recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Stuffed crust pizza is pizza with cheese or other ingredients in the crust. The stuffed crust pizza was made popular by Pizza Hut, which debuted this pizza in 1995.

A slice of stuffed crust pizza
Stuffed crust was created by Patty Scheibmeir, and Pizza Hut launched it on March 25, 1995. It was marketed in a commercial with Donald Trump. 

Pizza Hut was sued by the family of Anthony Mongiello, over claims that Pizza Hut's stuffed crust infringed on Mongiello's patent. Pizza Hut was found to have not infringed on the Patent in 1999. 

DiGiorno began offering frozen stuffed crust pizza in stores in 2001. 

In 2012, Pizza Hut launched hot dog stuffed crust pizza in Japan, China, and South Korea, followed by Australia, Canada, the U.K. and the U.S. Domino's sold a hot dog stuffed crust pizza in the U.S. U.K. and New Zealand. 

Pizza Hut New Zealand sold Marmite stuffed crust pizza, and Pizza Hut Japan introduced a pizza stuffed with shrimp, sausage, mozzarella, and others. Pizza Hut Japan offered a crust stuffed with shrimp and mayonnaise, and Pizza Hut Germany offered a "German King" with a sausage, bacon, and cheese-stuffed crust. Pizza Hut Japan and South Korea sold pizza with shrimp and cheese-stuffed crust, and Pizza Hut Australia made a pizza with a crust stuffed with mini meat pies.
This is a map of Hong Kong. The green part is Kowloon.
**Kowloon** (/ˌkaʊˈluːn/; simplified Chinese: 九龙; traditional Chinese: 九龍; pinyin: *Jiǔlóng*; Jyutping: *Gau2lung4*) is one of the 3 main parts of Hong Kong. It comprises the Kowloon Peninsula and New Kowloon. With a population of 2.1 million in 2011. It is the most populous area in Hong Kong.

Geography and History
---------------------

Kowloon is north of Hong Kong Island and south of the mainland part of the New Territories. The size of Kowloon is about 47 km² (18 sq mi). In law, Kowloon refers to the area south of Boundary Street and Stonecutters Island, leased to the United Kingdom by the Qing dynasty in 1860. In 1898, the Qing dynasty leased the New Territories to the United Kingdom for 99 years. New Kowloon, the area north of Boundary Street, is officially part of the New Territories. In modern culture, however, New Kowloon is part of Kowloon.

Kowloon was developed largely in the 20th century, after Kowloon Wharf and Kowloon-Canton Railway were built. Airplanes used to fly above Kowloon to and from Kai Tak Airport until 1998, so buildings there are usually lower than the ones on Hong Kong Island because they had height restrictions. The height restrictions were lifted after the opening of the new Hong Kong International Airport in 1998.

Name
----

The name Kowloon means "nine dragons" (九 – nine, 龍 – dragon). This refers to eight mountains and a Chinese emperor: Kowloon Peak, Tung Shan, Tate's Cairn, Temple Hill, Unicorn Ridge, Lion Rock, Beacon Hill, Crow's Nest and Emperor Bing (Song Dynasty).

Demographics
------------

2,108,419 people lived in Kowloon in 2011. 94.2% of Kowloon's residents are Chinese. Smaller groups include Indonesians (1.8%), Filipinos (1.5%), Indians (0.5%), Nepalese (0.4%), and White people (0.3%).
86% of the people in Kowloon usually speak in Cantonese, 2.3% use English and 1.2% use Mandarin.

Districts
---------

Kowloon is divided into the following districts:

* Kowloon City
* Kwun Tong
* Sham Shui Po
* Wong Tai Sin
* Yau Tsim Mong

  

Kowloon Peninsula on 10 November 2009

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Kowloon***.

Education
---------

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Open University of Hong Kong, and City University of Hong Kong are all located in Kowloon. There are also many primary and secondary schools as well.
Blue plaque to Lovelace in St. James's Square, London
**Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace** (10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852) was an English mathematician and writer who wrote the world's first computer program.

Achievements
------------

Lovelace was an English writer. She became the world's first computer programmer. She wrote the program for Charles Babbage's mechanical computer, "The Analytical Engine", in 1844. She wrote the first algorithm to be processed by a machine. 

Between 1842 and 1843 she translated an article by Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea on the engine. She added her own notes to it. These notes contain what is considered the first computer program, which was an algorithm encoded for processing by a machine. Though Babbage's engine was never built, Lovelace's notes are important in the early history of computers.

She realized that computers would be able to do more than just calculating or number-crunching. Others, including Babbage himself, worked only on the possibilities of calculations.

Childhood
---------

She was born December 10th, 1815. She was the only legitimate child of Lord Byron and Anne Isabella Milbanke. She had no relationship with her father, who died when she was nine. Her father was a poet. Her mother was an aristocrat, someone who was related to royalty. Ada was educated at home. As a young adult, she was interested in mathematics, partly because of Charles Babbage.

Later life
----------

Lovelace married William King in 1835. She had three children with him. She soon got cholera, a digestive disease caused by drinking contaminated water. She was very lucky to have survived. She also had asthma, a breathing issue, and digestive problems. She used painkillers to treat her problems. Because of this, she became addicted to opium, a highly addictive drug. She died on 27 November 1852, of uterine cancer in London.

Recognition
-----------

The U.S. Department of Defense named Ada (programming language) in her honor.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Ada Lovelace***.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: ***Ada Lovelace***

* Women in science.  Archived 2018-12-25 at the Wayback Machine
* Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace.

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The **Ñuble Region** (Spanish: *Región de Ñuble*) is one of Chile's 16 first order administrative divisions. Its capital is Chillán.

It was founded the 6th of september of 2018 when the Ñuble Province was separated in order to create the new region and 3 new provinces.

The region is named after the Ñuble river.

Geography
---------

The Ñuble region has area of 13,178.5 km2 (5,088.2 sq mi).

It borders the Maule region to the north, Argentina to the east, the Bío Bío region to the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

| Places next to Ñuble Region |
| --- |
| 

|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  | Maule region |  |
| Pacific Ocean | 
**Ñuble**
 | Argentina |
|  | Bío Bío region |  |

 |

The main river in the region is the

* Itata river, 140 km (87 mi) long.

The highest mountains are in the Andes, in the eastern part of the region; these mountains are the Nevados de Chillán.

* Ñuble river.

### Climate

The climate in Chillán is a Mediterranean climate, **Csb** in the Köppen climate classification.

The average amount of precipitation for the year in Chillán is 696 mm (27.4 in). The month with the most precipitation on average is June with 185.4 mm (7.3 in) of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of 2.5 mm (0.1 in).

The average temperature for the year in Chillán is 14.4 °C (57.9 °F). The warmest month, on average, is January with an average temperature of 21.1 °C (70.0 °F). The coolest month on average is July, with an average temperature of 8.3 °C (46.9 °F).

Population
----------

As of 2002[update] (last national census), there were 438,103 people living in the region, giving it a population density of 33.2 inhabitants/km². The urban population was 285,108 persons (65% of the total).

The largest city of the province, in 2002, is its capital, Chillán, with 146,701 inhabitants. Other cities are San Carlos (29,359 inhabitants) and Chillán Viejo (18,827 inhabitants).[*source?*]

Provinces and Communes
----------------------

The Ñuble Region has 3 provinces and 21 communes.


| Communes of the Ñuble Region |
| --- |
| 

| Province | Capital | Commune |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Itata | Quirihue | **1** Cobquecura |
| **2** Coelemu |
| **3** Ninhue |
| **4** Portezuelo |
| **5** Quirihue |
| **6** Ránquil |
| **7** Treguaco |
| Diguillín | Bulnes | **8** Bulnes |
| **9** Chillán Viejo |
| **10** Chillán |
| **11** El Carmen |
| **12** Pemuco |
| **13** Pinto |
| **14** Quillón |
| **15** San Ignacio |
| **16** Yungay |
| Punilla | San Carlos | **17** Coihueco |
| **18** Ñiquén |
| **19** San Carlos |
| **20** San Fabián |
| **21** San Nicolás |

 |  |

Related pages
-------------

* Regions of Chile

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Ñuble Region at Wikimedia Commons

| Regions of Chile | Flag of Chile |
| --- | --- |
| Arica y Parinacota | Tarapacá | Antofagasta | Atacama | Coquimbo | Valparaíso | O'Higgins | Maule | Ñuble | Bío Bío | La Araucanía | Los Ríos | Los Lagos | Aysén | Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena | RM Santiago |
Political map of South Africa, in 1885
**Bechuanaland** was a federation of Tswana lands stretching from the territiry of the Bangwato in present day Botswana to the Batlhaping area around present day Kimberley,South Africa. The area included present day Botswana and large parts of what is now the North West and Northern Cape provinces of modern day South Africa.

Bechuanaland was declared of British protectorate, in 1885, and subsequently divided the territory along the Molopo River.

The areas to the South of the Molopo became British Bechuanaland and would later be handed over to the Cape Colony, which in 1910 was part of the two British colonies (Cape Colony and Natal) which united with the Boer republic's (Transvaal and Orange Free State to form the Union of South Africa).

To the territory of modern-day Botswana, North of Molopo became Bechuanaland Protectorate until independence in 1966.

Great Britain offered protection against the Boer Republics after the Boers invaded Bechuanaland in the early 1880s establishing Stellaland and Goshen within Bechuanaland around present day Vryburg, South Africa.

The Christian missionary John MacKenzie of the London Missionary Society (LMS) convinced Bangwato ruler Khama III and other Tswana rulers to seek Protectorate status and the Warren Expedition was dispatched from the Cape in 1885 to remove the Boers from Stellaland and Goshen and proclaim Bechuanaland a British Protectorate.

It had a territory of approximately 582,000 square kilometres (225,000 sq mi).

After the British divided Bechuanaland into two, the capital of Bechuanaland Protectorate now fell outside its territory: It was the modern-day city of Mahikeng, then called Mafeking, in South Africa.

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Computor generated image of the building as it would have appeared during the lifetime of the *Grand Dauphin*.
The **Château de Meudon** was a former royal residence in France. It is most commonly associated with the *Grand Dauphin* the only son of Louis XIV who made it his personal residence. However, on the death of the Dauphin the property reverted to the crown and was used by the famous Duchess of Berry (a granddaughter of Louis XIV) and was later ignored under Louis XV and Louis XVI, but became the official residence of the King of Rome from 1812, and was occupied by Jérôme Bonaparte under the First Empire. The main building was largely destroyed in a fire in 1871, and it is now the site of the Observatoire de Paris-Meudon.

History
-------

There was originally a small manor on the site which was given to the Duchess of Étampes, a mistress of Francis I of France. The family remodelled the building in around 1540 when the property was given to the *Cardinal de Lorraine*. At the Cardinal's death in 1574, Meudon reverted to the House of Guise until 1654. In 1679, the château was sold by Servien's heir to Louvois, the minister of Louis XIV, who continued to improve it inside and out, until his death in 1691. Above all, he commissioned André Le Nôtre to construct grand gardens and fountains fed by elaborate hydraulic works. In June 1695, Louis XIV purchased Meudon from the widow of Louvois, with the intention of installing his only legitimate child le Grand Dauphin in the premises. A brilliant period followed. The Dauphin employed *Jules Hardouin-Mansart*. Following the death of the Dauphin the property was briefly used by his son Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Dauphin of France. It was then later given to the Duchess of Berry in 1718.

Louis XV employed Meudon as a hunting lodge. Although his mistress, Madame de Pompadour, was installed in the nearby Château de Bellevue, Meudon was eclipsed in his favour by the Château de Choisy. Meudon declined further under Louis XVI, the parterres overgrown, the basins emptied, the park let piecemeal to tenant farmers.

In 1870, the terraces of Meudon were part of the strategic defenses of Paris in the Franco-Prussian War, and the château, damaged by shelling,[6] was occupied by Prussian forces. Forty-eight hours after the signing of the armistice, in January 1871, Meudon caught fire. It burned for three days, until only some exterior walls were left standing

Gallery of residents
--------------------

* Louis, Grand Dauphin.*Louis, Grand Dauphin*.
* Madame de Pompadour.Madame de Pompadour.
* The King of Rome.The King of Rome.
**OK** (okay) is a word in the English language. It is used to mean that something is good or correct. It is the opposite of the word bad.

It can often be used instead of the word [[Y
es]]. It is not certain where the word "OK" originally comes from, but some experts say it came from a funny way of writing "Ol 
" (All correct). 
yes

  

It is also the two-letter abbreviation for the state of Oklahoma in the United States of America.

You also find the phrase "Ola kala" in Greek, which means "All Correct".

For example:

I think it is **'ok'** to present this project in our office.

Background
----------

The term appears to have achieved prominence in the United States in 1840, when supporters of the American Democratic political party claimed during the 1840 United States presidential election that it stood for "Old Kinderhook," a nickname for a Democratic presidential candidate, Martin Van Buren, a native of Kinderhook, New York. "'Vote for OK' was snappier than using his Dutch name." In response, Whig opponents attributed *OK*, in the sense of "Oll Korrect," to Andrew Jackson's bad spelling. The country-wide publicity surrounding the election appears to have been a critical event in *okay'*s history, widely and suddenly popularizing it across the United States.
Lamb stew, with leeks, lentils, yellow (heirloom) and orange carrots, rosemary, and other spices
Irish stew
*Dubu jjigae* (Korean tofu stew)
A **stew** is a dish cooked for a long time, and served in the gravy produced by the cooking. The basic materials may be any meat and/or vegetables. It is ideal for tough meat like mutton and beef cuts which have marbling (fat) and connective tissue. Also, the tougher vegetables should be used.

It is traditional to start off with a simple sauce, such as a roux. Even simpler, flour and an Oxo stock cube can be stirred in some milk and water. It is usual for the tougher meats to start off by themselves, with vegetables added later.

Casseroles and stews are similar. Casseroles often have a topping; stews do not. Stewing is a cooking process whereby heat is applied to the bottom of the cooking vessel (typically over a fire or on a stove), whereas casserole cooking is generally baked in an oven where heat circulates all around the cooking vessel.

History
-------

Stews have been made since ancient times. It figures in the Roman cookbook by Apicius. Herodotus says that the Scythians (8th to 4th centuries BC) "put the flesh into an animal's paunch, mix water with it, and boil it like that over the bone fire. The bones burn very well, and the paunch easily contains all the meat once it has been stripped off. In this way an ox, or any other sacrificial beast, is ingeniously made to boil itself."

Amazonian tribes used the shells of turtles as vessels, boiling the entrails of the turtle and various other ingredients in them. Other cultures used the shells of large mollusks (clams etc.) to boil foods in. There is archaeological evidence of these practices going back 8,000 years or more.

There are recipes for lamb stews and fish stews in the Roman cookery book *Apicius*, believed to date from the 4th century AD. *Le Viandier*, one of the oldest cookbooks in French, written by the French chef known as Taillevent, has ragouts or stews of various types in it.

Hungarian goulash dates back to the 9th century Magyar shepherds of the area, before the existence of Hungary. Paprika was added in the 18th century.

The first written reference to 'Irish stew' is in Byron's "The Devil's Drive" (1814): "The Devil ... dined on ... a rebel or so in an Irish stew."

Related pages
-------------

* Casserole
The **Vignemale** (Spanish: *Viñamala*, Occitan: *Vinhamala*, Aragonese: *Comachibosa*) is the highest of the French Pyrenean summits, on the border with Spain (the highest in the whole of the Pyrenees is Pic Aneto).

The Vignemale is between the Spanish province of Huesca and the French department of Hautes-Pyrénées. It is the highest mountain in the French Pyrenees, the Occitanie region and in the Hautes-Pyrénées department. The mountain is in the *Pyrénées National Park* (France) and in the *Reserva de la Biosfera Ordesa-Viñamala* (Spain).

Geography
---------

The Vignemale is the name given to the mountain massif that is formed by several distinct summits; the main summits are:

* *Pique-Longue* or *Grand Vignemale*, 3,298 m (10,820 ft);
* *Pointe Chausenque*, 3,204 m (10,512 ft); and
* *Petit Vignemale*, 3,032 m (9,948 ft).

The *Pique-Longue* can bee seen easily from other mountains and even from the city of Lourdes.

The Vignemale is also where is the second largest of the Pyrenean glaciers (after the one one in Aneto): the *Ossoue* glacier with an area of around 0.6 km2 (0.23 sq mi). The easiest route to climb the mountain, and the one most used, is across this glacier.

History
-------

On August 1792, some shepherds climbed the *Pique-Longue* following orders from Louis-Philippe Reinhart Junker who was in charge of a team that was studying the French-Spanish border. But the names of those shepherds are not known.

The first known ascent of this peak was made 45 years later, on 8 October 1837, by Henri Cazaux, from Luz (now Luz-Saint-Sauveur), and his brother-in-law Bernard Guillembet.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Vignemale***.

* Altituderando: La Pique Longue du Vignemale (3298m) (in French)
* Camptocamp.org: Vignemale - Pique Longue (in French)
* Randozone - Vignemale (Pique Longue) (in French)
Hall of worship of the Ōarai Isosaki Shrine.
The **Ōarai Isosaki Shrine** (大洗磯前神社, Ōarai Isosaki jinja) is a Shinto shrine located in Ōarai City, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. It has three torii gates leading into the ocean.

Overview
--------

The shrine is believed to have been established in 856 A.D. and was destroyed during the 16th-century war. It was later rebuilt in the 17th century. The shrine has three torii gates, each offering a unique view and environment.

The Kamiiso-no-Torii is the most impressive gate, providing a prime location to watch the sunrise as it faces east. As the sun appears on the horizon, its rays shine through the gate, giving it a beautiful red hue. At night, the gate is equally stunning when illuminated by moonlight.

Geographic location
-------------------

Ōarai Isosaki Shrine is located on the Kantō Plain, northeast of Ibaraki Prefecture, situated next to the Pacific Ocean.

Address: 〒311-1301, 6890 Isohama-chō, Ōarai-machi, Higashiibaraki-gun, Ibaraki-ken, Japan.

Plans and satellite views of the sanctuary. 36°18′57.07″N 140°35′14.81″E﻿ / ﻿36.3158528°N 140.5874472°E﻿ / 36.3158528; 140.5874472

Plans and satellite views of the Kamiiso torii gate (神磯). 36°18′53.8″N 140°35′22.2″E﻿ / ﻿36.314944°N 140.589500°E﻿ / 36.314944; 140.589500

History
-------

The Ōarai Isosaki shrine has a long history and was established in the year 856.

During the war from 1558 to 1570, the shrine was destroyed. However, it was rebuilt in 1690 by patrons, including Tokugawa Mitsukuni.

The Ibaraki Prefecture has designated the shrine as a cultural property.

Worshiped Deity
---------------

Ōarai Isosaki Shrine is dedicated to the deity Ōnamuchi-no-Mikoto (大己貴命), known as a kami of family safety and prosperous business.

Characteristics
---------------

The Oarai Isosaki-jinja shrine has three torii gates in separate locations.

The main torii gate is a huge reinforced concrete structure that is 15.60 m high and 22.42 m wide, located on a path.

Behind it, a second Torii rises, and as you pass this second torii, you see the shrine buildings.

The third torii, Kamiiso Torii (神磯鳥居), is located on the coast and faces east towards the Pacific Ocean, it faces east to the ocean and the rising sun, representing the spot where the gods landed. The shrine is about two and a half kilometers away from Oarai Station and can be accessed by taxi or bus. .

Oarai Isosaki-jinja is dedicated to two deities, Onamuchi-no-Mikoto and Sukunahikona-no-Mikoto, who are believed to have created Japan. The shrine also has an impressive worship hall, guarded by statues of frogs instead of the typical lion-dogs. The frog is considered a symbol of good luck in Japan as it sounds like "safe return" or "return of something lost" in Japanese.

The ocean is a Kannabi for the deities

Hassaku Matsuri
---------------

The Hassaku Matsuri, a traditional festival of the shrine, is held annually on August 25th.

 Shinto symbol
**Metatheria** is a group in the class Mammalia which contains the marsupials and the sparassodonts. 

The group was first proposed by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1880. It is nearly synonymous with the earlier taxon Marsupialia, but it also contains the nearest fossil relatives of marsupial mammals. 

Metatheria differ from all other mammals in their dental formula. This usually includes five upper and four lower incisors, a canine, three premolars, and four molars.

The earliest known representative, *Sinodelphys*, is from the Lower Cretaceous of China.

The closest relatives of the metatheres are the Eutheria (also erected by Huxley in 1880). Both are together united as **infraclass**es in the subclass Theria. The Theria contains all living mammals except monotremes.

During development, metatherians produce a yolk sac placenta and give birth to 'larval-like' offspring. 

These offspring have underdeveloped rear limbs, and after birth they migrate to the marsupium where they attach to a nipple. The mouth of newly born metatherians forms an "O" shape into which the mother's nipple fits. Then the nipple swells to secure the offspring in place.

The Greek words *meta-* and *theria* roughly means the *"other beasts"*, in contrast with *Eutheria* (*"true beasts"*).

Evolutionary history
--------------------

Metatherians first appeared in the Cretaceous period. Some stem group metatherians persisted well into the Neogene period before becoming extinct. Crown group marsupials, the one branch of Metatheria that survives today, diversified close to the time of extinction at the end of the Cretaceous.
**Julien Reverchon** ((1837-08-03)3 August 1837 – (1905-12-30)30 December 1905) was a French botanist. He was born in the commune of Diémoz.

Biography
---------

Julien was the son of Maximillian and Florine Jacques Reverchon. 
His father was a follower of Charles Fourier, and he made the decision of joining Victor Prosper Considerant, who lived in the Fourier Colony, in Texas, U.S. 
Julien, who was already interested in the natural world at a young age, had already collected nearly 2,000 species of plants with his brother. 

The family moved to Réunion Vicinty in December 1856, and learned of the failure of the Fourier Colony. Jacques Reverchon then bought a small farm in the vicinity. Julien began to study the plant life. He married Marie Henri on Template:Marriage date and they had two sons. Unfortunately, both of their sons died of typhoid fever in 1884. 

After leaving botany for a few years, he started collecting plants in 1869, when he made an expedition to collect fossils with Jacob Boll (1828–1880) in West Texas. With later collections, he provided to the productions of noted studies of plants by Asa Gray and Charles Sprague Sargent and the improvement of many American collections. He thought botany at the end of his life in Dallas. At the time of his death in 1905, more than 2,600 species were cultured in his farm, and he possessed a rich herbarium of 20,000 specimens. Today, it is kept at the Missouri Botanical Garden in the city of St. Louis.

Death
-----

Julien Reverchon died on (1905-12-30)30 December 1905, at the age of 68.

Legacy
------

The Reverchon Park in Dallas, Texas, was named in Julien's honor.
The (3-D) crystal structure of H2O ice Ih (c) consists of bases of H2O ice molecules (b) located on lattice points within the (2-D) hexagonal space lattice (a). The values for the H–O–H angle and O–H distance have come from *Physics of Ice* with uncertainties of ±1.5° and ±0.005 Å, respectively. The white box in (c) is the unit cell defined by Bernal and Fowler
Insulin crystals.
In crystallography, the **crystal structure** is how the atoms (or ions or molecules) are arranged in a crystalline material. Crystals occur naturally from the way the chemical bonds of the atoms connect. Symmetric repeating patterns occur in 3-D space in the crystal.

The crystal structure and symmetry cause many physical properties, such as cleavage (how the crystal splits) how it conducts electricity, and its optical properties..

The crystal structure of a chemical is the shape of the crystal at the molecular level. There are several shapes of crystals. Sodium chloride is cubic. Copper sulfate is triclinic. Most things, even metals, have crystal structures. Some crystals fit more atoms in them than others, and these crystals usually weigh more.

Each type of crystal structure has a unit cell, which is a small pattern of points that repeats through the whole crystal. For example, in a primitive cubic crystal, the unit cell is the eight corners of a cube. When many unit cells are next to each other, you get a crystal.
**Chrissie Maher**, OBE (born 1938) is a British advocate for the use of plain English. She is a co-founder of the Plain English Campaign. This organisation promotes the clear use of English, especially by businesses and official bodies. Her campaign began in 1971 when she founded the United Kingdom's first community newspaper, the *Tuebrook Bugle*. That gave her the chance to write articles saying that organisations should start using plain English. In 1974, Maher went on to start *The Liverpool News*. It was the UK's first newspaper for adults with reading difficulties. She was also a member of the UK's National Consumer Council. Later, she founded the Plain English Campaign at a demonstration in London in 1979.

As an example of the language issues Maher found objectionable: in 1994, she pointed out that Britain's National Health Service published a definition of the term "bed" that used 229 words.

For her efforts, Maher was awarded the OBE in 1993. In 1995, she was awarded an honorary MA degree by Manchester University. In 1997 she received an honorary doctorate from the Open University. In 2000, Maher was named "Information Pioneer of the Century" by the UK's National Information Forum. In 2010, Maher received an Honorary Fellowship from Liverpool John Moores University for her services to communication. 

Also in 2010 Maher was selected Public Affairs Achiever of the Year and Outstanding Achiever of the Year for the ‘Women in Public Life’ awards.

Tom McArthur, editor of the *Oxford Companion to the English Language* said, "In all the history of the language, there has never been such a powerful grassroots movement to influence it as the Plain English Campaign."

Other websites
--------------

* Plain English Campaign Homepage[*permanent dead link*]
A person from the U.S. State Department thanks, and give payment to, a disguised informant. The informant's information wws about a terrorist in the Philippines
An **informant** (also called an **informer** or, as a slang term, a "**snitch**", "**rat**", "**stool pigeon**" or "**stoolie**" ) is a person who tells someone private information about other people. This information is often damaging to the other people. It is meant to be information that is secret. The information is normally about a person, group or organization. It is given to an agency, often a government or law enforcement agency. The term is normally used in the law-enforcement world. In law enforcement, informants are known as **confidential human sources** (**CHS**), or **criminal informants** (**CI**). 

The term can also refer, in a bad way, to someone who tells information about others without their permission. The term is commonly used in politics, industry, entertainment, and academia.

In the United States, a confidential informant or "CI" is "any individual who provides useful and credible information to a law enforcement agency regarding felonious criminal activities and from whom the agency expects or intends to obtain additional useful and credible information regarding such activities in the future".
**Salyut 1** was the first ever space station sent into space. It was launched into orbit in April 1971 by the Soviet Union and stayed in space until October 1971. During its time in space, it was visited by two spacecraft with crews. The purpose of Salyut 1 was to learn and test how a space station worked. A second goal was to find out how being in space a long time affected the human body. It had a number of problems, but a lot was learned from it that helped with future stations.

The station was at first part of the Almaz program, to make a secret military station in space. On 16 February 1970 it was decided to make it civilian instead. The Soviet space program gave the name **DOS** to the program. That is an abbreviation of the Russian "Dolgovremennaya Orbitalnaya Stanziya" which in English means "Long Term Orbital Station". The first station was called DOS-1 by the people working on the space program. To the public, it was going to be called Zarya, but was changed to Salyut before launch. Salyut is the Russian word for salute and was given to honor Yuri Gagarin.

The station was shaped like a cylinder and had four areas. One was a docking module to allow a spacecraft to connect. The second was the main module where people could live. The third was the auxiliary module that had the equipment to run the station. The fourth had the engines to move the station. Besides these, the station had four solar panels.

The launch was on 19 April 1971 on a Proton K rocket. Two days later, the first crew was also launched on a Soyuz rocket. They were supposed to stay for 30 days at the station. This did not happen as there was a problem in docking (connecting) their spacecraft to the station. After trying for 5.5 hours, they had to return to Earth. A second crew (Soyuz 11) was sent on 6 June 1971 and was able to enter. At first the mission went well, but due to problems on the station they could only stay 23 days of the planned 30. Their stay was the longest any people had spent in space at that time. While at the station, they did experiments to help scientists understand life in space. The crew of Soyuz 11 died during re-entry of the atmosphere when their air escaped. No other spacecraft visited the station. Salyut 1 was de-orbited (removed from space) on 11 October 1971. The engines were used to lower the orbit, so it would burn up in the atmosphere. 

The design of Soyuz 1 proved to be a good one. Later long-term stations such as Salyut 7 and Salyut 8 were based on it. And parts of Mir and the Zvezda module of the International Space Station were also based on this design.

Soyuz 1 was followed by the Salyut 2 station, which failed.
Many journalists in the UK and around the world are users of a shorthand system called Teeline. 

Developed in 1968 by James Hill, Teeline’s strength is fast learning.

‍Speeds above 140 wpm are not uncommon. **Word groupings** are key to the higher speeds. Every Teeline writer creates some for their own use and this is one reason it is considered a flexible system.  

Teeline is a key feature of many NCTJ-accredited journalism courses today in the UK. The content **Let's Love Teeline Together** has created on YouTube is linked to the NCTJ "*Journalism Skills Workshop - Shorthand"* module.  

Did you know Teeline started out with a **different name**? James' wife, I. C. Hill, was known to her friends as 'Bo' and it was in honour of her James first called his system '**Boscript**.'

Although Teeline has evolved over the years, **often resulting in the streamlining of its theory and the simplification of certain outlines**, a list of known historical published works can be found here, in descending order, most recent first. The vast majority of the books are available for purchase through eBay, Amazon or AbeBooks.com, among other sites. You may also wish to try BookFinder.com, which is a particularly good site for finding used books, rare books, textbooks, new and/or out-of-print books.

Keep in mind the more recent books will have incorporated most of the theory and outline changes the Teeline system has gone through since inception. That said, **this is not to suggest there is no merit in reading older material**. Many things have not changed, and there is much "gold dust" sprinkled throughout the literature that may prove valuable to you in your studies.

The Internet Archive houses many of the Teeline-related books noted above. Most are available to borrow electronically for up to one hour at a time, but some are community "texts," meaning, a PDF is available to download.

Reddit: The Shorthand subreddit is a good place to meet people from around the world who share a love for shorthand. Many different types of shorthand enthusiasts engage in useful discussions every day.

1. ↑  "Let's Love Teeline Together". *www.letsloveteelinetogether.com*. Retrieved 2023-10-09.
2. ↑  Butler, Harry (1983). *Handbook for Teeline Teachers*. Great Britain: Heinemann Educational Books. p. 6. ISBN 0435453106.
The **Iberian Union** was a state that governed the Iberian peninsula between 1580 and 1640. After the young king of Portugal and his uncle died, three of their relatives fought the War of the Portuguese Succession. Philip II of Spain won, thus linking the monarchies of Portugal and the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg. This dynastic union joined the crowns of Castile, Portugal and Aragon along with their respective colonial possessions, under the rule of the Hispanic monarchy. The institutions, government and legal traditions of each kingdom remained independent of each other; they merely had the same king of Habsburg Spain. The alien laws (Leyes de extranjeria) determined that the national of one kingdom was a foreigner in all the other Iberian kingdoms. The term *Iberian union* was not used at the time, it is a creation of modern historians.

The monarchs had long wanted to unify the peninsula: They had the visigothic monarchy in mind. Sancho III of Navarre and Alfonso VII of León and Castile both took the title *Imperator totius Hispaniae*, meaning "Emperor of All Hispania" centuries before. If Miguel da Paz (1498–1500), Prince of Portugal and Asturias had become king, the union could have been achieved earlier. However, he died early in his childhood.

The history of Portugal from the dynastic crisis in 1578 to the first House of Braganza monarchs was a period of transition. The Portuguese Empire's spice trade was peaking at the start of this period. Vasco da Gama had finally reached the East by sailing around Africa in 1497–98, completing the exploratory efforts started by Henry the Navigator. This opened an oceanic route for the profitable spice trade into Europe that bypassed the Middle East.

Throughout the 17th century, the increasing predations and surrounding of Portuguese trading posts in the East by the Dutch, English and French, and their rapidly growing intrusion into the Atlantic slave trade, undermined Portugal's near monopoly on the lucrative oceanic spice and slave trades. This sent the Portuguese spice trade into a long decline. To a lesser extent the diversion of wealth from Portugal by the Habsburg monarchy to help support the Catholic side of the Thirty Years' War, also created strains within the union, although Portugal did benefit from Spanish military power in helping to retain Brazil and in disrupting Dutch trade. These events, and those that occurred at the end of Aviz dynasty and the period of Iberian Union, led Portugal to a state of dependency on its colonies, first India and then Brazil.
The **Manson crater** is an impact crater near the site of Manson, Iowa. An asteroid or comet nucleus struck the Earth during the Cretaceous Period, approximately 74 million years ago. The event was one of the largest known impact events in North America. Until they found the ages of certain isotopes at the site, people believed that the event caused extinction of the dinosaurs. The ages sugges that the crater is too old.

Description
-----------

Extent of the Manson impact structure
As the site was covered by a glacial hill fairly recently, no eveidence of the crater can be seen on the surface. Today, the site of the crater is a flat landscape. Below the surface, hidden about 20 to 90 m (66 to 295 ft) below the surface is a buried structure about 38 km (24 mi) in diameter. It lies under the southeast corner of Pocahontas County and extends under portions of three counties. That an anomalous structure underlaid the area was known from unusual water well drill cuttings in 1912 of deformed rock, "crystalline clast breccia with a melt matrix" as a later report described it. A research investigation was started in 1955, and it was labeled a "cryptovolcanic structure" (a hypothetical volcanic steam explosion). Robert S. Dietz did some more investtifatiom and proposed an impact origin in 1959. Nicholas Short found evidence of shocked quartz grains in 1966. This confirmed the impact origin of the structure.

In 1991 and 1992 the U.S. Geological Survey along with others including the Iowa Geological Survey conducted detailed research in part to test the possible connection of the Manson Crater with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The 40  
Ar/39  
Ar isotope ratio dating of the core from the impact structure gave an age of about 74 Ma, or about 10 Ma older than the K–T boundary.

The impactor is considered to have been a stony meteorite about 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter. The site at the time was the shore of a shallow inland sea. the Western Interior Seaway. The impact disrupted granite, gneiss, and shales of the Precambrian basement as well as sedimentary formations of Paleozoic age, Devonian through Cretaceous. Limestone layers that give the rest of Iowa hard water were instantaneously vaporized down to the basement rocks, giving Manson the anomalous soft water that it has today.

Further reading
---------------

* Raymond R. Anderson, 1999, *Iowa's Manson Impact Structure*, Iowa DNR
* Additional material from Iowa DNR with image links
* Detailed illustrated time sequence of the Manson impact event from NASA

Other websites
--------------

* Aerial Exploration of the Manson Impact Structure
A sample ER diagram
In software engineering, an **entity–relationship model** is a conceptual model of data. Very often, the term is shortened to **ER model**. ER models are used to create relational databases. They show how the different parts of a data model interact with each other.

Peter Chen proposed to use this modelling approach in an article he wrote in 1976. Chen was not the first to have this idea. After the publication of the article, the idea was modified as well.

ER modelling
------------

Two related entities
An entity with an attribute
A relationship with an attribute
Primary key
In an ER model, there are three different types of objects:

* An entity exists in the real world; for example: an employee called Smith, or a project with number 1234.
* A *relationship* shows how two entities relate to each other
* Both entities and relationships can have *attributes*. Anything that is useful to know about an entity or a relationship is an *attribute*.

Since the database must be able to find an entity or a relationship, it must be able to identify it with a set of attributes that is unique. This set of attributes is usually called *primary key*.
After all the relations have been mapped, they are usually also revised to include cardinalities; a cardinality specifies the number of entities related in a relationship. This information is needed when the database is created. Depending on cardinality and the level of database normalisation, it may be necessary to introduce additional entities and relationships.

Creating a database
-------------------

When everything has been described, it is easy to create a relational database, as follows:

* Every type of entity can directly be mapped to a relation ("database table")
* Every type of attribute can directly be mapped to attributes ("columns" in the database table)
* Attributes can directly be mapped to attributes ("columns" in the database table)

Limitations
-----------

An ER model describes the relations between entities. It is adapted to represent relational data. Data that cannot easily be put into this form should not be modelled with an ER model. ER is aimed at designing a database from scratch; using it to describe and change a database that already exists may be more difficult to do.

Even where it is suitable in principle, ER modeling is rarely used as a separate activity.
One reason for this is that there are many tools that allow diagramming and that have other design support directly on relational database management systems.
These tools can extract database diagrams that are very close to ER diagrams from existing databases, and they provide alternative views on the information contained in such diagrams.

In a survey, Brodie and Liu could not find a single instance of entity–relationship modeling inside a sample of ten Fortune 100 companies. Badia and Lemire blame this lack of use on the lack of guidance but also on the lack of benefits, such as lack of support for data integration.
Johann Palisa
**Johann Palisa** (December 6 1848–May 2 1925) was an Austrian astronomer, born in Troppau in Austrian Silesia (now in the Czech Republic).

He was a good finder of asteroids, finding 122 in all, from 136 Austria in 1874 to 1073 Gellivara in 1923. Some of the notable asteroids he found include 153 Hilda, 216 Kleopatra, 243 Ida, 253 Mathilde, 324 Bamberga, and the Amor asteroid 719 Albert.

The asteroid 914 Palisana and the Palisa crater on the Moon were named in his honour.

Early work
----------

From 1866 to 1870, Palisa studied mathematics and astronomy at the University of Vienna; however, he did not graduate until 1884. Despite this, by 1870 he was an assistant at the University's observatory, and a year later gained a position at the observatory in Geneva. A few years later, in 1872, at the age of 24, Palisa became the leader of the Austrian Naval Observatory in Pola. While at Pola, he found his first asteroid, 136 Austria, on March 18, 1874. Along with this, he found twenty-seven minor planets and one comet. During his stay in Pola he used a small six-inch refractor telescope to aid in his research.

Family
------

Palisa named some of the asteroids after his family: (320) Katharina after his mother, Katherina, (321) Florentina after his daughter Florentine. His second wife is Anna.

Sources
-------

1. ↑  Herbert Raab. "Johann Palisa, the most successful visual discoverer of asteroids" (PDF). Astrometrica. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
2. ↑  Schmadel, Lutz D. (2007). "(320) Katharina". *Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (320) Katharina*. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 42. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7\_321. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
3. ↑  Schmadel, Lutz D. (2007). "(321) Florentina". *Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (321) Florentina*. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 42. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7\_322. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
4. ↑  Schmadel, Lutz D. (2007). "(996) Hilaritas". *Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (996) Hilaritas*. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 86. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7\_997. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3. Retrieved December 20, 2018.

### Obituaries

* (in German) von Hepperger, J. (November 1925). "Anzeige des Todes von Johann Palisa". *Astronomische Nachrichten*. **225** (7): 125–127. Bibcode:1925AN....225..125V. doi:10.1002/asna.19252250706.
The skeleton of a dwarf elephant from Crete
**Island dwarfism**, or insular dwarfism, is the reduction in size of large animals over a number of generations. 

The same process can happen in evolution on a mainland: an example is the evolution of the dwarfed marmosets and tamarins among New World monkeys. The smallest member is *Cebuella pygmaea*.

The main cause is their population's range being limited to a small environment, and this happens most often on islands. This process has occurred many times throughout evolutionary history. Examples include dinosaurs, like *Europasaurus*, and modern animals such as elephants and their relatives. 

This process may occur not only on traditional islands, but also in other situations where an ecosystem is isolated from external resources and breeding. This may include caves, desert oases, isolated valleys and isolated mountains ("sky islands"). Insular dwarfism is one aspect of the more general "**island rule**": when mainland animals colonize islands, small species tend to evolve larger bodies, perhaps because the island may not have key predators. On the other hand large species may evolve smaller bodies because food supplies are limited.

Possible causes of island dwarfism
----------------------------------

There are several proposed explanations for the mechanism which produces such dwarfism.

One is based on the idea that a smaller territory means a smaller food supply. A process where only smaller animals trapped on the island survive, as food declines to a borderline level. Population declines and, as smaller animals need fewer resources and smaller territories, they will survive longer. Eventually food sources replenish, and the survivors flourish. Smaller size is also advantageous from a reproductive standpoint, as it leads to shorter gestation periods and generation times.

Among carnivores, the main factor is thought to be the size and availability of prey resources, and competition is believed to be less important. In tiger snakes, insular dwarfism occurs on islands where available prey is restricted to smaller sizes than are normally taken by mainland snakes. Since prey size preference in snakes is generally proportional to body size, small snakes may be better adapted to take small prey.

### Naming

The occurrence of small species on islands is known as Foster's Rule, and was first used by van Valen in 1973.