recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refinery in Austria, near fields that can grow oilseed
Older diesel Mercedes are popular for running on biodiesel
In some countries biodiesel is less expensive than conventional diesel
**Biodiesel** is a type of fuel prepared by changing vegetable oil, animal fat, special types of algae and possibly even sewage. It is considered a type of renewable energy, since it all comes from living plants and animals. It can be used to power an engine, usually for vehicles, including airplanes. It replaces diesel that comes from petroleum, a type of fossil fuel. 

Biofuel prepared from biomass is different since it does not start from oil and uses a different chemical process to make the fuel.

Advantages and disadvantages
----------------------------

Biodiesel is much cleaner and has less pollution than diesel fuel made from fossil fuels. It also acts as a solvent (like soap). In fact, it cleans the engine so much that it might pull out old dirt in the engine and clog up the filters. After the filters are replaced then it is fine.[*source?*]

In the United States and several other places, new laws say that regular diesel fuel must be low in sulfur. This gets rid of pollution, especially acid rain, but it also makes the fuel less slippery. Adding in biodiesel helps keep the fuel slippery and the engine running smoothly.

Most biodiesel comes from plants. This means a lot of farmland is used to grow plants for fuel instead of for feeding animals and people. There are scientists, chemical engineers and agricultural engineers who are studying ways to use algae and saltwater plants to make oil. This would not take away farmland that is used to grow food. Also, some biodiesel comes from waste oil and waste animal fat, that would otherwise be thrown away. NASA is testing biodiesel made from chicken fat to fuel their airplanes.

All diesel fuel has a problem starting an engine in cold weather, but biodiesel has more of a problem. This can be solved by mixing biodiesel and regular diesel at the right mixture. Or by heating the fuel before it is used by the engine. There might be a heater built into the vehicle for this.

Biodiesel from plants
---------------------

Most biodiesel is made from oilseed. Oilseed is any type of seed that has enough oil in it to be useful in making vegetable oil. 

In Brazil, castor beans are the best plants to make biodiesel.
In Germany biodiesel is usually made from rapeseeds.
Soybeans and sunflower seeds are commonly used in the United States.
In Thailand, the raw material will most likely come from palm oil, coconut oil, Jatropha oil, and animal fat.
Jatropha trees also grow in India and Africa.[*source?*]

Some people make their own biodiesel by converting old oil that is used in restaurants to fry foods. The exhaust smells a bit like french fries.

Biodiesel from algae
--------------------

Someday algae might be used to make more biodiesel than is made today with vegetable oil. Algae can be grown in places that food cannot be grown in, so it would not take food away from people.  But right now it is still too expensive, but scientists are looking at ways to make the process better.
Pepper stand at Central Market in Houston, Texas, showing its peppers ranked on the Scoville scale
The ghost pepper of Northeast India is considered to be a "very hot" pepper, at about 1 million SHU.
The Naga Morich, with around 1 million SHU, is primarily found in Bangladesh.
The **Scoville scale** is a measurement of pungency (spiciness or "heat") of chili peppers and other substances, recorded in Scoville heat units (SHU). It is based on the concentration of capsaicinoids. Capsaicin is the main thing measured.

The scale is named after its creator, American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville. The Scoville organoleptic test is a subjective assessment derived from the capsaicinoid sensitivity by people experienced with eating hot chilis.

An alternative method, high-performance liquid chromatography, can be used to analytically quantify the capsaicinoid content as an indicator of pungency.

Scoville organoleptic test
--------------------------

In the Scoville organoleptic test, an exact weight of dried pepper is dissolved in alcohol. This extracts the heat components, the capsaicinoids. They are then diluted in a solution of sugar water. Decreasing concentrations of the extracted capsaicinoids are given to a panel of five trained tasters, until a majority (at least three) can no longer detect the heat in a dilution. The heat level is based on this dilution, rated in multiples of 100 SHU.

*Capsicum* chili peppers are used to add pungency in food. The range of pepper heat reflected by a Scoville score is from 500 or less (sweet peppers) to over 2.6 million (*Pepper X*) .
Regional favorites, steamed crabs and National Bohemian Beer
**National Bohemian Beer** is an American beer first made in Baltimore, Maryland. It is a premium Bohemian-style beer. Many people call it "Natty Boh" as a nickname.

History
-------

In 1885, the National Brewing Company created National Bohemian beer. The first factory was in Baltimore, Maryland. The brewing stopped from 1920 to 1933 due to Prohibition. This was the period when nobody could drink alcohol in the US. In 1933 under the ownership of Jerold Hoffberger the factory of Natty Boh opened again. During the 1940s the factory of National Bohemian was the first in the US to adopt the six pack. In the 1970s, the Hoffberger family sold the brand name. During the next three decades, the brand of this beer was bought and sold by different companies. The copyright of the beer was purchased first by Stroh, then by G. Heileman Brewing, and then by Pabst, in 1999. Since the Hoffberger family sold the beer it has been brewed in North Carolina. From 1996 until 2011, National Bohemian wasn’t available directly from the bar, but only by cans or bottles. In 2014, an American citizen born in Russia, Eugene Kashper, bought the entire Pabst Company, so also National Bohemian.

Relationship with Baltimore
---------------------------

Under the ownership of Jerold Hoffberger, Natty Boh was first associated with the city of Baltimore. In 1953, Jerold Hoffberger helped to bring the St. Louis Browns to Baltimore where they became the Baltimore Orioles. He made National Bohemian the main sponsor of the baseball team. About twelve years later Hoffberger bought the team. Under the ownership of Jerold Hoffberger the Orioles won two World Series and four American League pennants. Nattty Boh was served at the stadium. This was the period when National Bohemian became the beer of Baltimore because people identified the Orioles’ wins with the beer. Although the beer is not brewed in Maryland anymore, 95% of sales are still in Baltimore. This is why is it called *the beer of Maryland*.

Mr. Boh
-------

In 1933, the logo of this beer, Mr. Boh, was introduced. Mr. Boh is a one-eyed man with a black mustache. Thanks to the popularity achieved by National Bohemian with the Orioles, Mr. Boh became a symbol of Baltimore. His big face is still visible at the top of the old building where it was once brewed. Through the years, people started collecting gadgets with the logo of National Bohemian. Around Baltimore, several pubs serve Natty Boh as the main beer. These pubs are decorated with different gadgets of Mr. Boh.

Other websites
--------------

* Website of Nationla Bohemian
**Julieka Ivanna Dhu** (December 26, 1991 — August 4, 2014) (usually called **Ms Dhu** out of respect for Aboriginal customs) was an Aboriginal Australian woman who died in police custody on 4 August 2014.

She was put in jail for not paying fines. She complained about pain and was sent to hospital, but staff there believed she was suffering from the effects of drugs. She was returned to prison and then sent back to hospital about complaining about not being able to stand. It turned out that she died from an infection caused by a rib that was broken before she was arrested.

A lot of people in Australia were sad about Ms Dhu's death. They thought she died because the police and hospital staff were being racist to her.

Background
----------

### Ms Dhu

Ms Dhu was born on 26 December 1991 in Western Australia.  She was of the Yamatji people. She was "cheerful" as a child and didn't have a lot of serious health problems. Dhu completed Year Eleven; but her family said that after not completing school, her friends were "bad" and that she was a "wild child".

In November 2009, when she was 17, police found Dhu sleeping near Cable Beach; when they woke her up, she seemed to be intoxicated, used bad language at them, and said "I don't remember anything after taking that eccy". The police arrested her for her behaviour and for not telling the police her name and address, keeping her in jail for one night. They let her go the next morning on bail, but she did not come to Court when the police case against her was held, and the court said she had to pay the police $200 as punishment. The next year, Dhu got in some small troubles with the police after she moved back to Port Hedland. Once, she kicked a female police officer while being put under police control for Dhu's behaviour. The court again said she had to pay the police money as punishment.

In 2013, when Dhu was 21 years old, her boyfriend was a 42 year old man, Dion Ruffin, who Dhu did not know did violent acts against his girlfriends.

Arrest
------

Ms Dhu's partner was abusing her, so she called the police for help. Instead, they arrested both of them. She had a warrant for her arrest due to unpaid fines that came from three arrests when she was a teenager.

Death
-----

Ms Dhu said that she could not stand. The officers thought she was out of her mind and called her names like "junkie". Dhu fell and the officers let her fall to the ground and hit her head. They got tired of her and so sent her to hospital. When they got there, the officers told the nurses that Dhu was acting.

53 minutes after Ms Dhu arrived at hospital, she was pronounced dead.
**Buichi Saito** (齋藤武市, *Saito Buichi*, January 27, 1925 - January 2011) was a Japanese movie director from Chichibu, Saitama Prefecture.

Career
------

Saito graduated from Waseda University Faculty of Letters in 1948. Then, he joined the Shochiku Ofuna Film Studio as an assistant director. He studied under Yasujiro Ozu. In 1954, filmmaker Katsumi Nishikawa asked Saito to move to Nikkatsu with Seijun Suzuki and Ko Nakahira. In 1956, he directed his first movie, "*My Sister's Wedding*". It was not good at the box office. He continued to make high-quality literary movies that followed Ozu's style. In 1959, Saito directed "Farewell to the Southern Tosa", starring Akira Kobayashi. It became a big hit. His most well known movie with Kobayashi was The Rambling Guitarist, which became popular with Western style music. It was serialized as the "Rambler Series" and established himself as an director of entertainment movies. In 1970, he left Nikkatsu and joined Toei to directed television series.

List of movies
--------------

* All movies and television shows on IMDb
**Laxoox** (pronounced 'la-hoh') in Somalia, or **Canjeera** is a flat bread, a kind of pancake served in Somaliland, Somalia, Yemen and parts of Djibouti. It is frequently seen in the kitchens of northern East Africa.

Variants
--------

Laxoox bread is very similar to *injera*, made in Ethiopian and Eritrea, but is much thinner and smaller in size. However, laxoox is always made with wheat flour, while the injera is made from teff (which can be made with flour of other cereals).

Preparation
-----------

The bread is made with a mixture of sorghum flour, all-purpose flour, yeast (optional), warm water and a small portion of salt. The mixture is stirred by hand until it becomes creamy and smooth, and is left to ferment. If yeast is not being added, the batter is made in the afternoon and left to ferment overnight.

The laxoox is traditionally cooked in a circular metal plate called Daawa. Somalis living in exile, without access to a Daawa, use a normal pan instead. 

Traditionally, laxoox is served as a breakfast with tea and *subag* (ghee butter) or *saliid* *macraso* (sesame oil). Laxoox is also served with stir-fried liver, scrambled eggs, minced meat, beans, hummus, soup or camel milk.
A painting of the parable, made by Salomon Koninck (1606-1659)
The **Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard** (or the **Parable of the Laborers in the Vineyard** and the **Parable of the Generous Employer**) is a parable of Jesus that is only found in chapter 20 of the Gospel of Matthew. It is a parable that is considered hard to interpret.

Text
----

"God’s kingdom is like a man who owned some land. One morning, the man went out very early to hire some people to work in his vineyard. He agreed to pay the workers one silver coin for working that day. Then he sent them into the vineyard to work.

"About nine o’clock the man went to the marketplace and saw some other people standing there. They were doing nothing. So he said to them, ‘If you go and work in my field, I will pay you what your work is worth.’ So they went to work in the vineyard.

"The man went out again about twelve o’clock and again at three o’clock. Both times he hired some others to work in his vineyard. About five o’clock the man went to the marketplace again. He saw some other people standing there. He asked them, ‘Why did you stand here all day doing nothing?’

"They said, ‘No one gave us a job.’

"The man said to them, ‘Then you can go and work in my vineyard.’

"At the end of the day, the owner of the field said to the boss of all the workers, ‘Call the workers and pay them all. Start by paying the last people I hired. Then pay all of them, ending with the ones I hired first.’

"The workers who were hired at five o’clock came to get their pay. Each worker got one silver coin. Then the workers who were hired first came to get their pay. They thought they would be paid more than the others. But each one of them also received one silver coin. When they got their silver coin, they complained to the man who owned the land. They said, ‘Those people were hired last and worked only one hour. But you paid them the same as us. And we worked hard all day in the hot sun.’

"But the man who owned the field said to one of them, ‘Friend, I am being fair with you. You agreed to work for one silver coin. Right? So take your pay and go. I want to give the man who was hired last the same pay I gave you. I can do what I want with my own money. Why would you be jealous because I am generous?’

"So those who are last now will be first in the future. And those who are first now will be last in the future."

—Matthew 20:1-16, Easy-to-Read Version
**Narvik** is a railway station in Narvik Municipality in Nordland, Norway on the Ofoten Line. The station is in the town of Narvik, about 3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi) from the end of the line at the Port of Narvik. There are three daily passenger trains from Kiruna, Luleå and Stockholm in Sweden. Vy Tåg runs the passenger trains. The station is 46.6 metres (153 ft) above sea level and is 1,579.9 kilometres (981.7 mi) from Stockholm. It was opened in 1902 along with Ofotbanen and the Iron Ore Line.

Narvik Station
Narvik is the farthest north station in the Schengen Area. It is the farthest north standard-gauge railway station in the world. It is the northern end of one of Europe's most celebrated night trains. The *Norrlandståget* leaves Stockholm around six every afternoon and reaches Lappmarken early the following morning. Then it goes over the mountains which are the modern frontier between Sweden and Norway to reach the Ofotfjord. On the south shore of the fjord is the port of Narvik, where it arrives early afternoon. It is a journey which has been praised as "surely one of the most engaging adventures by train in all Europe".

Onward journey is by bus only. The Narvik bus station is about 1.1 kilometres (0.68 mi) further south (68°26′15″N 17°25′20″E﻿ / ﻿68.43750°N 17.42222°E﻿ / 68.43750; 17.42222). Northbound buses stop also at the E6 highway (68°26′29″N 17°26′7″E﻿ / ﻿68.44139°N 17.43528°E﻿ / 68.44139; 17.43528) a few hundred metres from the railway station, but not at the railway station. Southbound buses go from the bus station.
The **Austrian School** is a way of thinking about economics. It is based on the actions of the individual person. It started in late 19th and early 20th century Vienna, Austria. It is referred to as **Austrian economics**, because the primary economists were Austrian although its followers are from all over the world today.

Followers of the Austrian school criticize central planning, government price controls and other state regulations. They say that it is impossible for government institutions to make comparatively better decisions about production or the prices of goods and services because they do not have the knowledge or flexibility that millions of individual consumers have. Followers of the Austrian school also criticize government inflation of the money supply.

Important economists of the Austrian School of Economics
--------------------------------------------------------

* Carl Menger
* Eugen von Bohm-Bawerk
* Ludwig von Mises
* Friedrich Hayek
* Yuri Maltsev
* Murray Rothbard
For the actress, see Jane Seymour (actress).

**Jane Seymour** (13 December 1507 – 24 October 1537) was the third wife of King Henry VIII of England and queen consort from 1536 until 1537. She was the mother of Edward VI of England, who died at the age of 15. Edward was the only male child of King Henry VIII to survive infancy.

Biography
---------

Jane Seymour was the child of John Seymour and Margaret Wentworth. She was not educated as much as King Henry's wives before her, for example, Catherine of Aragon or Anne Boleyn. She could read and write a little, but was much better at needlework and managing the house. These were considered much more necessary for women. Jane's needlework was said to be beautiful and complex. Some of her work was kept till 1652, where it is recorded to have been given to the Seymour family. After her death, it was noted that Henry was an "enthusiastic embroiderer".

She was a lady-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII. When Henry divorced his first wife and married Anne Boleyn, Jane continued to be a lady-in-waiting. Henry VIII noticed Jane at court and had already fallen in love with her by the time Anne Boleyn was executed. He became engaged to Jane on the day after the execution, and they were married ten days later, on May 30, 1536. When Jane became queen, she ran the royal court in a strict and formal way, and her only close friends were Anne Stanhope and Elizabeth Seymour.

Pregnancy And Death
-------------------

Sometime in Christmas 1536, Jane gave birth to A Stillborn child.

In early 1537, Jane became pregnant and developed a craving for quail. In October 1537, she gave birth to the son that Henry VIII wanted so much. They named him Edward, and he was later to be King Edward VI of England. Soon, Jane became very ill with fever, and she died on October 24, 1537. Jane never had a coronation, and was married to Henry for only a year and a half before she died (May 30, 1536-October 24, 1537). Henry had loved Jane the most of all his wives, because she was the one who gave him a son. Even though he was married another three times after Jane's death, he always grieved for her. Before Henry died, he asked to be buried next to Jane.

Children
--------

Jane Had Two Children Only One Survived Infancy.

* Stillborn Child (December 1536)
* Edward VI of England (12 October 1537 - 10 July 1553)
Cosmo Julius and Wanda Venus Cosma (née Fairywinkle) are fictional characters in the Nickelodeon animated series The Fairly OddParents. They are a pair of fairies who raise their godchildren Timmy Turner, and, in the 10th season, Chloe Carmichael, in the fictitious city of Dimmsdale, California. 

Wanda is the smarter of the two. She often grants empty-headed wishes while Cosmo himself is one of the least intelligent characters featured alongside Mr. Turner. 

The characters are voiced by Daran Norris and Susanne Blakeslee respectively. They also voice Timmy’s parents and their Anti-Fairy counterparts. In the first live made for TV film they were portrayed by Jason Alexander and Cheryl Hines, respectively.

Characterizations
-----------------

### Appearance and personalities

### Cosmo

In spite of his unusually low IQ, Cosmo loves his wife and godchild deeply. Because of his lack of intelligence his wishes often cause tremendous harm. When someone other than him dates Wanda, he becomes green with envy and usually goes along with Timmy’s wishes. Prior to Season 6, he was the last infant to be produced in Fairy World. He experienced severe mood swings so much that his unnatural fury frightened Wanda and Timmy. He has the almost same hairstyle as Timmy. Cosmo has Chelsea Cucumber green hair and matching eyes and a floating golden crown with light blue wings sticking out. He wears a white business shirt with a black tie matching shirts and because of art style, identical loafers connecting his lower extremities. During the show’s early stages, he was designed as a Homer Simpson-like character before switching to his current appearance. 

### Wanda

Intelligent and comforting about her godchild, she is the most responsible of the four characters. Frequently adopting the blame for chaos, she also overlooks her husband’s dumbness. She has a constant habit of nagging. She serves is sensible whenever Cosmo or Timmy make a foolish wish.She can be guilty of making the aforementioned wishes without reading Da Rules book of laws first. Originally designed as a frumpy fairy with a burly build while nicknamed Venus, Wanda has cerise hair tied in a bun and matching eyes, with her lips of the same color. Like her husband, she has light blue wings protruding from her back and a floating golden crown. She wears a yellow T-shirt, black slacks matching loafers connecting her lower extremities. In very early episodes, her complexion was tinted baby pink later changed to regular skin.

Reception
---------

### Accolades

Daran Norris was nominated at the 39th Annie Awards for voice acting in a television program, ultimately losing to Jeff Bennett for his role in *Penguins of Madagascar*.

Other websites
--------------

* Cosmo’s profile on Nick.com
* Wanda’s profile on Nick.com
**Sopilka** (Ukrainian: Cопiлка) is the name of a type of woodwind instruments from the flute family used in Ukrainian folk music.

A sopilka is traditionally made of elderberry wood, but it can also be made of different materials, such as maple, walnut, beech or even plastic. In the past it had from six to eight holes, but it usually has ten since 1970. Sopilka exists in many ranges, such as the *prima* or *soprano* (high pitched). The sound system is diatonic.

History
-------

Sopilka is one of the oldest music instruments: the oldest sopilka found is made of mammoth-bone and is from the Paleolithic age. It is also present in many 11th century's stories and paintings, like a fresco in Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv. At first, it was a folk instrument, played by shepherds or by trios (called *ktroisti myzyky*) and sometimes played during weddings. It is also present in the play *The Forest Song [en]* by Lesya Ukrainka [en].

Sopilka became an academic instrument in the second half of 20th century.

### Modern times

In modern times, sopilka is still used by many Ukrainian musicians. For example: singer Ruslana, folk rock bands Kobza [en] and Haydamaky [en], speed-folk group Kubasonics [en], folktronica bands Onuka [en] and Kazka [en], and flautist Ihor Didenchuk [uk] from the folktronica groups Go\_A and Kalush.

Gallery
-------

* A sopilka "Dvodentsivka" from 19th centuryA sopilka "Dvodentsivka" from 19th century
* Shepherd from Polissia playing a sopilka "Dudka-vykrutka"Shepherd from Polissia playing a sopilka "Dudka-vykrutka"
* A coin where a character from The Forest Song plays the sopilkaA coin where a character from *The Forest Song* plays the sopilka

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Sopilka***.

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata | 
* Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine
* MusicBrainz instrument

 |
**SIMATIC** is the name of an automation system which was developed by the German company Siemens. The automation system controls machines used for industrial production. This system makes it possible for machines to run automatically. Depending on the needed function of the machine you have to upload the right program on your Simatic unit. This unit is kept in a control cabinet near the machine.

Function
--------

Simatic is similar to a digital computer which can store and run programs. The Simatic also has some inputs and outputs. The running program on the Simatic controls these inputs and outputs. Both are connected by electrical wires with the machine. That makes a communication between the Simatic and any machine possible. As the case may be the inputs and outputs are set on a "High" signal or on a "Low" signal by the program. These are different electrical definitions. Finally these signals are important if an action in the machine happens or not. 

Example for different signals at the output to a motor:

* "High" signal: motor is starting
* "Low" signal: motor is stopping

Example for different signals at the input coming from a thermometer in the machine:

* "High" signal: temperature exceeded the limit
* "Low" signal: temperature is still allowed

Communication
-------------

There are basically two ways of communication:

### From the machine to the Simatic

In the machine, there are sensors. A sensor gives information about different situations in the machine. For example, how fast the motor rotates, what the temperature is or when the current action is completed. All this information is necessary for the program. The sensors give out an electrical signal, each signal goes by wire on an input of the Simatic unit. So the program knows what´s going on in the machine. This is very important, because now the program can perform the next correct step in its sequence. For example, if the temperature of the motor is too high, the program has to know it. Now the program will switch off the motor.

### From the Simatic to the machine

In the machine, there are actuators. They cause a wanted motion, action or forming. Examples for actuators are a motor, a heater or a light. If the program says that it´s time to switch on the light in the machine, the right output of the Simatic unit will be set. That means that an electrical signal at the output goes by wire to the machine and switches on the light.

The name Simatic
----------------

The name Simatic is a registered trademark of the company Siemens, since 1958. Simatic connects "**Si**emens" and "Auto**matic**" in one word.

Product lines
-------------

Siemens developed four different product lines so far:

* 1958 Simatic Version G
* 1973 Simatic S3

* 1979 Simatic S5

* 1995 Simatic S7

Used Software
-------------

Every automation system needs a program to control a machine. To create a program you need a software. Siemens created their own software for their products.

* The Simatic S5 product line is programmed by the software Step5.

* The Simatic S7 product line is programmed by the software Step7 or in TIA Portal (totally integrated automation).
A **monarch** is the ruler of a country which is a monarchy. Monarchs usually get their power by inheritance from one of their parents. When a monarch dies, a child or the nearest relative takes over. A male monarch is usually called a king or emperor. A female monarch is usually called a queen or empress. There female kings in history. An example of a modern woman king is Her Royal Majesty Queen Diambi, the traditional ruler of the Bakwa Luntu People in Central Kasaï, Congo, Africa. 

Monarchy is still common in Africa. Many countries have both a president and a monarch of some sort. 

Monarchs were very common in history until the 20th century. Most European countries had monarchs in past centuries, but most no longer have them. Some countries that still have monarchs have other leaders with the actual power. Most monarchies are hereditary monarchies. Some countries, however, elect their monarch, instead of using inheritance, like the Holy Roman Empire and Malaysia. Some republics, such as the Dutch Republic or North Korea, had or have a hereditary ruler but do not call him a "monarch".

Monarchs can also have monarchs of lower honour below them. For example, an empire could include several kingdoms, and a kingdom could have several duchies or principalities. Nations would rarely include all titles and usually go from duchy to kingdom instead of duchy to principality to kingdom. "Prince" and "princess" are words that mean "ruler of a principality" and/or "son of a king/queen." Some languages have separate words for them.

The details may vary from country to country.

Monarchs by rank
----------------

| Title | Male | Female |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Empire | Emperor | Empress |
| Kingdom | King | Queen |
| Archduchy | Archduke | Archduchess |
| Grand Duchy | Grand Duke | Grand Duchess |
| Duchy | Duke | Duchess |
| Grand Principality | Grand Prince | Grand Princess |
| Principality | Prince | Princess |
| Marquisate | Marquess | Marchioness |
| County/Earldom | Count/Earl | Countess |
| Viscounty | Viscount | Viscountess |
| Barony | Baron | Baroness |

Related pages
-------------

* Coronation
* Divine right of kings
* Interregnum

Other websites
--------------


The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***monarch***.
*Pecopteris*, a leaf type which is not found after the early Permian.
Plants of the Carboniferous swamps.
*Lepidodendron* was a common plant at Mazon Creek. This is just a branch; it grew to be a large tree.
**Mazon Creek** is a lagerstätte in northeast Illinois. It is a site of exceptional fossil preservation. It is from the Pennsylvanian sub-period of the Carboniferous, about 309 million years ago.

The area was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1997.

The site's greatest find is the oldest-known beetle.

Palaeoecology
-------------

The sediments were laid in a gigantic tropical estuary, a river delta with shifting channels and mud and sand bars. Much of the continent was then covered by a great internal epeiric sea, which sometimes swept over the area, and then withdrew.

Coal measures are formed like this. A low-lying tropical swamp or rain forest forms a peat swamp which is short of oxygen. Dead plant material builds up, and does not decompose entirely. The plant material gets buried as a peat bog. From time to time rivers bring down a load of sediment from nearby mountains, covering the swamp. Eventually layers of coal alternate with layers of sandy deposit. Pressure turns it all into hard rock. Later on, the rocks are uncovered by erosion, and fossils can be found by humans.

The huge growth of vegetation at this time produced coal measures, and the fossils were found in concretions (hard balls) in the spoil heaps of coal mines. The concretions are caused by iron carbonate, FeCO3, which makes the parcel of mud and organic material into hard balls.

Flora and fauna
---------------

Fossil specimens have been found which belong to these groups of plants and animals:

* 140 species of insects and other arthropods.
* Freshwater aquatic faunas include fish, amphibia, bivalves, crustacea & horseshoe crabs.
* Fauna from brackish water include ostracodes, lungfish scales, xenacanth sharks, polychaetes, crustacea, cephalopods with soft tissues, hydrozoa, siphonophores, chitons, sea cucumbers, eurypterids, echinoderms.
* One unique species cannot be placed in a taxon: the 'Tully Monster', *Tullimonstrum gregarium*, a soft-bodied marine invertebrate. It is the Illinois state fossil.

* 400 species of plants: *Lepidodendron*, horsetails, ferns, pteridosperms and primitive conifers and ginkgoes.
**D♭ major** (or **D-flat major**) is a major scale based on D♭. Its pitches are D♭, E♭, F, G♭, A♭, B♭, C, and D♭. Its key signature has five flats.

Its relative minor is B♭ minor, and its parallel minor is D♭ minor. This is usually replaced by C♯ minor because D♭ minor's eight flats (including the double-flat) make it generally impractical to use. Therefore, C♯ minor is often used as the parallel key of D♭ major.

For example, Chopin's Prelude No. 15 in D-flat major ("Raindrop"), modulates from D-flat major to C-sharp minor for the middle section in the parallel minor, and in his Fantaisie-Impromptu, primarily in C-sharp minor, Chopin switches to D-flat major for the middle section for the opposite reason. Claude Debussy also switches from D-flat major to C-sharp minor in the significant section in his famous Clair de lune. Antonín Dvořák's New World Symphony likewise switches to C-sharp minor for a while for the significant section in the slow movement.

  


| * v
* t
* e
Diatonic Scales and Keys |
| --- |
| Circle of fifthsCircle of fifths | 

|  | Flats | Sharps |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Major | minor | Major | minor |
| 0 | **C**, **a** |
| 1 | **F** | **d** | **G** | **e** |
| 2 | **B♭** | **g** | **D** | **b** |
| 3 | **E♭** | **c** | **A** | **f♯** |
| 4 | **A♭** | **f** | **E** | **c♯** |
| 5 | **D♭** | **b♭** | **B** | **g♯** |
| 6 | **G♭** | **e♭** | **F♯** | **d♯** |
| 7 | **C♭** | **a♭** | **C♯** | **a♯** |
| 8 | **F♭** | **d♭** | **G♯** | **e♯** |

 |
| The table shows the number of sharps or flats in each scale. Minor scales are written in lower case. |
Share of the Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses, issued 1. July 1932
CP's *Alfa Pendular* tilting train.
CP suburban trains at São Bento Station in Porto.
**Comboios de Portugal,** (***CP***; English: ***Trains of Portugal***) is a state-owned company which operates passenger trains in Portugal.

It started in October 1856 with the opening of the first railway line in Portugal. Most of the network is Iberian gauge lines, as in Spain. During the 1950s, the Portuguese railway network was about 3,750 km (2,330 mi), its greatest extent. In 1975, the Portuguese Railway Company was nationalised When passenger numbers decreased, various lines were shut down, with almost a quarter of the rail network being closed by the twenty-first century.

During 1999, it introduced a new service, the Alfa Pendular, which operates between Braga - Porto - Lisbon - Faro using tilting trains. Since 2005 the company runs only passenger train services. Management of the railway infrastructure is done by Infraestruturas de Portugal. Cargo activities were transferred to private company MSC who operate them under the *Medway* label. In 2015, a new long-term strategy for Portugal's railway network was started. The full electrification of the network, the provision of European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), and the general modernisation and improvement of trunk routes and international services is being conducted.

Network
-------

* Broad gauge (1,668 mm (5 ft 5+21⁄32 in)): 2,603 km (1,617 mi), 1,351 km (839 mi) electrified at 25 kV 50 Hz AC and 25 km (16 mi) at 1.5 kV DC.
* Narrow gauge (metre gauge) 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in): 188 km (117 mi) not electrified.
* The maximum extent of 3,592 km (2,232 mi) was reached in 1949, but in the late 1980s and early 1990s some lines were shortened and some totally closed.
The Wash, as seen looking west from Heacham, in Norfolk, just south of Hunstanton
Map of the Wash and nearby areas
**The Wash** is the square-mouthed estuary on the northwest margin of East Anglia on the east coast of England, "where Norfolk meets Lincolnshire". It is among the largest estuaries in the United Kingdom. It is listed as a Ramsar site as being an important wetland area. Archived 2010-10-13 at the Wayback Machine

Geography
---------

The Wash looks on the map like a large bite out of the coastline of eastern England. It separates the curved coast of East Anglia from Lincolnshire. It is formed by a large bay with three roughly straight sides meeting at right angles, each about 25 kilometres (15 miles) in length. All the eastern coast of the Wash is in Norfolk, and goes from Hunstanton in the north to the mouth of the River Great Ouse at King's Lynn in the south. The coast on the opposite side goes from Gibraltar Point to the mouth of the River Welland and is all in Lincolnshire. The southern coast goes roughly northwest-southeast, joining these two river mouths. In the middle is the mouth of a third river, the River Nene.

Historical story
----------------

The most famous thing that people remember about the Wash is that "King John lost his crown in the Wash". This is because, according to reports from the time, King John travelled from Spalding in Lincolnshire to Bishop's Lynn, in Norfolk in the year 1216. He became ill and decided to go back. While he took the longer route through Wisbech, he sent his luggage, including his crown jewels, along the seashore and across the mouth of the Wellstream where the water was not deep. This route was only safe when the tide was low. The horse-drawn wagons moved too slowly for the incoming tide, and many were lost. The whole area at the time was an extensive wetland known as The Fens, which was later drained. It is close to sea level.

Other websites
--------------

* Flood warning status Archived 2004-12-10 at the Wayback Machine
In the 1667 to 1668 **War of (the) Devolution**, France occupied the Spanish-controlled provinces of Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté. Because of one law not many people knew about (called the Jus Devolutionis), Louis XIV claimed these provinces 'devolved' to him because of his marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain.

Alliances/Countries Fighting
----------------------------

* England, Kingdom of Sweden, and the Dutch (Triple Alliance)
* The Spanish Empire
* France

War
---

King Louis had claimed territory from the Spanish Empire as his own, due to his marriage of Maria Theresa. This claim started the conflict between France and the Spanish Empire. The Triple Alliance, (England, Sweden, and The Netherlands,) decided to get involved in this war, but not allying with either side. They saw 2 countries now weakened by war and realized they could expand. They also did this for the protection of each side, because both were a vital piece to trade in Europe and the world. The French soldiers marched into Flanders, (now in Belgium) and easily took over the city. Just a year later after almost a standoff, they made a peace treaty with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. They would partition the Spanish Dominions until the king's death, and France would annex part of the Netherlands.

Sources
-------

* Brittanica: War of Devolution

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata | 
* Spain
* Germany
* Israel
* United States

 |
The **Villa Lario** is a Renaissance villa in the commune of Mandello del Lario on the shores of Lake Como in northern Italy. Since 2015 the villa has been designated as a 5-star luxury hotel and is part of a resort complex. 

The Lario resort has a heliport, and docking for boats and seaplanes.

In the hotel there is the Italian Chef Enrico Derflingher (2 Michelin stars), former Chef at the White House for George Bush Senior and at Buckingham palace for the Queen Elizabeth of England and Prince Charles of Wales.

Villa Lario out of the old center of Mandello and near Lierna in part of the Lake Centre Italian: *Centro-Lago di Como*), which includes the most important and luxurious area of Lake Como, known for its peculiar position at the intersection of the three branches of the water basin, "Y-shaped" with Bellagio in the centre embracing the "Borgo" ancient villages ranging from Lierna to Sala Comacina in the south to Menaggio and Varenna in the north. Prominent towns in this area include Bellagio, Lierna, Fiumelatte, Varenna, Menaggio, Olcio, Limonta, Vergonese, San Giovanni (Bellagio), Cadenabbia, Perledo, Sala Comacina, Lenno, Azzano, Griante, Perledo, Visgnola, Ossuccio, San Giovanni (Bellagio), Tremezzina, Tremezzo.

Links
-----

* Center Lake Como

Other websites
--------------

* Official website
**Owner-occupancy** or **home-ownership** is a form of housing in which a person, called the **owner-occupier**, **owner-occupant**, or **home owner**, owns the home in which they live. The home can be a house, such as a single-family house, an apartment, condominium, or a housing cooperative. Owner-occupancy is also a real estate investment. The value of housing generally increases over time. 

Some homes are built by or for the people who want to live in them. Many are inherited. A large number are bought, as new homes from a real estate developer or as an existing home from a landlord or an owner-occupier.

A home is the most expensive single purchase most people make. It usually costs several year's household income. Most people do not have enough money to pay the entire amount outright. They borrow money using the home as security. This is called a mortgage. They have to pay interest on the loan. If they dont pay the lender can take their home. 

In many countries the government helps people to buy homes. There may be grants or subsidies. They may have to meet certain qualifications to get this help such as being a first-time homebuyer or having an income below a certain level.

They may have to pay property taxes, related to the value of the property, either every year, or when the property is sold.

International statistics
------------------------

Percentage of owner-occupied units in urban areas, by country

| Country |  % Owner-Occupied Units in Urban Areas | Urban Population, % of Total |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Argentina | 67% | 92% |
| Armenia | 96% | 64% |
| Australia | 68% | 89% |
| Azerbaijan | 71% | 52% |
| Brazil | 74% | 87% |
| Bulgaria | 87% | 73% |
| Canada | 68% | 81% |
| Chile | 69% | 89% |
| China | 89% | 45% |
| Colombia | 50% | 75% |
| Costa Rica | 75% | 94% |
| Czech Republic | 47% | 74% |
| Denmark | 54% | 87% |
| Egypt | 37% | 43% |
| France | 47% | 78% |
| Germany | 43% | 74% |
| Haiti | 60% | 48% |
| Hong Kong | 53% | 100% |
| Hungary | 93% | 68% |
| India | 87% | 30% |
| Indonesia | 67% | 54% |
| Italy | 80% | 68% |
| Kazakhstan | 96% | - |
| Kenya | - | 22% |
| Republic of Korea | 56% | 82% |
| Malawi | - | 19% |
| Malaysia | - | 72% |
| Mexico | 71% | 78% |
| Mongolia | - | 58% |
| Morocco | 62% | 57% |
| Namibia | 69% | 35% |
| Netherlands | 59% | 83% |
| New Zealand | 67% | 87% |
| Nigeria | 10% | 50% |
| Norway | 77% | 78% |
| Pakistan | - | 38% |
| Panama | 66% | 75% |
| Peru | - | 72% |
| Philippines | 80% | 66% |
| Poland | 78% | 61% |
| Romania | 97% | 54% |
| Russia | 81% | 73% |
| Rwanda | - | 19% |
| Senegal | - | 43% |
| Singapore | 87% | 100% |
| South Africa | 62% | 62% |
| Spain | 85% | 77% |
| Sri Lanka | 82% | 15% |
| Sweden | 41% | 85% |
| Switzerland | 40% | 74% |
| Tanzania | - | 26% |
| Thailand | 75% | 34% |
| Tunisia | 78% | 67% |
| Turkey | 81% | 70% |
| Uganda | - | 13% |
| Ukraine | - | 68% |
| United Kingdom | 50% | 90% |
| United States | 65% | 82% |
| Uruguay | 59% | 93% |
| Venezuela | 83% | 94% |
| Vietnam | - | 28% |
| Zimbabwe | - | 38% |

*Source: Housing Finance Information Network (HOFINET)*
Krishnagiri is a municipality town and administrative headquarters of Krishnagiri district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Mango is cultivated as the main crop and the land here is extremely fertile with rich access to fresh water making it amenable to growing crops. Krishnagiri is a rapidly growing town and is the site of significant business and residential development. The Krishnagiri Dam is currently undergoing expansion and a variety of small-scale industry zones are being set up. According to 2011 census, Krishnagiri had a population of 71,323 with a sex-ratio of 1,015 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.

The Krishnagiri district has a prehistoric importance. Archeological sources confirm the presence of habitats of man kind during Paleolithic, Neolithic and Mesolithic Ages. Various rock paintings and rock carvings of Indus Valley civilization and Iron Age seen in this district support the historical significance of this district.Krishnagiri district was carved out of Dharmapuri district on 9 February 2004 with five taluks and ten blocks.
Donald Duck was here.=)

Group photo of people accused in the murder of Mahatma Gandhi. *Standing (L to R)*: Shankar Kistaiya, Gopal Godse, Madan Lal Pahwa, Digambar Ramchandra Badge. *Seated (L to R)*: Narayan Apte, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Nathuram Godse, Vishnu Karkare
**Nathuram Vinayak Godse** (Marathi: नथुराम गोडसे, May 19, 1910 – November 15, 1949) was an Indian Nationalist, Activist, and the man who assassinated Mahatma Gandhi.

Biography
---------

Nathuram Godse was born at Baramati, Pune District, British India. His father was Vinayak Vaman Rao Godse, his mother was Lakshmi (Godavari before marriage). His father was a fifteen-rupee-a-month employee of the post office. He would drop and become an activist for the party Hindu Mahasabha

Killing of Mahatma Gandhi
-------------------------

### Motive

The immediate motive for the assassination is usually ascribed to Gandhi's January 13, 1948 decision to fast to the death unless the Indian central government reversed a decision to withhold the transfer of 55 crore (550 million) rupees to the government of Pakistan. The transfer had been specified in the partition agreement, but the Indian government had refused to complete it, complaining of continued Pakistani rebel occupation of disputed parts of Kashmir.

The Indian government immediately reversed its decision to withhold the funds, which infuriated Godse and his fellow Hindu nationals.

The decision to assassinate Gandhi was taken by Godse alone. The Mahasabha resolutely denied all complicity, and Godse took full responsibility. 

### Attack

Godse assassinated Gandhi on January 30, 1948, approaching him during the evening prayer, bowing, and shot him three times at close range. Godse was convicted of murdering Gandhi, for which he was executed by hanging.

Other websites
--------------

* Godse's deposition in court Archived 2008-05-13 at the Wayback Machine
* A pro-Godse site Archived 2008-05-13 at the Wayback Machine with interviews and links
* Time Magazine's Feb 2000 interview of Gopal Godse Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine
* Rediff's Jan 1998 interview of Gopal Godse
* Article discussing pro-Godse play
* Eyewitness to Gandhi assassination Archived 2008-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
* Eyewitness gives VIDEO account of Gandhi Assassination