recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
The term **Sexual revolution** was coined by Wilhelm Reich in his book *The Sexual Revolution*. That book was first published in 1936 in German, translated into English. The English edition was 1945.

Reich wrote in the book what he saw as wrong, namely the double standard regarding morals in the society of his time. These double standards and the suppression of the sex drive would make people different. This would lead to a buildup of aggressions and frustration. Freeing the sex drive would lead to a peaceful change of society, according to Reich.

Reich dies in prison 1957, but his ideas had their effect in the 1960s when people changed their views about sex. They were more open-minded about it. The publications of people like Alfred Kinsey helped give wings to the movement.

First wave of sexual emancipation
---------------------------------

The sexual revolution was prepared by a "first wave" of pioneers who campaigned against the sexual repression which was common in the 19th century. This change began, roughly, at the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century. One impetus came from the pioneers of birth control and family planning. The books and publicity of Marie Stopes in England and Margaret Sanger in the United States, changed the lives of many women.

Attitudes towards homosexuality and masturbation were altered by the publications of Havelock Ellis. Ellis was the first person to say in print that masturbation was normal, and did not cause any medical problems. The ideas of Sigmund Freud were also influential. He believed that people's strong instincts toward sexuality were repressed in order to meet the constraints imposed on them by civilized life.
***Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation*** is an 1844 work by Robert Chambers. It was published anonymously in England. 
The book openly discussed the transmutation of species in an attractive way.

*Vestiges* became an international bestseller. Its theme contradicted the natural theology fashionable at the time. Its ideas were reviled by clergymen. The ideas in the book were popular with a wider public. Prince Albert read it aloud to Queen Victoria in 1845. *Vestiges* caused a shift in popular opinion which – Charles Darwin believed – prepared the public mind for the scientific theories of evolution by natural selection as in his *On the Origin of Species* in 1859.

For decades there was speculation about the authorship of *Vestiges*. The 12th edition of 1884, revealed that the author was Robert Chambers, a Scottish journalist. He had written the book in St Andrews between 1841 and 1844 while recovering from illness. Initially, Chambers had proposed the title *The Natural History of Creation*, but he was persuaded to revise the title in deference to the Scottish geologist James Hutton. Hutton had remarked of the timeless aspect of geology: "no *vestige* of a beginning, no *prospect* of an end".

Publication
-----------

The book was published in October 1844 by John Churchill in London. The secret of the authorship was kept from from Churchill.

Difficulties appreciated
------------------------

"In other words, the fact of extinction — which can be observed in the fossil layers — suggests that some designs were flawed... Some other idea must then come with regard to the mode in which the Divine Author proceeded in the organic creation. (p153)

"...how can we suppose that the august Being who brought all these countless worlds into form by the simple establishment of a natural principle flowing from his mind, was to interfere personally and specially on every occasion when a new shell-fish or reptile was to be ushered into existence on one of these worlds? Surely this idea is too ridiculous to be for a moment entertained". (p154)

The general scandal caused by *Vestiges* meant Darwin was reluctant to publish his own ideas until he had well researched answers to all possible objections.

Reaction
--------

The first edition of 1,750 copies sold out in a few days. The book was translated into five languages, and many editions were published in the U.S.A.

Chambers followed the book with another, this time dealing with all the questions raised by the first book: Chambers, Robert 1845. *Explanations: a sequel to Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation*. London: John Churchill.
**Glaucous** is a colour that is bluish-green or bluish-grey. In botany it refers to a pale bluish waxy or powdery layer on a surface such as a leaf or a fruit. In birds it refers to a pale bluish grey colour of the feathers, legs or some other part of the bird.

*Glaucous* appears in the name of some plants and birds. For example, - Glaucous Gull, *(Larus glaucescens)* or Glaucous Macaw, *(Anodorhynchus glaucus)*. In botany there is the Glaucous Sedge, *(Carex flacca)* and the Glaucous Michelmas Daisy, *(Symphyotrichum laeve)*.

Often grapes, plums and other fruit have a glaucous waxy or powdery layer on the surface of their skin. That layer protects the fruit from water. It can be easily rubbed off.

* Gaucous Gull showing glaucous wing colourGaucous Gull showing glaucous wing colour
* Black grapes showing glaucous bloom on their skinsBlack grapes showing glaucous bloom on their skins
* Trachycarpus princeps showing glaucous underside to leaves*Trachycarpus princeps* showing glaucous underside to leaves
Title page from the first American edition of *Rights of Woman*
***A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects*** is a book written by Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792. Today, it is known as one of the first books about feminism. In the 18th century, some people thought that women should not get a formal education. Wollstonecraft wrote this work as a reply to them. She says that women should have an education that fits their position in society. She says women are very important to the nation, because it is women who usually educate their children. She says that an educated woman can also be companions to their husbands, rather than just uneducated wives. Wollstonecraft does not see women as ornaments to society, or property to be traded in marriage. She argues that they are human beings, and therefore deserve the same basic rights men have.

In 1791, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord wrote a report to the French National Assembly. In this report, he argued, that women should only receive a very basic education. 
Wollstonecraft used this report to write her reply. She also led an attack on the sexual double standards the society of the day had. She also indicted men for encouraging women to indulge in lots of emotion. Wollstonecraft wrote the *Rights of Woman* quickly so that she could directly respond to ongoing events; she wanted to write a more thoughtful second volume, but died before doing so.

Wollstonecraft calls for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, but she does not write that men and women are equal in all things. This has made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist as they believe men and women are equal in all things. She could not use either the word or the concept of *feminism*, because they were only developed later. Today, many people believe that her work was not received well, but this may be wrong. People who believe this also believe that Wollstonecraft was as reviled during her lifetime as she became after the publication of William Godwin's *Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman* (1798). However, the *Rights of Woman* was actually well-received when it was first published in 1792. One biographer has called it "perhaps the most original book of [Wollstonecraft's] century".
King penguins at Port Alfred on Possession Island
Map of the Crozet Islands
The **Crozet Islands** (French: *Iles Crozet* or *Archipel Crozet*) are a group of islands in the Indian Ocean. The islands are very far away. It is about 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) from  Mauritius. The only place where people live on the islands is at Alfred Faure (*Port Alfred*).

There are many islands that are a part of the Crozet Islands such as:

* Île aux Crochons (*Pig Island*)
* Île des Pingouins (*Penguin Island*)
* Îlots des Apôtres (*Apostle Islets*)
	+ Grande Île (*Big Island*)
* Île de la Possession (*Possession Island*)
* Île de I'Est (*East Island*)

Many animals can be found on the islands like penguins, seabirds, and seals. Different kinds of penguin live on the islands like macaroni penguins, gentoo penguins, king penguins, and rockhopper penguins. Some seabirds that can be found on the island are the Crozet shag, wandering albatross, and many kinds of petrels.

There are some plants on the islands, but not a lot. There is mostly grass, moss, and lichen.

The islands were found in 1772 and was used for seal hunting for a lot of its history until it was made a nature reserve.
**Luna 1** (also known as the **First Cosmic Ship**, **Cosmic Rocket** and **Mechta** (Russian: Мечта, Literal translation: *Dream*)) was a space probe of the Soviet Union. It was the first mission in the Luna programme and it was the first spacecraft to reach the Moon. Luna 1 made some key scientific discoveries and it is one of the best achievements of the Soviet Union space programme.

Design
------

The spacecraft was sphere-shaped. Five antennae came out of one end. Instrument ports came out of the surface of the sphere. It also had various metallic emblems with the Soviet coat of arms.

### Instruments

Luna 1 had radio equipment, a tracking transmitter and a telemetering system for communication with Earth. The spacecraft carried several scientific devices too. These included a magnetometer, a device for measuring magnetic fields, a scintillation counter (a device for detecting high energy particles) and a geiger counter (a device for measuring radiation). Luna 1 also carried a micrometeorite detector and other equipment.

Mission
-------

The space probe was launched on January 2, 1959 at Baikonur Cosmodrome by a SS-6 Sapwood rocket. The launch was successful and Luna 1 became the first man-made object ever to reach the escape velocity of the Earth.

On January 3, 1959, the spacecraft released a cloud of sodium gas so that astronomers could track the probe and also to serve as an experiment on the behaviour of gas in space.

Luna 1 was intended to impact the Moon's surface. However, on January 4, 1959, it passed within 5995 km of the Moon and began to orbit the Sun between the orbits of Earth and Mars, where it is still orbiting now, on a 450 day orbit. Thus, Luna 1 became the first spacecraft to orbit the Sun.

Other websites
--------------

* "Luna - Exploring the Moon". Zarya. Archived from the original on 2022-07-01. Retrieved 2011-08-18.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) (Internet Archive)
Van Dine was a writer who wrote detective novels. ‘S.S. Van Dine’ is actually a pseudonym. He was born Willard Huntington Wright. He created the fictional detective Philo Vance, a sleuth and aesthete who first appeared in books in the 1920s, then in films and on the radio.

Born to Archibald Davenport Wright and Annie Van Vranken Wright on October 15 1888, Van Dine grew up in his brother’s shadow. His brother, Stanton, was a respected painter; one of the first American abstract artists. Willard was however was more humble in his strength. He was a self-taught writer, attended St. Vincent College, Pomona College, and Harvard University, but did not graduate.

At age 21, Wright began his professional writing career as literary editor of the Los Angeles Times, where – describing himself as "'Esthetic expert and psychological shark". He wrote book reviews for the newspaper. For romance and detective fiction in particular, he was especially brutal.

Van Dine died on April 11 1939, aged 50.
'Heliocentric model' of the solar system with the Sun in the centre. Copernicus' manuscript
Title page of first edition
***De revolutionibus orbium coelestium*** (*On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres*) is great work of the Renaissance astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543).

The book, first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, offered proof that the Earth went round the Sun, and not vice versa, as had been thought. 

This was an alternative model of the universe to Ptolemy's Earth-centered system, which had been accepted since ancient times.

Copernicus had worked his ideas out many years before, however he did not publish until right before his death because he himself did not truly believe it and only proposed the idea as a philosophy experiment.

Contents
--------

In its standard English edition, the book contains 330 folio pages, 100 pages of tables, and over 20,000 tabulated numbers.

The book is dedicated to Pope Paul III in a preface that argues that mathematics, not physics, should be the basis for understanding and accepting his new theory. 

*De revolutionibus* is divided into six "books" (sections or parts): 

* Book I is a general vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his cosmology.
* Book II is mainly theoretical and describes the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars, as a basis for the arguments developed in the following books.
* Book III describes the apparent movements of the Sun and related phenomena.
* Book IV is a similar description of the Moon and its orbital movements.
* Books V and VI are the exposition of the new system. They explain how to calculate the positions of astronomical objects based on the heliocentric model.

This book is often referred to as the start of modern science.
**Reporters Without Borders** (**RWB**) (French: *Reporters Sans Frontières* or **RSF**, Spanish: *Reporteros Sin Fronteras* or **RSF**, German: *Reporter ohne Grenzen* or **ROG**) is an international non-governmental organization. Its headquarters is located in Paris. The organization was founded in 1985.

Stated purpose
--------------

The official website of the organization says that Reporters Without Borders:

* "defends journalists and media assistants imprisoned or persecuted for doing their job and exposes the mistreatment and torture of them in many countries."
* "fights against censorship and laws that undermine press freedom."
* "gives financial aid each year to 100 or so journalists or media outlets in difficulty (to pay for lawyers, medical care and equipment) as well to the families of imprisoned journalists."
* "works to improve the safety of journalists, especially those reporting in war zones."

Accusations
-----------

John Cherian from India says that Dalai Lama, leader of the Tibetan people, has Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) ties. John Cherian says that Reporters Without Borders has supported Tibet and tells a rumor that also Reporters Without Borders has CIA ties. Someone says CIA gave money to RWB.

Accusations have been made by Diana Barahona, who sends stories to Counterpunch website. She claims that RWB takes sides. They take sides especially when they publish news on Cuba. She says that on its press freedom index, Reporters Without Borders gives Cuba a lower ranking than countries like Colombia, Peru and Mexico where she claims reporters are routinely killed. She claims the U.S. State Department has donated to RWB. She claims that the organization has links with the International Republican Institute (IRI), which she claims is an arm of the Republican Party. She claims that IRI funding opposition leaders of Hugo Chávez and Jean-Bertrand Aristide in close connection with CIA. She claims RWB's trustworthiness is questionable.
The **Thirty-Nine Articles** are the historic statements of Anglican beliefs. The Articles were not meant to be a complete statement of the Christian faith. They are a statement of the position of the Church of England against the Roman Catholic Church and against Protestants.

History
-------

The articles were made in 1563, under the direction of Archbishop Matthew Parker, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. They are based on the Forty-Two Articles written under the direction of Thomas Cranmer in 1552 and passed under Edward VI of England in 1553. They are printed in the Book of Common Prayer and other Anglican prayer books. Priests, deacons, and bishops of the Church of England have to take an oath that what is said in the Articles is "agreeable to the Word of God." Other Anglican churches do not make such a requirement.

The Thirty-Nine Articles were needed because at that time in English history it was not possible to find an agreement about Protestantism. Rather than have the church become divided, they needed a way to list the essentials of what the Church of England believed. John Henry Newman (one of the leading Tractarians in the mid 19th century), before he converted to Roman Catholicism, tried to show that the Articles could be seen in a way less hostile to Catholic belief.

Acceptance of the Articles
--------------------------

Outside the Church of England, Anglican opinions of the Thirty-Nine Articles vary. The Episcopal Church in the United States of America sees them as an historical document but does not make its members follow them. Anglican priest John Wesley changed the Thirty-Nine Articles for use by American Methodists in the 18th century. These new Articles of Religion are still the official United Methodist Church doctrine.

Other websites
--------------


Wikisource has original writing related to this article:
**Thirty-Nine Articles**

* Articles of Religion
* Anglican Communion resources relating to the Book of Common Prayer, including the articles of religion Archived 2013-12-05 at the Wayback Machine
	+ facsimile of a 1762 printing Archived 2006-11-09 at the Wayback Machine from the above site
* The revised 1801 version adopted by the US Episcopal Church
**Alhaji Shehu Ladan** (21/09/1952 - 04/10/2011) was a Nigerian lawyer and was the Group Managing Director of NNPC.

Early life and education
------------------------

Ladan had his early education at N.A Primary School Tudun Wada, Zaria before proceeding to Sheikh Sabah College (now Sardauna Memorial College) in Kaduna where he obtained his WASC.

He earned his bachelor (LLB) and masters (LLM) Law degrees at Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria. He is also attended professional courses at Harvard Business School, Oxford University and University of Dundee.

Career
------

Ladan served his National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) primary assignment in the State Ministry of Justice, Kano. He began his career as Staff Solicitor of the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria. He later rose to Company Secretary/Legal Adviser Kaduna State Rural Electrification Board (REB) and Assistant Director Federal Legal Aid Council of Nigeria, Jos.

Ladan was appointed as Commissioner of Education in Kaduna state. He was also appointed as Attorney General and Commissioner for Justice in Kaduna state. During his tenure as education commissioner, he founded and established the Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic Zaria (formerly Kaduna State Polytechnic). 

Ladan moved to the oil and gas industry in 1990. He held various positions in the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), rising to the position, Group General Manager of Human Resources in 2004. In 2006, he was appointed as the Deputy Managing Director/CEO of Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas (NLNG) Shell, Total and Agip as shareholders. In October 2007, he was appointed Group Executive Director (GED) Commercial and Investment of NNPC. And in April 2010 he was appointed the Group Managing Director after a brief recess from the industry. However, barely forty days later he was relieved of office by president GEJ
Mykolaiv, view of *Namyv* microdistrict.
Flag of Mykolaiv
Blazon of Mykolaiv
**Mykolaiv** (Ukrainian: Миколаїв, also referred to as or **Mykolayiv, Nikolaev,** or **Nikolayev**; Polish: *Mikołajów*) is a major city in southern Ukraine. 

The city is located 65 kilometers from the Black Sea along the estuary of the Southern Buh river (where it meets the Inhul River) at around 46°58′N 32°0′E﻿ / ﻿46.967°N 32.000°E﻿ / 46.967; 32.000. Population 514,000 (as of 2001 Ukrainian Census).

Administrative status
---------------------

It is the administrative center of the Mykolaiv Oblast (province), as well as of both the Mykolaivsky and Zhovtnevy raions (districts) within the oblast. However, Mykolaiv is a city of oblast subordinance, thus being subject directly to the oblast authorities rather to the raion administration housed in the city itself.

History
-------

The town was founded in 1789 by the Russian Governor General of Novorossiya Knyaz Potemkin initially as a shipyard called simply a *New Shipyard on the Ingul river*. Knyaz Potemkin signed an order to construct a shipyard on August 27, 1789, which is considered to be a city birth date. The shipyard was to serve for the repair of the Russian Navy ships in the Russo-Turkish war. Later Potemkin ordered the shipyard to be named *Nikolaev* to commemorate the date of fall of Ochakov to the Russian troops under his command on December 6, 1788, close to the day of Saint Nicholas *(Nikolay)* December 19, in the Russian Orthodox Church. 

View of the Lenin Prospekt.
The history of the city has always been closely connected to the ship building.

The only Russian Navy aircraft carrier currently in commission, *Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza Kuznetsov*, was built in Mykolaiv.

Economy
-------

Today Mykolaiv is a major ship building center of Ukraine (as, earlier, of the whole Soviet Union) and an important riverport. The city has 3 major shipyards some of which are capable of building large navy ships. Other important industries are mechanical engineering, power engineering, metallurgy and cosmetics.

Unlike the city, in the region one of the leading areas is agricultural production. This industry ranks first in the structure of production of the region in terms of employment of labor resources. One of the leading centers of the State Institution "Mykolayiv State Agricultural Research Station Archived 2022-06-03 at the Wayback Machine" of the Institute of Agrarian Farming of the National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine" founded in 1956

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Mykolaiv***.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide about: ***Mykolaiv***

* Website Archived 2008-10-16 at the Wayback Machine
* Wikimapia - Satellite map of Mykolaiv at Wikimapia

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* Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine

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This article is about the Indian politician. For the Georgian politician, see Joseph Stalin.

Muthuvel Karunanidhi Stalin better known as M. K. Stalin often referred to by his initials **MKS** is an Indian politician,present Chief minister of Tamilnadu and President of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam party. He became the 1st Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu from 2009 to 2011.Stalin is the third son of famous Tamil Nadu politician Karunanidhi, and was born to his second wife, Dayalu Ammal. Stalin became the Minister for Rural Development and Local Administration in the Government of Tamil Nadu after the 2006 Assembly elections. On 29 May 2009, Stalin was nominated as Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu by Governor Surjit Singh Barnala. Stalin serves as the Treasurer and the Youth Wing President of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. On 3 January 2013, M. Karunanidhi named him as his heir apparent, ending a long time confusion about who would take over the party reins after Karunanidhi's death. He was the Mayor of Chennai from 1996 to 2002.
*Xanthopan morgani praedicta*, the moth whose existence Darwin predicted.
***Fertilisation of Orchids*** is a book by Charles Darwin.

The book was published on 15 May 1862 under the full title *On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects, and on the good effects of intercrossing*.

Darwin's previous book, *On the Origin of Species*, had briefly mentioned evolutionary interactions between insects and the plants they fertilised. This new idea was explored in detail for orchids. The field studies and practical scientific investigations were initially a recreation for Darwin, a relief from the drudgery of writing. The work developed into enjoyable and challenging experiments, and he was helped by his family, friends, and a wide circle of correspondents.

The book was his first detailed demonstration of natural selection. It explained how complex ecological relationships resulted in the co-evolution of orchids and insects. The view has been expressed that the book led directly or indirectly to all modern work on coevolution and the evolution of extreme specialisation. It influenced botanists, and revived interest in the long neglected idea that insects played a part in pollinating flowers. It supported his view that natural selection led to a variety of forms through the important benefits achieved by cross-fertilisation. Although the general public showed less interest and sales of the book were low, it established Darwin as a leading botanist. *Orchids* was the first in a series of books on his investigations into plants.

The book describes how the relationship between insects and plants resulted in the beautiful and complex forms which had fascinated many naturalists. By showing how adaptations develop step by step, Darwin countered the view that beautiful organisms were the handiwork of a Creator. Darwin's painstaking observations, experiments, and detailed dissection of the flowers explained previously unknown features. such as the puzzle of *Catasetum*, three completely different kinds of flowers. Darwin discusses how the Sack-Shaped Catasetum (*Catasetum saccatum*), a tropical South American species, launches its sticky pollen sacs with explosive force when an insect touches a hair (seta). His friend Thomas Huxley said "Do you really think I can believe all that?"

In the book Darwin made some famous predictions, including his proposal that the long nectary of *Angraecum sesquipedale* meant there must be a moth with an equally long proboscis. This was confirmed in 1903 when *Xanthopan morgani praedicta* was found in Madagascar.
Fragments of an Abusir papyrusOverview of the locations of the different findings around the Abusir necropolis
The unfinished Pyramid of Neferefre at Abusir
The **Abusir Papyri** are the largest find of papiri so far. They are from the Old Kingdom in ancient Egypt.

The first papyri were discovered in 1893 at Abu Gorab near Abusir in northern Egypt. 

They were written about the 24th century BC during the Fifth dynasty of Egypt. They are just fragments, but they are some of the oldest surviving papyri we have. Later on many more fragments were found in the area.

Their content
-------------

The Abusir papyri tell about the running of a royal mortuary temple. There are duty rosters for priests, lists of temple equipment, lists of daily offerings to the temples at Abu Gorab, north of Abusir. Also, there are letters and permits.

The fragments bear the remains of two different writings.
The introduction is written in hieroglyphs. It starts with a date referring to the reign of Djedkare Isesi. This dates the manuscripts near the end of the Fifth Dynasty.

The fragmented papyri are written in columns divided into three horizontal registers.

* the first register lists dates and names of officials
* the second register lists names of recipients
* the third register lists the kind of meat cuts supplied; this section is largely destroyed

The text on the right summarizes allocations of grain. All writings were done in what is called the hieratic script. That is the original writing done in ink with reed pens on papyrus.
A watercolour by HMS *Beagle*'s draughtsman, Conrad Martens. Painted during the survey of Tierra del Fuego, it depicts the *Beagle* being hailed by native Fuegians.
***The Voyage of the Beagle*** is the usual title of the book written by Charles Darwin. He first published it in 1839 as his ***Journal and Remarks***.

The title refers to the second survey expedition of the ship HMS *Beagle*. The ship set sail from Plymouth Sound on 27 December 1831 under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy R.N.

The expedition was originally planned to last two years, but it lasted almost five. The *Beagle* did not return until 2 October 1836. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land (three years and three months on land; 18 months at sea). The ship dropped him off at various places and picked him up later.

The book is a vivid and exciting travel memoir as well as a detailed scientific field journal. It includes biology, geology, and anthropology. Darwin's observations were written at a time when Western Europeans were exploring and charting the whole world. Although Darwin revisited some areas during the expedition, for clarity the chapters of the book are ordered by places and locations rather than by date.

Darwin's notes made during the voyage include comments illustrating his thinking. Looking at the plants, animals, rocks and fossils, he ran across questions which he could not answer at the time. On his way back, ideas began in his mind which he developed later as his theory of evolution by natural selection. The second edition of 1845 includes some suggestion of this.

Later, he realised he had made a big mistake in not noting which islands some specimens from the Galapagos Islands were found on. He knew this was a mistake because he had sensed how islands were rather like the higher parts of mountains, which also have many unique species. The idea we now know as geographical speciation was beginning to form in his mind. Darwin opened his secret 'transmutation' notebook (Notebook 'B') in July 1837, less than a year after the *Beagle* returned to England.

Bibliography
------------

* Darwin, Charles 1839. *Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, volume III – Journal and remarks, 1832–1836*. London: Henry Colburn. This is the first edition.
* Darwin, Charles 1845. *Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N*. London: John Murray. This is the second edition.

Other websites
--------------

* Darwin Online: R.B. Freeman's bibliographical introduction to the book:
* *The Voyage of the Beagle* at Project Gutenberg
***The Hunting of the Snark (An Agony in 8 Fits)*** is a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll, the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson.

The poem was written from 1874 to 1876. The setting, some creatures, and eight portmanteau words are taken from Carroll's earlier poem *Jabberwocky* in his children's novel *Through the Looking-Glass* (1871). The eight words are: *bandersnatch*, *beamish*, *frumious*, *galumphing*, *jubjub*, mimsiest (which previously appeared as *mimsy* in "Jabberwocky"), *outgrabe* and *uffish*.

The first two stanzas contain one of the most famous quotations in nonsense poetry:

"Just the place for a Snark!" the Bellman cried,
As he landed his crew with care;
Supporting each man on the top of the tide
By a finger entwined in his hair.
"Just the place for a Snark! I have said it twice:
That alone should encourage the crew.
Just the place for a Snark! I have said it thrice:
What I tell you three times is true."
The Bellman refers the mediaeval use of a town crier or bellman. He would ring his bell, and shout *Oyez, Oyez, Oyez!* at set places in a town, and read out proclamations of legal decisions made by courts or the town council. This was necessary because most people were illiterate.

Another curiosity of the poem is that the crew of ten all have occupations beginning with the letter "B".

*What I tell you three times is true*: The idea of repetition as a grounds for truth is sometimes called the Bellman's theory. That, of course, is humour. All the same, repetition is a recurring trope in many kinds of discussion and argument.

*The Hunting of the Snark* has been many times adapted for the theatre, and many times referred to in fiction.

Other websites
--------------

 Works related to The Hunting of the Snark at Wikisource
**Ernesto "Che" Guevara**, commonly known as **el Che** or **Che** (June 14, 1928 - October 9, 1967) was an Argentine Marxist, revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla, diplomat, and military theorist. He is popular with socialists. In addition to that he was a writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published.

Time magazine said he was one of the most influential people of the 20th century. *Guerrillero Heroico,* a picture of him, is called "the most famous photograph in the world."

Biography
---------

Che Guevara was born in Rosario, Argentina in 1928. He studied at the University of Buenos Aires. He wanted to be a doctor. During his holidays, he traveled. He saw how poor some people were. He thought that revolution could fix it.

After college, he went to Mexico. He met Fidel Castro there in 1954. Castro was planning a rebellion in Cuba. Guevara joined Castro. He fought with Castro in Cuba. In 1959, Fidel won and became president of Cuba. Fidel and Guevara declared Cuba a communist country. Guevara was made head of Cuba's bank. He later became Minister of Industry. In 1965, Guevara helped to start other revolutions. They were in Congo-Kinshasa and Bolivia. In 1967, he was captured and executed by Bolivian soldiers. His body was not found until 1997. His nickname among friends was "Chegi Vara".

Che in popular culture
----------------------

Graphic of Che, by Jim Fitzpatrick
People have different opinions on Che Guevara. Some see him as a good leader. In addition to that he was an excellent writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published. Others see him as a bad man who wanted to hurt people. A black and white image of Guevara's face is one of the most merchandized images. It can be found on many items. They include t-shirts, hats, posters, and other items. The image was based on a photograph by Alberto Korda Díaz. Díaz was a Cuban photographer. It was taken in 1960.

Guevara is still an important person. He is seen as an example of youthful rebellion.

A movie, ''The Motorcycle Diaries'', is about Che. It describes a trip that he took through South America. The trip took place in the 1950s. The movie was directed by Walter Salles. It was produced by Robert Redford.

Other websites
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* BBC News (January 17, 2001). "Profile: Laurent Kabila[*permanent dead link*]". Accessed April 10, 2008.
* BBC News (May 26, 2001). *Che Guevara photographer dies*. Accessed January 4, 2006.
* BBC News (October 9, 2007). "Cuba pays tribute to Che Guevara". *BBC News, International version*.
* Lacey, Mark (October 26, 2007). "Lone Bidder Buys Strands of Che's Hair at U.S. Auction". *New York Times*.
* Lacey, Mark (October 9, 2007). "A Revolutionary Icon, and Now, a Bikini". *The New York Times*.
* O'Hagan, Sean (July 11, 2004). "Just a pretty face?". *The Guardian*. Accessed October 25, 2006.
**Samy A. Azer** is an Egyptian-born Australian physician author and medical educator. He was honoured to contribute to medical education in several countries, including the University of Sydney and the University of Melbourne in Australia, the University of Toyama in Japan, the Universiti Teknologi MARA in Malaysia, and King Saud University in Saudi Arabia.

Career
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He graduated in medicine and completed his training in gastroenterology. He obtained his PhD from the University of Sydney and a Master in Education from the University of New South Wales, in Australia. He is a fellow of the American College of Gastroenterology and a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine. He was a Senior Lecturer at the University of Sydney and the University of Melbourne. He is a visiting professor at the University of Toyama, Japan and was a professor of Medical Education at Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. Professor Azer was a consultant to the Victorian Postgraduate Medical Foundation (VMPF), Australia. He has been invited as keynote speaker to South East Asia, Sweden, Turkey, the Middle East countries and the United States. He has over 100 original articles published in scientific journals. He is Editor at PLOS ONE, Editor at MEDICINE, and on the World Journal of Gastroenterology and BMC Medical Education.

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The **cervical canal** is the flattened canal going through the cervix. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus.

Anatomy
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The cervical canal is a tube that connects with the uterine cavity through the **internal os** with the vagina through the **external os**. The internal os is smaller than the external os. The external os is a small, circular opening on the rounded end of the cervix. The external os opens into the vagina. The cervical cavity is located at the top of the vagina. The external os is surrounded by two lips, an anterior lip and a posterior lip. The anterior lip is shorter and thicker. Both lips are touching the vaginal wall. Before pregnancy, the external os has a rounded shape. After pregnancy the os changes shape. 

The squamocolumnar junction of the cervix: The ectocervix, with its stratified squamous epithelium, is visible on the left. Simple mucinous columnar epithelium, typical of the endocervix, is visible on the right. A layer of connective tissue is visible under both types of epithelium.Transformation zone types:  
Type 1: Completely ectocervical (common under hormonal influence).  
Type 2: Endocervical component but fully visible (common before puberty).  
Type 3: Endocervical component, not fully visible (common after menopause).
The cervical canal is lined by a tissue called the "endocervical mucosa". This consists of a single layer of mucinous columnar epithelium. After menopause the tissue goes through changes.

Pathology
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Micrograph of an adenocarcinoma that arose from the endocervical mucosa. Pap stain.
The endocervical mucosa is one place tissue from where cervical cancer (adenocarcinoma) can grow. Endocervical adenocarcinoma, like another cervical cancer (squamous cell carcinoma), often grows from human papilloma virus infection.

Related pages
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* Cervical pregnancy
*Rajshahi Nursing College* is an educational institution for nursing located in Rajshahi city, situated within the Rajshahi Medical College campus. It operates under the administration of Rajshahi University.

History
-------

The inception of the institution dates back to October 17, 1961, with the laying of the foundation stone for the Nursing Training Center attached to Rajshahi Medical College Hospital. Originally named Seva Institute, it transformed into *Rajshahi Nursing College* in 2007. Notably, it is among the seven Basic B.Sc Nursing Colleges in Bangladesh operating at the government level.

Courses
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*Rajshahi Nursing College* offers a 4-year B.Sc Nursing course and a 3-year Diploma in Midwifery. Admission criteria include HSC (Science) for BSc Nursing and HSC pass in any subject for the Diploma in Midwifery course, with admission granted based on merit. Annually, the college admits 100 students to the B.Sc Nursing program and 25 students to the Diploma in Midwifery course. It's noteworthy that 10% of these admissions are reserved for male students.

 Academic Building of Rajshahi Nursing College

Residential arrangement
-----------------------
**Cathy Cassidy** (born 13 June 1962) is an English author of teenage books mainly based on domestic fiction. At the age of eight she wrote her first picture book for her brother, Jake. During her childhood, Cathy loved to create comics. She would often rent out comics to her friends for 5 pence, claim them back and then rent them out again to someone else.

School life and early career
----------------------------

Cathy attended an art college in Liverpool as a young adult. After passing her degree, Cathy worked for the ''Jackie'' Magazine, as a fiction editor. Cathy has taught as an art teacher in a number of schools - 7 primary and some secondary. She illustrates many of her books and has done so for all her books in a series of Daisy Star.

Personal life
-------------

Cassidy lives in Galloway, Scotland, with her husband Liam and her two children, Caitlin (aged 17) and Calum (aged 19). Cathy has been a veggie for 35 years and a vegan for eight of them. She has a lurcher, named Kelpie, who inspired the dog Legg-It in *Dizzy*, her first book.

Writing career
--------------

Cathy Cassidy has currently written fourteen books. Her first book was Dizzy published in 2004, followed on by Indigo Blue, published in 2005. At the age of 50, Cathy Cassidy's last books were Marshmallow Skye and The Chocolate Box Girls.

Works
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* *Dizzy* (2004),
* *Indigo Blue* (2005),
* *Driftwood* (2005),
* *Scarlett* (2006),
* *Sundae Girl* (2007),
* *Lucky Star* (2007),
* *Gingersnaps* (2008),
* *The Cathy Cassidy Dreams and Doodles Daybook* (2008),
* *Shine on, Daizy Star* (2009),
* *Angel Cake* (2009),
* *Letters to Cathy* (2009),
* *Daizy Star and the Pink Guitar* (2010),
* *Cherry Crush - the Chocolate Box Girls* (2010),
* *Strike a Pose, Daizy Star* (2011) and
* *Marshmallow Skye, The Chocolate Box Girls* (2011).

She has also written three mini-books:

* *Love Peace and Chocolate* (2007),
* *Ice-cream and Dreams* (2008) and
* *Cupcakes and Kisses* (2009).

Cathy is also currently writing three new additions to the *Chocolate Box Girls* series, named:
'Summer's Dream', 'Coco Caramel' and 'Sweet Honey', based on the other Tanberry sisters. The plots for 'Coco Caramel' and 'Sweet Honey' have not been confirmed yet, however, 'Summer's Dream' plot has been confirmed.

Other websites
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* Official website
**Biafra,** officially called the **Republic of Biafra**, was a break-away state in West Africa. It was created on 30 May 1967 by the Eastern Region governor C. Odumegwu Ojukwu. It claimed the land of the Eastern Region of Nigeria. The country was mainly populated by the Igbo people.

Biafra was officially recognised by Gabon, Haiti, Ivory Coast, Tanzania and Zambia.Biafra was also *de facto* recognised by France, Spain, Portugal, Norway, Israel, Rhodesia, South Africa and the Vatican City.

Biafra also had aid from non-state actors, including Joint Church Aid, foreign mercenaries and the Holy Ghost Fathers of Ireland.

The United States government under president Lyndon B. Johnson was officially neutral during the war. There was strong public support for Biafra in the US. American activists founded the American Committee to Keep Biafra Alive to spread propaganda. United States president Richard Nixon was supportive of the Biafran cause. Before he won the 1968 presidential election he accused Nigeria of committing genocide against the Biafrans. He also called for the United States to intervene in the war on the side of Biafra. His efforts failed because of the demands of the ongoing Vietnam War. After two-and-a-half years of war with Nigeria, during which almost two million Biafran civilians (three-quarters of them being smaller children) died from starvation caused by the Nigerian blockade of the region.

A child suffering the effects of severe hunger and malnutrition during the Nigerian blockade

Economy
-------

An early body created by the Biafran government was the Bank of Biafra, made under "Decree No. 3 of 1967". The bank carried out all central banking functions including the management of foreign exchange and the management of Biafra's public debt. The bank was managed by a governor and four directors. The first governor was Sylvester Ugoh. A second degree, "Decree No. 4 of 1967", changed the Banking Act of the Federal Republic of Nigeria for the Republic of Biafra.

The bank was originally in Enugu but because of the Nigerian Civil War it had to be moved multiple times. Biafra tried to finance the war through foreign exchange. This effort increased when Nigeria said that its currency wouldn't be legal tender (to make way for a new currency).
Camillo Berneri
**Camillo Berneri** (also known as **Camillo da Lodi**; 1877, Lodi–May 5 1937, Barcelona) was an Italian professor of philosophy, anarchist militant, propagandist and theorist.

Berneri, a World War I veteran, University of Florence professor of humanities, and a member of the Unione Anarchica Italiana, fought always Fascists, and he started to fight fascism until 1926, when he was forced to escape from Italy and he went in France, then Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and finally the Netherlands. In all these countries, Berneri was frequently placed under arrest, and then often expelled, because he was an anarchist. When he was in these countries he wrote lot of anti-clerical and anti-fascist articles.

With Carlo Rosselli, Berneri organized the first troop (column) of Italian volunteers to fight in the Spanish Civil War against Francisco Franco. After months he became highly critical of the involvement of Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) members in the Popular Front government, and he sent a letter to Federica Montseny (Anarchist minister for Health in the government against fascism).

During the Barcelona May Days, as troop of Communist Party of Spain members (apparently under orders from Joseph Stalin) searched and then murdered him. His body, riddled with bullets, was found during the night, near the headquarters of the Generalitat de Catalunya.

He was married to Giovanna Berneri and was father of Marie-Louise Berneri and Giliane Berneri. The children were anarchists as the father Camillo.

Related pages
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* Anarchism in Italy

Other websites
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* Camillo Berneri Page Archived 2006-02-19 at the Wayback Machine on the Anarchist Encyclopedia site
* The Writings of Camillo Berneri
Clare of Assisi
**Clare of Assisi** (July 16, 1194 – August 11, 1253), born Chiara Offreduccio, is an Italian saint. She was one of the first followers of Saint Francis of Assisi. Saint Clare of Assisi was of noble birth, her father, Favorone Offreduccio, was the Count of Sasso-Rosso and her mother, Ortolana di Fiumi, was from aristocratic descent. She was born as Chiara Offreduccio di Favaronne in Assisi. She was promised in marriage at age of 12, but it was canceled due to her father's death. She was the oldest child in her family. 

When she was 18 years old, she heard Francis of Assisi preaching. She was extremely moved by his sermon, so she ran away to join him. Francis didn't have a place for women to stay, so he sent her to the Benedictine convent in San Paulo. Clare's relatives found out where she was staying, but when they arrived to take her back home, she clung to the altar saying she would only wed Christ. When she was staying in another monastery in Panzo, she was reunited with her younger sister, Agnes. Later, when she was 21, she was moved to another convent next to the San Damiano church, where she was appointed the superior for 40 years. In that church, she was reunited with her mother and her other sister named Beatrice. 

Saint Clare of Assisi will be remembered for founding the "Order of Poor Ladies", later named "Poor Clares." The order of Poor Clares was an order that had strict rules, such as silence vows, poverty, and strict fasting. The Poor Clares was an order for women so they could become closer to God.