recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
A Catholic celebration of the Eucharist
Last Supper (Juan de Juanes)
The **Eucharist**, also called holy **communion**, the **sacrament**, or the **Lord's supper**, is a kind of religious ritual in many Christian churches. It started when Jesus Christ told his followers to eat bread (His body) and drink wine (His blood) in memory of him, at the Last Supper.

In the Roman Catholic Church
----------------------------

According to the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is the true presence of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. During a Mass, through the act of transubstantiation, the bread and wine offered change, and are no longer bread and wine. They become the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ. The bread and wine do not change appearance, but they are the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, which Catholics in good standing (not in the state of mortal sin) come and receive Christ—they consume Him. This follows what was said by Christ "Eat my Body and Drink my Blood" (John ch.6). Most Protestant denominations believe that this was meant as a symbol, while the Catholic Church bases its beliefs on the tradition handed down through the church.

First century St. Ignatius of Antioch, disciple of the beloved disciple John, in speaking of "the heretics plaguing the church" in their day, wrote: "They abstain from the Eucharist because they do not confess that the Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ" (Smyrnaeans, 7).

From the second century, St. Justin Martyr wrote:
"This food we call Eucharist, which no one is allowed to share except the one who believes that our teaching is true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and so lives as Christ has handed down. For we do not receive these as common bread and common drink; but just as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise we have learned that the food over which thanks has been given by the prayer of the word which comes from him, and by which our blood and flesh are nourished through a change, is the Flesh and Blood of the same incarnate Jesus" (The First Apology).

In other churches
-----------------

In most Protestant churches, not including Lutheranism, the sacrament of communion involves eating small wafers or Matzos and drinking wine or grape juice, and not believing that it is the actual body and blood of Jesus, but as a very important symbolic observance, and fulfillment of what Christ commanded. Some churches offer it daily, some weekly, some monthly, and some a few times a year.

Unlike the Catholic teaching, Lutherans teach that the bread and wine is Jesus' body and blood, but is bread and wine also (consubstantiation).

In the Latter Day Saints or "Mormon" Church, followers eat small pieces of bread and drink water. They believe that this is a symbol of the body and blood of Jesus, and they call it the Sacrament. They also believe that it helps them to make the promises of baptism all over again.

Related pages
-------------

* Transubstantiation
Arctic food web made up of a number of food chains
A **food chain** shows the feeding relationship between different organisms in a particular environment and/or habitat. 

Plants are at the bottom of a food chain because they are producers that make their food from photosynthesis. Consumers are animals that eat the products of producers or other animals. The direction of arrows between the organisms shows who eats what and what gets eaten by what.

A food chain also represents a series of events and consumption in which food and energy are consumed from one organism in an ecosystem to another. Food chains show how energy is passed from the sun to producers, from producers to consumers, and from consumers to decomposes such as fungi. They also show how animals depend on other organisms for food.

In any ecosystem, many food chains overlap. Different food chains may include some of the same organisms. Several consumers may eat the same kind of plant or animal for food. When this happens, the food chain forms a food web.

Related pages
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* Ecology
**Google Assistant** is an artificial intelligence virtual assistant. It is developed by Google. It can be used on many devices, on mobile devices, like smartphones, tablets, and laptops. It can also be used in smart home devices. 

It encompasses a wide variety of different tasks, such as rolling dice, reading reminders, Mad Libs, Lucky Trivia (includes a sports version), Snake, a geography quiz, and many more. It can also look up different songs.

Response
--------

If one says, "Ok Google", "Hey Google", "Google" etc. it responses as, "Hi, how can I help?"

Search
------

Google Assistant can help one to show results with voice searching.

Navigation
----------

In navigation, Google Assistant can help. For example, when one says, "I'm hungry", "Restaurants nearby" etc. Assistant will show restaurants near their home. It can also help with telling the shortest distance between the location and the destination.

Interesting facts
-----------------

If one says, "I'm bored", Assistant can show them interesting facts, jokes, riddles etc. to make them free from boredom.

Interactive games
-----------------

The Google Assistant has a variety of games to choose from. One of them is Crystal Ball on which the voice will be more softly speaking and the voice will ask the player to ask a "yes or no question". Once the player has given the question, the soothing female voice will give the player an answer. The assistant also has a game called Lucky Trivia where the voice pretends to be a gameshow host. The player has to try and answer all five questions to win the game. In the United States, United Kingdom and Australia, the voices in the Crystal Ball and Lucky Trivia are high quality and were recorded by voice actors. Another game that can be played in the US is Mad Libs which is a word association game.

Other websites
--------------

* Official website
* Google Assistant Supported Languages
* Google Assistant for Developers
**Google Maps Navigation** is a mobile application developed by Google for the Android and iOS operating systems that was later integrated into the Google Maps mobile app. The application uses an Internet connection to a GPS navigation system to provide turn-by-turn voice-guided instructions on how to arrive at a given destination.
The application requires connection to Internet data (e.g. 3G, 4G, 5G, WiFi, etc.) and normally uses a GPS satellite connection to determine its location. A user can enter a destination into the application, which will plot a path to it. The app displays the user's progress along the route and issues instructions for each turn.

History
-------

The application’s beta release was released on October 28, 2009, accompanying the release of Android 2.0 (Eclair) on the Motorola Milestone (known as the Motorola Droid). Google Maps Navigation Beta was initially released in the United States. The application (version 4.2) was later released in the UK on April 20, 2010 and Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland on June 9, 2010.
The **Fw 190** was a German fighter aircraft made by Focke-Wulf during World War II. It first flew in 1939 and was introduced in 1941. Even though it was not sleek, it could still go 408 miles per hour (653 kilometers per hour). It was also called the **Shrike** and the **Butcher Bird**.

In 1942, Luftwaffe pilot Armin Faber landed by accident at a British airfield. They were then able to find out things about the aircraft.

The Focke-Wulf Fw-190 was a **multirole fighter/bomber** German aircraft. It could **take down large bombers** itself, and ambush enemy squadrons. It fought its way through **British crowds of aircraft**, and supported its allies. It was also able to attack and **destroy ground targets**, as it has a handy bomb, found under the fuselage. 

The FW 190 was 29 feet (8.84 meters) long, had a wingspan of 34 feet 5.5 inches (10.49 meters), was 13 feet (3.96 meters) high, weighed 7,055 pounds (3,200 kilograms) empty and 10,800 pounds (4,900 kilograms) operational. It could go 408 miles per hour (653 kilometers per hour), could fly up to 37,400 feet (11,410 meters), and could go 560 miles (900 kilometers) without refueling.

FW 109 was 1500 kg heavier than Bf 109. It was also faster (FW 190 A-8 was 16 kph faster than Bf 109 G-6) but it didn't climb as fast as Bf 109 (at 15 m/s compared to 17 m/s of Bf 109). FW 190 was much better armed than Bf 109 - it had 2 machine guns above the engine and four cannons in the wings. Bf 109 had only one cannon and two machine guns.

Related pages
-------------

* Bf 109
* P-47 Thunderbolt

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Focke-Wulf Fw 190***.

* Luftwaffe Resource Center
* Technical dates of 190D (via Internet Archive)
* Fw 190 Infos Archived 2009-02-08 at the Wayback Machine
**Harold Eugene "Gene" Clark** (November 17, 1944 – May 24, 1991) was an American singer and songwriter. He started the folk rock band The Byrds in 1964. He wrote lots of The Byrds' most well known songs. They were very popular. In 1967 he released his first solo album, *Gene Clark with the Gosdin Brothers*. It was not successful. However he went on to make several more solo albums.

Early life
----------

Gene Clark was born in Tipton, Missouri. He was the third of thirteen children. He started writing songs when he was 11.

Career
------

In 1964 Clark started The Byrds with Jim McGuinn and David Crosby. Clark was the singer. Clark released his first album with The Byrds, *Mr Tambourine Man*, in 1965. In 1966 Clark left the band. He joined the band again in 1967. He left after three weeks. In 1968 Clark released his first album with Doug Dillard, *The Fantastic Expedition of Dillard & Clark*. Dillard & Clark released their second album, *Through the Morning, Through the Night* in 1969. In 1974 Clark's fourth album *No Other* was released. It got bad reviews. Clark released an album with Carla Onson in 1987 called *So Rebellious a Lover*. It was his last studio album.

Death
-----

Clark died on May 24, 1991. He was 46. He died because of a bleeding ulcer that he had.
**Eugene T. "Gene" McEver** (September 15, 1908 - July 12, 1985) was a Hall of Fame college football player for the University of Tennessee. He was born in Bristol, Virginia in 1908.

Playing career
--------------

McEver was the first ever All American for the Tennessee Volunteers football team. He played for them in 1928, 1929, and 1931 for coach Robert Neyland. McEver missed the 1930 season with a knee injury. McEver scored 130 points for the Volunteers in 1929, helping them to a 9-0-1 record. The total led the NCAA in scoring that year. That total is still the record for most points in one year at Tennessee. McEver also holds the record for career scoring at Tennessee among non-kickers.

McEver finished his career with 44 touchdowns and 12 points after touchdown for 276 points. He was named to the All-Southern team in 1928, 1929, and 1931, with teammates Bobby Dodd and Herman Hickman. McEver was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1954.

Coaching career
---------------

McEver coached at Davidson College in North Carolina from 1937 through 1943. His record there was 16-43-4. McEver also coached the University of North Carolina to a 1-7-1 record in 1944. He was an assistant coach at Virginia Tech from 1944 to 47.

|
|  |
| Preceded byTom Young |  **North Carolina Head Football Coach**1944 | Succeeded byCarl Snavely |

Sources
-------

1. 1 2  "HickokSports.com - Biography - Gene McEver". Archived from the original on 2010-12-24. Retrieved 2009-12-22.

* College Football Hall of Fame Bio Archived 2009-01-22 at the Wayback Machine
* 2006 University of Tennessee Football Media Guide
"**Ghosts 'n' Stuff**", also known as "**Ghosts N Stuff**", is a song by Canadian electronic music producer deadmau5 and features vocals from Rob Swire of Pendulum and Knife Party. The song is featured on deadmau5's fourth studio album *For Lack of a Better Name.*

The song was first made in 2004 and deadmau5 said that the song ended up going through at least 10 revisions. deadmau5 and Swire met each other backstage at various festivals and they both decided to collaborate on a song.

The song was specifically made for Pete Tong's BBC Radio 1 Essential Selection show which deadmau5 was a guest on along with Steve Angello. Tong asked deadmau5 if deadmau5 could create something new for his appearance. deadmau5 said that the song was originally called "Hotel" because he made it for Tong's show when he was staying in his hotel. He also said that the song was "just now" finished and that he would now call it "Ghosts 'n' Stuff".

The music video for the song was shot in Toronto, Ontario and features Joel Zimmerman being rushed to the hospital but dies on arrival. Zimmerman is then revived as a ghost and roams the streets of Toronto where he gets a tattoo of a Space Invader alien, gets runs into a gang of ghosts and attends a rave where the other people are dressed up in different costumes. One of the people at the rave wearing a deadmau5 helmet pulls the white sheet off and Joel wakes up in the hospital. Joel also finds that the Space Invaders tattoo that he got as a ghost is still on his neck.

The music video for the song was also shown on a 2011 episode of Beavis and Butt-head titled, "Drones".
***Gryphaea*** (the **Devil's toenail**) is a genus of extinct oysters which were once very common. Their fossils are common on the Jurassic Coast in southern England, and in the margins of the old Sundance Sea in the United States. It is a marine bivalve mollusc in the family Gryphaeidae. 

These bivalves were at their peak in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, when they sat in huge muddy oyster beds in shallow tropical seas. The genus survived a long time, but went extinct about 34 million years ago (mya). 

The oyster shell has two 'valves': a larger gnarly-shaped shell (the 'toenail') and a smaller, flattened shell, the 'lid'. The soft parts of the animal lived in the gap between the two shells, just like modern oysters. The shells have prominent growth bands. The large curved shell sat in the mud on the sea floor.

Where to find it
----------------

In England at the coasts of Redcar and Weymouth in the Kimmeridgian clay; in the U.S.A in riverbanks and cliffs of Texas and Kansas. They are often washed out of the clay onto the beach or river banksides.
***Gumbasia*** is a very short movie made in 1953 by Art Clokey. *Gumbasia* was a clay animation movie. Clokey became famous for his two series *Gumby* and *Davey and Goliath* which also used clay animation.

Clokey made *Gumbasia* while he was studying at the University of Southern California and being taught by Slavko Vorkapich. It was Clokey's first clay animation movie and it was only 3 minutes and 45 seconds long. The movie showed moving lumps of clay set to music in a copy of Walt Disney's *Fantasia*. Gumbasia was made in a style Vorkapich taught called Kinesthetic Film Principles. This style, which uses camera movements and stop-motion editing, is used in later Gumby movies. After watching *Gumbasia*, movie producer Sam Engel decided to give Clokey money to make a 15 minute movie that became the first Gumby movie -- *Gumby Goes to the Moon*.

Other websites
--------------

* *The Gumby Show* on IMDb
* Gumbyworld.com
* Premavision/Clokey Productions Archived 2011-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
* ArtClokey: the First 50 Years Archived 2008-06-23 at the Wayback Machine
* Official 50th Birthday Party Gumby's MySpace
* Bren's Gumbyland - The Ultimate Gumby Memorabilia Collection/Fansite
The **Friderico-Francisceum** is a secondary school ("gymnasium"). It is in Bad Doberan, a town in Germany. The short name of the school is **FFG**.

Students from grade 7 to grade 12 go to the school.

History
-------

The school was founded in 1879. Its name is *Friderico-Francisceum*, because the founder was named Frederick Francis II. He was the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Only boys went to the school until 1927.

From 1947 to 1991 (during GDR times) the school was named "Goethe School".

Birgit Hacker is the head teacher of the school since 2011.

Building
--------

The main building of the school was built in 1889. The architect of the building was Gotthilf Ludwig Möckel.

A new school building behind the old one opened in 2001. It was needed, because the number of students got bigger.

* The old building of the schoolThe old building of the school
* The new building of the schoolThe new building of the school
* The interior of the new buildingThe interior of the new building
* The school yardThe school yard

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Friderico Francisceum***.

* Official website

| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata |
| --- |
| International | 
* VIAF
* WorldCat Identities

 |
| National | 
* Germany

 |
The head of an ant: Chitin type
An **exoskeleton** supports and protects an animal's body from outside and not like the internal endoskeleton - of, for example human beings - from inside. 

Many invertebrate animals (such as shelled mollusks) have exoskeletons in the sense of external hard parts. But if one speaks of an exoskeleton one mostly means that of arthropods (i.e. insects, spiders, myriapods and crustaceans). 

Exoskeletons contain rigid and resistant components that fulfil a set of functional roles including protection, excretion, sensing, support, feeding and (for terrestrial organisms) acting as a barrier against desiccation. Exoskeletons first appeared in the fossil record about 550 million years ago, and their evolution has been seen as critical as a driving role in the Cambrian explosion of animals that took place after this time.

The exoskeleton ( exoskeleton suit) is a device intended to restore the lost motion functions of a person or other living being. The exoskeleton also serves to increase human muscle strength and range of motion by means of an external skeleton and drive elements.

Other websites
--------------

### Biology

* Geometry and Pattern in Nature 3: The holes in radiolarian and diatom tests Archived 2005-12-16 at the Wayback Machine

### Modern technology

* Bionic Boots Archived 2008-12-18 at the Wayback Machine
* PowerSkip Archived 2010-10-05 at the Wayback Machine
* Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) Archived 2010-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
* University of Washington Exo Arm Project Archived 2008-12-26 at the Wayback Machine
**George Smiley** OBE is a fictional character created by John le Carré. Smiley is an intelligence officer with "The Circus". This is the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6. 

He is a central character in the novels *Call for the Dead*, *A Murder of Quality*, *Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy*, *The Honourable Schoolboy*, and *Smiley's People*, and a supporting character in *The Spy Who Came In from the Cold*, *The Looking Glass War*, *The Secret Pilgrim* and *A Legacy of Spies*. The character has also appeared in a number of film, television, and radio adaptations of le Carré's books.

Le Carré, who created Smiley, wanted to show that Ian Fleming's James Bond series was an inaccurate picture of espionage life. Smiley is polite, shy and humble. He often allows others to mistreat him, especially his unfaithful wife. But his humility masks his inner cunning, excellent memory, mastery of tradecraft, and occasional ruthlessness. His genius being underestimated helps Smiley achieve his goals. In the end, he becomes one of the most powerful agents in Britain.

The character is held in high esteem in Britain, where he has become a pop-culture icon on par with Bond. *The Guardian* called him "the sort of spy [Britain] believes it ought to have: a bit shabby, academic, basically loyal, and sceptical of... his political masters".
**"Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer"** is a humorous Christmas song. It was originally performed by husband and wife Elmo and Patsy Trigg Shropshire in 1979. It was released again in later years. It sold over 11 million copies.

On the Edison Media Research and Pinnacle Media Worldwide lists, the song was both liked and disliked. The results were reported in 2007.

There have been several parodies and cover versions of this song.

Story
-----

In the lyrics, a grandmother is celebrating at a Christmas Eve party with her family. Against what everyone tells her, she goes outside into a blizzard while drunk on eggnog after she forgets her medication. She is found the next day, trampled over by Santa Claus and his reindeer. 

The family wonder if all the gifts they bought for Grandma should be sent back. The answer is a strong yes.

Grandpa is unaffected by his wife's "death". He drinks beer, watches football and plays cards with Cousin Mel.

Video
-----

In the music video, Elmo plays both Grandpa and Grandma. Patsy plays Cousin Mel. Grandma survives the attack and comes back through the chimney.

Also in the music video, Grandma says that a driver's license should *never* be given to a man who drives a sleigh and plays with elves.
The **Goliath birdeater spider** is one of the biggest spiders in the world. It is a tarantula. It lives in burrows in swampy areas of northen South America. It eats insects, rodents, bats, small birds, lizards, frogs, and snakes. The spiders have fangs, but their venom is harmless to people. Hairs on their bodies can irritate human skin. Explorers named the spider when they saw one eating a hummingbird. 

The female lays 100 to 200 eggs. The babies hatch in two months. The female spiders sometimes eat their mates. Females can live about 20 years, but males only live 3 to 6 years. These spiders can have a leg span of up to 28 cm (11 in) and a body length of up to 11.9 cm (4.7 in). They can weigh up to 175 g (6.2 oz). The spider's living areas are threatened by real estate development.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Theraphosa blondi***.

Wikispecies has information on: ***Theraphosa blondi***.

* Caring for your Goliath Bird Eating Tarantula Archived 2013-10-31 at the Wayback Machine
Coordinates: 52°30′49″N 13°23′34″E﻿ / ﻿52.51361°N 13.39278°E﻿ / 52.51361; 13.39278
The **Gendarmenmarkt** is a square in Berlin, and the site of the Konzerthaus and the French Cathedral and German Cathedrals. The centre of the Gendarmenmarkt is crowned by a statue of Germany's poet Friedrich Schiller. The square was created by Johann Arnold Nering at the end of the seventeenth century as the Linden-Markt and reconstructed by Georg Christian Unger in 1773. The Gendarmenmarkt is named after the Prussian regiment Gens d'Armes.

Gendarmenmarkt in Berlin
During World War II, most of the buildings were badly damaged or destroyed. Today all the buildings are restored to their former state. 

The Gendarmenmarkt hosts one of Berlin's most popular Christmas markets.

* Gendarmenmarkt around 1900Gendarmenmarkt around 1900
* Gendarmenmarkt at duskGendarmenmarkt at dusk
* German Cathedral and Concert HallGerman Cathedral and Concert Hall

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Gendarmenmarkt***.

* Website of das Konzerthaus
* Der Gendarmenmarkt on Berlin Tourism Archived 2007-04-26 at the Wayback Machine
* Gendarmenmarkt Panorama
An **eon** (or **aeon**) is a term in Earth science for the longest periods of time. It describes a part of the Earth's existence lasting hundreds of millions to billions of years.

A geologic eon is part of Earth's existence, made up of a number of eras of different lengths. A geologic era is made up of two or more shorter times called geologic periods. A geologic period is, in turn made up of yet shorter times called epochs.

Geologists have given names to all of the eons, eras, periods and epochs that they have found by looking at rocks. The names given to each eon describe something about that time, or the rocks that were made at that time.

For example, we are now in the Phanerozoic eon, which comes from the Greek words for *life that we can see*, that is, there were animals and plants big enough to see without a lens. This era started about 545 million years ago.

The four eons
-------------

| Eon | Beginning | End | Name meaning |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Hadean | 4600 million years ago | 3900 million years ago | Greek for "beneath the Earth" |
| Archaean | 3900 million years ago | 2500 million years ago | Greek for "ancient" |
| Proterozoic | 2500 million years ago | 540 million years ago | Greek for "earlier life" |
| Phanerozoic | 540 million years ago |  | Greek for "life we can see" |
The Foreign Office main building
The Durbar Court at the former India Office, now part of the FCO
The **Foreign Office** is a department of the British Government. Its official name has changed from time to time, and at present it is the *Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office* (FCDO). Its head is known as the Foreign Secretary, and this is one of the four top posts in the British Cabinet.

The Foreign Office is responsible for protecting and promoting British interests worldwide. It was formed in 1782. In its present form it was created in 1968 by merging the Foreign Office and the Commonwealth Office (to FCO). Later on it merged with the Department for International Development.

The Foreign Office provides staff for embassies and other diplomatic stations throughout the world. It trains staff in foreign languages. At one time (a century ago) its staff ruled over a third of the world. The overseas British Empire recovered after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1776, and reached its peak about 1920. Foreign policy made sure it was never seriously threatened.
George Osborne
**George Gideon Oliver Osborne** CH PC (born 23 May 1971) is a former British politician and newspaper editor. 

Osborne was the Chancellor of the Exchequer from 2010 to 2016 in the David Cameron government. He was the Conservative Party Member of Parliament for the Tatton constituency in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. He was an MP from 2001 to 2017.

George Osborne was born in Paddington, London, England and was educated at the University of Oxford. He became an MP in 2001 and entered the shadow cabinet in 2004. In 2005, Osborne was made the Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer by Michael Howard and held this post when David Cameron became leader of the Conservative Party. 

Osborne became Chancellor of the Exchequer on 11 May 2010 and outlined £6.2 billion worth of cuts to help reduce the budget deficit. He left office on 13 July 2016 when Theresa May became Prime Minister. He was replaced by Philip Hammond. In April 2017 he said he would not stand in the 2017 general election. He was made a Companion of Honour in the 2016 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours. He was editor of the *Evening Standard* from 2017 to 2020.

Osborne is part of the old Anglo-Irish aristocracy, known in Ireland as the *Ascendancy*. He is the heir to the Osborne baronetcy (of Ballentaylor, in County Tipperary, and Ballylemon, in County Waterford).

Revelation
----------

*Private Eye* wrote about the relationship between Osborne and *Evening Standard* owner Evgeny Lebedev. Russian oligarch Lebedev appointed Osborne as editor. The *Evening Standard* is now called *The Standard*. 

During Osborne's time as Chancellor of the Exchequer he regularly pledged Treasury money to *Standard* charitable campaigns. In September 2015, the newspaper ranked Osborne in joint-first place on its annual 'Progress 1000' list of the most influential people in London. It also said that, as Chancellor, Osborne failed to tackle the advantageous tax status for so-called "non-doms" (foreign wealthy people). Lebedev's paper strongly supported the Conservative Party in the 2015 general election and the Conservatives' candidate Zac Goldsmith in the 2016 London mayoral election.
*Bourtange star fort*, restored to 1750 situation, Groningen (province), Netherlands
Templeborough Roman fort in Yorkshire. The reconstruction was created for Rotherham Museums and Galleries.
**Fortifications** are military constructions and buildings designed for defense during war. People have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, but the designs have become more and more complex. The term fortification comes from the Latin words *fortis* ("strong") and *facere* ("to make").

Many military installations are known as **forts**, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may class as **fortresses**, smaller ones formerly often bore the name of **fortalices**. Some are castles. The word **fortification** can also mean the practice of improving an area's defense with defensive works. City walls are **fortifications** but not necessarily called **fortresses**.

The last great system of fortification to be built was the Atlantic Wall.

Related pages
-------------

* Fortress
* Stronghold
* Salient

Other websites
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Category:Fortification***.

* Information on Australian World War 2 Fortifications[*permanent dead link*]
* A Military History of Malta (Fortifications)
* Fortress Cologne
* Aerial photography: Fortress - Komárom - Hungary
* Petrovaradin - Greatest XVIII century fortress in Europe Archived 2006-12-05 at the Wayback Machine

Gallery
-------

* Nakhal Fort, one of the best-preserved forts in OmanNakhal Fort, one of the best-preserved forts in Oman
* Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India)Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India)
* Gríanán of Aileach, ancient Irish ringfort, DonegalGríanán of Aileach, ancient Irish ringfort, Donegal
* A restored portion of the Great Wall of ChinaA restored portion of the Great Wall of China
* Coastal fortification with a rotating gun turret.Coastal fortification with a rotating gun turret.
* Fort Frederick Martello Tower in Kingston, Ontario at Royal Military College of CanadaFort Frederick Martello Tower in Kingston, Ontario at Royal Military College of Canada
* Bare Island Fort in Botany Bay in a suburb called La Perouse, Sydney, AustraliaBare Island Fort in Botany Bay in a suburb called La Perouse, Sydney, Australia

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | *This article includes text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica. Please add to the article as needed.* |
Nailing on shoes
A **farrier** is a person who works with iron, or other materials, to make horseshoes and take care of horse's hooves. They check for signs of disease and make sure the feet are well cared for.

History
-------

At one time, a farrier and blacksmith had almost the same job, which can be seen by the etymology of the word: farrier comes from Middle French: *ferrier* ("blacksmith"), from the Latin word *ferrum* ("iron"). Today, farriers usually specialize in horseshoeing, and on the care of the horse's hoof. For this reason farriers and blacksmiths are now known to be different jobs.

Law
---

By law, in Great Britain, it is illegal for anyone except a registered farrier to call themselves a farrier or to carry out any farriery work under the Farriers (Registration) Act 1975. The main aim of this act is to "prevent and avoid suffering by and cruelty to horses arising from the shoeing of horses by unskilled persons".

Worshipful Company of Farriers
------------------------------

The Worshipful Company of Farriers a London Livery Company, was set up in 1356. It still offers diplomas which are recognised qualifications to be a modern farrier.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Farrier***.

* On The Horse's Foot, Shoes and Shoeing Archived 2011-08-24 at the Wayback Machine
* Museum of Horse Shoeing Tools
**Fanny Lucía Martínez de Leeu** (born February 8, 1973), more commonly known as **Fanny Lú**, is a singer from Cali, Colombia. Fanny Lu completed her studies in Colegio Bolivar and then went on later to study at Universidad de los Andes. In 1994, she became a television presenter. Afterward, she went into the music industry.

Fanny's debut album "Lágrimas Cálidas" (Warm Tears) was released in 2006. The album was an instant hit in Latin America. It was very popular in Colombia, where it spent five weeks at #1. The lead single "No Te Pido Flores" (I'm Not Asking for Flowers) also spent 7 weeks at #1 on the Hot 100 Billboard Charts in Latin America, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico, and has received a numerous amount of airplay in Latin radio in the US. The song has also peaked at #16 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs. The second single from her debut album is the song called "Y Si Te Digo"(And If I Tell You) and it peaked at #1 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs.

Singles
-------

| **Year** | **Title** | **Chart Positions** | **Album** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| U.S. Latin | Colombia |
| 2007 | "No Te Pido Flores" | #16 | #1 | *Lágrimas Cálidas* |
| "Y Si Te Digo" | #1 | #1 |

Filmography
-----------

Fanny Lu did the Spanish translated voice for Beth, a character in the Sony Pictures animated film "Open Season" or "Amigos Salvajes", which is the Spanish title.

Other websites
--------------

* Official Site
* Official Myspace
**George R. Klare** (Minneapolis, 1922 – The Plains, Ohio, 2006) was a World War II veteran and a distinguished professor of psychology and dean at Ohio University.

World War II
------------

Klare served as a navigator on a B-17 Flying Fortresss in the Eighth Air Force in England. On December 31, 1944, he was shot down over Germany. He spent the rest of World War II in German POW camps. He was liberated by advancing Soviet troops from Stalag Luft One on May 1, 1945. He was honorably discharged as a First Lieutenant in December, 1945, receiving the Air Medal, the Purple Heart, European area ribbons and the Prisoner of War medal.

Klare later recounted his experiences as a prisoner of war in a chapter entitled "Questions" in *Interrogations, Confessions, and Entrapment,* published by Springer in 2004.

In 1978, he was named Distinguished Professor of Psychology. While at Ohio University, he served as chair of the Psychology Department from 1959 to 1963, as acting dean of the College of Arts and Sciences in 1965–66 and in 1984–85, and as Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences from 1966 to 1971. He was also acting associate provost for graduate and research programs from 1986 until his retirement in 1987. in 1981, Klare was elected to the Reading Hall of Fame of the International Reading Association in 1997. He is listed in *Who's Who in America*.

Main works
----------

His major contribution was in the field of readability. From the beginning of the 20th century, the assessment of the grade level of texts for different grades of readers was a central concern of reading research. It was well known that without correctly graded texts, readers would not improve their reading skill. There were over 1,000 published studies on this topic. Klare's contribution to that effort came both in his critical reviews of the studies and his participation in original research.

* Klare G.R. & Buck B. 1954. *Know your reader: the scientific approach to readability*. New York: Hermitage House.
* Klare G.R. 1963. *The measurement of readability*. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
* Klare G.R. 1975. *A manual for readable writing*. Glen Burnie, MD.
* Klare G.R. 1984. Readability. In *Handbook of Reading Research*, (ed) P.D. Pearson. New York: Longman, pp. 681–744.
* Klare G.R. 1985. *How to write readable English*. London: Hutchinson.
* Klare G.R. and Klare R. 2012. *The haunting memories of war: a memoir of father and son*. Bloomington, Indiana: Lulu Press.
In physics, a **gravitational field** is a model used to explain the influence that a massive body has. The influence extends into the space around itself, producing a force on another massive body. Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain gravitational phenomena (effects). It is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg). 

In the original Newtonian concept, gravity was a force between point masses. Following Newton, Laplace attempted to model gravity as some kind of radiation field or fluid. Since the 19th century explanations for gravity have in terms of a field model, rather than a point attraction. This revolution was brought about by Einstein's general theory of relativity. Most scientists believe that the gravitational field and its gravitational waves are the physical interpretations of Einstein's equations of general relativity.

In a field model, rather than two particles attracting each other, the mass of objects distort spacetime. This distortion is what is perceived and measured as a "force". In such a model matter moves in certain ways in response to the curvature of spacetime. One can say either *there is no gravitational force*, or that *gravity is a fictitious force*.
Modern glider flying above a lake called the Lac de Serre Ponçon in the French Alps
**Gliders** are aircrafts which do not have a motor. Gliders are controlled by their pilots by using control-sticks. Some gliders can only carry one person; others can carry two. In gliders with two seats, each pilot has a control-stick. Gliders always have seats for the pilots.

'Sailplanes' are gliders with long wings so that they will only lose height slowly. In some places a vertical draft makes the air go up faster than the glider is going down. The pilot of a glider can make it climb by flying to these places. This is called soaring. Good pilots can travel long distances by always finding rising air. Some pilots race each other over hundreds of kilometres each day. Other pilots just fly for fun.

The pilot's seat and controls
Gliders cannot get into the air by themselves. They are pulled into the air by an aircraft with a motor or they are pulled up by motor on the ground.

There are two other types of gliders. Hang-gliders have frames to give the wings their shape, but do not have seats for their pilots and do not have control-sticks. The wings of paragliders are like parachutes and so do not have frames to give them their shape. These other two types of glider are often launched from the tops of hills or cliffs.


| * v
* t
* e
Aircraft |
| --- |
| Types of aircraft | airplane · airship · air superiority fighter · attack aircraft · biplane · bomber · delta wing · fighter · glider · hang-glider · helicopter · Hot air balloon · jumbo jet · paraglider · sea plane · training aircraft · Zeppelin · human powered aircraft |
| Famous aircraft | Aurora · Air Force One · Flight 11 |
Gradients dialog in GNOME
The **GNU Image Manipulation Program**, or **GIMP**, is a free software picture maker.

It is often used for making logos, making photographs bigger or smaller, changing colours, making many pictures part of one picture, making pictures nicer to look at, and changing file formats.

GIMP is often used as a free software alternative for the most popular Adobe Photoshop, but it is not made to be an Adobe Photoshop clone. GIMPs mascot is named Wilber.

GIMP was started in 1995 by Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis and is now taken care of by a group of volunteers as part of the GNU Project. The newest version of GIMP is v.2.8 and it was available since March 2009. GIMPs license is the GNU General Public License, so GIMP is free software.

GIMP can be used for opening and changing many types of file formats. GIMPs own file format is XCF, which is the name of the building where GIMP was written.

Some file formats that GIMP can be used with are bitmap, JPEG, PNG, GIF and TIFF. GIMP can also read and write path information from SVG files and GIMP can read Adobe PDF files and the raw image formats used by digital cameras, but cannot write to these formats.

Other websites
--------------


The English Wikibooks has more information on:
***GIMP***

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***GIMP***.

* Official GIMP Web site
Fossil specimen of *I. breviceps*
Another species of *Ichthosaurus*
***Ichthyosaurus*** was an extinct marine reptile from the Lower Jurassic. It was the first member of the order Ichthyosauria to be discovered. The first complete skeleton was discovered in the early 19th century (1810/11) by Mary Anning in the Dorset Jurassic Coast. Many more specimens were found in Europe, especially from the limestone quarries in Holzmaden, southern Germany.

Ichthyosaurus lived from about 199 to 189 million years ago (mya).
This sleek animal could perhaps swim at speeds up to 25 mph (40 kph).

Mode of life
------------

### Live birth

*Ichthyosaurus* bore live young. This we know from fossil evidence. It was thought at first that *Ichthyosaurus* laid eggs on land, but fossil evidence shows that the females gave birth to live young. Because they did, their life habit could be entirely aquatic. They were well-adapted to life as fully pelagic organisms because they never needed to come onto land. The babies were born tail first to prevent them from drowning in the water.

Hundreds of well-preserved, fossilised skeletons have been found in Jurassic rock at Holzmaden. Some of the bones were still articulated. Some fossils still had baby specimens inside them, indicating that *Ichthyosaurus* was viviparous. Similar finds in the related *Stenopterygius* also show this.

### Fins

The German fossils also featured the outline of *Ichthyosaurus* skin, showing it had a fleshy dorsal fin on its back and a large caudal fin. Other ichthyosaur fossils proved this feature was not limited to *Ichthyosaurus*.

### Sense organs

*Ichthyosaurus* ear bones were solid, probably transferring water vibrations to the inner ear. Still, hunting by sight was the creature's main feeding activity; it had huge, sensitive eyes, protected by bony shields.

### Feeding

Coprolites (fosillized excreta) of *Ichthyosaurus* show its diet consisted of fish and squid.
**Implosive consonants** are made up of stop consonants (and sometimes some affricates) with a mixed together glottalic ingressive and pulmonic egressive airstream (when the air stream is made by the lungs, ribs, and diaphragm) mechanism. That is, the airstream is used by moving the glottis down in addition to pushing air from the lungs. So, not like the purely glottalic ejective consonants, implosives can be changed by phonation. Contrastive implosives are seen in around 13% of the world's languages. 

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, implosives are indicated by changing the top of a letter (voiced stop) with a right-facing hook: ⟨ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ⟩.

Voicing
-------

When the throat is closed, pulling the glottis down stretches, or decreases pressure in, the air in the vocal tract. The throat is then opened. In languages whose implosives are more common, that may result in air rushing into the mouth before it flows out again with the next vowel. To take in air sharply in that way is to "implode" a sound.

But, usually there is no movement of air at all, which contrasts with the pulmonary plosives. This is the case with many of the Kru languages, for example. That means that implosives are phonetically sonorants (not obstruents) as the concept of sonorant is usually defined. However, implosives can phonologically pattern as both; that is, they may be phonological sonorants or obstruents depending on the language.

George N. Clements (2002)[*source?*] actually proposes that implosives are phonologically neither obstruents nor sonorants.

The vast majority of implosive consonants are voiced, so the glottis is only partially closed. Because the airflow required for voicing lowers the vacuum being created in the mouth, implosives are easiest to make with a large oral cavity.
The **Imperial Russian Navy** (in Russian: *Российский императорский флот*) was the navy of the Russian Empire (and its predecessor: Tsardom of Russia), from 1696 until the start of the Russian Revolution in 1917.

History
-------

*Frigate Oryol* in Soviet Stamp.
Goto Predestinacia (flagship of Oryol Flotilla).
It was founded by Tsar Peter the Great. This was due to the fact that Russia did not have naval forces and the inexperience of its inhabitants in naval architecture, after a visit to Amsterdam, Tsar Peter would learn naval construction in detail, the first ship would be the Frigate Oryol (Eagle in English), after the victory against the Ottomans in Azov, the Black Sea Fleet would be created, over time the Fleet would grow. In 1740 the Baltic Fleet based in St. Petersburg would be founded after several victories against the Swedish Fleet. This was during the Russo-Turkish Wars the Black Sea Fleet would be the main fleet against the Ottoman Influence in this Sea. Near the end of the 1700s, the Caspian, White Sea and Okhotsk Flotillas would be created.

Battle of *Russian Frigate Vladimir* and *Ottoman Frigate Pervaz-i Bahri*.
Headquarters of Imperial Russian Navy in St. Petersburg.

Battles
-------

The Russians would also make Circumnavigation trips, from the Pacific Coast of Russia to the north of the Hawaiian Islands, They would participate in the Napoleonic Wars against the Ottoman Navy, During the Crimean War, they would suffer a serious defeat against the Ottoman Empire, Great Britain, France and Sardinia, then over time the fleet would increase in naval size becoming one of the largest existing fleets, During the War Against Japan, they would suffer a serious defeat which would make Russia look like a less strong country From what it appeared to be, the fleet would finally be dissolved after the Russian Revolution where it would be succeeded by the Soviet Navy in 1920.

Russian battleship Poltava.

Other websites
--------------

* Russian Submarine forces history
* History of the Russian Navy Archived 2016-06-10 at the Wayback Machine
* Web site focusing on submarine history and the works of Irish-American inventor, John Philip Holland and his company which was known as The Holland Torpedo Boat Company. See Fulton and look under Russian submarines (Som Class) Type 7-P.
* Russian submarine history can be located on this site.
A sea grass bed in Florida Bay
Young mangroves and carbonate mud in the internal part of the lagoon – Florida Bay
A waterspout off the Florida Keys
**Florida Bay** is the large shallow lagoon between the southern end of the Florida mainland (the Florida Everglades) and the Florida Keys, a long series of small islands. The Bay is significant for its ecology of sea grass and the organisms that live there.

Nearly all of Florida Bay is included in Everglades National Park. The southern edge, along the Florida Keys is in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Outside the Bay is the northern part of the Keys, and outside them is the Florida Reef, the only barrier coral reef in North America.

Ecology
-------

### Flora and fauna

The Bay has the largest known seagrass bed in the world. Sea grass beds contain many species from various phyla. Seagrass herbivory is important in the food chain, and eaten by a number of animals, some of them rare. Species that feed on sea grass include green turtles, dugongs, manatees, fish, geese, sea urchins and crabs. The mangrove swamps in the shallow areas are also quite extensive.

### Carbonate production

Florida Bay is a model for the conditions which produced limestones on many of the continental shelves of the world. It is a kind of carbonate 'factory'.p144

In the Florida Bay a type of flowering plant called sea grass is in abundance. Also in abundance is white, milky water full of calcium carbonate. This is mainly formed by *Melobesia*, a small red alga which lives on the sea grass.p151 Also, the organisms produce huge amounts of slime, which is a polysaccharide. There is good reason to think the slime is produced by the algae to control the way their carbonate skeletons are formed.p139 As a side-effect the slime limits the amount of carbonate which goes into solution in the water, so most of it gets deposited on the bottom.p155

Florida Bay is a flat platform which has laid down a huge amount of carbonate rock. 

"You have to drill for more than 3000 feet before you reach a different rock type, and that is of Cretaceous age—some 70 million years ago".p158

Waterspouts
-----------

Waterspouts are a feature of the area. There are as many as 500 waterspouts per year. They are common from June to October, but can occur at other times.

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Florida Bay at Wikimedia Commons
* U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Florida Bay

Coordinates: 25°00′01″N 80°44′59″W﻿ / ﻿25.00028°N 80.74972°W﻿ / 25.00028; -80.74972