way that their speech cannot be understood at all, and it is almost impossible to prevent a gagged person from making some kind of sound. It is also a risk to the person's safety, as the more tightly and securely someone is gagged, the greater the risk that they will choke or suffocate.
Schematic representation of a *Euglena* cell with red eyespot
Schematic representation of a *Chlamydomonas* cell with chloroplast eyespot
An **eyespot** is a simple organ in biology used to detect light. It may be called an **ocellus**, or **pigment pit**. They are quite common in small, simple invertebrates, such as *Planaria*. They do not have lenses or any means of focussing. Therefore, they can sense light from dark, but do not give the animal a visual scene as our eyes do.

In many simple animals the eyespot senses light with a pigment molecule called an opsin. Then a nerve fibre goes from the eyespot to the simple nervous system. This allows the animal to move in response to (for example) a shadow passing over it.

Eyespots also occur in single-celled protists like *Euglena* and *Chlamydomonas*, where it is connected to the flagellum. This allows the information from the light patch to influence the cells's movement.

The first fossils of eyes that have been found to date are from the early Cambrian period (about 540 million years ago). This period saw a burst of apparently rapid evolution, called the "Cambrian explosion". One idea is that the evolution of eyes started an arms race which led to a rapid spate of evolution. Much earlier than this organisms would have used light spots for light sensitivity, but did not have a visual scene for rapid navigation.
Hammer throw illustration, Colombia.
**Hammer throw** is an athletic throwing event. The goal of it is to throw a heavy metal ball attached to a wire and handle. The name "hammer throw" is derived from the older Scottish sport competitions.

Like in other throwing events, competitors gain maximum distance by swinging the hammer above their head to set up the circular motion. Then, they apply force and pick up speed by completing one to four turns in the circle. In competition, most throwers turn three or four times to gradually increase the velocity with each turn. The thrower releases the ball from the front of the circle. The most important factors for a long throw are the angle of release and the speed of the ball. The hammer throw was one of the first Olympic games played. Any gender can take part in the event.


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Sport***.

Related pages
-------------

* Track and field athletics

Other websites
--------------

* Hammer Throw History Archived 2009-07-27 at the Wayback Machine
* Hammer Throw Records Archived 2009-07-27 at the Wayback Machine
This article is about the tool. For the part of a piano, see Hammer (piano).
A claw hammer
A **hammer** is a tool for putting nails into objects such as wood. It has a long handle, and a tip with a flat end for hitting nails. The most common type of hammer (sometimes called a *claw hammer*) has a curved end (on the other side of the hitting end) for pulling nails out.

A **sledgehammer** is a hammer that has a longer shaft, and a more massive head. The user can swing it with two hands and apply more force.

History
-------

Hammers were used around 3.3 million years ago. The first hammers were made without handles. Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used. Hammers with handles were made in 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age. The hammer was used for building, food and protection.

Classification of hammers
-------------------------

Hammers can be classified into two. They are:

### Hand-powered hammers

Swinging a sledgehammer
Hand-powered hammers are hammers that are used with the hand. Examples include:

* Ball-peen hammer
* Boiler scaling hammer
* Brass hammer
* Bricklayer's hammer
* Carpenter's hammer
* Cow hammer
* Cross-peen hammer
* Dead blow hammer
* Demolition hammer
* Drilling hammer
* Electrician's hammer
* Engineer's hammer
* Gavel
* Geologist's hammer
* Knife-edged hammer
* Lathe hammer
* Lump hammer
* Magnetic double-head hammer
* Magnetic tack hammer
* Mallet
* Railway track keying hammer
* Rock climbing hammer
* Rounding hammer
* Shingler's hammer
* Sledgehammer
* Soft-faced hammer
* Splitting maul
* Strike Tack hammer
* Stonemason's hammer
* Tinner
* Upholstery hammer
* Warrington hammer
* Welder's chipping hammer

### Mechanically-powered hammer

Mechanically powered hammers are hammers that are used with a machine. Examples include:

* Hammer drill
* High Frequency Impact Treatment hammer
* Jackhammer
* Steam hammer
* Trip hammer

Hammers as weapons
------------------

Big hammers were sometimes used as weapons. A tiny hammer is also used inside most small arms.
*Volvox*, a colonial alga
**Ferdinand Julius Cohn** (24 January 1828 – 25 June 1898) was a German biologist. He is a founder of modern bacteriology and microbiology.

Cohn was born in the Jewish quarter of Breslau in the Prussian Province of Silesia. This is now Wroclaw, Poland. Starting at age 16 he studied botany under Heinrich Goppert at the University of Breslau. He then moved to the University of Berlin. At age 19 in 1847 he received a degree in botany at Berlin. 

In 1849 he returned to the University of Breslau and he remained at that university for the rest of his career as a teacher and researcher. His father had bought for him a large and expensive microscope, which the University of Breslau and most universities did not have at that time. They had microscopes, but not so good as his. It was Ferdinand Cohn's main research tool in the 1850s. 

In the 1850s he studied the growth and division of plant cells. In 1855 he produced papers on the sexuality of *Sphaeroplea* and later *Volvox*. In the 1860s he studied plant physiology. Cohn was the first to classify algae as plants, and to define what distinguishes them from green plants. 

From 1870 onward he mostly studied bacteria. He published over 150 research reports during his lifetime. The University of Breslau became an innovative center for plant physiology and microbiology while he was there. His classification of bacteria into four groups based on shape (sphericals, short rods, threads, and spirals) is still in use today. 

Among other things Cohn showed that *Bacillus* can change from a vegetative state to an endospore when conditions are hard. Heat resistant spores of *B. subtilis* caused a controversy over spontaneous generation. Cohn explained why boiled infusions of hay and cheese could still get microbial growth. It was because they contained heat resistant spores.

Other websites
--------------


Wikisource has original works written by or about:  
***Ferdinand Julius Cohn***

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Ferdinand Julius Cohn***.

* Jewish Encyclopedia entry for Ferdinand Julius Cohn
* Ferdinand Cohn in the *Encyclopedia of World Biography*, published by Gale Group (2010).

| Persondata |
| --- |
| Name | Cohn, Ferdinand |
| Alternative names |  |
| Short description | German biologist |
| Date of birth | 24 January 1828 |
| Place of birth | Breslau, Prussian Province of Silesia, Poland |
| Date of death | 25 June 1898 |
| Place of death |  |
**Herman M. Hickman** (October 1, 1911 - April 25, 1958) was a Hall of Fame college football player for the University of Tennessee, and played for the NFL's Brooklyn Dodgers. He later coached football and was a professional wrestler.

Playing career
--------------

Hickman came to the University of Tennessee from Johnson City, Tennessee. Hickman was a guard for the Tennessee Volunteers football team from 1929–1931. He was chosen for Grantland Rice's All American football team in 1931. Hickman was also named to the All-Southern team in 1931 with teammate Gene McEver. Coach Robert Neyland held Hickman in high regard. "When one (football writer) said Hickman was 'the best guard the South ever produced,' Coach General Bob Neyland snarled, 'Herman Hickman is the greatest guard football has ever known.'"

Following his time at Tennessee, Hickman played for the NFL's Brooklyn Dodgers from 1932 to 1934. He was named an All Pro at left guard in 1933.< name=bio/> He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1959.

Coaching career
---------------

Hickman was an assistant at Wake Forest, North Carolina State and West Point before earning the head coaching job at Yale University in 1948. He led the Bulldogs to a 16-17-2 record before resigning in 1951.

Other activities
----------------

Hickman was a writer, who came to be known as "Poet Laureate of the Little Smokies." He was also a staff writer for Sports Illustrated.

Hickman also was a professional wrestler, known as "The Tennessee Terror." He wrestled in over 500 matches.

Sources
-------

1. 1 2  "HickokSports.com - Biography - Herman Hickman". Archived from the original on 2010-12-24. Retrieved 2009-12-22.
2. ↑  "Professional Football Researchers Association- Pro Football History". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2009-12-22.
3. 1 2  "College Football Hall of Fame". Archived from the original on 2004-09-12. Retrieved 2009-12-22.

* HickokSports.com Bio Archived 2010-12-24 at the Wayback Machine
* College Football Hall of Fame Bio Archived 2004-09-12 at the Wayback Machine
* Professional Football Researchers Association Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
* 2006 University of Tennessee Football Media Guide
A **grand jury** is a legal body which has the power to conduct official proceedings to investigate possible criminal conduct. They also decide whether criminal charges should be brought. A grand jury may subpoena evidence and may compel the sworn testimony of witnesses who appear before it. Grand juries are made up of from 16 to 23 people in the United States. They meet for a period of one month up to a year. However, jurors may only have to meet for a few days each month. The juries meet in private. The suspected person, called a suspect, is not usually present. About half the states in the US do not regularly use grand juries. A preliminary hearing may be used instead. The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution requires the use of grand juries by the federal legal system for all capital and "infamous crimes" (cases involving treason, certain felonies or gross moral turpitude).

History
-------

In 1166 an enactment of King Henry II of England, called the Assize of Clarendon, called for "the oath of \*twelve men from every hundred and four men from every vill" to meet and decide who was guilty of robbery, theft or murder. It was the early ancestor of the jury system and of the grand jury. The United Kingdom abolished grand juries in 1933. Many of their former colonies including 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand have also stopped using them. The United States is one of the few remaining countries that uses the grand jury.

Criticism
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Grand juries are called by a federal judge and are required to supervise them. But judges almost never interfere. The grand jury is led by a federal prosecutor. He cannot testify or be present while the jury deliberates. But most federal grand juries will return any indictment presented to it. This led to the famous saying "a prosecutor can get a grand jury to indict a ham sandwich." They can subpoena anything they want with very few restrictions. In United States v. R. Enterprises, Inc. 498 U.S. 292 (1991), the Supreme Court of the United States ruled "federal grand jury subpoenas are presumed to be reasonable and the burden of showing unreasonableness is on the recipient."

A grand jury, state or federal, has two functions. The first is to go over all evidence of criminal wrongdoing and to issue an indictment only if there is enough evidence. Their other purpose is to investigate and help the prosecutor gather evidence. Critics claim grand juries have failed to do both.

Other websites
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* Handbook For Federal Grand Jurors Archived 2016-02-07 at the Wayback Machine
* Grand Juries Resource Guide Archived 2016-03-15 at the Wayback Machine
* American Bar Association Archived 2011-04-24 at the Wayback Machine
This article is about the city in St. Croix County. For the township in St. Croix county, see Hudson (town), Wisconsin.

**Hudson** is a city in and the county seat of St. Croix County, Wisconsin, United States. As of the 2010 United States census, its population was 12,719. It is part of the Minneapolis–St. Paul Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). Hudson is bordered on the north by the village of North Hudson and the Willow River. On the North and East is the township of Hudson. To the south is the township of Troy. It is bounded on the west by the St. Croix River.

History
-------

The Octagon House Museum, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, was built in 1855.
Hudson was settled in the summer of 1840 by Louis Massey and his brother in-law, Peter Bouchea. William Steets arrived at about the same time. Later that same year, Joseph Sauperson (commonly known as Joe LaGrue) moved there. These four are considered Hudson's original inhabitants. Massey and Bouchea settled at the mouth of the Willow River, near the present-day First and St. Croix Streets. They had been part of the group who lived for some time along the river below Fort Snelling. This appears on some old maps as "Massey's Landing". The 1840s saw a few settlers arriving here — Captain John Page, the Nobles brothers, Dr. Philip Aldrich, Ammah Andrews, Moses Perrin, Colonel James Hughes, Daniel Anderson, and others.

Hudson was originally called "Willow River". It was later named "Buena Vista" by Judge Joel Foster, founder of River Falls. This was after he returned from the Mexican–American War where he fought in the Battle of Buena Vista. In 1852, Alfred D. Gray, Hudson's first mayor, petitioned to change the name of the city to "Hudson", because the bluffs along the St. Croix River reminded him of the Hudson River in his native New York.

A large number of settlers arrived in the 1850s and 1860s. Many of were the ancestors of today's residents. The lumber industry was the prime attraction of the area. Over time sawmills were started throughout the St. Croix Valley.

On August 30, 1917 a violent mob of 1,000 held a night rally in front of the armory. They were protesting the attempt by the pacifist People's Council of America to hold a conference in Hudson's prizefighting arena. The crowd then went after the four wiktorganizers in the lobby of their hotel and threatened to hang them. Only after the pleadings of county attorney N. O. Varnum were the four allowed to leave town.

U.S. Highway 12 once crossed the St. Croix River on a toll bridge between Wisconsin and Minnesota, which provided revenue for the town. With the construction of Interstate 94, the toll bridge was removed. The long causeway extending to the former bridge location is now open to the public as a pedestrian walkway.

City Hall
Hudson has grown as a tourist destination in recent years. There are shops and restaurants on the St. Croix river in its historic downtown, along with hotels and other businesses that serve traffic on Interstate Highway 94.
**Farida Vakil** founded one of the first all female bands in India. Her girl group, The Ladybirds, only lasted a couple of years. The Ladybirds was considered a "landmark" in Indian music history. She then joined a group called The Riot Squad. Vakil won the Simla Beat Contest shortly after joining The Riot Squad.

Early life
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Vakil as a child enjoyed cooking, sewing and music. She wondered why she never saw female lead guitarist at beat shows. She made it her mission to be one of India’s first female lead guitar players.

Career
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She grew up with no girl bands to look up to.  The music scene around that time period was dominated by mainly male groups. Vakil started one of the first all female bands in India. Her group was called The Ladybirds. The Ladybirds soon broke up. Vakil then joined a group called the Riot Squad. The Riot Squad was a big success amongst many audiences. Vikal was known as the "lead lady guitarist." She was very popular. When she was only 19 years old she was interviewed in a popular magazine.

Personal life
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Farida Vakil was exposed to many different types of music. Vakil’s sister worked in the airline industry. She frequently brought back records from all over the world which broadened Farida’s taste in music. Her dad managed her bands. He was very protective over his daughter but also very supportive of her. Vakil got married in 1973, a couple of years after she joined The Riot Squad.

Awards
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Vakil won the Simla Beat contest in 1971 along with her band, The Riot Squad.

Achievements
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Farida Vakil got a record deal with the Riot Squad after winning the Simla Beat Contest.
An **epoch** in geology is a part of a period. Thus the Cainozoic era is now divided into three periods, the Palaeogene, the Neogene and the Quaternary. These are finally broken down into these epochs: Palaeocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene.

The Tertiary, now not used ('deprecated'), included the Palaeogene and Neogene. That is why the last period is called the Quarternary, and there was a big debate about that, too. These decisions are made by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). This organisation runs an International Commission on Stratigraphy, which decides how we should name geological strata and stages. They describe their work as follows:

"[Our] primary objective is to precisely define global units (systems, series, and stages) of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart... [These] are the basis for the units (periods, epochs, and age) of the International Geologic Time Scale."
* Mesozoic
	+ Triassic
	Lower Triassic
	Middle Triassic
	Upper Triassic
	+ Jurassic
	Lower Jurassic
	Middle Jurassic
	Upper Jurassic
	+ Cretaceous
	Lower Cretaceous
	Upper Cretaceous
* Cainozoic
	+ Palaeogene
	Palaeocene
	Eocene
	Oligocene
	+ Neogene
	Miocene
	Pliocene
	+ Quaternary
	Pleistocene
	Holocene
Types of epitheliumTypes of epithelium
**Epithelium** (plural: epithelia) is one of the four main types of tissue in the body of animals. It is made up of one or more layers of cells. 

The outermost layer of the skin is a special type of epithelium. It has an important function: it forms a mechanical defence against infection: see innate immunity. 

Epithelia are found on the surface of organs and many other parts of the body. One main function of epithelia is moving fluids into or out of an organ or body part. It also protects organs and carries sense organs. 

There are many different types of epithelium that do different things in the body, including the excretory system. The epithelium covers blood vessels and hollow organs such as the stomach and kidneys. All glands are made from epithelial cells. In some areas, the epithelium secretes sweat, oil, or mucus.

The functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers have no blood vessels: they get oxygen and nourishment from the underlying connective tissue, through their basement membrane.

Bibliography
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1. ↑  Ross M.H. & Pawlina W. 2015. *Histology: a text and atlas: with correlated cell and molecular biology*. 7th ed, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 528, 604. ISBN 978-1451187427

Other websites
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* Article from Encyclopedia Britannica regarding Epithelium
**High fidelity** or **hi-fi** is a way of describing a very good home music system. "High fidelity" means that the sound is as close to the original as possible with no changes or added noise. People who like hi-fi are sometimes called audiophiles. Hi-fi is often now called "high-end audio".

History
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In the 1930s and 1940s, vacuum tubes were used to make radios and electronic amplifiers. Radio was becoming popular, and microphones, amplifiers and loudspeakers began to be sold. Manufacturers began to compete to produce the best product. A lot of research was done at Bell Laboratories and products were made by Western Electric.

Then a new kind of vinyl record with less noise and better sound was invented. Manufacturers began to call their equipment and records "high fidelity" to help sell them. In the 1950s, "hi-fi" became the popular term, replacing "phonograph" and "record player". Rather than playing a record "on the phonograph," people would play it "on the hi-fi".

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Westrex invented the stereo record that used two speakers. This led to more improvements in home audio. The word "stereo" replaced the word "hi-fi." Records were now played on "a stereo". 

Some people bought individual parts (separate speakers and amplifiers), and even built their own equipment. The term "high fidelity" is still used for very good music systems.

Other websites
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* HiFi at the Open Directory Project
* A Dictionary of Home Entertainment Terms
* Renato Giussani: Optimal Stereo Soundstage and Imaging Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
* The High Fidelity Museum
A compact fluorescent lamp, which has been popular among North American consumers since its introduction in the mid 1990s.
**Energy efficiency** is using less energy to provide the same level of energy service. An example would be insulating a home to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve the same temperature. Another example would be installing fluorescent lights and/or skylights instead of incandescent bulbs to attain the same level of illumination. So efficient energy use is achieved primarily by means of a more efficient technology rather than by changes in individual behaviour.

Energy conservation is using less energy to achieve a lesser energy service, and usually involves a change in behavior. Examples would be heating a room less in winter, or driving less, or working in a less brightly lit room. 

As with other definitions, the boundary between efficient energy use and energy conservation can be fuzzy, but both are important in environmental and economic terms. This is especially the case when actions are directed at the saving of fossil fuels.

Related pages
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* Sustainable energy
Headstones facing Mecca in Farina's cemetery
**Farina** is a ghost town in South Australia. It is on the edge of the desert, with an unpredictable annual rainfall of 163.6 mm. It was a farming and railway town, part of the Ghan railway, 26 km north of Lyndhurst and 55 km south of Marree. In 2006 there were 55 people living near Farina.

Transcontinental Hotel, Farina, 1900
Before 1878 Farina was called **The Gums** or **Government Gums**, It was an important waterhole in a dry desert. Farina was settled in 1878 by farmers who thought that if they ploughed the land and planted crops it would rain. It was named Farina after the Latin word for flour. The town was the railhead until 1884 when the railway reached Marree. During the wet years of the 1880s, plans were laid out for a town with 432 ¼-acre blocks. It was believed that it would be good for growing wheat and barley, however normal rainfall is not enough to grow these crops. Several silver and copper mines were dug in the surrounding area.

Farina grew to 600 people in the late 1800s. The town had two hotels (the Transcontinental and the Exchange) and an underground bakery, a bank, two breweries, a general store, an Anglican church, five blacksmiths, a school and a brothel. In 1909, a 1143 kg iron meteorite was discovered north-east of the town.

Today all that is left are stone ruins and the elevated railway water tank. The post office closed in the 1960s and the railway line closed in the 1980s.

No one lives in the town, the closest people live at Farina station, a farm, west of the town. A bush camping area has been set up by the owners of Farina station.

Volunteers have repaired the bakery and put up information signs.

Cemeteries
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The town's cemetery is a few kilometres from the town. It has an Afghan corner with several headstones, some with both English and Arabic writing. These mark the graves of former Farina residents of Afghan origin who were part of the Afghan camel trains which used to provide transport services before the railway. All the gravestones face Mecca in the Islamic tradition.

Other websites
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 Media related to Farina, South Australia at Wikimedia Commons

* Bureau of Meteorology Farina statistics
* Farina: Ruined Ghost Town - Oodnadatta Track, South Australia Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
* MSN Map Archived 2011-06-06 at the Wayback Machine
* Volunteers bring ghost town back to life Archived 2013-08-20 at the Wayback Machine
* Farina Restoration Group website