recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
*For the NHL team, see Tampa Bay Lightning*
*For the World War II fighter, see P-38 Lightning*
Lightning over Virginia
**Lightning** is a very powerful electrical discharge made during a thunderstorm. The electric current makes the air very hot. The suddenly heated air expands very quickly, which causes thunder. Sometimes lightning happens between clouds. Sometimes (in the rain) lightning goes from cloud to ground. If it goes from cloud to ground, it can strike a person. Around 2000 people are struck by lightning each year. A few of them are not killed.
About 50 to 100 lightning bolts strike the Earth every second. Lightning has hit the Empire State Building as many as 500 times a year.

Lightning strikes the Eiffel Tower, France in 1902.Lightning usually hits the tallest structure.
When lightning strikes, the surface rubs electrons from the lightning, and a spark of electricity shoots from the lightning to the surface. In a thunderstorm, the lower cloud has as many as 100 million volts of electricity. This electricity is given out either within the cloud, to the ground, to another cloud, or into the air. Lightning has been known to travel from the ground upwards to the cloud. In 1993, scientists discovered lightning bolts that shot upward from the top of a cumulonimbus cloud.

People can make and study lightning with a Tesla coil or a Van de Graaff Generator.

Franklin experiment
-------------------

Benjamin Franklin experimented with electricity and was interested in lightning. He discovered many things about lightning. In 1772, he was the first to show that a thunderstorm lets out electricity. In his book he suggested an experiment to test it. Joseph Priestley said that Franklin flew a kite to prove the presence of electricity in the storm, using a dry silk string to protect himself from the electricity in the wet hemp kitestring.

Related pages
-------------

* Ball lightning
* Helicopter-triggered lightning strikes

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Lightning***.

* Central Florida's "Lightning Stalker" photography Archived 2009-04-29 at the Wayback Machine
* How Lightning Works at HowStuffWorks
* Positive lightning photography from Florida
* Archived 2013-11-23 at the Wayback Machine
A **fiddler crab**, also called a **calling crab**, is a land crab that lives in mud or sand flats near the beach. The reason this crab is called a fiddler crab is because it holds its large cheliped in front of its body and moves it back and forth as if it is playing a fiddle.

Description
-----------

The male fiddler crab has one huge cheliped and another smaller cheliped. Sometimes it's the right cheliped that's the big one and sometimes it's the left. If a male loses its large cheliped, the smaller one will grow large to replace it. This huge cheliped is so large that it is sometimes bigger than the whole crab. It is this cheliped they wave back and forth.

Fiddler crab's diet
-------------------

The fiddler crab eats by first opening its mouth, then using its maxillipeds (a part of its mouth), it scoops in a small amount of mud or sand, depending on where it lives. Then, it uses its other mouthparts to scrape any food matter (algae, decaying animals or plants)it can from the dirt it has just put into its mouth. After this, it forms the mud or sand into a little pellet, which is called a *feeding pellet*. It then drops the feeding pellet and starts all over again.

Mating
------

The reason the male fiddler crab has such a big claw is to attract females. Every two weeks during the summer, male fiddler crabs build little round burrows, which are deeper and better than the ones they usually build. The crabs guard these burrows fiercely. Where there are lots of fiddler crabs, there are usually hundreds of these little burrows all lined up only a few inches apart. Each male fiddler crab stands out in front of his burrow waiting for the females to return from eating. The females then walk around looking at the different burrows. As they walk past, the males wave their big chelipeds back and forth. If a female likes a male or burrow, she will stop and stare. Then the male begins waving his cheliped wildly. Sometimes the female will run away. However, if she stays, the male will run between her and the burrow, back and forth, again and again. If she has still not run away, she will come closer to the burrow. Then the male will enter the burrow a little and start drumming against the side of the tunnel with his cheliped. If the female likes what she hears, she will go down into the burrow, and they will mate.

Other websites
--------------

* Archived 2009-04-14 at the Wayback Machine - Videos of Fiddler Crabs
* Info on systematics, phylogeny and morphology of fiddlers - Fiddlercrab.info
* The colorful fiddler crabs in the mangrove forest of Borneo - mysabah.com
In computing, **off-site data protection**, or **vaulting**, is the strategy of sending critical data off the main site. The place where the data is stored is often called the **data vault**.

In many organisations, there is some data which is so important that it must be protected. Protection against hacking can be done by means of software, but protection against physical damage is a different problem. The solution is to put the data in more than one place, so a major disaster, (such as fire or explosions) does not prevent the recovery of the computer system with all its most important data.

Data is usually taken off-site using media such as magnetic tape or optical storage. Data can also be sent electronically to a remote backup service, which is called *electronic vaulting* or *e-vaulting*.

Sending backups off-site makes sure systems and servers can be reloaded with the latest data in the event of a disaster, accidental error, or system crash. Sending backups off-site also ensures there is a copy of data that is not stored on-site. Off-site backup services are convenient for companies that backup data on a daily basis (classified and unclassified).

Although some organizations manage and store their own off-site backups, many choose to have their backups managed and stored by others who specialize in the protection of off-site data.
The **Umayyad dynasty** (Arabic: بنو أمية, romanized: *Banū Umayya*, lit. 'Sons of Umayya') or **Umayyads** (Arabic: الأمويون, romanized: *al-Umawiyyūn*) was an Arab clan within the Quraysh tribe who were the ruling family of the Umayyad Caliphate between 661 and 750 and later of Al-Andalus between 756 and 1031. *Umayya ibn Abd Shams* (Arabic: أمية بن عبد شمس), the wartime commander of the Meccans, was the progenitor of the line of the Umayyad dynasty. He was also the grandfather of Mu'awiya I, the founder of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Islamic Empire reached its largest geographical extent under the Umayyads. Under the Umayyads, Al-Andalus also became a centre of science, medicine, philosophy and invention during the Islamic Golden Age.

In popular culture
------------------

The Umayyads have been the subject of many tales, both factual and fictitious. Umayyad Caliphs are referenced throughout the Arabic collection of *101 Nights* (Arabic: مائة ليلة وليلة), also known as *The Book with the Story of the 101 Nights*, and Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and his three sons enjoy a similar status in the *101 Nights* as that of the Abbasid ruler Harun al-Rashid in the 1,001 Nights.
The **gliding leaf frog**, **gliding tree frog**, **Spurrell's tree frog**, or **pink-sided leaf frog** (*Agalychnis spurrelli*) is a frog that lives in Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Costa Rica. Scientists have seen it between 70 and 1199 meters above sea level.

Appearance
----------

Frogs that live in different places are different sizes: Adult male frogs from Costa Rica are 4.8 to 5.6 cm long from nose to rear end and the adult female frog is 6.0 to 7.2 cm long. The frogs that live in Panama are 6.7 to 7.6 cm long and 8.2 and 8.7 cm long. It has webbing on its feet and disks on its toes for climbing.

This frog is different colors during the day and at night: much of its back is light green during the day and dark green at night. This frog often has white spots with black outlines on its back. Some frogs have green stripes and yellow throats.

This frog hides during the day and looks for food at night. This frog climbs up vines by going hand over hand. It can jump and glide from tree to tree by spreading its webbed front and back feet.

Eggs and tadpoles
-----------------

The female frog leaves 14-67 eggs at a time. She lays them on the upper side of a leaf hanging over a body of water that is not there all year. Sometimes a male frog will scrape them off the leaf. The eggs take six days to hatch. The tadpoles fall into the water and stay near the surface with their mouths facing up.

Predators
---------

Dragonfly nymphs, beetles, and aphids, cicadas, and leafhoppers that live in the water eat the frog's eggs. Green kingfishers eat the tadpoles. Snakes that can climb trees eat the adult frogs.

Threats
-------

The number of frogs living in the wild is going down but it is not endangered now. Scientists think its population is becoming smaller because of habitat loss and humans building farms and cutting down trees in the places this frog lives.
**Charles Emmanuel IV** (Carlo Emanuele Ferdinando Maria; 24 May 1751 – 6 October 1819) was King of Sardinia from 1796 to 1802. He abdicated in favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel I. He was the brother-in-law of Louis XVI, Louis XVIII and Charles X of France.

Biography
---------

*Carlo Emanuele* was born at the Royal Palace of Turin, the eldest son of Victor Amadeus, "Duke of Savoy" and Maria Antonia of Spain. From his birth till his succession he was styled "Prince of Piedmont". He was named after his grandfather Charles Emmanuel III and baptised *Carlo Emanuele Ferdinando Maria*. 

In 1775 Charles Emmanuel married Marie Clotilde of France, the daughter of Louis, Dauphin of France and Marie Josèphe of Saxony, and sister of Louis XVI. Although the union was arranged for political reasons, Charles Emmanuel and his wife became devoted to each other. Their attempts to have children, however, were unsuccessful.

He became king at the death of his father on 14 October 1796. In December 1798, the French occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel to abdicate all his territories on the Italian mainland and to withdraw to the island of Sardinia. The following year he tried unsuccessfully to regain Piedmont. He and his wife lived in Rome and in Naples as guests of the rich Colonna family. 

On 7 March 1802 Charles Emmanuel's wife Marie Clothilde died. He was so moved by her death that he decided to abdicate on 4 June 1802 in favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel. Charles Emmanuel retained the personal title of King. 
He died at the Palazzo Colonna in Rome and was buried in the Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale.

Titles, styles, honours and arms
--------------------------------

### Titles and styles

* **24 May 1751 – 16 October 1796** *His Royal Highness* The Prince of Piedmont
* **16 October 1796 – 4 June 1802** *His Majesty* The King of Sardinia
* **4 June 1802 – 6 October 1819** *His Majesty* King Charles Emmanuel

Other websites
--------------

 Media related to Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia at Wikimedia Commons
**The Christie NHS Foundation Trust** is the biggest cancer centre in the North of England. It was started in 1892 and moved to its present site in Withington in 1932. The Holt Radium Institute was a research centre which ran a radiotherapy service. Ralston Paterson was the Director of the Radium Institute in 1931, and built a world recognised centre for the treatment of cancer by radiation. New research laboratories, provided by the Women's Trust Fund and named after the Patersons, were opened in 1966. It changed its name to the Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute in 2013. It was destroyed by fire in 2017. It was rebuilt and reopened in 2023. The new building is 25,000 square metres and ten storeys high, more than twice the size of the earlier building, 

The Christie registers around 12,500 new patients and treats about 60,000 patients every year. It covers a population of 3.2 million, and runs clinics at 16 other hospitals. There is a private cancer unit which made £25 million in 2018–9.
Conrad II, born around 990, rose to power during a period of significant upheaval in medieval Europe. He inherited the throne of Germany from his father, Henry of Speyer, in 1024. Conrad was crowned King of Italy in 1026 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1027, solidifying his authority over a vast territory that encompassed much of modern-day Germany, Italy, and parts of neighboring regions.

Conrad's reign was marked by efforts to centralize imperial power, often at the expense of regional nobles and ecclesiastical authorities. He strengthened the imperial administration, reformed the coinage system, and promoted the growth of towns and trade, contributing to the economic development of the empire.

One of Conrad's most significant challenges was dealing with external threats, including conflicts with neighboring kingdoms and the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in southern Italy. He also faced internal opposition from powerful nobles and rival claimants to the throne.

Despite these challenges, Conrad's reign laid the foundation for the Holy Roman Empire's continued expansion and consolidation under subsequent rulers. His descendants, particularly the Salian dynasty, would continue to shape the destiny of the empire in the centuries to come.
A Smethwick engine in steam at Birmingham's Thinktank museum
Sewage pumping engine, also in Birmingham
**Boulton & Watt** was an early British engineering and manufacturing firm. They were very significant in the early industrial revolution. The partners were the English manufacturer Matthew Boulton and the Scottish engineer James Watt.

The firm designed and made marine and stationary steam engines. It was founded in the English West Midlands around Birmingham in 1775, and grew to be a major producer of steam engines in the 19th century.

The Boulton and Watt steam engine was the first to use steam at above atmospheric pressure. This was a great step in the development of the steam engine. Watt's invention was a key point in the Industrial Revolution.
Their engines were used for pumping water in canals, mines, and waterworks, and for driving machines.

The Soho Foundry
----------------

At first the partnership made the drawing and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect it on the customers property. They produced almost none of the parts themselves. Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper’s Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory.

Gradually the partners began to actually make more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal. There they built a new foundry for making the engines. The Soho Foundry opened in 1796 at a time when Watt’s sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. In 1800, the year of Watt’s retirement, the firm made a total of forty-one engines.

Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered.
**Roger Dean Miller Sr.** (January 2, 1936 – October 25, 1992) was an American singer and songwriter. 

He was widely known for his honky-tonk-influenced novelty songs and his chart-topping country hits "King of the Road", "Dang Me", and "England Swings". He grew up in Oklahoma and served in the United States Army. He got to be a songwriter around 1959, and wrote hits like Billy Bayou and Home for Jim Reeves, and Invitation to the Blues for Ray Price. He recorded songs in the mid 1960's, and continued to record and tour into the 1990s. He charted his final top country hit Old Friends with Ray and Willie Nelson in 1982. He wrote the music and lyrics for the Tony Award winning musical Big River, in which he acted. On Sunday, October 25th, 1992, Roger died from lung cancer. His songs were Tall, Tall Trees by Allan Jackson and Husband and Wives, from Brooks and Dunn, as set in the 1990s. The Roger Miller Museum, which is now closed, in his hometown of Erick, Oklahoma, was a tribute to this man.
Cinnamaldehyde, a type of phenolic compound with a conjugated system
1,3-pentadiene
In chemistry, a **conjugated system** is a system of continuous and parallel p-orbitals with delocalized electrons. Conjugated systems are created by several multiple bonds, each separated by single bonds. In general, conjugated systems may lower the overall energy of the molecule and increase how steady it is. They can contain lone pairs, radicals or carbonium ions. The compound may be cyclic, acyclic, linear or mixed. In most cases, the atoms in a molecule are held together by single bonds (where orbitals from adjacent atoms overlap). Molecules which have a conjugated system have unique properties different from normal compounds created by the sharing of the delocalized electrons among many atoms.

**Conjugation** is the overlap of one p-orbital with another across a sigma bond (or single bond) that is in between. (The d-orbitals of larger atoms can also contribute to a conjugated system).

A conjugated system has a region of overlapping p-orbitals, bridging the single bonds that are between. They allow a delocalization of pi electrons across all the adjacent aligned p-orbitals.
The pi electrons do not belong to a single bond or atom, but rather to a group of atoms.

The **largest** conjugated systems (with the greatest number of shared electrons) are in graphite, conductive polymers, and carbon nanotubes.

Mechanism
---------

Conjugation with different kinds of p-orbital donating groups
Different types of molecular structures can result in conjugation. For conjugation, all the neighboring atoms in a chain must have an available p-orbital. In many cases, conjugated systems are a series of a single bonds each followed by a double bond. Other systems exist. For example, furan (see picture) is a five-membered ring with two alternating double bonds and an oxygen in position 1. The Oxygen in furan has two lone pairs, one of which fills a p-orbital on that position. The lone pair electron makes conjugation possible on a five-membered ring. The presence of a nitrogen in the ring can be a source of pi orbitals needed for conjugation. Also, pi orbitals needed for conjugation can come from substituent groups α to the ring like: a carbonyl group (C=O), an imine group (C=N), a vinyl group (C=C), or an anion.

### Chromophores

Conjugated systems are the main things that make up chromophores. Chromophores are light-absorbing parts of a molecule that can cause a compound to have a visible color. Chromophores are often present in various organic compounds and sometimes present in polymers that are colored or glow in the dark. Chromophores often consist of a series of conjugated bonds and/or ring systems, which can include C-C, C=C, C=O, or N=N bonds. Many times, chromophores have aromatic rings.

Chemical structure of beta-carotene. The eleven conjugated double bonds that form the chromophore of the molecule are highlighted in red.

Common examples
---------------

* Diene
* Vitamin D
* Vitamin A
* Benzene
* Conjugated linoleic acid

Related pages
-------------

* Resonance (chemistry)
* Hyperconjugation
* Cross-conjugation
* Polyene
Sir **Gavin Rylands de Beer** FRS (1899–1972) was a British evolutionary embryologist. He was Director of the London Natural History Museum, President of the Linnean Society, and received the Royal Society's Darwin Medal for his studies on evolution.

In the First World War he served in the Grenadier Guards. Later, he taught at Oxford University zoology department. In 1938, he was made Reader in Embryology at University College London. During the Second World War de Beer again served with the Grenadier Guards reaching the rank of temporary lieutenant colonel. He worked in military intelligence, propaganda and psychological warfare. Also during the war, in 1940, he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society.

In 1945, de Beer became Professor of Zoology and was, from 1946 to 1949, President of the Linnean Society. Then he was Director of the British Museum (Natural History) from 1950 until his retirement in 1960. He was knighted in 1954, and awarded the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1957.

Books
-----

de Beer wrote 25 books, of which these are still noteworthy:

* *An introduction to experimental embryology* — 1926
* *Early travellers in the Alps* — 1930
* *Embryology and evolution* — 1930 (later editions bore the title *Embryos and ancestors*)
* *The elements of experimental embryology* — 1934 (co-written with Julian Huxley)
* *The development of the vertebrate skull* — 1937
* *Archaeopteryx lithographica* – 1954
* *Darwin's journal: Darwin's notebooks on the transmutaion of species* — 1959
* *Reflections of a Darwinian* — 1962
* *Homology, an unsolved problem* — 1971
* *Jean-Jacques Rousseau and his world* — 1972
Adriana Cerezo Iglesias
**Adriana Cerezo Iglesias** (born November 24, 2003) is a Spanish taekwondo artist. At only the age of 17, Cerezo had won a silver medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, making her one of the youngest Spanish olympic athletes to ever compete in taekwondo.

Early life
----------

Cerezo was born in Alcalá de Henares, Spain. At the age of 4, she decided that she wanted to learn taekwondo. She quickly moved her way up through the ranks, and ended up winning a gold medal during her first time at the European Taekwondo Championships.

Career
------

Cerezo attended the Hankuk school and competed for their team. In 2020, she won a gold medal during her first time at the European Taekwondo Championships. Shortly after, Cerezo qualified to compete for Spain in the Tokyo Olympics.  In 2021, Cerezo had won gold medals at the Turkish and Spanish open. In addition to this, she had also won a silver medal in the Tokyo Olympics which had been moved due to the COVID pandemic. Cerezo still competes in Taekwondo and is working towards the 2024 Paris Olympics.
Yi Sun-sin
Admiral **Yi Sun-sin** (March 8, 1545 – November 19, 1598) was a Joseon dynasty admiral. He fought the Japanese navy in the Imjin war. He is a national hero of Korea.

Life
----

Yi was born in Geoncheon-dong, Seoul on March 8, 1545. Because his family was poor, he moved to and grew up in his mother's hometown, Asan, in Chungcheongnam province. He became a warrior at the late age of 32, after failing the exam at the age of 28. When he arrived Jeolla-do province as the navy commander of western part of Jeolla-do province in 1591, he predicted the war with Japan. He disciplined the navy tightly and made the turtle ship, which had at least five different types of cannon and had a fully covered deck with iron spikes to shield from cannon fire and attempt to board the ship, for preparation of the war.

On April 13, 1592, the Imjin War broke out just as Yi had foreseen. Joseon was not prepared for war. Japan occupied nearly all of Korea. Yi had already prepared for war, so he led his navy to victory in every battle he fought during seven years of war with the Japanese. In the battle of Hansan, using crane wing formation he captured and sank fifty nine of the seventy-three Japanese ships. In the battle of Myeongnyang, he defeated 333 enemy ships with 13 ships his own. This victory has regarded as one of the miracle victories of the world.

Through his victories, Joseon dynasty prohibited the Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi from governing Joseon. However Yi Sun-sin was killed by enemy fire during the last battle of the war, Noryang, in 1592.
The coat of arms of Petrozavodsk
Petrozavodsk Drama Theater building.
Petrozavodsk, 1915
The flag of Petrozavodsk
**Petrozavodsk** (Russian: Петрозаводск, Karelian/Vepsian/Finnish: Petroskoi) is a city in northwestern Russia and the administrative center of the Republic of Karelia. The city has a population of around 280,170 people.

History
-------

Evidence shows that people have lived in the Petrozavodsk region since seven thousand years ago. At the end of the sixteenth century, there was a settlement in the region that was named *Onegaborg*.

During the Finnish occupation of Petrozavodsk, the city was named *Äänislinna* (or *Ääneslinna*). The city was retaken by the Soviet army on 28 June 1944. The Finns set up concentration camps in the city for people of non-Finnic ethnicity. In total, six camps were set up; which in total held 23,984 civilians of Russian ethnicity.

In 1977, the Petrozavodsk phenomenon occurred. This was an incident where a glowing object showered the city with many rays. Many people now believe that it was caused by the launch of the Soviet satellite Kosmos 955.

The Petrozavodsk State University is located in the city. The university is made up of 9 faculties and 6 institutes, and was founded on 1 September 1940.

There are many popular landmarks in Petrozavodsk. One of them is "Lenin Square," which is an oval space with a large Vladimir Lenin statue in the center. The suburb of *Martsialnye Vody* is the oldest spa in Russia. It was founded in 1714 by Peter the Great. Petrozavodsk is home to the Karelia Philharmonic Orchestra, the Karelian Musical Theater, the National Library of Karelia, the National Theatre of Karelia and a branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Climate
-------

According to the Köppen climate classification, Petrozavodsk experiences a subarctic climate. However, the city has much milder temperatures than other cities in that climate. This is mainly because of the city's position next to the Baltic Sea. The average annual temperature is 3.1 °C. Temperatures in winter range from 0 to -15 °C, in summer from +5 to +25 °C. The record high temperature was 33.9 °C (93.0 °F), and the record low temperature was −41.6 °C (−42.9 °F).

Other websites
--------------

* Official website of Petrozavodsk Archived 2007-10-09 at the Wayback Machine
* Official website of Petrozavodsk Archived 2020-10-12 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
* Unofficial website of Petrozavodsk Archived 2020-10-20 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
* Official website of the Board of Culture of Petrozavodsky Urban Okrug (in Russian)
* Kizhi Museum

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* Abakan
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* Maykop
* Nalchik
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* Saransk
* Simferopol
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* Ufa
* Ulan-Ude
* Vladikavkaz
* Yakutsk
* Yoshkar-Ola

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**Unit 731** was a biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army. It engaged in lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (World War II). It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes committed by the armed forces of Imperial Japan. Unit 731 was based in the Pingfang district of Harbin, the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo until 1945 when the Soviet Union invaded it what would be known as The Soviet Invasion Of Manchuria Of 1945. It was active throughout China and Southeast Asia. Estimates of those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a million people killed on the orders of the camp's director Shirō Ishii.

The Unit 731 complex. Two prisons are hidden in the center of the main building. Possibly the 1940's during WW2 either 1942 or 1943

Establishment
-------------

It was officially known as the **Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army**. Originally set up by the military police of the Empire of Japan, Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the end of the war by General Shirō Ishii, a combat medic officer in the Kwantung Army. The program received generous support from the Japanese government until the end of the war in 1945. Unit 731 and other units operated biological weapon production, testing, deployment, and storage facilities. They routinely conducted tests on human beings (who were internally referred to as "logs"). Additionally, biological weapons were tested in the field on cities and towns in China.

Disestablishment
----------------

While Unit 731 researchers arrested by Soviet forces were put on trial, those captured by the United States were secretly given immunity in exchange for the data gathered during their experiments. The Americans coopted the researchers' bioweapons information and experience for use in their own biological warfare program, much as they had done with German researchers in Operation Paperclip.
*Pleuropholis*
**Pleuropholidae**, the **pleuropholids**, is an extinct family of stem-teleost fish that lived from the Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. It is one of the few families that were formerly placed in the paraphyletic order Pholidophoriformes. Pleuropholids can be distinguished from other pholidophoriforms by the elongated scales on the sides of their bodies.

Some genera
-----------

### *Pleuropholis*

*Main article: Pleuropholis*

*Pleuropholis* is an extinct, prehistoric pleuropholid with fossils found in Europe and North America. The type species is *Pleuropholis crassicauda*.

### *Parapleuropholis*

*Main article: Parapleuropholis*

*Parapleuropholis* is an extinct ray-finned fish from the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the early Toarcian stage of the Early Jurassic.

Taxonomy
--------

The family has five genera:

* *Austropleuropholis*
* *Gondwanapleuropholis*
* *Parapleuropholis*
* *Pleuropholis*
* *Zurupleuropholis*

Related pages
-------------

* Acanthomorpha
* Acanthopterygii
* Pleuropholis
* Triggerfish
The **Test of English as a Foreign Language**, or **TOEFL**, is a test which measures people’s English language skills to see if they are good enough to take a course at university or graduate school in English-speaking countries. It is for people whose native language is not English but wish to study in an international University. It measures how well a person uses listening, reading, speaking and writing skills to perform academic tasks. This test is accepted by more than 10 000 colleges, universities, and agencies in more than 150 countries; which means it is the most widely recognized English test in the world.

The format of the TOEFL test has been changed three times. The first was the PBT (paper-based TOEFL test). It tests listening, reading and grammar skills with a perfect score being 677 (Paper Based). Some centers where computers are not available still offer this format. The second format is the CBT (computer-based TOEFL test). People are each provided with a computer to take the test. A writing section was added as well as the three sections. The level of listening and grammar skills are automatically changed depending on a person’s English level. The third change is the iBT (Internet-based test) that is being brought in around the world which measures listening, speaking, reading and writing.

There are three procedures that people are following to take the test. First it is decided where and when you are going to 
take the test because the format of the test could be either iBT or CBT depending on location. People need to register 2–3 months in advance to get a place. Second is registration in person, online, by phone, or through email. Online registration is most common and payment will be required to complete the registration. The cost changes depending on what kind of exam is taken.

As more universities and colleges want a TOEFL more people are wanting to do the test. In Korea in 2010, nearly 115,000 people took the test to demonstrate their ability in English. This was 20% of the total for people doing the test. It is considered as one of the ways for middle or high school students to apply for the high ranked domestic universities. By studying at such an advanced level, it could help to improve their English skills to get high scores in other English exams..

Related pages
-------------

* TOEIC
* IELTS - International English Language Testing System
**Tigranes II**, more commonly known as **Tigranes the Great** (Armenian: Տիգրան Մեծ, *Tigran Mets*; Ancient Greek: Τιγράνης ὁ Μέγας *Tigránes ho Mégas*; Latin: *Tigranes Magnus*) was an Armenian king, from between 95 and 55 BCE. Tigranes's period, Kingdom of Armenia became, for a short time, most strongest and super power state to Rome's east. He was a member of the Artaxiad dynasty.

Tigranes was born around 140 BCE and was the son or nephew of Artavasdes I or Tigranes I.

Tigranes the Great represented the Artaxiad Royal House.

He was involved in many battles during his reign. He had battles against the Parthian, Seleucid, and Roman empires.

Early Armenian Empire of Tigranes

Related pages
-------------

* Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) (Expanded lands massively)

Sources
-------

* Armen, Herant K. (1940). *Tigran The Great*. Avondale Press.
* Manaseryan, Ruben (2007). *Տիգրան Մեծ՝ Հայկական Պայքարը Հռոմի և Պարթևաստանի Դեմ, մ.թ.ա. 94–64 թթ. [Tigran the Great: The Armenian Struggle Against Rome and Parthia, 94–64 B.C.]* (in Armenian). Yerevan: Lusakan Publishing.
The **HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)** sets a *unique* and *meaningful* name for every known human gene. It asks experts their opinions. The HGNC gives a long name, and an abbreviation (referred to as a *symbol*) to every gene. The HGNC is part of the Human Genome Organisation (HUGO).

Traditional gene names and abbreviations are often not specific for a single gene. Example: **CAP** (which means just "chromosome-associated protein") can refer to any of six different genes: (BRD4[*permanent dead link*], CAP1 Archived 2013-11-02 at the Wayback Machine, LNPEP Archived 2012-09-13 at the Wayback Machine, PTPLA Archived 2013-10-07 at the Wayback Machine, SERPINB6 Archived 2013-10-08 at the Wayback Machine, and SORBS1 Archived 2012-10-12 at the Wayback Machine).

Unlike traditional names like CAP, the HGNC short gene names, or gene symbols, are given to one gene only. This reduces confusion as to which gene is referred to.

Naming guidelines
-----------------

The HGNC approach to naming genes and assigning *symbols* (gene name abbreviations)is:

1. *gene symbols must be unique*
2. symbols should only use the Roman alphabet and Arabic numerals
3. symbols should not contain punctuation or "G" for gene
4. symbols do not contain any reference to the species they are encoded in, i.e. "H/h" for human

The full description of HGNC's nomenclature guidelines can be found on their web site  Archived 2014-12-21 at the Wayback Machine. HGNC advocates the appendices *\_v1, \_v2,..* to distinguish between different splice variants and *\_pr1, \_pr2,..* for promoter variants of a single gene.

HGNC also states that "gene nomenclature should *evolve with new technology* rather than be restrictive as sometimes occurs when historical and single gene nomenclature systems are applied".

Procedure
---------

The HGNC contacts authors who have published on the human gene in question by e-mail. They are asked their opinion on the proposed nomenclature. HGNC also works with other database curators, and experts for specific gene families or sets of genes.

### Revision

Changing a standardised gene name after it has got established may cause confusion. The merit of such changes are therefore controversial. For this reason the HGNC changes a gene name only if agreement for that change can be got from most researchers working on that gene.

Related pages
-------------

* Human Genome Organisation (HUGO)
* Human Genome Project
* human genome
* gene
* gene nomenclature

Other websites
--------------

* HGNC homepage
* HUGO homepage
Lava bomb, thrown from the Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii in 1983
A **volcanic bomb** or **lava bomb** is a mass of molten rock larger than 64 mm (2.5 inches) in diameter. It forms when a volcano throws viscous pieces of lava during a volcanic eruption. They cool into solid objects before they reach the ground. They are still very hot when they reach the ground, because they are still partly molten inside. Because volcanic bombs cool after they leave the volcano, they are extrusive igneous rocks. Volcanic bombs can be thrown many kilometers from an erupting fissure vent. They often get aerodynamic shapes during their flight. Lava bombs can be extremely large; the 1935 eruption of Mount Asama in Japan expelled bombs measuring 5–6 m (16-20 ft) in diameter up to 600 m (2,000 ft) from the vent. Volcanic bombs are a significant volcanic hazard, and can cause severe injuries and death to people in an eruption zone. At Galeras volcano in Colombia in 1993 six people near the summit were killed and several seriously injured by lava bombs when the volcano erupted unexpectedly. On July 16, 2018, 23 people were injured on a tour boat near the Kilauea volcano as a result of a basketball-sized lava bomb from the 2018 lower Puna eruption.

Volcanic bombs are known to occasionally explode from internal gas pressure as they cool, but usually most of the damage they cause is when they hit. As they are still hot when they land, they often cause a fire to start. Bomb explosions are most often observed in "bread-crust" type bombs.

Gallery
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* "Fusiform" type volcanic bomb. Capelinhos Volcano, Faial Island, Azores"Fusiform" type volcanic bomb. Capelinhos Volcano, Faial Island, Azores
* "Almond" type volcanic bomb found in the Cinder Cones region of the Mojave National Preserve, California"Almond" type volcanic bomb found in the Cinder Cones region of the Mojave National Preserve, California
* "Bread-crust" type volcanic bomb at Vulcania, Puy-de-Dôme, France"Bread-crust" type volcanic bomb at Vulcania, Puy-de-Dôme, France
* Lava bomb at Strohn, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, with a diameter of 5 meters and a mass of 120 tons. It was caused by a volcanic eruption in 8300 BCLava bomb at Strohn, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, with a diameter of 5 meters and a mass of 120 tons. It was caused by a volcanic eruption in 8300 BC

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Volcanic bombs***.

* USGS Volcano Hazards Program
**Super Junior** (Korean: 슈퍼주니어), also known as **SJ** or **SuJu** is a South Korean boy band, under S.M. Entertainment. It consists of thirteen members, consisting of leader Leeteuk, Heechul, Hankyung, Yesung, Shindong, Sungmin, Eunhyuk, Donghae, Siwon, Ryeowook and Kibum. Kyuhyun joined the group in 2006. Han Geng and Kibum had left SM Entertainment and Super Junior in 2009 and 2015. Kangin left Super Junior voluntarily in 2019 but his exclusive contract with label SJ still remains.

Musical career
--------------

They have released nine albums: Super Junior 05 (TWINS) with only twelve members. Kyuhyun joined later during the release of the song "U". They then released with the full set of thirteen members: Don't Don in 2007; Sorry, Sorry in 2009. Sorry, Sorry excludes Kangin due to suspension. In 2010, they released Bonamana which excludes Kangin, Han Geng, and Kibum. Super Junior then released Mr. Simple in 2011; Sexy, Free & Single in 2012; Hero in 2013; Mamacita in 2014 and Devil in 2015.

Super Junior is led by their leader Leeteuk, or Park Jung Su, and has four lead dancers/main dancers: Eunhyuk (main dancer), Shindong (lead dancer), Donghae (main dancer), and Han Geng (lead dancer), and also has five lead singers/main singers: Ryeowook (main singer), Kyuhyun (main singer), Yesung (main singer), Sungmin (lead singer) and Donghae (lead singer). Ryeowook, Kyuhyun, and Yesung belong in a subgroup called Super Junior-K.R.Y. All members except Kibum have been put into these subgroups: Super Junior-T, Super Junior-M, Super Junior-H and Super Junior-Donghae & Eunhyuk.

Super Junior-K.R.Y. sings many slow songs that show-off the voices of the singer.
Super Junior-T sings songs in a trot style.
Super Junior-M sings in Chinese and their main audience is not Korean, but Chinese.
Super Junior-H sing very bright and happy songs.

Since 2011, Sungmin and Kyuhyun had formed dancers position replaced for Han Geng.

Members
-------

 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| **Current members*** Leeteuk
* Heechul
* Yesung
* Shindong
* Sungmin
* Eunhyuk
* Donghae
* Siwon
* Ryeowook
* Kyuhyun

  | **Past members*** Han Geng
* Kibum
* Kangin
 |

### Timeline

* Red (horizontal) = Active
* Black (horizontal) = Inactive
* Black (vertical) = Studio Album

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Super Junior***.

* Official website
* Official website (in Japanese)
This article is about the color. For other uses, see White (disambiguation).

| This box shows the color white. |
| --- |
|   |

  

The catholic church in Nepal
The white dolphin
**White** is the brightest color. White light can be made by putting all the other colors of light on the spectrum together. These other colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

Meaning of white
----------------

White is linked with light, goodness, innocence, purity, cleanliness and virginity. It is sometimes thought to be the color of perfection. The opposite of black, white usually has a positive connotation. White can stand for a successful beginning. In heraldry, white depicts faith and purity. 

In advertising, white is linked with coolness and cleanliness because it is the color of snow. You can use white to show simplicity in high-tech products. White is an appropriate color for charitable organizations; angels are usually imagined wearing white clothes. White is associated with hospitals, doctors, and cleanliness, so you can use white to show safety when promoting medical products. White is often linked with low weight, low-fat food, and dairy products.

Tones of white color comparison chart
-------------------------------------

- White (Hex: FFFFFF) (RGB: 255, 255, 255)

- Baby Powder (Hex: FEFEFA) (RGB: 254, 254, 250)

- Snow (Hex: FFFAFA) (RGB: 255, 250, 250)

- Ivory (Pale Yellow) (Hex: FFFFF0) (RGB: 255, 255, 240)

- White Smoke (Hex: F5F5F5) (RGB 245, 245, 245)

- Ghost White (Hex: F8F8FF) (RGB 245, 245, 245)

- Cosmic Latte (Hex: E1F8E7) (RGB: 225, 248, 231)

- Gainsboro (Hex: DCDCDC) (RGB: 220, 220, 220)

- Quartz (Hex: D9D9F3) (RGB: 217, 217, 220)

Related pages
-------------

* List of colors

| * v
* t
* e
Shades of white |
| --- |
| 

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Alabaster | Alabastine | Alice blue | Antique white | Azure white | Beige | Bone | Champagne | Cornsilk | Cosmic latte |
|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
| Cream | Eggshell | Floral white | Flax | Ghost white | Honeydew | Isabelline | Ivory | Lavender blush | Lemon chiffon |
|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
| Linen | Magnolia | Mint cream | Misty rose | Navajo white | Nyanza | Old lace | Papaya whip | Peach | Platinum |
|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
| Seasalt | Seashell | Snow | Vanilla | White | White smoke |
|   |   |   |   |   |   |

 |
| A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name. |
**Casey Reid** (born 5 August, 1997) is a Jamaican professional footballer who plays as a centre-back.

Early life and career
---------------------

Casey Reid was born in Manchester, England. He began his football journey with Curzon Ashton FC in England before moving on to the youth setup of Rochdale AFC and later Morecambe FC.

### Senior Playing Career

Reid joined Morecambe FC youth and enjoyed loan spells with Skelmersdale United F.C. and Chorley FC.

In 2019, he moved to the United States to play for San Jose Earthquakes U23 team. He later signed with USL side Reno 1868.

During the 2020/2021 season, Reid also featured for San Jose Earthquakes reserves. Subsequently, Reid had also played in Hong Kong and his latest club was Fursan Hispania FC in the first Division in Dubai.

### International Career

In May 2017, Reid received his first call-up for the Jamaican senior men's training camp ahead of the 2017 Gold Cup, becoming one of the youngest overseas players to receive an international call-up for the Jamaica men's national team at 19 years and 11 months of age.

Reid was part of the Jamaican Olympic team and had previously represented Jamaica at the youth level.

Personal life
-------------

Casey Reid's holds dual nationality, being both a British National and Jamaican.
Seiji Ozawa
**Seiji Ozawa** (born 1 September 1935 – died 6 February 2024) was a Japanese conductor. He has conducted many of the world’s greatest orchestras and is especially known for his work with the Boston Symphony Orchestra which he conducted for 29 years.

Life
----

Seiji Ozawa was born in 1935 in Fenytien (now Shenyang, Liaoning, China). His parents were Japanese. Shenyang was under Japanese occupation at the time. When his family returned to Japan in 1944 he started learning the piano. After hurting his finger in a game of rugby in 1950 he became interested in conducting. He studied at the Toho School of Music, Tokyo and graduated with first prizes in composition and conducting. In 1959 he won first prize at the International Competition of Orchestra Conductors in Besançon, France. He was invited to the Tanglewood Music Center where he won a prize for conducting.

Ozawa worked with Herbert von Karajan in Berlin. In 1961 he was appointed as Leonard Bernstein’s assistant conductor of the New York Philharmonic for one year. He conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra at their summer residence, the Ravinia Festival, for five summers, then became director of the Toronto Symphony from 1965 to 1969 and music director of the San Francisco Symphony from 1970 to 1976. He often conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra and became its music director in 1973, a post which he held for 29 years. He became artistic director of Tanglewood in 1970. In 2002 he became music director of the Vienna State Opera, also conducting concerts with the Vienna Philharmonic.

Ozawa has made many recordings which have been highly praised. He has received many honours, including the Chevalier de la Légion d’Honneur for his support for French composers. When a new hall was built in Tanglewood it was named Seiji Ozawa Hall.

In 1992 Ozawa started the Saito Kinen Festival in memory of his teacher.

He was music director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra longer than any other conductor. Under Ozawa the orchestra remained one of the best in the world and often performed new musical compositions by living composers. They recorded more than 140 works together.

When Ozawa conducts he wears a poloneck shirt instead of the traditional black tie and suit.