Summarize the following court judgment. Appeal No. 268 of 1959. 419 Appeal from the judgment and decree dated September 3	 1958	 of the former Bombay High Court in Appeal No. 28/1958. A. V. Viswanatha Sastri	 Ganpat Rai and I. N. Shroff	 for the appellant. M. C. Setalvad	 Attorney General for India	 B. Sen and T. M. Sen	 for the respondents. August 31. The Judgment of the Court was delivered by GAJENDRAGADKAR J. The appellant Raja Narayanlal Bansilal of Bombay is the Managing Agent of a Limited Company named the Harinagar Sugar Mills Limited. By virtue of the power conferred on him by section 137 of the Indian Companies Act	 1913 (VII of 1913)	 the Registrar wrote to the mills on November 15	 1954	 that it had been represented to him under section 137(6) that the business of the company was carried on in fraud	 and so he called upon the company to furnish the information which he required as set out in a part of his letter (exhibit A). On April 15	 1955	 the Registrar made a report (exhibit AA) to the Central Government under section 137(5) of the said Act. This report showed that according to the Registrar the affairs of the company were carried on in fraud of contributories and they disclosed an unsatisfactory state of affairs. The report pointed out that the appellant was the Managing Agent of the company as well as its promoter	 and that it was suspected that under a fictitious name of Bansilal Uchant Account the company was advancing money to the several firms owned by the appellant which were ostensibly purchased from the company 's funds. The report further stated that between the years ending in September	 1942 and 1951 about Rs. 19	200 were paid for Harpur Farm and Rs.;. 39	300 for Bhavanipur Farm	 and accounts disclosed that the Uchant Account was chiefly operated upon for purchasing such lands out of the funds of the company though the purchase in fact was for and on behalf of the appellant. The Registrar also added that he had reason to believe that the Managing 54 420 Agent was utilising the property of the company in some cases for his personal gain	 and concluded that	 in his opinion	 a case had been made out for an investigation under section 138. On receiving this report	 on November 1	 1955	 the 'Central Government passed an order under section 138(4) of the said Act (exhibit B) appointing the first respondent Maneck P. Mistry	 who is a Chartered Accountant	 as an inspector to investigate the affairs of the company from the date of its incorporation. The said inspector was asked to point out all irregularities and contraventions of the provisions of the said Act or any other law	 and make a full report as indicated in a communication which was separately sent to him. This separate communication (exhibit BB) prescribes the mode of enquiry which should be adopted by inspectors. It requires that while investigating the affairs of companies the inspectors should bear in mind that for a successful prosecution the evidence in support of a charge must be clear	 tangible and cogent	 and that their reports should specify with reference to the evidence collected during the investigations the points specified under paragraph 2(a) to (e). In the course of their investigation the inspectors are asked to make use of the powers available to them under section 140 of the said Act including the right to examine a per son on oath. The investigation should be conducted in private and the inspectors are not entitled to make public the information received by them during the course of the investigation. Pursuant to the powers conferred on him by the said order respondent 1 wrote to the appellant intimating to him that he would examine him on oath in relation to the business of the company under section 140(2) of the said Act (exhibit C). Meanwhile on April 1	 1956	 the Companies Act of 1913 (VII of 1913) was repealed by the Companies Act of 1956 (1 of 1956). For the sake of convenience we would hereafter refer to the repealed Act as the old Act and the Act which came into force on April 1	 1956	 as the new Act. On July 26	 1956	 the Central Government purported to exercise its power under section 239(2) of the new Act and 421 accorded approval to respondent 1 exercising his powers of investigating into	 and reporting on	 the affairs of the appellant including his personal books of accounts as well as the affairs of the three concerns specified in the order. These three concerns are M/s. Narayanlal Bansilal	 who are the Managing Agents of Harinagar Sugar Mills	 the Shangrila Food Pro ducts Limited and	 Harinagar Cane Farm. It appears that the appellant is the proprietor of the firm of Narayanlal Bansilal. After this order was passed respondent 1 served upon the appellant the four impugned notices (exhibit E collectively) on May 9	 1957	 May 16	 1957	 May 29	 1957 and June 29	 1957	 respectively. These notices are substantially identical in terms ' and so it would be sufficient for our purpose to set out the purport of one of them. The first notice called upon the appellant to attend the office of respondent 1 on the date and at the time specified for the purpose of being examined on oath in relation to the affairs of the company	 and to produce before respondent 1 all the books of accounts and papers relating to the said company as mentioned in the notice. The appellant was further told that in default of compliance with the requisition aforesaid necessary legal steps would be taken without further reference to him. The notice contains a list of twelve items describing the several documents which the appellant was required to produce before respondent 1. After these notices were served on the appellant he filed a	 petition (No. 201 of 1957) in the Bombay High Court and prayed that the High Court should issue a writ of certiorari or any other appropriate direction	 order or writ under article 226 of the Constitution calling upon respondent 1 to produce the records of the case relating to the notices in question and to set aside the said notices	 the proposed examination of the appellant and the interim report made by him. It further prayed for a writ of prohibition or any other appropriate direction	 order or writ restraining respondent 1 from making any investigation under the said notices and from exercising any powers of investigation under section 239 and/or section 240 of the new Act and/or 122 from investigating into the affairs of any persons or concerns specified in the petition. The petitioner claimed these writs mainly on two grounds. He first alleged that since respondent 1 had been appointed under the old Act he had no jurisdiction to exercise powers referable to the relevant provisions of the new Act. This ground assumed that the said relevant provisions of the new Act are valid	 but it is urged that the powers referable to the said provisions are not available to respondent 1 since he was appointed under the old Act. The other ground on which the writs were claimed challenges the vires of sections 239 and 240 of the new Act. This challenge assumed an alternative form. It is argued that section 240 offends against the constitutional guarantee provided by article 20(3) of the Constitution and it is also urged that certain portions of sections 239 and 240 offend against another constitutional guarantee provided by article 14 of the Constitution. It is thus on these three contentions that the petitioner claimed appropriate writs by his petition before the Bombay High Court. These pleas were resisted by the Union of India which had been joined to the proceedings as respondent 2. Mr. Justice K. T. Desai	 who heard the petition	 rejected the contentions raised by the petitioner	 and held that no case had been made out for the issue of any writ. This decision was challenged by the appellant before the Court of Appeal in the Bombay High Court; the Court of Appeal agreed with the view taken by Desai	 J.	 and dismissed the appeal. Thereupon the appellant applied for and obtained a certificate from the High Court	 and it is with the said certificate that he has come to this Court by his present appeal. On his behalf Mr. Viswanatha Sastri has raised the same three points for our decision. Let us first examine the question whether or not the first respondent has jurisdiction to exercise the powers under the relevant provisions of the new Act. It is common ground that if respondent 1 's powers to bold the investigation in question are to be found in the relevant provisions of the old Act and not those of the new Act the impugned notices issued by him would be 423 without authority and jurisdiction. In dealing with this question it is necessary to examine the broad features of the relevant sections of the two Acts. We will begin with the old Act. Section 137 of the old Act deals with investigation by the Registrar. Section 137(1) provides that where the Registrar on ' perusal of any document which a company is required to submit to him is of opinion that any information or explanation is necessary in order that such document may afford full particulars of the matter to which it purports to relate he may	 by a written order	 call on the company to furnish in writing the necessary information or explanation within the time to be specified in the order. Section 137(5) requires the Registrar to make a report in writing to the Central Government if no information is supplied to him within the specified time	 or if the information supplied to him appears to him to disclose an unsatisfactory state of affairs	 or does not disclose a full and fair statement of the relevant matters. Thus section 137(1) to (5) deal with the investigation which the Registrar is empowered to make on a persual of the document submitted to him by a company under the provisions of this Act. Section 137(6) deals with a case where if it is represented to the Registrar on materials placed before him by any contributory or creditor that the business of a company is carried on in fraud or in fraud of its creditors or in fraud of persons dealing with the company or for a fraudulent purpose	 he may	 after following the procedure prescribed in that behalf	 call for information or explanation on matters to be specified in his order within such time as he may fix	 and when such an order is passed the provisions of section 137(2) to (5) would be applicable. This sub section provides that if at the end of the investigation the Registrar is satisfied that the representation on which he took action was frivolous or vexatious he shall disclose the identity of the informant to the company. This provision is obviously intended as a safeguard against frivolous or vexatious representations in respect of the affairs of any company. The provisions of this section are substantially similar to the provisions of section 234 of the new Act. 424 affairs of companies by inspectors	 authorises the Central Government to appoint one or more competent inspectors to investigate the affairs of any company and report thereon in such manner as the said 	Government may direct. The appointment of competent inspectors can be made by the Central Government in four classes of cases as specified in section 138(1) to (4). It would be relevant to refer to two of these cases. Under section 138(1) a competent inspector can be appointed in the case of a banking company having a share capital on the application of members holding not less than one fifth of the shares issued	 and under section 138(4) in the case of any company on a report by the Registrar under section 137(5). This section substantially corresponds to section 235 of the new Act. The other sections of the old Act to which reference must be made are sections 140	 141 and 141A. Section 140(1) imposes upon all persons who are. or have been officers of the company an obligation to produce before the inspectors all books and documents in their custody or power relating to the company. Section 140(2) empowers the inspector to examine on oath any such person	 meaning a person who is or has been an officer of the company in relation to the business of the company and to administer an oath to him. Section 140(3) provides that if a person refuses to produce a book or a document or to answer any question he shall be liable to a fine not exceeding Rs. 50 in respect of each offence. Section 141 provides that on the conclusion of an investigation the inspectors shall report their opinions to the Central Government	 and shall forward a copy of their report to the registered office of the company ; and it also provides that a copy of the said report can be delivered at their request to the applicants for the investigation. Then we have section 141A which deals with the institution of prosecutions. Section 141A(1) provides that if from any report made under section 138 it appears to the Central Government that any person has been guilty of any offence in relation to the company for which he is criminally liable the Central Government shall refer the 425 matter to the Advocate General or the Public Prosecutor. Section 141A(2) lays down that if the law officer who is consulted under (1) considers that there is a case in which prosecution ought to be instituted he shall cause proceedings to be instituted accordingly 	 That in brief is the scheme of the relevant provisions of the old Act. We will now examine the scheme of the relevant provisions of the new Act. It has already been noticed that sections 234 and 235 of the new Act are substantially similar to sections 137 and 138 of the old Act. Section 239 of the new Act provides for the powers of the inspectors to carry on investigation into the affairs of related companies or of managing agent or associate. The sweep of the enquiry authorised by this section is very much wider than that under the corresponding section of the old Act. Sub section (1) of this section authorises an inspector to investigate the affairs of a company and also the affairs of any other body corporate or person specified in cls. (a) to (d) if he thinks it necessary so to do. These clauses include several cases of body corporate which may have any connection direct or indirect	 immediate or remote	 with the affair of the company whose affairs are under investigation. It is unnecessary for our purpose in the present appeal to enumerate the said cases serially or exhaustively. It is conceded that the three other persons who have been called upon by respondent 1 to produce documents and give evidence fall within the purview of section 239. As a result of the provisions of section 239(1) the inspector has to report not only on the affairs of the company under investigation but also on the affairs of other bodies or persons who have been compelled to give evidence and produce documents during the course of the enquiry. The only safeguard provided against a possible abuse of these extensive powers is that in the case of any body corporate or person referred to in cls. (b)(ii)	 (b)(iii)	 (c) or (d) of subs. (1) the inspector shall not exercise his relevant power without first having obtained the prior approval of the Central Government thereto. Section 240 of the new Act imposes an obligation 426 on the corporate bodies and persons in respect of which or whom investigation is authorised by section 239 to produce all books and papers and to give all assistance in connection with the said investigation ; that is the result of section 240(1). Section 240(2) empowers the inspector to examine on oath any of the persons referred to in sub section (1) in relation to the relevant matters as specified. Section 240(3) deals with a case where a person refuses to comply with the obligation imposed on him by section 240(1) or (2) ; and it provides that in such a case the inspector may certify the refusal under his hand to the court	 and the court may thereupon enquire into the case	 hear witnesses who may be produced against or on behalf of the alleged offender	 consider any statement which may be offered in defence	 and punish the offender as if he had been guilty of contempt of the court. Section 240(4) deals with a case where the inspector thinks it necessary for the purpose of his investigation that a person whom he has no power to examine on oath should be .examined	 and it provides that in such a case he may apply to the court	 and the court may	 if it thinks fit	 order that person to attend and be examined on oath before it on any matter relevant to the investigation. This sub section provides for the procedure to be followed in examining such a witness. Section 240(5) lays down that notes of any examination under sub section (2) or (4) shall be taken down in writing	 and shall be read over to or by	 and signed by	 the person examined	 and may thereafter be used as evidence against him. Having thus made elaborate provisions for the production of documents and evidence in the course of the investigation by the inspector	 section 241 deals with the inspectors ' report and provides that inspectors may	 and if so directed by the Central Government shall	 make interim reports to that Government	 and on the conclusion of the investigation shall make a final report to it. Section 241(2) provides for the supply of the copy of the said report to the several parties concerned as specified in cls. (a) to (e). That takes us to section 242 which deals with prosecution. Section 242(1) provides inter alia that if from 427 any report made under a. 241 it appears to the Central Government that any person has in relation to the company been guilty of any offence for which he is criminally liable	 the Central Government may	 after taking such legal advice as it thinks fit	 prosecute such person for the offence	 and it imposes on all officers	 and agents of the company	 except those prosecuted	 to give the Central Government all assistance in connection with the prosecution which they are reasonably able to give. That broadly stated is the position with regard to the relevant provisions of the new Act. Mr. Sastri has drawn our pointed attention to the fact that the scope and nature of the enquiry authorised by the new Act are very much wider than under the old Act	 and he has characterised the relevant 	powers conferred on the investigating inspectors as draconian. He	 therefore	 contends that unless it is established that these powers are available to the inspector appointed under the relevant provisions of the old Act the impugned notices must be set aside; and his argument is that these powers are not available to the inspector appointed under the old Act. The decision of this question will depend mainly on the con struction of sections 645 and 646 of the new Act. Section 644 provides for the repeal of the enactments mentioned in Schedule XII; the old Act is one of the enactments thus repealed. Ordinarily the effect of the repeal of the old Act would have been governed by the provisions of section 6 of the General Clauses Act (10 of 1897)	 but in the case of the new Act the application of the said section is subject to the provisions of sections 645 to 657 of the Act; that is the effect of section 658 which provides that the mention of particulars in sections 645 to 657 or in any other provisions of this Act shall not prejudice the general application of section 6 of the 	 with respect to the effect of repeals. In other words	 though section 6 of the will generally apply	 its application will be subject to the provisions contained in as. 645 to 657; this position is not disputed. It is now necessary to consider section 645. It reads thus: 55 428 "Nothing in this Act shall affect any order	 rule	 regulation	 appointment	 conveyance mortgage	 deed	 document or agreement made	 fee directed	 resolution passed	 direction given	 proceeding taken	 instrument executed or issued	 or thing done	 under or in pursuance of any previous companies law; but any such order	 rule	 regulation	 appointment	 conveyance	 mortgage	 deed	 document	 agreement	 fee	 resolution	 direction	 proceeding. instrument or thing shall	 if in force at the commencement of this Act	 continue to be in force	 and so far as it could have been made	 directed	 passed	 given	 taken	 executed	 issued or done under or in pursuance of this Act	 shall have effect as if made	 directed	 passed	 given	 taken	 executed	 issued or done under or in pursuance of this Act. " The effect of this section is clear. If an inspector has. been appointed under the relevant section of the old Act	 on repeal of the old Act and on coming into force of the new Act	 his appointment shall have effect as if it was made under or in pursuance of the new Act. Indeed it is common ground that if section 645 had stood alone and had not been followed by section 646 there would have been no difficulty in holding that the inspector appointed under the old Act could exercise his powers and authority under the relevant provisions of the new Act	 and the impugned notices would then be perfectly valid. Incidentally we may refer to the provisions of a. 652 in this connection. Under this section any person appointed to any office under or by virtue of any previous company law shall be deemed to have been appointed to that office under this Act. It is	 however	 urged that the authority of the inspector which is in dispute is governed by section 646. This section provides: "Nothing in this Act shall affect the operation of section 138 of the Indian Companies Act	 1913 (VII of 1913)	 as respects inspectors	 or as respects the continuation of an inspection begun by inspectors	 appointed before the commencement of this Act; and the provisions of this Act shall apply to or in relation to a report of inspectors appointed under the said section 138 as they apply to or in relation to a report 429 of inspectors appointed under section 235 or 237 of this Act. " The argument is that the expression " nothing in this Act " includes section 645 and so section 646 should be read as an exception or proviso to section 645; and if that is so	 all matters covered by section 138 of the old Act must continue to be governed by the said Act and not by any of the provisions of the new Act. We are unable to accept this argument. In appreciating the effect of the provisions of section 646 it is necessary to bear in mind that it occurs in that part of the new Act which deals with repeals and savings. Sections 645 to 648 are the saving sections	 and ordinarily and in the absence of any indication to the contrary these saving clauses should be read as independent of	 and in addition to	 and not as providing exceptions to	 one another. It is significant that whereas section 646 provides for the continuance of the operation of section 138 it does not make a corresponding provision for the continuance of the operation of a. 140 of the old Act which deals with the powers of the inspector to call for books and to examine parties. Besides	 it may perhaps not be accurate to suggest that having regard to the provisions of section 645	 section 646 is wholly redundant. It would be possible to take the view that cases falling under section 138(1) of the old Act are intended to be covered by section 646 as they would not be covered by section 645. In regard to the case of a banking company covered by section 138(1) section 646 will come into operation and that may be one of the reasons for which section 646 was enacted. It may be that the case of the banking company may also be covered by section 35 of the Banking Companies Act 10 of 1949	 but since a. 138(1) applied to the said case until the old Act was repealed the Legislature may have	 as a matter of caution	 thought it necessary to provide for the continuance of the operation of section 138 by enacting section 646. However that may be	 we feel no difficulty in holding that s: 646 should not be construed as a proviso to s.645 but as an additional saving provision. The words used in section 645 are so clear	 and the policy and object of enacting the said provision are in our opinion so emphatically expressed	 that it 430 would be unreasonable to hold that section 646 was intended to provide for such a radical exception to section 645. Where the Legislature enacts a saving section as a matter of abundant caution the argument that the enactment of the said section was not wholly necessary cannot be treated as decisive or even effective. Therefore	 in our opinion	 the High Court was right in coming to the conclusion that the inspector appointed under section 138(4) of the old Act must by legal fiction	 which is authorised by section 645	 be deemed to have been appointed under section 235 of the new Act	 and if that is so	 respondent 1 had authority and power to issue the impugned notices under section 240 of the new Act. The challenge to the validity of the impugned notices on the ground that respondent 1 had no authority to issue the said notices must	 therefore	 fail. That takes us to the question as to whether the relevant provisions of section 240	 which empower respondent 1 to issue the relevant notices by which the appellant was called upon to give evidence and to produce documents	 offend against the fundamental constitutional right guaranteed by article 20(3). It has been strenuously urged before us that the main object of the present investigation is to discover whether the appellant has committed any offenses	 and so by compelling him to give evidence and produce documents he is denied the constitutional protection against self incrimination. Article 20(3) provides that " no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself ". It may be assumed that the appellant is being compelled to be witness against himself in the present proceedings; but even so the question which arises for our decision is whether the appellant can be said to be a person who is accused of any offence as required by article 20(3). Mr. Sastri has contended that the words " person accused of any offence " should not receive a narrow or literal construction; they should be liberally interpreted because. the clause	 in which they occur enshrines a fundamental constitutional right and the scope and reach of the said right should not be unduly narrowed down. In support of this 431 general argument Mr. Sastri has naturally relied on the historical background of the doctrine of protection against self incrimination; and he has strongly pressed into service the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States of America dealing with the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. The said Amendment inter alia provides that " no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself ". It would be noticed that in terms the Amendment refer to a criminal case	 and yet it has received a very broad and liberal interpretation at the hands of the Supreme Court of the United States of America. It has been held that the said constitutional protection is not confined only to criminal cases but it extends even to civil proceedings (Vide: McCarthy vs Arndstein(1)). As observed by Mr. Justice Blatchford in Charles Counselman vs Frank Hitchcock (2) " it is impossible that the meaning of the constitutional provision can only be that a person shall not be compelled to be a witness against himself in a criminal prosecution against himself. It would doubtless cover such cases but it is not limited to them. The object was to insure that a person should not be compelled	 when acting as a witness in any investigation	 to give testimony which might tend to show that he himself had committed a crime. The privilege is limited to criminal matters	 but it is as broad as the mischief against which it seeks to guard ". In support of his plea that a liberal interpretation should be put on an article which enshrines a fundamental constitutional right Mr. Sastri has also invited our attention to the observation made by Mr. Justice Bradley in Edward A. Boyd and George H. Boyd vs United States (3). Says Bradley	 J.	 " illegitimate and unconstitutional practices get their first footing in that way	 namely by silent approaches and slight deviations from legal modes of procedure. This can only be obviated by adhering to the rule that constitutional provisions for the security of person and (1) ; (2) ; (3) ; 	752. 432 property should be liberally construed ". The learned judge has also added that any compulsory discovery by extorting the party 's oath	 or compelling the production of his private books and papers	 to convict him of crime or to forfeit his property	 is contrary to the principles of a free government	 and is abhorrent to the instincts of an American. It may suit the purposes of despotic power; but it cannot abide the pure atmosphere of political liberty and personal freedom". In regard to this eloquent statement of the law it may	 however	 be permissible to state that under the English Law the doctrine of protection against self incrimination has never been applied in the departments of Company Law ' and Insolvency Law. There is no doubt that under section 15 of the English Bankruptcy Act when a public examination of a debtor is held he is compelled to answer all questions as the court may put	 or allow to be put to him	 and that the answers given have to be signed by him and can be used against him in evidence (Vide: In Re: Atherton (1)); similar is the position under section 270 of the English Companies Act. However	 the general argument for the appellant is that in construing article 20(3) we may take some assistance from the broad and liberal construction which has been placed on the apparently narrow and limited words used in the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America. Thus presented the argument is no doubt attractive	 and its validity and effectiveness would have had to be fully and carefully examined if the question raised in the present appeal had been a matter of first impression ; but the construction of article 20 in general and article 20(2) and (3) in particular has been the subject matter of some decisions of this Court	 and naturally it is in the light of the previous decisions that we have to deal with the merits of the appellants case in the present appeal. In Maqbool Hussain vs The State of Bombay (2) this Court had occasion to consider the scope and effect of the constitutional guarantee provided by article 20(2). A person against whom proceedings (1) (2) ; 433 had been taken by the Sea Customs Authorities under section 167 of the Sea Customs Act and an order for confiscation of goods had been passed was subsequently prosecuted before the Presidency Magistrate for an offence under section 23 of the Foreign Exchange Regulations Act in respect of the same act. It was urged on	 his behalf that the proceedings taken against him before the Sea Customs Authorities was a prosecution and the order of confiscation passed in the said proceedings wag a punishment	 and. so it was argued that the constitutional guarantee afforded by article 20(2) made his subsequent prosecution under section 23 of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act invalid. This plea was rejected. In dealing with the merits of the plea this Court had to consider the meaning of the words " prosecuted and punished " used in article 20(2). Article 20(2) provides that no person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once	 and the question raised was whether the proceedings before the Sea Customs Authorities constituted prosecution	 and whether the order of confiscation was punishment under article 20(2). In construing article 20(2) this Court considered article 20 as a whole and examined the interrelation of the relevant terms used in the three clauses of the said article. " The very wording of article 20 "	 observed Bhagwati	 J.	 " and the words used therein" convicted "	 " commission of the act charged as an offence "	 " be subjected to a penalty "	 " commission of the offence "	 " prosecuted and punished "	 " accused of any offence " would indicate that the proceedings therein contemplated are of the nature of criminal proceedings before a court of law or a judicial tribunal. and the prosecution in this context would mean an initiation or starting of proceedings of a criminal nature before a court of law or a judicial tribunal in accordance with the procedure prescribed in the statute which creates the offence and regulated the procedure ". Having thus construed article 20(2) in the light of the relevant words used in the different clauses of the said article	 this Court naturally proceeded to enquire whether the Sea Customs Authorities acted as a judicial tribunal in holding proceedings 434 against the person. The scheme of the relevant pro. visions of the Act was then examined	 and it was held that the said authorities are not a judicial tribunal with the result that the "I adjudging increased rate of duty or penalty and confiscation" under the provisions of the said act did not constitute a judgment or order of a court or judicial tribunal necessary for the purpose of supporting the plea of double jeopardy. In the result the conclusion of this Court was that when the Customs Authorities confiscated the gold in question the proceedings taken did not amount to a prosecution of the party nor did the order of confiscation constitute a punishment as contemplated by article 20(2). This decision has been affirmed by this Court in the case of section A. Venkataraman vs The Union of India (1). In that case an enquiry bad been made against the appellant Venkataraman under the (Act XXXVII of 1850). On receiving the report of the enquiry commissioner opportunity was given to the appellant under article 311(2) to show cause	 and	 ultimately after consultation with the Union Public Service Commission the appellant was dismissed by an order passed by the President. The order of dismissal was passed on September 17	 1953. Soon thereafter on February 23	 1954	 the police submitted a charge sheet against him charging him with having committed offenses under sections 161/165 of the Indian Penal Code 'and section 5(2) of the Prevention of Corruption Act. The validity of the subsequent prosecution was challenged by the appellant on the ground that it contravened the constitutional guarantee enshrined in article 20(2). The appellant 's plea was	 however	 rejected on the ground that the proceedings taken against him before the commissioner under the Inquiries Act did not amount to a prosecution. The relevant provisions of the said act were examined	 and it was held that in an inquiry under the said Act there is neither any question of investigating an offence in the sense of an act or omission punishable by any law for the time being in force nor is there (1) 435 any question of imposing punishment prescribed by the law which makes that act or omission an offence. Mukherjea	 J.	 as he then was	 who delivered the judgment of the Court	 has referred to the earlier decision in the case of Maqbool Hussain (1)	 and has observed that " the effect of the said decision was that the proceedings in connection with the prosecution and punishment of a person must be in the nature of a criminal proceeding before a court of law or a judicial tribunal	 and not before a tribunal which entertains a departmental or an administrative enquiry even though set up by a statute but which is not required by law to try a matter judicially and on legal evidence ". Thus these two decisions can be said to have considered incidentally the general scope of article 20 though both of them were concerned directly with the construction and application of article 20(2) alone. Article 20(3) was considered by the Full Court in M. P. Sharma vs Satish Chandra	 District Magistrate	 Delhi (2). The question about the scope and effect of article 20(3) was raised in that case by a petition filed under article 32 of the Constitution. It appears that the Registrar of the Joint Stock Companies	 Delhi State	 lodged information with the Inspector General	 Delhi Special Police Establishment	 against the petitioners alleging that they had committed several offenses punishable under the Indian Penal Code. The lodging of this information was preceded by an investigation into the affairs of the petitioners ' company which had been ordered by the Central Government under a. 138 of the old Act	 and the report received at the end of the said investigation indicated that a well planned and organised attempt had been made by the petitioners to misappropriate and embezzle the funds of the company by adopting several ingenious methods. On receipt of the said First Information Report the District Magistrate ordered investigation into the offenses and issued warrants for simultaneous searches at as many as thirty four places. By their petitions the petitioners contended that the search warrants (1) ; (2) ; 56 436 were illegal and they prayed that the same may be quashed as being in violation of Art	 20(3). The plea thus raised by the petitioners was ultimately rejected on the ground that the impugned. searches did not violate the ' said constitutional guarantee. Jagannadha das	 J.	 who spoke for the Court	 observed that " since article 20(3) provides for a constitutional guarantee against testimonial compulsion its words should be liberally construed	 and that there was no reason to confine the content of the said guarantee to its barely literal import ". He	 therefore	 held that the phrase " to be a witness " means nothing more than to furnish evidence	 and such evidence can be furnished through the lips or by production of a thing or of a document or in other modes. He also pointed out that the phrase was " to be a witness " and not " to appear as a witness " and so the protection afforded was not merely in respect of testimonial compulsion in the court room but may well extend to compel testimony previously obtained from him. The conclusion of the Court on this part of the construction was thus stated. The constitutional guarantee " is available to a person against whom a formal accusation relating to the commission of an offence has been leveled which in the normal course may result in prosecution ; whether it is available to other persons in other situations does not call for a decision in this case ". Since the First Information Report bad been recorded against the petitioners in that case it followed that the first test that a formal accusation relating to the commission of an offence must have been leveled was satisfied. The question which was then considered was whether there was any basis in the Indian Law for the assumption that a search or seizure of a thing or document is in itself to be	 treated as compelled production of the same; and it was held that there would be no justification for treating the said search or seizure as compelled production; that is why the challenge to the validity of the search warrants issued against the petitioners was repelled. The effect of this decision thus appears to be that one of the. essential conditions for invoking the constitutional guarantee enshrined in article 20(3) 437 is that a formal accusation relating to the commission of an offence	 which would normally lead to his prosecution		 must have been leveled against the party who is being compelled to give evidence against himself; and this conclusion	 in our opinion is fully consistent with the two other decisions of this Court to which we have already referred. There are two other subsequent decisions of this ' Court to which reference may be made. In Thomas Dana vs State of Punjab (1)	 according to the majority decision " prosecution " in article 20(2) means a proceeding either by way of indictment or information in a criminal court in order to put an offender upon his trial. It would be noticed that this conclusion is wholly consistent with the view taken by this Court in the case of Maqbool Hussain (2) and section A. Venkataraman (3). In Mohammed Dastaqir vs The State of Madras (4) this Court had to consider article 20(3). The appellant in that case had gone to the bungalow of the Deputy Superintendent of Police to offer him a bribe which was covered in a closed envelope with a request that he might drop the action registered against him. The police officer threw the envelope at the appellant who took it up. While the appellant was still in the bungalow he was asked by the police officer to produce the envelope and he took out from his pocket some currency notes and placed them on the table without the envelope. The notes were then seized by the police officer and a rubber stamp of his office was placed on them. On these facts it was urged that in relying upon the evidence of compelled production of notes the prosecution had 	 violated the provisions of article 20(3). In support of this contention the general observations made by this Court in the case of M. P.	 Sharma(5)	 were strongly pressed into service. This Court	 however	 rejected the appellant 's arguments and held that the prosecution did not suffer from any infirmity. On the facts it was found that though the offence had in fact been already committed (1) [1959] Supp. 1 S.C.R. 274. (2) ; (3) ; (4) ; (5) ; 438 by the appellant	 he had in fact not been accused of it at the stage when the currency notes were produced by him; it was also held that it could not be said that he was compelled to produce the said currency notes	 because he might easily have refused to produce them	 	and so there was no occasion for him to invoke the constitutional protection against self incrimination. What then is the result of these decisions ? They show that in determining the complexion and reach of its respective sub clauses the general scheme of article 20 as a whole must be considered	 and the effect of the inter action of the relevant words used 'in them must be properly appreciated. Thus considered the constitutional right guaranteed by article 20(2) against double jeopardy can be successfully invoked only where the prior proceedings on which reliance is plac ed must be of a criminal nature instituted or continued before a court of law or a judicial tribunal in accordance with the procedure prescribed in the statute which creates the offence and regulates the procedure. It would be noticed that the character of the said proceedings as well as the character of the forum before which the proceedings are initiated or conducted are treated as decisive in the matter. Similarly	 for invoking the constitutional right against testimonial compulsion guaranteed under article 20 (3) it must appear that a formal accusation has been made against the party pleading the guarantee and that it relates to the commission of an offence which in the normal course may result in prosecution. Here again the nature of the accusation and its probable sequel or consequence are regarded as important. Thus we go back to the question which we have already posed: was the appellant accused of any offence at the time when the impugned notices were served on him ? In answering this question in the light of the tests to which we have just referred it will be necessary to determine the scope and nature of the enquiry which the inspector undertakes under section 240 ; for	 unless it is shown that an accusation of a crime can be made in such an enquiry	 the appellant 's plea under article 20(3) cannot succeed. Section 240 439 shows that the enquiry which the inspector undertakes is in substance an enquiry into the affairs of the company concerned. Certain documents are required to be furnished by a company to the Registrar under the provisions of the new Act. If	 on examining the said documents	 the Registrar thinks it necessary to call for information or explanation he is empowered to take the necessary action under section 234(1). Similarly	 under section 234(7) if it is represented to the Registrar on materials placed before him by any contributory or creditor or any other person interested that the business of the company is carried on in the manner specified in the said sub section the Registrar proceeds to make the enquiry. Thus the scope of the enquiry con templated by section 234 is clear; wherever the Registrar has reason to believe that the affairs of the company are not properly carried on he is empowered to make an enquiry into the said affairs. Similarly under section 235 inspectors are appointed to investigate ' the affairs of any company and report thereon. The investigation carried on by the inspectors is no more than the work of a fact finding commission. It is true that as a result of the investigation made by the inspectors it may be discovered that the affairs of the company disclose not only irregularities and malpractice but also commission of offenses	 and in such a case the report would specify the relevant. particulars prescribed by the circular in that behalf If	 after receiving the report	 the Central Government is satisfied hat any person is guilty of an offence for which he is criminally liable	 it may	 after taking legal advice	 institute criminal proceedings against the offending person under section 242(1); but the fact that a prosecution may ultimately be launched against the alleged offender will not retrospectively change the complexion or character of the proceedings held by the inspector when he makes the investigation. Have irregularities been committed in managing the affairs of the company ; if yes	 what is the nature of the irregularities ? Do they amount to the commission of an offence punishable under the criminal law ? If they do who is liable for the said offence? These and 440 such other questions fall within the purview of the ins pector 's investigation. The scheme of the relevant sections is that the investigation begins broadly with a view to examine the management of the affairs of the company to find out whether any irregularities have been committed or not. In such a case there is no accusation	 either formal or otherwise	 against any specified individual; there may be a general allegation that the affairs are irregularly	 improperly or illegally managed; but who would be responsible for the affairs which are reported to be irregularly managed is a matter which would be determined at the end of the enquiry. At the commencement of the enquiry and indeed throughout its proceedings there is no accused person	 no accuser and no accusation against anyone that he has committed an offence. In our opinion a general enquiry and investigation into the affairs of the company thus contemplated cannot be regarded as an investigation which starts with an accusation contemplated in article 20(3) of the Constitution. In this connection it is necessary to remember that the relevant sections of the Act appear in Part VI which generally deals with management and administration of the companies. It is well known	 that the provisions of the Act are modeled on the corresponding provisions of the English Companies Act. It would	 therefore	 be useful to refer to the observations made by the House of Lords in describing the character of the enquiry held under the corresponding provisions of the English Act in the case of Hearts of Oak Assurance Co. vs Attorney General (1). In that case Lord Thankerton said " it appears to me to be clear that the object of the examination is merely to recover information as to the company 's affairs and that it is in no sense a judicial proceeding for the purpose of trial of an offence; it is enough to point out that there are no parties before the inspector	 that he alone conducts the enquiry	 and that the power to examine on oath is confined to the officers	 members	 agents and servants of the company ". We ought	 however	 to add that the last (1) 441 observation is no longer true about the inspector 's powers under section 240 of the new Act. In the same case Lord Macmillan observed that " the object of the enquiry manifestly is that the Commissioner may either by himself directly or through the medium of a delegate obtain the information necessary to enable him	 to decide what action	 if any	 he should take. The cardinal words of the section are those which empower the Commissioner or his inspector to examine into and report on the affairs of the society ". Thus it is clear that the examination of	 or investigation into	 the affairs of the company cannot be regarded as a proceeding started against any individual after framing an accusation against him. Besides it is quite likely that in some cases investigation may disclose that there are no irregularities	 or if there are they do not amount to the commission of any offence; in such cases there would obviously be no occasion for the Central Government to institute criminal proceedings under section 242(1). Therefore	 in our opinion	 the High Court was right in holding that when the inspector issued the impugned notices against the appellant the appellant cannot be said to have been accused of any offence; and so the first essential condition for the application of article 20(3) is absent. We ought to add that in the present case the same conclusion would follow even if the clause "accused of any offence " is interpreted more liberally than was done in the case of M. P. Sharma (1)	 because even if the expression 'accused of any offence" is interpreted in a very broad and liberal way it is clear that at the relevant stage the appellant has not been	 and in law cannot be	 accused of any offence. Thus the tests about the character of the proceedings and the forum where the proceedings are initiated or intended to be taken are also not satisfied; but	 as we have already indicated	 such a broad and liberal interpretation of the relevant expression does not appear to be consistent with the tenor and effect of the previous decisions of this Court. It is true that in his report the Registrar has made (1) ; 442 certain allegations on which Mr. Sastri has relied. He contends that the statements in the report do amount to allegations of commission of offenses by the appellant. What the Registrar has stated in his report in this particular case cannot be relevant or material in deciding the vires of the impugned section. The vires of the section can be determined only by examining 'the relevant scheme of the Act	 and we have already Been that such an examination does not assist the appellants contention that article 20(3) is contravened. Besides	 what the Registrar has stated in his report can hardly amount to an accusation against the appellant; it is a report submitted by him to the Central Government	 and it is only intended to enable the Central Government to decide whether it should appoint an inspector. It is not as if the investigation before the inspector begins on the basis that the Registrar is the complainant who has made an accusation against the appellant	 or that the function of the investigation is to find out whether the said accusation is proved or not. As we have already seen an enquiry under section 240 may require a large number of persons to give evidence or produce documents but it cannot be said that any accusation is made against any of the said persons. In fact three persons have been served with similar notices in the present enquiry which shows that the inspector desires to obtain relevant evidence from them as from the appellant. How can it be said that an accusation has been made against the said three persons	 and that incidentally helps to bring out the real character and scope of the enquiry. Therefore we do not think that the state ments made in the Registrar 's report	 on which Mr. Sastri relies can really assist us in deciding the question of the vires of section 240. It is also significant that the appellant has not challenged the validity of the impugned notices on any ground relatable to	 or based on	 the said report. The challenge is founded on. the broad and general ground that section 240 offends against article 20(3). We may incidentally add that it was in support of his argument based on the Registrar 's report that 443 Mr. Sastri sought to rely on the decision of the Calcutta High Court in Collector of Customs vs Calcutta Motor and Cycle Co. (1). In that case certain notices had been issued under section 171A of the Sea Customs Act to certain persons to appear before the customs officials and to produce certain documents. The High Court took the view that " it appeared from the accusations made in the search warrants at the instance" of the customs authorities and those made in one of the notices by the customs authorities themselves	 that the accusations of criminal offenses could not be excluded " ; and so it was held that the requirements of article 20(3) were satisfied and the protection under the said article was available to the persons concerned. In our opinion this decision does not assist the appellant. It proceeded on the finding that accusations of criminal offenses could be held in substance to have been made against the persons concerned	 and it dealt with the other points of law on that assumption. That being so	 we think it unnecessary to discuss or consider the said decision. Our conclusion	 therefore	 is that section 240 does not offend against article 20(3) of the Constitution. That still leaves the challenge to the vires of the said section under article 14 of the Constitution	 though we ought to add that Mr. Sastri did not seriously press his case under article 14	 and we think rightly. The argument under article 14 proceeds on familiar lines. It is urged that the ordinary protection afforded to witnesses under section 132 of the Indian Evidence Act as well as the protection afforded to accused persons under section 161(1) and (2) of the Criminal Procedure Code	 have been denied to the appellant in the investigation which respondent 1 is carrying on in regard to the affairs of his company	 and that violates equality before the law. The scope and effect of article 14 have been considered by this Court frequently. : It has been repeatedly held that what article 14	prohibits is class legislation; it does not	 however		 forbid reasonable classification for the purpose of legislation. If the classification on which legislation is based is founded 57 444 on an intelligible differentia which distinguishes persons or things that are grouped together from others left out of the group	 and if the differentia has a rational relation to the object sought to be achieved	 then the classification does not offend article 14 (Vide: Shri Ram Krishna Dalmia vs Justice Tendolkar (1)). Now in the light of this test how can it be said that the classification made by sections 239 and 240 offends article 14 of the Constitution ? A company is a creature of the statute. There can be no doubt that one of the objects of the Companies Act is to throw open to all citizens the privilege of carrying on business with limited liability. Inevitably the business of the company has to be carried on through human agency	 and that sometimes gives rise to irregularities and malpractice in the management of the affairs of the company. If persons in charge of the management of companies abuse their position and make personal profit at the cost of the creditors	 contributories and others interested in the company	 that raises a problem which is very much different from the problem of ordinary misappropriation or breach of trust. The interest of the company is the interest of several persons who constitute the company	 and thus persons in management of the affairs of such companies can be classed by themselves as distinct from other individual citizens. A citizen can and may protect his own interest	 but where the financial interest of a large number of citizens is left in charge of persons who manage the affairs of the companies it would be legitimate to treat such companies and their managers as a class by themselves and to provide for necessary safeguards and checks against a possible abuse of power vesting in the managers. If the relevant provisions of the Act dealing with enquiries and investigations of the affairs of the companies are considered from this point of view there would be no difficulty in holding that article 14 is not violated either by section 239 or section 240 of the new Act. The result is the appeal fails and is dismissed with costs. Appeal dismissed.

On November 15	 1954	 the Registrar wrote to the company of which the appellant was the Managing Agent under section 137	 Indian Companies Act	 1913	 that it had been represented to him that the business of the company was carried on in fraud and called upon it to furnish certain information. On April 15	 1955	 the Registrar made a report to the Central Government under section 137(5) to the effect that in his opinion the affairs of the company were carried on in fraud of contributories and they disclosed an unsatisfactory state of affairs and that a case had been made out for an investigation under section 138. Thereupon	 the Central Government	 on November 1	 1955	 appointed an Inspector to investigate the affairs of the company and to report thereon. The Inspector was authorised under section 140 to examine any person on oath	 and he wrote to the appellant that he would examine him on oath in relation to the business of the company. On April 1	 1956	 the Indian Companies Act	 1913	 was repealed by the Indian 	 which conferred wider and more drastic powers of investigation. On July 26	 1956	 the Central Government accorded approval under section 239(2) of the new Act to the Inspector exercising his powers of investigating into and reporting on the affairs of the company. In May 1957 the Inspector served notices upon the appellant calling upon him to attend his office on the date and the time specified for the purpose of being examined on oath and to produce certain account books and papers relating to the company. The appellant challenged the investigation and contended : (i) that since the Inspector was appointed under the old Act he had no jurisdiction to exercise the powers referable to the provisions of the new Act	 (ii) that section 240 of the new Act which provided for the production of documents and	 evidence at such investigations offended article 20(3) of the Constitution	 and (iii) that section 239 of the new Act which conferred powers on inspectors for investigation and section 240 offended article 14 of the Constitution. 418 Held	 that the Inspector appointed under section 138(4) of the old Act must be deemed to have been appointed under section 235 of the new Act and had authority and power to issue notices under section 240 of the new Act. Section 645 of the new Act provided that the appointment of an Inspector under the old Act shall	 on repeal of the old Act and on coming into force of the new Act	 have effect as if it was made under the new Act. Section 646 which provided that nothing in the new Act shall affect the operation of section T38 of the old Act as respects inspectors was not an exception or proviso to section 645 and the two sections being saving sections had to be read as independent of and in addition to	 and not as exceptions to	 each other. Held	 further that section 240 of Indian 	 did not offend article 20(3) of the Constitution. For invoking the constitutional right against testimonial compulsion guaranteed under article 20(3) there must be at the relevant stage a formal accusation against the party pleading the guarantee relating to the commission of an offence which may result in a prosecution. The enquiry undertaken under section 240 by the Inspector was in substance an enquiry into the affairs of the company; at this stage there was no accusation	 formal or otherwise	 against any specified individual. The mere fact that a prosecution may ultimately be launched against the alleged offenders would not retrospectively change the complexion or character of the proceedings held by the Inspector when he makes the investigation. Maqbool Hussain vs The State of Bombay	 ; 	 section A. Venkataraman vs The Union of India	 [1954] S.C.R. 1150	 M. P. Sharma vs Satish Chandra	 District Magistrate	 Delhi	 ; 	 Thomas Dana vs State of Punjab	 [1959] Supp. 1 S.C.R. 274 and Mohammed Dastagir vs The State of Madras	 ; 	 relied on. Held	 further that SS. 239 and 240 of the Indian 	 did not violate article 14 of the Constitution. These sections denied the company and persons in charge of the management of such companies the ordinary protection afforded to witnesses under section 132 of the Evidence Act and under section 161(1) and (2) of the Criminal Procedure Code. As they were entrusted with the financial interests of a large number of citizens it was legitimate to treat such companies and their managers as a class by themselves and to provide for necessary safeguards and checks against abuse of power by the managers. The basis of the classification is founded on an intelligible differentia which has a rational relation to the object sought to be achieved. Shri Ram Krishna Dalmia vs justice Tendolkar	 [1959] S.C.R. 297	 applied.