recursal/SuperWikiNEXT-32B huggingface dataset:
*There is also a regularly-erupting geyser named Old Faithful near Calistoga, California.*
Old Faithful Geyser during an eruption
**Old Faithful** is a cone geyser in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, in the United States. Old Faithful was named in 1870 and was the first geyser in the park to get a name.

Eruptions
---------

Eruptions can shoot 3,700 to 8,400 U.S. gallons (14–32 kL) of boiling water to a height of 106–184 feet (30–55 m) lasting from 1.5 to 5 minutes. The average height of an eruption is 145 feet (44 m).
Eruptions often occur about 90 minutes away from each other, but this difference in time can range from 45 to 125 minutes on occasion.
More than 137,000 eruptions have been recorded. Harry M. Woodward first described the relationship between the duration and intervals of the eruptions in 1938). Old Faithful is not the highest or biggest geyser in the park; that title belongs to the less predictable Steamboat Geyser.

Increasing interval
-------------------

Over the years, the difference in time has increased, which may be the result of earthquakes changing underground water levels. These disruptions have made the earlier relationship inaccurate, but have made Old Faithful more predictable. With an error of 10 minutes, Old Faithful will erupt 65 minutes after an eruption lasting less than 2.5 minutes or 92 minutes after an eruption lasting more than 2.5 minutes. The reliability of Old Faithful is because it is not connected to any other thermal features of the Geothermal areas of Yellowstone| Upper Geyser Basin]].

Measurement
-----------

Between 1983 and 1994, four probes containing temperature and pressure measurement devices and video equipment were lowered into Old Faithful. The probes were lowered as deep as 72 feet (22 m). Temperature measurements of the water at this depth was 244 °F (118 °C), the same as was measured in 1942. The video probes were lowered to a maximum depth of 42 feet (13 m) to observe the conduit formation and the processes that took place in the conduit. Some of the processes observed include fog formation from the interaction of cool air from above mixing with heated air from below, the recharge processes of water entering into the conduit and expanding from below, and entry of superheated steam measuring as high as 265 °F (129 °C) into the conduit.

Other websites
--------------

* Old Faithful Geyser Webcam
* Time Lapse movie of Old Faithful Geyser Webcam Archived 2006-11-17 at the Wayback Machine
* A day in the life of Old Faithful Geyser, as timelapse video at YouTube
* Old Faithful Archived 2006-08-20 at the Wayback Machine information at the All Yellowstone site.
* Video Of Old Faithful Archived 2007-08-20 at the Wayback Machine at Nationalgeographic.com
* Old Faithful Widget Dashboard / Konfabulator widget for Mac or Windows.
* "Old Faithful Geyser Movies". Archived from the original on December 17, 2005. Retrieved September 18, 2005.

Coordinates: 44°27′38″N 110°49′41″W﻿ / ﻿44.4605°N 110.8281°W﻿ / 44.4605; -110.8281
Old-growth European Beech forest in Biogradska Gora National Park, Montenegro
An **old-growth forest** (also called primary forest, virgin forest, primeval forest, late seral forest, or in Britain, ancient woodland) is a forest that has reached a great age without much disturbance.

It has unique ecological features, and might be classified as a climax community. Old-growth features include various tree-related structures. These provide wildlife habitats which increase the bio-diversity of the forested ecosystem.

Usually old-growth forests have multi-layered, open canopies. The interwoven canopy often blocks sunlight from reaching lower trees or the forest floor. The old forests also include varied tree heights and diameters, with large fallen logs (or tree trunks) across the forest floor. In Europe, less than 7% of forests are old-growth, as mainly due to industrial logging in the 20th century. In the United States, estimates are that only 10% of old-growth forests remain. In Asia old-growth forests are sometimes lost in regional conflicts.
For the American composer, see Walter Piston.
For the use of the term in optics, see piston (optics).
Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, DOHC piston engine. (E) Exhaust camshaft, (I) Intake camshaft, (S) Spark plug, (V) Valves, (P) Piston, (R) Connecting rod, (C) Crankshaft, (W) Water jacket for coolant flow.
In general, a **piston** is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder. Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some combination of these. A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft. Due to the constant motion of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing. If the seal should break during usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine.

Creating force
--------------

There are two ways that a piston engine can transform combustion into motive power. These are two-stroke and four-stroke.

See the main article: Two-stroke engine
See the main article: Four-stroke engine
A single cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four stroke engines. However, modern two-stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection use fuel-injection and are as clean as four-strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-story houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four stroke engine has to be larger than a two stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance. Even though the simplest two stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, and cooling and reliability should improve considerably.

External combustion engine
--------------------------

A steam engine is another type of piston engine. In most steam engines, the pistons are *double acting*: steam is alternately admitted to either end of the cylinder, so that every piston stroke produces power.

Gallery
-------

* A pistonA piston
* Simplified piston animation.Simplified piston animation.

Related pages
-------------


The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for:

 ***piston***.

* Wankel engine (an internal combustion engine with a rotary 'piston')
Picnic at the Meiji Shrine in Tokyo
Picnic by the sea, using a picnic table in Florida
A **picnic** is an event to eat outdoors, have a break, enjoy the warm sunshine, and have fun in a free time. It is usually held in a park or other open places. People bring the food for picnics in lunch boxes or in picnic baskets. Food for picnics is prepared on location such as by grilling, or at home.  After the meal, people often play games and sports, for example, playing catch, badminton and Frisbee. As at other parties, some like to create their own original foods and games.A lakeside, park or other places with interesting view is perfect for a picnic. In picnic, we often get the freshness of the nature.

History
-------

In the 12th century, a picnic was described in the Persian poetry of *The Rubaiyat*:

"A book of verse beneath the bough,  

A loaf of bread, a jug of wine, and thou   

Beside me singing in the Wilderness –   

Ah, wilderness were paradise enough!"
— Omar Khayyam
In 1800, the Picnic Society in London was organized by people who met from time to time to dine together.

In art
------

*Le déjeuner sur l'herbe* by Édouard Manet
A famous painting of a picnic is *Le déjeuner sur l'herbe* (*The Luncheon on the Grass*). It was painted in 1862 by the French artist Édouard Manet.

Related pages
-------------

* Hanami
* Bento
The **Police Service of Northern Ireland** (**PSNI**) (Irish: *Seirbhís Póilíneachta Thuaisceart Éireann*) is the police service that covers Northern Ireland. It was started on 4 November 2001. The old police service for Northern Ireland was the Royal Ulster Constabulary. The service is based in Cherryvalley, east Belfast. The current Chief Constable is Simon Byrne. The old Chief Constables were Sir Hugh Orde OBE,Sir Ronnie Flanagan OBE and Colin Cramphorn.

Support for the police
----------------------

All the big political parties in Northern Ireland support the PSNI. Earlier, the political party Sinn Féin, who have many supporters, did not support the police. But after the St Andrews Agreement they decided to support them after a special Ard Fheis about the police on 28 January 2007.
In September 2005 the PSNI started the Historical Enquiries Team to help solve 3,269 murders that happened during the Troubles. The Northern Ireland Policing Board make sure that the PSNI are fair and do a good job. The Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland investigates complaints about the police. The current Police Ombudsman is Al Hutchinson. The last Ombudsman was Nuala O'Loan. She was the Ombudsman until November 2007.

Number of Roman Catholics in the PSNI
-------------------------------------

The PSNI gives 50% of its jobs to Roman Catholics and 50% of its jobs to people who are not Roman Catholic. This is because many people think there are not enough Roman Catholics in the PSNI. By 2006, 20% of PSNI policemen were Roman Catholic. Only 8.3% of policemen in the old Royal Ulster Constabulary were Roman Catholic. About 30% of the force will be Roman Catholics by 2011.

Uniform and symbols
-------------------

The colour of the PSNI uniform is green. The PSNI badge has Saint Patrick's saltire on it and six other symbols. They are the scales of justice, the harp, the torch, the olive branch, the shamrock and a crown.
The flag of the PSNI is the badge in the centre of a dark green field.

Related pages
-------------

* Police force statistics for Northern Ireland

Other websites
--------------

* Police Service of Northern Ireland
* Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland website
* PSNI Roll of Honour Archived 2008-06-20 at the Wayback Machine
**Pelycosaurs** (meaning "basin lizards") were the earliest synapsids. They were not dinosaurs or reptiles. They are an informal group which were once called the "mammal-like reptiles". 
The term is only used informally, if at all, in the modern scientific literature.

These tetrapods appeared during the Pennsylvanian and went extinct at the end of the Permian period. They were the dominant land animals for some 40 million years, and were almost wiped out by the P/Tr extinction event. A few survived until the lower Triassic to form the therapsids. The therapsids led to the mammals. 

Because the term "Pelycosaur" does not include their descendants, it is not used much now.

The most notable of these land animals was *Dimetrodon*, the top predator of its time.

Characteristics
---------------

Pelycosaur fossils have been found mainly in Europe and North America, although some small, late-surviving forms are known from Russia and South Africa.

At least two pelycosaur clades independently evolved a tall sail of elongated vertebral spines. In life, this would have been covered by skin, and possibly was a thermoregulatory device and/or a mating display. 
Unlike lepidosaurian reptiles, pelycosaurs lacked epidermal scales. 

In 1940 the group was reviewed in detail and every species known at the time described (and many illustrated) in an important monograph. Well-known pelycosaurs include the genera *Dimetrodon*, *Sphenacodon*, *Edaphosaurus*, and *Ophiacodon*.

Classification
--------------

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Pelycosauria** | 

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sphenacodontia | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | *Sphenacodontoidea* |
|  |
|  | *Ophiacodontidae* |
|  |
|  | *Varanopidae* |
|  |

 |
|  |
| Caseasauria | 

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | *Caseidae* |
|  |
|  | *Eothyrididae* |
|  |
|  | Paleohatteriidae |
|  |

 |
|  |

 |
|  |
de Havilland Canada Dash 7 makes its steep approach to LCY from the west as another London City Airways DHC-7 prepares to leave for Amsterdam.
**London City Airport**  is a single-runway airport, intended for use by STOL (short take-off and landing) planes, mainly serving the financial districts of London. It is on a former Docklands site, in the London Borough of Newham in East London. It is near Canary Wharf and the O2 arena in an area called Silvertown.

The airport serves European destinations, though there is one flight to New York JFK airport.

The airport has tough rules to limit the noise from aircraft operations. This limits the aircraft types that can be used, and so does the length of the runway and the steep glideslope. The steep 5.5 degree approache requires special training for crew. Only multi-engine, fixed-wing aircraft with special crew and aircraft certification can operate at London City Airport. London City Airport has a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence (Number P728). 

London City Airport was developed by the engineering company Mowlem in 1986/87. It is the fifth-largest international airport in size serving the London area, after Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton. London City Airport claims lower check-in times than any other airport in London.

The airport has produced a master plan outlining their vision for growth up to 2030. The plan shows a phased expansion of the airport to a maximum capacity of 8 million passengers per annum, without the addition of a second runway, or significant expansion of the current airport boundaries.

London City Airport was purchased in October 2006 by a consortium comprising AIG Financial Products Corp. and Global Infrastructure Partners (GIP) for an undisclosed sum. Speculation suggests the sale was valued at over £750 million. In 2007, London City Airport had 2.9 million passengers; by 2017 this had risen to 4,530,439.

* Helicopters use another airport called London Heliport.
*This article is about the transportation of illegal liquor. For the computer use of the term bootlegging see Copyright infringement of software.*
Rum runner sloop "Kirk and Sweeney" with alcohol stacked on deck
**Rum-running**, or **bootlegging**, is the illegal business of taking alcoholic beverages where they are against the law. It is usually done to evade taxation or prohibition laws.

*Rum-running* usually means smuggling over water. The term is thought to come from the start of the Prohibition era in the United States. This is when ships from Bimini in the western Bahamas transported cheap rum to Florida to be sold illegally. But there was little profit in cheap rum. They soon started smuggling Canadian whisky, French champagne, and English gin to major cities like New York City and Boston. This gave them a high profit. It was said that some ships carried $200,000 worth of alcohol in a single trip.

*Bootlegging* usually means smuggling over land. It is thought the term "bootlegging" started during the American Civil War. Soldiers would sneak liquor into army camps by hiding bottles of liquor in their boots or under their trouser legs.
Novaya Zemlya
**Novaya Zemlya** (Russian: Но́вая Земля́) is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean in the north of Russia and the extreme northeast of Europe. The archipelago is made of a north island and a south island; it separates the Barents Sea from the Kara Sea. There is a narrow channel, called Matochkin Strait that separates the two islands. Both islands together are about 900 km long; they are between 470 and 1150 km north of the Arctic Circle. Today, 2716 people live on the islands. 2622 of them live in the capital *Belushya Guba* (on the south island)

The Russians knew of Novaya Zemlya from the 11th century, when hunters from Novgorod visited the area.

Novaya Zemlya is the northern part of the Ural Mountains and the interior is mountainous throughout. The northern island contains many glaciers, while the southern one has a tundra landscape.

In July 1954, Novaya Zemlya was designated the Novaya Zemlya Test Site. It was used as a test site throughout the cold war. In 1961 Tsar Bomba was dropped on the archipelago. The Tsar Bomb was the largest nuclear bomb ever made at 50 Mt. By contrast, the largest weapon ever produced by the United States, the now-decommissioned B41, had a predicted maximum yield of 25 Mt.

Other websites
--------------


Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***Novaya Zemlya***.

* Selected satellite views of nuclear test site Novaya Zemlya (global security).
* Environment, climate change, and history of exploration (Barents' wintering).
* Rozenberg Publishers - Climate and glacial history of the Novaya Zemlya Archipelago, Russian Arctic Archived 2004-07-19 at the Wayback Machine
* Nuclear tests in Novaya Zemlya, International Atomic Energy Agency Department of Nuclear Safety and Security.

| * v
* t
* e
Administrative divisions of Arkhangelsk Oblast |
| --- |
| Administrative center: **Arkhangelsk** • Rural localities |
| Administrative districts | 
* Kargopolsky
* Kholmogorsky
* Konoshsky
* Kotlassky
* Krasnoborsky
* Lensky
* Leshukonsky
* Mezensky
* Novaya Zemlya
* Nyandomsky
* Onezhsky
* Pinezhsky
* Plesetsky
* Primorsky
* Shenkursky
* Solovetsky
* Ustyansky
* Velsky
* Verkhnetoyemsky
* Vilegodsky
* Vinogradovsky

 |
| Cities and towns | 
* Arkhangelsk
* Kargopol
* Koryazhma
* Kotlas
* Mezen
* Mirny
* Naryan-Mar
* Novodvinsk
* Nyandoma
* Onega
* Severodvinsk
* Shenkursk
* Solvychegodsk
* Velsk

 |
| Urban-type settlements | 
* Belushya Guba
* Bereznik
* Konosha
* Kuloy
* Maloshuyka
* Obozersky
* Oktyabrsky
* Plesetsk
* Privodino
* Savinsky
* Severoonezhsk
* Shipitsyno
* Urdoma
* Vychegodsky

 |
A patrol aircraft (a Lockheed P-3C) of the United States Navy, in 2011
**Naval Aviation** is the air force branch of a navy. Its aircraft can be airplanes and helicopters.

Missions
--------

Missions for naval aviation include: 

* *Maritime patrol*, with aircraft like Lockheed P-3 Orion or Ilyushin Il-38 May. It is for air reconnaissance over oceans and seas. This is looking for enemy warships, and in particular submarines. Weapons are generally torpedoes, missiles, mines, and light rockets.
* *Coastal Survey*, with aircraft like Dassault Falcon 50M or Fokker 50 MPA. It is like maritime patrol, but closer to the coast. Some of the aircraft used are armed.
* *Search and rescue*, with aircraft and helicopters like Aérospatiale SA-321 Super Frelon or Lockheed HC-130 Hercules. It is to find and rescue the victims of accidents at sea. This is done after a shipwreck or in heavy storms.
* *Fighting and air combat*, is the mission of naval fighters that fly from an aircraft carrier. Famous aircraft in 2013 are Dassault Rafale M, and F/A-18 Hornet.
* *Fighting against submarines*, is the mission of naval helicopters like Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk or Mil Mi-14. Weapons are generally torpedoes and mines.

Countries
---------

In 2013 the following countries had a naval aviation: Argentina, Brazil, France, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, Spain, United Kingdom and the United States.

History
-------

Two Vought F-8J Crusader fighters of VF-191
The first naval aviation was the British Royal Naval Air Service, that was created on 13 April 1912. On April 1, 1918 the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps were merged into the Royal Air Force. During World War I and after World War II, naval aviation were used for all kinds of combat missions. Famous battles were Pacific War, Normandy Landings, Dieppe Raid and Battle of Midway. After the World Wars it was used for the Falklands War, the Libyan Civil War, and the Gulf War.

USMC Naval aviation
-------------------

U.S.M.C. aviation was used in World War II,Korean War and the Vietnam War

U.S. Naval aviation
-------------------

U.S. Naval aviation was used in World War II,Korean War and the Vietnam War
**Plural ignorance** or **pluralistic ignorance** is a term which gives a name to a situation where a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but at the same time, they assume incorrectly that most others accept it. The term describes a context in which "no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes."

A context of plural ignorance can be caused by the structure of the underlying social network.

A situation of plural ignorance develops when each individual decision-maker in a group of decision-makers does not have the necessary information to solve a problem.

History
-------

The term *pluralistic ignorance* was coined by Daniel Katz and Floyd H. Allport in 1931.

Plural ignorance may partially explain why people are more likely to intervene in an emergency situation when alone than when other persons are present. If people monitor the reactions of others in such a situation, they may conclude from the inaction of others that other people think that it is not necessary to act.

Related pages
-------------

* The Emperor's New Clothes
* False consensus
* Intensity of preference
Nurse in a picture from a 1907 book
**Rebecca Towne Nurse** (13 February 1621 – July 19, 1692) was a pious 71-year-old grandmother when she was hanged as a witch in Salem Village on July 19, 1692. Her death was the turning point in the Salem Witch Trials. People started to doubt the truthfulness of the girls said to be afflicted and tormented by those arrested and tried for witchcraft.

Life
----

Nurse was born in Great Yarmouth, England in 1621. In 1644, her family settled in Salem Village, Massachusetts Bay Colony (now Danvers, Massachusetts). About 1644, she married Francis Nurse, a tray-maker. The couple were highly esteemed in the colony because few could work wood into trays, cups, mugs, dishes and other useful objects. They had eight children.

The Nurses and the Putnams of Salem had several disputes over land. On March 23, 1692, a warrant was issued for Rebecca's arrest on suspicion of witchcraft. The Putnams were behind the arrest. Many villagers were angry that she had been accused of witchcraft. She was 70 years old and known to be a very pious woman. 

Her trial began on June 30, 1692. Many testified to her good character. The afflicted girls of the community however testified that she was tormenting them. She was found not guilty of witchcraft. Some wanted her found guilty and urged the judges to reconsider their verdict. They did, and she was found guilty.

She was hanged. Her body was buried near the gallows with others who were hanged for witchcraft. In the night, her relatives dug up her body. They buried it on the family homestead. This homestead is now a landmark. Nurse is a character in Arthur Miller's *The Crucible*.
**Nord** (English: *North*) is one of the ten departments (French: *départments*, singular *départment*) of Haiti. After the Haitian Revolution, the country was divided into only three departments: Nord, Ouest and Sud. The Nord-Est and Nord-Ouest departments were part of the Nord department.

Its capital and largest city is Cap-Haïtien, founded in 1670 by Bertrand d'Orgeron and the old capital city of *Saint-Domingue*. It had the nickname of *Paris of Saint-Domingue*.

Geography
---------

The *Départment du Nord* has an area of 2,106 km². It is bordered to the northwest by the Nord-Ouest Department, to the east by the Nord-Est Department, to the southeast by the Centre Department and to the west by the Artibonite Department. The Atlantic Ocean is to the north.

The main rivers of the department are Grande Rivière du Nord, Haut du Cap and Limbé. The rivers Trois-Rivières and Bouyaha have their sources in this department. All these rivers, except Bouyaha that is a tributary of the river Artibonite, flow to the north, into the Atlantic Ocean.

The *Massif du Nord* mountain range, known in the Dominican Republic as *Cordillera Central*, runs from the northwest to the southeast along the southern half of the department. This Massif du Nord is formed by several chains and the most important, in this department, are the *Chaine de la Grande Rivière du Nord* and the 'Chaine de Saint Raphael*.*

The *Pleine du Nord* (in English, "Northern Plain") is in the northern half of the department.

Population
----------

The department had, in the 2003 census, a population of 823,043 persons: 393,547 men and 429,496 women, with 325,318 (39.53%) living in cities and towns.

Administrative division
-----------------------

The department is divided into seven *arrondissements* (like districts) and 19 *communes* (like municipalities). The "arrondissements" and their "communes" are:

1. Acul-du-Nord
	1. Acul-du-Nord
	2. Milot
	3. Plaine-du-Nord
2. Borgne
	1. Borgne
	2. Port-Margot
3. Cap-Haïtien
	1. Cap-Haïtien
	2. Limonade
	3. Quartier-Morin
4. Grand-Rivière du Nord
	1. Grande-Rivière-du-Nord
	2. Bahon
5. Limbé
	1. Limbé
	2. Bas-Limbé
6. Plaissance
	1. Plaisance
	2. Pilate
7. Saint-Raphaël
	1. Saint-Raphaël
	2. Dondon
	3. La Victoire
	4. Pignon
	5. Ranquitte
Coordinates: 33°53′50.81″N 35°30′0.36″E﻿ / ﻿33.8974472°N 35.5001000°E﻿ / 33.8974472; 35.5001000

The Maghen Abraham Synagogue
The **Maghen Abraham Synagogue** is the oldest synagogue in Beirut, the capital of Lebanon.

History
-------

This synagogue was very important to Jewish Lebanese in the early twentieth century. It was built in 1925. It was then named after the son of Abraham Sason. It was used as a place to stay for illegal travelers. Some of the people who traveled without legal papers stayed in the synagogue while going to Palestine. Today, it is now called Israel.

In 1976, a year after the civil war began, Joseph Farhi took the Torah scrolls from the synagogue to Geneva. Most of them were sent to Sephardic synagogues in Israel.

Israel attacked its enemies in Lebanon. This brought anger by other people towards Lebanese Jews. Lebanese Jews became targets to Islamic militant groups since 1984. But even during the fighting, Yasser Arafat's PLO forces and the Christian Phalangists did protect Wadi Abu Jamil during the 1982 Lebanon War. But, the presence of Palestine Liberation Organization forces in the area brought Israeli attacks that damaged the synagogue itself.

The late former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri wanted to rebuild the synagoge, but that never happened. The Talmudic school next to it was broken down. This was to keep view of the beach nearby.

Related pages
-------------

* Deir el Qamar Synagogue (Mount Lebanon)
* Beth Elamen Cemetery
* History of the Jews in Lebanon
* Wadi Abu Jamil

Notes and references
--------------------

1. ↑  In Arabic, the synagogue is called "Kanees Maghen Ibrahim" (كنيس ماغن إبراهيم). But in Hebrew, it is called "Beth HaKenesset Maghen Avraham" (בית הכנסת מגן אברהם).
2. ↑  Levi, Tomer (November 19, 1998). ""Magen-Abraham" synagogue in Beirut, Lebanon". *» History - Maghen Abraham in Lebanon*. Corporation Maghen Abraham Canada. Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
3. ↑  According to the Juifs du Liban.
4. ↑  Tomb, Roland (2004-10-20). "Lament Lebanon's lost tribe". *» History - Jews In Lebanon*. Daily Star (Lebanon). Archived from the original on 2016-08-17. Retrieved 2007-06-27.

Sources
-------

* Karam, Dima (October 2003), Beirut Synagogue is a Reminder of a Departed People Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Star.
* Hendler, Sefi (August 19 2006), Beirut’s last Jews, Ynetnews.
**Pointe du Hoc** is a place in the Normandy in northern France. It has steep cliffs about 100 m high that drop down toward the sea and a very thin beach at the bottom that is underwater at high tide and dry at low tide. It was important during World War II.

In 1944, Pointe du Hoc was part of Operation Overlord, which was the biggest sea invasion in history. During World War II, the Allied military commanders planned how to attack France, which had been captured by the German Wehrmacht. The Germans had put very large guns at Pointe du Hoc. There were six 155mm cannons in concrete forts that could shoot at Allied ships and troops that wanted to come on land at Utah Beach and Omaha Beach. 

Allied planes, flying from England, dropped bombs on Pointe du Hoc. But they did not break the heavy artillery guns, and the Germans moved them away. 

For about five months, the U.S. Rangers trained with British commandos to prepare for their attack on France. They practiced climbing British cliffs. 

Once the Allied commanders decided to attack France, they used flat-bottomed landing craft made to carry troops onto beaches. These special landing boats were called LCA and LCVP's or Higgins boats. British navy sailors sailed them. The boats were lowered into the sea a few kilometers away from the cliffs. The British had added some extra armour to the sides of the boats to protect them. This made it harder for the boats to move fast and turn.

Attack
------

The American 2nd and 5th Army Ranger Divisions attacked the cliffs at Pointe du Hoc. Colonel James Earl Rudder led the attack. The attack started at 6:30 a.m of D-Day, when the battleship USS Texas stopped shooting at Pointe du Hoc. Because the weather was bad, the Rangers' boats drifted in the water and they took an extra half hour to get to the beach. By then, the Germans had come out of their forts and were ready at the top of the cliff.

Place for big German gun
The American landing boats reached the beach, and the Army Rangers ran up the beach to the cliffs. The soldiers used ropes attached to rocket-powered grappling hooks to climb the cliffs. Two soldiers carried the ropes and grappling hooks in a wooden box. The soldiers also used ladders that were attached to landing boats and grappling hooks that were shot up from the boats.

When the Rangers reached the top of the cliffs, small groups of soldiers attacked the Germans. After reaching the forts, where they thought the Germans kept their guns, the Rangers found that the guns were no longer there. The Rangers went inland and searched for the guns and found them. They used thermite fire grenades to melt important parts of the guns. 

Out of 225 soldiers only 90 were still able to fight when reinforcements came.
Meteor scatter propagation as used by SNOTEL
**Meteor burst communication** uses radio waves which bounce off the ionized trails made by meteors as they enter the earth’s atmosphere. It is also called **Meteor scatter communication**.

Meteors are lumps of rock which are floating about in space. There are always meteors which are entering the earth’s atmosphere. They normally burn up in the atmosphere. A few very large ones that hit the earth are called 'meteorites'. Most meteors are only tiny specks of dust. As they enter the atmosphere the heat made by air friction rips off electrons. This produces an ionized trail. This trail can reflect radio waves in the same way that a wire would.

The meteors that are used for meteor burst communication are between one thousandth and one hundredth of a gram. Meteors which are smaller than this are too weak to be used. Larger ones are not frequent enough.

The ionized trail can last for several seconds. During this time messages can be sent between two radio communication stations. The messages will be transmitted very fast: about 200 times as fast as with ordinary shortwave radio communication. A teletypewriter may type several lines of text during a meteor burst. The two stations that want to communicate will have to be ready all the time as they never know when the next burst of communication will come. They may have to use several meteor bursts before the whole message is received. The transmitters are often put on buoys in the sea.

Meteor burst communication was first widely used in the 1950s. It was particularly useful for military communications, because a receiver could not tell exactly which direction the message had come from. This was because the message was reflected on the way, so it did not travel in a straight line (i.e. in a simple great circle round the earth’s curve).

The use of communications satellites in the late 20th century has made meteor burst communication rare.
Bhutanese painted thanka of Milarepa
**Milarepa** (c. 1052—1135) is the most famous yogi, poet and Buddhist saint of Tibet. A collection of his teachings in the form of poetic songs called *The Hundred Thousand songs of Milarepa*, and his biography *The Life of Milarepa* are two of the most popular books in Tibet.

Milarepa was a student of **Marpa** and the teacher of **Gampopa**. Together these three (Marpa, Milarepa and Gampopa) are considered to be the founders of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism.

Life
----

Milarepa was born in the village of Kya Ngatsa in the Gungthang province of western Tibet to a family of farmers. He was named Mila Thöpaga, which means *"Mila, a joy to hear.*" When his father died, Milarepa's uncle and aunt took all of the family's wealth and property and mistreated Milarepa, his mother and sister. At his mother's urging, Milarepa left home and studied magic so that he could take revenge on his uncle and aunt.

While his aunt and uncle were having a party to celebrate the marriage of their son, Mila took his revenge by summoning a great hail storm to demolish their house, which killed 35 people. The villagers were angry and set off to look for Milarepa, but his mother got word to him and he sent anther hailstorm to destroy their crops.

Mila later came to regret his evil actions and so became determined to practice the Buddha's teachings. Setting out to find a teacher, he was eventually led to Marpa the translator. Marpa proved a harsh task master. Before Marpa would teach Mila, he had him build and then demolish three towers in turn and go through many other trials. Eventually Mila was granted the teachings of the Six Yogas of Naropa and Mahamudra. After practicing these teacings very diligently for twelve years in remote Himalayan caves of Tibet and Nepal, Mila attained the complete enlightenment. He is said to be the first to achieve this state within one lifetime. During his meditation practice he ate mostly nettle soup which made his skin turn green, and wore only a single cotton robe. He became known as Milarepa, which means the "Mila, the cotton clad one".

Later Milarepa become a wandering teacher and attracted many disciples, of whom the most well known were Rechungpa and Gampopa. Rechungpa followed the yogic lifestyle of his teacher while Gampopa, a Kadampa monk, eventually established a monastery a Daglha Gampo which became the first Kagyu institution. Later Gampopa's immediate disciples and their successors established the various branches of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism.

Further reading
---------------

* *The Life of Milarepa*, translated by Andrew Quintman, Penguin Classics, 2010, ISBN 978-0143106227
* *The Life of Milarepa*, translated by Lobsang P. Lhalungpa, Book Faith India, 1997, ISBN 81-7303-046-4
* *Milarepa, The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa*, translated by Garma C.C. Chang, City Lights Books, 1999, ISBN 1-57062-476-3
18th century card table in mahogany, American made
18th century armchair, American made
**Mahogany** is a hard tropical wood from the Americas. It was discovered by Europeans early in the 16th century (~1514). The wood comes from a tree, *Swietenia mahagoni*. The tree is native to southern Florida and islands in the Caribbean including the Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola.

At first, mahogany was used by the Spanish and English to build ships.
Mark Catesby's *Natural History* explains why: 
  
"[Mahogany] has properties for that use excelling oak, and all other wood, viz. durableness, resisting gunshots, and burying the shot without splintering".

The second use for mahogany was to make furniture. The Spanish were first to do this, but in the 18th and early 19th century it was much used by English workshops. This period is called "Age of Mahogany". Also much furniture in mahogany was made in France and other European countries.

It has a few special characteristics that make mahogany a helpful wood. It is strong and durable but easy to bend so is especially helpful for carpenters. Mahogany trees, although endangered, grow very tall and are so may be cut into large sheets. Also, mahogany is resistant to stains.
Reader's Digest Logo
***Reader's Digest*** is a family magazine for general interest. It is published 10 times a year. Reader's Digest has 50 editions in 21 languages. Because of that, it has an additional 40 million readers in more than 70 countries. It is also published in Braille, digital, audio, and a version in large type called *Reader's Digest Large Print*. The magazine is small in size. Its pages is roughly half the size of most American magazines. Because of that, its U.S. edition adopted the motto, "America in your pocket", in 2005. However, it was then changed to "Life well shared" in January 2008. Reader's Digest has a total sales of 17 million copies, making it the largest paid circulation magazine in the world. Its headquarters was at first in Chappaqua, New York, but it is now in New York City. It was founded by DeWitt Wallace and Lila Bell Wallace in 1922. For many years, Reader's Digest was the best-selling consumer magazine in the United States until it lost to *Better Homes and Gardens* in 2009.
In materials science, **polymorphism** is the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure. Polymorphism can be found in any crystalline material including polymers, minerals, and metals. It is related to allotropy, which refers to chemical elements. The complete morphology of a material is described by polymorphism and other variables such as crystal habit, amorphous fraction or crystallographic defects. Polymorphism is important in fields such as pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, pigments, dyes, foods, and explosives.

Polimorphism that exists because of a difference in crystal packing is called **packing polymorphism**. Polymorphism can also result from the existence of different conformers of the same molecule in **conformational polymorphism**. In **pseudopolymorphism** the different crystal types are the result of hydration or solvation. This is more correctly referred to as **solvomorphism** as different solvates have different chemical formulas. An example of an organic polymorph is glycine, which is able to form monoclinic and hexagonal crystals. Silica is known to form many polymorphs, the most important of which are; α-quartz, β-quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, moganite, coesite, and stishovite. A classical example is the pair of minerals, calcite and aragonite, both forms of calcium carbonate.

An analogous phenomenon for amorphous materials is polyamorphism, when a substance can take on several different amorphous modifications.
International Women of Courage Award, 2014. United States First Lady Michelle Obama with Oinikhol Bobonazarova of Tajikistan
**Oinikhol Bobonazarova** is a Tajikistani human rights activist. In 2014 she received the International Women of Courage Award from the U.S. Department of State.

Work
----

In 1993, the Tajik government arrested Bobonazarova. They said Bobonazarova planned to take over the government by violence. Bobonazarova was in jail for a few months. Then she became a human rights counselor in the Tajik office of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. She also worked for the Tajik branch of the Open Society Foundation. In 2013, she became the head of the "Perspektiva Plus" human rights group. They work for the rights of prisoners, women, and Tajikistani labor migrants. She also worked to create Tajikistan's first independent prison monitoring program. In 2004, Tajik prisons closed to outsiders.

In 2013, Bobonazarova was the first woman to try to run for president in Tajikistan. Her campaign did not get enough signatures. She was the first Tajikistani woman to receive the International Women of Courage Award.

Other websites
--------------

* 2015 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr
* Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)
A **polysaccharide** is a complex carbohydrate. Polysaccharides are polymers made up of many monosaccharides. They are very large, often branched, molecules. They tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and have no sweet taste.

When all the constituent monosaccharides are of the same type they are termed *homopolysaccharides*; when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are termed *heteropolysaccharides*.

Examples of polysaccharides include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin.

Starches
--------

Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested by hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes called amylases. Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet.

Cellulose
---------

The structural components of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units. Humans and many other animals do not digest cellulose. Certain animals can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. The classic example is the termite.

Other websites
--------------

* Polysaccharide structure
Oyster card
The **Oyster card** is a form of electronic ticketing used on public transport services within London. It is promoted by Transport for London and is valid on a number of different travel systems across London including London Underground, buses, the Docklands Light Railway (DLR), London Overground, trams, some river boat services and most National Rail services within the London Fare Zones. More importantly, it is very similar to Travelcard, a branch from the original London's e-payment cards.

A standard Oyster card is a blue credit card-sized stored value card which can hold a variety of single tickets, period tickets and travel permits which must be added to the card prior to travel. It is also a contactless smart card which passengers must touch onto an electronic reader when entering and leaving the transport system in order to validate it or deduct funds. The cards may be "recharged" in person from numerous sales points, by recurring payment authority or by online purchase. The card is designed to reduce the number of transactions at ticket offices and the number of single paper tickets sold on the London transport network. Use is encouraged by offering substantially cheaper fares on Oyster than payment with cash.

The card was first issued to the public in July 2003 with a limited range of features and there continues to be a phased introduction of further functions. By June 2010, over 34 million Oyster cards had been issued and more than 80% of all journeys on services run by Transport for London used the Oyster card.
Piccadilly street sign.
**Piccadilly** is a major street in central London, running from Hyde Park Corner in the west to Piccadilly Circus in the east. It is completely within the City of Westminster. St. James's lies to the south of the eastern section of the street, while the western section overlooks Green Park. The area to the north is Mayfair.

It is the location of Fortnum & Mason, the Royal Academy, The Ritz Hotel, the RAF Club and Hatchards book shop. Simpsons, once amongst the United Kingdom's leading clothing stores, opened on Piccadilly in the 1930s. The store closed in 1999 and the site is now the flagship shop of the booksellers Waterstone's.

History
-------

The Ritz
The name Piccadilly may come from a tailor named Robert Baker, in the late 16th century and early 17th century. He amassed a large fortune by making and selling *piccadills* – stiff collars with scalloped edges and a lace border, which were then in fashion. With his great fortune he bought a large tract of what was then open country to the west of London.

After the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, Piccadilly and the area to the north (Mayfair) began to be systematically developed as a fashionable residential locality. Some of the grandest mansions in London were built on the northern side of Piccadilly: Clarendon House, Berkeley House (later Devonshire House), and Sir John Denham's house (later Burlington House) were built in the 17th century. Later mansions included Melbourne House (now The Albany), Apsley House, Bath House and Cambridge House. Several members of the Rothschild family had mansions at the western end of the street, and that part was colloquially referred to as Rothschild Row. 

By the 1920s most of these buildings had been demolished or were in institutional use. The enlargement of Park Lane and the formation of Hyde Park Corner as a major traffic gyratory system has cut off the western stretch of Piccadilly, with the result that Apsley House has become detached from it.

21st century Piccadilly is not one of London's principal shopping streets, despite the presence of several famous shops. The Ritz Hotel is in the street, along with some other luxury hotels. There are also some offices and some very expensive flats. Piccadilly is one of the widest and straightest streets in central London.

Coordinates: 51°30′25″N 0°08′32″W﻿ / ﻿51.50698°N 0.14235°W﻿ / 51.50698; -0.14235
**Sao** is a non-spherical moon of Neptune. It was found by Matthew J. Holman *et al.* on August 14, 2019. 

Irregular satellites of Neptune.
Sao orbits Neptune at a distance of about 22.4 million km and is about 44 kilometers in diameter (assuming an albedo of 0.04).

Sao has a very inclined and eccentric orbit seen on the diagram in relation to other non-sperical moons of Neptune. 

Sao, or **Neptune XI**, like many of the farther moons of Neptune, is named after one of the Nereids; Sao was associated with sailing and is referred to as "The rescuer" or "Safety". Before the announcement of its name on February 3, 2007 (IAUC 8802), Sao was known provisionally as **S/2002 N 2**.

Other websites
--------------

* Matthew Holman's Neptune's page
* David Jewitt's pages
* Scott Sheppard's pages

  

| * v
* t
* e
Neptune |
| --- |
| Moons | Naiad **·**  Thalassa **·**  Despina **·**  Galatea **·**  Larissa **·**  S/2004 N 1 **·**  Proteus **·**  **Triton** **·**  Nereid **·**  Halimede **·**  Sao **·**  Laomedeia **·**  Psamathe **·**  Neso |  |
| Characteristics | Rings of Neptune **·**  Great Dark Spot |
| Discovery | John Couch Adams **·**  Johann Gottfried Galle **·**  William Lassell **·**  Urbain Le Verrier |
| Exploration | Voyager program **·**  Voyager 2 |
| Neptune Trojans | 2001 QR322 **·**  2004 UP10 **·**  2005 TN53 **·**  2005 TO74 **·**  2006 RJ103 **·**  2007 RW10 |