Summarize the following court judgment. Appeal No. 341 of 1960. Appeal from the judgment and order dated March 3	1960	 of the Madras High Court	 in W. P. No. 1051 of 1959. N. C. Chatterjee	 B. R. L. Iyengar and D. Gupta	 for the appellants. 589 section Mohan Kumaramangalam	 M. K. Ramamurthy	 R. K. Garg and T. section Venkataraman	 for the respondent and the intervener. April	 28. The Judgment of Gajendragadkar	 Sarkar and Das Gupta	 JJ.	 was delivered by Gajendragadkar	 J. Wanchoo and Ayyangar	 JJ.	 delivered separate Judgments. GAJENDRAGADKAR	 J. On a writ petition filed by the respondent K. Rangachari in the Madras High Court under article 226 of the Constitution a writ of mandamus has been issued by the said High Court restraining the appellants	 the General Manager	 Southern Railway	 and the Personnel Officer (Reservation)	 Southern Railway	 from giving effect to the directions of the Railway Board ordering reservation of selection posts in Class III of the railway service in favour of the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and in particular the reservation of selection posts among the Court Inspectors in Class III one of which is held by the respondent. After the writ was thus issued the appellant applied for and obtained a certificate from the said High Court under article 132(1) of the Constitution as it involved a substantial question of law	 namely	 the scope of article 16(4) of the Constitution. It is with this certificate that the appeal has been brought to this court	 and the. only question which it raises for our decision is about the scope and effect of article 16(4). This question is of considerable public importance though the dispute raised by it lies within a very narrow compass. In the railway services there are four grades of Court Inspectors included in Class III	 (1) Court Inspectors on Rs. 200 300	 (2) Court Inspectors on Rs. 260 350	 (3) Chief Court Inspectors on Rs. 300400	 and (4) Chief Court Inspectors on Rs. 360 500. It appears that Inspectors of the first category are recruited partly directly and partly by selection from other categories of railway services. To the remaining three grades appointments are made by promotion and they are classified as selection posts. Selection to 75 590 these grades is made by a committee of officers constituted for the purpose. In respect of non selection posts seniority in service is the qualification but in regard to selection posts seniority is only one of the qualifications for promotion to such posts; suitability to promotion is considered on other relevant grounds .as well. The respondent was initially recruited to the grade of Rs. 200 300 and was confirmed in that	 grade on November 21	 1956. Between May 23	 1958	 and August 22	 1958 as well as between December 8	 1958 and December 31	 1958	 he was promoted to officiate in the grade of Rs. 260 350. He got a chance of another similar promotion to officiate on April 8	 1959. These promotions were in the nature of ad hoc promo tions and were consequently of temporary duration. Later	 on June 16	 1959	 he was interviewed by the selection committee and his promotion to the said higher grade was regularised and an order was passed in that behalf on June 30	 1959. By this order lie was allowed to continue to officiate in the said grade. Since then he has been officiating in that grade. On April 27	 1959	 and on June 12	 1959	 the two impugned circulars were issued by the Railway Board and addressed to the General Managers. As a result of the said circulars the selection committee decided to consider the case of Hiriyanna for promotion to the grade of Rs. 260 350	 Hiriyanna being a member of the Scheduled Castes. The record shows that at the time when the respondent was interviewed and selected he was placed as Number One by the selection committee and one Partliasarathy was placed as Number Two. On the said occasion Hiriyanna was not selected and put in the panel. The selection committee desired to examine the case of Hiriyania in order to decide whether he was suitable for promotion to higher grade in the light of the two directives issued by the Railway Board and so a meeting of the selection committee was called on November 18	 1959. The respondent thought that the proceedings of the said proposed meeting may result prejudicially to his interest and so on November 16	 1959	 he filed the 591 present Writ Petition No. 1051 of 1959. In this petition he applied for a writ in the nature of mandamus and also prayed for an interim injunction restraining the holding of the meeting of the selection committee proposed to be held on November 18	 1959. An interim injunction as prayed for by the respondent was issued by the High Court and in consequence the proposed meeting has not been held. According to the respondent the two directives issued by the appellants under the two impugned circulars were ultra vires	 illegal	 inoperative and unconstitutional in that they were not justified by article 16(4). He alleged that a reading of articles 16	 335	 338 and 339 would show that the Constitution draws a clear distinction between Scheduled Castes or Tribes on the one hand and backward classes on the other and so it was urged by him that the impugned circulars were illegal. The petition further urged that the safeguard provided by article 16(4) applied only to reservation Of posts at the stage of appointment and not for reservation of posts for promotion after appointment and so the circulars were outside the provisions of article 16(4) and as such contravened article 16(1). The petition expressed the apprehension that if the circulars are implemented the respondent would be reverted and that would cause great loss both financially and in status to him. It is on these allegations that the respondent prayed for the issue of a writ in the nature of mandamus directing the appellants to forbear from implementing the two impugned circulars. These pleas were denied by the appellants. It was alleged by them that the expression "backward class" appearing in article 16(4) would include not only the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes but all backward communities who could not stand on their own legs. Therefore the reservations made by the impugned circulars were fully covered by article 16(4). The appellants ' case was that the safeguards provided by article 16(4) would extend not only to initial appointment but also to promotions made by selection and that clearly brought the impugned circulars within the 592 protection of article 16(4). The appellants categorically denied that the respondent would suffer any loss or because persons who had already been promoted on the basis of earlier regular selections were not intended to be reverted as a consequence of the implementation of the impugned circulars. According to the appellants the petition filed by the respondent was permature and on the merits no case had been made out for the issue of a writ of mandamus. At this stage it would be material to set out the relevant portions of the impugned circulars. The circular issued by the Railway Board on April 27	 1959	 contained	 inter alia	 the following directions. "There are different grades of Class III posts. Some of these posts are 'non selection ' posts	 promotion to which is made on 'seniority cum suitability ' basis	 while	 in the case of others which are 'Selection ' posts	 promotion is made by a positive act of selection. There will be no quota for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes candidates in respect of promotion to 'non selection ' posts. For promotion to 'Selection ' posts	 however	 there will be the prescribed quota of reservation. The field of consideration in the case of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes candidates should be four times the number of posts reserved without any condition of qualifying period of service in their case	 subject to the condition that consideration should not normally extend to such staff beyond two grades immediately below the grade for which selection is held. " There is one more direction given by the said circular which must be read. The decision of the Railway Board providing reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in promotion vacancies as laid down above comes into effect from January 4	 1957. It will	 therefore	 be necessary to calculate the number of posts that should have been made available to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes during 1957 and 1958 and these should be carried forward to be filled in 1959. Thus it would be noticed that the effect of this circular was to prescribe a quota of reservation for selection posts and to give effect to this reservation retrospectively from January 4	 593 1957. In a sense it is this retrospective operation of the circular which appears to be the main cause of the present dispute. On June 12	1959	 another circular was issued giving guidance and directions as to how the earlier circular should be implemented. This circular directed	 inter alia	 by paragraphs 2(ii) and 2(iii) as follows: "2(ii). The Special Rosters in force for section C. & section T. in direct recruitment categories are to be followed to work out the number of posts to be reserved for section C. & section T. in promotions made in Selection Grades and for promotion from Class IV to Class 111. 2(iii). As the Board 's orders have retrospective effect from 4th January	 1957	 it is necessary that the promotions made in each selection grade on your Division/Office from 4th January	 1957	 are reviewed and the number of posts due to section C. & section T. worked out applying the Roster referred to in item (ii) above. " It appears certain doubts were raised in regard to the manner in which the reservation circulars had to be implemented and so on September 11	 1959	 the Railway Board issued a letter clarifying the doubts raised. One of the points thus clarified was whether the instructions issued in the Board 's letter contemplated reversion of staff already promoted to selection posts after January 4	 1957	 to accommodate section Cs. and section Ts. (which stand for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) according to percentage basis. The clarification issued was that the said orders did not contemplate such reversion. It was	 however	 desired that the shortfalls should be made good against the existing as well as the future vacancies. It is by virtue of this clarification that the respondent was assured by the appellants during the proceedings before the High Court that he need not entertain any apprehension of reversion as a result of the implementation of the impugned circulars. We would now briefly summarise the findings and conclusions of the High Court on the points raised before it by the contentions of the parties in the 595 whether article 16(1) and (2) refer to promotion or whether they are confined to the initial appointment to any post in civil service. In the appeal before us the s	 appellants and the respondent both conceded that cases of promotion fell within article 16(1) and (2) though they differed as to whether they were included in article 16(4). It would be immediately noticed that the respondent 's petition postulates the inclusion of promotion in article 16(1) and (2) for it is on that assumption that he challenges the validity of the impugned circulars. Similarly	 the appellants ' defence postulates that article 16(1) and (2) as well as article 16(4) refer to cases of promotion for it is on the basis that article 16(4) includes promotion that they seek to support the validity of the impugned circulars. When this appeal was argued before the Constitution Bench on the first occasion it became clear that neither party was interested in contending that the guarantee afforded by article 16(1) and (2) is confined only to initial appointment and does not extend to promotion	 and so notice was ordered to be issued to the Attorney General. In response to the notice the Attorney General has appeared and is represented by Mr. Sen. He has also taken the same stand as the appellants have done and so in the result nobody before us is interested in challenging the inclusion of promotion within article 16(1) and (2). However	 we would briefly indicate our reasons for accepting the concession made by the parties that promotion is included in article 16(1) and (2). Article 16(1) reads thus: "There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State." In deciding the scope and ambit of the fundamental right of equality of opportunity guaranteed by this Article it is necessary to bear in mind that in construing the relevant Article a technical or pedantic approach must be avoided. We must have regard to the nature of the fundamental right guaranteed and we must seek to ascertain the intention of the Constitution by construing the material words in a broad 596 and general way. If the words used in the Article are wide in their import they must be liberally construed in all their amplitude. Thus construed it would be clear that matters relating to employment cannot be confined only to the. initial matters prior to the act of employment. The narrow construction would confine the application of article 16(1) to the initial employment and nothing else; but that clearly	 is only one of the matters relating to employment. The other matters relating to employment would inevitably be the provision as to the salary and periodical increments therein	 terms as to leave	 as to gratuity	 as to pension and as to the age of superannuation. These are all matters relating to employment and they are	 and must be	 deemed to be included in the expression "matters relating to employment" in article 16(1). Similarly	 appointment to any office which means appointment to an office like that of the Attorney General or Comptroller and Auditor General must mean not only the initial appointment to such an office but all the terms and conditions of service pertaining to the said office. What article 16(1) guarantees is equality of opportunity to all citizens in respect of all the matters relating to employment illustrated by us as well as to an appointment to any office as explained by us. This equality of opportunity need not be confused with absolute equality as such. What is guaranteed is the equality of opportunity and nothing more. Article 16(1) or (2) does not prohibit the prescription of reasonable rules for selection to any employment or appointment to any office. Any provision as to the qualifications for the employment or the appointment to office reasonably fixed and applicable to all citizens would certainly be consistent with the doctrine of the equality of opportunity; but in regard to employment	 like other terms and conditions associated with and incidental to it	 the promotion to a selection post is also included in the matters relating to employment	 and even in regard to such a promotion to a selection post all that article 16(1) guarantees is equality of opportunity to all citizens who enter service. 597 If the narrow construction of the expression "matters relating to employment" is accepted it would make the fundamental right guaranteed by article 16(1)	 illusory. In that case it would be open to the State ' to comply with the formal requirements of article 16(1) by affording equality of opportunity to all citizens in the matter of initial employment and then to defeated its very aim and object by introducing discriminatory provisions in respect of employees soon after their employment. Would it	 for instance	 be open to the State to prescribe different scales of salary for the same or similar posts	 different terms of leave or superannuation for the same or similar post? On the narrow construction of article 16(1) even if such a dis criminatory course is adopted by the State in respect of its employees that would not be violative of the equality of opportunity guaranteed by article 16(1). Such a result could not obviously have been intended by the Constitution. In this connection it may be relevant to remember that article 16(1) and (2) really give effect to the equality before law guaranteed by article 14 and to the prohibition of discrimination guaranteed by article 15(1). The three provisions form part of the same constitutional code of guarantees and supplement each other. If that be so	 there would be no difficulty in holding that the matters relating to employment must include all matters in relation to employment both prior	 and subsequent	 to the employment which are incidental to the employment and form part of the terms and conditions of such employment. Article 16(2) provides that no citizen shall	 on grounds only of religion	 race	 caste	 sex	 descent	 place of birth	 residence or any of them	 be ineligible for	 or discriminated against in respect of	 any employment or office under the State. This sub Article emphatically brings out in a negative form what is guaranteed affirmatively by article 16(1). Discrimination is a double edged weapon; it would operate in favour of some persons and against others; and article 16(2) prohibits discrimination and thus assures the effective enforcement of the fundamental right of equality of 76 598 opportunity guaranteed by article 16(1). The words "in respect of any employment" used in article 16(2) must	 therefore	 include all matters relating to employment as specified in article 16(1). Therefore	 we are satisfied that Mr. Sen is right when on behalf of the Attorney General he conceded that promotion to selection Posts 'is included both under article 16(1) and (2). Broadly stated the Bombay and the Patna High Courts sup 	 port the concession made by Mr. Sen (Vide: Pandurang Kashinath More vs The Union of India(1); Sukh nandan vs State (2) ) whereas the Allahabad High Court is against it (vide: Moinuddin vs State of Uttar Pradesh (3) ). In this connection we ought to add that Civil Appeal No. 579 of 1960 (4) in which the Union of India challenged the correctness of the Bombay decision was set down for hearing along with this appeal	 and in the judgment which we are pronouncing in the said appeal today we are accepting the appellants ' contention that the question about the invasion of the fundamental right guaranteed by article 16(1) was not properly raised by the respondent in his plaint in that case and had in fact not been proved; accordingly we are holding that 'the High Court was in error in proceeding to deal with the dispute on the basis that violation of article 16(1) had been admitted by the Union. In the result we are allowing the said appeal and setting aside the decision of the High Court on this narrow ground. Article 16(3) provides for one exception to the provisions of article 16(1) and (2) in that it authorises Parliament to make any law prescribing	 in regard to a class or classes of employment or appointment to an office under the Government of	 or any local or other authority within	 a State or Union territory	 any requirement as to residence within that State or Union territory prior to such employment or appointment. We are not concerned with this provision in the present appeal. (1) I.L.R. (2) Pat. (3) A.I.R. 1960 All. 484. (4) Union of India vs Pandurang Kashinath More. 599 That takes us to article 16(4). It reads thus: "Nothing in this article shall prevent the State	 from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which	 in the opinion of the State	 is not adequately represented in the services under the State." In construing article 16(4) the respondent is no doubt entitled to contend that this sub Article in substance provides for an exception to the fundamental rights guaranteed by article 16(1) and (2) and as such it must be strictly construed. On the other hand	 the appellants may well urge that in construing its provisions the Court should not lose sight of the fact that the Constitution has	 if we may say so wisely	 showed very great solicitude for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes of citizens. Article 15(4) which provides	 inter alia	 for an exception to the prohibition of discrimination on grounds specified in article 15(1) lays down that nothing contained in the said Article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Similarly	 article 335 requires that the claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration	 consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration	 in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State. For historical reasons which are well known the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes has been treated by the Constitution as a matter of paramount importance and that may have to be borne in mind in construing article 16(4). On one point in relation to the construction of article 16(4) the parties are in agreement. It is common ground that article 16(4) does not cover the entire field covered by article 16(1) and (2). Some of the matters relating to employment in respect of which equality of opportunity has been guaranteed by article 16(1) and (2) do not fall within the mischief of non obstantive 600 clause in article 16(4). For instance	 it is not denied by the appellants that the conditions of service relating 'to employment such as salary	 increment	 gratuity	 y pension and the age of superannuation there can be no exception even in regard to the backward classes of citizens. In other words	 these matters relating to employment are absolutely protected by the doctrine of equality of opportunity and they do not form the subject matter of article 16(4). That is why we have just observed that part of the ground covered by article 16(1) and (2) is admittedly outside the scope of article 16(4). The point in dispute is: Is promotion to a selection post which is included in article 16(1) and (2) covered by article 16(4) or is it not? It is on	 this point that there is a sharp controversy between the parties. Before construing article 16(4) it would be convenient to deal with the question as to whether posts specified by it are posts inside the services or outside them. As we have already seen the High Court has taken the view that the posts in the context must necessarily mean posts outside the services and that in fact is the sole basis of the decision of the High Court against the appellants. The High Court has held that the legislative history of the words "appointments" and "Posts" justifies the conclusion that "posts" are ex cadre posts. Is that really so? In our opinion	 the answer to this question must be in the negative. The argument that legislative history about the use of the relevant words is decisively in favour of excluding service posts from the purview of article 16(4) ignores the fact that there can be no legislative history for the provisions of article 16(4) which have found a place in the Constitution for the first time. Besides	 it is not correct to assume that even the legislative history shows that "posts" always and inevitably meant posts outside services though it may be conceded that in the majority of corresponding constitutional provisions they do refer to ex service posts. Let us look at the relevant provisions of the Constitution itself. Article 309 empowers the appropriate Legislature to regulate the recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public services and 601 posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of any State. In the context "posts" means posts outside services. Similarly article 310(1) refers to every person 'who is a member of a defence service or of a civil service of the Union or of an all India service or holds any post connected with defence or any civil post under the Union. The word "post" in the context means an ex cadre post. Likewise the expression "civil post" in article 311(1) means a civil post outside the services. Article 335 to which we have referred uses the word "posts" in the same sense. But	 when we go to article 336 the word "posts" in the context means posts in the services therein enumerated. The position disclosed by the corresponding provisions of the Constitution Act of 1935 is substantially the same. Sections 240 and 241 for instance use the word "posts" in the sense of ex service posts; whereas section 246 refers to civil posts in the sense of posts inside the services. In our opinion	 it would	 therefore	 be unreasonable to treat the word "posts" as a term of art and to clothe it inexorably with the meaning of excadre posts. It is the context in which the word "posts" is used which must determine its denotation. What does the context of article 16(4) indicate? That is the next question which we must consider. Article 16(4) clearly shows that the power conferred by it can be exercised in cases where the State is of the opinion that any backward class of citizens is not adequately represented in the services under it. In other words	 the opinion formed by the State that the representation available to the backward class of citizens in any of the services is inadequate is a condition precedent for the exercise of the power conferred by article 16(4)	 and so the power to make reservation as contemplated by article 16(4) can be exercised only to make the inadequate representation in the services adequate. If that be so	 both "appointments" and "posts" to which the operative part of article 16(4) refers and in respect of which the power to make reservation has been conferred on the State must necessarily be appointments and posts in the ser vice. It would be illogical and unreasonable to 602 assume that for making the representation adequate in the services under the State a power should 'be given to the State to reserve posts outside the cadre of services. If the word "posts" means excadre posts reservation of such posts cannot possibly cure the imbalance which according to the State is disclosed in the representation in services under it. Therefore	 in our opinion	 the key clause of article 16(4) which prescribes a condition precedent for invoking the power conferred by it itself unambiguously indicates that the word "posts" cannot mean ex cadre posts in the context. In fairness to Mr. Kumaramangalam	 who appeared for the respondent	 we ought to add that he did not resist the contention of Mr. Chatterjee	 for the appellants	 that the context requires that "Posts" should be deemed to be posts inside services and not outside them. Therefore	 the main	 if not the sole	 reason given by the High Court in support of its conclusion does not appear to us to be well founded	 and so article 16(4) must be construed on the basis that both "appointments" and "posts" to which its operative clause refers are appointments and posts in the services under the State. Incidentally	 we may repeat what we have already pointed out that the tenor of the judgment under appeal shows that if the High Court had construed the word "posts" as posts inside the services it would not have issued the writ in favour of the respondent. Having in substance conceded that "posts" does not mean posts outside services Mr. Kumaramangalam presented a very plausible argument in support of his case that the impugned circulars fall outside article 16(4). He contends that the key clause on which Mr. Chatterjee relies in construing the word "posts" as meaning posts in the services itself shows that direct promotion to selection posts by reservation is not permissible under article 16(4). His argument is that if it is discovered that any backward class of citizens is not adequately represented in the services under the State the State may no doubt seek to introduce the balance by giving adequate representation to the backward class by making reservations for initial 603 appointments. It may decide the proportion of the said reservation in order to introduce the balance and then give effect to it by making adequate number of appointments by reservation at the initial stage. If ' this process by itself appears to the State to be slow and tardy it may even reserve selection posts but this reservation can be given effect to again by promoting( suitable backward candidates to the said posts after they fall vacant and making a proportionately larger number of appointments at the initial stage. In any case reservation must work from the bottom and reservation cannot be permitted to allow direct appointment to selection posts as the impugned circulars seek to do. It may be conceded that reservation of appointments or posts maybe made in the manner suggested by Mr. Kumaramangalam. It may also be assumed that giving retrospective effect to reservations may well cause heart burning or dissatisfaction amongst the general class of employees and in that sense it would be an act of wisdom not to give effect to reservation retrospectively. But	 with the propriety or the wisdom of the policy underlying the circulars We are not directly concerned. Even if it be assumed that it would be open to the State to adopt the method suggested by Mr. Kumaramangalam to give effect to the power of reservation in order to make the representation of the backward classes adequate in its services does it follow that it is the only method permissible under article 16(4)? We are inclined to hold that the answer to this question cannot be in favour of the respondent. If it is conceded that selection posts can be reserved it is difficult to see how it would be open to the respondent to contend that these reserved selection posts must be filled only prospectively and not retrospectively. The concession that selection posts can be reserved on which the argument is based itself provides the answer to the argument that if the said posts can be reserved the reserved posts can be filled either prospectively or retrospectively. In adopting the latter course there can be no violation of the constitutional provision contained in article 16(4). 604 The condition precedent for the exercise of the powers conferred by article 16(4) is that the state ought to be satisfied that any backward class of citizens is not adequately represented in its services. This condition precedent may refer either to the numerical inadequacy of representation in the services or even to the qualitative inadequacy of representation. The advancement of the socially and educationally backward classes requires not only that they should have adequate representation in the lowest rung of services but that they should aspire to secure adequate representation in selection posts in the services as well. In the context the expression 'adequately represented ' imports considerations of "size" as well as "values"	 numbers as well as the nature of appointments held and so it involves not merely the numerical test but also the qualitative one. It is thus by the operation of the numerical and a qualitative test that the adequacy or otherwise of the representation of backward classes in any service has to be judged; and if that be so	 it would not be reasonable to hold that the inadequacy of representation can and must be cured only by reserving a proportionately higher percentage of appointments at the initial stage. In a given case the state may well take the view that a certain percentage of selection posts should also be reserved	 for reservation of such posts may make the representation of backward classes in the services adequate	 the adequacy of such representation being considered qualitatively. If it is conceded that "posts" in the context refer to posts in the services and that selection posts may be reserved but should be filled only in the manner suggested by the respondent then we see no reason for holding that the reservation of selection posts cannot be implemented by promoting suitable members of backward class of citizens to such posts as the circulars intend to do. We must in this connection consider an alternative argument that the word "posts" must refer not to 605 selection posts but to posts filled by initial appointments. On this argument reservation of appointments means reservation of certain percentage in the initial appointments and reservation of posts means reservation of initial posts which may be adopted in order to expedite and make more effective the reservation of appointments themselves. On this construction the use of the word "posts" appears to be wholly redundant. In our opinion	 having regard to the fact that we are construing the relevant expression "reservation of appointments" in a constitutional provision it would be unreasonable to assume that the reservation of appointments would not include both the methods of reservation	 namely	 reservation of appointments by fixing a certain percentage in that behalf as well as reservation of certain initial posts in order to make the reservation of appointments more effective. That being so	 this alternative argument which confines the word "posts" to initial posts seems to us to be entirely unreasonable. On the other hand	 under the construction by which the word "posts" includes selection posts the use of the word "posts" is not superfluous but serves a very important purpose. It shows that reservation can be made not only in regard to appointments which are initial appointments but also in regard to selection posts which may fall to be filled by employees after their employment. This construction has the merit of interpreting the words "appointMents" and "posts" in their broad and liberal sense and giving effect to the policy which is obviously the basis of the provisions of article 16(4). Therefore	 we are disposed to take the view that the power of reservation which is conferred on the State under article 16(4) can be exercised by the State in a proper case not only by providing for reservation of appointments but also by providing for reservation of selection posts. This construction	 in our opinion	 would serve to give effect to the intention of the Constitution makers to make adequate safeguard for the advancement of backward classes and to secure for their adequate representation in the services. Our 77 06 conclusion	 therefore	 is that the High Court was in error in holding that the impugned circulars do not all within article 16(4). It is true that in providing for the reservation of appointments or posts under article 16(4) the State has to take into consideration the claims of the members of the backward classes consistently with the maintenance of the efficiency of administration. It must not be forgotten that the efficiency of administration is of such paramount importance that it would be unwise and impermissible to make any reservation at the cost of efficiency of administration. That undoubtedly is the effect of article 335. Reservation of appointments or posts may theoretically and conceivably mean some impairment of efficiency; but the risk involved in sacrificing efficiency of administration must always be borne in mind when any State sets about making a provision for reservation of appointments or posts. It is also true that the reservation which can be made under article 16(4) is intended merely to give adequate representation to backward communities. It cannot be used for creating monopolies or for unduly or illegitimately disturbing the legitimate interests of other employees. In exercising the powers under article 16(4) the problem of adequate representation of the backward class of citizens must be fairly and objectively considered and an attempt must always be made to strike a reasonable balance between the claims of backward classes and the claims of other employees as well as the important consideration of the efficiency of administration; but	 in the present case	 as we have already seen ' the challenge to the validity of the impugned circulars is based on the assumption that the said circulars are outside article 16(4) because the posts referred to in the said Article are posts outside the cadre of services and in any case	 do not include selection posts. Since	 in our opinion	 this assumption is not well founded we must hold that the impugned circulars are not unconstitutional. In the result the decision of the High Court under appeal is reversed and the respondent 's application 607 for a writ is dismissed. There would be no order as to costs. WANCHOO	 J. I have read the judgment just delivered by my learned brother Gajendragadkar J.	 and I agree with him as to the scope of article 16(1) of the Constitution. I also agree with him that the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes are included in the words "backward class of citizens" in article 16(4) and that the word "Posts" in that Article refers to posts in the services and not to posts outside the services. I regret however that I have not been able to persuade myself that article 16(4) permits reservation even in grades within a particular service in case the service has various grades in its cadre	 and proceed to give my reasons for the same. Before I construe the words of article 16(4)	 I may state that I am not unmindful of the fact that article 16(4) is a constitutional provision and that constitutional provisions are not to be interpreted in any narrow or pedantic sense. At the same time it cannot be forgotten that article 16(4) is in the nature of an exception or a proviso to article 16(1)	 which is a fundamental right providing equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State. This aspect of article 16(4) in my opinion inevitably requires that the proviso or the exception should not be interpreted so liberally as to destroy the fundamental right itself to which it is a proviso or exception. The construction therefore of article 16(4) cannot ignore this aspect of the matter. I now read article 16(4): "Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which	 in the opinion of the State	 is not adequately represented in the services under the State. " Before I turn to the actual words used in the Article I must refer to what I consider is implicit in that Article. The Article provides for reservation of 608 appointments or posts and it seems tome obvious that it is implicit in the Article that the reservation of appointments or posts cannot go to the length of reserving all appointments or posts or even to the length of reserving a majority of them. The reason why I say that all appointments or posts cannot be reserved under article 16(4) (though that would be the result if the widest possible interpretation is given to the words used in the Article) is that if all appointments or posts could be reserved under article 16(4) it would mean complete destruction of the fundamental right guaranteed under article 16(1). It could not be the intention of the Constitution makers that the proviso or exception in article 16(4) should be so used as to destroy completely the fundamental right enshrined in article 16(1). Nor do I think that it is permissible under article 16(4) to reserve a majority of appointments or posts	 for that again	 in my opinion	 though it may not completely destroy the fundamental right guaranteed under article 16(1) will certainly make it practically illusory. Again it could not be the intention of the Constitution makers that article 16(4) should be so interpreted as to make the fundamental right guaranteed under article 16(1) illusory. I may in this connection refer to article 335	 which occurs in Part XVI dealing with Special Provisions relating to certain Classes	 which reinforces what I have said above. That Article provides that "the claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration	 consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration	 in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State." Now the scheduled tribes and the scheduled castes are included in the words "backward class of citizens" used in article 16(4). Therefore in considering the claims of	 at any rate	 a part of	 those included in article 16(4) (and I presume the same will apply to the whole) the maintenance of efficiency of administration must be kept in mind	 for the reservation provided in article 16(4) is to meet the claims of the members of the 609 scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. Reservation	 therefore	 of all appointments or posts or even a majority of them is certain to result in the impairment of efficiency of administration and therefore what I consider as implicit in article 16(4) is borne out also by the provision in article 335. It is in this background that the interpretation of article 16(4) falls to be considered. Turning now to the words in article 16(4)	 it appears to me that the key words in that Article are "not adequately represented in the services under the State." Obviously	 reservation can be made under this Article only if the State comes to the conclusion that any backward class of citizens is not adequately represented in the services under it. If	 for example	 the State is of opinion that backward classes are adequately represented in the services it can make no reservation under article 16(4). What then is the meaning of these key words in this Article? What these words require is that reservation may be made in order to make the representation of any backward class of citizens adequate in the services. Does the word "adequate" imply only numerical representation in the services or does it imply something more than that? The three meanings of the word "adequate" given in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary are (i) equal in magnitude and extent; (ii) commensurate in fitness	 sufficient	 suitable; and (iii) fully representing (logic). It seems to me that it is the second meaning (namely	 sufficient) which properly applies to the words "adequately represented" as used in this Article. "Sufficient" has two meanings: (i) Sufficing	 adequate	 esp. in amount or number to the need	 (ii) enough	 adequate quantity. Therefore	 when article 16(4) says that reservation may be made in order that any backward class of citizens may be adequately represented in the services it means that reservation may be made in order to make the number of any backward class sufficient in the services under the State. These words do not in my opinion convey any idea of quality and can only mean sufficient quantitative representation in the services under the State. If 610 the intention of the Constitution makers was that there may also be reservation in various grades in a particular service where there are grades in the ser vice	 I should have expected different words being used in article 16(4) to convey that meaning. These key words used in this Article further convey the idea of representation in the services as a whole	 for there are no words which suggest that the service should be broken up in case there are grades in it for the purposes of adequate representation. The conclusion therefore at which I arrive is that these key words convey the idea of adequate numerical representation for any backward class of citizens in a particular service as a whole and it is for this purpose alone that reservation can be made of appointments or posts in the services. This brings me to the question as to bow the reservation is to be made. article 16(4) tells us that it may be made either by reserving appointments to the services or reserving posts in the services. Appointments in my opinion clearly mean the initial appointments to a service	 for a person is appointed only once in a service and thereafter there is no further appointment. Therefore	 when the Article speaks of reservation of appointments it means reservation of a per centage of initial appointments to the service. Posts refer to the total number of posts in the service and when reservation is by reference to posts it means reservation of a certain percentage of posts out of the total number of posts in the service. The reason why these two methods are mentioned in this Article is also to my mind plain. The method of reservation of appointments would mean that the goal of adequate representation may be reached in a long time. Therefore	 in order that the goal. may be reached in a comparatively shorter period of time	 the Article also provides for the method of reservation of posts. This will be clear from an example which I may give. Suppose there are 1	000 posts in a particular service and the backward classes have no representation at all in that service. The State considers it necessary that they should have adequate representation in that 611 service. Suppose also that the annual appointments to be made to the service in order to keep it at full strength is thirty. Now the State if it chooses the method of reservation of appointments will reserve a percentage of appointments each year for backward classes. Now suppose that percentage is fixed at ten per century. In order therefore to reach the ten per centum of the total number of posts in the service by the method of reservation of appointments	 the period taken would be roughly 34 years. This period may be considered too long and therefore the State may decide to adopt the other way	 i.e.	 the reserva tion of posts; and suppose it is decided to reserve ten per centum of the posts	 i.e.	 100 in all. It will then be open to the State having reserved 100 posts in this particular service for backward classes to say that till these 100 posts are filled up by backward classes all appointments will go to them provided the minimum qualifications that may be prescribed are fulfilled. Suppose further that it is possible to get annually the requisite number of qualified members of backward classes equal to the annual appointments	 the representation of the backward classes will be made adequate in about four years. Once the representation is adequate there will be no power left for making further reservation. Thus by the method of reserva tion of appointments the representation is made adequate in a long period of time while by the method of reserving posts the representation is made adequate in a much shorter period. That seems to be the reason why the Article speaks of reservation of appointments as well as of posts. It is however said that this construction of article 16(4) makes the use of the word "posts" therein superfluous	 and that the same result of making the representation adequate quickly could have been achieved if the word "appointments" only had been used therein. I am of opinion that this is not so and the use of the word "appointments" only in article 16(4) would not have made it possible for the State to make the representation of backward classes adequate in a short space of time. In the example I have given the 612 representation of backward classes was made adequate in four years by the method of reservation of posts; it would however not have been possible to make the representation adequate in this hypothetical case in such a short time if the Article only provided for reservation of appointments. I have already said that it is implicit in the Article that reservation cannot be of all appointments or even of a majority of them	 for that would completely destroy the fundamental right enshrined in article 16(1) to which article 16(4) is in the nature of a proviso or an exception or at any rate make it practically illusory. Therefore	 it would not be open to the State to reserve all or even a majority of the appointments for backward classes	 if the word "appointments" only had been used in article 16(4). Even if a larger percentage than ten per centum were reserved for backward classes in the matter of appointments in the hypothetical case given by me it would not be possible to reach the total of 100 posts for the backward classes in the service in less than twice or thrice the time taken by the method of reservation of posts	 for the State could not reserve all or even the majority of appointments in any particular year	 in view of what is implicit in article 16(4)	 if the word " a appointments" only had been there. It seems to me therefore that the use of the word "posts" in that Article was with a purpose	 namely	 that by the method of reservation of posts the inadequate representation may be made adequate within a short space of time and the objection that could be raised to the reservation of all appointments	 if only the word "appointments" had been used in the Article	 would no longer be available. It cannot therefore be said that on the interpretation I have placed on article 16(4) the use of the word "posts" therein becomes superfluous. I have already said that if the intention was not only to make reservation in the service as a whole whether by the method of reserving appointments or by the method of reserving posts but also to include reservation in various grades in which a service may be divided	 the words of article 16(4) would have been different. I may in this connection refer to article 335 613 again	 which lays down that the claims of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes (which are part of backward classes of citizens) shall be considered So	. 	 consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration. It seems to me that reservation of posts in various grades in the same service is bound to result	 for obvious reasons	 in deterioration in the efficiency of administration; and reading article 335 along with article 16(4) which to my mind is permissible on the principle of harmonious construction (see Pandit M. section M. Sharma vs Shri Sri Krishna Sinha (1))	 it could not be the intention of the Constitution makers that reservation in article 16(4)	 for at any rate a part of those comprised therein	 should result in the impairment of the efficiency of administration. It also seems to me equally obvious that what applies to a part of those comprised in the words "any backward class of citizens" also applies to the whole. Therefore	 in the absence of clear words in article 16(4) which would compel one to hold that reservation was meant to apply not only to the service taken as a whole but also to various grades in which the service might be divided	 I feel that an interpretation should not be given which would result in the impairment of efficiency of administration	 which is jealously safeguarded even when considering the claims of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. I am therefore of opinion that giving the words used in article 16(4) as liberal an interpretation as is possible without destroying or making illusory the fundamental right guaranteed in article 16(1) to which article 16(4) is in the nature of an exception or a proviso	 article 16(4) can only mean that the State has the power thereunder to reserve numerically a certain percentage of appointments or posts in the manner I have indicated above and it has no power to split the service into various grades which might exist in it and make reservation in each grade because of the use of the word "posts" therein. I would therefore dismiss the appeal but for different reasons. (1) 	 859 60 78 614 AYYANGAR	 J. I regret that I cannot share the view of my learned brethren expressed by Gajendragadkar	 J. that the appeal should be allowed and I agree with Wanchoo	 J. that the appeal should be dismissed and the order of the High Court maintained. The facts of the case have been set out in great detail in the judgments already delivered and it is unnecessary to repeat them. Mr. Chatterji when he opened the appeal appeared to claim that the scope and content of article 16(1) and of sub article (4) thereof were identical and that if article 16(1) guaranteed by the use of the wide expression "matters relating to employment"	 "equality of opportunity" in relation to promotions also	 article 16(4) should be construed to have the same width. But this argument however he abandoned at a later stage. The point therefore does not call for any consideration and the judgments now delivered proceed on the basis that the scope of the limitation on the equality of opportunity which is provided in article 16(4) is not co extensive with the freedom guaranteed by article 16(1). The only question therefore is in what respect is article 16(4) narrower than article 16(1). In considering this the rule of construction should be borne in mind that a restriction on a guaranteed freedom should be narrowly construed so as to afford sufficient scope for the freedom guaranteed. The judgment of the learned Judge now under appeal proceeds on the basis that the expression "Posts" in article 16(4) was a reference to what are termed in service parlance 'ex cadre posts ' and not posts in the service. Mr. Chatterji 's submission was that the learned Judge had no basis for importing the nomenclature and the classifications to be found in Part XIV into Part III dealing with fundamental rights. In particular	 Mr. Chatterji quarrelled with the statement by the learned Judge that the expression appointments and posts ' occurring in article 16(4) were "virtually terms of art which had to be interpreted and understood in the light of the legislative history of the constitutional enactments that 615 preceded the Constitution	 and in consonance with the scheme that underlies the provisions of the Constitution	 which have reference to the civil services ' and civil servants in this country." Mr. Chatterji ' further pointed out that the learned Judge went wrong in observing that "The expressions appointments and posts in article 16(4) have really to be read as appointments to services and appointments to posts" on the ground that the words used in article 16 '4) were merely "appointments and posts" and not "appointments to services" etc. 	 the latter occurring only in Part XIV. It was		 however	 common ground that if the learned Judge was right in considering that "appointments" in article 16(4) meant "appointments to services	 the notification now impugned should be held to be unconstitutional. Mr. Chatterji did not dispute that when the expressions 'appointments to services and appointments to posts ' occurred in Ch. XIV vide for instance in articles 309, 311, etc. , being phrases borrowed from statutory provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935, the expression 'appointment to a post ' designated an 'ex cadre post '. The submission, however, of learned Counsel was that there was no justification for importing the phraseology employed in Part XIV in article 16(4), notwithstanding that article 16 dealt with equality of opportunity for employment in the services of the State and sub article (4) was concerned with the reservation of appointments in Services under the State. His submission was that article 16(4) had no legislative precedent in the previous constitutional enactments to justify the importation of service rules and service jargon as an aid to its construction. My learned Brothers have acceded to this submission of Mr. Chatterji. With great respect to them I consider that the view of the learned Judge of the High Court is correct. In the first place, the Article being one concerning the right to be employed in the Services of the State, one has necessarily to turn on the relevant provisions in relation to the Services to discover the precise import of the expressions used in relation to the Services. Besides, we are not left in 616 doubt as to the inter connection between article 16 and Part XIV dealing with Services, because article 335 forms, as it were, the link between Part XIV and the provisions for reservation in favour of the backward communities in article 16(4) Betting out as it does the principles that should guide the State in the matter of reservation in the Services which could obviously be only a reference to that provided for by article 16(4). article 335 runs: The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration	 consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration	 in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State. " In this Article	 at any rate	 it cannot be contended	 and I did not understand Mr. Chatterji to contend	 that 'Posts ' had any reference to 'posts in the services. ' If it were so then in my judgment it would follow that the phraseology employed in this Article which deals with the same subject as that dealt with by article 16(4) throws light on and explains the meaning of the expression 'posts ' in article 16(4). It is only necessary to add that article 320(4) which runs: "Nothing in clause (3) shall require a Public Service Commission to be consulted as respects the manner in which any provision referred to in clause (4) of article 16 may be made or as respects the manner in which effect may be given to the provisions of article 335." to which learned Counsel for the respondent drew our attention indicates	 if other indication were necessary.	 that articles 16(4) and 335 have to be read together and not as if the 'posts ' referred to in article 335 indicated a different idea or connoted a different concept from the same word used in article 16(4). Even if the above view were wrong and the expression 'Posts ' were intended to designate not 'ex cadre posts ' but 'posts in the service	 ' I am unable to hold that the appellant derives any advantage. As my learned Brother Wanchoo	 J. has pointed out	 the crucial words in article 16(4)	 and which form as it were 617 the key to its interpretation	 from which the power of the State to make the reservation stems	 are that a class of citizens "is not adequately represented in the Services of the State." The action permitted to be taken to redress this inadequacy is by reservation of appointments and posts. If by the expression 'posts ' are meant 'posts in the service. itself ' I feel unable to attribute to the expression 'posts ' any special significance beyond an appointment to the service. Every appointment in a service must be to "a post" in a service	 because there cannot be an appointment in the air but can only be to a "post" in a service. In that sense	 in my view	 the expression 'post ' would be really redundant unless	 of course	 as I have said earlier	 it meant not posts in a service but ex cadre posts. There is also one other aspect to which I might advert. In some of the top grades there are single posts in the Service. If at any point of time the incumbent is not a member of the backward class	 it would certainly be a case of inadequate representation as regards that post which would mean that such posts which are single may be reserved for all time to be held by members of the backward classes	 because if at any moment such a person ceases to hold the post there would be inadequate representation in regard to that post. I have drawn attention to this because it pointedly demonstrates that the correct view is that when "inadequacy of representation" is referred to in article 16(4) as justifying a reservation	 the only rational and reasonable construction of the words are that it refers to a quantitative deficiency in the representation of the backward classes in the service taken as a whole and not to an inadequate representation at each grade of service or in respect of each post in the service. Besides	 even on the footing that "posts" mean posts in the Services	 article 16(4) properly construed in the light of article 335 of the Constitution whose inter. action has been discussed in great detail by Wanchoo	 J. in the judgment just now pronounced with which entirely agree	 contemplates and permits 618 reservation only in respect of appointments to Services at the initial stage and not at each stage even after the appointment has taken place. There is one other matter also which I consider relevant in this context. Under article 16(4) the State is enabled to make provision for the reservation of appointments if in their opinion certain backward classes of citizens are not adequately represented in the Service. The Article therefore contemplates action in relation to and having effect in the future when once the State forms the opinion about the inadequacy of the Service. If an inadequacy exists today	 to give retrospective effect to the reservation	 as the impugned notification has done	 would be to redress an inadequate representation which took place in the past by an order issued today. In my judgment that is not contemplated by the power conferred to reserve which can only mean for the future. As this point however has not been argued I do not desire to rest my judgment on it	 but have mentioned it to draw attention to another feature of the notification which deserves consideration. I would therefore dismiss the appeal with costs. By COURT: In accordance with the opinion of the majority the appeal is allowed; the decision of the High Court under appeal is reversed and the respondent 's application for a writ is dismissed. There will be no order as to costs.

This appeal was directed against an order of the Madras High Court issuing a writ of mandamus at the instance of the respondent restraining the appellants from giving effect to two circulars issued by the Railway Board reserving selection posts in Class III of the Railway service in favour of the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes with retrospective operation. It was urged on behalf of the respondent that the Constitution made a clear distinction between backward classes on the one hand and Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes on the other	 and that article 16(4) applied only to reservation of posts at the stage of appointment and not to posts for promotions after appointment and	 therefore	 the circulars which fell 587 outside the scope of article i6(4) and contravened article i6(1). This was denied by the appellant who pleaded the contrary. The first circular	 inter alia	 prescribed a quota of reservation for( selection posts and gave retrospective effect to it and the second ' gave guidance and directions as to how the first should be implemented. A subsequent clarification issued by the Board stated that no reversion of staff already promoted to selection posts was contemplated. The High Court held that the expression "backward classes" in article 16(4) included members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes	 but that the word 	appointments ' did not denote promotion and the word 'posts ' meant posts outside the civil services and thus the impugned circulars were not covered by article i6(4) and were ultra vires. Held	 (per Gajendragadkar	 Sarkar	 and Das Gupta	 JJ.)	 that the impugned circulars were well within the ambit of article 16(4) Of the Constitution and the appeal must succeed. Articles 16(i) and 16(2) of the Constitution are intended to give effect to article 14 and article 15(1) Of the Constitution and these Articles form parts of the same constitutional code of guarantees and supplement each other. Article 16(i) should	 therefore	 be construed in a broad and general	 and not pedantic and technical way. So construed	 "matters relating to employment" cannot mean merely matters prior to the act of appointment nor can 'appointment to any office ' mean merely the initial appointment but must include all matters relating to employment	 whether prior or subsequent to the employment	 that are either incidental to such employment or form part of its terms and conditions and also include promotion to a selection post. Although Art.16(4)	 which in substance is an exception to articles 16(1) and 16(2) and should	 therefore	 be strictly construed	 the court cannot in construing it overlook the extreme solicitude shown by the Constitution for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes of citizens. The scope of article 16(4)	 though not as extensive as that of article 16(1) and (2)	 and some of the matters relating to employment such as salary	 increment	 gratuity	 pension and the age of superannuation	 must fall outside its non obstante clause	 there can be no doubt that it must include appointments and posts in the services. To put a narrower construction on the word 'posts ' would be to defeat the object and the underlying policy ' Article 16(4)	 therefore	 authorises the state to provide for the reservation of appointments as well as selection posts. It is not correct to say that the legislative history of the word 'posts ' shows that it has invariably been used to mean posts outside the services	 Neither the relevant provisions of the Constitution nor those of the Constitution Act of 1935 justify such a conclusion. It is the context in which that word is used that must determine its meaning. 588 But in exercising its powers under the Article it should be the duty of the State to harmonise the claims of the backward classes and those of the other employees consistently with the maintenance of an efficient administration as contemplated by article 335 of the Constitution. Per Wanchoo	 J. Article 16(4) which is in the nature of an exception or proviso to article 16(1) cannot be allowed to nullify equality of opportunity guaranteed to all citizens by that Article. Article 16(4) implies	 as borne out by article 335	 that the reservation of appointments or posts for backward classes cannot cover all or even a majority of appointments and posts and the words "not adequately represented"	 which provide the key to the interpretation of article 16(4)	 do not convey any idea of quality but mean sufficiency of numerical representation in a particular service	 taken not by its grades	 but as a whole. Appointments must	 therefore	 mean initial appointments	 and reservation of appointments	 the reservation of a percentage of initial appointments. Posts refer to the total number of posts in the service and reservation of posts means reservation of a certain percentage of posts out of total posts in the service. Per Ayyangar	 J. Article 16(4)	 concerned as it is with the right to State employment	 has to be read and construed in the light of other provisions relating to services contained in Part XIV of the Constitution and	 particularly	 article 335. So construed	 the word "post" in that Article must mean posts not in the services but posts outside the services. Assuming that was not so	 and the word 'posts ' meant posts in the services	 the inadequacy of representation sought to be redressed by article 16(4) means quantitative deficiency of representation in a particular service as a whole and not in its grades taken separately	 nor in respect of each single post in the service. Read in the light of article 335	 article 16(4) can only refer to appointments to the services at the initial stage and not at different stages after the appointment has taken place. Article 16(4) contemplates prospective reservation of appointments and posts and does not authorise retrospective reservation.