Summarize the following court judgment. ition Nos. 656 660	 512 533 and 503 511 of 1977. (Under Article 32 of the Constitution) AND Review Petitions Nos. 34	 62 65	 66 72	 73 74	 75 77	 78 81	 82	 83 84	 85	 86 87	 88	 89 90	 91 92	 93 94	 95	 95A	 96	 103 107	 110	 120	 121	 122 130 of 1977. AND Writ Petition No. 63 of 1977. (Under Article 32 of the Constitution). M. N. Phadke	 N. M. Ghatate (Dr.)	 section N. Bapat and section V. Deshpande for the Petitioners in RPs. 34	 62 95	 95A	 96	 103 107	 120 123 & WPs. 656 660	 503 511/77. M. section Gupta for the Petitioners in RPs. 110	 122 130/77. section N. Kherdikar	 M. N. Ingle	 A. G. Ratnaparkhi and C. K. Ratnaparkhi for the Petitioners in WPs. 512 533/77. section V. Gupte	 Att. K. H. Bhatt	 R. N. Sachthey and Miss A. Subhashini for R 1 in WPs. 503 511	 512 533	 656 660 & RPs. 34	 62 65/77. section V. Gupte	 Att. C. J. Sawant	 M. C. Bhandare	 M. B. Bor & M. N. Shroff for R. 2 in WPs. 503 533 and for RR. 2 & 3 in WPs. 656 660/77. 9 section V. Gupte	 Att. Gen. and Miss A. Subhashini for the Att. R. K. Rastogi	 J. section Rastogi and Bardridas Sharma for the State of Rajasthan in WP No. 656/77. G. N. Dikshit and M. V. Goswami for the State of U.P. Altaf Ahmed for the State of Jammu & Kashmir in WPs. 533 & 656/77. FOR THE ADVOCATES GENERAL: U. P. Singh and Shambhunath Jha (State of Bihar). M. M. Abdul Khader and K. R. Nambiar (State of Kerala). B. M. Patnaik and R. K. Mehta (State of Orissa). K. M. K. Nair and N. Nettar (State of Karnataka). K. M. K. Nair and N. Nettar (State of Tamil Nadu). FOR THE INTERVENERS: V. N Ganpule for Pratap Rao in W.P. 503. R. K. Garg for Shyam Narain Tiwari in RP 34/77 & WP 512/77 R. N. Bannerjee	 J. section Sinha and J.B.D. & Co. for Panch Valley Coal Co. and Shri Bimal Poddar in WP. 512/77. G. L. Sanghi	 Miss Bhubnesh Kumari	 K. J. John and J. B. D. & Co. for the Appellant Intervener Lt. Col. Himmat Singh & Ors. section B. Wad for the Applicant/Intervener in WPs. 342 & 343 of 77 and RP. 63/77. The following Order was delivered on 9th May	 1980. (1) The Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 which introduced Article 31A into the Constitution with retrospective effect	 and section 3 of the Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act	 1955 which substituted a new clause (1)	 sub clauses (a) to (e)	 for the original clause (1) with retrospective effect	 do not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure and are valid and constitutional	 being within the constituent power of the Parliament. (2) Section 5 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act 1951 introduced Article 31B into the Constitution which reads thus: "31B. Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions contained in article 31A	 none of the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule nor any of the provi 10 sions thereof shall be deemed to be void	 or ever to have become void	 on the ground that such Act	 Regulation or provision is inconsistent with	 or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by	 any provisions of this Part	 and notwithstanding any judgment	 decree or order of any court or tribunal to the contrary	 each of the said Acts and Regulations shall	 subject to the power of any competent Legislature to repeal or amend it	 continue in force. " In Kesavananda Bharati decided on April 24	 1973 it was held by the majority that Parliament has no power to amend the Constitution so as to damage or destroy its basic or essential features or its basic structure. We hold that all amendments to the Constitution which were made before April 24	 1973 and by which the 9th Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulations therein	 are valid and constitutional. Amendments to the Constitution made on or after April 24	 1973 by which the 9th Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulations therein	 are open to challenge on the ground that they	 or any one or more of them	 are beyond the constituent power of the Parliament since they damage the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure. We do not pronounce upon the validity of such subsequent constitutional amendments except to say that if any Act or Regulation included in the 9th Schedule by a constitutional amendment made after April 24	 1973 is saved by Article 31A	 or by Article 31C as it stood prior to its amendment by the 42nd Amendment	 the challenge to the validity of the relevant Constitutional Amendment by which that Act or Regulation is put in the 9th Schedule	 on the ground that the Amendment damages or destroys a basic or essential feature of the Constitution or its basic structure as reflected in Articles 14	 19 or 31	 will become otiose. (3) Article 31C of the Constitution	 as it stood prior to its amendment by section 4 of the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act	 1976	 is valid to the extent to which its constitutionality was upheld in Kesavananda Bharati. Article 31C	 as it stood prior to the Constitution (42 Amendment) Act does not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure. (4) All the Writ Petitions and Review Petitions relating to the validity of the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands Ceiling Acts are dismissed with costs. The stay orders granted in these matters will stand vacated. We quantify the costs at Rs. five thousand which will be borne equally by the petitioners in Writ Petitions Nos. 656 660 of 11 1977; 512 533 of 1977; and 503 to 511 of 1977. The costs will be payable to the Union of India and the State of Maharashtra in equal measure. (5) Writ Petition No. 63 of 1977 (Baburao Samant vs Union of India) will be set down for hearing. (6) Reasons for this Order will follow later. The following Judgments were delivered: CHANDRACHUD	 C.J. A ceiling on agricultural holdings was imposed in Maharashtra by the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands (Ceiling on Holdings) Act	 27 of 1961	 which was brought into operation on January 26	 1962. The ceiling fixed by that Act (the Principal Act)	 was lowered and certain other amendments were made to that Act by Acts 21 of 1975	 47 of 1975 and 2 of 1976. The validity of these Acts was challenged in the Bombay High Court in a large group of over 2660 petitions. A Division Bench of the High Court sitting at Nagpur repelled that challenge by a judgment dated August 13	 1976	 in Vithalrao Udhaorao Uttarwar vs State of Maharashtra The High Court held that the provisions of the aforesaid Acts were not open to challenge on the ground that they were inconsistent with or took away or abridged any of the rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution	 since those Acts were placed in the Ninth Schedule by the Constitution 17th Amendment Act	 1964	 and the Constitution 40th Amendment Act	 1976	 and also because of the promulgation of Emergency as a result of which	 the rights under Articles 14 and 19 of the Constitution could not be enforced. The High Court also repelled the challenge to the validity of Article 31B itself by holding that far from damaging the basic structure of the Constitution	 the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951	 which introduced Article 31B into the Constitution	 fortified that structure by subserving a fundamental constitutional purpose. Certain provisions of the Principal Act and of the Amending Acts. particularly the concept of 'family unit ' were challenged before the High Court on the ground	 inter alia	 that they were outside the purview of Article 31A. On an overall consideration of the movement of agrarian reforms	 with particular reference to the relevant statistics in regard to Maharashtra	 the High Court rejected that challenge too on the ground that those provisions formed a part of an integral scheme of agrarian reforms under which large agricultu 12 ral holdings had to be reduced and the surplus land distributed amongst the landless and others. The appeals filed against the decision of the Bombay High Court were dismissed by this Court by a judgment dated January 27	 1977 in Dattatraya Govind Mahajan vs State of Maharashtra. The only point urged in those appeals was that the Principal Act	 as amended	 was void being violative of the second proviso to Article 31A(1)	 in so far as it created an artificial 'family unit ' and fixed the ceiling on the agricultural holdings of such family units. The argument was that the violation of the particular proviso deprived the impugned laws of the protection conferred by Article 31A. That argument was rejected by the Court on the view that even if the impugned provisions were violative of the second proviso	 they would receive the protection of Article 31B by reason of the inclusion of the Principal Act and the Amending Acts in the Ninth Schedule. The Court considered whether	 in fact	 the provisions of the impugned Acts were violative of the second proviso and held that it was entirely for the legislature to decide what policy to adopt for the purpose of restructuring the agrarian system and the Court could not assume the role of an economic adviser for pronouncing upon the wisdom of such policy. The second proviso to Article 31A(1) was therefore held not to have been contravened. The judgment of this Court in the appeals aforesaid was delivered on January 27	 1977 while the proclamation of emergency was in operation. On the revocation of that proclamation	 petitions were filed in this Court by the appellants praying for the review of the judgment in Dattatraya Govind Mahajan (Supra) on the ground that Several contentions	 which were otherwise open to them for assailing the constitutional validity of the impugned Acts	 could not be made by reason of the emergency and that they should be permitted to make those contentions since the emergency was lifted. Fresh Writ Petitions were also filed in the Court in which those contentions were put forward. The Court having accepted the request for the review of the judgment in Dattatraya Govind Mahajan	 (supra) these matters have come before us for consideration of the other points involved in the appeals. In these proceedings	 the main challenge now is to the constitutionality of Articles 31A	 31B and the unamended Article 31C of the Constitution. The various grounds of challenge to the Principal Act and the Amending Acts were met on behalf of the respondents by rely 13 ing on the provisions of these Articles which throw a protective cloak around laws of a certain description and variety	 by excluding challenge thereto on the ground that they are violative of certain articles of the Constitution. The reply of the appellants and the petitioners to the defence of the respondents is	 as it could only be	 that the very provisions of the Constitution on which the respondents rely for saving the impugned laws are invalid	 since these particular provisions of the Constitution	 which were introduced by later amendments	 damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution within the meaning of the ratio of the majority judgment in Keshavananda Bharati. Articles 14	 19	 31A. 31B	 31C (as unamended) and 368	 which are relevant for our purpose	 are familiar to lawyers and laymen alike	 so great is their impact on law and life. Article 14	 the saviour of the rule of law	 injuncts that the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India. Article 19 confers upon the citizens rights like the freedom of speech and expression	 the right to assemble peaceably	 the right to form associations	 the right to move freely throughout the territory of India	 the right to reside and settle in any part of India	 and the right to practise any profession or to carry on any trade	 business or calling. These rights make life meaningful and	 without the freedoms conferred by Article 19	 the goal of the Preamble will remain a dream unfulfilled. The right to property conferred by Articles 19(1)(f) and 31 was deleted by the 44th Amendment with effect from June 20	 1979. Article 31A(1) (a) provides that: Notwithstanding anything contained in article 13	 no law providing for (a) the acquisition by the State of any estate or of any rights therein or the extinguishment or modification of any such rights	 shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with	 or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by article 14 or article 19. Article 31B provides that: Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions contained in article 31A	 none of the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule nor any of the provisions thereof shall be deemed to be void	 or ever to have become void	 on the ground that such Act	 Regulation or provision is 14 inconsistent with	 or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by	 any provisions of this Part	 and notwithstanding any judgment	 decree or order of any court or tribunal to the contrary	 each of the said Acts and Regulations shall	 subject to the power of any competent Legislature to repeal or amend it	 continue in force. Article 31C	 as it existed prior to its amendment by the 42nd Amendment Act	 which came into force on January 3	 1977	 provided that: Notwithstanding anything contained in article 13	 no law giving effect to the policy of the State towards securing the principles specified in clause (b) or clause (c) of article 39 shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with	 or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by article 14 or article 19; and no law containing a declaration that it is for giving effect to such policy shall be called in question in any court on the ground that it does not give effect to such policy. Articles 31A and 31B were introduced into the constitution by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951	 the former with retrospective effect from the date of the enactment of the Constitution. Article 31C (unamended) was introduced by the Constitution (Twenty fifth Amendment) Act	 with effect from April 20	 1972. The last clause of that article	 which gave conclusiveness to the declaration regarding the policy of the particular Act	 was struck down as invalid in Kesavananda Bharati (supra). That part now lives an italicized existence in official publications of the Indian Constitution. The words "the principles specified in clause (b) or clause (c) of article 39 ' were substituted by the words "all or any of the principles laid down in Part IV"	 by the 44th Amendment	 with effect from June 20	 1979. We are concerned with Article 31C as it stood originally but	 of course	 without the concluding part struck down in Kesavananda Bharati (supra). Article 368 of the Constitution reads thus: "368. (1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution	 Parliament may in exercise of its constituent power amend by way of addition	 variation or repeal any provision of this Constitution in accordance with the procedure laid down in this article. (2) x x x x x 15 (3) Nothing in article 13 shall apply to any amendment made under this article. (4) No amendment of this Constitution (including the provisions of Part III) made or purporting to have been made under this article (whether before or after the commencement of section 55 of the Constitution (Forty second Amendment Act 1976) shall be called in question in any court on any ground. (5) For the removal of doubts	 it is hereby declared that there shall be no limitation whatever on the constituent power of Parliament to amend by way of addition	 variation or repeal the provisions of this Constitution under this article. " Clauses (4) and (5) above were inserted by section 55 of the 42nd Amendment Act 1976 with effect from January 3	 1977. Those clauses were declared unconstitutional	 as being beyond the amending power of the Parliament	 by a very recent decision of this Court in Minerva Mills which was pronounced on July 31	 1980. The judgment of the Court on the invalidity of clauses (4) and (5) was unanimous. The question as to whether Articles 31A(1)(a)	 31B and the unamended Article 31C are valid shall have to be decided on the basis that clause (5) of Article 368 is ineffective to enlarge the Parliament 's amending power so as to empower it to make amendments which will damage or destroy any of the basic features of the Constitution and Clause (4) is ineffective to take away the power of the courts to pronounce a constitutional amendment invalid	 if it damages or destroys any of the basic features of the Constitution. Thus	 the main question arising before us has to be decided by applying the ratio of Kesavananda Bharati (supra)	 in its pristine form. It is quite another matter that learned counsel led by Shri M. N. Phadke question whether any ratio at all is discernible from the majority judgments in Kesavananda (supra). The first question to which we have to address ourselves is whether in enacting Article 31A (1) (a) by way of amendment of the Constitution	 the Parliament transgressed its power of amending the Constitution. As stated earlier	 Article 31A was inserted in the Constitution by section 4 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 with retrospective effect from the commencement of the Constitution. 16 Article 31A(1)	 as introduced by the 1st Amendment on June 18	 1951	 read thus: 31A. (1) Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this part	 no law providing for the acquisition by the State of any estate or of any rights therein or for the extinguishment or modification of any such rights shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with	 or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by	 any provisions of this Part. Article 31A was amended	 with the same degree of retrospective effect again	 by the Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act	 1955. Two alterations	 not substance wise material	 were made by the 4th Amendment. The opening non obstante clause which originally extended to "anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part"	 that is to say Part III	 was substituted by a clause restricted to "anything contained in Article 13". Secondly	 whereas under the Article as conceived originally	 the challenge to laws of agrarian reform was excluded on the broader ground of their inconsistency	 abrogation	 or abridgement of any of the rights conferred by "any provisions of" Part III	 under the amended article the challenge is excluded in relation to the violation of the three specific articles	 namely	 Articles 14	 19 and 31. The 4th Amendment introduced clauses (a) to (e) in Article 31A	 the content of clause (a) being the same as that of old clause (1). Clauses (b) to (e) were added newly by the 4th Amendment	 comprehending laws of four other categories like laws providing for the taking over of the management of any property by the State for a limited period	 laws providing for amalgamation of two or more corporations	 laws providing for extinguishment or modification of rights of persons interested in corporations; and laws providing for extinguishment or modification of rights accruing under any agreement	 lease or licence relating to minerals. We are not concerned in these matters with the provisions of clauses (b) to (e)	 though we would like to state expressly and specifically that whatever is relevant on the question of the validity of clause (a) will apply with equal force to the validity or otherwise of clauses (b) to (e). By section 7 of the Constitution (Forty fourth Amendment) Act	 1978 the reference to Article 31 was deleted from the concluding portion of Article 31A(1) with effect from June 20	 1979	 as a consequence of the deletion	 by section 2 of the 44th Amendment	 of clause (f) of Article 19(1) which gave to the citizens the right to acquire	 hold and dispose of property. The deletion of the right to property from the array of fundamental rights will not deprive the petitioners of the arguments which were available to them prior to the coming into 17 force of the 44th Amendment	 since the impugned Acts were passed before June 20	 1979 on which date Article 19(1)(f) was deleted. There is no doubt	 nor indeed is it disputed	 that the Agricultural Lands Ceiling Acts	 which are impugned in these proceedings	 fall squarely within the terms of clause (a) of Article 31A(1). Those Acts provide for the extinguishment and modification of rights in an 'estate '	 the expression 'estate ' being defined by clause (2) (a) (iii) to mean "any land held or let for purposes of agriculture or for purposes ancillary thereto. ". It must follow	 as a necessary corollary	 that the impugned Acts are entitled to the protection of Article 31A(1) (a) when the result that their provisions cannot be deemed	 and therefore cannot be declared	 to be void on the ground that they are inconsistent with or take away or abridge any of the rights conferred by Articles 14	 19 or 31. This is the reason why and the contest in which the validity of Article 31A(1)(a) is itself assailed by the petitioners. If a constitutional provision	 which deprives the petitioners of the benefit and protection of Articles 14	 19 and 31	 is invalid	 the petitioners will be entitled to challenge the impugned laws on the ground that they are inconsistent with or that they take away or abridge the rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution. Article 13(2)	 has a sensitive touchstone. Not only does it mandate that the State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by Part III but	 it provides that any law made in contravention of the clause shall	 to the extent of the contravention	 be void. Mere abridgement	 that is to say curtailment	 and not necessarily abrogation	 that is to say total deprivation	 is enough to produce the consequence provided for by Article 13(2). The validity of the constitutional amendment by which Article 31A(1)(a) was introduced is challenged by the petitioners on the ground that it damages the basic structure of the Constitution by destroying one of its basic features	 namely	 that no law can be made by the legislature so as to abrogate the guarantees afforded by Articles 14	 19 and 31. It is tautologous to say so but	 if we may so put it	 the obliteration of the rights conferred by these Articles	 which Article 31A (1) (a) brings about	 is total and complete because	 as the clear and unequivocal language of that Article shows	 the application of these three articles stands totally withdrawn in so far as laws falling within the ambit of clause (a) are concerned. It is no argument to say that the withdrawal of the application of certain articles in Part III in respect of laws of a defined category is not total abrogation of the articles because they will continue to apply to other situations and other laws. In any given case	 what is decisive 18 is whether	 in so far as the impugned law is concerned	 the rights available to persons affected by that law under any of the articles in Part III is totally or substantially withdrawn and not whether the articles	 the application of which stands withdrawn in regard to a defined category of laws	 continue to be on the Statute Book so as to be available in respect of laws of other categories. We must there fore conclude that the withdrawal of the application of Articles 14	 19 and 31 in respect of laws which fall under clause (a) is total and complete	 that is to say	 the application of those articles stands abrogated	 not merely abridged	 in respect of the impugned enactments which indubitably fall within the ambit of clause (a). We would like to add that every case in which the protection of a fundamental right is withdrawn will not necessarily result in damaging or destroying the basic structure of the Constitution. The question as to whether the basic structure is damaged or destroyed in any given case would depend upon which particular Article of Part III is in issue and whether what is withdrawn is quint essential to the basic structure of the Constitution. The judgment of this Court in Kesavananda Bharati (supra) provoked in its wake a multi storied controversy	 which is quite understandable. The judgment of the majority to which seven out of the thirteen Judges were parties	 struck a bridle path by holding that in the exercise of the power conferred by Article 368	 the Parliament cannot amend the Constitution so as to damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. The seven learned Judges chose their words and phrases to express their conclusion as effectively and eloquently as language can do. But	 at this distance of time any controversy over what was meant by what they said is plainly sterile. At 'this distance of time '	 because though not more than a little less than eight years have gone by since the decision in Kesavananda Bharati (supra) was rendered	 those few years are packed with constitutional events of great magnitude. Applying the ratio of the majority judgments in that epoch making decision	 this Court has since struck down constitutional amendments which would otherwise have passed muster. For example	 in Smt. Indira Gandhi vs Raj Narain article 329A(4) was held by the Court to be beyond the amending competence of the Parliament since	 by making separate and special provisions as to elections to Parliament of the Prime Minister and the Speaker	 it destroyed the basic structure of the Constitution. Ray C.J. based his decision on the ground that the 39th Amendment by which article 329A was introduced violated the Rule of Law 19 (p. 418); Khanna J. based his decision on the ground that democracy was a basic feature of the Constitution	 that democracy contemplates that elections should be free and fair and that the clause in question struck at the basis of free and fair elections (pp. 467 and 471); Mathew J. struck down the clause on the ground that it was in the nature of legislation ad hominem (p. 513) and that it damaged the democratic structure of the Constitution (p. 515); while one of us	 Chandrachud J.	 held that the clause was bad because it violated the Rule of Law and was an outright negation of the principle of equality which is a basic feature of the Constitution (pp. 663 665). More recently	 in Minerva Mills	 (supra) clauses (4) and (5) of Article 368 itself were held unconstitutional by a unanimous Court	 on the ground that they destroyed certain basic features of the Constitution like judicial review and a limited amending power	 and thereby damaged its basic structure. The majority also struck down the amendment introduced to Article 31C by section 4 of the 42nd Amendment Act	 1976. The period between April 24	 1973	 when the judgment in Kesavananda Bharati (supra) was delivered and now is of course a short span in our constitutional history but the occasional challenges which evoked equal responses have helped settle the controversy over the limitations on the Parliament 's power to amend the Constitution. Khanna J. was misunderstood to mean that fundamental rights are not a part of the basic structure of the Constitution when he said in Kesavananda Bharati (supra): I have no doubt that the power of amendment is plenary and would include within itself the power to add	 alter or repeal the various articles including those relating to fundamental rights. (p. 688) But he clarified the true position in his judgment in the Election Case (supra) (pages 497 499)	 by drawing the attention of doubters to a significant qualification 'which he had engrafted on the above statement	 at pages 688 and 758 of his judgment in Kesavananda Bharati (supra). The qualification was that subject to the retention of the basic structure or framework of the Constitution	 the power of amendment was plenary. The law on the subject of the Parliament 's power to amend the Constitution must now be taken as well settled	 the true position being that though the Parliament has the power to amend each and every article of the Constitution including the provisions of Part III	 the amending power cannot be exercised so as to damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. It is by the application of this principle that we shall have to decide upon the 20 validity of the Amendment by which Article 31A was introduced. The precise question then for consideration is whether section 4 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 which introduced Article 31A into the Constitution damages or destroys the basic structure of the Constitution. In the work a day civil law	 it is said that the measure of the permissibility of an amendment of a pleading is how far it is consistent with the original: you cannot by an amendment transform the original into the opposite of what it is. For that purpose	 a comparison is undertaken to match the amendment with the original. Such a comparison can yield fruitful results even in the rarefied sphere of constitutional law. What were the basic postulates of the Indian Constitution when it was enacted ? And does the 1st Amendment do violence to those postulates ? Can the Constitution as originally conceived and the amendment introduced by the 1st Amendment Act not endure in harmony or are they so incongruous that to seek to harmonize them will be like trying to fit a square peg into a round aperture ? Is the concept underlying section 4 of the 1st Amendment an alien in the house of democracy? its invader and destroyer ? Does it damage or destroy the republican framework of the Constitution as originally devised and designed? These questions have a historical slant and content: and history can furnish a safe and certain clue to their answer. The relevant part of the statement of Objects and Reasons of the 1st amendment says: During the last fifteen months of the working of the Constitution	 certain difficulties have been brought to light by judicial decisions and pronouncements specially in regard to the chapter on fundamental rights. The citizen 's right to freedom of speech and expression guaranteed by article 19(1) (a) has been held by some courts to be so comprehensive as not to render a person culpable even if he advocates murder and other crimes of violence. In other countries with written constitutions	 freedom of speech and of the press is not regarded as debarring the State from punishing or preventing abuse of this freedom. The citizen 's right to practise any profession or to carry on any occupation	 trade or business conferred by article 19(1)(g) is subject to reasonable restrictions which the laws of the State may impose "in the interests of the general public." While the words cited are comprehensive enough to cover any scheme of nationalisation which the State may undertake	 it is desirable to place 21 the matter beyond doubt by a clarificatory addition to article 19(6). Another article in regard to which unanticipated difficulties have arisen is article 31. The validity of agrarian reform measures passed by the State Legislatures in the last three years has	 in spite of the provisions of clauses (4) and (6) of article 31	 formed the subject matter of dilatory litigation	 as a result of which the implementation of these important measures	 affecting large numbers of people has been held up. The main objects of this Bill are	 accordingly	 to amend article 19 for the purposes indicated above and to insert provisions fully securing the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws in general and certain specified State Acts in particular. The opportunity has been taken to propose a few minor amendments to other articles in order to remove difficulties that may arise. In Shankari Prasad vs Union of India	 Patanjali Sastri	 C.J. explained the reasons that led to the insertion of Articles 31A and 31B by the 1st Amendment thus: What led to that enactment is a matter of common knowledge. The political party now in power	 commanding as it does a majority of votes in the several State Legislatures as well as in Parliament	 carried out certain measures of agrarian reform in Bihar	 Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh by enacting legislation which may compendiously be referred to as Zamindari Abolition Acts. Certain Zamindars	 feeling themselves aggrieved	 attacked the validity of those Acts in Courts of law on the ground that they contravened the fundamental rights conferred on them by Part III of the Constitution. The High Court at Patna held that the Act passed in Bihar was unconstitutional while the High Courts at Allahabad and Nagpur upheld the validity of the corresponding legislation in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh respectively. Appeals from those decisions are pending in this Court. Petitions filed in this Court by some other zamindars seeking the determinations of the same question are also pending. At this stage	 the Union Government	 with a view to put an end to all this litigation and to remedy what they considered to be certain defects brought to light in the working of the Constitution	 brought forward a Bill to amend the Constitution	 which after undergoing amendments in various particulars	 22 was passed by the requisite majority as the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951. Article 31A was further amended with retrospective effect by the Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act 1955	 the object of which was explained as follows in the Statement of Objects and Reasons of that Amendment: It will be recalled that the zamindari abolition laws which came first in our programme of social welfare legislation were attacked by the interests affected mainly with reference to article 14	 19 and 31	 and that in order to put an end to the dilatory and wasteful litigation and place these laws above challenge in the courts	 articles 31A and 31B and the Ninth Schedule were enacted by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act. Subsequent judicial decisions interpreting articles 14	 19 and 31 have raised serious difficulties in the way of the Union and the States putting through other and equally important social welfare legislation on the desired lines	 e.g.	 the following: (i) While the abolition of zamindaries and the numerous intermediaries between the State and the tiller of the soil has been achieved for the most part	 our next objectives in land reform are the fixing of limits to the extent of agricultural land that may be owned or occupied by any person	 the disposal of any land held in excess of the prescribed maximum and the further modification of the rights of land owners and tenants in agricultural holdings. (ii) x x x x x x (iii) x x x x x x (iv) x x x x x x It is accordingly proposed in clause 3 of the Bill to extend the scope of article 31A so as to cover these categories of essential welfare legislation. The Constitution (First Amendment) Act was moved in the Provisional Parliament on May 12	 1951 as Bill No. 48 of 1951. It was referred to a Select Committee and after the receipt of its report	 it was debated in the Parliament on various dates in May and June. It received the Presidential assent on June 18	 1951. The speeches made in the Provisional Parliament by Jawaharlal Nehru and other national leaders who had participated in the freedom 23 movement show	 in a significant measure	 the genesis of the 1st Amendment and its avowed purpose. While moving that the Bill be referred to a Select Committee	 Jawaharlal Nehru said: This Bill is not a very complicated one: nor is it a big one. Nevertheless	 I need hardly point out that it is of intrinsic and great importance. Anything dealing with the Constitution and change of it is of importance. Anything dealing with Fundamental Rights incorporated in the Constitution is of even greater importance. Therefore	 in bringing this Bill forward I do so and the Government does so in no spirit of lightheartedness	 in no haste	 but after the most careful thought and scrutiny given to this problem. I might inform the House that we have been thinking about this matter for several months	 consulting people	 State Governments	 Ministers of Provincial Governments	 consulting when occasion offered itself	 a number of Members of this House	 referring it to various Committees and the like and taking such advice from competent legal quarters as we could obtain	 so that we have proceeded with as great care as we could possibly give to it. We have brought it forward now after that care	 in the best form that we could give it	 because we thought that the amendments mentioned in this Bill are not only necessary	 but desirable	 and because we thought that if these changes are not made	 perhaps not only would great difficulties arise	 as they have arisen in the past few months	 but perhaps some of the main purposes of the very Constitution may be defeated or delayed. The Parliamentary Debates	 Part II	 Volumes XII and XIII (May 15 June 9	 1951) contain the record of the speeches made while the 1st Amendment was on the anvil. We reproduce below the relevant extracts from the speeches of the then Prime Minister	 Jawaharlal Nehru: The real difficulty which has come up before us is this. The Constitution lays down certain Directive Principles of State Policy and after long discussion we agreed to them and they point out the way we have got to travel. The Constitution also lays down certain Fundamental Rights. Both are important. The Directive Principles of State Policy represent a dynamic move towards a certain objective. The Fundamental Rights represent something static	 to preserve certain 24 rights which exist. Both again are right. But somehow and sometime it might so happen that dynamic movement and that static standstill do not quite fit into each other. A dynamic movement towards a certain objective necessarily means certain changes taking place that is the essence of movement. (p. 8820) Now I shall proceed with the other article	 the important one	 namely article 31. When I think of this article the whole gamut of pictures comes up before my mind	 because this article deals with the abolition of the zamindari system	 with land laws and agrarian reform. I am not a zamindar	 nor I am a tenant. I am an outsider. But the whole length of my public life has been intimately connected	 or was intimately connected	 with agrarian agitation in my Province. And so these matters came up before me repeatedly and I became intimately associated with them. Therefore I have a certain emotional reaction to them and awareness of them which is much more than merely an intellectual appreciation. If there is one thing to which we as a party have been committed in the past generation or so it is the agrarian reform and the abolition of the zamindari system. (p. 8830) Now apart from our commitment	 a survey of the world today	 a survey of Asia today will lead any intelligent person to see that the basic and the primary problem is the land problem today in Asia	 as in India. And every day of delay adds to the difficulties and dangers	 apart from being an in justice in itself. (pp 8830 8831) . it is patent that when you are out to remedy inequalities	 you do not remedy inequalities by producing further inequalities. We do not want anyone to suffer. But	 inevitably	 in big social changes some people have to suffer. (p. 8831) How are we to meet this challenge of the times ? How are we to answer the question: For the last ten or 20 years you have said	 we will do it. Why have you not done it ? It is not good for us to say: We are helpless before fate and the situation which we are to face at present. Therefore	 we have to think in terms of these big changes	 and changes and the like and therefore we thought of amending article 31. Ultimately we thought it best to propose additional articles 31A and 31B and in addition to that there is a Schedule 25 attached of a number of Acts passed by State Legislatures	 some of which have been challenged or might be challenged and we thought it best to save them from long delays and these difficulties	 so that this process of change which has been initiated by the State should go ahead. (pp. 8831 8832) The other day I was reading an article about India by a very eminent American and in that article which contained many correct statements and some incorrect statements	 the author finished up by saying that India has very difficult problems to face but the most acute of them he said can be put in five words and those five words were: land	 water	 babies	 cows and capital. I think that there is a great deal of truth in this concise analysis of the Indian situation. 8832 8833) Now I come to articles 31	 31A and 31B. May I remind the House or such Members of the House as were also Members of the Constituent Assembly of the long debates that we had on this issue. Now the whole object of these articles in the Constitution was to take away and I say so deliberately to take away the question of zamindari and land reform from the purview of the courts. That is the whole object of the Constitution and we put in some proviso etc. in regard to article 31. (p. 9082) What are we to do about it? What is the Government to do ? If a Government has not even the power to legislate to bring about gradually that equality	 the Government fails to do what it has been commanded to do by this Constitution. That is why I said that the amendments I have placed before the House are meant to give effect to this Constitution. I am not changing the Constitution by an iota; I am merely making it stronger. I am merely giving effect to the real intentions of the framers of the Constitution	 and to the wording of the Constitution	 unless it is interpreted in a very narrow and legalistic way. Here is a definite intention in the Constitution. This question of land reform is under article 31(2) and this clause tries to take it away from the purview of the courts and somehow article 14 is brought in That kind of thing is not surely the intention of the framers of the Constitution. Here again I may say that the Bihar High Court held that view but the Allahabad and Nagpur High Courts held a contrary view. That is true. There is confusion and doubt. Are we to wait for this confusion and 26 doubt gradually to resolve itself	 while powerful agrarian movements grow up ? May I remind the House that this question of land reform is most intimately connected with food production. We talk about food production and grow more food and if there is agrarian trouble and insecurity of land tenure nobody knows what is to happen. Neither the zamindar nor the tenant can devote his energies to food production because there is instability. Therefore these loud arguments and these repeated appeals in courts are dangerous to the State	 from the security point of view	 from the food production point of view and from the individual point of view	 whether it is that of the zamindar or the tenant or any intermediary. (pp 9082 9084) (Emphasis is supplied in the passages above) These statements were made by the Prime Minister on the floor of the house after what is correctly described as the most careful deliberation and a broad based consultation with diverse interests. They were made in order to resolve doubts and difficulties and not with the intention of creating confrontation with any other arm of the Government or with the people. They stand in a class apart and convey in a language characterized by logic and directness	 how the Constitution was failing of its purpose and how essential it was	 in order to remove glaring disparities	 to pour meaning and content into the framework of the Constitution for the purpose of strengthening its structure. Looking back over the past thirty years ' constitutional history of our country	 we	 as lawyers and Judges	 must endorse the claim made in the speeches above that if Article 31A were not enacted	 some of the main purposes of the Constitution would have been delayed and eventually defeated and that by the 1st Amendment	 the constitutional edifice was not impaired but strengthened. Conscious as we are that though extraneous aids to constitutional interpretation are permissible the views of the mover of a Bill are not conclusive on the question of its objects and purposes	 we will consider for ourselves the question	 independently	 whether the 1st and the 4th Amendments damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution in any manner. But before doing that	 we desire only to state that these amendments	 especially the 1st were made so closely on the heels of the Constitution that they ought indeed to be considered as a part and parcel of the Constitution itself. These Amendments are not born of second thoughts and they do not reflect a fresh look at the Constitution in order to deprive the people of the gains of the Consti 27 tution. They are	 in the truest sense of the phrase	 a contemporary practical exposition of the Constitution. Article 39 of the Constitution directs by clauses (b) and (c) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good	 that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. These twin principles of State policy were a part of the Constitution as originally enacted and it is in order to effectuate the purpose of these Directive Principles that the 1st and the 4th Amendments were passed. In his address to the Allahabad Session of the Agri Economics Conference	 Dr. D. R. Gadgil put a home truth succinctly by saying: "Among all resources	 the supply of land is the most limited and the claimants for its possession are extremely numerous. It is	 therefore	 obviously unjust to allow the exploitation of any large surface of land by a single individual unless other over whelming reasons make this highly desirable. Further	 in the light of the available supplies of land	 labour and capital	 it would be undesirable to encourage capital intensive method of production. Moreover	 whatever the economics of large scale management	 they should	 in the congested state of our countryside	 accrue to collective or co operative bodies of cultivators rather than an individual family. Lastly	 in the context of the current socio political climate	 re distribution of land would rather appear to be imperative. " As stated in the Report of the Committee of the Panel on Land Reforms (Government of India	 Planning Commission	 1959)	 the policy of imposition of ceiling on agricultural lands fulfils the following objectives: "(i) meeting the wide spread desire to possess land; (ii) reducing glaring inequalities in ownership and use of land; (iii) reducing inequalities in agricultural incomes	 and (iv) enlarging the sphere of self employment. " The Report of the Working Group on Land Reforms	 1978 (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation	 Department of Agriculture) says that it was widely recognised that the imposition of ceiling on agricultural holdings and tenancy reforms constituted the substance of the agrarian reform movement and that	 concentration of land in the hands of a 28 small group inhibits production	 encourages concealed or irregular tenancies and results in unequal accesses to facilities of production in the rural sector. In any economy with a preponderant agricultural sector	 overall growth of the economy is largely determined by growth in agricultural production and elimination of constraints on production has to be a major national priority. Studies in certain developing countries have established that the productivity of smaller holdings can conceivably be higher than that of larger holdings	 primarily because the intensity of farming operations varies inversely with the size of the holding. The Report of the Working Group says in paragraph 2.1 that whether or not this is true in all situations	 the production system that denies opportunities of gainful employment to large numbers of workers and leads to pronounced distortions in the distribution of economic disadvantages	 needs imperative over hauling. In paragraph 2.2	 the Report proceeds to say that in a predominantly agricultural society	 there is a strong linkage between ownership of land and the person 's status in the social system. Those without land suffer not only from an economic disadvantage	 but a concomitant social disadvantage has also to be suffered by them. In the very nature of things	 it is not possible to provide land to all landless persons but that cannot furnish an alibi for not undertaking at all a programme for the redistribution of agricultural land. Agrarian reform therefore requires	 inter alia	 the reduction of the larger holdings and distribution of the excess land according to social and economic considerations. These then are the objectives of the Constitution and these the reasons that formed the motive force of the 1st Amendment. Article 31A (1) could easily have appeared in the original Constitution itself as an illustration of its basic philosophy. What remained to be done in the hope that vested interests will not distort the base of the Constitution	 had to be undertaken with a sense of urgency and expediency. It is that sense and sensitivity which gave birth to the impugned amendment. The progress in the degeneracy of any nation can be rapid	 especially in societies riven by economic disparities and caste barriers. We embarked upon a constitutional era holding forth the promise that we will secure to all citizens justice	 social	 economic and political	 equality of status and of opportunity; and	 last but not the least	 dignity of the individual. Between these promises and the 1st Amendment there is discernible a nexus	 direct and immediate. Indeed	 if there is one place in an agriculture dominated society like ours where citizens can hope to have equal justice	 it is on the strip of land which they till and love	 the land which assures to them and dignity of their person by providing to them a near decent means of livelihood. 29 The First Amendment has thus made the constitutional ideal of equal justice a living truth. It is like a mirror that reflects the ideals of the Constitution; it is not the destroyer of its basic structure. The provisions introduced by it and the 4th Amendment for the extinguishment or modification of rights in lands held or let for purposes of agriculture or for purposes ancillary thereto	 strengthen rather than weaken the basic structure of the Constitution. The First Amendment is aimed at removing social and economic disparities in the agricultural sector. It may happen that while existing inequalities are being removed	 new inequalities may arise marginally and incidentally. Such marginal and incidental inequalities cannot damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. It is impossible for any Government	 howsoever expertly advised	 socially oriented and prudently managed	 to remove every economic disparity without causing some hardship or injustice to a class of persons who also are entitled to equal treatment under the law. Thus	 the adoption of 'family unit ' as the unit of application for the revised ceilings may cause incidental hardship to minor children and to unmarried daughters. That cannot	 in our opinion	 furnish an argument for assailing the impugned laws on the ground that they violate the guarantee of equality. It seems to us ironical indeed that the laws providing for agricultural ceilings should be stigmatised as destroying the guarantee of equality when their true object and intendment is to remove inequalities in the matter of agricultural holding. The Note of the Panel set up by the Planning Commission in May 1959 on the adoption of 'family unit ' as the unit of application for the revised ceilings and the counter affidavit of Shri J. G. Karandikar	 Deputy Secretary to the Government of Maharashtra show the relevance and efficacy of the family being treated as the real operative unit in the movement for agrarian reform. Considering the Indian social milieu	 the Panel came to the conclusion that agricultural ceiling can be most equitably applied if the base of application is taken as the family unit consisting of husband	 wife and three minor children. In view of this expert data	 we are unable to appreciate how any law passed truly for implementing the objective of Article 31A(1) (a) can be open to challenge on the ground that it infringes Articles 14	 19 or 31. For these reasons	 we are of the view that the Amendment introduced by section 4 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 does not damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. That Amendment must	 therefore	 be upheld on its own merits. 30 This makes it unnecessary to consider whether Article 31A can be upheld by applying the rule of stare decisis. We have	 however	 heard long and studied arguments on that question also	 in deference to which we must consider the alternate submission as to whether the doctrine of stare decisis can save Article 31A	 if it is otherwise violative of the basic structure of the Constitution. In Shankari Prasad vs Union of India (supra) the validity of the 1st Amendment which introduced Articles 31A & 31B was assailed on six grounds	 the fifth being that Article 13(2) takes in not only ordinary laws but constitutional amendments also. This argument was rejected and the 1st Amendment was upheld. In Sajjansingh vs State of Rajasthan the Court refused to reconsider the decision in Shankari Prasad (supra)	 with the result that the validity of the 1st Amendment remained unshaken. In Golaknath it was held by a majority of 6: 5 that the power to amend the Constitution was not located in Article 368. The inevitable result of this holding should have been the striking down of all constitutional amendments since	 according to the view of the majority	 Parliament had no power to amend the Constitution in pursuance of Article 368. But the Court resorted to the doctrine of prospective overruling and held that the constitutional amendments which were already made would be left undisturbed and that its decision will govern the future amendments only. As a result	 the 1st Amendment by which Articles 31A and 31B were introduced remained inviolate. It is trite knowledge that Golaknath was overruled in Kesavananda Bharati (supra) in which it was held unanimously that the power to amend the Constitution was to be found in Article 368 of the Constitution. The petitioners produced before us a copy of the Civil Misc. Petition which was filed in Kesavananda Bharati	 (supra) by which the reliefs originally asked for were modified. It appears thereform that what was challenged in that case was the 24th	 25th and the 29th Amendments to the Constitution. The validity of the 1st Amendment was not questioned Khanna J.	 however	 held while dealing with the validity of the unamended Article 31C that the validity of Article 31A was upheld in shukari Prasad	(supra) that its validity could not be any longer questioned because of the principle of stare decisis and that the ground on which the validity of Article 31A was sustained will be available equally for sustaining the validity of the first part of Article 31C (page 744). Thus	 the constitutional validity of Article 31A has been recognised in these four decisions	 sometimes directly	 sometimes indirectly and sometimes incidentally. We may mention in passing	 though it has 31 no relevance on the applicability of the rule of stare decisis	 that in none of the three earlier decisions was the validity of Article 31A tested on the ground that it damaged or destroyed the basic structure of the Constitution. That theory was elaborated for the first time in Kesavananda Bharati (supra) and it was in the majority judgment delivered in that case that the doctrine found its first acceptance. Though Article 31A has thus continued to be recognised as valid ever since it was introduced into the Constitution	 we find it somewhat difficult to apply the doctrine of stare decisis for upholding that Article. In Ambika Prasad Mishra vs State of U.P. this very Bench delivered its judgment on May 9	 1980 rejecting the challenge to the validity of the 'Uttar Pradesh Imposition of Ceiling on Land Holdings Act	 1960 '. But	 the question as to whether Article 31A can be upheld by applying the doctrine of stare decisis was not decided in that case. In fact	 the broad consensus among the members of the Court that the question of vires of Articles 31A	 31B & 31C (unamended) will be decided in the other cases	 is reflected in the following observation specifically made by one of us	 Brother Krishna Iyer	 J.	 who spoke for a unanimous Court: "In this judgment	 we side step the bigger issue of the vires of the Constitutional amendments in Articles 31A	 31B and 31C as they are dealt with in other cases disposed of recently". (p. 721). Since the question of vires of these three articles was not dealt with by Brother Krishna Iyer in his judgment on behalf of the Court	 we are	 as previously arranged amongst us	 dealing with that question in this judgment. At page 722 of the report (paragraph 5)	 Brother Krishna Iyer has reaffirmed this position in these words: "Thus we get the statutory perspective of agrarian reform and so	 the constitutionality of the Act has to be tested on the touchstone of Article 31 A which is the relevant protective armour for land reform laws. Even here	 we must state that while we do refer to the range of constitutional immunity Article 31A confers on agrarian reform measures we do not rest our decision on that provision. Independently of Article 31 A	 the impugned legislation can withstand constitutional invasion and so the further challenge to Article 31 A itself is of no consequence". 32 Krishna Iyer J. has observed in the same paragraph that "The extreme argument that Article 31 A itself is void as violative of the basic structure of the Constitution has been negatived by my learned Brother	 Bhagwati J.	 in a kindred group of cases of Andhra Pradesh". the citation of that group of cases being Thumati Venkaiah vs State of A.P. But	 in that judgment too	 one of us	 Brother Bhagwati	 who spoke for the unanimous Court	 did not refer to the vires of Articles 31A	 31B and 31C. It will thus be clear that neither the one or the other of us	 that is to say neither Brother Bhagwati nor Brother Krishna Iyer	 dealt with the question of vires of Articles 31A	 31B and 31C which we are doing by this judgment. It has become necessary to make this clarification in view of an observation by Brother Krishna Iyer in the very same paragraph 5 of the aforesaid judgment in Ambika Prasad Mishra that the decision in Kesavananda Bharati (Supra) on the validity of Article 31A	 "binds	 on the simple score of stare decisis. " Brother Krishna Iyer clarified the position once again by a further caveat in the same paragraph to this effect: ". .as stated earlier	 we do not base the conclusion on Article 31A". The doctrine of stare decisis is the basis of common law. It originated in England and was used in the colonies as the basis of their judicial decisions. According to Dias	 the genesis of the rule may be sought in factors peculiar to English legal history	 amongst which may be singled out the absence of a Code. The Normans forbore to impose an alien code on a half conquered realm	 but sought instead to win as much wide spread confidence as possible in their administration of law	 by the application of near uniform rules. The older the decision	 the greater its authority and the more truly was it accepted as stating the correct law. As the gulf of time widened	 says Dias	 Judges became increasingly reluctant to challenge old decisions. The learned author cites the example of Bracton and Coke who always preferred older authorities. In fact	 Bracton had compiled a Notebook of some two thousand cases as material for his treatise and employed some five hundred of them. The principle of stare decisis is also firmly rooted in American Jurisprudence. It is regarded as a rule of policy which promotes predictability	 certainty	 uniformity and stability. The legal system	 it is 33 said	 should furnish a clear guide for conduct so that people may plan their affairs with assurance against surprise. It is important to further fair and expeditious adjudication by eliminating the need to relitigate every proposition in every case. When the weight of the volume of the decisions on a point of general public importance is heavy enough	 courts are inclined to abide by the rule of stare decisis	 leaving it to the legislature to change long standing precedents if it so thinks it expedient or necessary. In Burnet vs Coronado Oil & Gas Co.	 Justice Brandeis stated that 'stare decisis is usually the wise policy	 because in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than it be settled right '. While dealing with the subject of stare decisis	 Shri H. M. Seervai in his book on 'Constitutional Law of India	 has pointed out how important it is for judges to conform to a certain measure of discipline so that decisions of old standing are not overruled for the reason merely that another view of the matter could also be taken. The learned author has cited an Australian case in which it was said that though the court has the power to reconsider its own decisions	 that should not be done upon a mere suggestion that some or all of the members of the later court may arrive at a different conclusion if the matter were res integra. The learned author then refers to two cases of our Supreme Court in which the importance of adherence to precedents was stressed. Jagannadhadas J. said in the Bengal Immunity Case that the finality of the decisions of the Supreme Court	 which is the Court of last resort	 will be greatly weakened and much mischief done if we treat our own judgments	 even though recent	 as open to reconsideration. B. P. Sinha J. said in the same case that if the Supreme Court were to review its own previous decisions simply on the ground that another view was possible	 the litigant public may be encouraged to think that it is always worthwhile taking a chance with the highest Court of the land. In I.T.O. Tuticorin vs T.S.D. Nadar	 Hegde J. said in his dissenting Judgment that the Supreme Court should not overrule its decisions except under compelling circumstances. It is only when the Court is fully convinced that public interest of a substantial character would be jeopardised by a previous 34 decision	 that the Court should overrule that decision. Reconsideration of the earlier decisions	 according to the learned Judge	 should be confined to questions of great public importance. Legal problems should not be treated as mere subjects for mental exercise. An earlier decision may therefore be overruled only if the Court comes to the conclusion that it is manifestly wrong	 not upon a mere suggestion that if the matter were res integra	 the members of the later court may arrive at a different conclusion. These decisions and texts are of high authority and cannot be overlooked. In fact	 these decisions are themselves precedents on the binding nature of precedents. It is also true to say that for the application of the rule of stare decisis	 it is not necessary that the earlier decision or decisions of long standing should have considered and either accepted or rejected the particular argument which is advanced in the case on hand. Were it so	 the previous decisions could more easily be treated as binding by applying the law of precedent and it will be unnecessary to take resort to the principle of stare decisis. It is	 therefore	 sufficient for invoking the rule of stare decisis that a certain decision was arrived at on a question which arose or was argued	 no matter on what reason the decision rests or what is the basis of the decision. In other words	 for the purpose of applying the rule of stare decisis	 it is unnecessary to enquire or determine as to what was the rationale of the earlier decision which is said to operate as stare decisis. Therefore	 the reason why Article 31A was upheld in the earlier decisions	 if indeed it was	 are not germane for the purpose of deciding whether this is a fit and proper case in which to apply that rule. But	 there are four principal reasons why we are not disposed to invoke the rule of stare decisis for deciding upon the constitutionality of Article 31A. In the first place	 Article 31A breathes its own vitality	 drawing its sustenance from the basic tenets of our Constitution. Its unstated premise is an integral part of the very making of the Constitution and it holds	 as it were	 a mirror to the ideals which inspired the framing of the Constitution. The second reason why we do not want to resort to the principle of stare decisis while determining the validity of Article 31A is that neither in Shankari Prasad(Supra) nor in Sajjan Singh(Supra)	 nor in Golak Nath(Supra) and evidently not in Kesavananda Bharati(Supra) was the question as regards the validity as such of Article 31A raised or decided. As stated earlier	 Shankari Prasad(Supra) involved the larger question as to whether constitutional amendments fall within 35 the purview of Article 13(2) of the Constitution. It was held that they did not. In Sajjan Singh (Supra)	 the demand for reconsideration of the decision in Shankari Prasad(Supra) was rejected	 that is to say	 the Court was not inclined to consider once again whether constitutional amendments are also comprehended within the terms of Article 13(2). Golak Nath (Supra) raised the question as to where the amending power was located and not whether this or that particular amendment was valid. In none of these decisions was the validity of Article 31A put in issue. Nor indeed was that question considered and decided in any of those cases. A deliberate judicial decision made after hearing an argument on a question which arises in the case or is put in issue may constitute a precedent	 and the precedent by long recognition may mature into stare decisis. But these cases cannot be considered as having decided	 reasons apart	 that the 1st Amendment which introduced Article 31A into the Constitution is valid. Thirdly	 the history of the World 's constitutional law shows that the principle of stare decisis is treated as having a limited application only. Justice William Douglas said in New York vs United States that it is a wise policy to restrict the principle of stare decisis to those areas of the law where correction can be had by legislation. Otherwise	 the constitution loses the flexibility which is necessary if it is to serve the needs of successive generations. It is for that reason again that Justice Frankfurter said in U.S. vs International Boxing Club that the doctrine of stare decisis is not 'an imprisonment of reason '. Older the standing of a decision	 greater the provocation to apply the rule of stare decisis. A possible mischief arising out of this position was pointed out by Justice Benjamin Cardozo in MacPherson vs Buick Motor Co. by saying that precedents drawn from the days of travel by stage coach do not fit the conditions of travel today. And alive to that possibility	 Justice Brandeis said in State of Washington vs W. C. Dawson & Co. that stare decisis is merely a wise rule of action and is not a universal	 inexorable command. "The instances in which the court has disregarded its admonition are many". In fact	 the full form of the principle	 "stare decisis et non quieta movere" which means "to stand by decisions and not to disturb what is settled"	 was put by Coke in its classic English version as: "Those things which have been so often adjudged ought to rest in peace". Such being the justification of the rule	 it was said in James Monroe vs Frank Pape that the rele 36 vant demands of stare decisis do not preclude consideration of an interpretation which started as an unexamined assumption. We have already pointed out how the constitutional validity of Article 31A has to be deemed to have been upheld in Shakari Prasad (supra) by a process of inferential reasoning	 the real question therein being whether the expression 'law ' in Article 13(2) includes law made in the exercise of constituent power. The fourth reason is the one cited by Shri Tarkunde that on principle	 rules like stare decisis should not be invoked for upholding constitutional devices like Articles 31A	 31B and 31C which are designed to protect not only past laws but future laws also. Supposing Article 31A were invalid on the ground that it violates the Constitution 's basic structure	 the fact that its validity has been recognised for a long time cannot justify its protection being extended to future laws or to laws which have been recently passed by the legislature. The principle of stare decisis can apply	 if at all	 to laws protected by these articles	 if those laws have enjoyed the protection of these articles for a long time	 but the principle cannot apply to the articles themselves. The principle of stare decisis permits the saving of laws the validity of which has been accepted or recognised over the years. It does not require or sanction that	 in future too	 laws may be passed even though they are invalid or unconstitutional. Future perpetration of illegality is no part of the doctrine of stare decisis. Our disinclination to invoke the rule of stare decisis for saving Article 31A does not really matter because we have upheld the constitutional validity of that Article independently on its own merits. Coming to the validity of Article 31B	 that article also contains a device for saving laws from challenge on the ground of violation of fundamental rights. Putting it briefly	 Article 31B provides that the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule shall not be deemed to be void or ever to have become void on the ground that they are inconsistent with or take away or abridge any of the rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution. The provisions of the article are expressed to be without prejudice to the generality of the provisions in Article 31A and the concluding portion of the article supersedes any judgment	 decree or order of any court or tribunal to the contrary. This article was introduced into the Constitution by section 5 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act 1951	 Article 31A having been introduced by section 4 of the same Amendment. 37 Article 31B has to be read along with the Ninth Schedule because it is only those Acts and Regulations which are put in that Schedule that can receive the protection of that article. The Ninth Schedule was added to the Constitution by section 14 of the 1st Amendment Act	 1951. The device or mechanism which sections 5 and 14 of the 1st Amendment have adopted is that as and when Acts and Regulations are put into the Ninth Schedule by Constitutional amendments made from time to time	 they will automatically	 by reason of the provisions of Article 31B	 received the protection of that article. Items 1 to 13 of the Ninth Schedule were put into that Schedule when the 1st Amendment was enacted on June 18	 1951. These items are typical instances of agrarian reform legislations. They relate mostly to the abolition of various tenures like Maleki	 Taluqdari	 Mehwassi	 Khoti	 Paragana and Kulkarni Watans and of Zamindaris and Jagirs. The place of pride in the Schedule is occupied by the Bihar Land Reforms Act	 1950	 which is item No. 1 and which led to the enactment of Article 31A and to some extent of Article 31B. The Bombay Tenancy and Agricultural Lands Act	 1948 appears as item 2 in the Ninth Schedule. Items 14 to 20 were added by the 4th Amendment Act of 1955	 items 21 to 64 by the 17th Amendment Act 1964	 items 65 and 66 by the 29th Amendment Act of 1972	 items 67 to 86 by the 34th Amendment Act 1974	 items 88 to 124 by the 39th Amendment Act 1975 and items 125 to 188 by the 40th Amendment Act 1976. The Ninth Schedule is gradually becoming densely populated and it would appear that some planning is imperative. But that is another matter. We may only remind that Jawaharlal Nehru had assured the Parliament while speaking on the 1st Amendment that there was no desire to add to the 13 items which were being incorporated in the Ninth Schedule simultaneously with the 1st Amendment and that it was intended that the Schedule should not incorporate laws of any other description than those which fell within items 1 to 13. Even the small list of 13 items was described by the Prime Minister as a 'long schedule '. While dealing with the validity of Article 31A we have expressed the view that it would not be proper to invoke the doctrine of stare decisis for upholding the validity of that article. Though the same considerations must govern the question of the validity of Article 31B	 we would like to point out that just as there are significant similarities between Articles 31A and 31B	 there is a significant dissimilarity too. Article 31A enables the passing of laws of the description mentioned in clauses (a) to (e)	 in violation of the guarantees afforded by Article 14 and 19. The Parliament is not required	 in the exercise of its constituent power or otherwise	 to undertake an examination of the laws 38 which are to receive the protection of Article 31A. In other words	 when a competent legislature passes a law within the purview of clauses (a) to (e)	 it automatically receives the protection of Article 31A	 with the result that the law cannot be challenged on the ground of its violation of Articles 14 and 19. In so far as Article 31B is concerned	 it does not define the category of laws which are to receive its protection	 and secondly	 going a little further than Article 31A	 it affords protection to Schedule laws against all the provisions of Part III of the Constitution. No act can be placed in the Ninth Schedule except by the Parliament and since the Ninth Schedule is a part of the Constitution	 no additions or alterations can be made therein without complying with the restrictive provisions governing amendments to the Constitution. Thus	 Article 31B read with the Ninth Schedule provides what is generally described as	 a protective umbrella to all Acts which are included in the schedule	 no matter of what character	 kind or category they may be. Putting it briefly	 whereas Article 31A protects laws of a defined category	 Article 31B empowers the Parliament to include in the Ninth Schedule such laws as it considers fit and proper to include therein. The 39th Amendment which was passed on August 10	 1975 undertook an incredibly massive programme to include items 87 to 124 while the 40th Amendment	 1976 added items 125 to 188 to the Ninth Schedule in one stroke. The necessity for pointing out this distinction between Articles 31A and 31B is the difficulty which may apparently arise in the application of the principle of stare decisis in regard to Article 31B read with the Ninth schedule	 since that doctrine has been held by us not to apply to Article 31A. The fourth reason given by us for not applying the rule of stare decisis to Article 31A is that any particular law passed under clauses (a) to (e) can be accepted as good if it has been treated as valid for a long number of years but the device in the form of the Article cannot be upheld by the application of that rule. We propose to apply to Article 31B read with the Ninth Schedule the selfsame test. We propose to draw a line	 treating the decision in Kesavanda Bharati (supra) as the landmark. Several Acts were put in the Ninth schedule prior to that decision on the supposition that the power of the Parliament to amend the Constitution	 was wide and untrammeled. The theory that the parliament cannot exercise its amending power so as to damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution	 was propounded and accepted for the first time in Kesavananda Bharati (supra). This is one reason for upholding the laws incorporated into the Ninth schedule before April 24	 1973	 on which date the judgment in 39 Kesavananda Bharti (Supra) was rendered. A large number of properties must have changed hands and several new titles must have come into existence on the faith and belief that the laws included in the Ninth schedule were not open to challenge on the ground that they were violative of Articles 14	 19 and 31. We will not be justified in upsetting settled claims and titles and in introducing chaos and confusion into the lawful affairs of a fairly orderly society. The second reason for drawing a line at a convenient and relevant point of time is that the first 66 items in the Ninth Schedule	 which were inserted prior to the decision in Kesavananda Bharati	 (Supra) mostly pertain to laws of agrarian reforms. There are a few exceptions amongst those 66 items	 like items 17	 18	 19 which relate to Insurance	 Railways and Industries. But almost all other items would fall within the purview of Article 31A (1)(a). In fact	 items 65 and 66	 which were inserted by the 29th Amendment	 are the Kerala Land Reforms (Amendment) Acts of 1969 and 1971 respectively	 which were specifically challenged in Kesavananda Bharati (supra). That challenge was repelled. Thus	 in so far as the validity of Article 31B read with the Ninth schedule is concerned	 we hold that all Acts and Regulations included in the Ninth Schedule prior to April 24	 1973 will receive the full protection of Article 31B. Those laws and regulations will not be open to challenge on the ground that they are inconsistent with or take away or abridge any of the rights conferred by any of the provisions of Part III of the Constitution. Acts and Regulations	 which are or will be included in the Ninth Schedule on or after April 24	 1973 will not receive the protection of Article 31B for the plain reason that in the face of the judgment in Kesavananda Bharati (supra) there was no justification for making additions to the Ninth schedule with a view to conferring a blanket protection on the laws included therein. The various constitutional amendments	 by which additions were made to the Ninth Schedule on or after April 24	 1973	 will be valid only if they do not damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. That leaves for consideration the challenge to the constitutional validity of the unamended Article 31C. As we have stated at the beginning of this judgment	 Article 31C was introduced by the Constitution (Twenty fifth Amendment) Act	 1971. Initially	 it sought to give protection to those laws only which gave effect to the policy of the State towards securing the principles specified in clauses (b) and (c) of Article 39 of the Constitution. No such law could be deemed 40 to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with or takes away or abridges the rights conferred by Articles 14	 19 and 31. The concluding portion of the unamended article which gave conclusiveness to certain declarations was struck down in Kesavananda Bharati	 (supra) Shri M. N. Phadke	 who led the argument on behalf of the petitioners	 built a formidable attack against the vires of Article 31C. But	 with respect to the learned counsel	 the effort is fruitless because the question as regards the validity of Article 31C is no longer res integra. The opening clause of Article 31C was upheld by the majority in Kesavananda Bharati (Supra) and we do not quite see how the petitioners can be permitted to go behind that decision. The learned counsel addressed to us an interesting argument on the principles governing the theory of precedent	 and he argued that	 in the welter of judgments delivered in Kesavananda Bharati	 (Supra) it is impossible to discern a ratio because different learned Judges gave different reasons in support of the conclusions to which they came. It is well known that six learned Judges who were in minority in Kesavananda Bharti (Supra) upheld the first part of Article 31C	 which was a logical and inevitable consequence of their view that there were no inherent or implied limitations on the Parliament 's power to amend the Constitution. Khanna	 J. did not subscribe to that view but	 all the same	 he upheld the first part of Article 31C for different reasons. The question of validity of the Twenty fifth Amendment by which the unamended Article 31C was introduced into the Constitution was specifically raised before the Court and the arguments in that behalf were specifically considered by all the six minority Judges and by Khanna	 J. It seems to us difficult	 in these circumstances	 to hold that no common ratio can be culled out from the decision of the majority of the seven Judges who upheld the validity of Article 31C. Putting it simply	 and there is no reason why simple matters should be made complicated	 the ratio of the majority judgments in Kesavananda Bharati (Supra) is that the first part of Article 31C is valid. Apart from this	 if we are right in upholding the validity of Article 31A on its own merits	 it must follow logically that the unamended Article 31C is also valid. The unamended portion of Article 31C is not like an unchartered ship. It gives protection to a defined and limited category of laws which are passed for giving effect to the policy of the State towards securing the principles specified in clause (b) or clause (c) of Article 39. These clauses of Article 39 contain directive principles which are vital to the well being of the country and the welfare of its people. Whatever we have said in respect of the 41 defined category of laws envisaged by Article 31A must hold good	 perhaps with greater force	 in respect of laws passed for the purpose of giving effect to clauses (b) and (c) of Article 39. It is impossible to conceive that any law passed for such a purpose can at all violate Article 14 or Article 19. Article 31 is now out of harm 's way. In fact	 far from damaging the basic structure of the Constitution	 laws passed truly and bona fide for giving effect to directive principles contained in clauses (b) and (c) of Article 39 will fortify that structure. We do hope that the Parliament will utilise to the maximum its potential to pass laws	 genuinely and truly related to the principles contained in clauses (b) and (c) of Article 39. The challenge made to the validity of the first part of the unamended Article 31C therefore fails. A small	 though practically important	 clarification seems called for at the end of this discussion of the validity of Article 31A	 31B and 31C. We have held that laws included in the Ninth Schedule on or after April 24	 1973	 will not receive the protection of Article 31B ipso facto. Those laws shall have to be examined individually for determining whether the constitutional amendments by which they were put in the Ninth Schedule	 damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution in any manner. The clarification which we desire to make is that such an exercise will become otiose if the laws included in the Ninth Schedule on or after April 24	 1973 fall within the scope and purview of Article 31A or the unamended Article 31C. If those laws are saved by these Articles	 it would be unnecessary to determine whether they also receive the protection of Article 31B read with the Ninth Schedule. The fact that Article 31B confers protection on the schedule laws against "any provisions" of Part III and the other two Articles confer protection as against Articles 14 and 19 only	 will make no real difference to this position since	 after the deletion of Article 31	 the two provisions of Part III	 which would generally come into play on the question of validity of the relevant	 laws	 are Articles 14 and 19. Apart from these challenges to the various constitutional amendments	 the petitioners have also challenged the validity of the Constitution (fortieth Amendment) Act	 1976	 by which the Amending Acts 21 of 1975	 41 of 1975 and 2 of 1976 were placed in the Ninth Schedule. It may be recalled that the Principal Act was amended by these Amending Acts. The normal term of five years of the Lok Sabha was due to expire on March 18	 1976 but	 its life was extended for one year by the House of the People (Extension of Duration) Act	 1976. Yet another Act was passed by the Parliament	 The House of the People (Extension of Duration) Amendment Act	 1976	 by which the 42 term of the Lok Sabha was further extended by another year. The 40th Amendment was passed by the Lok Sabha on April 2	 1976 during its extended term. Since by the aforesaid two Acts	 the life of the Lok Sabha was extended while both the proclamations of emergency were in operation	 the petitioners challenge the proclamations of the state of Emergency	 dated December 3	 1971 and June 25	 1975 as also the two Acts by which the term of the Lok Sabha was extended. The 42nd Amendment inserted clauses 4 and 5 in Article 368 with effect from January 3	 1975. Which was also during the extended term of the Lok Sabha. That Amendment too is challenged for that reason. We have struck down that amendment unanimously by our judgment in Minerva Mills (supra) for the reason that it damages the basic structure of the Constitution. Thus	 we are now left to consider the validity of: (1) The Promulgation of the state of Emergency by the proclamations dated December 3	 1971 and June 25	 1975; (2) The House of the People (Extension of Duration) Act	 1976; (3) The House of People (Extension of Duration) Amendment Act	 1976	 and (4) The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act	 1976. The validity of all these is inter connected and the focus of the challenge is the aforesaid proclamations of Emergency. The validity of the proclamations of Emergency is challenged mainly by Shri A. K. Sen	 Shri M. N. Phadke	 Dr. N. M. Ghatate and by Shri P. B. Sawant who appeared in person in Writ Petition No. 63 of 1977. It is contended by the learned counsel and Shri P. B. Sawant that the Courts have jurisdiction to enquire whether the power conferred on the President by Article 352 to proclaim an emergency is properly exercised as also the power to determine whether there are any circumstances justifying the continuance of the emergency. There may sometimes be justification for declaring an emergency but if an emergency	 properly declared	 is allowed to continue without justification	 the party in power	 according to counsel	 can perpetuate its rule and cling to power by extending the life of the Parliament from time to time. The provisions of Article 352 should	 therefore	 be interpreted in a liberal and progressive manner so that the democratic ideal of the Constitution will be furthered and not frustrated. It is urged that the threat to the security of India having completely disap 43 peared soon after the Pakistani aggression in December 1971	 the continuance of the emergency proclaimed on December 3	 1971	 must be held to be unjustified and illegal. A list of dates has been furnished to us by counsel in support of their argument that the emergency declared on December 3	1971	 could not legitimately be continued in operation for a period of more than six years. On December 3	1971 the president issued the proclamation of emergency in face of the aggression by Pakistan	 stating that a grave emergency existed whereby the security of the country was threatened by external aggression. Both the Houses of Parliament approved the proclamation on the 4th	 on which date the Defence of India Act	 1971	 came into force. The Defence of India Rules	 1971	 framed under section 22 of the Defence of India Act	 came into force on the 5th. On December 16	 1971; the Pakistani forces made an unconditional surrender in Bangladesh and on the 17th the hostilities between India and Pakistan came to an end. In February 1972	 General Elections were held to the State Assemblies. On August 28	 1972 the two countries entered into an agreement for the exchange of prisoners of war	 and by April 30	 1974 the repatriation of the prisoners of war was completed. On August 16	 1974 the Presidential Election was held in India. On June 25	 1975 came the second proclamation of emergency; in the wake of which a notification was issued under Article 359 on June 27 suspending the enforcement of the fundamental rights under Articles 14	 21 and 22. On February 16	 1976 the House of People (Extension of Duration) Act was passed. The normal term of the Lok Sabha expired on March 18	 1976. On April 2	 1976	 the Lok Sabha passed the 40th Amendment Act by which the Maharashtra Land Ceiling Amendment Acts were put in the Ninth Schedule as Items 157	 159 and 160. On November 24	 1976 the House of People (Extension of Duration) Amendment Act was passed extending the term of the Parliament for a further period of one year. The 42nd Amendment Act was passed on November 12	 1976. The Lok Sabha was dissolved on January 18	 1977 and both the emergencies were revoked on March 21	 1977. The question as to whether a proclamation of emergency issued by the President under Article 352(1) of the Constitution raises a justiciable issue has been argued in this Court from time to time but	 for some reason or the other	 though the question has been discussed briefly and occasionally	 there is no authoritative pronouncement upon it. We do not propose to enter into that question in this case also partly because	 there is good reason to hope that in future	 there will be no occasion to bring before the Court the kind of grievance 44 which is now made in regard to the circumstances in which the proclamation of emergency was issued on June 25	 1975. Section 48 of the Constitution (Forty second Amendment) Act	 1976	 which came into force on January 3	 1977	 has inserted clauses (2) to (8) in Article 352 which afford adequate insurance against the misuse of power to issue a proclamation of emergency. By the newly added clause (3)	 the President cannot issue a proclamation under clause (1) unless the decision of the Union Cabinet of Ministers that such a proclamation may be issued has been communicated to him in writing. Under clause (4)	 every proclamation issued under Article 352 has to be laid before each House of Parliament	 and it ceases to operate at the expiration of one month	 unless before the expiration of that period	 it has been approved by a resolution of both the Houses of Parliament. Clause (4) provides that the proclamation so approved shall	 unless revoked	 cease to operate on the expiration of a period of six months from the date of the passing of the second of the resolutions approving the proclamation. The question as to whether the issuance of a proclamation of emergency is justiciable raises issues which are not easy to answer. In any event	 that question can more appropriately and squarely be dealt with when it arises directly and not incidentally as here. In so far as the proclamation of December 3	 1971 is concerned	 it is not disputed	 and indeed it cannot be disputed	 that there was manifest justification for that course of action. The danger to the security of the country was clear and present. Therefore	 the attempt of the petitioners has been to assail the continuance of the state of emergency under that proclamation. From the various dates and events mentioned and furnished to us	 it may be possible for a layman to conclude that there was no reason to continue the state of emergency at least after the formality of exchanging the prisoners of war was completed. But we are doubtful whether	 on the material furnished to us	 it is safe to conclude by way of a judicial verdict that the continuance of the emergency after a certain date became unjustified and unlawful. That inference is somewhat non judicious to draw. Newspapers and public men are entitled to prepare public opinion on the need to revoke a proclamation of emergency. They have diverse sources for gathering information which they may not disclose and they are neither bound by rules of evidence nor to observe the elementary rule of judicial business that facts on which a conclusion is to be based have to be established by a preponderance of probabilities. But Courts have severe constraints which deter them from undertaking a task which cannot judicially be performed. It was suggested that the proclamation of June 25	 1975 was actuated by mala fides. But there 45 too	 evidence placed before us of mala fides is neither clear nor cogent. Thus	 in the first place	 we are not disposed to decide the question as to whether the issuance of a proclamation of emergency raises a justiciable issue. Secondly	 assuming it does	 it is not possible in the present state of record to answer that issue one way or the other. And	 lastly	 whether there was justification for continuing the state of emergency after the cessation of hostilities with Pakistan is a matter on which we find ourselves ill equipped to pronounce. Coming to the two Acts of 1976 by which the life of the Lok Sabha was extended	 section 2 of the first of these Acts	 30 of 1976	 which was passed on February 16	 1976	 provided that the period of five years in relation to the then House of the People shall be extended for a period of one year "while the Proclamation of Emergency issued on the 3rd day of December	 1971 and on the 25th day of June	 1975	 are both in operation". The second Act of Extension continues to contain the same provision. It is contended by the petitioners that the proclamation of December 3	 1971 should have been revoked long before February 16	 1976 and that the proclamation of June 25	 1975 wholly uncalled for and was mala fide. Since the precondition on which the life of the Parliament was extended is not satisfied	 the Act	 it is contended	 is ineffective to extend the life of the Parliament. We find it difficult to accept this contention. Both the proclamations of emergency were in fact in operation on February 16	 1976 when the first Act was passed as also on November 24	 1976 when the second Act	 109 of 1976	 was passed. It is not possible for us to accept the submission of the petitioners that for the various reasons assigned by them	 the first proclamation must be deemed not be in existence and that the second proclamation must be held to have been issued mala fide and therefore non est. The evidence produced before us is insufficient for recording a decision on either of these matters. It must follow that the two Acts by which the duration of the Lok Sabha was extended are valid and lawful. The 40th and the 42nd Constitutional Amendments cannot	 therefore	 be struck down on the ground that they were passed by a Lok Sabha which was not lawfully in existence. These then are our reasons for the order which we passed on May 9	 1980 to the following effect: "(1) The Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 which introduced Article 31A into the Constitution with retrospective effect	 and section 3 of the Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act	 1955 46 which substituted a new clause (1)	 sub clause (a) to (e)	 for the original clause (1) with retrospective effect	 do not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure and are valid and constitutional	 being within the constituent power of the Parliament. (2) Section 5 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act 1951 introduced Article 31B into the Constitution which reads thus: "31B x x x x x x In keshvananda Bharati decided on April 24	 1973 it was held by the majority that Parliament has no power to amend the Constitution so as to damage or destroy its basic or essential features or its basic structure. We hold that all amendments to the Constitution which were made before April 24	 1973 and by which the 9th Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulations therein	 are valid and constitutional. Amendments to the Constitution made on or after April 24	 1973 by which the 9th Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulations therein	 are open to challenge on the ground that they	 or any one or more of them	 are beyond the constituent power of the Parliament since they damage the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure. We do not pronounce upon the validity of such subsequent constitutional amendments except to say that if any Act Regulation included in the 9th Schedule by a Constitutional amendment made on or after April 24	 1973 is saved by Article 31A	 or by Article 31C as it stood prior to its amendment by the 42nd Amendment	 the challenge to the validity of the relevant Constitutional Amendment by which that Act or Regulation is put in the 9th Schedule	 on the ground that the Amendment damages or destroys a basic or essential feature of the Constitutional or its basic structure as reflected in Articles 14	 19 or 31	 will become otiose. (3) Article 31C of the Constitution	 as it stood prior to its amendment by section 4 of the Constitution (42nd Amendment)	 Act	 1976	 is valid to the extent to which its constitutionality was upheld in Keshvananda Bharati. Article 31C	 as it stood prior to the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act does not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure. (4) All the Writ Petitions and Review Petitions relating to the validity of the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands Ceiling Acts are dismissed with costs. The stay orders granted in these matters will 47 stand vacated. We quantify the costs at Rs. five thousand which will be borne equally by the petitioners in Writ Petitions Nos. 656 660 of 1977; 512 533 of 1977; and 505 to 511 of 1977. The costs will be payable to the Union of India and the State of Maharashtra in equal measure. (5) Writ Petition No. 63 of 1977 (Baburao Samant vs Union of India) will be set down for hearing". This Court made an Order on 9th May	 1980 disposing of the writ petitions challenging the constitutional validity of the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands (Ceiling on Holdings) Act	 27 of 1961 as amended from time to time by various subsequent acts. This Order was in the following terms: "(1) The Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 which introduced Article 31A into the Constitution with retrospective effect	 and section 3 of the Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act	 1955 which substituted a new clause (1)	 sub clause (a) to (e)	 for the original clause(1) with retrospective effect	 do not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure and are valid and constitutional	 being within the constituent power of the Parliament. (2) Section 5 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act 1951 introduced Article 31B into the Constitution which reads thus: "31B: x x x x x In Keshvananda Bharati decided on April 24	 1973 it was held by the majority that Parliament has no power to amend the Constitution so as to damage or destroy its basic or essential features or its basic structure. We hold that all amendments to the Constitution which were made before April 24	 1973 and by which the 9th Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulations therein	 are valid and constitutional. Amendments to the Constitution made on or after April 24	 1973 by which the 9th Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulations therein	 are open to challenge on the ground that they	 or any one or more of them	 are beyond the constituent power of the 48 Parliament since they damage the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure. We do not pronounce upon the validity of such subsequent constitutional amendments except to say that if any Act or Regulation included in the 9th Schedule by a constitutional amendment made on or after April 24	 1973 is saved by Article 31A	 or by Article 31C as it stood prior to its amendment by the 42nd Amendment	 the challenge to the validity of the relevant Constitutional Amendment by which that Act or Regulation is put in the 9th Schedule	 on the ground that the Amendment damages or destroys a basic or essential feature of the Constitution or its basic structure as reflected in Articles 14	 19 or 31	 will become otiose. (3) Article 31C of the Constitution	 as it stood prior to its amendment by section 4 of the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act	 1976	 is valid to the extent to which its constitutionality was upheld in Keshvananda Bharati. Article 31C	 as it stood prior to the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act does not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure. (4) All the writ petitions and Review Petitions relating to the validity of the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands Ceiling Acts are dismissed with costs. The stay orders granted in these matters will stand vacated. We quantify the costs at Rs. five thousand which will be borne equally by the petitioners in Writ Petitions Nos. 656 660 of 1977; 512 533 of 1977; and 505 to 511 of 1977. The costs will be payable to the Union of India and the State of Maharashtra in equal measure. (5) Writ Petition No. 63 of 1977 (Baburao Sawant vs Union of India) will be set down for hearing". No reasons were given in support of this Order but it was stated that reasons would be given later. While delivering my dissenting judgment in Minerva Mills Ltd. vs Union of India (1980)3 SCC 625 on 31st July 1980	 I gave my reasons for subscribing to this Order. It is therefore not necessary to reiterate those reasons over again but they may be treated as forming part of this judgment and a copy of my judgment in Minerva Mills case may be attached as an annexure to this judgment. I may point out that pages 1 to 6 and pages 17 to 96 of the judgment in Minerva Mills case set out the reasons for the making of the order dated 9th May 1980 and I re affirm those reasons. I have had the advantage of reading the judgment just delivered by the learned Chief Justice	 but I find myself unable to agree with him that "it is somewhat difficult to apply the doctrine of stare decisis 49 for upholding "Article 31A and that it would not be proper to invoke the doctrine of stare decisis for upholding the validity of that Article. " I have given reasons in my judgment for applying the doctrine of stare decisis for sustaining the constitutional validity of Article 31A	 but apart from the reasons given by me in support of my view	 I find that in Ambika Prasad Mishra vs State of U.P.(1) the same Bench which is deciding the present writ petitions has upheld the constitutional validity of Article 31A by applying the doctrine of stare decisis. Krishna Iyer	 J. speaking on behalf of a unanimous court said in that case: "It is significant that even apart from the many decisions upholding Article 31A	 Golak Nath case decided by a Bench of 11 Judges	 while holding that the Constitution (First Amendment) Act exceeded the constituent power still categorically declared that the said amendment and a few other like amendments would be held good based on the doctrine of prospective over ruling. The result	 for our purpose	 is that even Golak Nath case has held Article 31A valid. The note struck by later cases reversing Golak Nath does not militate against the vires of Article 31A. Suffice it to say that in the Kesavananda Bharati case Article 31A was challenged as beyond the amendatory power of Parliament and	 therefore	 invalid. But after listening to the Marathon erudition from eminent counsel	 a 13 Judge Bench of this Court upheld the vires of Article 31 A in unequivocal terms. That decision binds	 on the simple score of stare decisis and the constitutional ground of Article 141. Every new discovery or argumentative novelty cannot undo or compel reconsideration of a binding precedent. In this view	 other submissions sparkling with creative ingenuity and presented with high pressure advocacy	 cannot persuade us to reopen what was laid down for the guidance of the nation as a solemn proposition by the epic Fundamental Rights case." (Emphasis supplied.) These observations show beyond doubt that this very Bench held Article 31 A to be constitutionally valid "on the simple score of stare decisis". It is true that Krishna Iyer	 J. stated in the beginning of his judgment in Ambika Prasad Mishra 's case: "In this judgment	 we side step the bigger issue of the vires of the constitutional amendments in Articles 31 A	 50 31B and 31 C as they are dealt with in other cases disposed of recently." This statement was made presumably because the learned Judge must have thought at the time when he prepared his judgment in this case that the judgment in the present writ petitions would be given before his judgment came to be delivered and on this assumption	 the learned Judge did not consider it necessary to discuss the entire range of arguments relating to the constitutional validity of Articles 31 A	 31 B and 31 C. But so far as Article 31A was concerned	 the learned Judge did proceed to hold that Article 31A was constitutionally valid "on the simple score or stare decisis" and the other four learned Judges subscribed to this view. It is also true that Krishna Iyer	 J. did not rest his judgment entirely on the protective armour of Article 31A and pointed out that "independently of Article 31 A	 the impugned legislation can withstand constitutional invasion" and sustained the validity of the impugned legislation on merits	 but even so he did hold that Article 31 A was constitutionally valid on the principle of stare decisis and observed that "the comprehensive vocabulary of that purposeful provision obviously catches within its protective net the present Act	 and broadly speaking	 the undisputed effect of that Article is sufficient to immunise the Act against invalidation to the extent stated therein". I cannot	 therefore	 despite the high regard and great respect which I have for the learned Chief Justice	 agree with him that the doctrine of stare decisis cannot be invoked for upholding the validity of Article 31 A	 since that would be in direct contradiction of what has been held by this very Bench in Ambika Prasad Mishra vs State of U.P. (supra). KRISHNA IYER	 J. While I agree with the learned Chief Justice	 I must state that certain observations regarding articles 31A	 31B and 31C are wider than necessary and I do not go that far despite the decision in Minerva Mills case. I also wish to add a rider regarding the broader observations with the application of stare decisis in sustaining article 31A. I have expressly upheld article 31A by reliance on stare decisis and cannot practise a volte face without convincing juristic basis to convert me to a contrary position. I know that Justice Holmes has said: "Don 't be" consistent	 "but be simply true". I also remind myself of the profound reflection of Ralph Waldo Emerson: 51 A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds	 adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Speak what you think now in hard words and tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again	 though it contradict every thing you said today. "Ah	 so you shall be sure to be misunderstood. " Is it so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood	 and Socrates	 and Jesus	 and Luther	 and Copernicus	 and Galileo	 and Newton	 and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood. And yet	 I hold to what I have earlier stated in Ambika Prasad Misra. (1) What the learned Chief Justice has in mind	 if	 with respect	 I may venture to speak is that in constitutional issues over stress on precedents is inept because we cannot be governed by voices from the grave and it is proper that we are ultimately right rather than be consistently wrong. Even so	 great respect and binding value are the normal claim of rulings until reversed by larger benches. That is the minimum price we pay for adoption of the jurisprudence of binding precedents. I leave it at that because the learned Chief Justice has held the impugned Act good in its own right. Enough unto the day is the evil thereof. V.D.K. Petitions dismissed.

A ceiling on agricultural holdings was imposed in Maharashtra by the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands (Ceiling on Holdings) Act 27 of 1961	 which was brought into operation on January 26	 1962. The ceiling fixed by the Act (Principal Act) was lowered and certain other amendments were made to that Act by Acts 27 of 1975	 47 of 1975 and 2 of 1976. The validity of these Acts was challenged in the Bombay High Court. The Division Bench at Nagpur repelled that challenge by its judgment dated August 13	 1976 in Vithalrao Udhaorao Uttarwar vs State of Maharashtra	 AIR 1977 Bombay 99. The appeals filed against the said decision were dismissed by the Supreme Court by its judgment in Dattatraya Govind Mahajan vs State of Maharashtra ; The only point urged in these appeals was that the Principal Act. as amended	 was void being violative of the second proviso to Article 31A(1)	 in so far as it created an artificial "family unit" and fixed the unit on the agricultural holdings on such family units. The argument that the violation of the particular proviso deprived the impugned laws of the protection conferred by Article 31A was rejected by the Court on the view that even if the impugned provisions were violative of the second proviso they would receive the protection of Article 31B by reason of the inclusion of the Principal Act and the amending Acts in the Ninth Schedule. The Court considered whether	 in fact. the provisions of the impugned Acts were violative of the second proviso and held that it was entirely for the Legislature to decide what policy to adopt for the purpose of restructuring the agrarian system and the Court could not assume the role of an economic adviser for pronouncing upon the wisdom of such policy. The second proviso to Article 31A(1) was therefore held not to have been contravened. The judgment of this Court in these appeals was delivered on January 27	 1977 while the proclamation of emergency was in operation. On the revocation of that proclamation	 petitions were filed in the Court by the appellants 2 praying for the review of the judgment in Dattaraya Govind Mahajan on the ground that several contentions	 which were otherwise open to them for assailing the constitutional validity of the impugned Acts	 could not be made by reason of the emergency and that they should be permitted to make those contentions since the emergency was lifted. Fresh Writ Petitions were also filed in this Court in which those contentions were put forward. The Court acceded to the request for the review and hence the petitions. Dismissing the petitions	 the Court ^ HELD : (Majority view) Per Chandrachud	 C.J. (On his own behalf and on behalf of Krishna Iyer	 Tulzapurkar and Sen	 JJ.) A. (1) The Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 which introduced Article 31A into the Constitution with retrospective effect and sec. 3 of the Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act	 1955 which substituted a new clause (1)	 sub clauses (a) to (e) for the original clause (1) with retrospective effect	 do not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure and are valid and constitutional being within the constituent power of the Parliament. [9 F G=45 H	 46 A B] (2) The Agricultural Ceiling Acts	 fall squarely within the terms of clause (a) of Article 31A(1). Those Acts provide for the extinguishment and modification of rights in an "estate"	 the expression "estate" being defined by clause (2) (a) (iii) to mean "any land held or let for purposes of agriculture or for purposes ancillary thereto. ". It must follow	 as a necessary corollary	 that the impugned Acts are entitled to the protection of Article 31A(1)(a) with the result that their provisions cannot be deemed	 and there fore cannot be declared	 to be void on the ground that they are inconsistent with or take away or abridge any of the rights conferred by Articles 14	 19 or 31. [17 A C] (3) If a constitutional provision	 which deprives the petitioners of the benefit and protection of Articles 14	 19 and 31 is invalid	 the petitioners will be entitled to challenge the impugned laws on the ground that they are inconsistent with or that they take away or abridge the rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution. Article 13(2) has a sensitive touchstone. Not only does it mandate that the State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by Part III but	 it provides that any law made in contravention of the clause shall	 to the extent of the contravention	 be void. Mere abridgement	 that is to say curtailment	 that is to say curtailment	 and not necessarily abrogation that is to say total deprivation	 is enough to produce the consequence provided for by Article 13(2). [17 C E] (4) Though the withdrawal of the application of Articles 14	 19 and 31 in respect of laws which fall under clause (a) is total and complete	 that is to say	 the application of those articles stands abrogated	 not merely abridged	 in respect of impugned enactments which indubitably fall within the ambit of clause (a)	 every case in which the protection of a fundamental right is withdrawn will not necessarily result in damaging or destroying the basic structure of the Constitution. The question as to whether the basic structure is damaged or destroyed in any given case would depend upon which particular Article of 3 Part III is in issue and	 whether what is withdrawn is quint essential to the basic structure of the Constitution. [18 B D] (5) The true position of law on the subject of Parliament 's power to amend the Constitution is that though the Parliament has the power to amend each and every Article of the Constitution including the provisions of Part III the amending power cannot be exercised so as to damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. [19 G H] H. H. Kesavananda Bharati vs State of Kerala	 [1973] Supp. SCR 1; Smt. Indira Nehru Gandhi vs Raj Narain	 and Minerva Mills Ltd. vs Union of India & Ors.	 [1981] 1 SCR p. 206	 referred to. (6) If Article 31A were not enacted	 some of the main purposes of the Constitution would have been delayed and eventually defeated and that by the First Amendment	 the constitutional edifice was not impaired but strengthened. The First and the Fourth Amendments	 especially the First were made so closely on the heels of the Constitution that they ought indeed to be considered as a part and parcel of the Constitution itself. These amendments are not born of second thoughts and they do not reflect a fresh look at the Constitution in order to deprive the people of the gains of the Constitution. They are in the truest sense of the phrase	 a contemporary practical exposition of the Constitution. [26 E F	 G H	 27A] (7) Article 39 of the Constitution directs by clauses (b) and (c) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good; that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. These twin principles of State policy were a part of the Constitution as originally enacted and it is in order to effectuate the purpose of these Directive Principles that the First and the Fourth Amendments were passed. [27 A B] (8) Article 31A(I) could easily have appeared in the original Constitution itself as an illustration of its basic philosophy. What remained to be done in the hope that vested interests will not distort the base of the Constitution	 had to be undertaken with a sense of urgency and expediency. It is that sense and sensitivity which gave birth to the impugned amendment. The progress in the degeneracy of any nation can be rapid	 especially in societies riven by economic disparities and caste barriers. We embarked upon a constitutional era holding forth the promise that we will secure to all citizens justice	 social	 economic and political; equality of status and of opportunity; and	 last but not the least	 dignity of the individual. Between these promises and the First Amendment there is discernible a nexus	 direct and immediate. Indeed	 if there is one place in an agriculture dominated society like ours where citizens can hope to have equal justice	 it is on the strip of land which they till and love	 the land which assures to them the dignity of their persons by providing to them a near decent means of livelihood. [28 E H] (9) The First Amendment has made the constitutional ideal of equal justice a living truth. It is like a mirror that reflects the ideals of the Constitution	 it is not the destroyer of its basic structure. The provisions introduced by it and the Fourth Amendment for the extinguishment or modification of rights in lands held or let for purposes of agriculture or for purposes ancillary thereto	 strengthen rather than weaken the basic structure of the Constitution. [29 A B] 4 The First Amendment is aimed at removing social and economic disparities in the agricultural sector. It may happen that while existing inequalities are being removed	 new inequalities may arise marginally and incidentally. Such marginal and incidental inequalities cannot damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. It is impossible for any Government	 howsoever expertly advised	 socially oriented and prudently managed	 to remove every economic disparity without causing some hardship or injustice to a class of persons who also are entitled to equal treatment under the law. Thus	 the adoption of "family unit" as the unit of application for the revised ceilings may cause incidental hardship to minor children and to unmarried daughters. That cannot	 however	 furnish an argument for assailing the impugned laws on the ground that they violate the guarantee of equality. It seems ironical indeed that the laws providing for agricultural ceilings should be stigmatised as destroying the guarantee of equality when their true object and intendment is to remove inequalities in the matter of agricultural holdings. [29 B E] The note of the Panel set up by the Planning Commission in May 1959 on the adoption of "family unit" as the unit of application for the revised ceilings and the counter affidavit of the Deputy Secretary to the Govt. of Maharashtra show the relevance and efficacy of the family being treated as the real operative unit in the movement for agrarian reform. Considering the Indian social milieu	 the Panel came to the conclusion that agricultural ceiling can be most equitably applied if the base of application is taken as the family unit consisting of husband	 wife and three minor children. In view of this expert data a law passed truly for implementing the objective of Article 31A(l)(a) cannot be open to challenge on the ground that it infringes Articles 14	19 or 31. [29 E G] B. (1). The Amendment introduced by sec. 4 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951 does not damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. That Amendment must	 therefore	 be upheld on its own merits. [29 H] (2) The validity of Article 31A cannot be upheld by applying the doctrine of stare decisis	 though the Article has continued to be recognised as valid ever since it was introduced into the Constitution. The constitutional validity of Article 31A has been recognised in the four decisions	 namely. Shankari Prasad vs Union of India	 ; 	 95; Sajjansingh vs State of Rajasthan	[1965] 1 SCR 933; I.C. Golakanath vs Union of India & Ors	[1967] 2 SCR 762 and H. H. Kesavananda Bharati Sripadagalavaru vs State of Kerala	 sometimes directly	 sometimes indirectly and sometimes incidentally. It may be mentioned	 though it has no relevance on the applicability of the rule of stare decisis	 that in none of the three earlier decisions was the validity of Article 31A tested on the ground that it damaged or destroyed the basic structure of the Constitution. That theory was elaborated for the first time in Kesavananda Bharati and it was in the majority judgment delivered in that case that the doctrine found its first acceptance. Even in the two latest cases	 namely	 Ambika Prasad Mishra vs State of U.P.	 [1980] 3 SCR p. 1159	 Thumati Venkaiah vs State of A.P.	 ; the question as to whether Article 31A can be upheld by applying the doctrine of stare decisis was never decided. Nor was the question of vires of Articles 31A	 31B and 31C (unamended) considered in these decisions.[30G H	 31A B	 C	 32 B C] 5 It is true to say that for the application of the rule of stare decisis	 it is not necessary that the earlier decision or decisions of long standing should have considered and either accepted or rejected the particular argument which is advanced in the case on hand. Were it so	 the previous decisions could more easily be treated as binding by applying the law of precedent and it will be unnecessary to take resort to the principle of stare decisis. It is	 therefore	 sufficient for invoking the rule of stare decisis that a certain decision was arrived at on a question which arose or was argued	 no matter on what reason the decision rests or what is the basis of the decision. In other words	 for the purpose of applying the rule of stare decisis	 it is unnecessary to enquire or determine as to what was the rationale of the earlier decision which is said to operate as stare decisis. Therefore	 the reason why Article 31A was upheld in the earlier decisions. if indeed it was	 are not germane for the purpose of deciding whether this is a fit and proper case in which to apply that rule.[34 C G] But there are four principal reasons for not invoking the rule of stare decisis for deciding upon the constitutionality of Article 31A. In the first place	 Article 31A breathes its own vitality	 drawing its sustenance from the basic tenets of our Constitution. The second reason is that neither in Shankari Prasad	 nor in Sajjan Singh nor in Golak Nath and evidently not in Kesavananda Bharati	 was the question as regards the validity as such of Article 31A raised or decided. Thirdly	 the history of the World 's constitutional law shows that the principle of stare decisis is treated as having a limited application only. The fourth reason is that on principle rules like stare decisis should not be invoked for upholding constitutional devices like Articles 31A	 31B and 31C which are designed to protect not only past laws but future laws also. The principle of stare decisis can apply	 if at all	 to laws protected by these articles	 if those laws have enjoyed the protection of these articles for a long time	 but the principle cannot apply to the articles themselves. The principle of stare decisis permits the saving of laws the validity of which has been accepted or recognised over the years. It does not require or sanction that	 in future too	 laws may be passed even though they are invalid or unconstitutional. Future perpetration of illegality is no part of the doctrine of stare decisis.[34 F H	 35 A B	 D	 36 B E] Burnet vs Coronado Oil & Gas Co.	 ; 	 406; Tramways Case (No. 1) 1914 (CLR) 54@ 58; Bengal Immunity Case ; Income Tax officer	 Tuticorin vs T. section D. Nadar; 	 ; New York vs United States	 ; 	 590 591 [1946]; U.S. vs International Boxing Club	 ; 	 249 [1955]; Mac Pherson vs Buick Motor Co.	 	 391 [1916]: State of Washington vs W. C. Dawson & Co.	 ; 	 238 [1924] James. Monoroe vs Frank Pape	 U.S. 492	 523	 528	 quoted with approval. C. (1) All amendments to the Constitution which were made before April 24	 1973 and by which the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulations therein are valid and constitutional. Amendments to the Constitution made on or after April 24	 1973 by which the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution was amended from time to time by the inclusion of various Acts and Regulation therein	 are open to challenge on the ground that they	 or any one or more of them	 are beyond the constituent power of the Parliament since they damage the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure in view of the Judg 6 ment in Kesavananda Bharati. If any Act or Regulation included in the Ninth Schedule by a constitutional amendment made on or after April 24	 1973 is saved by Article 31A	 or by Article 31C as it stood prior to its amendment by the Forty Second Amendment	 the challenge to the validity of the relevant constitutional Amendment by which that Act or Regulation is put in the Ninth Schedule	 on the ground that the Amendment damages or destroys a basic or essential feature of the Constitution or its basic structure as reflected in Articles 14	 19 or 31	 will become otiose. [10 C F=46 C F] (2) Article 31B provides that the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule shall not be deemed to be void or ever to have become void on the ground that they are inconsistent with or take away or abridge any of the rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution. The provisions of the Article are expressed to be without prejudice to the generality of the provisions in Article 31A and the concluding portion of the Article supersedes any judgment	 decree or order of any court or tribunal to the contrary. This Article was introduced into the Constitution by section 5 of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act	 1951	 Article 31A having been introduced by section 4 of the same Amendment. Article 31B has to be read along with the Ninth Schedule because it is only those Acts and Regulations which are put in that Schedule that can receive the protection of that article. The Ninth Schedule was added to the Constitution by section 14 of the First Amendment Act	 1951. The device or mechanism which sections 5 and 14 or the First Amendment have adopted is that as and when Acts and Regulations are put into the Ninth Schedule by constitutional amendments made from time to time	 they will automatically by reason of the provisions of Article 31B	 receive the protection of that article. [36F H	 37A B] The view of the Court that it would not be proper to invoke the doctrine of stare decisis for upholding the validity of Article 31A	 must govern the question of the validity of Article 31 B. But just as there are significant similarities between Articles 31A and 31B	 there is a significant dissimilarity too. Article 31A enables the passing of laws of the description mentioned in clauses (a) to (e)	 in violation of the guarantee afforded by Articles 14 and 19. In so far as Article 31B is concerned	 it does not define the category of laws which are to receive its protection	 and secondly	 it affords protection to Schedule laws against all the provisions of Part III of the Constitution. No Act can be placed in the Ninth Schedule except by the Parliament and since the Ninth Schedule is a part of the Constitution	 no additions or alterations can be made therein without complying with the restrictive provisions governing amendments to the Constitution. Thus	 Article 31B read with the Ninth Schedule provides what is generally described as	 a protective umbrella to all Acts which are included in the Schedule	 no matter of what character	 kind or category they may be. Putting it briefly	 whereas Article 31A protects laws of a defined category	 Article 31B empowers the Parliament to include in the Ninth Schedule such laws as it considers fit and proper to include therein. Thus the fourth reason for not applying the rule of stare decisis to Article 31A that any particular law passed under clauses (a) to (e) can be accepted as good if it has been treated as valid for a long number of years but the device in the form of the Article cannot be upheld by the application of that rule	 applies to Article 31B read with the Ninth Schedule by the self same test.[37 G H	 38 B D	 E F] (3) The decision in Kesavananda Bharati must be treated as a landmark. The theory that the Parliament cannot exercise its amending power so as to 7 damage or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution	 was propounded and accepted for the first time in Kesavananda Bharati. This is one reason for holding the laws incorporated into the Ninth Schedule before April 24	1973	 on which date the judgment in Kesavananda Bharati was rendered. The second reason for drawing a line at a convenient and relevant point of time is that the first 66 items in the Ninth Schedule	 which were inserted prior to the decision in Kesavananda Bharati	 mostly pertains to laws of agrarian reforms.[38 G H	 39A	 B] D. (1) Article 31C of the Constitution	 as it stood prior to its amendment by section 4 of the Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act	 1976	 is valid to the extent to which its constitutionality was upheld in Kesavananda Bharati. Article 31C	 as it stood prior to the Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act does not damage any of the basic or essential features of the Constitution or its basic structure. Once it is held that Article 31A is valid on its own merits	 it must follow logically that the unamended Article 31C is also valid. The unamended portion of Article 31C is not like an unchartered ship. It gives protection to a defined and limited category of laws which are passed for giving effect to the policy of the State towards securing the principles specified in clause (b) or clause (c) of Article 39. It is impossible to conceive that any law passed for such a purpose can at all violate Article 14 or Article 19. In fact	 far from damaging the basic structure of the Constitution	 laws passed truly and bona fide for giving effect to directive principles contained in clause (b) and (c) of Article 39 will fortify that structure. [10 F G	 40 G H	 41 A C] E. (1) The normal term of the Lok Sabha expired on March 18	 1976. On April 2	 1976	 the Lok Sabha passed the Fortieth Amendment Act by which the Maharashtra Land Ceiling Amendment Acts were put in the Ninth Schedule as Items 157	 159 and 160. On November 24	 1976 the House of People (Extension of Duration) Amendment Act was passed extending the term of the Parliament for a further period of one year. The Forty Second Amendment Act was passed on November 12	 1976. The Lok Sabha was dissolved on January 18	 1977 and both the emergencies dated December 3	 1971 and June 25	 1975 were revoked on March 21	 1977. [43 E G] In so far as the proclamation of December 3	 1971 is concerned	 there was manifest justification for that course of action. The danger to the security of the country was clear and present. From the various dates and events mentioned and furnished to the Court	 it may be possible for a layman to conclude that there was no reason to continue the state of emergency at least after the formality of exchanging the prisoners of war was completed. But Courts have severe constraints which deter them from undertaking a task which cannot judicially be performed. [44 D F	 H] (2) The two Acts	 the House of the People (Extension of Duration) Act	 Act 30 of 1976 and the House of the People (Extension of Duration) Amendment Act 109 of 1976	 by which the duration of the Lok Sabha was extended are valid and lawful. The Fortieth and the Forty Second Constitutional Amendments cannot	 therefore	 be struck down on the ground that they were passed by a Lok Sabha which was not lawfully in existence. [45 F G] Section 2 of the first of these Acts	 Act 30 of 1976	 which was passed on February 16	 1976	 provided that the period of five years in relation to the then House of the People shall be extended for a period of one year "while the Pro 8 clamation of Emergency issued on the 3rd day of December	 1971 and on the 25th day of June	 1975	 are both in operation. " The second Act of Extension continues to contain the same provision. Both the proclamations of emergency were in fact in operation on February 16	 1976 when the first Act was passed as also on November 24	 1976 when the second Act	 109 of 1976	 was passed. Neither the first Proclamation can be deemed not to be in existence	 nor can the second Proclamation be held to have been issued mala fide and	 therefore non est	 since the evidence produced before the Court is insufficient for recording a decision on either of these matters. [45 C F] Per Bhagwati	 J. (Contra) The doctrine of stare decisis can be invoked for sustaining the constitutional validity of Article 31A. [50 E] Minerva Mills vs Union of India	 [1981] 1 SCR p. 206 reiterated; Ambika Prasad Mishra vs State of U.P.	 [1980] 3 SCR p. 1159	 followed. Per Krishna Iyer	 J. (Contra) Applying the principle of stare decisis	 Article 31A is valid. In constitutional issues over stress on precedents is inept. Even so	 great respect and binding value are the normal claim of rulings until reversed by larger Benches. [51 C D] Ambika Prasad Mishra vs State of U.P.	 [1980] 3 SCR p. 1159 reiterated.