recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
New houses next to Smokey Mountain in 2011
**Smokey Mountain** is a big landfill site in Manila in the Philippines. It was called "Smokey Mountain" because of the thick smoke coming from burning waste. There were 2 million tons of waste dumped there. It made a big mountain. Many poor people lived in a shanty town at Smokey Mountain. They earned money by selling things they found in the dumped waste. These were things like plastic bottles, glass, cardboard, and copper wire.

The Philippine government closed Smokey Mountain in 1995. No more waste was dumped there. The government cleaned up the landfill site. They covered up the mountain of waste with dirt. They planted grass and trees. They knocked down the shanty town. New houses were built next to Smokey Mountain.

This did not stop all the problems. Many poor people moved to a new landfill very close to Smokey Mountain. Waste is still dumped in that new landfill. The poor people built a new shanty town there. In the new landfill they still work all day looking in the waste for things they can sell.
**Vasco da Gama** (/ˌvæskoʊ də ˈɡæmə/), often shortened to **Vasco**, is a city in the state of Goa on the west coast of India. It is named after the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama. It is the headquarters of the Mormugão taluka (subdistrict). The city lies on the western tip of the Mormugao peninsula, at the mouth of the Zuari River, about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Panaji, Goa's capital, and about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from Dabolim Airport.

The city was founded in 1543 and remained in Portuguese hands until 1961, when it became part of India. The 1888 constructed Mormugao Port remains a busy shipping route in Asia. It is one of the major ports of independent India. The ship-building area of Goa Shipyard Limited that builds Navy and Coast Guard vessels was also built here in 1957 (during the Portuguese-era). Initially built around the city's harbour as the barge-repair yard *Estaleiros Navais de Goa,* the area has now[*when?*] expanded to include more related activities.[*source?*] The Indian Navy also has a presence in Mormugao, with its vast campuses, which include the naval base INS Hansa that shares control over the Dabolim Airport enclave.
The **Selective Service System** is an independent agency of the United States government. It has information on those subject to the U.S. military draft. All male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between ages 18 and 25 are required by law to register within 30 days of their 18th birthdays. They must also contact the Selective Service within ten days of any changes of any information they gave, like a change of address. Females, on the other hand, are not required to register.

Registration with Selective Service is also required for several federal programs and benefits, including job training, federal employment, naturalization, Pell grants and student loans.

On July 2, 1980, then-President Jimmy Carter signed Proclamation 4771 (Registration under the Military Selective Service Act). That was in response to the Soviet war in Afghanistan the previous year. It re-established the Selective Service registration requirement for all 18-to-26 year old men born on or after January 1, 1960.

The first registrations began on July 21, 1980 at various post offices across the United States, starting with men born in 1960. Men born in or after 1963 were required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday.

On April 27, 2016, the Armed House Services Committee voted to add an amendment to extend the authority for draft registration to females. If the bill had passed, it would have authorized then-President Barack Obama to order young women as well as men to register with the Selective System.
Smoke Detector COFEM with approved EN 54-7
A **smoke sensor** or **smoke detector** is a device that can detect smoke, which may be an indicator of a fire. There are two basic systems: Simple, standalone sensors usually make a sound or flash a light when they detect smoke. More sophisticated sensors usually send a signal to an fire alarm panel, or system. Most smoke detectors use either an optical sensor, or they use a physical process called ionization. Many simple smoke sensors use batteries. Very often dead batteries are not replaced; when this happens, the smoke sensors stop working. But, the detector may "chirp" when the battery is low to try and stop this from happening. There are also systems which are directly connected to electrical power; these may use batteries just as a backup.

Smoke detectors are housed in plastic enclosures, typically shaped like a disk about 150 millimetres (6 in) in diameter and 25 millimetres (1 in) thick, but shape and size vary. Smoke can be detected either optically (photoelectric) or by physical process (ionization); detectors may use either, or both, methods. Sensitive alarms can be used to detect, and thus deter, smoking in areas where it is banned. Smoke detectors in large commercial, industrial, and residential buildings are usually powered by a central fire alarm system, which is powered by the building power with a battery backup. Domestic smoke detectors range from individual battery-powered units, to several interlinked mains-powered units with battery backup; with these interlinked units, if any unit detects smoke, all trigger even if household power has gone out.

Design
------

### Photoelectric

Photoelectric smoke detectors rely on detecting a lack of light to set the alarm off. The light used could be infrared, visible light, or ultraviolet. When smoke blocks out the light inside a photoelectric smoke detector, the smoke detector detects that there is less light. Below a certain brightness, whether or not it comes from smoke or not, the photoelectric smoke detector will beep.

### Ionization

Ionization smoke detectors use radioactive elements to ionize the air. Alpha particles are released from the radioactive element onto air particles so that those air particles become charged. An ionization smoke detector will detect smoke if there is a change in voltage. If smoke enters the smoke detector, some of the alpha particles will attach to the smoke instead of the air particles. This will change the voltage inside the smoke detector, so the smoke detector will beep.

Ionization smoke detectors are cheaper than photoelectric smoke detectors, but they cause more false alarms than photoelectric smoke detectors. Additionally, ionization smoke detectors are slower to react in real house fires.
***Survivor's Law II*** is a Chinese TV drama series. It aired in Hong Kong starting 24 December 2007 and ending 18 January 2008. It is the sequel to the 2003 series *Survivor's Law*. However, three members of the original cast did not appear in this sequel due.

Plot synopsis
-------------

MK Sun (real name Sun Man Kwan) was a teenager who once stopped a drug smuggler, but then was wrongly accused of being the one taking drugs. Despite his background, he hired a famous lawyer to help him and not surprisingly, he won. The lawyer, named Brandon, became his idol, and MK Sun grew up to be a lawyer.

Years later, MK was trying to get a job in his idol's company, T&B. He beats Brandon's wife, Brenda in a case, and started working there. There he meets a stubborn, rich, and spoiled girl named Lily, who only cares about her self and appearnace. They became enemies because of each other's backgrounds and attitudes.

MK then meets Vincent. Vincent thought of MK as ghetto, but soon realizes he was wrong. After having a fight with him in soccer, Vincent punched the umpire but MK Sun took the blame. Soon, they become friends.

After splitting with his former girlfriend Jessica, Vincent falls in love with a coffee shop girl called Choi Yuk. Vincent had his license for being a lawyer taken away for three years and could not get his license back yet. After getting a chance to work again and start a new refreshing career, he started only caring for himself. He was so determined that he went against Choi Yuk and her family, and even MK. Choi Yuk thought he betrayed them and only cared about himself so she ended the relationship.

After a while, Lily and MK start to have feelings for each other and eventually get married in court.

Soon, Choi Yuk gets into hospital after taking a beating in the head by someone and falling into a coma, and gives birth to a baby boy Jophy. Vincent then gets hit in the head when Choi Yuk wakes up and loses his memory. However, to prevent Choi Yuk from despairing too much from not remembering her and Jophy, he proposes and they get married.

Vincent never regains his memory and ends up working in the shop with Choi Yuk. MK and Lily share a happy and playful relationship.

Cast
----

* Kenneth Ma as MK Sun (Sun Man Kwan)
* Sammul Chan as Vincent Cheuk (Cheuk Wai Ming)
* Ella Koon as Lily Suen (Suen Lei Lei)
* Selena Li as Chang Choi Yuk
* Waise Lee as Brandon
* Rebecca Chan as Brenda
* Kwok Fung as Suen Bak To
* Queenie Chu as Noel Kan Ming Wei
* June Chan as Lai Na
* Power Chan as Sun Man Kam
* Yoyo Chen as Stephy
* Sharon Luk as Vice Principal
* Bernice Liu as Jessica

Ratings
-------

* Week 1 (Episodes 1-5): 26 points
* Week 2 (Episodes 6-9): 29 points, peaking at 31 points
* Week 3 (Episodes 10-15): 31 points
* Week 4 (Episodes 16-20): 31 points, peaking at 37 points
A nest of surveillance cameras
**Surveillance** means watching someone or something. It may be secret, and many methods are used including telephone tapping to listen to the person's calls and putting an electronic listening device, a bug, into a room.

Governments and the military have built large facilities designed to listen in to communications between other governments and military groups. For example the U.S. has a large base at Pine Gap near Alice Springs, Australia, which listens to communication signals from all over the world.

**Eavesdropping** is also surveillance, but often without much planning. It means listening to things you aren't supposed to hear. It is a deliberate act, rather than simply overhearing someone else talking.

Surveillance methods
--------------------

WWII aerial photo of the V2 rocket test stand at Peenemünde.
Soviet truck convoy carrying atomic missiles near San Cristobal, Cuba, on Oct. 14, 1962 (taken by a U-2)
Many people engage in surveillance for many purposes. That purpose may be crime prevention, alerting for attacks, or general gathering of information for a politcal purpose. The results of surveillance are sometimes called "intelligence". Surveillance collects information for police, intelligence agencies, military planners or commercial firms.

This may include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment (such as CCTV cameras), or interception of electronically transmitted information (such as internet traffic or phone calls). 

Surveillance may include simple, relatively low-technology methods such as watchtowers, human intelligence agents and postal interception. On the other hand, global surveillance is done by satellite cameras on a daily basis. Such satellites are called "reconnaissance satellite" or spy satellites.

The word *surveillance* comes from a French phrase for "watching over" ("sur" means "from above" and "veiller" means "to watch").

Related pages
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* Mass surveillance in the United States
The **National Gallery of Australia** is the national art museum of Australia. It is in Canberra. It holds more than 120,000 works of art in its collection. The gallery was established in 1967 by the Australian government. The construction of the building started in 1973, and cost AU$82 million. It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1982.

The gallery is northeast of Parliament House. It is near the High Court and the National Library. There are three levels of galleries. On the main floor, the galleries are large, and are used to display the collections of Indigenous Australian, European and American art. The lower level also contains a series of large galleries, used to display the Asian art collection. The topmost level contains a series of smaller galleries, which holds the gallery's collection of Australian art. A smaller building on the eastern side of the gallery holds the gallery's temporary exhibitions. It includes a sculpture garden. A major expansion of the gallery began in 2006. It included several new galleries for indigenous Australian art.

The gallery's collection of indigenous Australian art is mostly modern, but in traditional forms. It is dominated by a memorial of 200 painted tree trunks commemorating all the indigenous people who died defending their land against invaders in the 200 years between 1788 and 1988. Each trunk is a coffin, which in the Yolngu culture is used to mark the safe journey of the soul of the dead from this world to the next.

The collection of non-indigenous Australian art includes work by Frederick McCubbin, Tom Roberts, William Dobell, Sidney Nolan, and many other famous artists. The gallery's international collection is mainly focused on late-19th-century and 20th-century art. Artists represented include Paul Cézanne, Claude Monet, Pablo Picasso, Jackson Pollock, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, David Hockney, Lucian Freud and Henri Matisse. The sculpture garden contains works by Bert Flugelman, Henry Moore, Fujiko Nakaya and Auguste Rodin.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***National Gallery of Australia***.

* Official website
* National Gallery of Australia Archived 2008-05-02 at the Wayback Machine on Artabase

Coordinates: 35°18′01″S 149°08′12″E﻿ / ﻿35.300399°S 149.136781°E﻿ / -35.300399; 149.136781

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A stuffed specimen of a male *H. inermis* shows the long canine teeth from the upper jaw like the canines of musk deer
The **water deer** (*Hydropotes inermis*) is an even-toed ungulate mammal of the deer family. It is the only member of the subfamily Hydropotinae. There are two subspecies: the **Chinese water deer** (*Hydropotes inermis inermis*) and the **Korean water deer** (*Hydropotes inermis argyropus*).

Appearance
----------

Water deer are small deer: they are about 90 cm long and about 50 cm high. They weigh about 13 kg. The water deer has yellowish-brown fur, with a white chin and throat. Both males and females do not have antlers. Males have long upper canine teeth (called tusks), which can be up to 5 cm long.

Habitat
-------

The water deer originally lived in China and Korea. Today there are also small wild populations in England and France. Water deer live close to water: in swamps and on the shores of rivers and lakes.

Life
----

Water deer eat grasses and reeds. They also eat grains and vegetables from fields.

Water deer live alone, but sometimes they form small groups. 

After a pregnancy of 200 days the female gives birth to 2-4 babies. A water deer baby has white dots and stripes on its fur, which disappear after 8 weeks. They drink milk for 3 months. When the young water deer are 6 months old they are independent and leave their mothers. They become mature when they are 1 year old.

  



Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Hydropotes inermis***.

Wikispecies has information on: ***Hydropotes inermis***.
A manor house in Estonia.
A **manor house** or **fortified manor-house** is a country house, which has historically formed the centre of a **manor** (see Manorialism). The term is sometimes used for relatively small country houses which belonged to gentry families, as well as to grand stately homes, particularly as a technical term for minor late medieval castles more intended for show than for defence.

In general terms, the manor house was the house of a feudal lord of a manor, which he occupied only on occasional visits if he held many manors. Although not built with strong fortifications as castles were, many manor houses were partly fortified: they were enclosed within walls or ditches. Often the farm buildings were within these walls as well. Many manor houses had small gatehouses and watchtowers. 

The main feature of the manor house was its great hall. By the beginning of the 16th century, manor houses as well as small castles began to acquire the character and amenities of the residences of country gentlemen. This late 16th century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France and the many country mansions of the Elizabethan and Jacobean styles in England. 

In France, the terms *château* or *manoir* are often used to describe a French manor house. *Maison-forte* is another French word to describe a strongly fortified manor house. In the western France provinces of Brittany and Normandy, certain large manors enjoyed real means of protection. 

In modern usage, the term *manor* or *manor house* is often used, especially outside Europe, to mean simply either a country house or indeed any other house considered to resemble one, without any reference to age or to the historical sense of the term.

Related pages
-------------

* Mansion
* Reality TV show recreating life in an Edwardian manor house.

Other websites
--------------

* Estonian Manors Portal - the English version gives the brief overview of 438 best preserved manor houses in Estonia.
**Thames Water Utilities Ltd**, known as **Thames Water**, is a large private utility company. It supplies water and waste water treatment in most of Greater London, Luton, the Thames Valley, Surrey, Gloucestershire, north Wiltshire, far west Kent, and some other parts of England.

It was started in 1989 during privatisation of the water industry in England and Wales. The water is mostly sourced from the Thames as well as some other rivers and boreholes.

It is the biggest water and wastewater services company in the United Kingdom. It runs the Thames Water Ring Main around London, one of Europe's largest wastewater treatment works and the UK's first large-scale desalination plant—both at Beckton in east London—and the £4.2 billion Thames Tideway sewer currently under construction. It supplies 2.5 billion litres (550 million imperial gallons) of drinking water and treats 4.6 billion litres (1,000 million imperial gallons) of wastewater a day. It serves a population of 15.5 million people—about a quarter of the UK population—but its ageing infrastructure often leaks and causes pollution.

History
-------

The New River was started in 1604 by Edmund Colthurst to carry fresh water from Hertfordshire into London. The business of the New River was taken over by the New River Company, officially founded by royal charter in 1619. This developed into the Thames Conservancy which started in 1857 when Joseph Bazalgette started building the London sewers.

Thames Water plc was bought by the German utility company RWE in 2001. They sold it for £8 billion to Kemble Water Holdings Ltd in 2006. This is owned by the Australian Macquarie Group. In 2017, Macquarie Group sold it to the Canadian pensions group OMERS and the Kuwait Investment Authority. In 2022 it was losing money with current debt amounting to 80% of the value of the business. It was the most heavily indebted of England and Wales' water companies. This problem was seen by the regulator Ofwat in December 2022 and there were discussions about a possible collapse and state bail-out. 

In June 2018 regulators made Thames Water pay £65 million to customers among other problems because they failed to fix leaks. In June 2023 leak levels were at their highest for five years. It was estimated to be losing 630 million litres (140 million imperial gallons) a day. In July 2023 it was fined £3.3 million after it discharged millions of litres of undiluted sewage into the Gatwick Stream in Sussex and River Mole in Surrey.
Sumerian cities
**Sumer** is the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (in modern-day southern Iraq). They may have been one of the first civilizations in the world, as were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley.

Sumer started around 3500 BC. The Sumerian civilization grew along the Tigris and Euphrates. This land was good for growing food. Sumerian culture is famous for its written cuneiform script - where letters were formed by pressing a triangle shaped reed into wet-clay tiles. They are also credited with creating the wheel, and dividing a day into 24 hours, and each hour into 60 minutes.

The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC. Early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.

Sumerian communities were organized into city-states, each ruled by a priest or king, until Akkad conquered them in the third millennium BC. One of the most famous Sumerian cities was Ur (not the same city as Uruk, but near it).

Relations with the Akkadians
----------------------------

During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.

The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, may have been the world's first city.

The Sumerians lost their identity with their language around 2000 BC, because a large group of different people, the Amorites, moved into their region. The Sumerian language continued as a religious language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, for as long as cuneiform was used.

Clothing
--------

The Sumerians made their clothing by using the natural resources that were available to them. Clothing was made from wool or flax which Sumerians could raise and harvest. How thick or how coarse the clothing was related to the season in which it was worn. Heavier clothing was worn in the winter, lighter clothing in the summer.

Men were bare-chested and wore skirt-like clothes that tied at the waist. Women usually wore dresses that covered them from their shoulders to their ankles. The right arm and shoulder were left uncovered. Men were either clean shaven or had long hair and beards. Women wore their hair long, but they usually braided it and wrapped it around their heads. When entertaining guests, women placed headdresses in their hair.

Although both rich and poor Sumerians wore the same style of clothing, the richer Sumerians wore clothing that was made out of expensive and luxurious materials. Rich women and princesses also wore clothing that was colorful and bright.

Both men and women wore earrings and necklaces. During celebrations, even more jewelry was worn. The wealthier Sumerians often wore beautiful gold and silver bracelets and earrings. Sumerians also wore necklaces with bright, precious stones. Some of these stones were lapis lazuli and carnelian.

Related pages
-------------

* Ur
* Uruk
"**Sumer Is Icumen In**" is a very old English song which can be sung as a round. It is the oldest example of a round that we know of. The composer is unknown. It was written down around the middle of the 13th century by a monk but we do not know whether that monk composed it, or whether it had been composed earlier. 

The title means "Summer has come in". The round can be sung in six parts. There are also two parts which can be repeated again and again (an ostinato) throughout the piece. The language is Middle English and is based on the dialect spoken in Wessex, England at the time.

Music
-----

This is the manuscript that the monk wrote:

First line of the manuscriptFirst line of the manuscript 
To sing as a round, one singer (or group of singers) would begin at the beginning, a second singer would start at the beginning as the first got to the point marked with the red cross, then the third would join in when the second singer got to the red cross, and so on until all six were singing. The repeated pattern is marked "Pes". The instructions are written in Latin.

  

Here is the song in modern notation:

The song in modern staff notation

|  |
| --- |
| Sumer is icumen in |
|  |
| Melody only |

|  |
| --- |
| Sumer is icumen in |
|  |
| As six-voice round (four in melody, two in "pes") |

* *Problems playing the files? See media help.*

English lyrics (secular)
------------------------

Here are the words with a modern English translation:


|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Middle (Medieval) English words |  | Modern English |
| *Sumer is icumen in,*
*Lhude sing cuccu!*
*Groweþ sed and bloweþ me*
*And springþ þe wde nu,*
*Sing cuccu!*
*Awe bleteþ after lomb,*
*Lhouþ after calue cu.*
*Bulluc sterteþ, bucke uerteþ,*
*Murie sing cuccu!*
*Cuccu, cuccu, wel singes þu, cuccu;*
*Ne swik þu nauer nu.* |  | *Summer has arrived,*
*Loudly sing, Cuckoo!*
*Seeds grow and meadows bloom*
*And the forest springs anew,*
*Sing, Cuckoo!*
*The ewe bleats after the lamb,*
*The cow lows after the calf.* 
*The bullock jumps, the stag cavorts,*
*Merrily sing, Cuckoo!*
*Cuckoo, cuckoo, well you sing, cuckoo;*
*Nor will you ever stop now.* |
**Victor Amadeus of Savoy** (Vittorio Amedeo Filippo Giuseppe; 6 May 1699 – 22 March 1715) was the eldest son of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy and Anne Marie d'Orléans. He was the Heir apparent of Savoy from his birth and as such was styled as the *Prince of Piedmont*. He acted as Regent of Savoy from September 1713 till September 1714 in the absences of his father. He died of smallpox at the age of 15.

Biography
---------

He was the fifth child and first son of his parents and was baptised with the names Vittorio Amadeo Giovanni Filippo. The eldest son he would remain close to his father all his life who in turn adored his son who was named after him. Though his parents were not close he also had a close relationship with his mother

The Prince of Piedmont was born in Turin in May 1699. He would remain close to his father all his life who in turn adored his son who was named after him. He was also close to his mother. From birth he was styled as the *Prince of Piedmont*. He was the brother of the Princess Maria Adelaide and Queen Maria Luisa of Spain. He acted as regent of the duchy of Savoy in 1713. He was the heir to the Kingdom of Sardinia. There were plans for him to marry Elisabetta Farnese thus linking the duchies of Savoy and Parma by marriage but a union would never take place Elisabetta later marrying Philip V of Spain. Prior to 11 April 1713 the young prince was entitled to the style of "Highness" however after this date he was raised to the style of *Royal Highness*. 

Piedmont died in Turin on 22 March 1715 having caught smallpox. He was buried at the Cathedral of Saint Giovanni Battista and later moved to the Basilica of Superga outside Turin.

Titles, styles, honours and arms
--------------------------------

### Titles and styles

* **6 May 1699 – 11 April 1713** *His Highness* the Prince of Piedmont [Prince of Savoy]
* **11 April 1713 – 22 March 1715** *His Royal Highness* the Prince of Piedmont [Prince of Savoy]
The **Tenth Amendment** (**Amendment X**) to the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, was ratified on December 15, 1791. It helps explain the concept of federalism, the relationship between federal and state governments. The Tenth Amendment clearly states that any remaining powers not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved for the states or for the people.

Text
----

> "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.
> 
>

Powers not delegated
--------------------

The single point of the Tenth Amendment was to clearly show the balance of power between the federal and state governments as established by the Constitution. It was intended to put to rest any fears the new national government would seek additional powers that the states could then not fully use.

In *Bond v. United States* (2011), Carol A. Bond had been convicted under the federal Chemical Weapons Implementation Act of 1998 for a local assault using a chemical irritant (a chemical that causes skin burns). Bond's attorneys argued the federal law was intended for terrorists and rogue states. Instead, should have been prosecuted under state law. In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court reversed the decision by the lower court and sent the case back. Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote: "Bond has standing to challenge the federal statute on grounds that the measure interferes with the powers reserved to States... etc."
This painting, *The Third of May 1808* by Francisco Goya, depicts the summary execution of Spaniards by French forces after the Dos de Mayo Uprising in Madrid.
A **summary execution** is when a person is accused of a crime, and killed immediately, without a full and fair trial. Very often, summary executions happen in wartime. Under international law, a person is able to surrender. People who have surrendered may not be killed using summary execution. Killing a person who has surrendered is also seen as summary execution, and usually treated like murder and a war crime.

Civilian jurisdiction
---------------------

In nearly all civilian jurisdictions, summary execution is illegal, as it violates the right of the accused to a fair trial. Almost all constitutions or legal systems based on common law have prohibited execution without the decision and sentence of a competent judge, and the UN's International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) has declared the same:

> 
> Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No man shall be deprived of his life arbitrarily.
> 
> 
> 
> [The death] penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgment rendered by a competent court.
> 
> — International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Articles 6.1 and 6.2

In practice, though, extrajudicial killings have been performed by police and domestic forces in various countries and times, sometimes under martial law. It is also performed by armed bands fighting against governments and common citizens.

Related pages
-------------

* Martial law - The government is under military control, and most laws no longer apply.
A **topological space** is a space studied in topology, the mathematics of the structure of shapes. Roughly, it is a set of things (called points) along with a way to know which things are close together.

More precisely, a topological space has a certain kind of set, called *open sets*. Open sets are important because they allow one to talk about points *near* another point, called a **neighbourhood** of the point. A neighbourhood of a point is simply an open set containing that point. If one did not have the concept of open sets, one cannot define neighbourhoods in a good way. If one tries to define a neighbourhood of a point as *any* set containing that point, it might just include that point and that point only, not any points near it, or points far away.
We also have the concept of *closed sets*, which are complements of open sets. That is, all of the points not belonging to a certain open sets forms a closed set.

Open sets must follow certain rules so that they match our ideas of nearness. The union of any number of open sets must be open, and the union of a finite number of closed sets must be closed. (The second rule only works for a finite number of closed sets. That is because in many cases a set containing a single point is closed. Any set is made of points. If the second rule applied to an infinite number of closed sets, then *every* set would be closed.) As a special case, the set containing every point is both open and closed. The set containing no points is also both open and closed.

A set of points can have many different definitions of what an open set is. One can think of only certain sets as open, or more sets as open. One might even consider every set to be open. The same set with different definitions of open sets form different topological spaces.

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**Cornelia Simone Kramer-Kramer** (9 July 1939 – 9 January 2023) was a Dutch children's writer and translator.

Biography
---------

Kramer was born in Bodegraven in 1939, as the youngest in a family of eight children. Her father was a primary school principal in Bodegraven. After primary school, she attended the gymnasium and went afterwards to music school. During her studies, Kramer worked part-time as a doctor's assistant and saleswoman in a department store.

In 1966 she started working for the VARA. At first in the music department and later in the film department. She translated many films including *The BFG* of Roald Dahl. In 1984 Kramer started working as a children's book author for children from the age of 10 years. In addition, Kramer wrote picture books and books for younger children. Her books were published by Uitgeverij Ploegsma [nl]. Kramer included Greek mythologies in her stories. Her most known book was *Een steen door de ruit* from 1987 that received a tip from the Nederlandse Kinderjury [nl] and won the prize of the Children and Youth Jury Limburg.

Kramer died in 's-Graveland on 9 January 2023, at the age of 83.
*The architect D. Torcuato Benjumeda*, oil of Juan Rodríguez Jiménez (Museum of Cádiz). Text below painting: "D. TORCUATO JOSÉ BENJUMEDA CAPTAIN OF THE BATALLION OF ARTILLE/ROS OF VOLUNTARY LINE DISTINGUISHED OF CÁDIZ, ARCHITECT MAJOR TITLE FIRST OF THE SAME CITY, DIRECTOR OF ARQUI/TECTURA IN HIS ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS, ACADEMICIAN OF MERIT OF THE ONE OF SAINT FERNANDO OF MADRID./ He DIED ON 15 APRIL 1836».
**Torcuato José Benjumeda y Laguada** (El Puerto de Santa María, 1757 — Cádiz, 1836) was a Spanish architect. He was a follower of Torcuato Cayón. He was one of the most important neoclassical architects of Andalucia.

Biography
---------

Torcuato José Benjumeda y Laguada was born in El Puerto de Santa María on 4 January 1757. He was the son of Miguel Benjumeda and María Laguada.  His parents were married in the Iglesia Prioral de El Puerto de Santa María in 1756. His father was born in Málaga.  His father was the son of Francisco de Benjumea and of Ana Francisca de Gálves.  His mother was from Saint Pedayna in Génova.  She was the daughter of Cayetano Laguada and of Rosa Bertorela. Torcuato was baptized on 9 January in the Prioral.  This was because his godfather was the architect Torcuato Cayón. 

Benjumeda y Laguada married with Cándida Martínez de Pinillos in the church of San Juan Bautista of Chiclana on 15 August 1789. The couple ad five children. After getting married, they moved the marriage to Cadiz.  Their house was number 198 of the plazuela de la Cruz Green. Benjumeda y Laguada was appointed architect of the City council. He died in Cadiz on 15 April 1836 when he was 79 years old.

*Altar of the Iglesia Mayor Prioral, en, in  El Puerto de Santa María*
A portrait of Benjumeda y Laguada is in the Museo de Cádiz.  It was painted by Juan Rodríguez in 1813.  It is titled "El panadero", which means "the baker".  His son donated it to the museum in 1861.

Bibliography
------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Torcuato Benjumeda***.

* Teodoro Falcón Márquez: *Torcuato Benjumeda and the Architecture Neoclásica in Cádiz.* Cádiz. 1974.
* Juan Jiménez Kills / Bad July of Molina: *Guide of Architecture of Cádiz.* Edited by the Council of Public Works and Transports, General Direction of Architecture and House, and Official School of Architects of Western Andalucia, Demarcation of Cádiz.1995.
Willem Mengelberg
**Willem Mengelberg** (born Utrecht, 28 March 1871; died Zuort, Switzerland, 22 March 1951) was a Dutch conductor. He is famous for conducting the Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam for fifty years, making them one of the world’s finest orchestras.

Life
----

Willem Mengelberg studied music in Utrecht, Netherlands and at Cologne Conservatory. He had four years of experience conducting an orchestra in Lucerne. Then, in 1895, he was given the job which was to last him the rest of his working life: conductor of the Concertgebouw Orchestra. He took over this job from Willem Kes who had started the orchestra five years earlier. At Kes’s farewell concert on 25 October 1895 Mengelberg performed as solo pianist.

Mengelberg soon made it into a great orchestra. He was particularly good at conducting the music of Richard Strauss and Mahler. He took the orchestra on tours to many countries, including Norway, Belgium, France, Germany, England and Switzerland. He celebrated his 25th year of conductor of the orchestra by performing all the orchestral works of Mahler.

He also conducted other orchestras abroad, including the Royal Philharmonic Society in London and, in the 1920s, the New York Philharmonic Orchestra.

Mengelberg also conducted other groups in the Netherlands, including Maatschappij Caecilia and the Amsterdam Toonkunst Choir.

Mengelberg worked hard to get good discipline in his orchestra. He worked to introduce his audiences to good music and to make them listen quietly to the music. He did a lot to help the musicians get better working conditions and he conducted a lot of music by Dutch composers, helping them to become better known.

During World War II he accepted invitations by the Nazis to conduct in Germany. After the war people in Holland were very cross that he had done this, and he was forbidden to conduct in Holland for six years. He said that he had only conducted in Germany for the sake of the musicians.

Mengelberg was very sad and went to live in Switzerland. He died just before his six year ban would have come to an end.
A mainbord for a desktop PC made in 2020.The **motherboard,** also known as a **mainboard**, is the main circuit board in any electronic system. It's what holds together all the components needed for an electronic system to function. Although there may be other circuit boards attached to the motherboard, the motherboard is the largest.

Composition
-----------

The painted, base material of a motherboard is composed of fiberglass yarn strands that have been woven together and coated with a liquid resin and set to dry. This combination of woven fiberglass and resin is sent through an oven at a high temperature. When it comes out, it hardens and becomes stronger than it was before. This finished, very-hard, lightweight material, called pre-preg, is layered together and then painted, typically green. It forms what is the base material of the motherboard. This material acts as an electrical insulator and holds everything in place.

Copper is used to form the communication pathways that connect all the different parts on the motherboard, and is used because of its excellent ability to conduct electricity.

  

"On-board" is a term used to refer to anything that is permanently embedded onto the motherboard. Electrical parts are soldered onto the motherboard. These parts include transistors and resistors. Other parts that are attached to the motherboard are able to be removed in the future so that they can be upgraded. The CPU is an example of a part that is usually removable.

Parts that are not "on-board" can be bought as a card. Some of these parts include RAM and CPU. Computers today usually have a memory port, 2 or more USB ports, a parallel port (for use with old printers usually), audio & microphone jacks, a network port and ports for the keyboard and mouse. There are also some rare motherboards that have plugs only for very specific parts.

All of the slots and plugs both inside and outside the computer case are shaped a certain way to accept a certain type of part. Some will not even accept parts even one generation behind, such as the CPU and memory. Others, like the video plug have not changed in years. Some of the plugs, such as the video, keyboard and mouse plugs, are a special color. These colors make it easier to pair the plug to the port. The motherboard may also be referred to as the PCB which stands for ‘printed circuit board’, though it is essentially a gigantic PCB and can be considered the 'primary' PCB.
Restoration of *M. watsoni*
***Morganucodon*** is an early mammaliaform genus.p79 It lived during the latest Upper Triassic or earliest Jurassic.p299

Unlike many other early mammals, *Morganucodon* is known from abundant and well preserved material. Most of this comes from Glamorgan in Wales (*Morganucodon watsoni*).

According to Kemp, it is impossible to say whether the rock fissures (cracks), where the remains were found, are latest Triassic or earliest Jurassic.p142

*Morganucodon* first appeared about 205 million years ago. "It was a small animal with a skull 2-3 cm in length and a body length of about 10 cm [4 inches]. In general appearance it would have looked like a shrew or mouse".p143

Distribution
------------

Fossils have also been found in the Yunnan Province in China (*Morganucodon oehleri*), in various parts of Europe and North America and some at least closely related animals (*Megazostrodon*) are known from exquisite fossils from South Africa.p21/33, 174

Physiology
----------

From their size and teeth, they may have been insectivores.p300
The small size suggests some kind of temperature regulation, which in turn suggests insulation in the form of fur. Nocturnal activity in an animal of this size virtually requires an increased internal production of heat.p124

Brain size is another factor. It is certain that early mammals did have enlarged brains relative to their size. Reconstructions of the brain size has shown this. Apparently, brain size in Mesozoic mammals lay within the lower range of brain size for living mammals. This is an overall increase of four or more times the volume of basal amniote brains. Very likely this involved the development of the neocortex, "one of the most striking of all mammalian characteristics".p120

Is it a mammal?
---------------

 Morganucodontidae and other transitional forms had both types of jaw joint: dentary-squamosal (front) and articular-quadrate (rear).There has been a long controversy about whether or not to classify it as a mammal. Some prefer to include it in a broader clade called Mammaliaformes.

*Morganucodon* is regarded as very basal (= primitive). Its lower jaw has some of the bones found in its synapsid ancestors in a very reduced form. Mammals have a jawbone composed solely of the dentary.

The primitive jaw joint between the articular and quadrate bones is still found in *Morganucodon*.p107/112 In modern mammals these bones moved into the middle ear and become part of the ear ossicles as malleus and incus, *Morganucodon* is unusual because, apart from still having the primitive hinge, it has also evolved the derived mammalian one and so has a double jaw joint.

Its tooth replacement and determinate growth, are mammalian features.p324/346 Earlier synapsids replace their teeth throughout life, as sauropsids also do. This is known as "polyphyodonty", while mammals grow only two sets of teeth, in "diphyodonty".
**Mark Donaldson** is an Australian soldier who was given the first Victoria Cross for Australia. The is the highest medal for bravery for people in the Australian Defence Forces, replacing the Victoria Cross. He is the 97th Australian to be given the highest bravery award, and the first for 40 years. 

Donaldson was given the award by the Governor General of Australia, Quentin Bryce, on January 16, 2009. The ceremony was at Government House in Canberra. Donaldson had risked his life to save nine wounded Australian soldiers and an Afghan interpreter. They had been in a group of vehicles travelling in the Uruzgan Province in Afghanistan in September, 2008. They had been hurt when the Taliban attacked them.

Early life
----------

Mark Donaldson was born on 2 April, 1979 at Waratah, New South Wales. He grew up in the small town of Dorrigo, New South Wales. He went to Dorrigo High School. After finishing high school, Donaldson went to an art college in Sydney. He then worked at a number of different jobs in Australia and overseas.

In 1999 his mother, Bernadette, was listed as a missing person. The police believe she has been murdered.

Military career
---------------

Donaldson joined the Australian Army on 18 June 2002. He trained at Army Recruit Training Centre, Kapooka, NSW. He won prizes as the best shot and best at physical training in his platoon. Sent to the Royal Australian Infantry Corps he then did more training at Singleton, NSW, where he again won prizes for shooting and physical training, and also as the best soldier in his platoon. He was then posted to 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, based at Townsville, Queensland.

From February to April 2004 Donaldson did the Special Air Service training course, and was posted to I Troop, 3 Special Air Service Squadron in May 2004. He has served in East Timor, Iraq (Operation Falconer) and Afghanistan (Operation Slipper). During his time in Afghanistan he was slightly wounded on 12 August 2008.

The medal
---------

A week after being given the medal, Donaldson loaned his VC and other medals to the Australian War Memorial where they will be placed on public show.
The **Taurus Group** is a Spanish small appliance manufacturer located in Oliana.

History
-------

It was founded in a garage by Francisco Betriu de Cal Cases and Jorge Escaler in 1962 in Oliana. The company had 25 employees at the time and manufactured coffee grinders and hair dryers. The creation of Taurus in 1962 represented for Oliana a sustained growth, both in population (doubling it and close to 2,500 inhabitants) and in social and economic well-being.

In 1982, Taurus had 1,000 employees and exported to 48 countries. 

In 1993, in a turbulent period, the company was bought by the Generalitat de Catalunya. The company was privatized in 1997, when entrepreneurs Ramón Térmens and Jorge Tornini acquired 52% of it with the commitment to keep it all.  The company continued to grow and became international. In 2012, the fiftieth anniversary was celebrated "with the pride of having innovated for three generations"  and received the Pompeu Fabra Award. In 2014, it was present in eighty countries and had seven production centers around the world, in China, India, South Africa, Mexico and Brazil.
Sverker Johansson
**Sverker Johansson** (born 1961) is a Swedish physicist, linguist, textbook author and university professor who created Lsjbot, a controversial Wikipedia bot.

Life
----

Sverker Johansson studied technical physics at the University of Lund from 1979 to 1982. He moved to the University of Gothenburg in 1982 where he graduated with a Bachelor of Business Administration in 1984.

He performed basic military service at Eksjö and participated in research and experiments in particle physics and particle acceleration at the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) and the Large Electron-Positron Storage Ring (LEP).

From November 1990 to June 1992, with the support of the Manne Siegbahn Institute, research was carried out in the field of Neutrino Astronomy Research.

After moving to Jönköping in 1992, he devoted himself to linguistics. His book *Origins of Language, Constraints of Hypotheses, and Convergence Evidence in Language and Communication Studies*, published in 2005, has been reviewed by the *Journal of Linguistics* and by American scientists.

From 2007 to 2012, Sverker Johansson served as project manager at the University of Chichester in the south of England. From 2009 to May 2013 he was appointed project manager at the university in Jönköping, where he met his wife.

In 2012, he finished his master's studies in linguistics and presented the theory that Neanderthals used language in "Essay on Neanderthal Language".