recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
**Seanad Éireann** (/ˌʃænədˈɛərən, -əð-/ (audio speaker iconlisten); *Senate of Ireland*) is the second house of the Irish parliament, the Oireachtas.

Function
--------

Seanad Éireann's main business is the revising of legislation sent to it by Dáil Éireann.

It can initiate (start) and revise legislation, except bills for raising tax and spending money (Money Bills). Financial legislation must start in Dáil Éireann, and the Seannad can only suggest changes, it cannot force the changes to be accepted.

Seanad Éireann slows Dáil Éireann. All bills must be looked at by the Seannad, so it is a safeguard against laws being passed too quickly.

Seanad Éireann also debates important issues. Also, Seanad Éireann can debate these issues with more freedom because the fate of the Government will not be at stake. If the government loses a vote in Seanad Éireann it could be embarrassing, but under the constitution if the Government loses a vote in Dáil Éireann they might have to call new elections.

Election day
Members of Dáil Éireann are members from the first meeting of Dáil Éireann after a general election until the Dáil is dissolved. Members of Seanad Éireann are members from the first meeting until the day before the next general election of the Seanad.

Elections for Dáil Éireann must be within 30 days of being dissolved. Elections for the Seanad must be within 90 days of Dáil Éireann's dissolution. The Seanad must be elected after the Dáil, because new TDs are allowed to vote in a Seanad election.

Members
-------

There are sixty Senators.

* 11 are nominated to be members by the new Taoiseach after a general election
* 49 are elected from panels of candidates

Elected Senators
----------------

* Three senators are elected by the National University of Ireland;
* Three are elected by the University of Dublin;
* 43 are elected from 5 panels of candidates:-
	+ National Language and Culture, Literature, Art, Education and other professions;
	+ Agriculture and allied interests, and Fisheries;
	+ Labour, (organised or unorganised);
	+ Industry and Commerce, including banking, finance, accountancy, engineering and architecture;
	+ Public Administration and social services, including voluntary social activities.

At least 5 senators must be elected from each panel, but no more than 11 from any one panel.

About 1.000 people can vote for the Seanad:

* Members of the newly elected Dáil Éireann
* Members of the old Seanad Éireann
* Members of city and county councils

The senators from the Universities are elected by any Irish citizen with a degree from that university.

The university seats shows how much Éamon de Valera, who wrote the Constitution of Ireland was influenced by the British Parliament. At the time it was written the universities of Oxford and Cambridge had their own MPs in the House of Commons. Graduates of those universities voted for these MPs as well as for the MP were they lived.

Related pages
-------------

* Dáil Éireann
* Oireachtas
Church of St Neot, famous for its late medieval stained glass
**St Neot** is a parish and village in Cornwall, United Kingdom. It is between the towns of Bodmin and Liskeard. The parish is named after the Saxon monk, Saint Neot (who also gives his name to St Neots in Cambridgeshire). On the northern side the parish includes part of Bodmin Moor and hamlets in the parish include Draynes, Ley and Pantersbridge.

During the English Civil War St Neot was staunchly Royalist. To commemorate this, each year on Oak Apple Day (29 May), an oak branch is mounted on the top of the church tower.

The early medieval church building must have been smaller than the one in existence today and the church was rebuilt in granite in the 15th century. The fine stained glass windows are from about 1500.
The stained glass is partly original and partly from a restoration done by John Hedgeland, ca. 1830.

More information
----------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***St Neot, Cornwall***.

* St Neot Village website Archived 2007-01-06 at the Wayback Machine
Stabiae and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.
**Stabiae** was a Ancient Roman settlement, about 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) southwest of Pompeii. Like Pompeii, this seaside resort was largely buried by tephra ash in the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius, in this case at a smaller depth of up to five metres. It is only 16 km (9.9 mi) from Mount Vesuvius.

Stabiae is most famous for the Roman villas found near the ancient. They are some of the most stunning architectural and artistic remains from any Roman villas. They are the largest concentration of well-preserved, enormous, elite seaside villas found from the entire Roman world. The villas were on a 50 m high headland overlooking the Gulf of Naples. Although it was discovered before Pompeii in 1749, unlike Pompeii and Herculaneum, Stabiae was reburied by 1782 and so failed to establish itself as a destination for travellers on the Grand Tour.

Many of the objects and frescoes taken from these villas are now in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples.

There had already been a settlement there, before the Romans. The port of Stabiae already existed in the 6th century BC, but was much smaller than that of Pompeii. In 89 BC, Sulla descroyed much of Stabiae.Pliny the Elder repüorted that the city was rebuilt soon afterwards. According to him, it was a popular destination for wealthy Romans.
For other uses, see Wear (erosion) (disambiguation).
In materials science, **wear** is the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another solid. The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology.
There are four principal wear processes:

1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Corrosive wear
4. Surface fatigue

Explanation
-----------

The definition of wear does not include loss of dimension from plastic deformation, although wear can happen without loss of material. Also this definition does not include impact wear where there is no sliding motion or cavitation (also corrosion) where counterbody is a fluid..

Wear, along with other aging processes such as fatigue, creep, and fracture toughness, causes progressive degradation of materials with time leading to failure of material at an advanced age. Under normal circumstances, the property changes during usage normally occur in three different stages as follows:-
• Primary or early stage or run-in period, where rate of changes can be high. 
• Secondary or mid-age process where a steady rate of aging process is maintained. The useful or working life is at this stage.
• Tertiary or old-age stage, where rapid rate of aging leads to early failure.

With increasing severity of environmental conditions, such as, higher temperatures, strain rates, stress and sliding velocities, the secondary stage is shortened and the primary stage tends to merge with the tertiary stage, thus drastically reducing the working life. Surface engineering processes are used to minimize wear and extend working life of material.

Adhesive wear
-------------

Adhesive wear is also known as scoring, galling, or seizing. It happens when two solid surfaces slide over one another under pressure.

Abrasive wear
-------------

This happens when material is removed by contact with hard particles. The particles either may be present at the surface of a second material or may exist as loose particles between two surfaces. 
Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass by the Taber Abrasion Test according to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 1044.

Corrosive wear
--------------

See the main article: Corrosion
Often referred to simply as "corrosion", corrosive wear is deterioration of useful properties in a material due to reactions with its environment.

Surface fatigue
---------------

Main articles: w:Fatigue (material) and Fatigue (material)
Surface fatigue is a how the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of general material fatigue.
The **Tories** were one of the two political parties which existed in Britain from the 17th to the early 19th centuries. They were the opponents of the Whigs, which were for a long time the ruling party.

The Tories were first part of the Parliament of England, the legislature of the kingdom of England. After the Acts of Union 1707, the Tories were part of the United Kingdom's Parliament of Great Britain, and after the Act of Union 1800 they were part of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

The Tories were originally (1678 to about 1770) the supporters of the Catholic kings (Charles I and II, James I and II), limiting the power of UK Parliament and supporting freedoms for Catholics. Later, (1780 to 1830) they became the **New Tory Party**, and were again a successful party able to hold government.

The most famous leaders of the New Tory Party were William Pitt the Younger, and Robert Peel the industrialist. Benjamin Disraeli built the modern Conservative Party out of the remains of the New Tory Party.
The **Tornado outbreak sequence of June 1966** was a series of tornado outbreaks which happened between June 2 and June 12.

The worst tornado of this event happened on the early evening of Wednesday, June 8, 1966. This was when Topeka, Kansas was hit by an F5 rated tornado. It started in the southwest Topeka, and it moved northeast. It went through several neighborhoods and over a local landmark named Burnett's Mound. 57 tornadoes were confirmed during the 11-day span, which left 18 people dead and 543 injured.

Topeka, Kansas tornado
----------------------

A local Native American legend said that Burnet's Mound (a local landmark that was named after Potawatomi Indian chief Abram Burnett) was thought to protect the city from tornadoes. It was thought that the 250 feet (76 m) hill would cause a tornado that was going to Topeka to die. A few years earlier, a water tower had been built on the mound. This caused controversy among many Topeka residents. They thought it would make the mound less able to protect Topeka fro from tornades. However, ten other tornadoes had hit the city since Kansas state tornado records were first kept in 1889. The 1966 tornado was much stronger than the other ten tornadoes that hit Topeka before June 8.

The Topeka tornado started developing at 6:55 p.m. Central Time on June 8, touching down 8 miles (13 km) west of the city. The National Weather Service could not find the developing tornado on radar. This is because the Topeka forecast office used a modified military radar that was given by the U.S. government after World War II. While it was considered very good for its time, it was not good at finding tornadoes activity, compared to the Doppler weather radar of the present day. Around 7:30 p.m. a 1/4 to 1/2-mile (400–800 m) wide tornado went to the southwest side Topeka, moving northeast, and passed over Burnett's Mound. Bill Kurtis, then a reporter for WIBW-TV (channel 13; then a hybrid CBS/ABC/NBC affiliate, now only affiliated with CBS) wanted to tell people to take shelter from the devastating storm. He told viewers to get to safety by urging in a calm but stern manner, "for God's sake, take cover!"

Damage in downtown Topeka.
The total damage estimate was put at $104 million (US$ 835 million in 2023). This makes it one of the costliest tornadoes in U.S. history. 16 people were killed, and many others were injured. However, it is believed that if the had tornado hit during school and work hours or during the night, that as many as 5,000 people would have been killed. Bill Kurtis was credited for saving many lives with his urgent message to take cover.

Other websites
--------------

* Tornado Damage Patterns in Topeka, Kansas, June 8, 1966 (Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 95, No. 6)
	+ Comments on "Tornado Damage Patterns in Topeka, Kansas, June 8, 1966" (Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 96, No. 3)
	+ Reply (Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 96, No. 3)
* NWS Topeka page
* Topeka Capital-Journal online
* Access Menninger photographs and documents on Kansas Memory, the Kansas State Historical Society's digital portal
* The Topeka Tornado of 1966: Never Before Published Damage Photos
A rock in Abisko,Sweden fractured along existing joint geology joints possibly by frost weathering or thermal stress
comparison of unweathered (left) and weathered (right) limestone
**Weathering** is the breaking down of rocks, soil and their minerals through direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, or living things. It is a natural process. 

Weathering occurs in one place with little or no movement, and should not be confused with erosion which is when rocks and minerals are moved to another place by ice, water, wind or gravity.

Mechanical weathering
---------------------

Mechanical or physical weathering is when the rocks and minerals are broken down but the Chemical composition remains the same. Mechanical weathering physically breaks up rock. 

### Wind

Wind can blow water or small particles such as sand against the rock thus breaking it down.
The wind blowing over your skin removes body heat.local winds are the winds that blow over short distances.

### Rain

Rain is another force that works slowly. The force of raindrops on some rocks make them wear down. Rain also can make a chemical change in some rocks, because it is usually slightly acidic. The water mixes with the minerals in the rock to break it down.

### Temperature

Freeze-thaw weathering of a rock in southern Iceland
Changing temperature can make a rock crack. Every day when the sun shines on the rock, its surface is heated. Heat causes the surface to expand (get bigger) a little. The inside of the rock, though, does not heat up as fast as the outside of the rock. The inside of the rock stays cooler. At night, the surface cools down and contracts. The expanding and contracting makes some places on the surface weak, and a crack is made.

Also, if water gets into a crack in a rock and the temperature goes below the freezing point, the water will freeze and expand. After some time, the rock may be weak enough to break into pieces.

### Ice

Ice, which can be miles thick, grinds the surface of the rock below it. The particles are carried with the ice, and if a glacier ends up in the sea, so does all the material carried with it.

### Lava or magma

Lava or magma can cause weathering when molten rock touches older rock. It causes the older rock to change form to a different crystal structure.

Chemical weathering
-------------------

Chemical weathering is the breaking down of rock which changes the chemical composition.

### Carbon dioxide cycle

The carbon dioxide cycle is the most important for weathering. CO2 is put into the atmosphere mostly by volcanoes, and it is taken out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis, and by one other process. 

While it is in the air, CO2 can dissolve in water droplets to form weak carbonic acid.

When rain hits rock it does so with mechanical energy and dilute acid. The acid dissolves many types of minerals and rocks though, of course, very slowly. When a mineral like feldspar is dissolved, it lets sodium ions into the sea; chlorine ions come from other minerals. The sea tastes salty because of the elements which have been dissolved out of rocks.

Related pages
-------------

* Erosion
* Pedogenesis
**Seona Dancing** (/ˈʃɔːnə/, *SHAW-nə*) was a British new wave band from the 1970s. The band is best known for making Ricky Gervais perform in public for the first time. The band had little success, except their song "More to Lose" become popular in the Philippines.

History
-------

Ricky Gervais and his friend Bill Macrae started "Seona Dancing" while learning at University College London. Gervais wrote and sung the lyrics, and Macrae made the music and played keyboards. They recorded a demo tape with 16 songs, then were signed to London Records, which released two of their songs: "More to Lose" and "Bitter Heart". In June 1978, they performed "More to Lose" on the children's television show *Razzmatazz*, which was shown on ITV. Despite that, and "Bitter Heart"'s promotion with a music video, "More to Lose" reached number 117 and "Bitter Heart" number 79, not reaching the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart. This made the band end in 1979. Gervais later became successful around the world as a comedian and actor. When Jimmy Kimmel asked him about Macrae in an interview in 2014, he answered "I hope he got fat, too."
[*source?*]

Popularity in the Philippines
-----------------------------

In 1980, DWRT-FM (then known as 99.5 RT, now 99.5 Play FM), a radio station in Metro Manila, Philippines, started playing a song, which they chose to give the false name of "Fade" by Medium (or "Medium" by Fade) to stop anyone finding and playing it. They also tried to stop other radio stations from recording and playing it by adding a station ID in the middle of the song. 1 year later, another radio station, DWXB-102, revealed the song is actually "More to Lose" by Seona Dancing.

The song, which uses repeating piano sounds to represent falling teardrops, has been popular on the radio, in clubs and at high-school dances from the 1980s. AllMusic critic Michael Sutton wrote that the track was "the theme song of angst-ridden New Wave youths in the Philippines" and "an '80s anthem as ubiquitous as Peter Gabriel's 'In Your Eyes', but with the eternal hipster cool of Joy Division's 'Love Will Tear Us Apart'."

Music
-----

* 1983: "More to Lose"/"You're on My Side" (7", 12" single) – UK No. 117
* 1983: "Bitter Heart"/"Tell Her" (7", 12") – UK No. 79

An unofficial CD with all of the band's songs (except the 7" versions of "Bitter Heart" and "Tell Her") on it, named *More to Lose*, came out in 2005.
River Wandle at Carshalton
Bennett's Hole and River Wandle
The **River Wandle** is a river in south-east England. The river runs through southwest London. 

Rain falls on the North Downs, filters through the chalk and emerges on the spring line. The river is first visible at Wandle Park in Croydon. It passes through the London Boroughs of Croydon, Sutton, Merton, and Wandsworth to join the River Thames at Wandsworth. The River Wandle is between 9 and 11 miles long.

History of the River Wandle
---------------------------

The river has been used since Roman times. It was heavily industrialised in the 17th and 18th centuries and was one of the most polluted rivers in England. 

In Victorian times the Wandle was one of hardest working rivers in the world. The river was used to power 68 water wheels, of which only a few survive, such as at Merton Abbey Mills.

On 17 September 2007, a chemical was accidentally flushed into the Wandle from Thames Water's Beddington sewage works. The chemical was being used to clean, but instead of being put back through the treatment works, it was accidentally put into the river. This resulted in over 2,000 fish of various species being killed. The company failed to tell the Environment Agency of the incident, as the site manager thought it wasn't important. 

Dry fly fishing was first started for catching trout from the river. Cleanups of the Wandle have improved the water quality, leading to a return of the river's once famous brown trout. This improvement in water quality has also seen other fish thrive. There are stocks of chub, roach and perch all flourishing once again with the most popular angling spots situated on the river at Colliers Wood. 

Also found in the River Wandle are water voles, otters, the common toad, and grey heron. Water voles usually live along rivers. Otters are one of the top river predators, feeding mainly on fish.

The river is managed with artificial channels, runoff ditches and a few underground stretches.
**Villa Los Almácigos** is a city and municipality of the Santiago Rodríguez province, in northwestern Dominican Republic. It is also called *Los Almácigos*, or just simply *Villa*.

History
-------

On 6 March 1863, there was a meeting in this town of the leaders of the Restoration War against Spain. The Dominicans had lost the first battles and in this meeting they decided to stop the fight for a moment and they went to Haiti to prepare for the next battles.

In 1937, it was named *Villa Generalísimo* in honor of the dictator Trujillo but in 1962 the town got again its old name.

Villa Los Almácigos was elevated to the category of municipal district of San Ignacio de Sabaneta by the law 659 of 2 May 1974. It is municipality since 19 September 1996.

Population
----------

The municipality had, in 2014, a total population of 11,183: 6,069 men and 5,684 women. The urban population was 35.5% of the total population.

Geography
---------

Villa Los Almácigos is on the northern side of the *Cordillera Central* ("Central mountain range") and has a total area of 207.2 km2 (80 sq mi), about 18.1% of the total area of the province of Santiago Rodríguez. The city is an elevation of 211 m (692 ft), and at 11 km (6.8 mi) to the west of Sabaneta, the capital of the province.

It does not have any municipal district (a municipal district is a subdivision of a municipality).

The municipality of Villa Los Almácigos has the municipality of Sabaneta to the north and east, the Elías Piña province to the south and the Dajabón province to the west.

Economy
-------

The main economic activity of the municipality is farming.
**Wood grain** describes the 
alignment
, 
texture
 and appearance of the wood 
fibres
. This is often important in its effect on woodworking techniques (e.g. against the grain).

In describing the alignment of the wood in the tree a distinction may be made. Basic grain descriptions and types include:

* straight - grain which runs in a single direction along the cut wood, a product of a straight growing tree
* cross - grain in which some cells grow out from the major growth axis of the tree
* spiral - grain which develops as the trunk of the tree twists in development
* interlocked (roey grain) A step beyond spiral grain occurring when growth rings in a twisting trunk develop misaligned grain

Maple burl, not to be confused with bird's eye maple
In addition, there are a few special grain alignments. Their rarity often promotes the value of both the raw material, and the finished work it becomes a part of. These include:

* bird's eye
* quilted
* fiddleback
* curly
* tiger

In describing the application of a woodworking technique to a given piece of wood, the direction of the technique might be:

* with the grain
* against the grain
* across the grain

Sketch of A–Quarter-sawn & B–flat-sawn
In a wider sense, the term grain may also be applied to the orientation of the cut, the way a given piece of wood has been sawn: 

* flat-grain: flat-sawn or plain sawn,
* edge grain: quarter-sawn or rift-sawn or straight-grained, and
* end grain.
Stamp in January 2009
**Terence Henry Stamp** (born 22 July 1938) is a British movie, voice, television, and stage actor who has appeared in over 100 movies such as; *The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert*, *Superman II*, *Get Smart*,*The Haunted Mansion*, *Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace*, *Valkyrie*, *Yes Man*, and *Wanted*. Stamp has been awarded a Golden Globe Award, Silver Bear Award, and a Satellite Award. He has acted in over 100 films.

Stamp was born in Stepney, London. In the 1960s he and supermodel girlfriend Jean Shrimpton were one of the most photographed couples of the day. Another of his famous girlfriends was Julie Christie. Later, Stamp became a follower of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, and lived for a while at the latter's ashram (~estate) in Poona.

At 64, Stamp married 29 year old Elizabeth O'Rourke in 2002. The couple divorced in 2008.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Terence Stamp***.

* Terence Stamp website
* Terence Stamp on IMDb
* Terence Stamp at the Internet Broadway Database
This name uses Spanish naming customs; the first or paternal family name is *Aguilera* and the second or maternal family name is *Heredia*.

**Sebastian Aguilera de Heredia** (1561-1627) was a Spanish organist and composer.

Aguilera was born in Zaragoza, Spain on about August 15, 1561.

We do not know much about his early life. He was ordained as a priest in January 1584. In 1585 he became organist at Huesca Cathedral, where he supervised the building of a new organ at the cathedral during 1588. In 1603 he became a priest and organist at the Cathedral of La Seo, Zaragossa. He looked after the organ at the cathedral and often had work done to improve it. He remained at the cathedral until his death on December 16, 1627.

All his compositions were for the church: both his organ music and vocal music. His organ works show that he learned from composers such as Antonio de Cabezón, but he put new, modern ideas in his music which later influenced younger composers such as Correa de Arauxo. His students became the cathedral organists after his death, and were part of a tradition and style of paying which lasted for over 100 years.

A very important new technique which he used was the use of a divided keyboard (medio registro) which allowed different sounds in the upper half and the lower half of the keyboard (on today's organs one would need a two-manual organ to get the same effect). He wrote 36 settings of the Magnificat, called *Canticum Beatissimae Virginis Deiparae Mariae* (1618). His vocal work shows a skilful use of polyphony.
This article is about the competitive sport. For the sport's appearance at the Olympics, see Weightlifting at the Summer Olympics.

|  |
| --- |
| Part of a series of articles on**Sports** |
| 

Sports
 |
| **Summer Sports** |
| Track and field athletics
Football (soccer)
Basketball
Rugby
Gymnastics
Baseball
American football
Cycling·Auto racing
Cricket·Golf
Field hockey·Handball
Archery·Shooting
Fencing·Weightlifting
Pentathlon·Triathlon
Horseback riding |
| Water sports
Swimming· Diving
Water polo·Sailing
Canoeing·Rowing |
| Martial arts
Boxing·Wrestling
Karate·Taekwondo |
| Net sports
Tennis· Volleyball
Table tennis· Badminton |
| **Winter sports** |
| Ice hockey· Skating
Skiing·Curling
Bobsled·Luge
Snowboarding·Biathlon
Ice sledge hockey |

**Weightlifting** first started in the so-called Dark Ages of the human history. It was usually done by the strongest men in villages all over Europe. It was considered to be a sport for the lower classes, however since then it has changed into the sport for other people as well. It has been in the Olympic Games since 1896.

Competition events in Olympic weightlifting
-------------------------------------------

As a competitive sport, Weightlifting is controlled by the *International Weightlifting Federation* (IWF). Based in Budapest, it was founded in 1905.

Lala Rzazade weightlifting at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics
### Snatch

The *snatch* is one of the two olympic weightlifting events. The essence of the event is to lift a barbell from the platform to locked arms overhead in a smooth continuous movement. The lift requires not only great strength, but mastery of technical skills, a high degree of shoulder flexibility, excellent balance, and speed.

### Clean and jerk

The *clean and jerk* is another olympic weightlifting events. It is a highly technical lift that is known as "the king of lifts" because more weight can be lifted above one's head as compared to any other known weightlifting technique.

Related pages
-------------

* Weight training

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Olympic weightlifting at Wikimedia Commons
* International Weightlifting Federation
An outline map of the River Tamar south of Launceston showing the main Cornish tributaries
The Tamar valley viewed from Kit Hill
The **River Tamar** is a river in South West England, that forms most of the border between Devon (to the east) and Cornwall (to the west). The Tamar's source is less than 6 km (4 miles) from the north Cornish coast, but it flows southward. At its mouth, the Tamar flows into the Hamoaze (a wide estuary) before entering Plymouth Sound. Tributaries of the river include the rivers Inny, Ottery, Kensey and Lynher (or *St Germans River*) on the Cornish side, and the Deer and Tavy on the Devon side.

King Athelstan of England made the east bank of the River Tamar the boundary between England and Cornwall in the year 936. There are no road bridges over the lower Tamar apart from the modern Tamar Bridge at Saltash which was built to replace the ferry. In 1859 the Royal Albert Bridge was built across the Tamar at Saltash to carry the main railway line into Cornwall. Both bridges connect Saltash with Plymouth.

The Tamar Valley Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty covers around 195 km² (75 square miles) around the lower Tamar (below Launceston) and its tributaries the Tavy and the Lynher. It was first proposed in 1963, but was not designated until 1995.
Robert Abbott

(November 24, 1868 – February 29, 1940) was an American lawyer, newspaper editor, and publisher. He founded *The Chicago Defender*, the most influential Black American newspaper at the time. It became the most widely circulated Black newspaper in the country.

Early life
----------

Abbott was born on November 24, 1868, in Frederica, Saint Simons, Georgia (although some sources say he was born in Savannah, Georgia).

He studied printing at Hampton Institute (now Hampton University), a historically black college in Virginia. He graduated from Kent College of Law, a law school (now Chicago–Kent College of Law at the Illinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago, 1899.

*The Chicago Defender*
----------------------

In 1905 Abbott founded *The Chicago Defender*, a newspaper which defended the rights of Black Americans, and became known as "America's Black Newspaper". It printed editorials that attacked white oppression and the lynching of Black Americans. The editorials were popular among Black Americans in the Southern United States.

The *Defender*'s positive reporting on opportunities for Black Americans in the Northern states played a part in making many Black Southerners move North during the Great Migration.

Abbott was editor of the *The Chicago Defender* until he died on February 29, 1940, in Chicago.

Other websites
--------------

* Robert Abbott, *Encyclopædia Britannica* for Kids.
* Robert Abbot at Find a Grave
* PBS: Robert Sengstacke Abbott
* PBS: The Chicago Defender
* Pablo J. Davis, "Robert S. Abbott," *New Georgia Encyclopedia* Archived 2012-10-12 at the Wayback Machine
* Robert Sengstacke Abbott Boyhood Home: Founder of the Chicago Defender historical marker
A **volcanic winter** is a climate cooling caused by an extremely large volcanic eruption. Such an eruption releases ash and sulfur dioxide in huge quantities. They form aerosols of sulfuric acid. When they reach the stratosphere more sunlight is reflected, and some is absorbed by the stratosphere. These reactions heat up the stratosphere, but lead to a drop in the temperature on the ground.

The Siberian Traps, Emeishan Traps, and Deccan Traps are huge flood basalt provinces caused by volcanism. They are the cause, or part of the cause, of several mass extinctions, especially the Permian–Triassic extinction event.

Nuclear winter is a theory of similar effects which might be caused by a large-scale nuclear war.

Recent events
-------------

Pinatubo early eruption 1991
The effects of recent volcanic eruptions on winters are modest in scale but historically their effects have been significant.

Most recently, the 1991 explosion of Mount Pinatubo, a stratovolcano in the Philippines, cooled global temperatures for about 2–3 years.

In 1883, the explosion of Krakatoa (Krakatau) created volcanic winter-like conditions. The next four years after the explosion were unusually cold, and the winter of 1887 to 1888 included powerful blizzards. Record snowfalls were recorded worldwide.

The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, a stratovolcano in Indonesia, occasioned mid-summer frosts in New York State and June snowfalls in New England and Newfoundland and Labrador in what came to be known as the "Year without a Summer" of 1816.

A paper written by Benjamin Franklin in the 1780s blamed the unusually cool summer of 1783 on volcanic dust coming from Iceland. The eruption of Laki volcano had released enormous amounts of sulfur dioxide, resulting in the death of much of the island's livestock and a catastrophic famine which killed a quarter of the population. Temperatures in the northern hemisphere dropped by about 1 °C in the year following the Laki eruption.

In 1600, the Huaynaputina in Peru erupted. Tree ring studies show that 1601 was cold. Russia had its worst famine in 1601 to 1603. From 1600 to 1602, Switzerland, Latvia and Estonia had exceptionally cold winters. The wine harvest was late in 1601 in France, and in Peru and Germany wine production collapsed. Peach trees bloomed late in China, and Lake Suwa in Japan froze early.

In 1452 or 1453, a cataclysmic eruption of the submarine volcano named Kuwae. It caused worldwide disruptions.

The Great Famine of 1315–1317 in Europe may have been caused by a volcanic event. That of Kaharoa, New Zealand, had lasted about five years.

Related pages
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* Supervolcano
**Walter Perry Johnson** (November 6, 1887 – December 10, 1946) was an American Major League Baseball pitcher. He played 21 years in the Major Leagues, all for the Washington Senators. He was then the manager of the Senators from 1929 to 1932, and he managed the Cleveland Indians from 1933 to 1935. He was known for being able to throw baseballs with great speed, and he was nicknamed **"The Big Train"**. He set many baseball records and has the second-most wins of all-time. Many people think he is the greatest pitcher of all-time.

Early life
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Walter Johnson was born on November 6, 1887 on a farm near Humboldt, Kansas. His parents were Frank and Minnie Johnson, and he had five siblings. When Johnson was 14, his family moved to Orange County, California. Later, he moved to Idaho, where he played baseball for a small team from Idaho and worked for a phone company. When someone from the Washington Senators saw him pitch, they signed him to a contract in 1907.

Baseball career
---------------

Walter Johnson was known for being a "power pitcher," meaning he could throw the ball very hard and fast. His fastball was the main reason he was able to accomplish so much, like having the most 3,509 career strikeouts and the most shutouts of all-time. He also won the American League Most Valuable Player award twice, in 1913 and 1924.

After baseball
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After he retired from playing in 1927, Johnson was one of the first five players elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936. He later ran for a spot in the United States House of Representatives, but lost the election. He died from a brain tumor in Washington, D.C. on December 10, 1946.
**Maluridae** is a family of small, insectivorous passerine birds endemic to Australia and New Guinea. 

Commonly known as 'wrens', they are unrelated to the true wrens of the Northern Hemisphere. The family includes 15 species of fairywren, 3 emu-wrens, and 11 grasswrens. There are six genera.

The Maluridae are one of the many bird families to have evolved from a great adaptive radiation of what were crows to new ecological opportunities in Australasia. Their closest relatives are the Meliphagidae (honeyeaters), and the Pardalotidae.

Their obvious similarity to the wrens of Europe and America is not genetic, but simply the consequence of convergent evolution between more-or-less unrelated species that share the same ecological niche.

Their behaviour is similar to many other passerine families. The males defend territory and attract females by song and bright coloured plumage. Females are a dowdy brownish colour, better for camouflage. The males' colour is much less bright out of season. They are insectivorous, and nest in dense undergrowth. The parallels with Eurasian wrens are quite striking.
Distribution of Armenians in Turkish Armenia.
**Western Armenia** (Armenian: Արևմտյան Հայաստան), also referred to as **Byzantine Armenia**, later **Turkish Armenia**, or **Ottoman Armenia** is a term coined following the division of Greater Armenia between Byzantine Empire (*Western Armenia*) and Persia (*Eastern Armenia*) in 387 AC.

History
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After the death of Armenian king *Arshak III*, in 390 AC, the Western Armenia was governed by Greek generals. In the 7th century Western Armenia was one of the centers of *Pavlikian* Christian popular sect. Since 9th century the most part of Western Armenia included Vaspurakan and Taron was under the rule of Bagratid dynasty of Armenia. Then the Zakarid Armenia of 13-14th centuries included some parts of Western Armenia.

After Turkish-Persian wars of 1602-1639 Western Armenia became part of Ottoman Empire. Since Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829 that term is referred to the Armenian-populated historical regions of the Ottoman Empire that remained under Ottoman rule after the eastern part was ceded to the Russian Empire.

Western (Ottoman) Armenia was composed of six vilayets (*vilâyat-ı sitte*), the vilayets of Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Kharput, and Sivas. After the collapse of Ottoman Empire Western Armenia remained under Turkish rule, and in 1894–96 and 1915 Turkey perpetrated systematic massacres and forced deportations of Armenians.

After the Armenian genocide the distinct Western Armenian dialect of the Armenian language (recognized as one of the major dialects of Armenian  Archived 2007-12-17 at the Wayback Machine) is spoken primarily in Istanbul, Lebanon, Egypt, other parts of Armenian diaspora, and formerly in eastern Turkey. It differs orthographically from Eastern Armenian, there are also phonological differences. In some parts of the diaspora, the Armenian schools, such as L'École Arménienne Sourp Hagop and the Armenian Sisters Academy instruct Western Armenian to the students, instead of Eastern Armenian, the official dialect of the Republic of Armenia.

Modern period
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The fate of Western Armenia — commonly referred to as "The Armenian Question" — is considered as a key issue in the modern history of the Armenian people. The first and second congresses of Western Armenians took place in Yerevan in 1917 and 1919. Since 2000, an organizing committee of congress of heirs of Western Armenians who survived the Armenian Genocide is active in diasporan communities.

Publications
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* Dr Arman Kirakosian, English Policy towards Western Armenia and Public Opinion in Great Britain (1890-1900), Yerevan, 1981, 26 p. (in Armenian and Russian).

Related pages
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* Kingdom of Armenia
* Armenian Highland
* Wilsonian Armenia
* Armenian Empire

Other websites
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* Disappearance of Western Armenia after World War 1 Archived 2007-11-25 at the Wayback Machine
* Video: Provinces of Western Armenia
The Ninth Wave of storm by Ivan Aivazovsky.A **storm** is a violent meteorological phenomenon in which there is heavy rain, and wind due to moisture in the air. Hail and Lightning are also common in storms. More rarely, Tornadoes can occur in storms. 

Hurricanes, typhoons, and tornadoes are, often, called storms too but they have special names because they are very, very strong. Storms are studied by scientists called meteorologists. The idea of shipping forecasts started with a concern to save ships from unexpected storms in the North Atlantic. A storm is associated with severe weather and may be marked by strong wind, thunder, lightning and heavy precipitation such as ice. Therefore, the knowledge of the weather condition is extremely important.

There are many varieties and names for storms: *icestorm*, *blizzard*, *snowstorm*, *ocean-storm*, *firestorm*, etc. The storms called thunderstorms develop in hot, humid tropical areas like Mexico very frequently. The rising temperatures produce strong upward rising winds. These winds carry water droplets upwards, where they freeze, and fall down again. The swift movement of the falling water droplets along with the rising air create *lighting* and sound. 


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Storm***.
**Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology (SIIT)** (Thai: สถาบันเทคโนโลยีนานาชาติสิรินธร) is an institute of technology in Thammasat University, Thailand. It was established in 1992.

SIIT offers education in science, technology, engineering, and management. Every education programs are "international program", all classes are in English language. Its graduates receive degrees from Thammasat University.

Although it is part of Thammasat University, its financial and administration system are separate from the central university system.

Academics
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### Schools

SIIT has five schools and one department for undergraduate and graduate students.

School of Bio-Chemical Engineering and Technologyhosts chemical engineering and environmental technology programs
School of Civil Engineering and Technologyhosts civil engineering and infrastructure planning programs
School of Information, Computer and Communication Technologyhosts information technology, computer science, and Electronics and communication engineering programs
School of Management Technologyhosts management technology and engineering management programs
School of Manufacturing Systems and Mechanical Engineeringhosts mechanical engineering and industrial engineering programs
Department of Common and Graduate Studies

Campuses
--------

SIIT has two campuses (as of 2013), *Rangsit* and *Bangkadi campus*. Both are in Pathum Thani province.
The area is known for "Technology Clusters of North Bangkok".

* *Rangsit campus* is 42 kilometers north of Bangkok (the capital city of Thailand). It is near Thailand Science Park, national research centers, industrial estates, and universities.
* *Bangkadi campus* is in Bangkadi industrial park. It is near Software Park Thailand.
* There is a plan to open a new campus in *Lampang*. Lampang is a province in northern part of Thailand.

Other websites
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* SIIT official website
* SIIT International Office Archived 2007-04-30 at the Wayback Machine
* SIIT.NET Archived 2006-10-04 at the Wayback Machine community
* List of SIIT websites Archived 2012-07-04 at the Wayback Machine (Open Directory Project)
The **Ministry of Justice and Human Rights** (Spanish: *Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos*; **MJyDH**) of Argentina is the ministry of the National Executive Power. It is in charge of helping the President and the Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers in everything related to justice.

Creation
--------

The ministry was created in 1949. It was during the first presidency of Juan Domingo Perón. Then the ministry has been present in every presidential cabinet since then.

Competencies
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According to Law 22,520, its powers are "to assist the President, and the Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers in order of their powers, in relations with the Judicial power, with the Public ministry, with the Ombudsman and with the Council of the Magistrature, in the updating of national legislation, and at the request of the President of the Nation in legal advice and in the coordination of the activities of the State related to said advice, without prejudice to its own competence and technical independence. of the Procuration of the treasury of the nation…"
Saint Michel d'Aiguilhe chapel, on top of a volcanic plug in Le Puy-en-Velay, France.
Sigiriya Rock Fortress, Sri Lanka
A **volcanic plug** is a landform created when volcanic magma hardens inside a vent on an active volcano. They are sometimes called volcanic necks or *puys*. The plug is revealed when surrounding land is eroded.

As it forms, a plug may cause an extreme build-up of pressure if gas-charged magma is trapped beneath it. This sometimes leads to an explosive eruption. But if the explosion does not occur, then the volcano becomes a solid block made of hard material.

The plug is usually harder than the surrounding rock. Glacial erosion can lead to exposure of the plug on one side, while a long slope of material remains on the lee side. Such landforms are called crag and tail. If a plug is preserved, erosion may remove the surrounding rock while the erosion-resistant plug remains. This is what produces the distinctive upstanding landform.

Related pages
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* Intrusion
Three types of plate boundary
**Volcanism** (or **vulcan activity**) is the eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth. 

Magma under the crust is under very great pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or fractures appear. These are lines of weakness. 

When these lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and reach the magma, they will release the pressure in the magma. This allows magma to rise up along the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma may even reach the Earth's surface as lava.

Volcanoes
---------

See the main article: Volcano
Volcanoes are the places where magma reaches the earth's surface. The type of volcano depends on the location of the eruption and the consistency of the magma.

Intrusions
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The main feature of the Devils Tower National Monument was created via intrusion.
See the main article: Intrusion
Intrusive volcanism is when magma is forced into the rocks that make up the Earth's crust. When it cools and become solid while still underground, different features called plutons are formed. The rock formed is intrusive igneous rock.

These plutons will be exposed at the surface of land when the overlying rocks are removed after a long time of denudation (laid bare by erosion).

Major features formed by intrusive volcanicity include: batholith, laccolith, dyke, pipe and sill.

* Batholiths: Have large scale magma that has been solidified at the base of the mountain.
* Dyke: Is a small scale magma cooled within the earths crust that stands vertically to the existing rocks.
* Sill: Is a small scale magma cooled near the earths surface that lies horizontally to the existing rocks.
* Laccolith: A small scale magma that pushes the overlying layers of rocks to form a dome shaped structure.

Extrusions
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The molten magma under great pressure forces its way through the fissure of underground rocks and reaches the Earth's surface to form "igneous extrusion". 
Major extruded materials include gas, liquid and solid.

* Gas - sulphur, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hot steam (geysers). When uprising magma decreases in pressure suddenly, gases within magma explode to the Earth's surface and cause destruction.
* Solid - pyroclast. Mainly composed of: country rock, fragments of solidified lava and fine materials (volcanic ash and dust). It can be classified by size into volcanic bombs, volcanic blocks, lapilli, volcanic ash and volcanic dust.
* Liquid - lava, hot springs.

Features formed are:

* Caldera: a large depression in a former volcanic site. When it is filled with water it is called a 'caldera lake'.
* Composite cones: a large volcanic mountain formed by solidified lava on the surface.
* Geysers: eruption of hot water and steam shooting into the air at regular intervals.
* Hot springs: springs of hot water that flow out continuously without shooting up into the air.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Volcanism***.

* "Glossary of Volcanic Terms". G. J. Hudak, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, 2001. Retrieved 2010-05-07.