recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
A camera **flash**, sometimes called a strobe or just a flash, is a device used in photography to allow pictures to be taken of dark areas by producing a flash of very bright light.

A picture taken of a cat with and without a fill-flash, which is where a subject is lit from behind using normal light and is lit from the front using a flash
Minolta electronic flashlamp ca 1978 - An example of an external flash which can be mounted to the top of a camera
Flashes are often built into cameras, but external flashes are available and are mostly used by professional photographers, they can be mounted directly to the camera, or used 'off-camera' on a special stand or tripod.

Flashes were first used in the late 1800's in the form of a stick with magnesium on the top that when burned would produce very bright light (the stick was held in the air, and the camera shutter released at the same time), later camera flashes used a special type of light bulb known as a flashbulb, and modern flashes use LED's or a special type of tube which emits a flash of mostly blue light when electricity is applied to it from the flash capacitor (known as a xenon flashtube).

  

The use of a flash to take photographs is mostly known as 'flash photography' 

The use of flashes is not allowed in some places where it may be annoying to other people or where the bright light could damage rare or very old objects (like paintings) such as in a museum.
**Elementary algebra** is the most basic form of algebra taught to students. It is often one of the next areas of mathematics taught to students after arithmetic. While in arithmetic only numbers and operators like +, −, ×, and ÷ occur; in algebra, variables (like *a*, *x*, *y*) are used to stand for numbers. This is useful because:

* It lets people solve problems about "unknown" numbers. This means learning about equations and how to solve them (for example, "find a number *x* where {\displaystyle 3x+1=10}").
* It allows the generalization of the rules from arithmetic. While some students understand that {\displaystyle 3+4=4+3}, it helps to prove that a+b=b+a for all *a* and *b*. This makes algebra a good step to learning about abstraction (learning general ideas from many examples).
* It helps people understand and create functional relationships (also sometimes called cause and effect). An example of this is "if *x* tickets are sold, then the profit will be {\displaystyle 3x-10} dollars".

These three are the main strands of elementary algebra. Elementary algebra is often used in many other subjects, like science, business, and building. Abstract algebra, a much more advanced topic, is generally taught late in college.

Simple algebra problems
-----------------------

If an equation has only one number that is unknown it is sometimes easy to solve. The unknown number is called "x":

{\displaystyle 2x+4=12.\,}
To solve a simple equation with one unknown amount add, subtract, multiply, or divide both sides of the equation by the same number in order to put the unknown amount, x, on one side of the equation. Once x is by itself on one side, use arithmetic to determine the amount on the other side of the equation. For example, by subtracting 4 from both sides in the equation above:

{\displaystyle 2x+4-4=12-4\,}
getting:

{\displaystyle 2x=8\,}
Dividing both sides by 2:

{\displaystyle {\frac {2x}{2}}={\frac {8}{2}}\,}
getting:

{\displaystyle x=4.\,}
It may help to think of this equation as a see-saw or balance, what you do to one side, you must do to the other and your main aim is to get *x* by itself.

Definitions
-----------

{\displaystyle 3x^{2}-2xy+c} has the following components:

  

1 : Exponent (power), 2 : Coefficient, 3 : term, 4 : operator, 5 : constant, {\displaystyle x,y} : variables
Fermentation of cheese
**Fermentation** is when a cell uses sugar for energy without using oxygen at the same time. 

'Fermentation' also describes growing microorganisms on a growth medium. This is done to get a chemical product. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur studied fermentation and its microbial causes. The science of fermentation is known as *zymology*.

Yeast is an organism that ferments. When yeast ferments sugar, the yeast uses sugar and produces alcohol. The process uses the coenzyme NAD: In metabolism, NAD helps redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another. Fermentation is a less efficient form of respiration than oxidative respiration (respiration using oxygen).

The ethyl alcohol produced by yeast is used to make beverages or biofuel. Yeast can be also used to grow bakery products like bread and cakes faster. In some cases yeast might be used to speed up the process of creation of wine.

Other cells make vinegar or lactic acid when they ferment sugar. In a different way, the fermentation process can continue and turn the alcohol into vinegar i.e. acetic acid.

Types of fermentation
---------------------

When yeast ferments, it breaks down the glucose (C6H12O6) into ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

* Ethanol fermentation always produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. It is important in bread-making, brewing, and wine-making.
* Lactic acid fermentation produces lactic acid. It happens in muscles of animals when they need lots of energy fast. The pain of a cramped muscle is caused by the build-up of lactic acid. The pain eases as the product is taken away by the blood supply.

Other websites
--------------

* Fermentation (biochemistry) -Citizendium
The Grand Tourist Francis Basset, by Pompeo Batoni, 1778William Beckford's Grand Tour through Europe shown in red.
The **Grand Tour** was the name of travel through Europe by rich European (mostly British) young men between 1660 until about 1840. It was done to learn about European society and art. The idea was that what they learned on their travels could be used to help those that stayed at home. Italy was often the final country to visit. They would mostly travel with servants and a teacher called a *bear-leader*.

Example Grand Tour
------------------

Which places the Grand Tour would visit  changed through the years. An example would be a British tourist would go from Dover, England and crossed the English Channel to Ostend, in the Spanish Netherlands/Belgium, or Calais, or Le Havre in France.

There they could rent or buy a carriage and travel to Paris. Or they could make the trip by boat, traveling up the Seine to Paris, or up the Rhine to Basel.

In Paris, the traveler could take lessons in French, dancing, fencing, and horse riding. Paris was popular because of the language and fashion of French high society.

From Paris he would go to Switzerland for a while, often to Geneva. From there the traveler would make a difficult crossing over the Alps into northern Italy.

Once in Italy the tourist would visit Turin, then might spend a few months in Florence. Other Grand Tourists would be in Florence to welcome him. A trip to Pisa then on to Padua, Bologna, and Venice.

Venice was seen as the most important place for Italian architecture, and was very important place to visit.

From Venice the traveler went to Rome to study the ruins of ancient Rome. Some travelers also visited Naples to study music. Naples was often the final destination before turning back.

From here the traveler went north through the Alps to the German-speaking parts of Europe. From there travelers visited Holland and Flanders before returning across the Channel to England.

Other websites
--------------

* The Grand Tour Archived 2020-07-23 at the Wayback Machine
* Grand Tour online at the Getty Museum
* In Our Time: The Grand Tour: Jeremy Black, Edward Chaney and Chloe Chard.
* "Grand Tour" an exhibition project of the Swedish artist Matts Leiderstam Archived 2018-08-25 at the Wayback Machine
* Voyagers and Voyeurs - Travellers in 19th century France, an anthology
* Contemporary Grand Tour in Italy, Pictures and quotes
* Digging and Dealing in Eighteenth Century Rome[*permanent dead link*]
**Eyre Peninsula** is a triangle shaped peninsula in South Australia. On the east is Spencer Gulf, and on the west is the Great Australian Bight. Its north boundary is the Gawler Ranges. It is named after explorer Edward John Eyre who explored some of it in 1839-1841. The coastline was first explored by Matthew Flinders in 1801-1802. The west coast was also visited by Nicolas Baudin at around the same time.

Overview
--------

The peninsula was explored by John Charles Darke in 1844, who was killed by local Aborigines on his return to Port Lincoln.

The main towns are Port Lincoln on the southern point, Whyalla and Port Augusta at the north east, and Ceduna at the northwest. They are joined by the Eyre Highway across the inland edge, and the Flinders Highway and Lincoln Highway along the west and east coasts.

The major industry is farming - cereal crops, sheep, and cattle in the dry north area. More water-intensive farming such as dairy farming and growing wine industry happen in the south. Many coastal towns have commercial fishing. Port Lincoln had a large tuna fishing fleet, which is now changing to fish farming in bays along the coast. The Eyre Peninsula has a growing population of around 55,390 people.

There is a commercial nephrite jade mine near Cowell. Iron ore is mined in the hills near Iron Knob and taken by rail to Whyalla for smelting.

National Parks located on the Eyre Peninsula include Lincoln National Park, Coffin Bay National Park, Gawler Ranges National Park, and several conservation parks and reserves like Acraman Creek Conservation Park.

In January 2005, bushfires on the Eyre Peninsula killed nine people.

Transport
---------

The peninsular is served by the isolated narrow gauge Eyre Peninsula Railway.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Eyre Peninsula***.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide about: ***Eyre Peninsula***

* Terraserver.com navigable satellite map of the Eyre Peninsula.[*permanent dead link*]
* SouthAustralia.com Eyre Peninsula - Travel Guides, Accommodation, Online Booking Archived 2007-10-06 at the Wayback Machine
US Navy 110901-N-JM744-016 A Navy Energy Security logo is displayed on the intake of an F-A-18 Hornet
**Energy security** is the association between national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption. Accessing to (relatively) cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies.

However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. International energy relations have contributed to the globalization of the world leading to energy security and energy vulnerability at the same time.

Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources including nuclear energy result in significant energy security and economic benefits.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Energy security***.

* Journal of Energy Security
* Institute for the Analysis of Global Security: Energy Security Research
* United States Energy Security Council
* Energy and Environmental Security Initiative (EESI)
* NATO and Energy Security
Photograph from 1892 of a pile of American bison skulls in Detroit (MI) waiting to be ground for fertilizer or charcoal. The United States Army encouraged massive hunts of American bison to force Native Americans off their traditional lands and into reservations further west. This is considered an early example of environmental racism.
Panguna copper mine under construction, 1971, in Papua New Guinea The indigenous people from Bougainville Island suffered more than others, from the construction of the mine. 
Aftermath of Lago Agrio oil field in Ecuador.. Texaco constructed the oil field, but didn't properly dispose of hazardous waste. In 1993, 30.000 people, from ethnic minorities filed a lawsuit against the company. Additionally, UN experts have said that Afro-Ecuadorians and other people of African descent in Ecuador have faced greater challenges than other groups in accessing clean water, with minimal response from the State.
Many countries make rules to protect the environment. These rules can be laws, guidelines, or regulations. Ideally, these rules affect all groups in society in the same way. When this is not the case, and one group or community is affected more than the others, this is known as **environmental racism**. As is common with racism, the groups are defined based on race, or skin color; sometimes on income. Very often, all the people decide on these rules. When some groups are excluded from the decision-making process, this is also known as environmental racism.

Benjamin Chavis first used the term, in the 1980s. At the time, he was a leading member of the Civil rights movement in the United States. The movement found that when a new landfill was constructed, minorities such as hispanics and black people were affected more often than the white people. The explanation given was the difference in income - hispanics and black people often earn less than white people. A study of 2007 showed that this explanation is too simple and that there are more complex patterns at play. The study also showed that environmental racism occurs in almost all bigger cities in the United States.

The term was later used to describe the situation in the Niger delta, and in Western New Guinea.

Environmental justice is a term that started about the same time; it focuses more on distributing the benefits and burdens of environmental policies equally in society.
The **Farmers to Families Food Box** program is set up by the United States' government during the COVID-19 pandemic to help get fresh food from farmers to consumers. The food is put into "family-sized" boxes containing produce, dairy products and/or meat. The programs is run by the USDA (Department of Agriculture). It is part of the government's general response to the pandemic, called the Coronavirus Food Assistance Program run by the USDA. It was announced on April 15, 2020. According to the program's home page, over 70,000,000 boxes were invoiced between the start date and then end of August.  As of the second week of August 2020, the program's budget was three billion dollars. 

The USDA buys the produce from farmers. Then the food is sent to local packaging companies. These companies distribute the packages to local organizations such as NGOs and religious orga
nizations. The program sets no restrictions on which families may pick of the boxes.

Reception
---------

The program has been positively received. However, there has been some criticism. For example, the boxes weigh forty pounds. This can make it difficult for people without a car to get the boxes home. Also, the program initially only had boxes with produce, dairy products and meat. Since some people do not eat dairy or meat products, this created a problem. 
It has also been stated that specialty-crop farmers have not been helped enough by the program.
***His Grace*** or ***Her Grace*** is a style of address used for various high-ranking persons. It was the style used to address the King or Queen of Scots up to the Act of Union of 1707. It was also used to address monarchs of England before Henry VIII. Today, the style is used when referring to dukes and duchesses in the United Kingdom, who are not members of the royal family. *Your Grace* would be used in spoken or written address. Royal dukes, for example The Duke of York, are addressed with their higher royal title, *Royal Highness*.

Examples
--------

* *His Grace* The Duke of Ormonde.
* *His Grace* The Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne
* *His Grace* The Duke of Marlborough. The title of the Spencer-Churchill family from which Winston Churchill descends.
* *His Grace* The Duke of Bedford.

Ecclesiastical usage
--------------------

The style "His Grace" and "Your Grace" is used in England and other English-speaking countries to address Roman Catholic archbishops. This is not common in other countries (for example in France and the United States Roman Catholic bishops are addressed using the style "Excellency"). In the Eastern Orthodox Church it is used for bishops and abbots. The style is also used for an archbishop and some bishops in the Anglican Church. In the United Methodist Church in the United States, bishops are addressed "Your Grace" (spoken style, and "His/Her Grace" (reference style). In the Church of God in Christ, the Presiding Bishop's style is "His Holy Grace" and "Your Holy Grace". The bishop's reference style is "His Eminence" and the spoken style is "Your Eminence". 

International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON—Hare Krishna) devotees prefix the name of their founder, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, with "His Divine Grace".

In Islam several Sufi orders (such as the Qadrianis and Hawariyun) may refer to their spiritual Grand Masters with the epithet "(Most) Graceful ..." or "His Grace" in reference style while the spoken style is "(Most) Graceful".

Other British dukedoms that use the style
-----------------------------------------

* Lennox
* Rutland
* Richmond
* Rutland
* Norfolk
* Portland
* Grafton
* Devonshire
* Somerset
* Westminster
* Bedford
The **flag of Hawaii** (Hawaiian: Ka Hae Hawaiʻi) is the official flag of Hawaii as a U.S. state, as it was kingdom, protector government, republic, and territory. It is the only state flag of the United States to have the Union Flag of the United Kingdom on it.

Design
------

The field of the flag is composed of eight horizontal stripes symbolizing the eight major islands. A ninth stripe was once shown, meaning the island of Nihoa. The color of the stripes, from the top down, has this pattern: white, red, blue, white, red, blue, white, red. The colors were standardized in 1843, although other combinations have been seen and are occasionally still used.

Origins
-------

There are a lot of reasons for the earliest history of the flag of Hawaii. One said how King Kamehameha I flew a British flag, given to him by British explorer Captain George Vancouver as a token of friendship with King George III. Other visits reported seeing the flag flying from places of honor. An adviser to Kamehameha noted that the Union Flag could draw Hawaii into international problems as his kingdom could be seen as an ally of the United Kingdom, and he quickly lowered the Union Flag over his home. While argued as historically correct, one report of events that followed stated that in order to please American interests during the War of 1812, a flag of the United States was raised over Kamehameha's home only to be removed when British officers in the court of Kamehameha powerfully objected to it. This account then explains why the resulting flag of Hawaii was a deliberate combination of the two nations' flags.

In 1816, Kamehameha appointed his own flag to avoid problems. As a result, the current flag of Hawaii was born. There is debate as to the name of the officer: some traditions credit Alexander Adams, others George Beckley. The original flag was designed to feature stripes alternating in the order: red-white-blue. However, some have argued that the stripes were influenced by the flag of the United States. The flag used at the first official flying of the flag of Hawaii erroneously placed the stripes in the order: white-red-blue. The number of stripes also changed. Originally, the flag was designed with seven horizontal stripes. In 1845 it changed to have eight stripes (at one point, there were nine but later the number changed back to eight). The arrangement was adopted and is used today.
The **gray whale** (*Eschrichtius robustus*) is a baleen whale (a filter feeder) that has a layer of blubber up to 10 inches (25 cm) thick. Because a mother gray whale would defend her calf so fiercely it would actually attack whalers and overturn their boats, whalers often called the gray whale a **devilfish**.

The gray whale migrates from cold waters to the tropics each year in pods. Gray whales are very agile swimmers. They can dive for up to 30 minutes and go 500 feet (155 m) deep. Gray whales make grunts, clicks, and whistling sounds which may be used to communicate with other gray whales.

Diet
----

This giant cetacean eats small fish, crustaceans, squid, and other tiny organisms that it finds on the sea floor. It sieves its food through its comb-like plates of baleen.

Description
-----------

Compared to most baleen whales, gray whales are rather small, growing to be only about 45 feet long. They are easy to see with their gray mottled color, which is actually more charcoal black than it is gray. Gray whales have barnacles and lice on their skin.

Whales prefer one fin over the other, just like humans are right-handed or left-handed. It is possible to see whether a gray whale is left-fineed or right-finned. The fin that has least barnacles is the fin it uses most. This is because the whale likes to dive down to the ocean floor to scoop up huge amounts of sand from the bottom, filtering out small prey animals that live in it. When the whale does this, many of the barnacles on the side that rubbed along the bottom are scraped off. So, whichever side has fewest barnacles is the side the whale prefers to use when it digs up sand.

Migration
---------

Gray whales migrate on both sides of the Americas. One route is a really long migration from the Arctic Ocean (northwest of Alaska) to the coast of Mexico, and back each year. They travel about 20,000 km (~12,500 miles) each year, staying near the coast. They feed in the cold Arctic waters and calve and mate in the warm, protected tropical lagoons of the Pacific Ocean off Mexico.

Traveling night and day, the gray whale averages approximately 120 km (75 mi) per day at an average speed of 8 km/h (5 mph). This round trip of 16,000–22,000 km (9,900–13,700 mi) is believed to be the longest annual migration of any mammal.
As they migrate, they may be preyed upon by pods of killer whales (*Orca*). This has been recorded in the cold current running down west of California.
The **Great Attractor** (GA) is a gigantic mass in space which pulls our Milky Way galaxy, and many other galaxies towards it.p60

The Great Attractor is known by its effect on the movement of galaxies across hundreds of millions of light years (mly). Its mass is equivalent to the mass of tens of thousands of Milky Ways.

All the galaxies in the GA are redshifted, in accordance with the expansion of the Universe. They are receding relative to us and to each other, but the variations in their redshift show the existence of the Attractor. The variations in their redshifts range from about +700 km/s to -700 km/s, depending on where they are in relation to the Great Attractor.

Panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky — location of the Great Attractor is shown following the long blue arrow at bottom-right.

Position
--------

The position of the Great Attractor was finally worked out in 1986. It is between 150 and 250 million light years (47–79 million parsecs) away. Objects in that direction lie in the Zone of Avoidance, which is the part of the night sky obscured by the Milky Way galaxy. Because of this, they are difficult to study with visible light. However, X-ray observations have revealed that the region of space is dominated by the Norma Cluster, a massive cluster of galaxies, with large, old galaxies, many of which are colliding with their neighbours, and/or radiating large amounts of radio waves.

In 2005, astronomers conducted an X-ray survey of part of the sky known as the Clusters in the Zone of Avoidance. The survey confirmed earlier theories that the Milky Way galaxy was in fact being pulled towards a much more massive cluster of galaxies near the Shapley Supercluster, which is beyond the Great Attractor.

Related pages
-------------

* Shapley Supercluster
* Great Wall

Further reading
---------------

* Dressler, Alan (1994). *Voyage to the Great Attractor: exploring intergalactic space*. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 355. ISBN 978-0394588995.
**Emi Yasuo** (born 10 June 1993) is a Japanese wheelchair basketball player, living in Oita. She is a member of the Japan women's national wheelchair basketball team and her club Kyushu Dolphin. In 2021 she competed at the 2020 Summer Paralympics.

Life
----

Yasuo was born with arthrogryposis and as a result of that she has paralysis in her legs. Once while shopping in a supermarket she met wheelchair basketball player Miki Hirai, who invited her to start playing wheelchair basketball, but she didn't do that. After graduating from high school, she came back to basketball.

Due to the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes, houses of her family and relatives were destroyed. She decided to move to Oita from Kumamoto and to continue her sporting careerk. The next year she became the "Most Valuable Player" at the 2017 National Junior Championships. She won the silver medal, with the national team at the 2018 Asian Para Games in Jakarta. She competed at the 2019 Asia Oceania Championship for Women.

In 2019 she was awarded an "Excellence Award" by the Oita Prefecture Para Sports Association.

Other websites
--------------

* 2018. Emi Yasuo (JPN) Wheelchair Basketball : Women's Preliminary Round between Japan - Thailand
As time elapses—here moving left to right on the horizontal axis—the five sinusoidal waves vary, or cycle, regularly at different rates (or ratios). The red wave (top) has the lowest frequency (i.e. cycles at the slowest rate) while the purple wave (bottom) has the highest frequency (cycles at the fastest rate).
Sines with three different frequencies ***f***.
**Frequency** is how often an event repeats itself over a set amount of time.

In physics, the **frequency** of a wave is the number of wave crests that pass a point in one second (a wave crest is the peak of the wave).

**Hertz** (symbol Hz) is the unit of frequency.

The relationship between **frequency** and **wavelength** is expressed by the formula: 

**{\displaystyle f=v/\lambda }**
where v is speed and {\displaystyle \lambda } (lambda) is wavelength. The formula for the frequency of light waves is **{\displaystyle f=c/\lambda }** where the c is the speed of light.

All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum **but** they travel at slower speeds when they travel through a medium that is not a vacuum. Other waves, such as sound waves, travel at much much lower speeds and can not travel through a vacuum.

Examples of electromagnetic waves are: light waves, radio waves, infrared radiation, microwaves, and gamma waves.

Visualizing electromagnetic waves
---------------------------------

Different types of electromagnetic waves have different frequencies.

### Example

Two different trains traveling at the same speed
One way to visualize this is if there were two trains traveling at the same speed, but the size of the train cars was smaller on one train than the other. If someone picked something that was not moving, like a signpost, and then counted how many train cars passed the sign post in one second for each train, they would know the frequency of cars passing in each train. The number and frequency of train cars passing the sign post would be different, because the train with smaller train cars would have more train cars passing the sign post in a second than the train with larger train cars. Knowing how many cars passed the sign post in one second, and knowing the speed of the train, one could figure out mathematically the size of each train car for each train.

For example, if the train was moving at 10 miles per second, and 10 train cars passed in one second, then each train car would be 1 mile long. If the other train was also moving at 10 miles per second and 20 train cars passed in one second, then one would know that each train car was 1/2 of a mile long for that train. This example shows that knowing the frequency of an electromagnetic wave gives you the wavelength, since all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light so that c = v (lambda) where v is frequency and lambda is wavelength, and c is the speed of light. Therefore, another way of expressing frequency is to say *frequency is c over lambda.*
**George Li** (Chinese: 黎卓宇, Pinyin: Lí zhuōyǔ), born August 24, 1995 in Boston, Massachusetts, is a Chinese-American pianist.

Li has been performing since he was nine years old, and is known as a recitalist, a chamber musician, and a soloist with orchestra. At the age of eleven, he played at New York's Carnegie Hall. The performance was featured in the new TV series by NPR, *From the Top*.

Career
------

Li won first prizes in the Massachusetts Music Teachers Association state competitions at the age of 6 and 7. In 2005, Li won second prizes in both the Virginia Waring International Piano Competition  and the Cincinnati World Piano Competition at the age of nine. 

In 2008, Li won the second prize in the Gina Bachauer International Piano Junior Artist Competition. In 2010, Li won the first prize in the Cooper International Piano Competition Li has also won the first prize in the Young Concert Artists International Auditions.

On June 7, 2011, Li played for Barack Obama and his wife Michelle Obama, and German Chancellor Dr. Angela Merkel and her husband Dr. Joachim Sauer at a state dinner in the White House Rose Garden. On June 23, 2011, Li was one of the two recipients of the 2012 Gilmore Young Artist Award. He is currently the youngest person who got the award.

Li lives in Lexington, Massachusetts. He is a student of Walnut Hill School and the New England Conservatory Preparatory School, where he learns with Wha Kyung Byun. Li's previous piano teachers include Dorothy Shi (杨镜钏) and Yin Chengzong (殷承宗).

Other websites
--------------

* George Li's official website
* George Li on YouTube
Bonnie and Clyde were bank robbers who, with their gang, traveled the United States during the Great Depression.
A **gang** is a group of people who do things together. The word "gang" comes from the Old English *gan*, which means "to go". It is also related to Old Norse *gangr* "a group of men". In modern times the word *gang* is often used to refer to a group of people who commit crimes together. Members of criminal gangs may be called gangsters.

There are several reasons why people join gangs. Lots of people who join gangs are young people. One reason that people join gangs is a chance to make money through doing things like selling illegal drugs, stealing and sex trafficking. Another reason, especially for younger people, is a chance to have a place where they belong. A third reason is boredom.

Gang identification
-------------------

Gang members often use graffiti to tell other gangs that an area is part of their "territory" and that other gangs should stay away. Marking territory, usually with spray paint, is sometimes called "tagging," however tagging usually means messages by one person, called a tagger. Tagger graffiti promotes the individual and is usually more artistic. As well as being a "no trespassing" sign telling rival crews to stay away, gang graffiti can send other messages. Gang graffiti may be a message about future violence or criminal activity. Members of a gang often dress similarly or have the same tattoos.

Gang violence
-------------

An artwork showing members of the gang Apache fighting with police in Paris.
Gang violence refers to illegal acts of violence performed by gangs. The violence may be against innocent people, property, or other gangs. Gang violence is extremely prevalent across the world in cities like Moscow, Detroit, Chicago and Los Angeles. Nearly every major city has seen gang violence at some point in its history.

Related pages
-------------

* Mara Salvatrucha
Knievel in 1974
**Evel Knievel** (October 17, 1938 – November 30, 2007), born **Robert Craig Knievel**, was an American daredevil and entertainer. Knievel is known for trying to do more than 75 ramp-to-ramp motorcycle jumps between 1965 and 1980, and in 1974, a failed jump across Snake River Canyon in Idaho in the Skycycle, a steam-powered rocket. He has broken 433 bones during his career which earned him a title in the *Guinness Book of Records* as the survivor of "most bones broken in a lifetime". 

Knievel was born on October 17, 1938 in Butte, Montana. Knievel was married to Linda Joan Bork from 1959 until they divorced in 1997. He was married to Krystal Kennedy from 1999 until they divorced in 2001. Knievel had four children. 

Knievel died from pulmonary fibrosis caused by diabetes in Clearwater, Florida on November 30, 2007, aged 69.

Other websites
--------------


Wikinews has related news:
* Daredevil Evel Knievel dies at age 69

* Official website
* Evel Knievel on IMDb
* Evel Knievel at Find a Grave
An ***ex post facto* law** (Latin for "after the fact" or "from after the action") is a law that changes the legal consequences (or status) of actions that were committed before the law went into effect. In criminal law, an *ex post facto* law may criminalize actions that were legal at the time they were committed, or may make a crime worse by bringing it into a more severe category than it was in when it was committed.

In criminal law
---------------

It may make the punishment prescribed for a crime, more severe. It may also add new penalties or it may extend a sentence. It may change the rules of evidence in order to make conviction for a crime likelier than it would have been when the deed was committed. Conversely, a form of *ex post facto* law, commonly called an *amnesty law*, may decriminalize certain acts. A pardon has a similar effect in a specific case. Other legal changes may lessen or eliminate possible punishments (for example by replacing the death sentence with lifelong imprisonment) retroactively. Such legal changes are also known by the Latin term ***in mitius***.

US Constitution
---------------

The United States Constitution prohibits *ex post facto* laws. Two clauses in the constitution prohibit *ex post facto*. Article 1 Section 9 of the U.S. Constitution states: 'No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed,'. Section 10 says: 'No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law.. .'

In civil law
------------

*Ex post facto* laws relate only to criminal laws passed by legislations. It does not apply to civil laws "that affect private rights adversely." In 2003 the US Supreme court noted the difference between civil and penal laws. In the case of Smith v. Doe, the court questioned the constitutionality of the Alaska Sex Offender Registration Act's retroactive requirements. Alaska's Megan's Law was applied to sex offenders before the law went into effect. It required offenders to register with the local police. It also required public notification via the Internet. The court made a legal precedent in deciding the intent of the law was civil and non-punitive. That it was to protect the public saftey by "protecting the public from sex offenders."

Europe
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The European Parliament prohibits *ex post facto* legislation by all member nations. They determined "*Ex post facto* legislation may also violate citizens’ right to effective legal redress and a fair trial..."

In English law, *ex post facto* laws are very rare. One example was the War Crimes Act 1991 by the Parliament of England. It allowed British citizens to be put on trial for war crimes that took place during World War II.

Other websites
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* Prohibition Against Ex Post Facto Laws
* Ex Post Facto in the Civil Context: Unbridled Punishment
Plushenko during the men's medals ceremony at the 2012 European Figure Skating Championships.
**Evgeni Plushenko** (born 3 November 1982) is a figure skater from Russia. He was born and raised in the Soviet Union. He is the last of the "Soviet System" figure skaters, which took children from their parents at a young age and raised them in a training system away from home while giving them everything they needed, including housing and food and equipment, so they could become the best.

Early years
-----------

Plushenko was a very good skater as a child. At age 14, he won the World Junior Championships. At age 15, he won the bronze medal at the World Championships. He has always been coached by Alexei Mishin, a very famous Soviet and Russian skater coach. At the time of Plushenko's rise, Mishin was also coaching Alexei Yagudin. When Yagudin saw all the attention Mishin was giving Plushenko, it made Yagudin leave and find another coach. Plushenko and Yagudin had a very big rivalry that ended in 2002, when Yagudin won the Olympic Gold and Plushenko won the silver.

Career
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Between the 2002 Olympics and the 2006 Olympics, Plushenko only lost a competition twice. The first time was to Emanuel Sandhu at the 2003-2004 Grand Prix Final. The second was to Brian Joubert at the 2004 European Championships. Plushenko came close to losing the 2003 World Championships to American Timothy Goebel, but won.

Plushenko withdrew from the 2005 World Championships with injury. But he won the 2006 Olympics with a very big lead over everyone else there.

Plushenko took the 2006-2007 season away from skating. He was married and had a child, but he is now getting a divorce. He is trying to come back to competitive skating, but still has a lot of injuries.

Plushenko is known for his consistency and his strong jumping ability. He has done a lot of quadruple jumps in competition and in combination with other jumps. He was the first to do a lot of quadruple-jump combinations. He has also done the Biellmann spin in competition, although he has not done that recently.

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Evgeni Plushenko***.

* Official website
* (in Russian) Official website
* International Skating Union biography Archived 2005-04-05 at the Wayback Machine
**Donald McKayle** (July 6, 1930 – April 6, 2018) was an American modern dancer, choreographer, teacher, director and writer. He was best known for creating socially concert works during the 1950s and 1960s.

Early life
----------

McKayle was born in Harlem, New York.

Career
------

His instructors included modern dance pioneer Martha Graham, Merce Cunningham, Anna Sokolow and Karol Shook.

McKayle was "among the first black men to break the racial barrier by means of modern dance." He worked with Martha Graham multiple times during his career.

His work for the concert stage, especially *Games* (1951) and *Rainbow Round My Shoulder* (1959), were his best known works. In addition, McKayle was the first black man to both direct and choreograph major Broadway musicals, including the Tony Award-winners *Raisin* (1973) and *Sophisticated Ladies* (1981).

McKayle held an endowed chair in the Dance Department at University of California, Irvine, where he was the Claire Trevor Professor of Dance. He previously served on the faculties of Connecticut College, Sarah Lawrence College, and Bennington College.

Death
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McKayle died in Irvine, California on April 6, 2018 at the age of 87.

Other websites
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* Donald McKayle at the Internet Broadway Database
* Donald McKayle on IMDb
Marco Casagrande, *Sandworm*, Beaufort04 Triennial of Contemporary Art, Wenduine, Belgium, 2012
**Environmental art** is a form of avant-garde contemporary art. It includes different types of artistic practices that involve nature, ecology, and social issues.

It has changed over time, moving away from focusing on formal aspects, like using earth for large sculptures, and now explores deeper connections with natural systems, processes, and social concerns.

In recent years, environmental art has gained significant attention and is often featured in exhibitions worldwide. This is because social and cultural aspects of climate change became more noticeable.

The term "environmental art" is often associated with ecological concerns, but it is not limited to them. It primarily celebrates the artist's relationship with nature and often use natural materials. It is closely related to historical earth and land art, as well as ecological art. Environmental artists draw inspiration from science and philosophy.

History
-------

Claude Monet, *Waterloo Bridge, London*
Diane Burko, *Waters Glacier and Bucks*, 2013
Environmental art has roots in the Paleolithic cave paintings of early humans, although landscapes have not been found in these artworks. Artists throughout history have been drawn to nature as a subject for their creative expressions. Landscape painting allowed artists to observe and connect with the environment. John Constable and Monet are artists who closely observed and represented the natural world in their works. In contemporary times, artists like Diane Burko and Alexis Rockman use art to highlight ecological issues such as climate change and human impact on other species. They bring attention to these topics through their depictions of nature and societal interventions.

Gallery
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* Robert Morris, Observatorium, NetherlandsRobert Morris, *Observatorium*, Netherlands
* Andrea Polli, Particle Falls, 2013Andrea Polli, *Particle Falls*, 2013
* John Fekner, Toxic, Long Island Expressway, Maspeth, Queens, NY 1982John Fekner, *Toxic,* Long Island Expressway, Maspeth, Queens, NY 1982
Gennady Rozhdestvensky
**Gennady Rozhdestvensky** (4 May 1931, Moscow – 16 June 2018) was a Russian conductor. Rozhdestvensky was born into a musical family. His name at first was **Gennady Nikolayevich Anosov**. When he started his musical career, he took his mother's maiden name. 

Rozhdestvensky studied conducting with his father Nikolai Anosov at the Moscow Conservatory. He studied piano with the great pianist Lev Oborin. When he was 20 years old, he conducted Tchaikovsky's *Nutcracker* ballet at the Bolshoi Theatre. He soon became famous. He gave the first performances of many works of Soviet composers, as well as the first Russian performance of Benjamin Britten's *A Midsummer Night's Dream.*

Rozhdestvensky has conducted many orchestras and made many recordings.

In 1969, he married the pianist Viktoria Postnikova.

Rozhdestvensky is known for keeping his rehearsals short. He does this so that the orchestra do not get tired and are fresh for the performance. Sometimes he walks about the stage while he conducts. He does not stand on a podium (a raised platform).

Orchestras he has conducted
---------------------------

* 1951-61 Orchestra of the Bolshoi Theatre (conductor)
* 1961-74 Symphony Orchestra of All-Union Radio and Television (Moscow)
* 1964-70 Orchestra of the Bolshoi Theatre (principal conductor)
* 1974-85 Chamber Theatre Orchestra
* 1974-77 Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra (artistic director)
* 1978-81 BBC Symphony Orchestra (chief conductor)
* 1980-82 Vienna Symphony Orchestra
* 1983-91 USSR Ministry of Culture Symphony Orchestra
* 1992-95 Royal Stockholm Philharmonic

He has also conducted many of the world's greatest orchestras, including the Berlin Philharmonic, the Royal Concertgebouw, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra.

Trivia
------

* His name "Rozhdestvensky" means "Christmas".
* Sometimes, when he feels the orchestra are well prepared for a concert, he cancels a rehearsal so that the orchestra have some free time. In Russia, the players in the orchestra sometimes call this "Rozhdestvensky kanikuli" ("Christmas holidays").
Gustav Frištenský
**Gustav Frištenský** (18 May 1879 – 6 April 1957) was a Czech strongman and Greco-Roman wrestler. He competed in the first half of the 20th century. During his career, he competed in almost 10,000 fights. His first fight was when he was just 19 years old and the last one was when he was 72. Frištenský was a legend among Czech strongmen.

Life
----

Gustav Frištenský was born in Kamhajek (now part of the village of Křečhoř). He had 3 brothers and 2 sisters. When he was child, he was small so nobody thought he could become famous sportsman. As teenager he started to lift weights and wrestle. He was learning to be a blacksmith but after suffering serious burns on his hand by a horseshoe, he left his craft. Frištenský went to Brno and he became a butcher in the butchery of Moritz Soffer. He trained in the gymnasium of the Hellas sports club. Soon, he left his job in butchery and started to focus on wrestling. In 1900, Frištenský participated in an international competition in Prague. There he won in weightlifting, wrestling and the discus throw. In 1901 he became the Moravia champion in wrestling and discus throw. In 1902, he became the Austria-Hungary champion. The following year he was the European champion.

Professional career
-------------------

But Frištenský was still an amateur. After these achievements, he became a professional. He worked for the Kludský circus. Frištenský traveled around the world including the United States. Finally, he returned to his homeland. Frištenský married Miroslava Ellederová in Litovel. In 1917, he stayed in Litovel permanently. He and his wife built a house next to the Morava River. Frištenský traveled to the US again and wrestled in New York in front of an audience of 30,000. In 1921, Frištenský became the Czechoslovakia champion. In 1929, he became a professional European champion. During World War II, Frištenský joined the resistance movement. Soon, afterwards he became a prisoner of war and his wife had to bribe a Nazi prison commander to free him. After the war, in 1945, Frištenský left the Sport world and lived in Litovel. In 1947, he became a widower. In 1956, Frištenský received a title "Merited Master of Sports". He died on 6 April 1957.

Other websites
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* Gustav Fristensky, Part I; YouTube
**Elisabeth Eichholz**, (born **Elisabeth Kleinhans,** 12 November 1939 in Wolmirstedt) is a German professional road bicycle racer, who competed for the East Germany.

Life
----

Elisabeth Kleinhans grew up in Loitsche. She began cycling in the autumn of 1958. She entered her first races in Magdeburg. In 1959 she won the Women's Rund um Berlin ahead of her long-time competitor Elfriede Fey.

In the run-up to the 1960 World Cycling Championships, she was sent to SC Leipzig with other top riders to compete at the World Championships. At the World Championships she won the bronze medal. In 1961, she finished in seventh place at the World Championships. She could not participate in a world championship again until 1965, because of visas. In 1961, she had become East German champion in the road race for the first time, in 1962 and 1963 she won the title in pursuit and in 1964 in the time trial on the track.

In 1963, she married the Leipzig cyclist Dieter Eichholz. In 1966 she ended her career because her son was born. She began a distance learning course to become an "educator with teaching qualification", and then worked as a trainer in a Leipzig clothing factory. She then worked as a teacher for sports and school garden in Schönebeck until 1998.