recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
A **voluntary association** or **union** is a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to work together for a purpose.

In most of the cases no formalities are necessary to start an association. But in some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association, in others the association must register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This is not necessarily a tool of political control but much more a way of protecting the economy from fraud.

Legal status
------------

An unincorporated association has been defined as existing:

"...where two or more persons are bound together for one or more common purposes by mutual undertakings, each having mutual duties and obligations, in an organisation which has rules identifying in whom control of the organisation and its funds is vested, and which can be joined or left at will."
In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality, and nor do members of the association usually enjoy limited liability. However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes.

Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships. A special kind of partnership is a co-operative which is usually founded on one man–one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the member. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate the way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, regulations, or agreement of association.

Freedom of association
----------------------

The freedom of association stands in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

Article 20
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Related pages
-------------

* Society

Other websites
--------------

* Law relating to unincorporated associations Archived 2007-11-02 at the Wayback Machine
* French Association of Epargne and Retraite Archived 2019-05-09 at the Wayback Machine
The **National Labor Party** was an Australian political party which only existed for three months. It was started by Prime Minister Billy Hughes in November 1916. Hughes had taken over as leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) and Prime Minister when Andrew Fisher resigned in 1915. Hughes formed the new party after he was forced out of the ALP a month after conscription was rejected by the people in the 1916 vote. Hughes still wanted conscription for World War I. 

On 15 September 1916 the Labor Party in New South Wales forced Hughes from the Labor Party. On 14 November 1916, Hughes and 24 other Labor members walked out of a meeting of the Labor members of parliament. The remaining 43 members said they did not want Hughes to continue as their leader. Hughes and his followers formed a minority Government with support from the Commonwealth Liberal Party (CLP) led by Joseph Cook. They said the Australian Labor Party was no longer nationalist. They wanted a new party that would be both socially radical and nationalist. 

The National Labor Party had to depend on support from the Commonwealth Liberal Party to govern. In 1917 the two groups joined to form a new party, the Nationalist Party of Australia, with Hughes as leader. 

The National Labor Party was never a proper political party. It did not have any organisational structure. It did get support from some trade union officials and Labor Party branches, particularly in Western Australia and Tasmania.

Western Australia
-----------------

The National Labor Party in Western Australia started off as two separate groups. One group was the Labor Solidarity Committee based in Perth. The other was National Labor based on the goldfields. The two joined in April-May 1917, led by former Premier John Scaddan. After he lost his seat in Parliament the party turned to Federal Senators Patrick Lynch, Hugh de Largie and George Pearce for leadership and guidance. Unlike the federal party, it did not join with the CLP and kept its own identity. It worked with the Nationalist Party as partners.

The party won six of 50 Assembly seats in the Western Australian state elections of 1917 and 1921. It also held three of 30 Council seats during this period. However, in 1924 elections they won only one seat in the Assembly and two in the Council. Later that year they were taken over by the Nationalists.
Robert College Gould Hall
**Robert College**, also called **RC**, is an American high school in Istanbul, Turkey. It is the most prestigious, private high school in Turkey. The institution was founded by Cyrus Hamlin, with the financial help of Christopher Rhinelander Robert, in 1863 (during the Ottoman Empire). Robert College is also the first American educational institution founded outside the United States. It was founded as a boys' college for Christian minority of the empire. Later the girls section was opened as American College for Girls. Then the Muslims were allowed to be educated in the schools. Hüseyin Pektaş became the first Muslim boy to graduate from college. In 19th century, many additions were made to college including, middle school and high school.

After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the school continued to educate young people, who later became the leaders of the country. Prime ministers Bülent Ecevit and Tansu Çiller are among the school's graduates.

In 1971, Robert College donated one of its two campuses (Boys' campus or Bebek campus) to the Republic of Turkey. A new, public university was founded on this campus. The other campus (Girls' campus or Arnavutköy campus) has since been serving the society as a coeducational high school.

Other websites
--------------

* Robert College
The **Viverridae** is a family of small to medium-sized mammals, the **viverrids**. They are in the Feliformia, the cat-like carnivores.

The family is made up of 15 genera and 33 species. It was named by John Edward Gray in 1821. They are found all over the Oriental region, all over Africa and into southern Europe. 

As they live in Madagascar and Celebes, this shows they also lived in the tropics of the Old World, and beyond it, over Wallace's line.

Viverrids mostly live in tropical rainforest. They also live in woodland, savanna and mountains.

Species
-------

* African civet
* Angolan genet
* Asian palm civet
* Brown palm civet

"Civet cat"
-----------

Many viverrids are **civet cats**, such as the genera *Vivera*, *Civettictis* and *Viverricula*. The term refers to their noticeable and (to us) unpleasant scent. It is sometimes used for other cats which happen to be rather smelly.

Vivverrids of the genus *Genetta* are known as 'genets', and there is another genus, *Poiana*, which are called 'linsangs'. The genet *Genetta genetta* is the only viverid to live in Europe. It is the striped-tail one at top right in the illustration above.

Characteristics
---------------

Viverrids are the most basal ('primitive') of all the families of cat-like animals and less specialized than the Felidae. Their skeletons are similar to those of fossils dating back to the Eocene, up to 50 million years ago.

In external characters, they are distinguished from the Felidae by the hind foot being five-toed and typically by the longer muzzle and shorter limbs. The skull differs as does the dental formula. They have anal glands which may secrete a strong odour. Many species have striped tails.

Viverrids, though in the order Carnivora, are mostly omnivorous. The species popularly called "palm civets" are entirely herbivorous.

Civets and SARS
---------------

On January 13, 2004 the American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an embargo on the importation of Civets into the United States. They said that the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) virus was found in Civets from China.
***Sphyrna*** is one of the two genera in the Hammerhead shark group, and is the largest genera out of the two, with eight members in it. The word *Sphyrna* is a Greek word meaning "hammer", which refers to the shape of the shark's head.

Description
-----------

Members in the *Sphyrna* group measure in size from the Scoophead, which is 100 centimeters (1 meter) long, to the Great hammerhead shark, which is 610 centimeters (6.1 meters) long. The Smalleye Hammerhead Shark weighs around 9 kg, and the Great hammerhead shark weighs about 230 kg. Members of this group are usually light grey or brownish grey in colour with a tint of green, and have a white belly.

Feeding
-------

Members of the *Sphyrna* group's favourite type of food are stingrays. But they also eat crustaceans like blue crabs and shrimp, molluscs like octopuses and squids, many types of fish like sardines and herrings, and other types of sharks. When they can not find food they start eating each other, but the Great hammerhead shark is known to eat its own young.

Reproduction
------------

Members of this group are mainly viviparous, but in 2007, a bonnethead was found to be capable of asexual reproduction. They give birth to around 12-40 young at a time. Once they are born, young ones come together in groups, and swim towards warmer waters. They then stay together in groups until they are older and big enough to live on their own. They live for around 20–30 years.

Species
-------

* Scalloped Bonnethead, *Sphyrna corona*
* Whitefin Hammerhead Shark, *Sphyrna couardi*
* Scalloped Hammerhead Shark, *Sphyrna lewini*
* Scoophead, *Sphyrna media*
* Great hammerhead shark, *Sphyrna mokarran*
* Bonnethead, *Sphyrna tiburo*
* Smalleye Hammerhead Shark, *Sphyrna tudes*
* Smooth Hammerhead Shark, *Sphyrna zygaena*
**Play therapy** is a kind of therapy counseling with playing activities which makes children overcome their psychological difficulties by themselves and helps them to achieve optimum level of development. Young children are usually hard to express their emotion, needs, and thoughts by language, but it can be possible through their play activities. So, play can be children's language to show their state. Also, they can release stress, and have self-confidence by playing freely what they want and getting good words from therapists.

For therapists, they should know about human development including child development. Also, they need to know to apply different kinds of playing activities for children. But, the most important thing is to have good relationship with the children. 

There are many kinds of play therapy. There are psychoanalytic play therapy, children-based play therapy, filial play therapy, cognitive behavioral play therapy, developmental play therapy, Adlerian play therapy, sand play, and group play therapy. Those kinds of play therapy can be used successfully for the children between 4 and 6 years old.
**Twelve Variations on "Ah vous dirai-je, Maman"**, K. 265/300e, is a piece of music for piano. It was composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1781 or 1782. The variations were first published in Vienna in 1785. The piece consists of twelve variations on the French folk song "Ah! vous dirai-je, Maman". The French melody first appeared in 1761. It has been used for many children's songs, such as "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star", "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep" and the "Alphabet Song". Only Variations XI and XII have tempo indications, *Adagio* and *Allegro* respectively.

It was once thought that this piece was composed in 1778 when Mozart was briefly living in Paris. It was assumed that he could only have picked up a French folk song while living in France. Based on this assumption, the piece was re-numbered from K. 265 to K. 300e in the chronological catalogue of Mozart's compositions. Later analysis of Mozart's manuscript indicated 1781/1782 as the probable composition date.

Other websites
--------------

* Played on clavichord at YouTube by Wim Winters
**Tay-Sachs disease** (also called **Tray-Sachs syndrome**) is a disease that causes problems with the metabolism of fat. Tay-Sachs is caused by a lack of the enzyme Hexosaminidase A.

Tay-Sachs is a genetic disease. It happens when Chromosome 15 has a genetic problem. The problem is caused by a defective HEXA gene. It is recessive, which means both parents must give the baby the defective gene for the baby to have Tay-Sachs. One in every twenty seven Jewish American has one defective gene and can give Tay-Sachs the defective gene to their child. The disease is very rare. It is most common in Jewish families. There is a blood test to see if a person has the Tay Sachs gene. This blood test has helped reduce the number of babies born with Tay-Sachs. In the 1800’s, there were 60 new cases and in the 21st century there were 5.

Infants with the Tay-Sachs gene from both parents usually die of pneumonia or other infections during their first four years of life. Some symptoms include: lack of energy, loss of vision and motor skills (paralyzation), and seizures. Tay–Sachs disease is usually first noticed in infants around six months old. They show an abnormally strong response to sudden noises or other stimulus. This is called the "startle response". The child may also be listlessness or have muscle stiffness (hypertonia). The disease is classified into several forms, which are based on the age when the neurological symptoms began. There is no known treatment for this disease.

The disease is named after Warren Tay and Bernard Sachs who first described the disease in the late 19th century. After the discovery, he noticed a red spot on the retina of a one year old child. The child was experiencing the same symptoms of the disease. Bernard Sachs was a neurologist from the United States. He was the first person to describe the cellular changes from the disease. In 1969, researchers discovered that Tay-Sachs is caused by a lack of the enzyme Hexosaminidase A.
A **wage** is money that is paid by an employer to an employee in exchange for work. The amount may be fixed for each task completed (this is called piece rate); or it may be based on time or other measurable quantity of work done.

Work for wages is the most common form of work. Because of this, the term "wage" sometimes refers to all forms of employee payment. However, a wage is different to a salary or commission. A salary is where the employer pays an arranged amount at regular intervals (such as a week or month) regardless of hours worked or amount of work done. Commission is usually an extra payment based on the performance of the worker or product. Waged employees may also receive "tips" paid directly by clients. They will usually not get the same benefits as those paid with a salary, such as annual leave and sick leave.

Wages are usually paid by the hour. This is called an **hourly wage**. Wages paid by the day are still common. Wage rates may be influenced by market forces (supply and demand), laws, and tradition. Market forces are perhaps more dominant in the United States, while tradition, social structure and seniority, perhaps play a greater role in Japan. In many countries, laws set a minimum wage that all employers must pay their workers. This means that employers cannot pay workers a lower rate than the minimum wage; however, they can pay them a higher rate. The minimum wage rate is there to protect the working class.

Wages were paid in the Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, and Ancient Rome.

Other websites
--------------


The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***wage***.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Wages***.

* "Wages and Working Conditions, by Stanley Lebergott: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | Library of Economics and Liberty". *www.econlib.org*. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
* Salary and wages data collection Archived 2018-11-12 at the Wayback Machine
A sea grass bed in Florida Bay
Young mangroves and carbonate mud in the internal part of the lagoon – Florida Bay
Diagram of plant evolution from the Precambrian to the sea grasses.
*Zostera marina* – the most common seagrass species in the Northern Hemisphere
**Sea grasses** (or *seagrass*) are flowering plants which live in the sea. They come from four plant families in the order Alismatales. They are monocotyledons which grow in marine, fully saline environments.

Sea grasses evolved from plants which went back to the ocean 70 to 100 million years ago, in the long, warm, Cretaceous period.

Sea grass is a key part of continental shelf ecosystems where phytoplankton produce carbonate sediment. This kind of ecosystem occurs in subtropical places like Florida Bay, and around Bermuda. Sea grass beds often contain many species from various phyla. Apparently, seagrass herbivory is a highly important link in the food chain. Many species feed on sea grasses, such as green turtles, dugongs, manatees, fish, geese, swans, sea urchins and crabs.

The surface of the seagrass is the place where *Melobesia*, a small alga, makes chalk as a by-product of its metabolism. That is not the only chalk-producing organism in the seagrass beds.

Largest plant
-------------

A huge bed of seagrass has been found off the coast of Western Australia. 

Researchers collected shoots from the bay and looked at 18,000 genetic markers. It is *all from the same plant*, and covers about 77 square miles (200 square kilometres).

Bibliography
------------

* Green E.P. & Short F.T. (eds) 2003. *World atlas of seagrasses*. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. ISBN 0-520-24047-2
* Hemminga M.A. & Duarte C. 2000. *Seagrass ecology*. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 9780521052498
* Hogarth, Peter 2007. *The biology of mangroves and seagrasses* Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198568711
* Larkum A.W.D; Orth R.J & Duarte C.M. (eds) 2006. *Seagrasses: biology, ecology and conservation* Springer. ISBN 1-4020-2942-X
***The Sands of Mars*** is a science fiction novel written by Arthur C. Clarke. It was first published in 1951 and has been reprinted many times.

Plot
----

Martin Gibson is a famous science fiction author. He has written stories about the planet Mars, but has not actually been there. He travels with the crew of a spaceship to visit Mars.

On Mars, Gibson meets the people who manage the human settlement on Mars. They are working hard to make the colony as self-sufficient as possible (so that they don't have to import supplies from Earth)

Gibson joins a party of men exploring the surface of Mars. They discover a small group of kangaroo-like creatures, which had not been seen before. They are vegetarians, living on native plants.

Researchers try to cultivate these plants to increase the oxygen content of the Martian atmosphere, so that in a few hundred years, people can live without spacesuits.

Gibson discovers that Jimmy Spencer, one of the crew of the spaceship, is his son. Spencer has fallen in love with Irene Hadfield, who lives on Mars. 

Gibson decides to stay on Mars, fascinated with the importance of the planet as a self-sufficient world.
Percent change from previous period in real Gross Domestic Product   
Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis
In economics, the term **stagflation** is used when there is almost no growth in production, yet there is high inflation, and unemployment is high. This was supposed to be impossible under the kind of economics described by Keynes (Keynesian economics).

Stagflation is a portmanteau word of *stagnation* and *inflation*. It is used in economics when the inflation rate is high, the growth rate slows down, and unemployment stays high. It raises a dilemma for economic policy since actions designed to lower inflation may exacerbate unemployment, and vice versa.

The term is generally attributed to a British politician who became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1970, Iain Macleod, who coined the phrase in his speech to Parliament in 1965.

Keynes didn't use the term, but some of his work refers to the conditions most would recognise as stagflation. In the version of Keynesian macroeconomic theory which was dominant between the end of World War II (WWII) and the late-1970s, inflation and recession were regarded as mutually exclusive, the relationship between the two being described by the Phillips curve. Stagflation is very costly and difficult to stop once it starts.

A political measure called the Misery Index is got by adding the inflation rate to the unemployment rate.

This situation usually begins with things beginning to cost more while fewer of the things are being made. Because fewer things are being made, fewer people are needed to make them. This causes unemployment to increase. All three of these factors together cause stagflation — stagnation in production and employment and increasing inflation. It is also because of "cost push" factors. When it begins to cost more to make an item, the price will increase. People will be less likely to invest money in the company. This will lead to more unemployment.

1970s recession
---------------

The 1973–75 recession or 1970s recession was a period of economic stagnation in much of the Western world during the 1970s, putting an end to the general post-World War II economic boom. It differed from many previous recessions as being a stagflation, where high unemployment coincided with high inflation.
The north transept rose of Chartres Cathedral. It represents the Virgin Mary as Queen of Heaven, surrounded by Biblical kings and prophets. The window includes the arms of France and Castile
**Stained glass** is glass coloured by adding metallic salts when it is made. The coloured glass is made into **stained glass windows**. Small pieces of glass are arranged to form patterns or pictures. The glass is held together by strips of lead and supported by a rigid frame.

Painted details and yellow stain are often used to improve the design. The term stained glass is also applied to windows in which the colours have been painted onto the glass and then fused to the glass in a kiln.

Stained glass is much used in Christian art but other themes are not rare. It is still popular today, and often called art glass. It is often used in luxury homes and commercial buildings.

Some colours are added to stained glass by the salts of:

* Copper: metal gives dark red glass
* Gold: metal in tiny amounts (0.001%) produces ruby red glass
* Silver, usually silver nitrate, gives range of red to yellow colours
* Cobalt: brilliant blue
* Manganese dioxide: green
* Iron(II) oxide: blue-green
* Chromium: dark green

* De Stijl abstraction by Theo van Doesburg, Netherlands (1917): an example of modern art in glassDe Stijl abstraction by Theo van Doesburg, Netherlands (1917): an example of modern art in glass
* The Bald Eagle, Dryden High School, USA. Dynamic figures are unusual in stained glassThe *Bald Eagle*, Dryden High School, USA. Dynamic figures are unusual in stained glass
Sketch of a Parabolic Trough Collector system.
There are several **Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert** which supply power to the electricity grid. Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to nine solar power plants in the Mojave Desert which were built in the 1980s. These plants have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts (MW) making them the largest solar power installation in the world. Nevada Solar One is a new solar thermal plant with a 64 MW generating capacity, near Boulder City, Nevada. There are also plans to build other large solar plants in the Mojave Desert. The Mojave Solar Park will deliver 553 MW of solar thermal power when fully operational in 2011.

Insolation (solar radiation) in the Mojave Desert is among the best available in the United States, and some big groups of people are in the area. This makes the Mojave Desert particularly suitable for solar power plants. These plants can generally be built in a few years because solar plants are built almost entirely with modular, readily available materials.
**The Human League** is a British pop music band from Sheffield. The Human League has 3 members: Philip Oakey, Joanne Catherall, and Susan Ann Sulley. The band originally had 6 members. The other 3 members were Ian Burden, Jo Callis, and Philip Adrian Wright. They all left The Human League in the late 1980s.

The Human League started in 1977 and they had their greatest success during the 1980s. They continue to make new music today. Philip Oakey, the band's singer, is the only Human League member that has been with the band since it started. The other 2 members, Joanne Catherall and Susan Ann Sulley, joined The Human League in 1980.

The Human League has made 10 albums. Their newest album is called "Credo" and it was released in March 2011. Some of The Human League's hit songs are "Don't You Want Me", "Keep Feeling Fascination", "The Lebanon" and "Human".

Albums
------

Below is a list of all the albums by The Human League.

* *Reproduction* (1979)
* *Travelogue* (1980)
* *Dare* (1981)
* *Fascination* (1983)
* *Hysteria* (1984)
* *Crash* (1986)
* *Romantic* (1990)
* *Octopus* (1995)
* *Secrets* (2001)
* *Credo* (2011)
**Technical writing** is communication about technical and occupational fields. The Society for Technical Communication (STC) defines technical writing as any form of communication that is: 

1. communicating about technical or specialized topics, such as computer applications, medical procedures, or environmental regulations; or
2. providing instructions about how to do something, regardless of the task's technical nature.

The audience is a vital part of the writing. If, say, writing medical instructions to help patients and care-providers, the writing might be for doctors & nurses; lay people with a good general education; or poorly-educated people. The writing would be quite different in each case. For example:

"Match level of technical discussion and formality to intended purpose and audience. For audience, consider education, professional experience, reading level, and motivations. Use clear and simple diction to make writing accessible to readers for whom English is not their first language".
Technical writing communicates visually as well as verbally. A communication should follow an overall logic. One approach is descriptive, such as "Parts of a car engine". Another is the problem-solver: "How to change tyres". Practical encyclopedias usually inform and have how to do it sections. Medical encyclopedias are a good example. A medical encyclopedia provides information to readers about health questions.

People have always needed how-to guides, which appeared in manuscripts before the arrival of print.
***The Hunchback of Notre Dame*** (the Microsoft Windows version is known as ***The Hunchback of Notre Dame: Topsy Turvy Games***) is a game that was released in 1996 by Disney Interactive for Microsoft Windows and Game Boy. It was the second title in the company's GameBreak! series after GameBreak! Timon and Pumbaa's Jungle Games. Tiertex adapted the game for SNES, Game Boy, and Super Game Boy, which were published by THQ.

Gameplay
--------

Mobygames describes the gameplay thus:

> It starts with a colourful, really animated, and festive introduction. The environment is the Notre Dame Cathedral front yard, where the festival and games take place. Sounds and music from the movie are always there. The games are presented by those three funny Disney's gargoyles, which may also give some support. Games can be played by one or two players bringing more fun when with family and friends. Escalating levels challenge players of all ages! But there is also an option for difficulty. Riddles, cream battles, bowling, are some of the topics of the games included.
> 
>

Critical reception
------------------

*Coming Soon* Magazine gave the game 87 out of 100, concluding "Although Hunchback of Notre Dame was first designed for children, the game might appeal as well for adults with its remarkable design. Not only do the graphics look sterling, but also the soundtrack plays admirably with the original music from the film. At no time you will get bored in the game. The hilarious commentaries from the gargoyles will keep you awake, and even the loading sequences feature small animations. Rarely has a game for children been so well made, and no doubt it will be another smash hit for Disney Interactive." *Entertainment Weekly* described it as having less "charm and originality" than Savoy Pictures' *The Adventures of Pinocchio*, ultimately giving it a B-

Electric Playground gave the game a score of 8 out of 10.
Two actions on a stack: push and pop.
The **stack** is one of the most important data structures in computer science. To understand how a stack works, think of a deck of playing cards that is face down. We can only easily access the card that is on top. When we want to look at the top card, there are two things we can do: we can peek at it, but leave it on the stack, or we can pop it off. When we pop off the top object, we are taking it off the stack. If we want to add another card to the top of the stack, we push. 

A stack is called a last-in-first-out (LIFO) collection. This means that the last thing we added (pushed) is the first thing that gets pulled (popped) off. If the last card we put on our stack of cards was an ace, then the first card we pulled from the top is that same ace.

History
-------

The stack was first proposed in 1955, and then patented in 1957, by the German Friedrich L. Bauer. The same concept was developed independently, at around the same time, by the Australian Charles Leonard Hamblin.

Other operations
----------------

In modern computer languages, the stack is usually implemented with more operations than just "push" and "pop". Some implementations have a function which returns the current length of the stack. Another typical helper operation is "top" (also known as "peek"), which can return the current top element of the stack without removing it. Another common operation is "dup," which makes a copy of the element at the top of the stack.

Related pages
-------------

* Stack machine
Watling Street
**Watling Street** is the name of an ancient route in England. It was first used by the Ancient Britons between Canterbury and St Albans. 

Later the Romans made it one of the main Roman roads in Britain. The Romans paved the route from London to the port of Dover, and from London to St Albans. 'Street' comes from the old word for paving. Eventually, the road stretched to Caerwent in Wales on the Severn estuary, just west of Chepstow.

Its route is now covered by the A2 road from Dover to London, and the A5 road from London to Wroxeter (Roman *Viriconium*, in modern Shropshire). These are major roads in England, which still exist alongside the modern motorways. 

Mancetter on Watling Street is thought to be the site of Boudica's defeat by the Romans. Later, the A5 was part of the southwestern border of the Danelaw. In the early 19th century, the course between London and the Channel was paved and became known as the Great Dover Road. At various points along the historic route, the name Watling Street is still used. JAMES STYLES
IBM employees testing Watson
**Watson** is an artificially intelligent computer system that can answer questions asked in a natural language. It was made by IBM to compete on the American television game show *Jeopardy!*. In February 2011, Watson played as a contestant on *Jeopardy!* against past champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. Watson won the first place prize of $1 million. It was named after Thomas J. Watson, who was the chairman and chief executive officer of IBM from 1914 to 1956.

During a game, Watson had access to 200 million pages of content, including the full text of Wikipedia. Sources of information for Watson included encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauri, news articles, and books. It was not connected to the internet, meaning that it had to use what was in its system to answer clues. For each clue, Watson's three most likely responses were displayed on the television screen along with its amount of confidence in those answers. If its confidence in a response was high enough, it would ring in to give the response.

After *Jeopardy!*, Watson continued to be part of IBM's research in artificial intelligence. On new problems such as medical records and genetics, Watson technology was unable to compete with new methods such as deep learning.

Other websites
--------------

* Watson homepage
* About Watson on Jeopardy.com
* Smartest Machine on Earth (PBS NOVA documentary about the making of Watson)
**Viktor Soczava** (born June 20, 1905, Pargolovo; died December 29, 1978, Komarovo) was a Soviet geographer, geobotanist and landscape scientist. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1968) and the founder of the Siberian Geographic School. He was also the creator of the doctrine of geosystems in geographical science.

He worked as a landscape scientist and was the founder of the Siberian School of Geography. He proposed the geosystem theory as a refinement of the landscape theories of Lev S. Berg, Humboldt and Vasily Dokuchaev on the basis of the general systems theory.

Works
-----

SOCZAVA, V.B. Por uma Teoria de classificação de geossistemas da vida terrestre. Biogeografia, n.14. IGUSP. São Paulo. 1978. 23 p.

Other websites
--------------


Wikispecies has information on: ***Viktor Borisovich Sochava***.

* Valerian A. Snytko, Alexey V. Sobisevich Scientific path of Viktor Borisovich Sochava and his contributions for landscape analysis // Revista do Instituto Geológico, São Paulo, 41 (3), 1-7, 2020. P. 1-7.

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Soviet Union stamp catalogueSoviet Union stamp commemorating the 100th anniversary of the *Manifesto*
***The Manifesto of the Communist Party*** (**German**: *Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei*), more commonly known as ***The Communist Manifesto***, is a short book. It was written by the German Marxist-Engelist political theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848. The book was originally written in the German language. Since it was first published, it became one of the world's most influential and controversial political manuscripts, and has been translated into many languages. The book is about analyzing approaches to class struggles (from both the past and present), and problems with capitalism.

The book does not talk about or predict how communism would be in the future. It is a mixture of both Marx and Engels' theories and opinions on society and politics. It also has their written ideas of how the capitalist society of their time would be replaced by dictatorship of the proletariat, and after that, communism. Especially by the abolition of private property and child labour and by making means of production common, strong progressive income tax and free education for all.

The manuscript of the book is registered in the Memory of the World Programme together with the volume I of *The Capital* by Karl Marx in June 2013.
**Wales (West and North) Television** seen by viewers as **Teledu Cymru** and often called **WWN** was ITV franchise for North and West Wales. It was the first ITV station to lose its franchise. The name Teledu Cymru that was seen on screens was Welsh for Television Wales. The station was awarded the franchise on the 6 June 1961. WWN started broadcasting on 14 September 1962 and ended on 26 January 1964. The station ended broadcasting due to financial failure.After the failure of WWN, the franchise region was merged with South Wales and the West, served by TWW (Television Wales and the West) but the name Teledu Cymru would be used in the former region. On 20 May 1968, the Teledu Cymru name was dropped, due to Harlech taking over the franchise.

History
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The geography of Wales was a problem for the Independent Television Authority (ITA). The more inhabited South was already served by Television Wales and the West, which started in 1958, while the north east and a lot of the north coast was served by Granada and ABC, started in 1956. The central regions of north wales couldn't obtain ITV programmes.

The ITA was pressured by a group of Welsh-speaking businessmen to setup a North and West Wales region. The ITA asked the Postmaster General to allow it, which he did with conditions. 

The conditions were:

1. The service must not offer a choice that other viewers did not.
2. The station should produce ten hours a week of programmes in Welsh, without using the Welsh language programmes from TWW, ABC or Granada.

These conditions were accepted by the ITA. On 6 June 1961, the contract was given to Wales Television Limited. The name was changed to Wales (West and North) Television Limited following opposition from TWW.

The station was to use three VHF transmitters, Preseli (for the south west), Arfon (for the north west) and Moel-y-Parc (for the north east). The Preseli station was finished in 14 September 1962. WWN launched the same day as the Preseli transmitter, becoming the last original ITV station to start broadcasting. The Arfon and Moel-y-parc transmitters were delayed until later 1963, causing damage to workers morale and WWN's profits. The free programming from the ITV network, plus support from their neighbours, ABC, ATV and TWW were able to barely keep the station up and running. The fatal problem was when Granada Television stopped production of all Welsh programming, stopping an important stream of money to WWN. In May 1963, WWN stopped production of local programming and turned their studio into a master control station until they could find a successor to WWN.
**Regent's University London** is a private, not-for-profit university in London. It is one of six private teaching institutions in the United Kingdom which can award degrees.

It offers dual American and British programmes. It is the second oldest but largest private university in the country. The university has 15% of applicants from the UK, 10% from the United States and the rest from all over the world. Fees are about £14,000 a year for undergraduate courses.

Regent's University London has its campus in Regent's Park, central London. It was built on the site of South Villa, one of the original eight Regent's Park villas. Regent's occupies buildings left by the former Bedford College of the University of London. Bedford College merged with Royal Holloway College, and moved out of London into Surrey.

Regent's has a second campus in Marylebone, called Regent's Marylebone. There it runs the Regents School of Fashion and Design, a range of qualifications in fashion design, marketing, interior design and visual communication.
A **variety show** is a show that features a variety of performing acts. These may include actors, musicians and singers, acrobats and jugglers, animal trainers, magicians, comedians, puppeteers, and other kinds of performers.

Ed Sullivan hosted a long-running variety show on CBS, from the 1940s to the early 1970s. The Smothers Brothers hosted a comedy/variety show in the late 1960s. Other performers hosted successful variety shows through the years.

Variety shows were a good "breaking ground" for new acts, in the early years of television. They were also useful to established performers, to give them steady work and regular exposure to audiences.

Interest in the format lessened in the United States during the 1970s. Dolly Parton tried to start a new variety show in the 1980s, but it did not last. Performance competition shows, like *The Gong Show*, *Star Search*, and today *American Idol* became the new breaking ground for performers.

The variety show format is still sometimes imitated by 
ensemble
 comedy programs. Television talk shows carry much of the spirit of variety shows, in offering a variety of entertainers to appear.
In music, the word variation is to play a piece of music and change the notes or add parts into it but also making it sound like the piece of music in another way.

Many composers wrote pieces which are examples of theme and variation. Sometimes the theme is one they made up, at other times they took a theme that another composer had already written and then made variations on it.

There are lots of ways of varying a tune, and each variation will change it in a different way. A variation may play the tune much faster or much slower, it may change the tune by adding extra sharps and flats or other ornamental notes, or by playing the tune in octaves. It may change the harmony or the rhythm or use different instruments. It may combine the tune in different parts (counterpoint).

History in music
----------------

Composers have used variations in music for centuries. In the Renaissance and Baroque periods composers wrote variations on a short tune in the bass which was repeated again and again. This was called a ground bass or sometimes it was a passacaglia or chaconne. Renaissance composers also liked writing what they called "divisions". This meant varying a tune by playing it, for example, at twice the speed or half the speed etc. so that crotchets (quarter notes) became minims (half notes) or quavers (eighth notes).

George Frideric Handel wrote a famous set of variations for harpsichord called *Harmonious Blacksmith*, and Johann Sebastian Bach wrote the *Goldberg Variations*, which was a set of 30 variations: a very long piece of music. It was written for a man who found it difficult to sleep at night, so he would ask his harpsichord player, whose name was Goldberg, to play to him.

Many composers from the Classical, Romantic and 20th century classical music periods wrote sets of variations. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote several, one of which was based on a French folktune which we know in Britain as "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star". Beethoven wrote several wonderful sets of variations. Many of them were for piano, but he also used the form in other pieces e.g. the slow movement of his Ninth Symphony. Schubert often wrote variations on tunes from his own songs.

Other composers who wrote variations include Brahms, Elgar, Schoenberg, and Britten.
***The Islands*** is a 2019 feature movie. It was produced by Timothy A. Chey. The movie is based on the life of Chiefess Kapi'olani of Hawai'i.

Plot
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Kapi’olani was a young woman of Hawaiian royalty. In 1821, American missionaries taught her Christianity. Over time, she accepts it. The local religion had a tradition. The goddess Pe’le required a human sacrifice. One of the Americans, Hiram Bingham, offered himself in place of a local. Noting Bingham's faith and courage, Kapi’olani decided to prove her faith in her new religion. To do so, she defied local tradition. 
She walked 60 miles (97 km) to Pe’le's volcano at Kilauea. She said a Christian prayer. Then she walked down into the volcano's main vent. She did not die. She became a powerful leader. She converts her people to Christianity.

Kapi’olani was one of the first Hawaiians to learn to read and write. She was the first Hawaiian to build a church.

Credits
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### Cast

Teuira Shanti Napa as Kapi’olani   

Mira Sorvino as Mary Thornton   

Ricky Sua’ava as Alika Kalawaia   

John Savage as Henry Thornton   

Michael Camp as Hiram Bingham   

Malia Marquez as Kanoa Palakiko  

### Director

Timothy A. Chey

### Distributor

Rover Rain

Rating
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PG 13

Critical reception
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The critical reception was mixed but mostly positive. David Jackson of Newswire wrote, "The Islands is a Landmark Piece in the World of Cinema," and called it "a true work of cinematic brilliance". And Umar Saeed wrote, "This story is perfect for all ages and ideal for group and family entertainment too." Marketwatch, on the other hand, found the plot not well carried out and the acting below par.

### Awards

Hawaii Film Critics Society 2020
Nominated for Best Hawaii Film. Did not win.
Modern reconstruction of *Platecarpus tympaniticus*  showing crescent-shaped tail fluke
**Mosasaurs** were large, predatory marine lizards of the Upper Cretaceous. The first fossil Mosasaur, *Mosasaurus hoffmanni*, was found in the Netherlands in 1776.p7 It was named in 1822 by W.D. Conybeare.

For the last 20 million years of the Cretaceous period after the extinction of the ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs, mosasaurs became the dominant marine predators. They became extinct at the K-Pg event at the end of the Cretaceous period, about 66 million years ago.

Discovery and interpretation
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The first specimen was found in a chalk quarry in Maastricht, Holland. It was found by a German army surgeon, Johann Hoffmann, who collected fossils for the Haarlem Museum. During a struggle for ownership, the skeletal parts went to the museum, whilst the skull stayed with the owner of the land, who refused to let anyone see it.

The true identity of the monster was explained by Georges Cuvier. In 1795 French troops were outside Maastricht, and Cuvier arranged for the large skull to be saved when they stormed the town.

Habitat
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Thousands of fossils have been found, from every continent. There are about 40 known species. Most skeletons have been found in North America in chalk laid down in the Western Interior Seaway.

An interesting fact is that ichthyosaurs had died out by the middle of the Upper Cretaceous, and plesiosaurs and sea-going crocodiles were in decline. The reasons for this are not known. It is this large marine predator niche that mosasaurs occupied. They flourished in the later Cretaceous, only to become extinct at the K/T extinction event.

Size
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*Plioplatecarpus primaevus* skull at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History.
The type species was estimated to be 33' (10m) long. *Mosasaurus* had four paddle-like limbs on a long, streamlined body and a long, powerful tail. The large head had huge jaws, up to 4 ft (1.2 m long) with many teeth. The jaws could open about 3 feet (1 m). The lower jaw is loosely hinged to the skull with a moveable joint on each side (behind the teeth). This loose joint let it swallow huge prey. They would have hunted fish, turtles, molluscs, and shellfish. Ammonites have been found bearing mosasaur teeth marks.

The smallest-known mosasaur was *Carinodens belgicus*, which was about 3.0 metres (9.8 ft) to 3.5 metres (11 ft) long and probably lived in shallow waters near shore, cracking molluscs and sea urchins with its bulbous teeth. Larger mosasaurs were more typical: mosasaurs ranged in size up to 17 metres (56 ft). *Hainosaurus* holds the record for longest mosasaur, at 17.5 metres (57 ft).

The large size of mosasaurs, like whales, meant they were more likely to be warm-blooded than cold-blooded.

Other genera
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Many other genera of mosasaur have since been found, for example, *Tylosaurus*. *Mosasaurus maximus* was found at Onion Creek, Texas. All have the same general body style and pattern of life, though some, like *Prognathodon*, had crushing teeth for dealing with shellfish. Present thought is that their closest living relatives are the monitor lizards.