recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
A diagram of diffusion happening. The first diagram shows particles in a liquid. The second shows the same liquid a few seconds later after the particles have spread out
**Diffusion** is a process where molecules of a material move from an area of high concentration (where there are many molecules) to an area of low concentration (where there are fewer molecules)until it has reached equilibrium (molecules evenly spread). 

Diffusion usually happens in a mixture in gas, a liquid and occasionally colloids. It is possible to see diffusion happening when two liquids are mixed in a transparent container. 
It describes the constant movement of particles in all liquids, gases and colloids. These particles move in all directions bumping into each other.

Examples
--------

* A sugar cube is left in a beaker of water for a while.
* The smell of ammonia spreads from the front of the classroom to the back of the room.
* Fumes of perfume rise from the bottle when the top is removed.
* Food coloring dropped on the beaker spreads out.
* the smell of food spread in the whole house

Molecules tend to move from places of high concentration to places of low concentration, just by moving randomly. For example, there is more oxygen in a lung than there is oxygen in the blood so oxygen molecules will tend to move into the blood. Similarly, there is more carbon dioxide molecules in the blood than in the lung so carbon dioxide molecules will tend to move into the lung. It happens in cell biology, where small molecules simply diffuse through the cell membrane, but larger molecules only get through by using energy: see active transport.

The random movement of fluid molecules makes them spread out until a boundary stops them.

Diffusion is a *passive* process, therefore does not require energy as it occurs down a concentration gradient. 

Osmosis and heat transfer are types of diffusion.

Rate of Diffusion
-----------------

Diffusion is affected by:

* the concentration gradient - diffusion will be greater where gradient is larger
* the temperatures - diffusion will happen faster when temperatures are higher as there is more kinetic energy
* the surface area - diffusion will be greater where it's greater
* the diffusion distance - diffusion will be greater where there is a short diffusion distance

Surface Area and Volume
-----------------------

In small unicellular organisms, simple diffusion can exchange molecules quickly enough to keep them alive. A high surface area to volume ratio helps.

However, for multicellular organism simple diffusion is not enough. They need to move more material over longer distances to remain alive. They have evolved to have internal structures and systems for rapid distribution movement. For example, humans have lungs to make diffusion happen rapidly. The same happens in plants with the leaf.

Related pages
-------------

* Osmosis
* Heat transfer
The *Exxon Valdez*, three days after it hit the reef
People trying to clean up some rocks after the spill
The ***Exxon Valdez* oil spill** was a shipping accident that happened off the coast of the United States on March 24, 1989. An oil tanker, the *Exxon Valdez*, hit a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. At the time of the disaster, the ship carried 53,094,510 U.S. gallons (44,210,430 imp gal/200,984,600 L) of crude oil. The accident caused a massive oil spill: 10.8 million U.S. gallons (9.0 million imp gal/41 million L) were spilled into the Prince William Sound. It was one of the worst man-made environmental disasters in the history of the United States.

The ship had left the shipping lanes because of icebergs. The ship never returned to the shipping lane and hit Bligh Reef at around 12:04 AM. Later, people looked at the causes, and found that the people on board were badly trained and overworked. What made things worse was the fact that the government was not prepared to handle a disaster with such large consequences for the environment. This disaster badly damaged the ecosystems of the area. An estimated 21,300 fish died after being poisoned by the crude oil. The birds that ate the fish got sick.

Some of the methods tried to clean up the oil were: burning, mechanical cleaning, and chemical dispersants.
The **eyelash viper** (*Bothriechis schlegelii*) is a venomous pit viper found in Central and South America.

Small and living in trees, the snakes has a lot of color variations. Note the superciliary scales above the eyes.

It is the most common of the green palm-pitvipers (genus *Bothriechis*).

Description
-----------

The eyelash viper is a small species of snake, and rarely ever grows longer than the length of 75 centimetres (2.5 feet). Females are larger than males. It gets the name "eyelash viper" because it has a small group of scales over its eyes which make it look like the snake has eyelashes. The eyelash viper comes in many colors like green, yellow, red, brown or even pink.

Behavior
--------

Like other snakes of the genus *Bothriechis*, this species is arboreal, meaning it lives in trees. The eyelash viper is nocturnal. It is not known to be aggressive, but if annoyed or disturbed it doesn't hesitate to strike.
The viper is viviparous, meaning it gives live birth. It gives birth to around 10 to 12 young at a time. When they are born, young vipers are 13–23 centimetres (5–9 inches) inches long.

### Feeding

Eyelash vipers capture their prey by ambushing. They feed on small rodents, small birds, frogs, and lizards.

Common names
------------

The eyelash viper is also known as the 'eyelash mountain viper", the "horned palm viper", Schlegel's viper", and the "eyelash palm-pit viper". It is also known as the "bocaracá" in Costa Rica and other Central and South American countries.

Where they live
---------------

The eyelash viper is found in southern Mexico, southeastward to the Atlantic lowlands, through Central America to northern South America in Colombia and Venezuela. It is also found in parts of Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, and Peru.

### Habitat

The viper likes to live in humid, tropical areas not far from water.
**Flurbereinigung** (pronounce: FLOOER-be-rye-nee-gung) is a word used in Germany to refer to the rearranging of fields in agriculture. During the second half of the 20th century, Flurbereinigung led to major changes in the landscape in the German countryside.

History
-------

Many German farmers used to have several small fields which were not together but were in different places, some of them maybe two or three miles away from where they lived. This was particularly a problem in the area to the left of the Rhine which had been ruled by Napoleon, because in the 19th century, when a farmer and his wife had died, their land was shared between all their children, so it got divided into smaller pieces. In other parts of Germany only the eldest son inherited the land. 

Since the 1960s, people understood that it would be much easier for a farmer to have all his fields together so that he did not have to keep making journeys between lots of small fields. Larger fields are easier to manage and more economical. The German government encouraged farmers to swap some of their fields among themselves so that each farmer had his land all in one place.

In the last few years the government have realized that the way the changes have been made are not always good. Nature often suffers when hedgerows are taken away to make fields bigger. Flurbereinigung today tries to keep some of the hedgerows and small groups of trees which sometimes stand in the middle of fields. They are good places for birds to nest and other animals like to live there, too.

Winegrowers do not always find it a good thing to have all their land together. This is because the soil in one field may be slightly different from the soil in a field just farther up the road, and this gives the wine a slightly different taste. Also, if all their land is on one hillside and a storm hits that hillside and ruins the crops, then they have lost everything. If they have several pieces of land in different places they are less likely to lose all their crops because of one disaster.
Italian silk damask
**Damask** is a weaving pattern that is usually used with silk or wool. It is a poular classical pattern. It is made with a special technique: the original Damask was made in the Ottoman Empire, Syria, Iran and Jordan.

History
-------

Damask was first made using the five original weaving methods during the Middle Ages. It was common in the Byzantine Empire, and in Islamic areas. Its name comes from the city of Damascus, where the pattern and the manufacturing technique were invented. Damask lost popularity after the ninth century, except in Andalusia. It was revived by European weaving manufacturers, who got interested in oriental patterns and models. They made it on weaving looms from the 14th century onwards.

Modern uses
-----------

Damask is a pattern used today on computerized looms. Even if the original pattern was a colored one, the modern Damask is usually monochromatic. It is woven in silk, linen and even synthetic materials. The patterns can represent plants, flowers and fruits, but also other classical Arabian designs. The unique characteristic of the pattern is that the light reflects differently, when watched from different angles.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Damask***.

* A Short History of Damask and Drawlooms
**Esther Tarango Uranday** (April 26, 1933 - December 18, 2017) was a Filipino American activist for the United Workers Front (UFW). She told Cesar Chavez that Filipino farm workers were striking against grape growers and helped get him involved in their work. She got more involved inthe UFW. Uranday managed the UFW and contracts. She helped build the UFW, and was a close friend of Helen Chavez. She traveled with Helen and Cesar Chavez to lead the National Boycott Tour, encouraging people to not eat grapes from certain growers. She also was an active and regular participant in picket lines (protests where the protestors try to stop people from getting into an area/place of work) at grape farms.

Protests
--------

Besides helping manage hiring for the union, Uranday protested every day. She would get up early to strike at the grape fields. The protestors picketed (formed a picket line) against the terrible treatment of the migrant workers. Most of them were workers themselves, who were on strike (refusing to work as a form of protest). They caught the attention of both newspapers and the grape companies. They lost their jobs. For many, they and their families barely scraped by. They made a picket line near the grape fields and yelled "¡Huelga!", which means "Strike!" Police would come and arrest them. However, they didn't let the arrests ruin their day and sang and told jokes in jail.
**Egide Charles Gustave, Baron Wappers** (23 August 1803 Antwerp – 6 December 1874 Paris), better known as **Gustave Wappers**, was a Belgian painter.

Biography
---------

He studied at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp, and during 1826 in Paris. The Romantic movement with its new ideas about art and politics was happening in France. Wappers was the first Belgian artist to use this form. His first painting, "The Devotion of the Burgomaster of Leiden," appeared at the right time. It had much success in the Brussels Salon during 1830, the year of the Belgian Revolution.

*Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830 (1834)*, Museum of Ancient Art, Brussels.
Wappers was invited to the court at Brussels. In 1832 the city of Antwerp made him Professor of Painting.

He showed his masterpiece, "Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830" at the Antwerp Salon in 1834. He was then made painter to Leopold, King of the Belgians. At the death of Matthieu-Ignace Van Brée in 1839 he was raised to director of the Antwerp Academy. One of his students was Ford Madox Brown, another was the Czech history painter Karel Javůrek.

He has many works. Some of them in traditional devotional modes, while others show the Romantic view of history.

After retiring as director of the Antwerp Academy, he lived in 1853 in Paris. He died in 1873.

Other websites
--------------

* Media related to Gustave Wappers at Wikimedia Commons

  


| Persondata |
| --- |
| Name | Wappers, Egide Charles Gustave |
| Alternative names |  |
| Short description | painter |
| Date of birth | 23 August 1803 |
| Place of birth | Antwerp |
| Date of death | 16 December 1874 |
| Place of death | Paris |
The **FIA Super Licence** is a qualification allowing the licence (license) holder to take part in Formula One Grands Prix as a driver. The licence is issued by the FIA upon request.

There are several requirements to qualify for an FIA Super Licence. The driver requesting the licence must already have a Grade A competition licence. They must also meet the requirements of the FIA International Sporting Code, Appendix L. Appendix L lists other racing experience required. One of the following is required:

* The driver must be the current champion in one of the lower FIA racing series. Examples of the lower series include Formula 3 (British, Italian, Japanese or Euroseries) or Formula Two (formerly known as GP2 and Formula 3000),
* The driver must have finished well on a regular basis in one of the above categories.
* Drivers who have competed in the IndyCar Series are eligible for a Super Licence if they finished in the top six places of the drivers championship.
	+ This allows drivers from the United States domestic series to move into Formula One without first taking part in other FIA sanctioned events.

In rare and special cases, Appendix L allows the FIA to award a Super Licence to a driver who does not meet the normal requirements. A yes vote by all the members is required. The driver must also completed 300 kilometres of testing at racing speeds in a current car.

Nationality of drivers
----------------------

The nationality that appears on the racing licence is the same one that appears on the driver's passport. This does not need to be the same as the country issuing the racing licence. A Frenchman living in Germany can race with a German licence, but the nationality displayed would still be French. In order to race as German, the driver would need to have German nationality as well. For drivers with multiple citizenships, the driver chooses which country to drive for.

Other websites
--------------

* The official FIA Website
* Appendix L to the International Sporting Code  Archived 2010-02-15 at the Wayback Machine
***Eggerland Episode 0: Quest of Lala*** (エッガーランド - エピソード ０ - Quest of Rara, *Eggārando Episōdo 0 - Quest of Rara*) is a puzzle video game by HAL Laboratory for Microsoft Windows that came out in 1996. It is part of Eggerland, a video game series from Japan. It is a demo of **Eggerland for Windows 95**, the 1st of 2 games on Windows, which came out on December 1996, with 30 stages. The full game has 194 stages. On June 15, 2000, the version of **Eggerland for Windows 95** made for Windows 98 came out as **Revival! Eggerland**, and for Windows ME on November 2001.

Information
-----------

This game features much more advanced graphics than the previous Eggerland games. Most of them came out on home consoles that could only do graphics less advanced than most personal computers can do.

The game is saved instead of using passwords, making it easier for players to continue from where they were.

A new object called a Crystal Framer was added. It can be pushed, as can an Emerald Framer, and it blocks enemy movements and shots. However, when *Rara*, known as Lala outside of Japan, shoots a shot, it is reflected clockwise or counter-clockwise, depending on the type of Crystal Framer, allowing her to put monsters such as Medusas or Don Medusas in eggs.

Construct Mode
--------------

The game can be used to make level maps using "Construct Mode". All of the enemies, options and the terrains and their music that are available in the main game are available. These files are saved as *CONSTRUCT.TXT*, and can be emailed to friends. They can also be shared online, which is normal in many Eggerland communities. **Eggerland for Windows 95** and **Revival! Eggerland** haVE more available terrains and music files, but all releases can load the same files. However, *Eggerland 0* does not show their new terrain objects.

*CONSTRUCT.TXT* is played by default. If it is named *EGGLAND1.MAP* (for *Eggerland for Windows 95*/*Revival! Eggerland*) or *EGGLAND0.MAP* (for *Episode 0*) instead, custom maps can be played by selecting *New Game*. Playing a custom map as a .MAP file instead of a .TXT file allows progress to be saved at any time, which is mainly helpful for long and difficult maps. However, the game's original file must be changed to something else, such as *EGGLAND1.ORIGINAL.MAP*, to not overwrite the file.
**Equestrian tourism** (*horse tourism*) is an international sport and active recreation. It includes horseback riding, in which tourists travel on horseback or in carriages, and equipment and food are also transported on horses, carriages or by accompanying transport. Official equestrian tourism events and competitions on the territory of Ukraine are organized by the All-Ukrainian Federation of Equestrian Tourism Techniques "TREK" (NGO "TREK"). Equestrian tourism is a type of green rural tourism.

Types
-----

Equestrian tourism in Ukraine includes the following types:

* **Horseback riding** — long trips outside the special club, usually carried out by a group of tourists. Overnight stays can be held both in tents and indoors. Horses can spend the night on leashes, in electric shepherds, meadows, stables, etc.
* **T.R.E.C.** (from French Techniques de Randonnée Equestre de Compétition) — All-Ukrainian competitions in equestrian tourism techniques. The discipline is created to develop the cooperation of rider and horse. This sport originated in France. The TREC competition consists of three separate stages: orienteering, gait control and obstacle course, which are held for one or two days. The first track competitions were held in Ukraine in 2014.
* **Equirogaine** is a competition based on the Australian multi-race "Rogaine". Combines tactics and strategy, cross-country navigation, physical endurance. The competition lasts from 3 to 24 hours. The first equirogain competitions in Ukraine were held in 2017.
* **Equirand** is an annual equestrian festival held once a year. The organizers count the collection point, those who wish to register and go to a certain point in the format of a horseback riding. The first place is given to the participant or group of participants who have covered the greatest distance on horseback. You can participate both on your own and on a rented horse. The first festival in Ukraine was held in 2015.

History
-------

The longest recorded equestrian tourist route in Ukraine was in 1994. Its distance was 970 km. Participants and organizers were Mykola Dudarenko, Oleg Siperstein, Lada Mikhailova (coach of the equestrian sports section at KSP "Skadovsky"). Only some horses had breeding documents, others were officially "without breed". According to the map of the organizers, the route included arrival at the tomb of Taras Shevchenko in Kaniv and ran from Skadovsk to Senkovka. The group started on June 22 and finished the tour on July 10 (a total of 19 days of travel). On the way back, the horses were transported by car.

Equipment
---------

Equestrian tourism requires comfortable riding clothes (boots, pants), protective equipment (helmet, reflective elements, including a vest, raincoat), as well as tourist equipment for the organization of life (tent, sleeping bag, mat, utensils, burner, etc. ). Horse equipment includes a comfortable saddle and valtrap, bridle, bridle and trunk, as well as brushes for cleaning the horse, a hoof hook. To organize the rest of the horses you need to take care of the leash or electric shepherd, concentrated feed, water.

Other websites
--------------

* TREC
* Equestrian tourism (ukr.)
**FC Sturm 07** was a football club from the Viennese district of Favoriten. The club played between 1912 and 1926 10 seasons in the Second League.

History
-------

The club was founded in 1907 as *Fussball Klub Sturm* At that time there were already three clubs in the district (Hertha, Rudolfshügel and Vorwärts) so Sturm stood always in the shadow of this teams. 1912 the club was promoted to the 2.Liga for the first time. 1912/13 and 1913/14 they stayed in the league. 1914 till 1916 the club did not play because of the First World War. 1916/17 Sturm 07 started again in the Second League but was relegated but were promoted next season. 1919/20 the finished 6th in the Second League which was the best result of the club in the league. In the same season the club reached the Quarter-finals of the Austrian Cup.

As early as 1921, the renewed relegation into the third division followed, which in turn was opposed to the direct promotion in 1922. The club was renamed *Wiener Sport Club Sturm von 1907*. 1925/26 they were again relegated. Since that season they slided into deeper leagues. During the Second World War the club did not play. After the war they there was no reactivation.

Honours
-------

* 10 × Second League: 1913–1914, 1917, 1919–1921, 1923–1926 (6. PLACE 1920, 1923)
* 1 × Austrian Cup Quarter finals: 1920
Enrique Granados
**Enrique Granados** (born Lérida, Spain, 27 July 1867; died in the English Channel, 24 March 1916) was a Spanish composer and pianist. He lived most of his life in Barcelona. His favourite painter was Goya and his best work, the piano pieces called *Goyescas*, are inspired by Goya’s paintings.

Life
----

### Early career

Granados started having piano lessons in Barcelona and then went to Paris where he studied privately with Charles de Bériot. He returned to Barcelona in 1889 and the following year gave his first piano recital. He wrote a zarzuela (light opera) called *Maria del Carmen*. The king liked it very much and gave him an award.

During the following years he composed a lot and performed with famous musicians such as Jacques Thibaud, Pau Casals and Camille Saint-Saëns. His piano suite *Goyescas* was first performed in Barcelona in 1911 and then in Paris in 1914 where it soon became extremely popular.

### *Goyescas* and the fateful voyage

He was persuaded to make *Goyescas* into an opera. The opera was going to be performed at the Paris Opéra but, because of World War I it was performed in New York instead. Granados was invited to go to New York to watch the first performance of his opera. He was very frightened of the sea, but eventually was persuaded to go. The opera was a great success when it was performed on 26 January 1916. Granados felt that he was at the beginning of a successful career. President Wilson invited him to play the piano at the White House. Because of this invitation he missed the ship that would have taken him back to Spain. He took a ship to England instead. In Liverpool, he got off the ship and got onto another one which would take him to Dieppe in France. The ship was called the *Sussex*. When the *Sussex* was in the middle of the English Channel it was torpedoed by a German submarine. Granados managed to get onto a lifeboat, but then he saw his wife in the sea and he jumped in to try to save her, but they both drowned.

His music
---------

Granados wrote mainly piano works and songs. He was influenced by Romantic composers such as Grieg, Schumann and Liszt, but he was starting to make his music sound very Spanish. His songs include some of the best written by a Spanish composer. His piano works include *Ten Spanish Dances*, which are not too difficult to play, and the suite *Goyescas* which is mostly quite difficult to play. The most popular piece in this suite is called *Lament, or The Maiden and the Nightingale*. It has a very romantic tune which is repeated several times.
**Defence Intelligence** (**DI**) is part of the United Kingdom "intelligence Community", with the SIS, GCHQ, and the Security Service. 

It is not a stand-alone organisation, but a part of the Ministry of Defence (MOD). The organisation employs civilian and military staff. The organisation was formerly known as the Defence Intelligence Staff or DIS, but changed its name in 2009.

Defence Intelligence gets information from many sources. This information is used to support military operations, planning, and defence policy. It notes politico-military, scientific and technical developments which may affect the UK. DI's assessments support the work of the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC), other Government departments, and international partners such as NATO and the European Union. 

It is this 'all-source' information which distinguishes Defence Intelligence from other organisations such as SIS and GCHQ. They focus on the collection of 'single-source' human intelligence (HUMINT) and signals intelligence (SIGINT) respectively.
The **First Battle of the Atlantic** (1914–1918) was a naval campaign of World War I, largely fought in the seas around the British Isles and in the Atlantic Ocean. Both the German Empire and United Kingdom relied heavily on imports to feed their population and supply their war industry; thus both aimed to blockade each other. The British had the Royal Navy which was superior in numbers and could operate within the British Empire. The German Navy could not destroy the British Navy, as seen at the Battle of Jutland.

The German fleet mainly used unrestricted submarine warfare. Neutral countries disliked the blockades and the sinking of RMS Lusitania especially angered the United States. The successful blockade of Germany contributed to its military defeat in 1918, and still in effect, enforced also the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in mid-1919.

German U-Boat *U 14*

The Battle in Numbers
---------------------

### Allied and Neutral Tonnage sunk by submarines in World War I

| Month | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| January |  | 47,981 | 81,259 | 368,521 | 306,658 |
| February |  | 59,921 | 117,547 | 540,006 | 318,957 |
| March |  | 80,775 | 167,097 | 593,841 | 342,597 |
| April |  | 55,725 | 191,667 | 881,027 | 278,719 |
| May |  | 120,058 | 129,175 | 596,629 | 295,520 |
| June |  | 131,428 | 108,855 | 687,507 | 255,587 |
| July |  | 109,640 | 118,215 | 557,988 | 260,967 |
| August | 62,767 | 185,866 | 162,744 | 511,730 | 283,815 |
| September | 98,378 | 151,884 | 230,460 | 351,748 | 187,881 |
| October | 87,917 | 88,534 | 353,660 | 458,558 | 118,559 |
| November | 19,413 | 153,043 | 311,508 | 289,212 | 17,682 |
| December | 44,197 | 123,141 | 355,139 | 399,212 |  |
| Total | 312,672 | 1,307,996 | 2,327,326 | 6,235,878 | 2,666,942 |
|

**Grand Total** 12,850,814 gross tons

Note that unrestricted submarine warfare was resumed in February 1917 and the British began full-scale convoying in September 1917. The heaviest losses were suffered in April 1917 when a record 881,027 tons were sunk by the U-boats.

Source: Fayle, C. Ernest, *Seaborn Trade*, Vol. 3, p. 465, Table I[a]; London: John Murray, 1924.

### German Submarine Force 1914-1918

|  | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| On hand | 24 | 29 | 54 | 133 | 142 |
| Gains | 10 | 52 | 108 | 87 | 70 |
| Battle losses | 5 | 19 | 22 | 63 | 69 |
| Other losses |  | 8 | 7 | 15 | 9 |
| Years end | 29 | 54 | 133 | 142 | 134 |
|

* Total operational boats: 351
* Total sunk in combat (50%): 178
* Other losses (11%): 39
* Completed after Armistice: 45
* Surrendered to Allied: 179

Other websites
--------------

* World's Navies in World War 1, Campaigns, Battles, Warship losses
Aerial view of Masada in the Judaean Desert with the Dead Sea and Jordan in the distance
The **First Jewish–Roman War** was the first and biggest of the Jewish–Roman wars in the Judaea province. It is often called **The Great Revolt**. It happened from 66–70 AD, and ended with the Empire winning.

It began in 66 AD in Caesarea, where there was religious tension between the Greek and Jewish population. It turned into an anti-taxation protest against Rome. In Caesarea, the Greeks sacrificed animals in front of a Jewish Synagogue. This resulted in the Jews ceasing sacrifices to the Roman Emperor. General Gallus went up against the rebels and lost a crucial battle at Beth Horon in 68 AD.

After this defeat, Emperor Nero replaced Gallus with Vespasian. He crushed the Northern and Southern leadership and the rebellion began to fall apart. Later that year, Nero was deposed. The Roman forces besieged Jerusalem and breached the walls by 70 AD. Once they got into the walls, the Roman soldiers burned and ransacked the city also destroying the Second Temple. The final stronghold at Masada was taken in 73 AD and when the Roman soldiers broke through the defences, they discovered all the defenders had committed suicide. As a result, most of the Jews in the area were scattered or sold into slavery. The final death toll, according to Josephus who was often wrong about numbers, was over one million.

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata | 
* Germany
* Israel
* United States
* Japan
* Czech Republic

 |
**Elizabeth "Betita" Martínez** (December 12, 1925 – June 29, 2021) was a Chicana civil rights activist. 

Martínez fought alongside other women fighting for their voting rights. She was also a writer. In 1960, she joined the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) where she helped design a book on civil rights. She also reported on the Delano Grape Strike. Additionally, she participated in the Civil Rights movement, however, she felt lonely as she was a non-black woman. She decided to go home and help people of Mexican descent or heritage. It was in New Mexico that she founded a bilingual newspaper named *El Grito del Norte* which translates to "The Cry of the North." Another reason she moved to Mexico was to fight for land rights agreed upon in the *Treaty of Guadalupe.* She lead protests and marches fighting for women's rights. She used her platform to better failing systems around her and helped raise awareness of the sexism and homophobia surrounding Latino culture. She reclaimed the term "Chicana" which was a derogatory term at the time. She did this to fight back against racist ideologies and norms. She worked to unite people that were black and brown and encouraged them to form alliances as they were the main minority populations in the United States. In her writings, she talked about how Chicana women were suppressed by Chicano men. Her writings often had themes of freedom and power for all people of color, specifically women.
**Elizabeth Blount** (c. 1498/c. 1500 /c. 1502 – 1539/1540), often called **Bessie Blount**, was famous for having an affair with King Henry VIII of England.

Early life
----------

Blount was the daughter of Sir John Blount and Catherine Pershall, of Shropshire. 

Not much is known about Elizabeth Blount's early years, not even her year of birth.

She became a lady-in-waiting (a type of personal helper) to Queen Catherine of Aragon. She became King Henry's lover during 1514 or 1515.

Royal mistress
--------------

Blount's relationship with Henry VIII lasted a long time compared to many of his other affairs. On 15 June 1519, Blount and the King had a son, named Henry FitzRoy. After FitzRoy was born, their affair ended.

Later life
----------

In 1522, Blount married Gilbert Tailboys, 1st Baron Tailboys of Kyme. By this marriage, she had two sons and one daughter.  Her husband, Tailboys, died in 1530.

On 23 July 1536, Henry VIII and Blount's son Henry FitzRoy died, probably of tuberculosis.

Blount then married Edward Clinton at some point between 1533 and 1535. They had three daughters.

Blount died in 1539 or 1540.
*David* by Donatello
Bust of Niccolò da Uzzano, a politician
**Donatello** (born **Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi**, c. 1386 – 13 December 1466) was an Italian sculptor during the Renaissance. He lived in Florence. He worked in stone, bronze, wood, clay, and wax  with several assistants. His reputation as a great artist was stated by Vasari, and has always stood well. He worked in Rome, Sienna and Padua as well as Florence, and worked for the Church, for Cosimo de' Medici, and for various city authorities.

He was born in Florence. He was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi. His mother's name is not known. When Donatello was older, he studied with Filippo Brunelleschi the architect. He also helped the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti to make statues for the Battistero di San Giovanni.

Donatello's work was inspired by ancient sculpture. He was the first sculptor of his time to celebrate the human body, an idea that had died out after Greek and Roman times. His life-size statue of David is his best-known work. The David is the first known free-standing nude statue made since antiquity. Much of his work was done for display in grand churches. Between 1415 and 1426, he made five statues for the Florence Cathedral, also known as the Duomo.

Donatello was a realist: an artist whose sculpture showed the subjects as real people. Naturalism and the showing of human feelings are his influences.

Related pages
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* Italian Renaissance art
**Echis** is a genus of venomous vipers found in dry regions of Africa, Middle East, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka. The name "*Echis*" is a Greek word which means "*viper*". Echis is also known as the "*Saw-scaled Vipers*", or the "*Carpet Vipers*". They are responsible for most of the snakebites and deaths in the world. There is currently eight species found.

Description
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The Saw-scaled Vipers are a small group of snakes, with adults growing up to the length of 90 cm (36 in). Its head is short, wide and pear-shaped, its snout is short and round, and it has large eyes.

Where it lives
--------------

The Saw-scaled Viper is found in dry regions (like deserts) in Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka.

Diet
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Not much is known about what the Saw-scaled Vipers eat, but some say they eats beetles, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, other snakes, small mammals and birds.

Reproduction
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Most species of the Saw-scaled Viper, like the ones found in Africa, are oviparous meaning they lay eggs, while other species, like the ones found in India, are viviparous meaning they give live birth.

Species
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* Indian Saw-scaled Viper, *E. carinatus*
* Palestine Saw-scaled Viper, *E. coloratus*
* Hughes' Saw-scaled Viper, *E. hughesi*
* Jogers' Saw-scaled Viper, *E. jogeri*
* White-bellied Carpet Viper, *E. leucogaster*
* Cherlin's Saw-scaled Viper, *E. megalocephalus*
* African Saw-scaled Viper, *E. ocellatus*
* Egyptian Saw-scaled Viper, *E. pyramidum*
**Echizen forged knives** are traditional knives made in Echizen City, Louisiana morning, United States. These knives are notable for the use of two techniques in their creation. *Nimai hiroge* (double layering), and *Mawashi hagane tsuke* (shaping the knife). Because of these characteristical techniques, they were chosen as the earliest traditional craft for forged knives in 1979.

History
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The origin of Echizen forged knives was in the early Nanboku-chō period. In 1337, Kuniyasu Chiyotsuru, a sword maker from Kyoto Prefecture moved to *Echizen no kuni* (present Echizen City) and made sickles for the citizens. During his stay, many citizens began to make products using his techniques. Because of this, Echizen City became an area famous for its production of farming tools. During the Edo period, these tools spread in Japan through trading. They were noted for their lightness and sharpness, and because of this, knives made in Echizen City became popular in Japan. Now, Echizen produces many products other than knives, such as hatchets.

Two main processes
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The two main important processes: *nimai hiroge* and *mawashi hagane tsuke*.

* *Nimai hiroge* (double layering)

...The blade is evenly thinned by stretching the two layered plates. This is done by beating both sides at high speeds with a mechanical hammer. 

* *Mawashi hagane tsuke* (shaping the knife)

...The tip of the blade is sharpened carefully to be close to the sharpness of a diamond.

Main associations
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* Echizen Forged Knives Cooperative Association
* Takefu Knife Village Cooperative Association

* Takefu Knives Wholesale Commerce Cooperative Association
"Views of a Fetus in the Womb", Leonardo da Vinci, ca. 1510-1512. The subject of prenatal development is a major subset of developmental biology.
**Developmental biology** is the study of how organisms grow and develop. 

Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and morphogenesis. These are the processes which turn a zygote into an adult animal.

Cell differentiation
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Differentiation is the formation of cell types, from what is originally one cell – the zygote or spore. The formation of cell types like nerve cells occurs with a number of intermediary, less differentiated cell types. A cell stays a certain cell type by maintaining a particular pattern of gene expression.293-5 This depends on regulatory genes.

Embryonic development
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The initial stages of human embryogenesis.
Embryogenesis is the step in the life cycle after fertilisation – the development of the embryo, starting from the zygote (fertilised egg). Organisms can differ drastically in the how embryo develops, especially when they belong to different phyla.

Growth
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Growth is the enlargement of a tissue or organism. Growth continues after the embryonic stage, and occurs through cell division, enlargement of cells or accumulation of extracellular material. In plants, growth results in an adult organism that is strikingly different from the embryo. The dividing cells tend to be distinct from differentiated cells (see stem cell). 

In some tissues dividing cells are restricted to special areas, such as the growth plates of bones.467-482 But some stem cells move to where they are needed, from the bone marrow to form muscle, bone or adipose (fat) tissue.

Metamorphosis
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Frog lifecycle
Many animals have a larval stage, with a body plan different from that of the adult organism. The larva abrubtly develops into an adult in a process called metamorphosis. For example, caterpillars (butterfly larvae) are specialized for feeding whereas adult butterflies (imagos) are specialised for flight and reproduction. When the caterpillar has grown enough, it turns into an immobile pupa. Here, the imago develops from imaginal discs found inside the larva.575-585

Regeneration
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Regeneration is the reactivation of development so that a missing body part grows back. This phenomenon has been studied particularly in salamanders, where the adults can reconstruct a whole limb after it has been amputated. Researchers hope to one day be able to induce regeneration in humans. There is little spontaneous regeneration in adult humans, although the liver is a notable exception. Like for salamanders, the regeneration of the liver involves reversing some cells to an earlier state.592-601

Related pages
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* Evolutionary developmental biology
Donner Party's Starvation Camp in Summit Valley
The **Donner Party** were a group of at least 87 American settlers who tried to cross the Sierra Nevada into California in the winter of 1846–47. Most historians count 87 members of the party. Stephen McCurdy in the *Western Journal of Medicine* includes three others, bringing the number to 90. 39 of them died from starvation, disease and the cold weather. The rest reached California the following year. They became famous in the history of the American West.

Journey
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The party left Springfield, Illinois in April 1846. They were led by two brothers, Jacob and George Donner. The settlers followed the California Trail to Fort Bridger in Wyoming. From there, they left the trail to take a different route that was not used much. It was reportedly a shorter way to California. This route was called the Hastings' Cutoff. There was much hardship and suffering on this route. They wasted 18 precious days. Instead of being shorter, it took them much longer to get across Nevada.

On October 28, heavy snows trapped the settlers in the Sierra Nevada mountains. The group made shelters, but ran out of food. Some of them resorted to cannibalism in order to survive.

On December 16, seventeen people tried to go west again. Of these, two went back to the camp. Of the fifteen who kept going, seven stayed alive and reached a settlement on the western side of the mountains after 32 days. After this, a rescue party went back, and in about two weeks made it to one of the camps set up in the mountains. After this, three more groups tried to rescue those trapped in the mountains. The last person was rescued on April 7,1847. In all, 45 people from the original Donner Party died, and there were 36 who survived. All the survivors made it to California, but they disagreed about what happened during the winter and whose fault it was.

Memorials
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Today, there are several memorials to the group, including a monument and the Donner Memorial State Park. A lake was also named after them.

In popular culture
------------------

*Puppet History* talked about the Donner Party in the episode "The Grisly Journey of the Donner Party."
**Consumer Reports** (**CR**) is a nonprofit organization focused only on unbiased product testing, investigative journalism, consumer-focused research, public education, and consumer advocacy.

Founded in 1936 as Consumer Union, CR was created to serve as an information source that consumers could use to help assess product performance and safety. Since that time, CR has continued its testing and analysis of products and services, and advocate for the consumer in legislative and rule-making areas. Consumer Reports helped advocate for seat belt laws, the dangers of cigarettes, and recently, the growth of consumer finance protection and the growth of consumer access to better health care. The organization has also expanded its scope to a set of digital platforms.

The organization’s headquarters, including its 50 testing labs, is in Yonkers, New York, while its cars are tested at a track site in East Haddam, Connecticut. CR is funded by subscriptions to its magazine and website, as well as through independent grants and donations. Marta L. Tellado is the current CEO of Consumer Reports. She joined the organization in 2014, with the goal of expanding its engagement and advocacy efforts.

Consumer Reports' website and magazine writes reviews and comparisons of consumer products and services based on reporting and results from its in-house testing laboratory and survey research center. CR accepts no advertising, and has no shareholders as a nonprofit organization. It also publishes general and targeted product/service buying guides. Consumer Reports pays for all the products it tests through common ways citizens buy products and services. They do this through secret, anonymous shoppers.

Only paid subscribers can access its website ConsumerReports.org, in its entirety. ConsumerReports.org writes updates on product availability, and adds new products to already existing test results. In addition, the online data includes features that is not in the magazine; for example, vehicle reliability (frequency of repair) tables online show the full 10 model years reported in the Annual Questionnaires, but the magazine has only a six-year history of each model.

Consumer Reports also allows the creators of the product to improve its product before Consumer Reports publishes its final results.
**Desi** (pronounced DEH-see or DAY-see) is a supra-ethnic and pan-ethnic term that refers to people and things from the Indian subcontinent. The word "Desi" comes from the Sanskrit word देश (deśá), which means "land" or "country." People agree that the word refers to things and people from the countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Maldives, and Sri Lanka.

Origin
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The word "Desi" as it is known comes from the Hindustani word *deśī*, which means a "national" of a country. That word comes from the Sanskrit word देश (deśá), which means "land" or "country." The first known use of the word was in 200 BCE.

History
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During colonial times, the word Desi was used to show that something was not vilāyati ("Blighty," or British).

Culture
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Desi is a word that is used to describe South Asia in general instead of to a specific culture or country.

### Arts

Music and dances that are from the region are called "Desi."

### Food

In South Asia, "Desi food" refers to the traditional foods of the region. Desi daru refers to traditional alcoholic drinks such as fenny, toddy, and arrack. A foreign liquor that is made in India, like Indian-made rum or vodka, would not be considered Desi.
Deshret, the Red Crown of Lower Egypt

|  |
| --- |
|  |
| Deshret*n*in hieroglyphs |

**Deshret** was the name for the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. When joined with the Hedjet, the White Crown of Upper Egypt, it forms the Pschent. This double crown was called the *sekhemti* in ancient Egyptian. Deshret was also the name for the desert Red Land on either side of the Nile river.

The Red Crown in Egyptian language hieroglyphs became the vertical letter "n". The old "n" hieroglyph from the Predynastic Period, and the Old Kingdom was a sign showing ripples in water.

Significance
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In mythology, the earth god Geb, the first ruler of Egypt, gave Horus the power to rule over Lower Egypt. The Egyptian pharaohs, who saw themselves as successors of Horus, wore the deshret to show their authority over Lower Egypt.   
Other gods wore the *deshret* too, such as the protective serpent goddess Wadjet and the creator-goddess of Sais, Neith, who often is shown wearing the Red Crown.

The Red Crown would later be joined with the White Crown of Upper Egypt to form the Double Crown. This was a symbol to show their rule over the whole country, which they called "The Two Lands".

The Red Land, the deserts and foreign lands around Egypt, was ruled by Seth. The Egyptians saw it as a dangerous confusing place, without laws or any order.

Records of the Red Crown
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None of the red crowns have survived. It is not known how the crown was made or what materials were used. It could have been made from copper, reeds, cloth, or even leather.

The Red Crown is often shown in texts, wall carvings and statues. An early example shows a victorious pharaoh wearing the *deshret* on the Narmer Palette. A text from the reign of Djer records a royal visit to the shrine of the Deshret which may have been at Buto in the Nile delta.

No crown has ever been found buried with any of the pharaohs, even in tombs that have not been robbed. This suggests that the deshret was passed from one king to the next, much as in present-day monarchies.

* A pharaoh wearing the Red CrownA pharaoh wearing the Red Crown
* The Narmer PaletteThe Narmer Palette
* The vertical letter NThe vertical letter N

### Deshret (vertical letter N) in hieroglyphic writing

* 
* 
* Apep being slainApep being slain

Related pages
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* Hedjet - White Crown of Upper Egypt
* Pschent - Double Crown of Lower and Upper Egypt