Summarize the following court judgment. Civil Appeal Nos. 219 220 of 1982. From the Judgment and Order dated 19.9.1979 of the High Court of Orissa in D.J C. Nos. 811 & 1048/77. Anil B. Divan and R. K. Mehta for the Appellants. S.	T. Desai	 S.R. Banerjee and Vinoo Bhagat	 B.R. Aggarwal	 Miss Vijaylakshmi Menon Vinod Bobde for the Respondents. 39 The Judgment of the Court was delivered by MADON J. These two Appeals by Special Leave granted by this Court are against the judgment and order of the Orissa High Court allowing 209 writ petitions under Article 226 of the Constitution of India filed before it. Genesis of the Appeals On May 23	 1977	 the Government of Orissa in the Finance Department issued two Notifications under the Orissa Sales Tax Act 1947 (Orissa Act XIV of 1947). We will hereinafter for the sake of brevity refer to this Act as "the Orissa Act". These Notifications were Notification S.R.O. 372/77 and Notification S.R.O No. 373/ 77. Notification S.R.O. No. 372/77 was made in exercise of the powers conferred by section 3 B of the Orissa Act and Notification S.R.O. No. 373/77 was made in exercise of the powers conferred by the first proviso to sub section (1) of section 5 of the Orissa Act. We will refer to these Notifications in detail in the course of this judgment but for the present suffice it to say that notification S.R.O.No. 372/77 amended notification No. 20209 CTA 14/76 F dated April 23	 1976	 and made bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to be severed liable to tax on the turnover of purchase with effect from June 1	 1977	 while notification S.R.O. No 373/77 amended with effect from June 1	 1977	 Notification No. 20212 CTA 14/76 F dated April 23	 1979	 and directed that the tax payable by a dealer under the Orissa Act on account of the purchase of bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to be severed would be at the rate of ten per cent. After the promulgation on December 29	 1977	 of the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance 1977 (Orissa Ordinance No	 10 of 1977 )	 which amended the Orissa Act	 two other notifications were issued on December 29	 1977	 by the Government of Orissa in the Finance Department	 namely Notification No. 67178 C.T.A.135/77(Pt.) F(S.R.O. No900/77) and Notification No. 67181 C.T.A. 135/77 F (S.R.O. No. 901/77). The first Notification was expressed to be made in exercise of the powers conferred by section 3 B of the Orissa Act and in supersession of all previous notifications issued on that subject. By the said notification the State Government declared that the goods set out in the Schedule to the said Notification were liable to be taxed on the turnover of purchase with effect from January 1. 1978. Entries Nos. 2 40 and 17 in the Schedule to the said Notification specified bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to be severed respectively. The second Notification was expressed to be made in exercise of the powers conferred by sub section (1) of section 5 of the Orissa Act and in supersession of all previous notifications in that regard. By the said notification the State Government directed that with effect from January 1	 1978	 the tax payable by a dealer under the Orissa Act on account of the purchase of goods specified in column (3) of the Schedule to the said Notification would be at the rate specified against it in column (3) thereof. In the said Schedule the rate of purchase tax for bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to be severed was prescribed as ten per cent. The relevant entries in the Schedule in that behalf are Entries Nos. 2 and 17. The Orissa Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977	 was repealed and placed by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1978 (Orissa Act No. 4 of 1978). As many as 209 writ petitions under Article 226 of the Constitution of India were filed in the High Court of Orissa challenging the validity of the aforesaid two Notifications dated May 23	 1977	 and the said Entries Nos. 9 and 17 in each of the said two notifications dated December 29	 1977 (hereinafter collectively referred to as "the impugned provisions"). The petitioners before the High Court fell into two categories. The first category consisted of those who has entered into agreements with the State of Orissa for the purpose of felling	 cutting obtaining and removing bamboos from forest areas "for the purpose of converting the bamboo into paper pulp or for purposes connected with the manufacture of paper or in any connection incidental therewith". This agreement will be hereinafter referred to as "the Bamboo Contract". The other group consisted of those who had entered into agreements for the purchase of standing trees. We will hereinafter refer to this agreement as "The Timber Contract". All the Bamboo Contracts before the High Court were in the same terms except with respect to the contract area	 the period of the agreement and the amount of royalty payable; and the same was the case with the Timber contracts. By a common judgment delivered on September 19	 1979	 reported as The Titaghur Paper Mills Company Ltd. and another vs State of Orissa and other (and other cases)1	 the High Court allowed all the (1) (1980) 45 S.T.C. 170. 41 said writ petitions and qauashed the impugned provisions. The High Court made no order as to the costs of these petitions. Each of the present two Appeals has been filed by the State of Orissa	 the Commissioner of Sales Tax Orissa	 and the Sales Tax Officer concerned ill the matter	 challenging the correctness of the said judgment of the High Court. The Respondents in Civil Appeal No. 219 of 1982 are the Titaghur Paper Mills Company Limited (hereinafter referred to as 'the Respondent Company") and one Kanak Ghose	 a shareholder and director of the Respondent Company. The Respondents in Civil Appeal No. 220 of 1982 are Mangalji Mulji Khara	 a partner of the firm of Messrs. M.M. Khara	 and the said firm. The Chief Conservator of Forests	 Orissa	 the Divisional Forest Officer	 Rairkhol Division. and the Divisional Forest Officer	 Deogarh Division have also been joined as proforma Respondents to the said Appeal. Facts of C. A. No. 219 of 1985 D The Respondent Company is a public limited company. Its registered office is situated at Calcutta in the state of West Bengal. The Respondent Company carries on inter alia the business of manufacturing paper. For this purpose it owned at the relevant time three paper mills one at Titaghur in the State of West Bengal	 the second at Kankinara also in the State of west Bengal and the third at P. O. Choudwar	 Cuttack District	 in the State of Orissa. For the purpose of obtaining raw materials for its business of manufacturing paper	 the Respondent Company entered into a Bamboo Contract dated January 20	 1974	 with the State of Orissa. This agreement was effective for a period of fourteen years from October 1	 1966	 in respect of Bonai Main Areas of Bonai Division	 for a period of thirteen years of with effect from October 1	 1967	 in respect of Kusumdih P. section Of Bonai Division; and for a period of eleven years with effect from October 1	 1969	 in respect of Gurundia Rusinath P. section Of Bonai Division	 with an option to the Respondent Company to renew the agreement for a further period of twelve years from October 1	 1980. For the present it is not necessary to refer to the other terms and conditions of this Bamboo Contract. After the said two Notification dated May 23	 1977	 were issued	 the Sales Tax Officer	 Dhenkanal Circle	 Angul	 Ward (the Third Appellant in Civil Appeal No. 219 of 1982) issused to 42 the manager of the Respondent Company 's mill at P. O. Choudwar a notice dated August 18	 1977	 under Rules 22 and 28(2) of the Orissa Sales Tax Rules	 1947	 stating that though the Respondent Company 's gross turnover during the year immediately preceding June 1	 1977	 had exceeded Rs. 25	000; it had without sufficient cause failed to apply for registration as a dealer under section 9 of the Orissa Act and calling upon him to submit within one month a return in Form IV of the forms appended to the said Rules	 showing the particulars of "turnover for the quarter ending 76 77 & 6/77". By the said notice the said manager was required to attend in person or by agent at the Sales Tax Office at Angul on October 30	 1977	 and to produce or cause to be produced the accounts and documents specified in the said notice and to show cause why in addition to the amount of tax that might be assessed a penalty not exceeding one and half times that amount should not be imposed under section 12(5) of the Orissa Act that is	 for carrying on business without being registered as a dealer. By its letter dated August 25	 1977 the Respondent Company asked for time to seek legal advice. Thereafter by its letter dated September 27	 1977 addressed to the said Sales Tax Officer	 the Respondent Company contended that the said notice was invalid and called upon him to cancel the said notice. A copy of the said letter was also sent to the Commissioner of Sales Tax	 Orissa	 who is Second Appellant in Civil Appeal No. 219 of 1982 as also to the Chief Secretary to the Government of the State of Orissa. As no reply was received to the said letter	 the Respondent company and the said Kanak Ghosh filed writ petition in the High Court of Orissa	 being O.J.C No. 811 of 1977	 challenging the validity of the said two Notifications dated May 23	 1977	 and the said notice. While the said writ petition was part heard	 the said two Notifications were replaced by the said two Notifications dated December 29	 1977. Accordingly	 the Respondent Company applied for amendment of the said writ petition. It also filed along with Kanak Ghosh another writ petition	 being O.J.C. No. 740 of 1978	 challenging the validity not only of the said two Notifications dated May 23	 1977	 but also of Entries Nos. 2 and 17 of the said two Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 and the said notice dated August 18 1977	 on the same grounds as those in the earlier writ petition. The principal contentions raised in the said writ petitions were that the subject matter of the Bamboo Contract was not a sale or 43 purchase of goods but was lease of immovable property or in any event was the creation of an interest in immovable property by way of grant of profit a prendre which according to the Respondent Company amounted in Indian law to an easement under the (Act V of 1882)	 and that for the said reason the amounts of royalty payable under the Bamboo Contract could not be made exigible to either sales tax or purchase tax in the exercise of the legislative competence of the State	 and	 therefore	 the impugned provisions were unconstitutional and ultra vires the Orissa Act. It was further contended that the Bamboo Contract was a works contract and for the said reason also the transaction covered by it was not exigible to sales tax or purchase tax. It was also contended that as the said Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 were expressed to be made in supersession of all earlier notifications on the subject	 the liability	 if any	 under the said Notifications dated May 23	 1977	 was wiped out. The said writ petitions prayed for quashing the impugned provisions and for writ of mandamus against the respondents to the said petitions	 namely	 the State of Orissa	 the Commissioner of Sales Tax	 Orissa	 and the said Sales Tax Officer	 restraining them from giving any effect or taking any further steps or proceedings against the Respondent Company on the asis Or the impugned provisions or the said notice. In addition to the said two writ petitions filed by the Respondent Company and the said Kanak Ghosh	 three other writ Petitions were also filed by other parties Who had entered into Bamboo Contracts with the State of Orissa in which similar contention were raised and reliefs claimed. The record is not clear whether any assessment order was made against the Respondent Company in pursuance of the said notice or whether further proceedings in pursuance of the said notice were stayed by the High Court by an interim order. As mentioned earlier	 by the said common judgment delivered by the High Court	 the said writ petitions were allowed. As a natural corollary of the High Court	 quashing the impugned provisions it ought to have also quashed	 the said notice dated August 18	 1977	 and the assessment order	 if any	 made in pursuance thereof. The High Court	 however	 did not do so	 perhaps because as it heard and decided all the said 209 writ petitions together it did not ascertain the facts of each individual petition or the exact consequential reliefs to be given to the petitioner therein. 44 Facts of C. A. No. 220 of 1982 Messrs. M.M. Khara	 Second Respondent to Civil Appeal No. 220 of 1982 (hereinafter referred to as "the Respondent Firm")	 is a partnership firm of which the first Respondent to the said Appeal	 Mangalgi Mulji Khara	 is a partner. The Respondent Firm carried on business at P. O. Sambalpur in the District of Sambalpur in the State of Orissa and was registered as a dealer both under the Orissa Act and the (Act LXXIV of 1956)	 with the Sales Tax Officer	 Sambalpur I Circle. The business of the Respondent Firm so far as concerns this Appeal consisted of bidding at auction held by the Government of Orissa in respect of trees standing in forest areas and if it was the highest bidder	 entering into an agreement with the Government for felling and removing such trees and in its turn selling the trees felled by it in the shape of logs to other. The procedure followed by the State of Orissa in giving forest areas was to publish notices of proposed auction sales of timber and other forest products in particular forest areas. After the auctions were held	 ratification orders would be issued by the State Government to the forest contractors who were the highest bidders as also an agreement would be entered into between the State of Orissa through its Governor and the forest contractor in respect of the forest produce governed by the agreement. During the relevant period	 the Respondent Firm was successful at five auction sales held by the State of Orissa. Its bids were ratified by the State Government. The Respondent Firm also entered into five separate agreements (hereinafter referred to as "Timber Contractors") for felling and removing trees standing in such forest areas. Three of the said five Timber Contracts were for the period October 31	 1977	 to January 31	 1979	 the fourth was for the period October 1	 1977 to December 31	 1978	 and the fifth was for the period October 28	 1977 to July 31	 1979. After the said Notifications dated May 23	 1977 were issued	 the Respondent Firm along with its said partner Mangalji Mulji Khara filed a writ petition in the Orissa High Court	 being O.J.C. No. 1048 of 1977	 against the State of Orissa	 Commissioner of Commercial Taxes	 Orissa	 Sales Tax Officer	 Sambalpur Circle	 Divisional Forest Officer	 Roirkhol Division	 and Divisional Forest Officer	 Deogarth Division. Two main grounds were taken in the 45 said writ petition	 namely	 (l) the levy of a purchase tax on standing timber agreed to be severed was beyond the legislative competence of the State Legislature and (2) the said Notifications imposed a tax both at the point of sale and point of purchase and were	 therefore	 invalid and ultra vires the Orissa Act. It was also contended that the power conferred upon the State Government under section 3 B of the Orissa Act to declare any goods or class of goods to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchase as also the power conferred upon the State Government to specify the rate of tax subject to the conditions that it should not exceed thirteen per cent amounted to excessive delegation of legislative power to the State Government and that too without prescribing any guidelines in respect thereof. It was further contended that the Timber Contracts were works contracts and the amounts payable under them were	 therefore	 not exigible either to purchase tax or sales tax. The reliefs sought in the said writ petition were for quashing the said two Notifications dated May 23	 1977 D While the said writ petition was pending	 the Sales Tax Officer	 Sambalpur I Circle	 by his assessment order dated November 28	 1978	 assessed the Respondent Firm to tax under the Orissa Act for the period April 1	 1977	 to March 31	 1978. He held that the Respondent Firm had paid royalty to the Forest Department in the aggregate sum of Rs. 11	52	175 on which purchase tax at the rate of ten per cent was payable by it. It was further stated in the said assessment order that the Respondent Firm had not shown this amount in its gross turnover. Accordingly	 the Sales Tax Officer enhanced the gross turnover to include this amount. The amount of purchase tax assessed on the Respondent Firm amounted to Rs. 1	16	217.50p. Thereupon	 the Respondent Firm and its partner amended the said writ petition No. O.J.C. 1048 of 1977 and challenged the validity of the said assessment order and prayed for quashing the same. On an application made by the Respondent Firm and its said partner	 by an interim order the High Court stayed the recovery of the amount of purchase tax pending the hearing and final disposal of the said writ . Apart from the Respondent Firm	 203 other forest contractors who had entered into similar agreements with the State Government also filed writ petitions in the High Court challenging the validity of the impugned provisions. By its judgment under appeal	 46 the High Court allowed the said petition filed by the Respondent Firm. As in the case of the writ petition filed by the Respondent Company and very probably for the same reason	 the High Court did not pass any order quashing the said assessment order consequent upon it holding that the impugned provisions were ultra vires the Act. Judgment of the High Court All the said 209 writ petitions were heard by a Division Bench of the Orissa High Court consisting of S.K.Ray	 C.J.	 and N.K. Das	 J. The main judgment was delivered by Das. J.	 while Ray	 C.J.	 delivered a short	 concurring judgment. Das	 J. rejected the contention that the effect of the word 'supersession ' used in the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 was to wipe out the liability under the earlier Notifications dated May 23	 1977. He held that the Notifications dated May 23	1977	 remained in force until the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 came into operation. So far as the other points raised before the High Court were concerned	 Das	 J.	 summarized the conclusions reached by the court in paragraphs 19 and 2() of his judgment as follows: "19. For the reasons stated above	 we hold as follows: (1) That the bamboos all i trees agreed to be severed are nothing but bamboos and timber after those are felled. When admittedly timber and bamboos are liable for taxation at the sale point	 taxation of those goods at the purchase point amounts to double taxation and	 as such	 the notifications arc ultra vires the provisions of the the Act. (2) The impugned notifications amount to taxation on agreements of sale	 but not on sale and purchase of goods; and (3) In the case of bamboo exploitation contracts	 the impugned notifications amount also to impost of tax on profit a prendre and	 as such	 arc against the provisions of the Orissa Sales Tax Act. In view of the aforesaid findings	 we do not consider it necessary to go into the other questions raised 47 by the petitioners	 namely	 whether it is a works contract and whether the notifications amount to excessive delegation or whether there has been business of purchase by the petitioners or whether there has been restriction on trade and business" In his concurring judgment Ray	 C. J.	 agreed with Das	 J. and further held that in the series of sales in question the first sale	 that is the taxable event	 started from the Divisional Forest Officer and that the Divisional Forest Officer was the taxable person who had sold taxable goods	 namely	 timber	 and that as what was sold by the Divisional Forest Officer was purchased by the petitioners before the High Court the identity of goods sold and purchased was the same	 and that where such a sale was taxed	 the purchase thereof was excluded from the levy of tax by virtue of sections 3 B and 8 of the Orissa Act and consequently the levy of purchase tax by the impugned provisions was bad in law. In view of its above findings	 the High Court allowed all the writ petitions and quashed the impugned provisions. The High Court made no order as to the costs of the writ petitions. We will set out the submissions advanced at the Bar at the hearing of these Appeals when we deal with the various points which fall to be decided by us. In order	 however	 to test the correctness of the judgment of the High Court as also of the rival contentions of the parties	 it is necessary to see first the relevant provisions of the constitution of India as also of the Orissa Act and of the various notifications issued thereunder. Constitutional provisions The Orissa Act received the assent of the Governor General of India on April 26	 1947	 and was published in the Orissa Gazette on May 14	 1947. Under section 1(13) of the Orissa Act	 section 1 was to come into force at once and the rest of the Orissa Act on such date as the Provincial Government may by notification in the Orissa Gazette appoint. The rest of the Orissa Act was brought into force on August l	 1947. The Orissa Act is thus a pre constitution Act. At the date when it was enacted as also when it came into force? the constitutional law of India was the Government of 48 India Act	 1935	 prior to its amendment by the Indian Independence Act	 1947. Under section 100(3) of the Government of India Act 1935	 the Legislature of a Province alone had the power to make laws for a province or any part thereof in respect any of the matters enumerated in List 11 in the Seventh Schedule to that Act	 namely the Provincial Legislative List. Entry 48 in the provincial Legislative List provided for "Taxes on the sale of goods and on advertisements". Thus	 under the Government of India Act	 1935	 Sales tax was an exclusively provincial subject and the legislative competence of the Orissa Provincial Legislature to enact the Orissa Act was derived from section 100(3) of the Government of India Act	 1935	 read with Entry 48 in the Provincial Legislative List. Under the Constitution of India as originally enacted	 the legislative topic "Taxes on the sale or purchase of newspapers and on advertisements published therein" was exclusively a Union subject in respect of which under Article 245(1) read with Article 246(1) parliament alone could make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of [India	 this topic being the subject matter of Entry 92 in List I in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution (namely	 the Union List)	 while "Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than news papers" and "Taxes on advertisements other than advertisements published in newspapers" were exclusively State subjects in respect of which under Article 245(1) read with Article 246(3) of the Constitution of India	 the Legislature of a State alone could make laws ' for such State or any part thereof	 these topics being the subject matter of Entries 54 and 55 in 	 List ll in the Seventh schedule to the Constitution	 namely	 the State List ' By the constitution (Sixth Amendment ) Act	 1956	 a new Entry	 namely Entry 92A	 was inserted in the Union List and Entry 54 in the State List was substituted by a new Entry. Entry 92A in the Union List reads as follows: "92A. Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than newspapers	 where such sale or purchase takes place in the course of inter State trade or commerce. " The amended Entry 54 in List ll reads as follows: "54. Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than newspapers	 subject to the provisions of Entry 92A of List I." 49 We are not concerned in these Appeals with the amendment made in Entry 55 in the State List by the Constitution (Forty second Amendment ) Act	 1976. We are not concerned with Entry 92 B inserted in the Union List or with the extended meaning given to the expression "tax on the sale or purchase of goods" by the new clause (29A) inserted in Article 366 of the Constitution whereby that expression inter alia includes a tax on the transfer of property in goods (whether as goods or in some other form) involved in the execution of a works contract	 by the Constitution (Forty sixth Amendment) Act	 1982. We are equally not concerned in these Appeals with the restrictions imposed by Article 286 of the Constitution on a State 's power to levy a tax on certain classes of sales and purchases of goods. The Orissa Act In keeping with the legislative history of fiscal measures in general	 the Orissa Act has been amended several times. Thus	 by the middle of July 1981 it had been amended twenty eight times. It is needless to refer to all the provisions of the Orissa Act or of the various amendments made therein except such of them as are relevant for the purpose of these Appeals. The Orissa Act when enacted levied a tax only on the sales of goods taking place in the province of Orissa. By the Orissa Sales tax (Amendment) Act	 1958 (Orissa Act No.28 of 1958)	 a purchase tax was for the	 first time introduced in the State of Orissa with effect from December 1	 1958. The tax under the Orissa Act is levied not on goods but on sales and purchases of goods or rather on the turnover of sales and turnover of purchases of goods of a dealer. Under section 4(2) of the Orissa Act	 a dealer becomes liable to pay tax on sales and purchases with effect from the month immediately following a period not exceeding twelve months during which his gross turnover exceed the limit specified in that sub section which during the relevant period was Rs. 25	000. Under section 4(3) a dealer who has become liable to pay tax under the Orissa Act continues to be so liable until the expiry of three consecutive years during each of which his gross turnover has failed to exceed the prescribed limit and such further period after the date of The said expiry as may be 50 prescribed by the Orissa Sales Tax Rules and his liability to pay tax ceases only on the expiry of the further period so prescribed. A special liability is created by section 4 A on a casual dealer as defined in clause (bb) of section 2. We are not concerned in these Appeals with any question relating to a casual dealer. Section 2 is the definition section. Clause (c) of that section defines the term "dealer". The definition as it stood during the relevant period and at the date when the judgment of the High Court was delivered (omitting what is not relevant) read as follows: "(c) 'Dealer ' means any person who carries on the business of purchasing or selling or supplying goods	 directly or otherwise	 whether for commission	 remuneration or other valuable consideration and includes (i) . a company	 . firm or association which carries on such business; Explanation The manager or agent of a dealer who resides outside Orissa and who carries on the business of purchasing or selling or supplying goods in Orissa shall	 in respect of such business	 be deemed(l to l c a dealer for the purposes of this Act". It was on the basis of the above Explanation to section 2(c) that the notice impugned in Civil Appeal No. 219 of 1982 was issued to the manager of the Respondent Company and he was sought to be made liable to purchase tax under the said Notifications dated May 23	 1977. Under the aforesaid definition of the term "dealer" before a person can be a dealer	 he must be carrying on the business of purchasing or selling or supplying goods. There was no definition of the word "business" in the Orissa Act and the orissa High Court had interpreted it as connoting an activity carried on with the object of making profit. By the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act 1974 (Orissa Act No. 18 of 1974)	 a definition of "business" was for he first time inserted as clause (b) in section 2	 the original clause (b) which defined the term contract" having been omitted by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1959. after the decision of this Court in The State of Madras vs Gannon Dunkerley & Co. (Madras) 51 Ltd1. The effect of this definition of the term "business" was to do away with the requirement of profit motive. As a consequence of the decision of the Orissa High Court in Straw Products Limited vs State of Orissa and others2	 the above definition of the term "dealer" in clause (c) was substituted with retrospective effect by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1979 (Orissa Ordinance No. 11 of 1979)	 which was replaced by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1979 (Orissa Act No. 24 of 1979). In the Straw Product 's Case the petitioner company had entered into two agreements with the State of Orissa. From the facts set out in the judgment of the High Court in that case it would appear that these two agreements were similar to the Bamboo Agreement before us. The Divisional Forest Officer	 Balliguda Division	 called upon the petitioner company to reimburse to him the amount of sales tax to which he had been assessed	 stating that he was a registered dealer and had been assessed to tax on the sale of all standing trees including bamboos. The petitioner company thereupon filed two writ petitions in the Orissa High Court challenging this demand. The contention that the transactions covered by the said two agreements were not sales of goods and	 therefore	 not exigible to sales tax does not appear to have been raised in those writ petitions. The High Court held that the State of Orissa and not the Divisional Forest Officer could be the dealer qua the transactions covered by the said agreements in case they were exigible to sales tax and that the liability under the Orissa Act being a statutory one	 it was not open to the State in the discharge of its administrative	 business or at its volition to name an employee under it as the person to pay sales tax under the Orissa Act	 and. therefore	 the Divisional Forest Officer could not have been assessed to sales tax on the transactions in question. The High Court further held that though the requirement of profit motive did not exist any more as an ingredient of the term "business" as defined by the said clause (b) of section 2	 whether a person carried on business in a particular commodity depended upon the volume	 frequency	 continuity and regularity of transactions of purchase and sales in a class of goods	 and as these ingredients were not satisfied in the cases before it	 the transactions were not exigible to sales tax. The judgment in that case was delivered on May 3	 1977. The State as also the Commissioner of Sales Tax	 (1) (2) (1978) 42 S.T.C. 302 (1977)1 C.W.R. 455. 52 Orissa	 have come in appeal by Special Leave in this Court against the said judgment and these appeals are still pending	 being Civil Appeals Nos. 1237 1238 of 1979 State of Orissa and others vs Straw Products Limited and others and Civil Appeals Nos. 1420 1421 of 979 Commissioner of Sales Tax	 Orissa and another vs Straw Product Limited and others. However	 to get over the judgment of the High Court	 the State Government issued the two impugned Notifications dated May 23	 1977	 which were replaced along with others by the said two Notifications dated December 29	 1977. Further	 the Governor of Orissa promulgated the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment and Validation) Ordinance	 1979 (Orissa Ordinance No. I l of 1979)	 substituting with retrospective effect from the date of the Orissa Act the definition of "dealer" given in clause (c) of section 2. The said Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment and Validation) Act	 1979 (Orissa Act No. 24 of 1979). This amending and validating Act came into force with effect from July 19	 1979	 being the date of the promulgation of the said Ordinance. Section 3 of the said amending Act validated assessments or re assessments	 levy or collection of any tax or imposition of any penalty made or purporting to have been made under the Orissa Act before July 19	 1979	 as if all such acts had been done under the Orissa Act as so amended	 notwithstanding anything contained in any judgment	 decree or order of any court or other authority to the contrary. The substituted definition of "dealer"	 omitting the portion thereof not relevant for our purpose	 reads as follows: "(c) 'Dealer ' means any person who carries on the business of purchasing	 selling	 supplying or distributing goods	 directly or otherwise	 whether for cash or for deferred payment or for commission	 remuneration or other valuable consideration and includes (i) . a company	 . firm or association which carries on such business; X X X X Explanation I y and every local branch of a firm registered outside the State or of a company the principal office or headquarters whereof is outside the State	 shall be . deemed to be a dealer for the purposes of this Act. 53 Explanation II The Central Government or a State Government or any of their employees acting in official capacity on behalf of such Government	 who	 whether or not in the course of business	 purchases	 sells	 supplies or distributes goods	 directly or otherwise for cash or for deferred payment or for commission	 remuneration or for other valuable consideration	 shall	 except in relation to any sale	 supply or distribution of surplus	 unserviceable or old stores or materials or waste products	 or obsolete or discarded machinery or parts or accessories thereof	 be deemed to be a dealer for the purposes of this Act. What is pertinent to note about the new definition of "dealer" is that in the case	 of the Central Government	 a State Government or any of their employees acting in official capacity on behalf of such Government	 it is not necessary that the purchase	 sale	 supply or distribution of goods should be in the course of business	 while in all other cases for a person to be a dealer he must be carrying on the business of purchasing	 selling	 supplying or distributing goods. Writ petitions challenging the validity of this amending and validating Ordinance and Act have been filed in this Court under Article 32 of the Constitution of India and are still pending. These writ petitions are Writ Petition Nos. 958 of 1979 Orient Paper Mills and another vs State of Orissa and others and Writ Petition No. 966 of 1979 Straw Products Limited and another vs State of Orissa and others. We are concerned in these Appeals only with purchases and sales of goods and not with their supply or distribution. The terms "sale" and "purchase" are defined in clause (g) of section 2. Clause (g)	 omitting the Explanation which is not relevant for our purpose	 reads as follows: "(g) 'Sale ' means	 with all its grammatical variations and cognate expressions	 any transfer of property in goods for cash or deferred payment or other valuable consideration	 but does not include a mortgage	 hypothecation	 charge or pledge and the words "buy" and "purchase" shall be construed accordingly; X X X X X 54 The expressions "goods". "purchase price" and "sale price" are defined in clause (d)	 (ee) and (h) of section 2 as follows: " (d) 'Goods ' means all kinds of movable property other than actionable claims	 stocks	 shares or securities and includes all growing crops	 grass and things attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed before sale or under the contract of sale to be severed	 " (ee) 'Purchase Price ' means the amount payable by a person as valuable consideration for the purchase or supply of any goods less any sum allowed by the seller as cash discount according to ordinary trade practice	 but it shall include any sum charged towards anything done by the seller in respect of the goods at the time of or before deli very of such goods other than the cost of freight or delivery or the cost of installation when such cost is separately charged; "(h) 'Sale Price ' means the amount payable to a dealer as consideration for the sale or supply of any goods	 less any sum allowed as cash discount according to ordinary trade practice	 but including any sum charged for anything done by the dealer in respect of the goods at the time of	 or before delivery thereof". As the liability of a dealer to pay tax under the Orissa Act depends upon his gross turnover exceeding the limit prescribed by ` section 4(2)	 it is necessary to see the definition of the expression "gross turnover". "Gross turnover" is defined by clause (dd) of section 2 as follows "(dd) 'Gross Turnover ' means the total of 'turnover of sales ' and 'turnover of purchases". G The expression 'turnover of sales" and "turnover of purchases" are defined in clauses (i) and (j) of section 2 as follows: "(i) 'Turnover of sales ' means the aggregate of the amounts of sale prices and tax	 if any	 received and receivable by a dealer in respect of sale or supply of goods other 55 than those declared under section 3 B effected or made during a given period; X X X X "(j) 'Turnover of purchases ' means the aggregate of the amounts of purchase prices paid and payable by a dealer in respect of the purchase or supply of goods or classes of goods declared under section 3 B; So far as is material for our purpose	 section 5(1) provides for the rates at which the tax under the Orissa Act is payable. Sub section (I) of section 5 and the first proviso thereto as they stood prior to the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977	 read as follows: "5. Rate of Tax: (1) The tax payable by a dealer under this Act shall be levied at the rate of six per cent on his taxable turnover; Provided that the State Government may	 from time to time	 by notification and subject to such conditions as they may impose	 fix a higher rate of tax not exceeding thirteen per cent or any lower tax payable under this Act on account of the sale or purchase of any goods or class of goods specified in such notification; The words "at the rate of six per cent" in the main subsection (I) were substituted for the words "at the rate of five per cent" and the words "not exceeding thirteen per cent" were substituted for the words "not exceeding ten per cent" in the first proviso thereto by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1967 (Orissa Act No. 7 of 1976)	 with effect from May 1	 1976. Amongst the amendments made by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977	 which were re enacted by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1978	 was the substitution of sub section (I) of section 5 and the first proviso thereto by a new sub section (1). Thus	 with effect from January 1	 1978 sub section (1) reads as follows: 56 5. Rate of Tax (1) The tax payable by a dealer under this Act shall be levied on his taxable turnover at such rate	 not exceeding thirteen percent	 and subject to such conditions as the State Government may	 from time to time	 by notification	 specify; X X X X The other proviso to the said sub section (1) are not relevant for our purpose. Sub section (2) (A) of section S defines the expression "taxable turnover" as meaning that part of a dealer 's gross turnover during any period which remains after deducting therefrom the turnover of sales and purchases specified in that subsection. Section 3 B confers upon the State Government the power to declare what goods or classes of goods would be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases. Section 3 B reads as follow. "3 B. Goods liable to purchase tax The State Government may	 from time to time	 by notification	 declare any goods or class of goods to be liable to tax on turnover of purchases: Provided that no tax shall be payable on the sales of such goods or class of goods declared under this section " This section was inserted in the Orissa Act with effect from December 1	 1958	 by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1958. As the tax under the Orissa Act is intended to be a single point levy	 section 8 confers upon the State Government the power to prescribe points at which goods may be taxed or exempted	 Section 8 provides as follows: "8. Power of the State Government to prescribe points at which goods may be taxed or exempted Notwithstanding anything to the contrary	 in this Act	 the State Government may prescribe the points in the series 57 of sales or purchases by successive dealers at which any goods or classes or descriptions of goods may be taxed or exempted from taxation and in doing so may direct that sales to or purchases by a person other than a registered dealer shall be exempted from taxation: Provided that the same goods shall not be taxed at more than one point in the same series of sales or purchases by successive dealers. Explanation Where in a series of sales	 tax is prescribed to be levied at the first point	 such point	 in respect of goods despatched from outside the State of Orissa shall mean and shall always be deemed to have meant the first of such sales effected by a dealer liable under the Act after the goods are actually taken delivery of by him inside the State of Orissa. " Rules 93 A to 93 G of the Orissa Sales Tax Rules	 1947	 prescribe the goods on which tax is payable at the first point in a series of sales. The goods so prescribed have no relevance to these Appeals. Notifications under the Act In exercise of the powers conferred by section 3 B of the Orissa Act the State Government from time to time issued notifications declaring what goods or classes of goods were liable to tax on the turnover of purchases. As a result of the amendments made in the rates specified in sub section (1) of section 5 and the first proviso to that sub section by the Orissa Sales Tax	 (Amendment) Act 1976	 with effect from May 1	1976	 all these notification were superseded and a fresh list of goods declared under section 3 B by Notification No. 20209C.T.A.L. 14/76 F	 dated April 23	1916. All the notifications issued from time to time under the first proviso to sub section (1) of section 5 specifying the rates of purchase tax on goods declared under section 3 B were also superseded and new rates of purchase tax in respect of the goods declared in the said new list were specified with effect from May 1.1976	 by Notification No. 20212 C.T.A. 14/76 F	 dated April 23	1976. But is these two Notifications which were amended by the impugned Notifica 58 tions dated May 23	 1977. The said two impugned Notifications are as follows: "Notification S.R. O.No. 372/77 dated the 23rd May 1977 In exercise of the powers conferred by section 3 B Of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947 (Orissa Act 14 of 1947)	 the State Government do hereby declare that standing trees and bamboos agreed to be severed shall be liable to tax on turnover of purchase with effect from the first day of June	 1977 and direct that the following amendment shall be made in the notification of Government of Orissa	 Finance Department No. 20209 CTA 14/76 F.	 dated 23rd April 1976. AMENDMENT In the schedule to the said notification after serial numbers 2 and 16	 the following new serial and entry shall be inserted under appropriate heading	 namely: Serial No. Description of goods (1) (2) 2 A Bamboos agreed to be severed. 16 A Standing trees agreed to be Severed. "Notification S.R.O. No; 373/77 dated the 23rd May 1977 In exercise of the powers conferred by the first proviso to sub section (1) of section 5 of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947 (Orissa Act 14 of 1947)	 the State Government do hereby direct that the following amendment shall be made in the notification of the Government of Orissa	 Finance Department No. 20212 CTA 14/76 F.	 dated the 23rd April 1976 and that the said amendment shall take effect from the first day of June	 1977. AMENDMENT In the schedule to the said notification after serial 59 numbers 2 and 16	 the following new serial and entry shall be inserted under appropriate heading	 namely: Serial No. Description of goods Rate of Tax (1) (2) (3) 16 A Bamboos agreed to Ten per cent served to be 2 A Standing trees agreed Ten per cent." to be severed The above two Notifications were struck down by the High Court by its judgment under appeal. The State Government had also issued from time to time Notifications in exercise of the powers conferred by the first proviso to sub section (1) of section 5 prescribing a rate of tax different from the rate specified in section 5(1) so far as sales of certain goods were concerned. As a result of the amendments made by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1916	 all these notifications were superseded and new rates specified with effect from May 1	 1976	 by Notification No. 20215 C T.A. 14/76 F. dated April 23	 1976. By Notification No. S.R.A. 374/77 dated May 23	 1977	 made in exercise of the powers conferred by the first proviso to sub section (1) of section 5	 the State Government directed that with effect from June 1	 1977	 the said Notification No. 20215 C.T.A. 14/76 F. dated April 23	 1976	 should inter alia be amended by inserting a new entry therein as Entry No. 86 A	 By this entry the rate of sales tax on timber was enhanced to ten per cent	 Tn view of the amendment made in sub section (1) of section 5 by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinances 1977 (replaced by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1978)	 the State Government issued three Notifications	 (1) declaring the goods liable to purchase tax	 (2) specifying the rates of purchase tax on such goods. and (3) specifying the rates of sales tax. The relevant portions of the notification declaring the goods liable to purchase tax read as follows: "Notification No. 67178 C.T.A. 135/77 (Pt. ) Fdated the 29th December 1977. 60 S.R.O.No.900/77 In exercise of powers conferred by section 3 B of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947 (Orissa Act 14 of 1947)	 and in supersession of all previous notifications issued on the subject	 the State Government do hereby declare that the goods mentioned in column (2) of the schedule given below shall be liable to tax on turnover of purchase	 with effect from the first day of January	 1978. SCHEDULE Serial No. Description of goods (1) (2) X X X X 2. Bamboos agreed to be severed X X X X 17. Standing trees agreed to be severed X X X X . " The relevant portions of the Notification specifying the rates of purchase tax read as follows: Notification No.67181 C.T.A. 135/77 F. dated the 29th December 1977 S.R.O. NO. 901/77 In exercise of the powers conferred by sub section (1) of section 5 of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947(Orissa Act 14 of 1947)	 as amended by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977 (Orissa Ordinance No. 10 of 1971) and in supersession of all previous notifications in this regard	 State Government do hereby direct that with effect from the first day of January	 1978 the tax payable by a dealer under the said Act on account of the purchase of the goods specified in column (2) of the schedule given below	 shall be at the rate specified against each in column (3) thereof; 61 SCHEDULE Serial No. Description of goods1 Rate of Tax (1) (2) (3) X X X X 2. Bamboos agreed to be Ten per cent severed X X X X 17. Standing trees agreed to Ten per cent be served X X X X The relevant portions of the Notification specifying the rates of sales tax read as follows: "Notification No. 67184 C.T.A. 135/77 F.	 dated the 29th December 1977. S.R.O. No. 902/77 In exercise of the powers conferred by sub section (I) of section 5 of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947 (Orissa Act 14 of 1947)	 as amended by the Orissa Sales 'Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977 (Orissa Ordinance	 No. 10 of 1977) and in supersession or all previous Notifications on the subject	 the State Government do hereby direct that with effect from the first day of January	 1978	 the rate of tax payable by a dealer under the said Act on account of the sale of goods specified in column (2) of the Schedule given below shall be at the rate specified against each in column (3) thereof. SCHEDULE Sl. Description of goods Rate of Tax (1) (2) (3) X X X X 101 All other articles Seven percent". Entries Nos. 2 and 17 in the schedule to each of the said 62 Notifications Nos. 67178 C.T.A. 135/17 (Pt.) F and 67181 C.T.A135/77 F were also struck down by the High Court by its judgment under appeal. The ambit of the Orissa State 's taxing power The validity of the impugned provisions is challenged on two grounds: (1) they levy a tax on what is not a sale or purchase of goods and are	 therefore	 unconstitutional	 and (2) assuming the subject matter of the impugned provisions is a sale or purchase of goods	 they levy a tax on the same goods both at the sale point and purchase point and are therefore	 ultra vires the Orissa Act. In order to test the correctness of these challenges	 it is necessary to bear in mind the ambit of the Orissa State ' s power to levy a tax on the sale or purchase of goods This power is subject to a two fold restriction one Constitutional; and the other	 statutory. The Constitutional restriction on the legislative competence of the Orissa State in this behalf is shared by it in common with all other States	 while the statutory restriction is self imposed and flows from the provisions of the Orissa Act. We have already set out earlier the relevant provisions of the Government of India Act. 	 1935	 the Constitution of India and the Orissa Act. To recapitulate	 the Orissa Act is a pre Constitution Act and the legislative competence of the Orissa Provincial Legislature to enact the Orissa Act was derived from section 100(3) of the Government of India act 1935	 read with Entry 48 in List II in the Seventh Schedule to that Act. After the coming into force of the Constitution of India the power of the Orissa State Legislature to enact law imposing a tax on the sale or purchase of goods (other than newspapers) is to be found in Articles 245(1) and 246(3) of the Constitution of India read with Entry 54 of the Constitution of India. Thus	 Entry 54 in the State List in the Constitution of India is	 with certain modifications	 the successor entry to Entry 48 in the Provincial Legislative List in the Government of India Act	 1935. While Entry 48 spoke of "taxes on the sale of goods"	 Entry 54 speaks of "taxes on the sale or purchase of goods". The addition of the word "purchase" permits the State Legislature to levy a II purchase tax and does not confine its taxing power merely to levying 63 a sales tax. Sale and purchase are merely two ways of looking at the same transaction. Looked at from the point of view of the seller a transaction is a sale	 while looked at from the point of view of the buyer the same transaction is a purchase. Entry 48 in List II of the Seventh Schedule of the Government of India Act	 1935	 came up for interpretation by this Court in The Sales Tax officer	 Pilibhit vs Messrs. Budh Prakash Jai Prakash. This Court held in that case that there having existed at that time of the enactment of the Government of India Act	 1935	 a well defined and well established distinction between a sale and an agreement to sell	 it would be proper to interpret the expression "sale of goods" in Entry 48 in the sense in which it was used in legislation both in England and India and to hold that it authorized the imposition of a tax only when there was a completed sale involving transfer of title. In that case the Uttar Pradesh Sales Tax Act	 1948	 had been amended so as to include forward contracts in the definition of 'sale ' and to provide that forward contracts should be deemed to have been completed on the date originally agreed upon for delivery. These amendments were held by this Court to be ultra vires. In State of Madras vs Gannon Dunkerly & Co.	 (Madras) Ltd.	 another Constitution Bench of this Court held that at the time when the Government Or India Act	 1935	 was enacted the expression "sale of goods" was a term of well recognized import in the general law relating to sale of goods and the legislative practice relating to that topic and	 therefore	 that expression must be interpreted when used in the said Entry 48 as having the same meaning as in the sale of goods Act	 1930. The Court further held that any attempt	 therefore	 to give to the expressions "sale"	 ' goods" or "sale of goods" an artificial meaning or an enlarged meaning or to bring within their scope what would not be comprehended within it would be ultra vires and unconstitutional. The court further observed (at page 413 4): " . both under the common law and the statute law relating to sale of goods in England and in India	 to constitute a transaction of sale there should be an agreement	 express or implied	 relating to goods to be complete (1) [1955] I S.C.R. 243	 246 64 by passing of title in those goods. It is of the essence of this concept that both the agreement and the sale should relate to the same subject matter. Where the goods delivered under the contract are not the goods contracted for	 the purchaser has got a right to reject them	 or to accept them and claim damages for breach of warranty. Under the law	 therefore	 there cannot be an agreement relating to one kind of property and a sale as regards another. We are accordingly of opinion that on the true interpretation of the expression 'sale of goods ' there must be an agreement between the parties for the sale of the very goods in which eventually property passes " In that case the definition of term "sale" in the Madras General Sales Tax Act	 1939	 was enlarged by an amendment so as to include "a transfer of property in goods involved in the execution of a works contract" and the definition of "turnover" was expanded to include within it the amount payable for carrying out a works contract less such portion as may be prescribed. A new definition of "works contract" inserted in the said amendments included within its meaning inter alia the construction	 fitting but	 improvement or repair of any building	 road	 bridge or other immovable property. The Court held these amendments to be void and beyond the legislative competence of the Madras Provincial Legislature on the ground that in the case of a building contract	 which was one and indivisible	 the agreement between the parties was that the contractor should construct the building according to the specification contained in the agreement and in consideration therefore receive payment as provided therein	 and that in such an agreement there was neither a contract to sell the materials used in the construction nor any property passed in such materials as movables. The same interpretation as was placed on Entry 48 in the Provincial Legislative List in State of Madras vs Gannon Dunkerley & Co. (Madras) Ltd. was adopted by this Court while construing Entry 54 in the State List and attempts by the State Legislatures to enlarge the meaning of the expressions sale '	 'sale of goods ' or 'goods ' have been held to be beyond their legislative competence: sec	 for instance	 Bhopal Sugar Industries Ltd. M.P. and another .v. D.P. Dube	 Sales Tax Officer	 Bhopal Region	 Bhopal and another (1) A.I.R. 1964 SC 1037. 65 K.L. Johar and Company vs Deputy Commercial Tax Officer Joint Commercial Tax Officer. Harbour Div II. Madras vs Young	 Men 's Indian Association (Reg.) Madras and others ; and State of Maharashtra and another vs Champalal Kishanlal Mohta2. In Addition to the above Constitutional limitations on the Orissa State 's power to tax sales or purchases of goods	 there are other restrictions imposed by sections 3 B and 8 of the Orissa Act. A State is free when there is a series of sales in respect of the same goods to tax each one of such sales or purchases in that series or to levy the tax at one or more points in such series of sales or purchases. Legislation of all States in this respect is not uniform. Some States have adopted a single point levy	 others	 a two point levy; and yet others	 a multi point levy. The State of Orissa has adopted a single point levy. It has done this by enacting the provision to section 3 B and the proviso to section 8. Under the proviso to section 3 B no tax is payable on the sales of goods or class of goods declared under that section to be liable to taxes on the turnover of purchase . The proviso to section 8 states that "the same goods shall not be taxed at more than one point in the same series of sales or purchases by successive dealers". Where	 therefore	 In a series of sales by successive dealers sales tax or purchase tax is levied at a particular point	 neither sales tax nor purchase tax can be levied at another point in the same series ; and similarly can be levied in respect of the same transaction or any other transaction of sale of the same goods. As any attempt on the part of the State to impose by legislation sales tax or purchase tax in respect of what would not be a sale or a sale of goods or goods under the 	 is unconstitutional	 any attempt by it to do so in the exercise of its power of making subordinate legislation	 either by way of a rule or notification would be equally unconstitutional; and so would such an act on the part of the authorities under a Sales Tax Act purporting to be done in the exercise of powers conferred (1) (2) ; (3) [1971] 1 S.C.R. 46. 66 by that Act or any rule made or notification issued thereunder. Similarly where any rule or notification travels beyond the ambit of the parent Act	 it would be ultra vires the Act. Equally	 sales tax authorities purporting to act under an act or under any rule made or notification issued thereunder cannot travel beyond the scope of such Act	 rule or notification. Thus	 the sales tax authorities under the Orissa Act cannot assess to sales tax or purchase tax a transaction which is not a sale or purchase of goods or assess to sales tax any goods or class of goods which are liable to purchase tax or assess to tax	 whether sales tax or purchase tax	 goods at another point in the same series of sales or purchase of those goods by successive dealers when those goods are liable to be taxed at a different point in that series. Subject matter of the impugned provisions What now falls to be determined is the subject matter of the impugned provisions. Relying upon the definition of the term "goods" in the 	 and in the Orissa Act	 it was submitted on behalf of the Appellant State that the subject matter of the impugned provisions is goods and that what is made exigible to tax under the impugned provisions is a completed purchase of goods. On behalf of the contesting Respondents it was submitted that by impugned provisions a new class of goods not known to law sought to be created and made exigible to purchase tax and that this attempt on the part of the State Government was unconstitutional as being beyond its legislative competence. The High Court held that the impugned provisions amounted to a tax on an agreement of sale and not on a sale or purchase of goods. It further held that in the case of Bamboo Contracts	 the impugned provisions also amounted to levying a tax on a profit a prendre. The term "goods" is defined in clause (7) of section 2 of the as follows (7) 'goods ' mean every kind of movable property other than actionable claims and money; and includes stock and shares	 growing crops	 grass and things attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed to be served before sale or under the contract of sale ;" 67 We have already reproduced earlier the definition of "goods" given in clause (d) of section 2 of the	 Orissa Act. However for the purposes of ready reference and comparison	 we are reproducing the same here again. That definition is as 'follows: "(d) 'Goods ' means all kinds of movable property other than actionable claims	 stocks	 shares or securities and includes all growing crops	 grass and things attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed before sale or under the contract of sale to be severed " What is pertinent to note	 however	 is that under both the definitions the term 'goods" mean all kinds of movable property (except the classes of movable property specifically excluded) and includes growing crops	 grass and things attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale. The (Act IV of 1882)	 does not give any definition of the term "movable property"	 but clauses (36) of section 3 of the (Act X of 1897)	 clause (27) of the Orissa General Clauses Act	 1937 (Orissa Act I of 1937)	 and clause (9) of section 2 of the (Act XVI) of (1908) do. Clause (36) of section 3 of the General Clauses Act provides as follows: "(36) 'movable property	 shall mean property of every description	 except immovable property. " The definition in the Orissa General Clauses Act is in identical terms. The definition in the is as follows: "(9) 'moveable property ' includes standing timber	 growing crops and grass	 fruit upon and juice in trees	 and property of every other description	 except immovable property. " The does not give any exhaustive definition of "immovable property. " The only definition given therein is in section 3 which states: 'immovable property ' does not include standing timber	 growing crops	 or grass. " This is strictly speaking not a definition of the term "immovable property" for it does not tell us what immovable property is but merely tells us what it does not include. We must	 therefore	 68 turn to other Acts where that term is defined. Clause (26) of section 3 of the General Clauses Act defines "immovable property" as follows: "(26) 'immovable property ' shall include land	 benefit to arise out of land	 and things attached to the earth	 or permanently fastened to any thing attached to the earth. " The definition of "immovable property" in clause (21) of section 2 of the Orissa General Clauses Act is in the same terms. A more elaborate definition is given in clause (6) of section 2 of the which states: "(6) 'immovable property ' includes land	 buildings	 hereditary allowances	 rights to ways	 lights	 ferries	 fisheries or any other benefit to arise out of land	 and things attached to the earth or permanently fastened to anything I) which is attached to the earth	 but not standing timber	 growing crops nor grass. " What is pertinent to note about these definitions is that things attached to the earth are immovable property. The expression "attached to the earth" is defined in section 3 of the as follows: " 'attached to the earth	 means (a) rooted in the earth	 as in the case of trees and shrubs; (b) imbedded in the earth	 as in the case of walls or buildings; or (c) attached to what is so imbedded for the permanent beneficial enjoyment of that to which it is attached. " Thus	 while trees rooted in the earth are immovable property as being things attached to the earth by reason of the definition of the term "immovable property" given in the General Clauses Act	 the Orissa General Clauses Act and the 	 read with the definition of the expression "attached to the earth" given in the 	 standing timber is movable property by reason of its being excluded from the definition of 69 "immovable property" in the and the and by being expressly included within the meaning of the term "movable property" given in the . The distinction between a tree and standing timber has been pointed out by Vivian Bose	 J.	 in his separate but concurring judgment in the case of Shrimati Shantabai vs State of Bombay and others 1 as follows: "Now	 what is the difference between standing timber and a tree? It is clear that there must be a distinction because the draws one in the definitions of 'immovable property and 'attached to the earth '; and it seems to me that the distinction must lie in the difference between a tree and timber. It is to be noted that the exclusion is only of 'standing timber ' and not of 'timber trees ' "Timber is well enough known to be wood suitable for building houses	 bridges	 ships	 etc.	 whether on the tree or cut and seasoned. ' (Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary). Therefore	 'standing timber ' must be a tree that is in a state fit for these purposes and	 further	 a tree that is meant to be converted into timber so shortly that it can already be looked upon as timber for all practical purposes even though it is still standing. If not	 it is still a tree because	 unlike timber	 it will continue to draw sustenance from the soil. "Now	 of course	 a tree will continue to draw sustenance from the soil so long as it continues to stand and live	 and that physical fact of life cannot be altered by giving it another name and calling it 'standing timber ' But the amount of nourishment it takes	 if it is felled at a reasonably early date	 is so negligible that it can be ignored for all practical purposes and though	 theoretically	 there is no distinction between one class of tree and another	 if the drawing of nourishment from the soil is the basis of the rule	 as I hold it to be	 the law is grounded	 not so much on logical abstractions as on sound and practical commonsense. It grew empirically from instance to instance and decision to decision until a recognisable (1) ; 	 275 6. 70 and workable pattern emerged; and here	 this is the shape it has taken." Thus	 trees which are ready to be felled would be standing timber and	 therefore	 movable property. What is	 however	 material for our purpose is that while trees (including bamboos) rooted in the earth being things attached to the earth are immovable property and if they are standing timber are movable property trees (including bamboos) rooted in the earth which are agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale are not only a movable property but also goods. In this connection it may be mentioned that in English law there exists (or rather existed) a difference between fructus natwriles and fructus industriales. Fructus naturales are natural growth of the soil	 such as	 grass. timber and fruit on trees	 which were regarded at common law as part of the soil. Fructus industriales are fruits or crops produced "in the year	 by the labour of the year" in sowing and reaping	 planting	 and gathering e.g. corn and potatoes. Fractus industriales are traditionally chattels being considered the "representative" of the labour and expense of the occupier and thing independent of the land in which they are growing and were not treated as an interest in land. Fructus naturales are regarded until severance as part of the soil and an agreement conferring any right or interest in them upon a buyer before severance was a contract or sale of an interest in land and were	 therefore	 governed by section 4 of the Statute of Frauds of 1677 (29 Car. II c. 3). If they were severed before sale	 section 17 of that Statute applied P (see Benjamin 's Sale of Goods	 Second Edition	 para 90	 p. 62) This distinction was	 therefore	 important in England for the purposes of the formalities required under the Statute of Frauds. Under the definition of goods ' given in section 62 (1) of the old English of 1893	 "goods" included inter alia all industrial growing crops and things attached to or forming part of the land which were agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale. The formalities required for a contract for the sale of goods of the value of L10 and upwards by section 17 of the Statute of Frauds were re enacted in section 4 of the Sale of Goods Act	 1893. This section was repealed by the Law Reform (Enforcement of Contracts) Act	 1954. The definition of 'goods ' in section 61 (1) of the new Sale of Goods Act	 1979	 is the same as in 71 the earlier Sale of Goods Act. Thus	 the position now in English law is that crops and other produce whether fructus naturales or fructus industriales (except in the case of a sale without severance on a landlord	 incoming tenant or purchaser of the land) will always be "goods" for the purposes of a contract of sale since the agreement between the parties must be that they shall be severed either "before sale" or "under the contract of sale" (see Benjamin 's Sale of Goods	 Second Edition	 para 91	 p.63). As pointed out in Mahadeo vs The State of Bombay the distinction which prevailed in English law between fructus naturales and fructus industriales does not exist in Indian law	 and the only question which would fall to be considered in India is whether a transaction concerns "goods" or "movable property" or "immovable property" ' The importance of this question is twofold: (I) in the case of immovable property	 a document of the kind specified in section 17 of the requires to be compulsorily registered and if it is not so registered	 the consequences mentioned in sections in sections 49 and 50 of that Act follow	 while a document relating to goods or movable property is not required to be registered; and 2) by reason of the interpretation placed on Entry 54 in List II in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India by this Court a State cannot levy a tax on the sale or purchase of any property other than "goods" . The submission of the Respondent that the impugned provisions levied a purchase tax on immovable property and not on goods and hence travelled beyond the taxing power of the State Government under the said Entry 54 was based upon the omission in the impugned provisions of the words "before sale or under the contract of sale. " It was urged that unless these words qualified the phrase "agreed to be severed"	 standing trees and bamboos would not be "goods" within the meaning of the definition of that term in the Sale of goods Act and the Orissa Act. The High Court held that the impugned provisions amounted to levying a tax on an agreement of sale and not on actual sale or purchase. According to the High Court	 on tax can be imposed unless the taxable event (namely	 the transfer of property in the goods from the seller to the buyer) takes place; and standing trees including bamboos) being (1) [1959] Supp. 2 S.C.R. 339. 349 72 unascertained goods	 under the forest contracts entered into by the State Government	 they continue to be the property of the State Government until felled and	 therefore	 the title to such trees or bamboos is transferred in favour of the forest contractor only when the trees or bamboos are felled and severed after complying with the conditions of the forest contract. We find that there is a fallacy under lying the above submissions of the Respondents and in the reasoning of the High Court	 the fallacy being to read merely the description of the goods given in the impugned provisions by itself and not in conjunctions with the governing words of the said provision. These impugned provisions declare that standing trees agreed to be severed and bamboos agreed to be severed shall be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases. The tax that is levied under section 3 B is not on goods declared under that section but on the turnover of purchases of such goods. It one reads the Notifications issued under section 3 B and 5 (1) as a whole. it is clear that the taxable event is not an agreement to sever standing trees or bamboos but the purchase of bamboos or standing trees agreed to be severed. Does the absence of the words "before sale or under the con tract of sale" make any difference to this position ? The answer in our opinion must be in the negative. The very use of the word "agreed" in the description of goods shows that there is to be an agreement between the buyer and the seller and under this agreement standing trees must be agreed to be severed and so also bamboos. According to the definition of "goods" such severance may be either before sale or under the contract of sale. At the first blush	 therefore	 it would appear that the goods which form the subject matter of the impugned provisions are either bamboos and standing P trees agreed to be severed before sale or bamboos and standing trees agreed to be severed under the contract of sale. The question is "Which one is it ?". The answer to this question depends upon the distinction in law between an agreement to sell and sale. Section 4 of the 	 deals with a sale and an agreement to sell and it provides as follows: "4. Sale and agreement to sell. (1) A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a price. There may be a contract of sale between one part owner and another. 73 (2) A contract of sale may be absolute or conditional. (3) Where under a contract of sale the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer	 the contract is called a sale	 but where the transfer of the property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereafter to be fulfilled	 the contract is called an agreement to sell. (4) An agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time elapses or the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property in the goods is to be transferred. " Thus	 where there is a transfer from the buyer to the seller of property in the goods which are the subject matter of the agreement to sell	 the contract of sale	 is a sale but when the transfer of property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereafter to be fulfilled	 it is an agreement to sell which become a tale when the time elapses or such conditions are fulfilled In the first case the contract is executed	 while in the second case it is executory The distinction between an agreement to sell and sale and the legal consequences flowing from each have been succinctly stated in Benjamin 's Sale of Goods	 paras 25 26 at page 23	 as follows: "Agreement to sell . An Agreement to sell is simply a contract	 and as such cannot give rise to any rights in the buyer which are based on ownership or possession	 but only to claims for breach of contract. In the normal case at least	 so long as the property in the goods remains in the seller	 they are his to deal with as he chooses (except that he may be in breach of his contract with the buyer); they are liable to seizure in distress or execution as his property; and they pass to the trustee in the event of his bankruptcy. The Sale of Goods Act 1979 defines a sale in the following passages: first 'where under a contract of sale the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer the contract is called a sale '; and secondly	 'an agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time elapses or 74 the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property in the goods is to be transferred. It is therefore possible for a sale within the statutory meaning to come about ill one of two ways: either by a contract which itself operates to transfer the goods from the ownership of the seller to that of the buyer	 the property passing when the contract is made; or by a contract which is initially only an agreement to sell	 but is later performed or executed by the transfer of the property. In either case it is clear that the sale involves not only a contract	 but also a conveyance of the property in the goods	 and so it may confer on the buyer the right to bring a claim in tort for wrongful interference with the goods as well as rights in contract. " The test	 therefore	 is the transfer of the property in the goods from the seller to the buyer. In order to determine whether for the impugned provisions to apply standing trees or bamboos are to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale	 what is required to be ascertained	 therefore	 is the point of time when the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer Under section 18 of the Sale of Goods Act	 where there is a contract for the sale of unascertained goods	 no property in the goods transferred to the buyer unless and until the goods are ascertained. Under section 19	 where there is a contract for the sale of specific or ascertained goods the property in them is transferred to the buyer at such time as the parties to the contract intend it to be transferred and for the purpose of ascertaining the intention of the parties regard is to be had to the terms of the contract	 the conduct of the parties and circumstances of the case. Further	 unless a different intention appears	 the rules contained in sections 20 to 24 are rules for ascertaining the intention of the parties as to the time at which the property in the goods is to pass to the buyer. Sections 20 to 23 provide as follows: "20. Specific goods in a deliverable state. Where there is an unconditional contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliverable state	 the property in the goods passes to the buyer when the contract is made	 and it is immaterial whether the time of payment of the price or the time of delivery of the goods	 or both	 is postponed." 75 "21. Specific goods to be put into a deliverable state. Where there is a contract for the sale of specific goods and the seller is bound to do something to the goods for the purpose of putting them into a deliverable state	 the property goes not pass until such thing is done and the buyer has notice thereof." "22. Specific goods m a deliverable state	 when the seller has to do anything thereto in order to ascertain price. Where there is a contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliverable state	 but the seller is bound to weigh	 measure	 test or do some other act or thing with reference to the goods for the purpose of ascertaining the price	 the property does not pass until such act or thing is done and the buyer has notice thereof." "23. Sale of unascertained goods and appropriation. (1) Where there is a contract for the sale of unascertained or future goods by description and goods of that description and in a deliverable state are unconditionally appropriated to the contract	 either by the seller with the assent of the buyer or by the buyer with the assent of the seller	 the property in the goods thereupon passes to the buyer. Such assent may be expressed or imp lied	 and may be given either before or after the appropriation is made. (2) Delivery to the Carrier. Where in pursuance of the contract	 the seller deli vers the goods to the buyer or to a carrier or other bailee (whether named by the buyer or not) for the purpose of transmission to the buyer	 and does not reserve the right of disposal	 he is deemed to have unconditionally appropriated the goods to the contract. " We are not concerned with section 24 which provides when property in the goods passes to the buyer where goods are delivered 76 to the buyer on approval or "on sale or return" or other similar terms. The terms "deliverable state" and "specific goods" are defined in clauses (3) and (14) of section 2 of the Sale of Goods Act as follows: "(3) goods are said to be in a 'deliverable state ' when they are in such state that the buyer would under the con tract be bound to take delivery of them;" "(14) 'specific goods ' means goods identified and agreed upon at the time a contract of sale is made. " Under the Orissa Act also "sale" is defined as meaning "transfer of property in goods" and the word "purchase" is to be construed accordingly. The language of the impugned provisions	 especially the governing words thereof	 makes it clear that what is made eligible to tax is not an executory contract of sale but an executed contract of sale or in other words	 not an executory con tract of purchase but a completed contract of purchase. Bearing in mind the statutory provisions referred to above	 it is further clear that such purchase would be complete when the standing trees or bamboos are specific goods	 that is	 when they arc identified and agreed upon at the time the contract of sale is made	 and the con tract is unconditional and further such standing trees or bamboos arc in a deliverable state	 that is	 nothing remains to be done except for the buyer to enter upon the land of the seller and to fell and remove the trees Of bamboos	 as the case may be	 without any let or hindrance. If these factors exist	 then unless a different intention appears either from the terms of the contract or can be infer red from the conduct of the parties and other circumstances of the case	 the property in such standing trees and bamboos would pass from seller to the buyer when the contract is made and it is immaterial whether the time of payment of the price or the time of taking delivery of standing trees agreed to be severed or bamboos agreed to be severed or both is postponed. If	 however	 there is an unconditional contract for the sale of standing trees or bamboos which are unascertained	 then unless a different intention appears	 the property in them would be transferred to the buyer when the standing trees and bamboos are ascertained and it would be equally immaterial whether the time of payment of the price or the time of taking delivery of standing trees agreed to be severed or bamboos agreed to be severed or both is postponed. In either event	 the sale and purchase would be completed before severance as under 77 the impugned provisions there has to be a completed purchase of standing trees or bamboos agreed to be severed for the impugned provisions to apply. The severance obviously cannot be before sale because in that case the property would only pass and the sale completed after severance and the impugned provisions would have no application. Therefore	 for the impugned provisions to apply the severance of the standing trees or bamboos must not be before sale but under the contract of sale	 that is	 after the sale thereof is completed. The absence in the impugned provisions of the words "before sale or under the contract of sale" thus makes 'no difference. The subject matter of the impugned provisions is goods and the tax that is levied thereunder is on the completed purchase of goods. The fallacy underlying the reasoning of the High Court is that it has confused the question of the interpretation of the impugned provisions with the interpretation of Timber Contracts and the Bamboo Contract. On the interpretation it placed upon the Timber Contracts it came to the conclusion that the property in the standing trees passed only after severance and after complying with the conditions of that contract ar d	 therefore	 the impugned provisions purported to levy a purchase tax on an agreement to sell. In the case of bamboos agreed to be severed	 the High Court on an interpretation of the Bamboo Contract held that it was a grant of a profit a prendre and from that it further held that the impugned provisions were bad in law because they amounted to a levy of purchase tax on a profit a prendre. This approach adopted by the High Court was erroneous in law. The question of the validity of the impugned provisions had nothing to do with the legality of any action taken thereunder to make exigible to tax a particular transaction. If a notification is invalid	 all actions taken under it would be invalid also. The converse	 however	 is not true. Where a notification is valid	 an action purported to be taken thereunder contrary to the terms of that notification or going beyond the scope of that notification would be bad in law without affecting in any manner the validity of the notification. Were the interpretation placed by the High Court on the Bamboo Contract and the Timber Contracts correct	 the transactions covered by them would not be liable to be taxed under the impugned provisions and any attempt or action by the State to do so would be illegal but the validity of the impugned provisions would not be 78 affected thereby. The challenge to the validity of the impugned provisions on the ground of their unconstitutionality must	 therefore	 fail. Double taxation Another ground on which the High Court invalidated the impugned provisions was that bamboos agreed to be severed and trees agreed to be severed were the same as bamboos and timber after they are felled and as bamboos and timber were liable to tax at the sale point	 the taxation of the same goods at the purchase point amounted to double taxation and was contrary to the provisions of the Orissa Act. The general rule of construction is that a taxing statute will not be so construed as to result in taxing the same person twice in respect of the same income or transaction. There is	 however	 nothing to prohibit the legislature from so enacting it. If what the High Court held were correct	 it would not be double taxation in the strict sense of the term because the same person is not being taxed twice in respect of the same transaction but the same transaction is being taxed twice though in different hands	 that is	 the seller in a transaction Or sale is being subjected to sales tax and the purchaser in the same transaction is being subjected to purchase tax. Not only does the Orissa Act expressly forbid this but it also forbids the levying of tax at more than one point in the same series of sales or purchases by successive dealers. The provisions in this behalf are to be found in the proviso to section 3 B and the proviso to section 8. Under the proviso to section 3 B	 no tax is to be payable on the sales of goods or class of goods declared under that section to be liable to tax on the turn over of purchases. Under the proviso to section 8	 the same goods are not to be taxed at more than one point in the same series of sales or purchases by successive dealers. According to the High Court	 under the Orissa Act all goods are liable to sales tax unless exempted from tax by the State Government under section 6	 and	 therefore	 if particular goods are liable to sales tax	 no purchase tax is leviable in respect of the same goods unless the State Government issues three notifications	 namely	 (I) a notification under section 3 B declaring the goods to be taxable at the purchase point	 (2) a notification under section 5 prescribing the rate of purchase tax	 and (3) a notification deleting the goods from the list of goods taxable at the sale point. The High Court has illustrated this by setting out what was done when fish was made liable to purchase tax instead of sales tax 79 We find that the High Court has misunderstood the scheme of taxation under the Orissa Act. As the Notifications dated December 29	 1917	 were issued as a result of the amendments made by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977	 replaced by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1978	 while the Notifications dated May 23	 1977	 were issued prior to these amendments	 it is necessary to consider the scheme of taxation under the Orissa Act both prior to and after January 1	 1978	 being the date on which the relevant provisions of the said Ordinance came into force. Prior to January 1	 1978	 under section 5 (1) the tax payable by a dealer under the Orissa Act on his taxable turnover was at the rate specified in that sub section. At the relevant time the rate was six per cent. The rate specified in section 5 (1) was for both sales tax and purchase tax. As under the Orissa Act a dealer is liable to pay tax on his turnover of sales as also on his turnover of purchases and as purchase tax is payable only on the turnover of purchases of those declared under section 3 B	 in respect of the goods not so declared a dealer would be liable to pay sales tax. Under the proviso to section 3 B	 when any goods are declared to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases	 no tax is payable on the sales Or such goods. Prior to January 1	 1978	 a notification was to be issued by the Slate Government under the first proviso to section 5 (1) only when it wanted to fix a rate of tax higher or lower than that specified in section 5(1). If no such notification was issued	 then the tax which was payable	 whether it was sales tax or purchase tax	 was to be at the rate mentioned in section 5 (1). The illustration given by the High Court was in respect of goods for which under the first proviso to section 5(1) the State Government had notified a rate of tax different from that mentioned in section 5(1). Where	 however	 any goods were declared under section 3 B to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases	 the notification prescribing a higher or lower rate of sales tax issued under the first proviso to section 5(1) would there upon cease to be operative by reason of the operation of the proviso to section 3 B and it was not necessary to repeal expressly that notification. It was also not necessary for the State Government to issue a notification fixing the rate of purchase tax unless it wanted to fix a rate higher or lower than that specified in section 5 (1). Where no such notification was issued	 the rate of purchase tax would be the one which was mentioned in section 5(1)	 80 After January 1	 1978	 the scheme of taxation is that no rate of tax is specified in the Orissa Act but under section 5(1) the State Government is given the power to notify from time to time the rate of tax	 whether sales tax or purchase tax	 by issuing notifications. The notifications issued under section 5 (1) fixing the rate of sales tax	 namely	 Notification No. 67184 C.T.A. 135/77 F dated December 29	 1977	 does not contain any entry in respect of bamboos or timber or in respect of bamboos agreed to be severed or standing trees agreed to be severed. If they were liable to sales tax	 they would fall under the residuary entry No. 101 and be liable to sales tax at the rate of seven per cent. If	 however	 any goods falling under the residuary entry or any other entry in that notification arc declared under section 3 B to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases	 the residuary entry or that particular entry would automatically cease to operate in respect of those goods by reason of the proviso to section3 B without there being any necessity to delete that particular entry or to amend the residuary entry by excluding those goods therefrom. It would	 however	 be necessary for the State Government to issue a notification specifying the rate of purchase tax on those goods because unlike what the position was prior to January 1	 1978	 on and after that date the new sub section 5(1) does not specify any rate of tax but leaves it to the State Government to notify it from time to time. The High Court was	 therefore	 in error in holding that the impugned provisions were invalid and ultra vires the Orissa Act as they amounted to "double taxation". Effect of "Supersession" Yet another contention raised by the contesting Respondents with respect to the impugned provisions was that the two Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 having been made in "supersession" of all previous Notifications issued on the subject	 the effect was to wipe out all tax liability which had accrued under the Notifications dated May 23	 1977. The High Court held that to hold that the liability was so wiped out would amount to giving a retrospective effect to the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 and as the Legislature had not conferred upon the State Government the power to issue notifications having retrospective effect	 to so hold would be to render the said Notification void. The High Court referred to a number of decisions on the question of the power to make subordinate legislation having retrospective effect. 81 We find it unnecessary for the purpose of deciding this point to refer to any of the authorities cited by the High Court. Both the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 are in express terms made with effect from January 1	 1918. They do not at all purport to have any retrospective effect and	 therefore	 they could not affect the operation of the earlier Notifications dated May 23	 1977	 until they came into force on January 1	 1978. Further	 both section 3 B and section 5(1) in express terms confer power upon the State Government to issue notifications "from time to time". Section 3 B provides that "the State may	 from time to time by notifications	 declare. "goods liable to purchase tax. Prior to January 1	 1978	 the proviso to sub section (l) of section 5 provided that "The State Government may	 from time to time by notification. fix a higher rate not exceeding thirteen per cent or any lower rate of tax. " Section S (I) as amended with effect from January	 1978	 provides that "The tax shall be levied. at such rate	 not exceeding thirteen per cent. as the State Government may	 from time to time by notification	 specify." Thus	 the Power of the State Government to issue notification under these two sections is to be exercised by it "from time to time" and	 therefore	 the State Government can under section 5(1) issue a notification and repeal and replace it by another notification enhancing or lowering the rate of tax and similarly it can issue a notification under section 3 B declaring particular goods or class of goods to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases and subsequently by another notification repeal that notification with the result that the particular goods or class of goods will from the date of such repeal be again liable to pay tax on the turnover of sales. In the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 the word "supersession" is used in the same sense as the word "repeal" or rather the words "repeal and replacement". The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary	 Third Edition	 at page 2084	 defines the word 'supersession ' as meaning "The action of superseding or condition of being superseded. " Some of the meanings given to the word 'supersede ' on the same page in that Dictionary which are relevant for our purpose are "to put a stop to; to render superfluous or unnecessary; to make of no effect; to annul; to take the place of (something set aside or abandoned); to succeed to the place occupied by; to supply the place of a thing". Webster 's Third New International Dictionary at page 2296 defines the word "supersession" as "the state of being superseded; removal and replacement". Thus	 by using in the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 82 the expression 'in suerssion of all previous notification ' that was done was to repeal and replace the previous notifications by new notifications. By repealing and replacing the previous notifications by other notifications	 the result was not to wipe out any liability accrued under the previous notifications. If this contention of the Respondents were to be accepted	 the result would be startling. It would mean	 for example	 that when a notification has been issued under section 5 (13 prescribing a rate of tax	 and that notification is later superseded by another notification further enhancing the rate of tax	 all tax liability under the earlier notification is wiped out and no tax can be collected by the State Government in respect of any transactions effected during the period when the earlier notification was in force. The two Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 impugned by the Respondents were not the only notifications which were issued on that date. There was another notification issued on that date	 namely	 Notification No. 67184 C.T.A. 135/77 F	 directing that with effect from January l	 1978	 the rate of tax payable by a dealer under the Orissa Act on account of the sale of goods specified in column (2) of the Schedule to the said Notifications would be at the rate specified against each in column (3) thereof. The issuance of these three Notifications became necessary by reason of the change brought about in the scheme of taxation by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977. Prior to that Ordinance	 the rate of tax was as specified in sub section (l) of section 5 with power conferred upon the State Government by the first proviso to that sub section to fix by notification issued from time to time a higher rate of tax not exceeding the limit mentioned in the said proviso or to fix from time to time a lower rate of tax on account of the sale or purchase of any goods or class of goods specified in such notification. Thus	 if no notification was issued by the State Government enhancing or lowering the rate of tax	 the tax	 whether sales tax or purchase tax	 payable by a dealer would be at the rate specified in sub section (1) of section 5 which at the relevant time was six percent. In pursuance of the power conferred by the said proviso	 the State Government had from time to time issued notifications enhancing and in some cases lowering the rate of tax payable on account of either sale or purchase of goods. The new section 5(1) did not specify any rate of tax but what was done was to confer upon the State Government the power by notification to specify 83 from time to time the rate of tax subject to a maximum of thirteen per cent. Therefore	 With effect from January 1	 1978	 unless a notification was issued specifying the rate of tax	 no dealer would be liable to pay any tax under the Orissa Act. It was for this reason that the Notification No. 67184 C.T.A 135/17 F dated December 29	 1977	 was issued specifying the rates of sales tax with effect from January 1	 1978. As under section 3 B the State Government had to declare the goods or class of goods which were liable to tax on the turnover of purchases	 the State Government had issued from time to time notifications declaring such goods or class of goods. The purchase of such goods or class of goods were liable to purchase tax at the rate specified in the old section 5(1). Where	 however	 the State Government wanted that the turnover of purchase of particular goods or class of goods should be taxed at a higher or lower rate	 it issued notifications specifying such rate. As no rate of tax was specified in the new section 5(1) but it was left to the Government to specify the rate of tax by notification both in respect of sales tax and purchase tax	 from the date the amending Ordinance of 1977 came into force	 namely from January 1	 1978	 it was necessary to issue a notification consolidating all previous notifications on the subject in respect of goods liable to purchase tax which the State Government did by the impugned Notification No. 67178 C.T.A. 135/77 (Pt) F. dated December 29	 1977	 declaring what goods would be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases with effect from January 1	 1978. Unless	 however	 the rate of purchase tax in respect of these goods was specified under the new section 5(1) the goods though declared to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchase would not be exigible to any tax at all	 it	 therefore	 became necessary for the State Government to issue Notification No. 67181 C.T.A. 135/77 F. dated December 29	 1977	 specifying the rates of purchase tax with effect from January 1	 1978. Exigibility to tax Preliminary Contention The question which now remains to be considered is as regards the exigibility to purchase tax of the amounts payable under the Bamboo Contract and the Timber Contracts. Before we address ourselves to this question	 it is necessary to dispose of a preliminary contention raised by the Appellant with respect to this part of the case. It was submitted that the question whether a particular contract is a sale or purchase of goods is a question of fact or a question of interpretation of documents and one to be decided by 84 the assessing authorities and	 therefore	 if this Court holds that the impugned provisions are valid (as we have now done)	 it should not go into the question of the exigibility to purchase tax of the transactions in question. This plea was not raised at any stage before the High Court but has been raised for the first time in the Petitions for Special Leave to Appeal	 and that too only with respect to the Bamboo Contract though during the course of hearing before us	 it was raised with respect to the Timber Contracts also. Before the High Court the matter proceeded on the basis that the question of validity of the impugned provisions and of the exigibility to purchase tax of the transactions covered by the Bamboo Contract and the Timber Contracts were inextricably linked together as if the impugned provisions were issued only in order to levy a purchase tax on the transactions covered by these Contracts. The Appellant can	 therefore	 hardly raise such a plea for the first time before this Court. It is true that normally it is for assessing authorities to ascertain . the facts and to interpret the documents in question	 if there be any	 and to decide whether a particular transaction is exigible to tax. Here	 however	 the facts are not in dispute and the determinations of this question involves only an interpretation of the documents. The major part of the hearing before the High Court was taken up with the nature of the transactions covered by these Contracts. We have also heard the parties at length on the merits of this question. Even though the judgment of the High Court with respect to the validity of the impugned provisions has been held by us to be erroneous in law	 it may well be said that the High Court 's finding on the true nature of the Bamboo Contract and the Timber Contracts remains unaffected. If we refuse to decide this question and leave it to the assessing authorities to do so	 they may well feel themselves bound by the High Court 's findings on this point or on the other hand	 they may consider that the whole judgment of the High Court has been reversed	 particularly in view of the fact that in their writ petitions the Respondent company had challenged the notice issued to it to file a return and the Respondent Firm had challenged the assessment order made against it and	 therefore	 feel free to determine the question afresh. In either event the matter would ultimately come back for decision to this Court and that too after the lapse of several years a consequence not to be contemplated with equanimity by this Court. We	 therefore	 reject this preliminary contention raised by the Appellant. 85 Timber Contracts We will first take up the Timber Contracts. The High Court held that standing trees were unascertained goods and continued to be the property of the State Government until felled and	 therefore	 the title to them was transferred to the forest contractor only when the trees were felled or severed by him after complying with all the conditions of the forest contract and as the impugned provisions applied only to standing trees	 that is	 to trees before their severance	 purchase tax was not attracted and any attempt to levy purchase tax on the amounts payable under the Timber Contracts would amount to taxing an agreement of sale of goods and not a completed sale or purchase of goods. The High Court further held that the trees so severed in which the property passed to the forest contractor were liable to sales tax by reason of the retrospectively amended definition of the term "dealer" in clause (c) of section 2 of the Orissa Act and they could not	 therefore	 be again made liable to purchase tax. The High Court also rejected the contention of the Appellant State that timber and dressed or sized logs were different commercial commodities and that sales tax could	 therefore	 be levied on both. According to the High Court they were the same commodity and	 therefore	 they could not be made liable to sales tax at two points in the same series of sales. The High Court did not decide the question whether the Timber Contracts were works contracts. This point was	 however	 urged before us "on behalf of the Respondent firm. We will deal with this point separately but for the present suffice it to say that according to us none of the Timber Contracts is a works contract. On behalf of the Appellant State it was submitted that the Timber Contracts read with the sale notice advertising the auction in respect of the standing trees showed that the standing trees which were the subject matter of the Timber Contracts were goods identified and agreed upon at the time when the contract of sale was made and were thus specific goods and that	 therefore	 there was an unconditional contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliverable state and the property in the said trees passed to the forest contractor	 namely	 the Respondent Firm	 when the contract was made	 and the fact that the time of delivery as also payment of price was postponed was irrelevant. It was the Appellant 's 86 submission that for the reason set out above the amounts payable under the Timber Contract were exigible to purchase tax. It was further submitted that in any event the property in the standing trees passed when the forest contractor was permitted to get into the area as delineated under Rule 12 of the Orissa Forest Contract Rule	 1966 (hereinafter referred to as "The Forest Contract Rules")	 to enable the contractor to fell the trees. The same submissions as found favour with the High Court were advanced before us on behalf of the Respondent Firm. While setting out the facts of Civil Appeal No. 220 of 1982	 we have outlined the procedure followed by the State of Orissa in entering into forest contracts. The notice of public auction with which we are concerned was published in the Orissa Gazette and was headed "Sale Notice of Timber and Other Forest Products. " This Sale Notice related to different forest produce and was in three parts. Part I gave "the list of timber and other forest products" for the session 1977 78 which would be "sold by public auction" and the places and dates where such auction sales were to be held. Clause 2 of Part I of the Sale Notice stated that the sale lots were subject to the Special Conditions of Sale as published in Part II of the Sale Notice	 the General Conditions of Sale as published in Part III of the Sale Notice so far as they may be applicable and the Conditions mentioned in the sanctioned form of agreement. Clause 3 stated that the successful bidders shall be bound by the Orissa Forest Act. 1972	 the Forest Contract Rules	 the Orissa Timber and other Forest Produce Transit Rules	 and all other relevant rules in force or which might hereinafter come into force and promulgated under the Orissa Forest Act	 1972. Under condition 1 of the Special Conditions of Sale set out in Part II of the Sale Notice	 the contract period of timber coupes was to commence from the date of the ratification of sale by the competent authority and was to include the number of working months mentioned in the sale notice against each lot. Condition 2 stated the time and manner of "payment of purchase price" in full or by instalments. Under condition	 the intending bidders were asked to inspect the coupes and lots before bidding in the auction and their act of bidding was to be deemed as sufficient proof of their having inspected the coupes the coupes and satisfied themselves about the correctness of the quality and quantity of the 87 produce and the area of the contract. Condition 9 provided that no extension of time for working any coupe beyond the contract period as published in the Sale Notice and declared in the auction hall would be allowed except under very exceptional circumstances. Under condition 14	 the prescriptions contained in the working plan	 working schedule and their amendments or the executive instructions of the higher authority and local rules were to be binding on the contractors as regards felling of trees in coupes. Under condition 21	 the purchaser was to pay the sales tax as per the Orissa Act over and above the bid amount. In the event of his delay in payment of sales tax	 the same was to be adjusted from the earnest money deposit or the security deposit	 as the case may be	 and the purchaser was bound to replenish the same forthwith. Condition 22 provided that the contractor was to pay sales tax on the amount of each instalment as per the Sales Tax Rules along with the instalment of consideration money and non payment of sales tax or non submission of appropriate declaration under the Sales Tax Rules was to amount to incomplete payment of instalment and thereupon Rule 9 A of the Forest Contract Rules was to be applicable. a Under condition 1 of the General Conditions of Sale Published in Part III of the Sale Notice	 the bid was to be accepted by the Divisional Forest Officer subject to the approval of the competent authority and the right to take contract for exploiting forest produce in the lots advertised in Part I of the Sale Notice was to be granted when the competent authority approved the bid. Under condition 4	 intending bidders were to deposit as earnest money a sum of Rs. 200 . In the case of unsuccessful bidders this amount was to be refunded immediately after the auction was held and in the case of successful bidders the amount was to be adjusted towards the security deposit. Under condition 10	 a bidder whose bid was conditionally of finally accepted by the Divisional Forest Officer was to make the security deposit in cash. On payment of the security deposit	 the bidder was to sign the necessary agreement but the signing of such agreement was not to confer any right on the bidder unless the sale was ratified by the competent authority and the ratification order was communicated to him. No sale of any lot was to be considered valid or complete unless these conditions had been complied with and in the event of failure to do so	 the Divisional Forest Officer was to be at liberty to quash the sale and forfeit the 88 earnest money or the security deposit	 as the case may be	 and resell the lot and recover from the successful bidder who had failed to comply with the conditions the shortfall on such resale. Condition 12 provided for the payment of purchase price in full or by instalments. Under condition 15 orders of ratification of sale by the competent authority were to be communicated to the successful bidder by the Divisional Forest Officer specifying there in the dates of the payment of instalments in accordance with condition 12 and the period of the contract. Under condition 16	 the contractor was not to commence the work in the contract area before the payment of the first instalment or the full consideration money if it was payable in one instalment and before furnishing the coupe declaration certificate or intimation about starting work	 as the case may be	 as required by Rule 12 of the Forest Contract Rules. Under condition 18	 an agreement was to be executed by the competent authority on behalf of the Government and a copy thereof was to be delivered to the contractor as soon as may be. On its bids being accepted the Respondent Firm entered into five Timber Contracts in the forms prescribed in the Schedule to the Forest Contract Rules. The main heading of each of these Timber Contracts is 'Forest Contract Agreement Form ' and the long heading states that it is "An agreement for the sale and purchase of forest produce". Under clause 1	 the forest produce "sold and purchased under" the Timber Contract was to be as specified in Schedule I thereof and the forest area in which it was situated was indicated in Schedule V thereof and was to be referred to as the contract area. Schedule I in each of the Timber Contracts mentioned that the forest produce "sold and purchased under" the Timber Contract consisted of a certain number of sound and unsound trees marked and numbered serially on the blazes	 one at the base of the trees and the other about 4 1/2 ' from the ground level	 with the hammer mark of facsimile shown in the Sale Notice. Clause 2 stated that the quantity of the forest produce "sold and purchased under" the Timber Contract was all the said forest produce which then existed or might come into existence in the contract area which the forest contractor might remove from the said area during the period of the contract and it was further provided that the said U forest produce was to be extracted by the forest contractor only 89 during the aforesaid period. That part of clause 2 which spoke of forest produce which might come into existence in the contract area was obviously inapplicable to the Respondent Firms 's case inasmuch as the Timber Contracts were in respect of a certain number of existing trees. This provision was there because the Timber Contract was in the form which is the prescribed form of contract in respect of all forest produce and under Rule 33 of the 1 Forest Contract Rules all forest contracts are required to be made in this form. Clause 4 started that the routes by which the said forest produce was to be removed from the contract area and the depots at which it was to be presented for examination were to be those specified in Schedule 111. Under clause 5	 it was agreed that the Timber Contract was to be subject to the Forest Contract Rules and conditions laid down in the Sale Notice except to the extent that the said Rules and conditions were deemed to be modified to the extent prescribed in Schedule IV. Under Schedule 4 to the contract	 the Forest Contract Rules were deemed to be modified by the Special Conditions in the Sale Notice. By clause 6 the forest contractor bound himself to perform all acts and duties required and to abstain from performing any act forbidden by or under the Orissa Forest Act	 1972	 and the Forest Contract Rules and by the Timber Contract. Schedule II set out the number and amounts of instalments and the dates of payment of the instalments. The bids given by the Respondent Firm were ratified in due course by the Government of Orissa and the fact of such ratification was communicated to the Respondent Firm by the Divisional Forest Officer. Each of these notification letters specified the number and amounts of the instalments payable by the Respondent Firm and the dates when each instalment was payable. Each of these ratification letters required the Respondent Firm to take delivery of the particular coupe within one and half months from the date of issue of the ratification order and to get the Respondent Firm ' s property hammer mark registered in the office of the Divisional Fores ' Officer on payment of the appropriate registration fee. Each of these letters required the Respondent Firm not to commence work in the contract area before the payment of the first instalment and before furnishing the Coupe Declaration Certificate or intimating in writing that it intended to commence work from a particular date	 as the case may be	 as required under Rule 12 Of 90 the Forest Contract Rules. By the said letters the Respondent Firm was also required to submit monthly returns of removal of forest produce from the contract area to the concerned Range Officer. A copy of each of these letters was forwarded to the concerned Range Officer with a direction that he should give delivery of the coupe to the Respondent Firm within one and a half months from the date of the ratification order and allow the Respondent firm to commence work in the contract area after it had furnished the Coupe Declaration Certificate and made payment of the first instalment. As the Orissa Forest Contract Act	 1972 (Orissa Act 14 of 1972)	 and the Forest Contract Rules formed part of the agreement between the State of Orissa and the Respondent Firm	 it may be convenient at the stage to look at the relevant provisions thereof. Clause (g) of section 2 of the Orissa Forest Contract Act defines "forest produce" ' as including inter alia timber	 whether found in or brought from a forest or not	 and trees when found in or brought from a forest. Clause (n) defines "timber" as including "trees fallen or felled and all wood cut up or sawn". Clause (o) of section 2 of the Act defines "trees" as including bamboos. Section 36 of the Orissa Forest Act confers powers upon the State Government to make rules inter alia for the cutting	 sawing	 conversion and removal of trees and timber	 and the collection	 manufacture and removal of forest produce	 from protected forests Under section 37	 any infringement of a rule made under section 36 is an offence punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to one year or with fine which may extend to Rs. 2000 or both. Under section 45(1) the control of all rivers and their banks as regards the floating of timber as well as the control of all timber and other forest produce in transit by land or water is vested in the State Government and the State Government is conferred the power to make rules to regulate the transit and possession of all timber and other forest produce	 including rules prescribing the routes by which alone timber or other forest produce may be imported	 exported or moved into	 from or within the State	 and to provide for punishment of imprisonment which may extend to one year or fine which may extend to Rs. 1	000 or both for any breach of such rules. Under rule 2 of the Forest Contract Rules	 all contracts whereby 91 the Government sells forest produce to a purchaser are	 subject to the Forest Contract Rules in so far as they are applicable	 and the Forest Contract Rules are deemed to be binding on every forest contractor. The Forest Officer executing a forest intricate is	 however	 given the power to vary the rules by express provision in such intricate. A "forest contract ' is defined in clause (1) of Rule 3 as meaning ' a contract whereby Government agrees to sell and purchaser agrees to buy forest produce" and a 'forest contractor ' is defined in clause (2) of Rule 3 as meaning "the person who purchases produce under a forest contract". Under Rule 6	 a forest contract is to carry with it an accessory licence entitling the forest contractor and his servants and agents to go Upon the land specified in the contract and to do all acts necessary for the proper extraction of the forest produce purchases under the contract. Under Rule 6 where a period is specified in the forest contract for the extraction of the forest produce purchased under the contract	 time is deemed to be of the essence of such contract and upon the completion of the specified period the contractor 's right under the contract is to cease and any forest produce not removed across the boundaries of the contract area is to become the absolute property of the Government. The Conservator of Forests or the Divisional Forest Officer	 as the case may be	 is	 however	 given the right	 for special reasons	 to grant an extension of time on such terms as may be decided for a total period (inclusive of the original contract period) not exceeding the period for which he is empowered to sanction contracts on payment of a monthly extension fee Of one per cent of the amount of the contract. Under Rule 9	 the Divisional Forest Officer or the Range Officer	 as the case may be	 is given the power to stop extraction of the forest produce where the consideration payable to the Government under a forest contract is payable by instalments and	 at any time before the last instalment is paid	 he considers that the value of the forest produce removed by the contractor exceeds the amount of instalments already paid. Further removal is to be permitted only after the contractor has paid such further sum as in the opinion of the Divisional Forest Officer or the Range Officer is sufficient to cover such excess. Under Rule 9 A	 it is open to the Divisional Forest Officer or the Range Officer of the concerned range to stop extraction if the contractor fail s to pay any instalment due from him within the grace period of ten days beyond the date fixed for payments of the instalment. It is equally open to these officers 92 to stop work in the contract area if the contractor fails to pay two instalments due from him. Under Rule 12	 before commencing any work in the contract area the forest contractor is to sign and submit to the Divisional Forest Officer or the e concerned Range Officer a written declaration to the effect that he or his authorized agent or both have been shown the boundaries and limits of the lot covered by the contract by the Range Officer or by a subordinate deputed by him for the purpose and that the area shown on the ground agrees with the area delineated on the map annexed to the forest contract and until such a declaration has been given	 the Divisional Forest Officer or the Range Officer may refuse to allow any work to commence and the contractor is not to be entitled to any compensation for any loss that might be sustained by him by reason of any delay in commencing the work owing to such refusal. Rule 12 further provides that if such declaration is not furnished within one and a half months from the date of issue of the ratification order	 the Divisional Forest Officer is to cancel the contract	 forfeit the security deposit	 resell the contract at the risk of the contractor and recover the shortfall from him. Condonation of delay in furnishing such intimation or declaration is expressly prohibited. Under Rule 13	 a forest contractor is not to remove any forest produce from the contract area unless it is accompanied by a permit signed by the contractor or his authorized agent. Such permits are to be obtained on payment from the Range Officer. Further	 the divisional Forest Officer or the Range Officer	 as the case may be	 has the power to withdraw a permit book	 if in his opinion	 such permit book has been misused for unlawful gain. In the event of such withdrawal the forest contractor is not entitled to any compensation for any loss that might be sustained by him for any stoppage of his work in or extraction from the contract area. Under Rule 14	 the method employed by the forest contractor for extraction of forest produce along forest roads is to be subject to the approval of the Divisional Forest Officer and the forest contractor is not to cart any produce over forest roads between such periods as the Divisional Forest Officer might appoint without the previous permission in writing of the Divisional Forest Officer Further	 the Divisional Forest Officer is given the discretion to close forest roads for extraction of forest produce on any rainy days and for three days thereafter during the rest of the year. He may also close roads temporarily for urgent or special repairs should this in his opinion become 93 necessary. Further	 the forest contractor is prohibited from extracting forest produce by dragging along forest roads. Under Rule 15	 except with the special permission of the Divisional Forest Officer	 a forest contractor is not to remove any forest produce from the contract area after sunset or before sunrise. Under Rule 16	 a forest contractor is not to remove any forest produce except by routes specified by rules made under the Orissa Forest Act or by the forest contract and is to take all forest produce removed by him to such depots or places as may be similarly prescribed for check and examination. Under Rule 19	 the forest contractor is to keep and submit accounts of the amount of the various kinds of forest produce removed by him from the contract area in such form as the Divisional Forest Officer may prescribe or approve	 and such accounts are to be open to inspection at any time by the Divisional Forest Officer or by any subordinate duly authorized by him. Rule 20 prescribes the mode of felling standing trees. The Divisional Forest Officer has the power to stop further felling until these provisions are complied with. Under Rule 21	 the Divisional Forest Officer is to divide the contract area into such number of sections as he may think fit and has the power to regulate and confine the operations of the forest contractor within these sections in accordance with the provisions set out in the said Rule. Under the said Rule	 the work is to be allowed progressively from section to section. When the forest contractor begins his operations under the contract	 he is to be allowed to carry out cutting operations in sections Nos. I and 2 E only. As soon as he begins cutting operation in section No. 3 he is deemed to have surrendered all his rights to standing trees in section No. 1. When he begins cutting operations in section No. 4 he is deemed to have surrendered all his rights to the standing trees in section No. 2 and so on	 throughout the contract area. Under Rule 22	 the forest contractor unless otherwise directed to do so in writing by the Divisional Forest Officer	 is to register his property mark or trade mark in the Office of Divisional Forest Officer and get it registered by paying the registration fee in respect thereof. No timber is to be conveyed from the contract area without the impress of the forest contractor 's registered property or trade mark	 and the Divisional Forest Officer and his subordinates have the right to mark any piece of timber with the Government hammer mark before it is removed from the stump side beyond the limits of such 94 checking station as the Divisional Forest Officer may appoint in writing. Under Rule 34	 if the forest contractor makes default in the payment of the consideration for his contract or any instalment thereof or does not pay the compensation assessed under any of the Forest Contract Rules	 the contract is liable to be terminated by the authority competent to do so. The termination is to be notified to the forest contractor and the contract is deemed to have been terminated unless the contractor pays within one month from the date of receipt of the notice of termination all arrears due to the Government together with interest assessable under Rule 42 and renewal fee not exceeding one per cent of the arrears due and if he fails to do so	 all his rights under the contract including all necessary licences are to cease and all the forest produce remaining within the contract area or at the depots and bearing the contractor 's registered property or trade mark and the Government hammer mark are to become the absolute property of she Government	 Further	 the Government becomes entitled to keep all sums already paid by the contractor and to recover as arrears of land revenue any compensation which may be assessed and to resell the contract together with produce at the depots and other produce which has become the property of the Government and to recover the shortfall as arrears of land revenue and to forfeit the security deposit of the contractor. Under Rule 35	 if the forest contractor commits any breach of condition of the contract other than those mentioned in Rule 34(1)	 the contract is liable to be terminated and thereupon all the contractor 's rights under the contract including all accessory licences are to cease and all the forest produce remaining within the contract area or at the depots is to become the absolute property of the Government. Under Rule 36	 'if in the opinion of the State Government it is considered necessary to supply any kind of forest produce from any contract area to the people in case of flood	 famine	 cyclone and other calamities and if the contractor does not supply the materials at the rate fixed by the Government	 such contract can be terminated by the Government in writing by a written notice to the contractor and from the date of such termination	 the contractor is to forfeit all his rights in the coupes. Under Rule 40	 a forest contractor is not to be entitled to any compensation for any loss that may be sustained by reason of fire	 tempest	 disease	 pest	 flood	 drought or other natural calamity or by reason of any wrongful act committed by any third party or 95 by reason of the unsoundness or breakage of any forest produce purchased by him or for any loss sustained by him through any operation undertaken in the interest of fire conservancy. He is equally not entitled to claim any reduction or refund of the sums payable or paid by him under his contract on the ground that the roads provided by the e Forest Department or any other department are insufficient or in bad order or remain closed under any special order or that the quantity of produce falls short of any quantity specified in the schedule annexed to the contract or in the sale notice or that the area of the contract area differs in any way from that indicated in the schedule attached to the e contract. Under Rule 44	 all forest produce removed from a contract area in accordance with the forest Contract Rules is to be at the absolute disposal of the forest contractor. Bearing in mind the terms and conditions of the Timber Contracts not only those expressly set out therein but also those incorporated therein by reference	 namely	 the terms of the Sale Notice	 the Special Conditions of Contract	 the General Conditions of Contract and the various statutory provisions we have now to determine whether the property in the trees which were the subject matter of the Timber Contracts passed to the Respondent Firm while the trees were still standing or after they were severed. In the first case the impugned provisions would apply and the amounts payable under the Timber Contracts would become exigible to purchase tax	 while in the second	 case the impugned provisions would not apply and no purchase tax would be payable. The above conspectus of these terms and conditions shows that the heading of the Sale Notice	 namely	 "Sale Notice of Timber" as also the use of the words "timber and other forest products. will be sold by public auction" are not determinative of the matter. Though clause 1 of the Timber Contracts speaks of "the forest produce sold and purchased"	 the other terms and conditions of the contract make it clear that the Timber Contracts were not unconditional contracts for the sale of goods in a deliverable state and the property in the trees specified in Schedule I of the Contract	 therefore	 did not pass to the Respondent Firm when each of the Contracts was made. As mentioned earlier the Timber Contracts are in the prescribed form for all forest produce annexed to the Forest Contract Rules and the provisions of the Orissa Forest Act and the Forest Contract Rules are expressly made applicable thereto. Clause (1) of Rule 3 of the 96 Forest Contract Rules defines a "forest contract" as meaning "a contract whereby Government agrees to sell and purchaser agrees to buy forest produce. " That this is also such an agreement is borne out by the long heading of the Timber Contracts which describes these contracts as "an agreement for the sale and purchase of forest produce. " In fact	 the signing of the Timber Contracts did not result in a concluded contract because each contract was conditional upon the State Government ratifying the acceptance of the bid given by the Respondent Firm. Even after the ratification order was issued by the Government	 it did not become an unconditional contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliverable state for the Respondent Firm had no right to severe the trees and take them away before it had complied with the other conditions of the contract set out above. To recapitulate the most important amongst them	 under Rule 12 of the Forest Contract Rules the respondent Firm had to furnish a Coupe Declaration Certificate within one and half months of the issue of the ratification order. If it did not do so	 the contract would stand cancelled. It had also under Rule 22 of the Forest Contract Rules to register within the same period its property mark or trade mark with the Divisional Forest Officer. Further	 the Respondent Firm could not commence any work unless it had given the required security deposit and before paying the first instalment as under the Timber Contracts in the present Appeals the amounts were payable by instalments. That the property in the trees did not pass to the respondent Firm while the trees were standing is also shown by the fact that the Divisional Forest Officer or the concerned Range Officer had the power to stop further removal of the felled trees until the Respondent Firm had paid the amount required to make up the excess of the value Of the felled trees removed over the amount of the installments already paid by it and under Rule 9 A it was further open to the Divisional Forest Officer or the concerned Range Officer to stop further work if there was a default in payment of any instalment or in payment of any two instalments and the contract could also be terminated under Rule 33 for such default. Further work or removal could not be stopped or the contract terminated if the property in the trees had passed to the Respondent Firm because in such event the only remedy open to the seller would be to sue for the balance of the price. It is also pertinent that under Rule 33 the contract could Also be terminated and the Respondent Firm would forfeit its right to all further trees to he severed by it if it 97 committed a breach of any of the other conditions of the contract. The mode of felling the trees was also not of the choice of the Respondent Firm but was one prescribed by Rule 20. Even after felling the trees the Respondent Firm was not entitled to remove the felled trees by any route which it liked but only by routes which were prescribed and that too only if covered by a permit signed by the Respondent Firm or its duly authorized agent from a permit book obtained from the Range Officer. Further	 under Rule 16	 after felling the trees the Respondent Firm had to remove them to the prescribed depots or places for check and examination and it was only after the trees felled by it were checked and examined to ascertain that they were felled in the manner prescribed in Rule 20 and were the trees which were the subject matter of the contract that it could take them out of the contract area. Unless the Respondent Firm felled and removed all the trees which were the subject matter of the contract within the period of the contract	 on the expiry of such period it would lose all rights to the trees not so removed. It is true that under Rule 40 if the trees were destroyed by reason of fire	 tempest	 disease	 pest	 flood	 drought or other natural calamity or by reason of any wrongful act committed by any third party or by reason of the unsoundness or breakage of any trees which were the subject matter of the contract	 the Respondent Firm was not entitled to any compensation for any loss sustained by it. This would show that after a Timber Contract was concluded	 the risk passed to the Respondent Firm. Under section 26 of the Sale of Goods Act	 the goods remain at the seller 's risk until the property in the goods is transferred to the buyer and when the property is transferred to the buyer	 the goods are at the buyer 's risk whether delivery has been made or not. Section 26 is	 however	 qualified by the phrase "Unless otherwise agreed." Thus	 this section is subject to a contract to the contrary and what we have stated above is sufficient to show that the Timber Contracts were subject to a contract to the contrary and under them the risk passed to the Respondent Firm before the property passed to it. This is made abundantly clear by Rule 44 which states that "All forest produce removed from a contract area in accordance with these rules shall be at the absolute disposal of the forest contractor. " It is	 therefore	 clear that the Timber Contracts were not 98 transactions of sale or purchase of standing trees agreed to be severed. They were merely agreements to sell such trees. As pointed out above	 each stage of the felling and removal operations was governed by the Forest Contract Rules and was under the control and supervision of the Forest Officers. The property passed to the Respondent Firm only in the trees which were felled	 that is	 in timber	 after all the conditions Of contract had been complied with and after such timber was examined and checked and removed from the contract area; The impugned provisions therefore	 did not apply to the transactions covered by the Timber Contracts. It will be useful in the context of the conclusions which we have reached to refer to the decision of this Court in Badri Prasad vs State of Madhya Pradesh & Anr. the question in that case was whether there was a contract of sale of standing timber and whether under the contract the property had passed to the appellant or whether the property had passed after the trees had been felled and hence the right of the appellant 's transferor had vested in the State Government before the trees were felled by reason of the provisions of the Madhya Pradesh Abolition of Proprietary Rights (Estates	 Mahals	 Alienated Lands) Act	 1950 (M.P. Act No. I of 1951). The Court held that under the terms of the contract the trees had to be felled before they become the property of the appellant. The Court observed (at pages 390 1) "It will be noticed that under cl. 1 of the contract the plaintiff was entitled to cut teak trees of more than 12 inches girth. It had to be ascertained which trees fell within that description. Till this was ascertained	 they were not 'ascertained goods ' within section 19 of the Sale of Goods Act. Clause 5 of the contract contemplated that stumps of trees	 after cutting	 had to be 3 inches high. In other words	 the contract was not to sell tile whole of the trees. In these circumstances property in the cut timber would only pass to the plaintiff under the contract at the earliest when the trees are felled. But before that happened the trees had vested in the state. " It is pertinent to note that conditions 16 to 18 of the special Conditions of Sale which form part of the Timber Contracts also (1) ; 99 prescribe the girth of the trees which are to be felled and the height above the ground level at which they are to be felled. Timber and Logs. On our above finding that the transactions under the Timber Contracts are sales of Timber and not sales of standing trees agreed to be severed the tax which would be attracted would be sales tax and not purchase tax under the impugned provisions. This would	 however	 be so if the Divisional Forest Officer were a dealer. Under the terms of the Timber Contracts the Respondent Firm is liable to reimburse the Divisional Forest Officer the amount of sales tax he would which be liable to pay. T he question whether the Divisional Forest Officer is a dealer within the meaning of that term as defined in clause (c) of section 2 prior to its being substituted with retrospective effect by the Orissa Sales tax (Amendment and Validation) Act	 1979	 which repealed and replaced the Ordinance with the same title	 is pending before the Court in Civil Appeals Nos. 1237 1238 of 1979 and 1420 1421 of 1979 Whatever be the position under the old definition	 after the substitution of that definition with retrospective effect by the said Amendment and Validation Act	 the Divisional Forest Officer ought be a dealer. The validity of this amendment is	 however	 also under challenge in this Court in Writ Petitions Nos. 958 of 1979 and 966 of 1979. We therefore	 express no opinion on either OF these questions. It was	 however	 submitted on behalf of the Respondent Firm that assuming these challenges fail	 it would be called upon to reimburse the Divisional Forest Officer According to the Respondent Firm	 the Divisional Forest Officer. would not be entitled to do so because it had made sized and dressed logs from the timbers which it had purchased under the Timber Contracts and had sold such logs and paid sales tax on these sales and	 therefore	 to tax the sales of timber to them would be to levy the tax at an earlier point in the same series of sales which is not permissible by reason of the prohibition contained in the proviso to section 8. According to them	 timber and sized or dressed logs are one and the same commercial commodity. This contention was upheld by the High Court. Though the High Court had so decided in order to consider whether the same transaction could be taxed both at the sale point as also at the purchase point	 it none the less becomes necessary for us to determine this question in or to prevent needless litigation in the future. Though under section 8 the State Government has the power to 100 prescribe the points in the series of sales or purchases by successive dealers at which any goods or class or description of goods may be taxed	 it has not done so either in the case of timber or logs	 though in the case of some of other goods	 as pointed out earlier	 the State Government has made rules prescribing that the tax would be levied at the first point of sale. Thus	 if the contention of the the Respondent Firm were correct	 as tax has already been levied at one point in the same series of sales	 it would not be now open to the State Government to say that by reason of the substituted definition of the term "dealer"	 sales tax could also be levied at another point. We will first see how different High Courts have dealt with this question. In Saw Bros. and Co. vs The State of West Bengal1 all learned Single Judge of the Calcutta High Court held that planks sawed out of logs are different things from logs and timber in its nascent state. No reasons are given in that Judgment for reaching this conclusion	 In Bachha Tewari and another vs Divisional Forest Officer	 West Midnapore Division	 and others2 the same learned Judge held that the the chopping of timber into firewood was a manufacturing process. and	 therefore	 the imposition of a tax on timber and on firewood manufactured from that timber did not amount to double taxation The question in both those cases was whether sawing of planks and chopping of timber into firewood amounted to manufacture so as to make the assessee liable to pay sales tax on the manufactured goods. This is a different question from that to which we have to address ourselves. We may	 however	 point out that even where the question is whether a certain process has resulted in a manufacture	 the resultant product must be a different commercial commodity and merely because certain articles are known by different names it does not mean that they are different commercial commodities if in fact they are merely different forms of the same commodity. Thus	 in Tungabhadra Industries Ltd. Kurnool vs Commercial Tax Officer	 Kurnool3	 hydrogenated groundnut oil	 commonly called 'Vanaspati ' was held by this Court to be groundnut oil within the meaning of Rules S (I) (k) and 18 (2) of the Madras General Sales Tax (Turn (1) [1963] 14 S.T.C. 878. (2) [1963] 14 S.T.C. 1067. (3) [1960] 11 S.T.C. 827; ; 101 Over and Assessment) Rules	 1939. The Court further held that the processing of groundnut oil to render it more acceptable to the customer by improving its quality would not render the oil a commodity other than groundnut oil. Similarly	 in the State of Gujarat vs Sakarwala Bros.(l) this Court held that 'pates '	 `harda ' and `alchidana ' were sugar in different forms and fell within the definition of sugar in Entry 47 of Schedule to the Bombay Sales Tax Act	 1959. A decision more relevant to our purpose than the two Calcutta decisions is a decision of a Division Bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court in Mohanlal Vishram vs Commissioner of` Sales Tax Madhya Pradesh	 Indore(2). In that case the Madhya Pradesh High Court held that by felling standing timber trees	 cutting them and converting some of them into` ballis '	 a dealer did not alter their character as timber or used them for manufacture of other goods within the meaning of section 8(1) of the Madhya Pradesh Sales Tax Act	 1958. Another decision equally relevant for our purpose is that of a Division Bench of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in G. Ramaswamy and others vs The State of Andhra Pradesh and others(3) in which the question was very much the same as the one which we have to decide. The assessees in that case purchased nascent timber	 that is	 logs of wood	 and had swan or cut them into planks	 rafters	 cut sizes	 etc.	 and sold them for the purpose of construction of buildings and the like. Under section 5(2)(a) of the Andhra Pradesh General Sales Tax Act	 1957	 read with Item 63 in the First Schedule to that Act	 a dealer in timber was liable to pay sales tax at the rate of three pies in a rupee at the point of first sale. The assessees were	 however	 sought to be taxed under section 5(1) of that Act on their sales of	 planks	 rafters	 out sizes	 etc. treating them as general goods. The contention of assessees was that these goods were timber which was taxable at the first point of sale and the first point of sale was when the Forest Department sold the standing timber trees to them and	 therefore	 the planks	 rafters	 cut sizes	 etc.	 sold by them could not again be made liable to sales tax (1) [1967] 19 section T.C.24 (S.C.) ( (2) [1969] 24 S.T.C. 101. (3) [1973] 32 S.T.C. 309. 102 treating those goods as different commercial commodities. The Division Bench held that in dealing with matters relating to the general public	 statutes are presumed to use words in their popular rather than their narrowly legal or technical sense	 and that as the provision levying a tax on timber was directed to deal with a matter affecting people generally	 as timber is in common use the word "timber" would have the same meaning attached to it as in the common and ordinary use of language. The Division Bench further held that although dictionaries are not to be taken as authoritative exponents of the meanings of words used in a statute	 it was a well known rule of courts of law that words should be taken to be used in the ordinary sense and courts are	 there fore	 sent for instruction to the dictionaries in the absence of any legislative or judicial guidance. The Division Bench then referred to the meaning given to the word "timber" in different dictionaries. The Division Bench also considered the meaning in commercial parlance of the term "timber". In that case the assessees in their affidavits had asserted that timber in the commercial field also meant planks	 cut sizes	 etc. There was no convincing denial by the Government of that assertion. The Division Bench then turned to the "Rules for gradation of cut sizes of timber" prepared and issued in October	 1960	 by the Indian Standards Institution which showed the word "timber" was freely used for kinds of standard cut sizes for building purposes. The Division Bench also looked at Indian Airlines Quotation No. 406 of April 26	 1972	 in which the words used were "timber teak wood" setting out the particular sizes thereafter. The Division Bench also referred to the other documentary evidence produced in that case and held that the documents and affidavits before it clearly made out that even the cut sizes of timber were commonly known as timber in commercial field and that	 therefore	 both in the popular sense and in the commercial sense	 the word "timber" had the same meaning. The Division Bench also laid emphasis on the interpretation given to the term "timber" by the sales tax Administration. For all these reasons the Division Bench held that merely because planks	 rafters	 cut sizes	 etc.	 were sawn or cut from logs of woo(3	 they did not alter their character and still continued to be raw materials which by themselves and in the same form could not be directly put to use for construction purposes and the logs of wood purchased by the assessees were merely cut or sawn to sizes 103 for the sake of convenience and to make them acceptable to the customers and that by reason of this process they did not lose their character as timber. We will now turn to the decisions of the Orissa High Court on this point. In State of Orissa vs Rajani Timber traders(l) a Division Bench of that High Court held that timber logs and sized timber U were different commodities in the commercial sense though sized timbers were brought out only from timber logs by a particular process. The Division Bench further observed that the person who had a need of timber logs would not be satisfied had sized timber been offered to him and similarly a person requiring sized timber would not be satisfied if timber logs were supplied. In Kripasindhu Sahu & Sons vs State of Orissa(2) another Division Bench of the same High Court held that the dictum in the Rajani Timber Traders ' case was too widely stated and it did not indicate the meaning of the word "timber" as used in common parlance in commercial circles and it also did not purport to specify the meaning of the expression "sized timber" as used in that judgment. The Division Bench further held that timber in common parlance in Orissa took within its ambit only long and big sized logs of wood ordinarily used in house construction as beams and pillars and that when timber was converted into planks	 rafters and other wood products like tables and chairs or cut into various small sizes so as to be unfit for use as beams and pillars and similar such uses they could not be termed as timber in common parlance though they may retain their essential character as wood because the essential characteristic of timber as a commercial commodity was lost after such conversion. The judgment in that case does not indicate any basis for holding that the word "timber" had in common parlance in Orissa the meaning which according to the Division Bench it bore. It is also curious to note that one learned Judge was common to both the Division Benches though in each case the judgment was delivered by the other learned judge Having seen how the different High Courts have dealt with this question	 we will now ascertain the true position for our (1) [1974] 34 S.T.C. 374. (2) [1975] 35 S.T.C. 270. 104 selves. In Ganesh Trading Co.	 Karnal vs State of Haryana and another(l) Hedge	 J.	 speaking for this Count	 said: ' This Court has firmly ruled that in finding out the true meaning of the entries in a Sales Tax Act	 what is relevant is not the dictionary meaning	 but how those entries are understood in common parlance	 specially in commercial circles". Applying this principle	 the Court held that although rice was produced out of paddy	 paddy did not continue to be paddy after dehusking and that when paddy was dehusked and rice produced	 there was a change in the identity of the goods and	 therefore	 rice and paddy were two different things in ordinary parlance. A careful reading of the judgment in that case shows that there was no evidence before the court to show how "paddy" and "rice" were understood in commercial circles or what these words meant in commercial or trade parlance and that what the Court did was to refer to various authorities dealing not with rice or paddy but with other goods and the meaning in ordinary parlance of the words "paddy" and ' rice" in order to ascertain the meaning of these words in the sense stated by it above. So far as the case before us is concerned	 there is material on the record to show what the word "timber" and "logs" mean in commercial or trade parlance nor do the pleadings of the parties filed in the Orissa High Court throw any light on the matter. The averment of the Respondent Firm in this behalf is to be found in paragraph 13 of its writ petition in the High Court and all that is stated therein is that under the impugned provisions it would be required to pay purchase tax on "timber agreed to be severed" and after savering the timber while effecting sales of timber would be liable to pay sales tax on such sales. In the counter affidavit of the Law Officer in the office of the Commissioner of Commercial Taxes	 Orissa	 filed on behalf of the Commissioner of Commercial Taxes and the Sales Tax Officer	 Sambalpur Circle	 while replying to the said paragraph 13 all that is stated is that timber commercially does not remain the same after being cut	 sized and shaped	 and	 therefore	 there was no legal obstruction to tax an altogether different commercial commodity at sale point. (1) [1973] 32 S.T.C. 623	 625 (S.C.) 105 In view of this state of the record we must seek to ascertain the meaning of these two terms in common parlance with such aid as is available to the Court. It is now well settled that the dictionary meaning of a word cannot be looked at where that word has been statutorily defined or judicially interpreted but where there is no such definition or interpretation	 the court may take the aid of dictionaries to ascertain the meaning of a word in common 1 parlance. In doing so the court must bear in mind that a word is used in different senses according to its context and a dictionary gives all the meanings of a word and the court	 therefore have to select the particular meaning which would be relevant to the context in which it has to interpret that word. The Orissa Act does not define the term ' 'timber" or "logs". Orissa is	 however	 a State which is rich in natural wealth and mostly all	 if not all	 forests in the State of Orissa are protected or reserved forests and come within the purview of the Orissa Forest Act	 1972	 which was an Act passed to consolidate and amend the laws relating to the protection and management of forests in the State of Orissa. The real object behind the issue of impugned provisions was to levy purchase tax on standing trees agreed to be severed and bamboos agreed to be servered in view of the judgment of the Orissa High Court in Straw Products Ltd	 vs State of Orissa in which it was held that a Divisional Forest Officer was not a dealer and	 therefore	 not liable to pay sales tax and hence could not call upon forest contractors to reimburse him in respect thereof. In view of this background	 it would be relevant for our purpose to look at the statutory definition of the term "timber". given in the Orissa Forest ' Act	 1972. That term is defined in clause (n) of section 2 of that Act	 which reads as follows. "(n) 'timber ' includes trees fallen or felled and all wood cut up or sawn. " Prior to the enactment of the Orissa Forest Act	 1972	 there were two Forest Acts in force in the State of Orissa	 namely	 the Madras Forest Act	 1882 (Madras Act V of 1882)	 and the (Act XVI of 1927). The Madras Forest Act applied to the districts of Koraput and Ganjam and part of Phulbani District	 namely	 Baliguda and G. Udaygiri Taluks. The applied to the rest of the State. Both these Acts were repealed in their application to the State Of H 106 Orissa by the Orissa Forest Act but as prior to the enactment of the Orissa Forest Act	 these were the two Acts which provided for the protection and management of forests in the State of Orissa	 we may also refer to the definition of the word "timber" given in those Acts. Section 2 of the Madras Forest Act defines "timber" as including trees when they have fallen or have been fallen	 and all wood	 whether cut up or fashioned or hollowed out for any purpose or not". Clause (6) of section 2 of the defines "timber" in identical terms. Though none of these definitions is an exhaustive one since each of them uses the word "includes '` and not "means"	 there is a large and substantial measure of identity in these definitions and it will be apparent from these definitions that the word "timber" is not confined merely to felled trees in forestry in the State of Orissa. In this connection	 it would not be out of place to see how this word has been defined in subsequent legislation In August 1981 trade in certain forest produce in Orissa was made a State monopoly and the Orissa Forest Produce (Control of Trade) Act	 1981 (Orissa Act No. 22 of 1981)	 was passed to achieve that purpose. The list of forest produce set out in the definition of that term given in clause (c) of section 2 of that Act includes timber of any species specified in clause (j) of that section. Clause (j) of section 2 defines "timber " as meaning "marketable wood	 round	 sawn or fashioned	 straight piece of and above two metres in length	 standing or felled (excluding fuel) of the following categories	 namely: ". The portion of the definition omitted above lists the different species of timber. The definition of "timber given in the Orissa Forest Produce (Control of Trade) Act is an exhaustive definition inasmuch as the object of that Act was to create a State monopoly of trade in specified forest produce and therefore such forest produce had to be particularized. What is	 however	 pertinent is that even in subsequent legislation the cardinal concept that timber is not merely felled trees has been underlined and emphasized. On turning to various dictionaries	 we find that the dictionary meaning largely coincides with the statutory meaning of the word "timber". While discussing the question of the subject matter of the impugned provisions we have set out the definition of the word "timber" contained in the Webster Collegiate Dictionary occurring ring in the passage from the judgment of Vivian Bose	 J	 in 107 Shrimati Shantabai v State of Bombay The relevant meanings of the term "timber" given in the Shorter Oxford Dictionary	 Third Edition	 are "building material generally; wood used for the building of houses	 ships	 etc.	 or for the use of the carpenter	 joiner	 or other artisan". This definition also states that the word is "applied to the wood of growing trees capable of being used for structural purposes; hence collectively to the trees themselves". Amongst the meanings given in the Concise Oxford Dictionary	 Sixth Edition	 are "wood prepared for building	 carpentry	 etc;. trees suitable for this; woods	 forests	 piece of wood	 beam". One of the meanings of the word "timber" given in Webester 's Third New International Dictionary	 is "wood used for or suitable for building (as a house or boat) for carpentry or joinery". A "log" according to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary means "a bulky mass of wood; now usually an unhewn portion of a felled tree	 or a length cut off for firewood" and according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary it means "unhewn piece of felled tree	 or similar rough mass of wood especially cut for firewood". Thus	 logs will be nothing more than wood cut up or sawn and would be timber. A question which remains is whether beams	 rafters and planks would also be logs or timber. The Shorters Oxford English Dictionary defines "beam" inter alia as a large piece of squared timber	 long in proportional to its breadth and thickness and the Concise Oxford Dictionary defines it as a ' long piece of squared timber supported at both ends	 used in houses	 ships	 etc." and according to Webester 's Third New International Dictionary	 it means "a long piece of heavy often squared timber suitable for use in house construction. " A beam is thus timber sawn in a particular way. "Rafter" as shown by the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary is nothing but "one of the beams which give shape and form to a roof	 and bear the outer covering of slates	 tiles	 thatch	 etc." The Concise Oxford Dictionary and Webster 's New International Dictionary define "rafter" in very much the same way; the first defines it as "one of the sloping beams forming framework of a roof" and the seconds as "one of the often sloping beams that sup port a roof. " Rafter would also	 therefore	 be timber or log put to a particular use. A "plank" is defined in Shorter Oxford English Dictionary as "a long flat piece of smoothed timber	 thicker than a board	 specially a length of timber sawn to a thickness of from two to six inches	 a width of nine inches or more	 and eight feet or H 108 upwards in length. " According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary it is a "long wide piece of timber	 a few inches thick" and according to Webster 's Third New International Dictionary	 it is "a heavy thick board that in technical specifications usually has a thickness of 2 to 4 inches and a width of at least 8 inches. " The exact thickness and width of a plank may be of importance in technical specifications but in ordinary parlance planks would be flattened and smoothed timber. Such flatness and smoothness can only be achieved by using a saw and other implements required for that purpose. The same would be the case when timber is rounded or shaped. The statutory definitions of timber extracted above read along with the meaning of the word "timber" given in different dictionaries would show that the conclusion reached by the Madhya Pradesh High Court in Mohanlal Vishram vs Commissioner of Sales Tax	 Madhya Pradesh	 Indore	 and by the Andhra Pradesh High Court in G. Ramaswamy and others vs The State of Andhra Pradesh and others is more germane to our purpose than the two Orissa cases neither of which has referred to the statutory definition of the word "timber" in the relevant statutes. The observations of the Orissa High Court in the case of Krupasindhu Sahu & Sons vs State of Orissa that timber in common parlance in Orissa takes within its ambit only long and big sized logs of wood ordinarily used in house construction as beams and pillars but not when timber is converted into planks	 rafters and other wood products like tables and chairs cannot	 therefore	 be said to be correct so far as planks and rafters are concerned. In our opinion	 planks and rafters would also be timber. The result is that sales of dressed or sized logs by the Respondent Firm having already been assessed to sales tax	 the sales to the First Respondent Firm of timber by the State Government from which logs were made by the Respondent Firm cannot be made liable to sales tax as it would amount to levying tax at two points in the same series of sales by successive dealers assuming without deciding that the retrospectively substituted definition of "dealer" in clause (c) of section 2 of Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947	 is valid. Yet another aspect of this question now arises for our consideration. During the period from June 1	 1977	 to December 31	 3 1977	 by reason of Notification No. S.R.O. 374/77 dated May 23	 109 1977	 the rate of sales tax on timber was fixed at ten per cent by the State Government. Since it was the contention of the State Government that logs are commercially a different commodity	 the tax could not have been assessed on the sales of logs by the Respondent Firm during this period at the rate of ten per cent but would have been assessed at the general rate of six per cent specified in section 5(1) of the Orissa Act. If such was the case	 on the findings given by us above	 the Respondent Firm would be liable to pay sales tax not at the rate of six per cent but at the rate of ten per cent and it might be argued that the Respondent Firm has been under assessed or part of its turnover of sales of logs has escaped assessment. The assessment order made on the Respondent Firm referred to earlier includes both the amount of purchase tax and sales tax but this is not a composite assessment order but a severable one because the turn over of sales as also the turnover of purchases have been shown separately and the amount of sales tax and purchase tax have equally been shown separately. Thus	 though as a result of our holding that the amounts paid by the Respondent Firm under the Timber Contracts are not eligible to purchase tax	 the assessment order would require to be modified and corrected	 such modification and correction would not affect the rest of the assessment order. The question then is "Whether the sales tax authorities can reopen the assessment of the Respondent Firm so far as the turnover of sales of logs is concerned?" Under sub section (8) of section 12 of the Orissa Act	 the Commissioner of Sales Tax or those sales tax authorities to whom such power is delegated have the power to reopen an assessment but under section 12(8) the exercise of this power is subject to a period of limitation	 namely	 thirty six months from the expiry of the year to which that period for which the assessment is to be reopened relates. Since three years have long since expired from the year to which the period in question relates	 it would not now be open to the sales tax authorities assuming it was a case for re opening the assessment	 to reopen the Respondent Firm 's assessment and tax the turnover of sales of dressed or sized logs at the rate of ten per cent instead of six per cent. This question	 of course	 would not arise for any period on or after January 1	 1978	 on which date the substituted sub section (1) of section 5 came into force	 as under the notification issued under the substituted sub section (1)	 no separate rate of tax is specified either for timber or logs or any of the other goods which we have been considering above and all of them would fall for the purpose of payment of sales tax under the residuary 110 Entry No. 101 of the Notification No. 67184 C.T.A. 135/77/1 ; dated December 29	 1977	 and would be liable to sales tax at the rate of seven percent and there would thus be no under assessment or escapement of assessment. Bamboo Contract We will now ascertain the nature of the Bamboo Contract. Unlike the Timber Contracts	 the Bamboo Contract is not in a prescribed statutory form but it appears from the judgment of the High Court that all the Bamboo Contracts before it contained identical terms and conditions except with respect to the contract area	 the period of the contract and the amount of royalty. The parties to the Bamboo Contract were the Governor Or the State of Orissa referred to in the said Contract as "the Grantor" and the Respondent Company. The Bamboo Contract is headed "Agreement of Bamboo Areas in Bonai Forest Division to the Titaghur Paper Mills Company Limited. " The second and the third recitals of the Bamboo Contract are as follows: "AND WHERAER the Company is desirous of obtaining grant from the Grantor of exclusive right and licence to fell	 cut	 obtain and remove bamboos from all felling series of Bamboos Working Circle in the Bonai Forest Division in the State of Orissa for the purpose of converting the bamboos into paper pulp or for purposes connected with the manufacture of paper or in any connection incidental therewith. AND WHEREAS the Grantor has agreed to grant the said licence to the Company subject to the restrictions	 terms and conditions hereinafter appearing." Clause T of the Bamboo Contract is headed "Arc a over which the grant operates". Sub clause (a) of clause I sets out the dates of commencement of the Bamboo Contract in respect of different contract areas. Under Sub clause (b) of clause l	 the forest produce "sold and purchased" is stated to be as specified in Schedule I and to be situated in the areas indicated in Schedule V. Under the said subclause	 the grantor understood to render at all times to the Respondent Company all possible facilities to enable it to extract II and obtain its requirements of bamboos upto the limit imposed by 111 the Bamboo Contract. Under clause II	 the quantity of forest A produce "sold and purchased" is stated to be "all the said forest produce which now exist or may come into existence in the contract area which the Company may fell	 cut	 obtain and remove from the said area in accordance with the time table given in Schedule V during the period. " and then the periods in respect of different areas	 already mentioned while reciting the facts of Civil Appeal No. 219 of 1982	 have been set out. Clause III provides that the Bamboo Contract can be terminated in accordance with the provisions in that behalf contained in the Forest Contract Rules subject to the right of the Respondent Company to appeal to the State Government in which case the Respondent Company could with the previous permission of the State Government	 on such conditions as the Government might think fit to impose	 be entitled "to carry on its business in terms of the agreement" until the final decision by the Government. Under clause IV	 the Respondent Company is given an option to renew the Bamboo Contract for a further term of twelve years. Under clause V	 the Respondent Company was to perform all acts and duties and to refrain from doing any act forbidden by the Orissa Forest Act	 1972	 and to give a sum of Rs. 58	190 as security for the due performance and observance by it of the terms of the Bamboo Contract	 which sum was to be returned to it on the expiry of six months after the termination or expiry of the Bamboo Contract. The Grantor was to be entitled to forfeit the said deposit and to appropriate the whole or part thereof in the event of the Respondent Company committing a breach of the terms of the Bamboo Contract such as would entitle the Grantor to terminate the Bamboo Contract. Clause VI provided that "this licence shall be subject to the Orissa Forest Contract Rules as modified from time to time" subject to the amendments thereto set out in the said clause which are not material for our purpose. Clause VIII stated that "the forest produce sold and purchased under this Agreement consists of all Salia and Daba bamboos subject to the cutting rules in the annual coupe of the felling series" Clauses IX to XIII deal with the payment of royalty. What is pertinent to note about these clauses is that under clause XIII	 the Respondent Company was to pay an annual minimum royalty in the sums mentioned therein and was not to be entitled to the refund of the whole or any part of such minimum royalty should it fail to cut the minimum quantity of bamboos in any year except on the ground that the yield of the area fell below the quantity required to 112 make up the minimum royalty payable for the year owing to gregarious or sporadic flowering of bamboos in the contract areas or from any cause whatsoever not being due to the negligence on the part of the Respondent Company or failure on its part to extract the minimum number of bamboos. The amount of royalty was to be calculated on all bamboos which the Respondent Company would cut from the contract area	 whether such bamboos were removed or not	 to be ascertained as provided in clauses XI and XII. Under clause XI	 for ascertaining the quantity of the bamboos so cut	 the Respondent Company was to remove the bamboos through such river ghats	 railway	 motor and other transport depots as may be agreed upon between the parties from time to time and under clause XII	 the royalty was to be paid in advance in such manner that it would always be in excess of the royalty actually due. Under clause XIV	 for the purpose of checking the felling and keeping an account of all bamboos to be cut by the Respondent Company	 the Forest Department had the right to employ such staff as it might deem necessary and was to have free access to the contract area and to the books and other records of the Respondent Company. Further	 the Respondent Company was to submit to the Divisional Forest Officer a yearly account of bamboos cut and removed from the contract area and under clause XV the company was to issue to the carter of each cart or the driver of each truck on its leaving the forest a machine numbered pass of a pattern to be approved by the Chief Conservator of Forests	 Orissa. Such pass was to state the number of bamboos which each cart or truck would carry. Clause XVI prescribed the routes by which the bamboos were to be removed as also the depots at which they were to be presented for examination	 Under clause XVII	 at every naka the checking staff was to check each cart or truck with the pass referred to in clause XV before such cart or truck left the depot. Clause XVIII gave to the Respondent Company	 subject to such restrictions as might be imposed from time to time by the Divisional Forest Officer	 Bonai Division	 the right during the continuance of the Bamboo Contract to use any lands	 roads or streams outside the licensed areas which belonged to or were under the control of the Grantor for the purposes of having free ingrees to or egrees from the contract areas and also to such lands	 roads or streams within the contract areas. Under clause X[X	 the Respondent Company was bound to meet the local demands of bamboos in which event the royalty on such bamboos was not to be paid by the Respondent 113 Company but was to be paid by the local people. Under clause XX	 subject to obtaining prior written consent of the Grantor	 the Respondent Company was to be at liberty to make dams across streams	 cut canals	 make water courses	 irrigation works	 roads	 bridges	 buildings	 tramways and any other work useful or necessary "for the purpose of the said business" in or upon the licensed areas and also with the like consent to widen or deepen existing streams	 channels or waterways "for the purpose of the said business" and all timber and other forest produce required for this purpose was to be paid for by the Respondent Company at current schedule of rates. All such dams	 canals	 irrigation works	 roads	 bridges	 building and other works which were not removed by the Respondent Company within six months from the expiry of or earlier termination of a the contract were to become the property of the Grantor. Clause XXI prohibited the Respondent Company from interfering with the surface of the land except in so far as it might be necessary for immediate purpose of "carrying on the necessary operations in connection with the said business". Clause XXII expressly reserved and excepted to the Grantor in regard to the contract area granted to the Respondent Company (l ) the possession and beneficial ownership in the soil and all mines and minerals upon	 in or under the contract area and the right to make such use of the soil	 to erect such buildings or structures and install such plant upon it and subject it to such operations for the purpose of extraction of minerals or otherwise as the Grantor might deem proper	 (2) the surface of the licensed areas and all. grazing	 cultivating and other surface E rights other than those expressly granted to the Respondent Company by the Bamboo Contract	 (3) the right to all trees other than trees made over to the Respondent Company and the natural products of the soil other than bamboos	 (4) the right of the Grantor to destroy bamboos in any portion of the contract areas for silvicultural purposes Including the raising of plantations subject in each case to the minimum area limit of 500 acres per annum and further subject to giving in place of such area equal facilities for bamboos extraction in other convenient areas	 and (5) the right to extract bamboos from any portion in the contract areas for departmental works in Bonai Forest Division subject to a limit of 5	000 bamboos yearly. Clause XXIII prescribed cutting rules for bamboos. Clause XXIV conferred upon the Respondent Company the right to extract fuel from areas allotted for that purpose in order to meet the fuel requirements of domestic consumption in the houses and offices of H 114 the persons employed by it in "connection with its business in the contract areas" subject to the payment of a fixed royalty per tonne. Under that clause	 the Respondent Company had the right to cut and collect such poles of unreserved species and creepers as might be necessary for construction of rafts on obtaining a permit in that behalf and on payment of royalty according to the schedule of rates. Under clause XXV	 the Grantor	 if so required by the Respondent Company	 was to lease to it a suitable site or sites to be selected by it out of such sites as were at the disposal of the Grantor within the licensed areas for the erection of store houses	 sheds	 depots	 bungalows	 staff offices	 agencies and other buildings of a like nature bonafide required by it "for the purposes of the business connected with" the Bamboo Contract rent free for the term of such contract. Under clause XVI	 in the event of the Grantor setting fire to the forest for silvicultural purposes	 it was to give to the Respondent Company as long a notice as possible of the commencement of such operations and it was the Respondent Company which was to be responsible for safeguarding the forest produce which was the subject matter of the Bamboo Contract. Under clause XXIX	 the contract areas were to be worked on four years cutting cycle for Salia and twelve years cutting cycle for Daba and were to comprise the areas stated in the said clause. It was submitted on behalf of the Appellant that the Bamboo Contract was a composite contract of sale	 in that it was an agreement to sell existing goods" namely	 bamboos standing in the contract areas at the date of the Bamboo Contract	 coupled with an agreement to sell future goods	 namely	 bamboos to come into existence in the future. According to the Appellant the property in the existing bamboos would pass after they were ripe for cutting and under Rule 12 of the Forest Contract Rules the Divisional Forest Officer had delineated the boundaries and limits of the annual coupe from which bamboos were to be cut for the Respondent Company to take delivery of them in as much as the bamboos then became ascertained goods. In the alternative it was submitted that the property passed when the Respondent Company started the work of cutting bamboos. According to the Appellant	 in either event property passed before the bamboos were severed. So far as the bamboos which were not in existence at the date of the Bamboo Contract but were to come into existence thereafter were concerned	 it was submitted that as they were future goods once they came 115 into existence and became ripe for cutting	 the property in them passed to the Respondent Company in the same way as in the case of bamboos in existence at the date of the Bamboo Contract. While discussing the subject matter of the impugned provisions we have already held that they apply where there is a completed con tract of purchase and the property in the goods which are the subject matter of the contract passes from the seller to the buyer when the contract is made. In other words	 the purchase would be complete when the standing trees or bamboos are specific goods	 that is	 when v ' they are identified agreed upon at the time the contract of sale is made	 and the contract is unconditional and further such standing trees or bamboos are in a deliverable state that is	 nothing remains to be done except for buyer to enter upon the land of the seller and to fell and remove the trees or bamboos	 as the case may be	 without any let or hindrance. The very submission of the Appellant with respect to when the property passes to the Respondent Company in the case of the Bamboo Contract are sufficient to show that the impugned provisions cannot have any application to the case. The Bamboo Contract like the Timber Contract is also made subject to the Forest Contract Rules and while with Timber Contract we have pointed out that by reason of the operation of those Rules property in the trees passed to the forest contractor after the trees were felled and taken to the inspection points and there checked and examined and thereafter removed from the contract area. The same position would apply to the case of the Bamboo Contract assuming for the sake of argument that it is a contract of sale of goods. In this view of the matter	 the impugned provisions would have no application and the amounts payable under the Bamboo Contract would not be exigible to purchase tax. By reason	 however	 of the substitution of the definition of the term "dealer" in clause (c of section 2 of the Orissa Act with retrospective effect	 it may be argued that if the Bamboo Contract was a contract of sale of goods	 then on the sale taking place to the Respondent Company	 sales tax would become payable and the Respondent Company would be bound to reimburse to the Forest Department the amount payable by it as sales tax. In order to avoid future legal controversy and particularly in view of the fact that the High Court has held the Bamboo Contract to be a grant of a profit a prendre it becomes 116 necessary to determine whether the Bamboo Contract is at all a contract of sale of goods. According to the Respondent Company the High Court was right in holding that Bamboo Contract was not a contract of sale of goods but was a grant of a profit a prendre. The meaning and nature of a profit a prendre have been thus described in Halsbury 's Laws of England	 Fourth Edition	 Volume 14	 paragraphs 240 to 242 at pages 115 to 117: "240. Meaning of 'profit a prendre ' A profit a prendre is a right to take something off another person 's land. It may be more fully defined as a right to enter another 's land to take some profit of the soil	 or a portion of the soil itself	 for the use of the owner of the right The term 'profit a prendre ' is used in contradistinction to the term 'profit a prendre '	 which signified a benefit which had ' to be rendered by the possessor of land after it had come into his possession. A profit a prendre is a servitude. Profit a prendre as an interest in land. A profit a prendre is an interest in land and for this reason any disposition of it must be in writing. A profit a prendre which gives a right to participate in a portion only of some specified produce of the land is just as much an interest in the land as a right to take the whole of that produce. What may be taken as a profit a prendre. The subject matter of a profit a prendre	 namely the substance which the owner of the right is by virtue of the right entitled to take	 may consist of animals	 including fish and fowl	 which are on the land	 or of vegetable matter growing or deposited on the land by some agency other than that of man	 or of any part of the soil itself	 including mineral accretions to the soil by natural forces. The right may extend to the taking of the whole of such animal or vegetable matters or merely a part of them. Rights have been established as profits a prendre to take acorns and beech mast	 brakes	 fern	 heather and litter	 thorns	 turf and peat	 boughs and branches of growing trees	 rushes	 117 freshwater fish	 stone	 sand and shingle from the seashore A and ice from a canal; also the right of pasture and of shooting pheasants. There is	 however	 no right to take seacoal from the foreshore. The right to take animals ferae naturae while they are upon the soil belongs to the owner of the soil	 who may grant to others as a profit a prendre a right to come and take them by a grant of hunting	 shooting	 fowling and so forth. " A profit a prendre is a servitude for it burdens the land or rather a person 's ownership of land by separating from the rest certain portions or fragments of the right of ownership to be enjoyed by persons other than the owner of the thing itself (see Jowitt 's Dictionary of English Law	 Second Edition	 Volume 2	 page 1640. under the heading "Servitude"). "Servitude" is a wider term and includes both easements and profits a prendre (see Halsbury 's Laws of England	 Fourth Edition	 Volume 14	 paragraph 3	 page 4). The distinction between a profit a prendre and an easement has been thus stated in Halsbury 's Laws of England	 Fourth Edition	 paragraph 43 at pages 21 to 22: "The chief distinction between an easement and a profit a prendre is that whereas an easement only confers a right to utilise the servient tenement in a particular manner or prevent the commission of some act on that tenement	 a profit a prendre confers a right to take from the servient tenement some part of the soil of that tenement or minerals under it or some part of its natural produce or the animals ferae naturae existing upon it. What is taken must be capable of ownership	 for otherwise the right amounts to a mere easement". In Indian law an easement is defined by section 4 of the Indian Easement Act	 1882 (Act No. V of 1882) as being ' a right which the owner or occupier of certain land possesses	 as such	 for the beneficial enjoyment of that land	 to do and continue to do something	 or to prevent and continue to prevent something being done	 in or upon	 or in respect of	 certain other land not his own". A profit a prendre when granted in favour of the owner of a dominant heritage for the beneficial enjoyment of such heritage would	 therefore	 be an easement but it would not be so if the grant was not for the beneficial enjoyment of the grantee 's heritage. 118 Clause (26) of section 3 of the 	 defines "immovable property" as including inter alia "benefit to arise out of land". The definition of "immovable property" in clause (f) of section 2 of the 	 illustrates a benefit to arise out of land by stating that immovable property "includes. rights to ways	 lights ferries	 fisheries or any other benefit lo arise out of land". As we have seen earlier	 the 	 does not give any definition of "immovable property" except negatively by stating that immovable property does not include standing timber	 growing crops	 or grass. The was enacted about fifteen years prior to the 	 However	 by section 4 of the 	 the definitions of certain words and expressions	 including "immovable property" and "movable property"	 given in section 3 of that Act are directed to apply also	 unless there is anything repugnant in the subject or context	 to all Central Acts made after January 3 1968	 and the definitions of these two terms	 therefore	 apply when they occur in the . In Ananda Behra and another vs The State of Orissa and another (1) this Court has held that a profit a prendre is a benefit arising out land and that in view of clause (26) of section 3 of the 	 it is immovable property within the meaning of the . The earlier decisions showing what constitutes benefits arising out of land have been summarized in Mulla on The "	 and it would be pertinent to reproduce the whole of that passage. That passage (at pages 16 17 of the Fifth Edition) is as follows: "A 'benefit to arise out of land ' is an interest in land and therefore immovable property. The first Indian Law Commissioners in their report of 1879 said that they had 'abstained from the almost impracticable task of defining the various kinds of interests in immovable things which are considered immovable property. The 	 however	 expressly includes as immovable property benefits to arise out of land	 here diary allowances	 rights of way lights	 ferries and fisheries '. The definition of immovable property in the applies to this Act. The following have been held to be immovable (1) 11955] 2 section C. R. 919 119 property: varashasan or annual allowance charged on land; a right to collect dues at a fair held on a plot of land; a hat or market; a right to possession and management of a saranjam; a malikana; a right to collect rent or jana: a life interest in the income of immovable property; a right of way; a ferry; and a fishery; a lease of land". B Having seen what the distinctive features of a profit a prendre are	 we will now turn to the Bamboo Contract to ascertain whether it can be described as a grant of a profit a prendre and thereafter to examine the authorities cited at the Bar in this connection. Though both the Bamboo Contract in some of its clauses and the Timber Contracts speak of "the forest produce sold and purchased under this Agreement"	 there are strong countervailing factors which go to show that the Bamboo Contract is not a contract of sale of goods. While each of the Timber Contracts is described in its body as "an agreement for the sale and purchase of forest produce"	 the Bamboo Contract is in express terms described as "a grant of exclusive right and licence to fell	 cut	 obtain and remove bamboos. for the purpose of converting the bamboos into paper pulp or for purposes connected with the manufacture of paper. " Further	 throughout the Bamboo Contract	 the person who is giving the grant	 namely	 the Governor of the State of Orissa	 is referred to as the "Grantor." While the Timber Contracts speak of the consideration payable by the forest contractor	 the Bamboo Contract provides for payment of royalty. "Royalty" is not a term used in legal parlance for the price of goods sold. "Royalty" is defined in Jowitt 's Dictionary of English Law	 Fifth Edition	 Volume 2	 page 1595	 as follows. "Royalty	 a payment reserved by the grantor of a patent	 lease of a mine or similar right	 and payable proportionately to the use made of right by the grantee. It is usually a payment of money	 but may be a payment in kind	 that is	 of part of the produce of the exercise of the right. Royalty also means a payment which is made to an author or composer by a publisher in respect of each copy of his work which is sold	 or to an inventor in respect of each article sold under the patent. " We are not concerned with the second meaning of the word H 120 "royalty" given in Jowitt. Unlike the Timber Contracts	 the Bamboo Contract is not an agreement to sell bamboos standing in the contract areas with an accessory licence to enter upon such areas / for the purpose of felling and removing the bamboos nor is it	 unlike the Timber Contracts	 in respect of a particular felling season only. It is an agreement for a long period extending to fourteen years	 thirteen years and eleven years with respect to different con tract areas with an option to the Respondent Company to renew the contract for a further term of twelve years and it embraces not only bamboos which are in existence at the date of the contract but also bamboos which are to grow and come into existence thereafter. The payment of royalty under the Bamboo Contract has no relation to the actual quantity of bamboos cut and removed. Further	 the Respondent Company is bound to pay a minimum royalty and the amount of royalty to be paid by it is always to be in excess of the royalty due on the bamboos cut in the contract areas. We may pause here to note what the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council had to say in the case of Raja Bahadur Kamkashya Narain Singh of Ramgarh vs Commissioner of Income tax	 Bihar and Orissa about the payment of minimum royalty under a coal mining lease. The question in that case was whether the annual amounts payable by way of minimum royalty to the lessor were in his hands capital receipt cr revenue receipt. The Judicial Committee held that it was an income flowing from the covenant in the lease. While discussing this question	 the Judicial Committee said (at pages 522 3): "These are periodical payments	 to be made by the lessee under his covenants in consideration of the benefits which he is granted by the lessor. What these benefits may be is shown by the extract from the lease quoted above	 which illustrates how inadequate and fallacious it is to envisage the royalties as merely the price of the actual tons of coal. The tonnage royalty is indeed only payable when the coal or coke is gotton and despatched: but that is merely the last stage. As preliminary and ancillary to that culminating act	 liberties are granted to enter on the land and search	 to dig and sink pits	 to erect engines an (1) (1943)11 I.T.R. 513 P.C. 121 machinery	 coke ovens	 furnaces and form railways and 	 roads. All these and the like liberties show how fallacious it is to treat the lease as merely one for the acquisition of a certain number of tons of coal	 or the agreed item of royalty as merely the price of each ton of coal. " Though the case before the Judicial Committee was of a lease of a coal mine and we have before us the case a grant for the purpose of felling	 cutting and removing bamboos with various other rights and licences ancillary thereto	 the above observations of the Judicial Committee are very pertinent and apposite to what we have to decide. Under the Bamboo Contract	 the Respondent Company has the right to use all lands	 roads and streams within as also outside the contract areas for the purpose of free ingress to and egress from the contract areas. It is also given the right to make dams across streams	 cut canals	 make water courses	 irrigation works	 roads	 bridges	 buildings	 tramways and other work useful or necessary for the purpose of its business of felling	 cutting	 and removing bamboos for the purpose of converting the same into paper pulp or for purposes connected with the manufacture of paper. For this purpose it has also the right to use timber and other forest produce to be paid for at the current schedule of rates. The Respondent Company has the right to attract fuel from areas allotted for that purpose in order to meet the fuel requirements of the domestic consumption in the houses and offices of the persons employed by it and to pay a fixed royalty for this purpose. Further	 the Government was bound	 if required by the Respondent Company	 to lease to it a suitable site or sites selected by it for the erection of store houses	 sheds	 depots	 bungalows	 staff offices	 agencies and other buildings of a like nature. We have highlighted above only the important terms and conditions which go to show that the bamboo Contract is not and cannot be a contract of sale of goods. It confers upon the Respondent Company a benefit to arise out of land	 namely	 the right to cut and remove bamboos which would grow from the soil couple with several ancillary rights and is thus a grant of a profit a prendre. It is equally not possible to view it as a composite contract one	 an agreement relating to standing bamboos agreed to be severed H 122 and the other	 an agreement relating to bamboos to come into existence in the future. The terms of the Bamboo Contract make it clear that it is one	 integral and indivisible contract which is not capable of being severed in the manner canvassed on behalf of the Appellant. It is not a lease of the contract areas to the Respondent Company for its terms clearly show that there is no demise by the State Government of any area to the Respondent Company. The Respondent dent Company has also no right to the exclusive possession of the contract areas but has only a right to enter upon the land to take a part of the produce thereof for its own benefit. Further	 it is also pertinent that while this right to enter upon the contract areas is described as a "licence"	 under clause XXV of the Bamboo Contract the Respondent (company has the right to take on lease a suitable site or sites of its choice within the contract areas for the erection of store houses	 sheds	 depots	 bungalows	 staff offices	 agencies and other buildings of alike nature required fourth purpose of its business. The terms and conditions of the Bamboo Contract leave no doubt that it confers upon the Respondent Company a benefit to arise out of land and it would thus be an interest in immovable property. As the grant is of the value exceeding Rs. 100	 the Bamboo Contract is compulsorily registrable. It is	 in fact	 not registered. This is	 however	 immaterial because it is a grant b the Government of an interest in land and under section Registration Act it is exempt from registration. The High Court was	 therefore	 right in holding that the Bamboo Contract was a grant of a profit prendre	 though the grant of such right not being for the beneficial enjoyment of any land of the Respondent Company it would not be an easement. Being a profit a prendre or a benefit to arise out of land any attempt on the part of the State Government to tax the amounts payable under the Bamboo Contract would not only be ultra vires the Orissa Act but also unconstitutional as being beyond the State 's taxing power under Entry 54 in List II in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India. We will now turn to the authorities cited at the Bar. The cases which have come before the courts on this point have mainly involved the question whether the document before the court required registration. After the coming into force of the Constitution of India and the introduction of land reforms with consequent abolition of 'Zamindari ' and other proprietary into rests in land	 the question whether a particular document was a 123 grant of a proprietary interest in land has also fallen for determination by various courts. It is unnecessary to refer to all the decisions which were cited before us and we propose to confine ourselves to considering only such of them as are directly relevant to the question which we have to decide. Of the High Court decisions the one most in point is that of a Full Bench OF the Madras High Court in Seeni Chettiar vs Santhanathan Chettiar and others.(l) The question in that case was whether a document which granted to the defendant a right to enjoy the produce of all the trees on the bank and bed of a tank as also the grass and the reeds and further to cut and remove the trees for a period exceeding four years required registration. The court held that the document was not a lease because it did not transfer to the defendant exclusive possession of the tank but conferred upon him merely a right of access to the place for the reasonable enjoyment of what he was entitled to under the contract The court	 however	 came to the conclusion that the document required registration as it transferred an interest in immovable property	 and that it was not a sale of mere standing timber but it was contemplated by the document	 as shown by the fact that a comparatively long period of a little more than four years was granted to the defendant for cutting and removing the trees	 that "the purchaser should derive a benefit from the further growth of the thing sold	 from further vegetation and from the nutriment to be afforded by the land". The above words quoted in the judgment in that case were those of Sir Edward Vaughan Williams in the following passage cited with approval by Lord Coleridge	 C.J.	 in Marshall vs Green 2): "The principle of these decisions appears to be this	 that wherever at the time of the contract it is contemplated that the purchaser should derive a benefit from the further growth of the thing sold	 from further vegetation and from the nutriment to be afforded by the land	 the contract is to be considered as for an interest in land; but where the process of vegetation is over	 or the par ties agree that the thing sold shall be immediately with drawn from the land	 the land is to be considered as a (1) I.L.R. (18971 F.B. (2) 	 39. H 124 mere warehouse of the thing sold	 and the contract is for goods. " So far as the decisions of this Court are concerned	 the one which requires consideration first is Firm Chhotabhai Jethabai Patel & Co. (and other cases) vs The State of Madhya Pradesh. This was one of the two cases strongly relied upon by the Appellant	 the other being State of Madhya Pradesh & Ors. v	 Orient Paper Mills Ltd2. The facts in Chhotabhai 's Case were that the petitioners had entered into contracts with the proprietors of certain estates and mahals in the State of Madhya Pradesh under which they acquired the right to pluck	 collect and carry away tendu leaves; to cultivate	 culture and acquire lac; and to cut and carry away teak and timber and miscellaneous species of trees called hardwood and bamboos. On January 26	 1951	 the Madhya Pradesh Abolition of Proprietary Rights (Estates	 Mahals	 Alienated Lands) Act	 1950 (Madhya Pradesh Act I of 1951)	 came into force and on the very next day a notification was issued under the said Act putting an end to all proprietary rights in estates	 mahals and alienated villages and vesting the same in the State for the purposes of the State free of all encumbrances with effect from March 31	 1952. The petitioners therupon approached this Court under Article 32 of the Constitution of India praying for a writ prohibiting the State of Madhya Pradesh from interfering with the rights which they had acquired under the contracts with the former proprietors. It was averred in the petitions that not only had the petitioners paid the consideration under the said contracts but had also spent large sums of money in the exercise of their rights under the said contracts. This Court held that the contracts appeared to be in essence and effect licenses granted to the petitioners to cut	 gather and carry away the produce in the shape tendu leaves	 lac	 timber or wood and did not create any interest either in the land or in the trees or plants. In arriving at this conclusion the Court relied upon a decision of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Messrs Mohanlal Hargovind of Jubbulpore vs Commissioner of income tax	 C.P. & Berar	 Nagpur3. In that case the assesses carried on (1) [19531 S.C.R. 476. (2) ; ( 3) L.R. [1949] 76 I.A. Nag. P.C. 311. 125 business as manufacturers and vendors of bidis composed of tobacco contained or rolled in tendu leaves. The contracts entered into by the assesees were short term contracts under which in consideration of a sum payable by instalments the assessees ' were granted the exclusive right to collect and remove tendu leaves from specified areas. Some of the contracts also granted to the assessees a small ancillary right of cultivation. The Judicial Committee held that the amounts paid by the assessees under the said contracts constituted expenditure in order to secure raw materials for their business and	 therefore	 such expenditure was allowable as being on revenue account. In Chhotabhai 's Case this Court took the view that the contracts before it were similar to the contracts before the Judicial committee and quoted with approval the following passage from the judgment in Messrs Mohanlal Hargovind 's Case (at page 241): "The contracts grant no interest in land and no interest in the trees or plants themselves. They are simply and solely contracts giving to the grantees the right to pick and carry away leaves	 which	 of course	 implies the right to appropriate them as their own property. The small right of cultivation given in the first of the two contracts is me rely ancillary and is of no more significance than would be	 e.g.	 a right to spray a fruit tree given to the person who has bought the crop of apples. The contracts are short term contracts. The	 picking of the leaves under them has to start at once or practically at once and to proceed continuously. " According to this Court	 the contracts entered into by the petitioners before it related to goods which had a potential existence and there was sale of a right to such goods as soon as they came into existence	 the question whether the title passed on the date of the contract itself or later depending upon the intention of the parties. This Court	 therefore	 came to the conclusion that the State had no right to interfere with the petitioners ' rights under the said contracts. As we will later point out	 the authority of the decision in Chhotabhai 's Case has been considerably shaken	 if not wholly eroded	 by subsequent pronouncements of this Court. For the 126 present it will be sufficient for us to point out that the reliance placed in Chhotabhai 's Case on the decision of the Judicial Committee in Messrs Mohanlal Hargovind 's Case does not appear to be justified for the contracts before the Judicial Committee and before this Court were different in their contents and this Court appears to have fallen into an error in assuming that they were similar. For instance	 the contracts before the Privy Council were short term contracts while those before the Court in Chhotabhai 's Case were for different periods including terms of five to even fifteen years. Apart from this	 we have pointed out above the features which go to make the Bamboo Contract a benefit to arise out of land. These features were conspicuously absent in the contracts before the court in Caotabhai 's Case. The decision next in point of time on this aspect of the case is Ananda Behare and another vs The State of Orissa and another. The petitioners in that case had obtained oral licenses for catching and appropriating fish from specified sections of the Chilka Lake from its proprietor	 the Raja of Parikud	 on payment of large sums of money prior to the enactment of the Orissa Estates Abolition Act	 1951 (Orissa Act I of 1952). Under the said Act	 the estates of the Raja of Parikud vested in the State of Orissa and the State refused to recognize the rights of the petitioners and was seeking to re auction the rights of fishery in the said lake. The petitioners	 contending that the State had infringed or was about to infringe their fundamental rights under Articles 19 (1) (f) and 3 (1) of the Constitution of India	 filed petitions in this Court under Article 32 of the Constitiution. In their petition	 the petitioners claimed that the ; transactions entered into by the were sales of future goods	 namely	 fish in the sections of the lake covered by the licences and that a s fish was movable property	 the sai Act was not attracted because it was confined to immovable property. The Court observed that if this contention of the petitioners was correct	 then their petition under Article 32 was misconceived because until any fish was actually caught	 the petitioners would not acquire any property in it. The Court held that what was sold to the petitioners was the right to catch and carry away fish in specific sections of the lake for a specified future period and that this amounted to a licence to enter on the land coupled with a grant to catch and carry away the fish which right was a profit and in England it would be regarded as an interest in land because it was a right to take some profit of the soil 127 for the use of the owner of the right in and India it would be regarded as a benefit arising out of the land and as such would be immovable property. The Court then pointed out that fish did not come under the category of property excluded from the definition of "immovable property". The Court further held that if a profit a prendre is regarded as tangible immovable property	 then the 'property ' being over Rs. 100 in value	 the document creating such right would repuire to be registered	 and if it was intangible immovable property	 then a registered instrument would be necessary whatever the value; but as in the case before the Court the sales were all oral and therefore	 there being neither writing nor registration	 the transactions passed no title or interest and accordingly the petitioners had no fundamental rights which they could enforce	 Ananda Behera 's Case was the first decision in which Chhotabhai 's Case was distinguished. The relevant passage in the judgment (at pages 9234) is as follows: "It is necessary to advert to Firm Chhotabhai Jethabai Patel & Co. vs The State of Madhya Pradesh and explain it because it was held there that a right to pluck	 collect and carry away ' tendu leaves does not give the owner of the right any proprietary interest in the land and so that sort of right was not an 'encumbrance ' within the meaning of the Madhya Pradesh Abolition of Proprietary Rights Act. But the contract there was to 'pluck	 collect and carry away	 the leaves. The only kind of leaves that can be 'plucked ' are those that are growing on trees and it is evident that there must be a fresh drop of leaves at periodic intervals. That would make it a growing crop and a growing crop is expressly exempted from the definition of 'immovable property ' in the . That case is distinguishable and does not apply here". The next decision which was cited and on which a considerable debate took place at the Bar was Shrimati Shantabhai vs State of Bombay & Others. The faces in that case were that by an unregistered document the petitioner 's husband had granted to her in consideration of a sum of Rs. 20	000 the right to take and appropriate all kinds of wood from certain forests in his Zamindari. On the coming into force of the Madhya Pradesh Abolition of Proprietary Rights (Estates	 Mahals	 Alienated Lands) Act	 1950	 all proprietary rights in land vested in the State of Madhya Pradesh and the petitioner 128 could no longer cut any wood. She thereupon applied to the Deputy Commissioner and obtained from him an order permitting her to work the forest and started cutting the trees. The Divisional Forest Officer took action against her and passed an order directing that the cut materials be forfeited. She made representations to the Government and they proving fruitless	 she filed in this Court a petition under Article 32 of the Constitution of India alleging breach of her fundamental rights under Article 19 (1) (f) and (g) of the Constitution. Four of the five learned Judges who heard the case pointed out that the foundation of the petitioner 's claim was an unregistered document and that it was not necessary to determine the true meaning and effect thereof for whatever construction be put on it	 the petitioner could not complain of breach of any of her fundamental rights. The majority of the learned Judges held that if the document were considered as conveying to the petitioner any part or share in her husband 's proprietary right	 no such part or share was conveyed to her as the document was not registered and assuming that any such part or share was conveyed	 it had become vested in the State under section 3 of the said Act; if the document were considered as a licence coupled with a grant	 then the right acquired by the petitioner would be either in the nature of a profit a prendre which being an interest in land was immovable property and would require registration and as the document was not registered	 it did not operate to transmit to her any such profit a prendre as held in Ananda Behera 's Case; and if the document were construed as conferring a purely personal right under a contract	 assuming without deciding that a contract was property" within the meaning of Article 19(1)(f) and 31(1) of the Constitution	 she could not complain as the State had not acquired or taken possession of the contract which remained her property and as the State was not a party to the contract and claimed no benefit under it	 the petitioner was free to sue the grantor upon that contract and recover damages by way of compensation; and assuming the State was also bound by the contract	 she could only seek to enforce the contract in the ordinary way and sue the State if so advised and claim whatever damages or compensation she might be entitled to for the alleged breach of it. After so holding the majority of the learned Judges observed (at page 269): "This aspect of the matter does not appear to have been brought to the notice of this when it decided the case 129 of Chhotobhai Jethabai Patel and Co. vs The State of Madhya Pradesh and had it been so done	 we have	 no doubt that case would not have been decided in the way it was done." Unlike the majority of the Judges	 Vivian Bose	 J	. in his separate judgment considered in detail the nature of the document in that case. Vivian Bose	 J	. pointed out the distinction between standing timber and a tree. We have earlier extracted those passages from the learned Judge 's judgment. The learned Judge then pointed out that the duration of the grant was for a period of twelve years and that it was evident that trees which would be fit for cutting twelve years later would not be fit for felling immediately and; therefore	 the document was not a mere sale of trees as wood. Vivian Bose	 J	. held that the transaction was not just a right to cut a tree but also to derive a profit from the soil itself; in the shape of the nourishment in the soil that went into the tree and made it to grow till it was of a size and age fit for felling as timber and if already of that size	 in order to enable it to continue to live till the petitioner chose to fell it The learned judge	 therefore	 held that though such trees as can be regarded as standing timber at the date of the document	 both because of their size and girth and also because of the intention to fall at an early date would be movable property for the purposes of the and the 	 the remaining trees that were covered by the grant would be immovable property	 and as the total value was Rs. 26	000	 the deed required registration and being unregistered	 it did not pass any title or interest and	 therefore	 as in Ananda Behera 's Case the petitioner had no fundamental right which she could enforce. According to learned Counsel for the Appellant	 the judgment of Vivian Bose	 J	. in that case was not the judgment of the Court since the other learned Judges expressly refrained from expressing any opinion as to the actual nature of the transaction under the document in question. Learned Counsel submitted that what the Court really held in that case was that there was no breach of any fundamental right of the petitioner which would entitle her to approach this Court under Article 32 of the Constitution	 and this decision was	 therefore	 not an authority for the proposition that a document of the type before the Court was a grant of a profit a prendre as held by Vivian Bose. J It is true as contended by learned Counsel 130 that the majority expressly refrained from deciding the nature of the document because	 as it pointed out	 in any view of the matter	 the petition would fail and it would	 therefore	 be difficult to say that what Vivian Bose	 J	. held was that the decision of the Court as such. However	 the judgment of Vivian Base	 J.	 is a closely reasoned one which carries instant conviction and cannot	 therefore	 be lightly brushed aside as learned Counsel has attempted to do. It is also pertinent to note that the majority in that case pointed out the principal errors into which the Court had fallen in Chhotabhai 's Case and disapproved of what was decided in that case. The decision to which we must now advert is Mahadeo vs The State of Bombay (and connected petitions). The facts in that case were that some proprietors of Zamindaris situate in territories	 then belonging to the State of Madhya Pradesh and on the reorganization of States transferred to the erstwhile State of Bombay	 granted to the petitioners right to take forest produce	 mainly tendu leaves	 from forests included in their Zamindaris. The agreements conveyed to the petitioners in addition to the tendu leaves other forest produce like timber	 bamboos	 etc.	 the soil for making bricks	 and the right to build on and occupy land for the purpose of their business. In a number of cases	 these rights were spread over many years. Some of the agreements were registered and the others unregistered. After the coming into force of the Madhya Pradesh Abolition of Proprietary Right 's (Estates	 Mahals	 Alienated Lands) Act	 1950	 the Government disclaimed the agreements and auctioned the rights afresh	 acting under section 3 of the said Act. The petitioners thereupon filed petitions under Article 32 of the Constitution of India challenging the legality of the action taken by the Government on the ground that it was an invasion of their fundamental rights. The main contention of the petitioners was that the agreements were in essence and effect licenses granted to them to cut	 gather and carry away the produce in the shape of tendu leaves	 or lac	 or timber or wood	 and did not grant to them any "interest in land" or 'benefit to arise out of land ' and the object of the agreements could	 therefore	 only be described as sale of goods as defined in the Indian Sale of Goods Act. In support of that contention	 the petitioners relied upon the decision in Chhotabhai 's case. The Court examined the terms of the agreements in question and concluded that under none of them was there a naked right to take leaves of tendu trees together with a right of ingress and of regress 131 from the land but there were further benefits including the right to accupy the land	 to erect buildings and to take other forest produce not necessarily standing timber	 growing crop or grass. The Court further held that whether the right to the leaves could be regarded as a right to a growing crop had to be examined with reference to all the terms of the documents and all the rights conveyed thereunder and that if the right conveyed comprised more than the leaves of the trees	 it would not be correct to refer to it as being in respect of growing crops simpliciter. On an examination of the terms of the documents and the rights conveyed thereunder the Court came to the conclusion that what was granted to the petitioners was an interest in immovable property which was a proprietary right within the meaning of the said act and	 therefore	 it vested in the State. With reference to Chhotabhai Case relied upon by the petitioners. Hidayatullah	 J.	 as he then was 	 speaking for the court	 said (at page 346): " It is clear from the foregoing analysis of the decision in Chhotabhai 's Case that on a construction of the documents there under consideration an adopting a principle enunciated by the privy Council in Mohanlal Hargovind of Jubbalpure vs Commissioner of Income tax Central Provinces and Berar and relying upon a passage each in Benjamin on Sale and the well known treatise of Baden Powell	 the Bench came to the conclusion that the documents there under consideration did not create any interest in land and did not constitute any grant of any proprietary interest in the estate but were merely contracts or licenses given to the petitioners to cut	 gather and carry away the produce in the shape of tendu leaves	 or lac	 or timber or wood '. But then	 it necessarily followed that the Act did not purport to affect the petitioners ' rights under the contracts or licences. But what was the nature of those rights of the petitioners? It is plain	 that if they were merely contracual rights	 then as pointed out in the two later decisions	 in Ananda Behera vs The State of Orissa	 Shantabai 's case	 the State has not acquired or taken possession of those rights but has only declined to be bound by the agreements to which they were not a party. If	 on the other hand	 the petitioners were mere licensees	 then also	 as pointed out in the second of the two cases cited	 the licences came to T l 132 an end on the extinction of the title of the licensors. In either case there was no question of the breach Or any fundamental right of the petitioners which could support the petitions which were presented under article 32 of the Constituion. It is this aspect of the matter which was not brought to the notice of the Court	 and the resulting omission to advert to it has seriously impaired	 if not completely nullified	 the effect and weight of the decision in Chhotabhai 's case as a precedent. " We may also usefully reproduce the following passages (at page 354) from the concluded portion of the judgment: "From this	 it is quite clear that forests and trees be longed to the proprietors	 and they were items of proprietary rights. " "If then the forest and the trees belonged to the proprietors as items in their 'proprietary rights '	 it is quite clear that these items of proprietary rights have been transferred to the petitioners. Being a 'proprietary right '	 it vests in the State under sections 3 and 4 of the Act. The decision in Chhotabhai 's case treated these rights as bare licences	 and it was apparently given perincuriam and cannot; therefore; be followed." (Emphasis supplied) Faced with this decision	 learned Counsel for the Appellant sought to distinguish it on the ground that the terms of the agreements in that case were different from the terms of the Bamboo Contract. We are unable to accept this submission. It is unnecessary to set out in detail the terms of the agreements in Mahadeo 's Case. The differences sought to be pointed out by learned Counsel for the Appellant are unsubstantial and make no difference. The essential and basic features are the same and the same interpretation as was placed upon the agreements in Mahadeo 's Case must	 there fore	 apply to the Bamboo Contract. In State of Madhya Pradesh vs Yakinuddin(1) the respondents had entered into agreements with the former proprietors of certain estates in the State of Madhya Pradesh acquiring the right to pro pagate lac	 collect tendu leaves and gather fruits and flowers of Mahua leaves. Some of these documents were registered and others (1) ; 133 unregistered. On the coming into force of the Madhya Pradesh Abolition of Proprietary Rights (Estates	 Mahals	 Alienated Lands) Act	 1950	 the State of Madhya Pradesh took possession of all the villages comprised in the respective estates of the proprietors who had granted the aforesaid rights to the respondents and refused to recognize the respondents ' rights. The respondents thereupon filed petitions under Article 226 of the Constitution in the High Court of Madhya Pradesh and the High Court relying upon the decision in Chhotabhai 's Case	 granted to the respondents the reliefs claimed by them. A Bench of five Judges of this Court allowed the appeals filed by the State of Madhya Pradesh. In its judgment	 this Court considered its earlier decisions in Shantabai vs State of Bombay and others and Mahadeo vs the State of Bombay and observed as follows (at page 21): "In view of these considerations	 it must be held that these cases are equally governed by the decisions aforesaid of this Court	 which have overruled the earliest decision in the case of Chhotabhai Jethabai Patel and Co. vs The State of Madhya Pradesh. In Board of Revenue Etc. vs A.M. Ansari Etc.(1) the respondents were the highest bidders at an auction of forest produce	 namely	 timber	 fuel	 bamboos	 minor forest produce	 bidi leaves	 tanning barks	 parks	 mohwa	 etc.	 held by the Forest Department of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. They were called upon to pay in terms of the conditions of sale stamp duty on the agreements to be executed by then as if these documents were leases of immovable property. The respondents there upon filed petitions under Article 226 of the Constitution in the High Court of Andhra Pradesh. In the said petitions	 the State contended that under the agreements	 the respondents had acquired an interest in immovable property. The High Court held in favour of the respondents. The State went in appeal to this court. On consideration of the terms of the agreements	 this Court held that the agreements were licences and not leases. The Court laid emphasis upon three salient features of those agreements for reaching its conclusion	 namely	 (l) that these were agreements of short duration of nine lo ten months	 (2) that they did not create any estate or interest in the (1) (1976] 3 S.C.R 661. H 134 land	 and (3) that they did not grant exclusive possession and control of the land to the respondents but merely granted to them the right to pluck	 cut	 carry away and appropriate the forest produce that might have been existing at the date of the agreement or which might have come into existence during the short period of the currency of the agreements	 and that the right of the respondents to go on the land was only ancillary to the real purpose of the contract. The Court observed as follows (at page 667): ". Thus the acquisition by the respondents not being an interest in the soil but merely a right to cut the fructus naturales	 we are clearly of the view that the agreements in question possessed the characteristics of licences and did not amount to leases so as to attract the applicability of Article 31(c) of the Stamp Act". "The conclusion arrived at by us gains strength from the judgment of this Court in Firm Chhotabhai jethabai Patel and Co. & Ors. The State of Madhya Pradesh where contracts and agreements entered into by person with the previous proprietors of certain estates and mahals in the State under which they acquired the rights to pluck	 collect and carry away tendu leaves	 to cultivate	 culture	 and acquire lac	 and to cut and carry away teak and timber and miscellaneous species of trees called hardwood and bamboos were held in essence and effect to be licences." "There is	 of course	 a Judgment of this Court in Mahadeo vs State of Bombay where seemingly a somewhat different view was expressed but the facts of that course were quite distinguishable. In that case apart from the bare right to take the leaves of tendu trees	 there were further benefits including the right to occupy the land to erect buildings and to take away other forest produce not necessarily standing timber	 growing crop or grass and the rights were spread over many years. " We fail to see how this authority in any way supports the case of the Appellant before us or resuscitates the authority of Chhotabhai 's Case. In Ansari 's Case the Court seems to have assumed that Chhotabhai 's Case dealt with short term contracts while	 as we have seen above	 most of the contracts in Chhotabhai 's 135 Case were of far greater duration extending even to fifteen years	 nor was the Court 's attention drawn to the case of State Or Madhya Pradesh vs Yakinuddin. While the agreement in Ansari 's Case was a mere right to enter upon the land and take away tendu leaves	 etc.	 the right under the Bamboo Contract is of a wholly different nature. Further	 the question whether the agreements were a grant of a profit a prendre or a benefit to arise out of land was not raised and	 therefore	 not considered in Ansari 's Case and the only point which fell for decision by the Court was whether the agreements were licences or leases. In fact	 another question which arose in that case was whether the respondents were liable to pay the amounts demanded from them as reimbursement of sales tax. Affirming the decision of the High Court on this point	 the Court held that the Forest Department did not carry on any business s by holding auctions of forest produce and was	 therefore	 not a dealer within the meaning of that term as defined in the Andhra Pradesh General Sales Tax Act	 1957. The question whether the agreements were contracts of sale of goods was	 however	 not considered in that case We now come to the case of State of Madhya Pradesh and others vs Orient Paper Mills Ltd.	 the second of the two cases on which learned Counsel for the Appellant relied so strongly in support of his submission that the Bamboo Contract was a contract of sale of goods. The facts in that case as appearing from the judgment of the High Court reported as Orient Paper Mills Ltd. vs State of Madhya Pradesh and Others(l) were that the President of Indicating on behalf of the former Part State of Vindhya Pradesh had entered into an agreement with the respondent. The said agreement was a registered instrument and was styled as a lease and under it the respondent acpuired the right for a period of twenty years with an option of renewal for a further period of twenty years to enter upon "the leased area" to fell	 cut or extract bamboos and salai wood and to remove	 store and utilize the same for meeting the fuel requirement of its paper mill. A copy of the said agreement has been produced before us. Some of the terms of the said agreement were the same as those contained in the Bamboo Contracts as also in the case of Mahadeo vs The State of Bombay. The said agreement provided for payment of royalty including a minimum royalty. It also conferred upon the respondent the right to take on lease such (1) [1972] 28 S.T.C. 532. 136 suitable site or sites as were at the disposal of the State Government within "the leased area" for the erection of store houses	 sheds	 depots	 bungalows	 staff offices	 agencies and other buildings of a like nature bonafide required for the purposes of its business connected with the said agreement as also a right to make dams across reams	 cut canals	 make water course	 irrigation works	 construct roads	 railways and tramways and do any other work useful or necessary for the purposes of its business connected with the said agreement in or upon "the leased area" in terms very similar to those in the Bamboo Contract. After the States Reorganization Act	 1956	 came into force	 the territories comprised in the State of Vindhya Pradesh became part of the new State of Madhya Pradesh. At the date when the said agreement was entered into the . P. and Berar Sales Tax Act	 1947	 was in force in the State of Vindhya Pradesh and the definition of "goods" contained in clause (g) of section 2 of that Act as modified and in force in that State excluded from the purview of the said Act foresr contracts that gave a right to collect timber or wood to forest produce. The C. P. and Berar Sales Tax Act was repealed by the Madhya Pradesh General Sales Tax Act	 1958	 with effect from April 1	 1959	 and the new Act did not contain any exclusion of forest contracts from the definitions of ' goods". Further	 the term "dealer" as defined in the 1958 Act included the Central Government and the State Government or any of its departments. The Forest Department of the State Government was	 however	 exempted from the payment of sales tax for the period April 1	 1959	 to November 2	 1962. After the period of the said exemption expired	 the Forest Department got itself registered as a dealer and the Divisional Forest Officer called upon the respondent to reimburse to him the amount which	 according to him	 he was liable to pay as sales tax in respect of the transaction covered by the said agreement. Challenging his right to do so	 the respondent filed in the High Court of Madhya Pradesh a writ petition under Article 226 of the Constitution. In the said writ petition the respondent contended that the transaction covered by the said agreement was not a sale of goods and accordingly	 no sales tax was payable in respect of bamboos and salai wood extracted by the respondent thereunder	 that the said agreement did not provide for the recovery of the amount of sales tax from the respondent	 and that neither the State Government nor the Forest Department of that Government was a "dealer" and that even if the sales tax was payable	 it was not recoverable as arrears of land 137 revenue. The High Court held that the transaction was one of sale of goods and that if sales tax was payable it would be recoverable under section 64A of the Sale of Goods Act	 1939	 but the State Government or the Forest Department could not merely by selling the forest produce grown on its own land be regarded as carrying on any business of buying	 selling	 supplying or distributing goods and	 therefore	 in respect of mere sales of forest produce neither the State Government nor the Forest Department was a "dealer" within the meaning of that term as defined in the 1958 Act. In coming to the conclusion that the said agreement was a contract of sale of goods	 the High Court proceeded upon the basis that what it had to consider was "the stage when bamboo and salai wood have already been felled and appropriated ' '. By reason of the judgment of the High Court	 the definition of the term "dealer" was amended with retrospective effect by the Madhya Pradesh General Sales Tax (Amendment and Validation) Act	 1971	 so as to nullify the finding of the High Court that neither the State Government nor its Forest department was a "dealer". The State of Madhya Pradesh as also the respondent came in appeal to the Supreme Court. The appeals were heard in the Court by a Division Bench of two learned Judges. At the hearing of the appeals	 the respondent desired to challenge the vires of the amending Act	 but in view of the Presidential Proclamation suspending the operation of Article 14	 it could not do so and the court held that after the proclamation lapsed	 it was open to the respondent to take up the point but so far E the appeals were concerned that challenge was not available and the appeals must be decided on the basis that the amendment was valid and constitutional. The main point before this Court	 therefore	 was whether the said agreement was a lease as it was styled or a simple sale of standing timber coupled with a licence to enter and do certain things on another 's land. The Court held that the label given to a document was not conclusive of its real nature and that under the said agreement	 possession of the land was not given to the respondent as it would have been had the said agreement been a lease and that as the terms of the said agreement showed	 it conferred in substance a right to cut and carry away timber of specified species G and till the trees were cut	 they remained the property of the owner	 namely	 the State	 and that once the trees were severed	 the property in them passed to the respondent. The Court further observed that the term used in the said agreement	 namely	 "royalty"	 was "a feudalistic euphemism for the 'price ' of the timber". 138 We are unable to agree with the interpretation placed by the Court on the document in the Orient Paper Mill* ' Case. We find that in that case this Court as also the High Court adopted a wrong approach in construing the said document. It is a well settled rule of interpretation that a document must be construed as a whole. This rule is stated in Halsbury 's Laws of England	 Fourth Edition	 Volume 12	 paragraph 1469 at page 602	 as follows: "Instrument construed as whole. It is a rule of construction applicable to all written instruments that the instrument must be construed as a whole in order to ascertain the true meaning of its several clauses	 and the words of each clause must be so interpreted as to bring them into harmony with the other provisions of the instrument	 if that interpretation does no violence to the cleaning of which they are naturally susceptible. The best construction of deeds is to make one part of the deed expound the other	 and so to make all the parts agree. Effect must as far as possible	 be given to every word and every clause". In Mahadeo vs State of Bombay a five Judge Bench of this Court categorically held (at page 349) that "Whether the right to the leaves can be regarded as a right to a growing crop has	 however	 to be examined with reference to all the terms of the documents and all the right. conveyed thereunder". In spite of this clear and unequivocal pronouncement by a five Judge Bench of this Court	 the learned Judges of the High Court who decided the Orient Paper Mills ' Case held (at page 538) that "we have to consider the stage when bamboos and salai wood have already been felled and appropriated"	 while a two Judge Bench of this Court evolved for itself in the appeal from that judgment a rule of interpretation which was thus stated (at page 152) by Krishna Iyer	 J.	 who spoke for the Court: "The meat of the matter is the judicial determination of the true character of the transaction of 'lease ' from the angle of the MPGST Act and the Sale of Goods Act whose combined operation is pressed into service for making the tax exigible from the Forest Department and	 in turn	 from the respondent mills. It is the part of judicial prudence to 139 decide an issue arising under the specific statute by confining the focus to that statuary compass as far as possible. Diffusion into wider jurisprudential areas is fraught with unwitting conflict or confusion. We	 therefore	 warn ourselves against venturing into the general law of real property except for minimal illumination thrown by rulings cited. In a large sense	 there are no absolutes in legal propositions and human problems and so	 in the jural cosmos of relativity	 our observations here may not be good currency beyond the factual legal boundaries of sales tax situations under a specific statute. " A little later the learned Judge stated (at page 157) as follows: "We may also observe that the question before us is not so much as to what nomenclature would aptly describe the deed but as to whether the deed results in sale of trees after they are cut. The answer to that question	 as would appear from the above has to be in the affirmative". The above rule enunciated by this Court in that case falls into two parts	 namely	 (I) a document should be so interpreted as to bring it within the ambit of a particular statute relevant for the purpose of the dispute before the Court	 and (2) in order to do so	 the court can look at only such of the clauses of the document as also to just one or more of the consequences flowing from the document which would fit in with the interpretation which the court wants to put on the document to make that statute applicable. The above principle of interpretation cannot be accepted as correct in law. It is fraught with considerable danger and mischief as it may expose documents to the personal predilections and philosophies of individual judges depending upon whether according to them it would be desirable that documents of the type they have to construe should be made subject to a particular statute or not. The result would be that a document can be construed as amounting to a grant of a benefit to arise out of land when the question before the Court is whether proprietary rights and interests in estates have been abolished and the same document or a document having the same tenor could be construed as a contract of sale of goods when the question Is whether the amounts payable thereunder are exigible to sales tax or purchase tax	 making the interpretation of the document dependent upon the personal views of the judges with respect to the 140 legislation in question. In the very case which we are considering	 namely	 the Orient Paper Mill 's Case as shown by the very first sentence in the judgment	 this Court obliquely expressed its disapproval of the transactions of the type represent by the document before it. That sentence is as follows (at page 150) . "The State of Madhya Pradesh	 blessed with abundant forest wealth	 whose exploitation	 for reasons best known to that government	 was left in part to the private sector. viz.	 the respondent	 Orient Paper Mills " We may point out here that in making this observation the Court overlooked three important aspects of the matter	 namely	 (I) it was a matter of policy for the State to decide whether such transactions should be entered into or not	 (2) the transaction was entered into by the State so that a paper mill could be started in the State as shown by the various terms of the said agreement and thus was an encouragement to setting up of industries in the State	 and (3) the transaction ensured employment for the people of the area because the said agreement expressly provided that the respondent was to engage minim m 50 per cent of the labour for the working of the contract area from the local source if available. Just as a document cannot be interpreted by picking out only a few clauses ignoring the other relevant ones	 in the same way the nature and meaning of a document cannot be determined by its end result or one of the results or consequences which flow from it. If the second part of the above rule were correct	 the result would be startling. There would be almost no agreement relating to immovable property which cannot be construed as a contract of sale of goods. Two instances would suffice to show this. If a man were to sell his building to another and the deed of sale were to provide that the building should be demolished and reconstructed and the price should be paid to the vendor partly in money and partly by giving him accommodation in the new building	 according to this rule of interpretation adopted by the Court in the Orient Paper Mills Case it would for the purpose of sales tax be a sale of goods because the old building when demolished would result in movable property	 namely	 debris	 doors	 windows	 water pipes: drainage pipes	 water tanks	 etc.	 which would be sold by the purchaser as movables. Similarly	 if a man were to give a lease of his orchard or field	 the lessee would be entitled to the fruits already in existence as also to 141 the fruits which would come into existence in the future and equally in the case of a field the same would be the case wlth respect to the crop growing in the field as also the crops to grow thereafter. The fruits and crop	 whether existing or future	 when plucked or harvested	 would be movable property and would be sold as such by the lessee; but on the second part of the rule of interpretation laid down the Orient Paper Mills ' Case	 the document	 indisputably a lease of immovable property	 would for the purposes of sales tax law be a sale of goods. In looking merely at the end result of the agreement before it	 namely	 that the bamboos would be cut and then would be goods in the hands of the respondent and holding therefrom that the transaction was exigible to sales tax	 the Court overlooked what had been firmly established by the decision of the five Judge Bench of this Court in State of Madras vs Gannon Dunkerly Co. (Madras) Ltd. that both the agreement and the sale must relate to the same subject matter and	 therefore	 there cannot be an agreement relating to one kind of property and a sale as regards another. This principle has been consistently followed and applied by this Court (see	 for instance. Commissioner of Sales Tax. M. P. vs Purshottam Premji).(1) Incidentally	 we may also point out that in the Orient Paper Mills Case this Court itself had reservations as regards what it was deciding as is shown 'by its statement that "in the journal cosmos of relativity	 our observations here may not be good currency beyond the factual legal boundaries of sales tax situations under a specific statute. " We are constrained to observe that they are not "good currency" so far as even those situations are concerned. It is true that the nomenclature and description given to a contract is not determinative of the real nature of the document or of the transaction thereunder. These	 however	 have to be determined from all the terms and clauses of the document and all the rights and results flowing therefrom and not by picking and choosing certain clauses and the ultimate effect or result as the Court did in the Orient Paper Mills ' Case. Thus	 in coming to the conclusion that the term "royalty" used in the document before it was merely "a feudalistic euphemism for the 'price ' of the timber"	 the Court overlooked the fact that the amount of royalty payable by the respondent was consideration for all the rights conferred upon the respondent under the contract though it was to be calculated according to the quantity (1) [1970] 26 S.T.C. 38	 41 S.C. 142 of the bamboos felled	 and the Court also overlooked the fact that this was made further clear by the provision for payment of a minimum royalty. It is also true that an interpretation placed by the court on a document is not binding upon it when another document comes to be interpreted by it but that is so where the two documents are of different tenors and not where they have the same tenor. On the ground that they dealt with the general law of real property	 the Court in Orient Paper Mils ' case did not advert to the earlier decisions of this Court relating to documents with similar tenor even though those cases referred to in the judgment of the Madhya Pradesh High Court under appeal before it. In view of this	 the Orissa High Court in the judgment under appeal before us held that the Orient Paper Mill 's Case was decided by this Court per in curium because it did not take into consideration decisions of larger Benches of this Court. In Union of India and another vs K. section) Subramanian(1) this Court held as follows: "But	 we do not think that the High Court acted correctly in skirting the views expressed by larger benches of this Court in the manner in which it had done this. The proper course for a High Court	 in such a case	 is to try to find out and follow the opinions expressed by larger benches of this Court in preference to those expressed by smaller benches of the Court. That is the practice followed by this Court itself. The practice has now crystallized in to rule of law declared by this Court. " Had the Court looked at these decisions of larger Benches	 it would have appreciated that the only question before it could not be whether the document was a lease or a contract of sale of goods and that even though the document was not a lease it could be a grant of a profit a prendre and that where there is a grant of a profit a prendre that is	 a benefit to arise out of land	 it is immaterial whether the possession of the land is given to the grantee or whether the grantee is given only a licence to enter upon the land to receive the benefit. The bacic and salient features of the agreement before the Court in the Orient Paper Mills. ' Case were the same as in the case of Mahadeo state of Bombay and this Court was not (1) (1977) I S.C.R. 87	 92	 143 justified in not adverting to that case and the other cases referred to by us earlier on the ground that these cases dealt with the general law of real property. A chameleon may change its surroundings but document is not a chameleon to change its meaning according to the purpose of the statute with reference to which it falls to be interpreted and if documents having the same tenor are not to be construed by courts in the same way	 it would make for great uncertainty and would introduce confusion	 leaving people bewildered as to how they should manage their affairs so as to make their transactions valid and legal in eye of the law. The authorities discussed above show that the case of Firm Chhotabhai Jethabai Patel & Co. vs The State of Madhya Pradesh is not good law and has been overruled by decisions of larger Benches of this Court. They equally show that the case of State of Madhya Pradesh vs Orient Paper Mills Ltd.	 is also not good law and that this decision was given per incurium and laid down principles of interpretation which are wrong in law and cannot be assented to. The discussion of the above authorities also confirm us in our opinion that the Bamboo Contract is not a contract of sale of goods but is a grant of a Profit a prendre	 that is	 of a benefit to arise out of land and that it is not possible to bifurcate the Bamboo Contract into two: one for the sale of bamboos existing at the date of the contract and the other for the sale of future goods	 that is	 of bamboos to come into existence in the future. In order to ascertain the true nature and meaning of the Bamboo Contract	 we have to examine the said contract as a whole with reference to all its terms and all the rights conferred by it and not with reference to only a few terms or with just one of the rights flowing therefrom. On a proper interpretation	 the Bamboo Contract dose not confer upon the Respondent Company merely a right to enter upon the land and cut bamboos and take them away. In addition to the right to enter upon the land for the above purpose	 there are other important rights flowing from the Bamboo Contract it which we have already summarized earlier and which make in clear that what the Bamboo Contract granted was a benefit to arise out of land which is an interest in immovable property. The attemp on the part of the State Government and the officer of its Sales Tax Department to bring to tax the amounts payable under the Bmboo 144 Contract was	 therefore	 not only unconstitutional but ultra vires the Orissa Act. Works Contract The only point which now remains to be considered is the one canvassed by the contesting Respondents namely	 that the Bamboo Contract as also the Timber Contracts arc works contracts and the amounts payable thereunder cannot	 therefore	 be made exigible to any tax under the Orissa Act. A works contract is a compendious term to describe conveniently a contract for the performance of work or services in which the supply of materials or some other goods is incidental. The simplest example of this type of contract would be where an order is given to a tailor to make a suit from suiting supplied by the customer. This would be a contract of work or servies in which the suyply of materials	 namely	 thread	 lining	 and buttons used in making the suit	 would be mrely incidental. Similarly	 if an artist is commissioned to paint a portrait	 it would be a contract of work and services in which the canvass on which the portrait is painted and the paint used in painting the portrait would be merely incidental. In Commissioner of Sale Tax	 M.P. vs Pershottam Premji	 this Court pointed out the distinction between a works contract and a contract for the sale of goods as follows (at page 41): "The primary difference between a contract for work or service and a contract for sale of goods is that in the former there is in the person performing work or rendering service no property in the thing produced as a whole notwithstanding that a part or even the whole of the materials used by him may have been his property. In the case of a contract for sale	 the thing produced as a whole has individual existence as the sole property of the party who produced it	 at some time before delivery	 and the property therein passes only under the contract relating thereto to the other party for price " As pointed out above the Timber Contracts are agreements relating to movables while the Bamboo Contract is a grant of an interest in immovable property. The question	 therefore	 whether there is a works contract or a contract of sale of goods can arise only with respect to the Timber Contracts. but the very meaning 145 of a works contract would show that the Timber Contracts cannot be works contracts. The payee of the price	 namely	 the Government has not undertaken to do any work or labour. The work or labour under the Timber Contracts is to be done by the payer of the price	 namely	 the forest contractor	 that is	 the Respondent Firm. It is the Respondent Firm which has to enter upon the land and to fell the standing trees and to remove them. Assuming for the sake of argument that the Bamboo Contract were a contract relating to movables	 the same position would apply to it. This contention of the Respondents is	 therefore	 without any substance. Conclusions To summarize our conclusions (1) The impugned provisions	 namely	 (1) Notification S.R.O. No. 372177 dated May 23	 1977	 (2) Notification S.R.O. No. 373177_ dated May 23	 1977	 (3) Entries Nos. 2 and 17 in the Schedule to Notification No. 67178 C.T.A. 135177 (Pt.) F (S.R.O. No.900/77) dated December 29	 1977	 and (4) Entries Nos. 2 and 17 in the Schedule to Notification No. 67181 C.T.A. 135/77 F (S.R.O. No.901/77) dated December 29	 1977	 levying purchase tax at the rate of ten per cent on the purchase of 	 bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to ` be severed	 are not ultra vires either Entry 54 in List II in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India or the 'Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947	 but are constitutional and valid. (2) Under the impugned provisions the taxable event is not an agreement to sever standing trees or bamboos but the purchase of standing trees or bamboos agreed to be severed. (3) The absence in the impugned provisions of the words "before sale or under the contract of sale" is immaterial for the impugned provisions read as a whole clearly show that the severance of standing trees or bamboos has to be under the contract of sale and before the purchase thereof has been completed and not before sale of such trees or bamboos. 146 (4) The subject matter of the impugned provisions is goods and the tax that is levied thereunder is on a completed purchase of goods. (5) When under section 3 B of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947	 any goods are declared to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases	 such goods automatically cease to be liable to sales tax by reason of the proviso to that section. (6) The word "supersession" in the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 is used in the same sense as the words "repeal and replacement" and	 therefore	 does not have the effect of wiping out the tax liability under the previous notifications. All that was done by using the words "in supersession of all previous notifications" in the Notifications dated December 29	 1977	 was to repeal and replace previous notifications and not to wipe out any I) liability incurred under the previous notifications. The Timber Contracts are not works contracts but are agreements to sell standing timber. Under the Timber Contracts the property in the trees which were the subject matter of the contracts passed to the Respondent Firm	 Messrs M.M. Khara	 only in the trees which were felled	 that is	 in timber	 after all the Conditions of the contract had been complied with and after such timber was examined and checked and removed from the contract area. The impugned provisions	 therefore	 did not apply to the transactions covered by the Timber Contracts. (9) The dictionary meaning of a word cannot be looked at where that word has been statutorily defined or judicially interpreted but where there is no such definition or interpretation	 the court may take the aid of dictionaries to ascertain the meaning of a word in common parlance	 bearing in mind that a word is used in different senses according to its context and a dictionary gives all the meanings of a word	 and the court has	 therefore	 to select particular meaning which is relevant to the content in which it has to interpret that word 147 (10) Timber and sized or dressed logs are one and the same commercial commodity. Beams	 rafters and planks would also be timber. (11) As the sales of dressed or sized logs by the Respondent Firm have already been assessed to sales tax	 the sales to the First Respondent Firm of timber by the State Government from which logs were made by the Respondent Firm cannot be made liable to sales tax as it would amount to levying tax at two points in the same series of sales by successive dealers	 assuming without deciding that the retrospectively substituted definition of "dealer" in clause (c) of section 2 of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947	 is valid. (12) During the period June 1	 1977	 to December 31	 1977	 the sales of logs by the Respondent Firm would be liable to tax at the rate of ten per cent. Assuming that these sale s have been assessed to tax at the rate of ten per cent	 by reason of the period of limitation prescribed by section 12(8) of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947	 the Respondent Firm 's assessment for the relevant period cannot now be reopened to reassess such sales at ten Per cent. (13) The Bamboo Contract is not a lease of the contract ' areas to the Respondent Company	 The Titaghur Paper Mills (Company Limited. (14) The Bamboo Contract is also not a grant of an easement to the Respondent Company. (15) The Bamboo contract is a grant of a profit a prendre which in Indian law is a benefit to arise out of land and thus creates an interest in immovable property. (16) Being a benefit to arise out of land	 any attempt on the Part of the State Government to tax the amounts payable under the Bamboo Contract would be not only ultra vires the Orissa Act but also unconstitutional as being beyond the State 's taxing power under Entry 54 in List II in the seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India. 148 (17) The case of Firm Chhotabhai Jethabai Patel & Co. vs The State of Madhya Pradesh is not good law and has been overruled by decisions of larger Benches of this Court as pointed out by this Court in State of Madhya Pradesh vs Yakinuddin. (18) The case of State of Madhya Pradesh & Ors vs Orient Paper Mills Ltd. is also not good law as that decision was given per incurium and laid down principles of interpretation which are wrong in law. (19) The real nature of a document and the transaction thereunder have to be determined with reference to all the terms and clauses of that document and all the rights and results flowing therefrom. On the above conclusions reached by us the judgment of the High Court in so far as it hold the impugned provisions to be unconstitutional and ultra vires the Orissa Sales Tax Act 1947	 requires to be reversed. This	 however	 does not mean that the writ petitions filed by the Respondent Company and the Respondent Firm in the High Court should be dismissed because in its writ petitions the Respondent Company had played for quashing the notice dated August 18	 1977	 issued against it under Rules 22 and 28(2) of the Orissa Sales Tax Rules	 1947	 and the Respondent Firm in its writ petition had prayed for setting aside the assessment order dated November 28	 1978	 for the priod April 1	 1977	 to March 31	 1978. On the findings given by us the said notice must be quashed. So far the said assessment order is concerned	 as we have pointed out earlier	 it is severable and does not require to be set aside in toto but only so far as it imposed purchase tax on the amounts paid by the Respondent Firm under the Timber Contract. Though the High Court did not give these consequential reliefs in view of its findings that the impugned provisions were invalid	 it becomes necessary for us to do so in order to do complete justice between the parties as we are entitled to do under Article 142 of the Constitution of India. In the result	 we reverse the judgment of the High Court in so for as it holds (1) Notification S.R.O. No. 372/77 dated May 23. 1977	 issued under section 3 B of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947	 149 (2) Notification S.R.O. No. 373/77 dated May 23	 1977	 issued under the first proviso to sub section (1) of section 5 of the said Act prior to the amendment of the said sub section by the Orissa Sale Tax (Amendment) Act	 1978	 which repealed and replaced the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977	 (3) Entries 2 and 17 in the Schedule to Notification No. 67178 C.T.A 135/77 (Pt.) F (S.R.O). No. 900/77) dated December 29	 1977	 issued under the said section 3 B and (4) Enteries No. 2 and 17 in the Schedule to Notification No. 67181 C.T.A. 135/77 F (S.R.O. No. 901/77) dated December 29	 1977	 issued under sub section (1) of the said section S after its amendment by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1978	 to be unconstitutional as being ultra vires Entry 54 in List II in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India and as being ultra vires the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947	 and we declare these provisions to be constitutional and valid. In Civil Appeal No. 219 of 1982	 we further quash and set aside the notice dated August 18	 1977	 under Rules 22 and 28(2) of the Orissa Sales Tax Rules 1947	 issued against the Respondent Company	 The Titaghur Paper Mills Company Limited	 and the assessment order	 if any	 made in pursuance thereof. In Civil Appeal No. 220 of 1982	 we further modify the assessment order dated November 28	 1978	 for the period April 1	 1977	 to March 31	 1978	 made against Respondent Firm; Messrs M.M. Khara	 by deleting therefrom the item of purchase tax on the amounts paid by the Respondent Firm under the Timber Contracts entered into by it with the State of Orissa and direct consequential modifications to be made therein. As the real object of the State Government in making the mpugned provisions was to make exigible to purchase tax the amounts payable under the Bamboo Contracts and the Timber Contracts in which object it has failed	 in our opinion	 a fair order for costs would be that the parties should bear and pay their own costs of these Appeals and we direct accordingly.

Section 3B of the Orissa Sales Tax Act 1917 empowers the State Government to declare from time to time any goods or class of goods to be liable to tax on turnover of purchases. The proviso provides that no tax shall be payable on the sales of such goods or class of goods declared under this section. Section 5(1) prior to its amendment by the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977 provides that the tax payable by a dealer under the Orissa Act should be levied on his taxable turnover at such rate not exceeding thirteen percent and subject to such conditions as the State Government might from time to time by notification specify. On May 23	 1977 the State Government issued two notifications. Notification No. SRO 372/77 was made under section 3B amending the earlier notification dated April 23	 1976. This notification made standing trees and bamboos agreed to be severed liable to tax on the turnover of purchase with effect from 27 June 1	 1977. Notification SRO No. 373177 issued under the first proviso to section 5(1) of the Orissa Act amended with effect from June 1	 1977 the second of the two notifications of April 23	 1976 and directed that the tax payable by a dealer under the Orissa Act on account of purchase of bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to be severed would be at the rate of 10%. On December 29	 1977 the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Ordinance	 1977 was promulgated amending the Orissa Act with effect from January	 1978. With effect from the same date two notifications SRO No 900177 and SRO No. 901177 were issued; the first notification which was issued under the provisions of section 3B and in supersession of all previous notifications on the subject	 declared that the goods mentioned in Column (2) of the schedule to the notification were liable to be taxed on the turnover of purchase with effect from January 1	 1978. Entries 2 and 17 in the schedule of this notification specified "bamboos agreed to be severed" and "standing trees agreed to be severed" respectively. Notification No. 901/77 issued under section 5 (1) was in supersession of all previous notifications in that regard. The State Government	 by this notification	 directed that with effect from January l 1978 the tax payable by a dealer under the Orissa Act on account of purchase of goods specified in column (2) of the schedule to the notification would be at the rate specified against it in column (3) thereof. The rate of purchase tax for bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to be severed was prescribed at 10%. The Ordinance was repealed and replaced by Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act of 1978. A large number of writ petitions were filed before the High Court impugning the notifications dated May 23	 1977 and December 29	 1977. One group of petitioners consisted of those who had entered into agreements with the State for the felling	 cutting	 obtaining and removing bamboos from forest areas for the manufacture of paper (bamboo contracts)	 and the other group consisted of those who had entered into agreements for the purchase of standing trees (Timber Contracts). The bamboo contracts were a grant of exclusive right and license to fell	 i cut and remove bamboos from the forest. Under the terms of auction the respondent was bound to pay a minimum royalty irrespective of the quantity of bamboos cut and removed. The Governor of the State was called the "grantor" of the licence. The bamboo contracts were in respect of different areas for periods ranging from 11 to 14 years with an option to renew the agreements for further periods. The respondent in CA No. 219182 contended before the High Court that the subject matter of the Bamboo contract was not a sale or purchase of goods but was a lease of immovable property or in any went was a creation of an interest in immovable property by way of grant profit a prendre which amounted to an easement under the and that for that reason the royalty payable under the bamboo contracts could not be made exigible to either sales tax or purchase tax and that the impugned provisions of the notifications were ultra vires the Act. It was also contended that the bamboo contract was 28 a works contract and for this reason also the transaction was not exigible to sales tax or purchase tax	 and since the two notifications of December 29	 1977 were expressed to be made in supersession of all earlier notifications on the subject	 the liability to sales tax under the said notifications of May 23	 1977 was wiped out. In Civil Appeal No. 220/82 the bids of the respondent firm at auctions held by the Government in respect of trees standing in forest areas were accepted and on confirmation of the bids by the competent authority it entered into agreements with the Government for felling and removing such trees. The respondent	 in turn	 sold the trees felled by it in the form of logs to others At the relevant time the respondent was successful at five auction sales and on ratification of the bids entered into five separate agreements (timber contracts) for felling and removing the trees standing in the forest areas. After the issue of the notifications of May 23. 1977 the respondent filed a writ petition in the High Court against the State and the Sales Tax and Forest Authorities contending (I) that the levy of purchase tax on standing timber agreed to be severed was beyond the legislative competence of the State Legislature and (2) the notifications imposed a tax both at the point of sale and at the point of purchase and for this reason were invalid and ultra vires the Act. It was also contended that timber contracts were works contracts and the amounts payable under them were not exigible either to purchase tax or sales tax. The High Court allowed all the writ petitions and quashed the impugned notifications. In appeal to the Supreme Court the State contended that the subject matter of the impugned provisions is "goods" within the meaning of the term in the Sales of Goods Act and the Orissa Act	 and that what was made exigible to tax under the impugned provisions notifications	 was a completed purchase of goods. ^ HELD: (I) Notification SRO Nos. 372/77 and 373/77 dated May 23	 1977	 (2) entries Nos. 2 and 17 in the schedule to notification No. 900177 and (3) entries Nos. 2 and 17 in the schedule to notification No. 901177 dated December 29	 1977 levying purchase tax at the rate of ten per cent on the purchase of bamboos agreed to be severed and standing trees agreed to be severed	 are not ultra vires either Entry 54 List II of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India or the Orissa Sales Tax Act 1947 but are constitutional and valid [145D F] (a) The Legislative competence to enact the Orissa Act	 which was a pre constitution enactment	 was derived from section 100 (3) of the Government of India Act	 1935 read with Entry 48 in List II in the Seventh Schedule to that Act. While Entry 48 spoke of "taxes on the sale of goods" Entry 54 of List II of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution speaks of "taxes on the sale or 29 purchase of goods. " The addition of the word "purchase" in Entry 54 permits the State Legislature to levy a purchase tax and does not confine its taxing power merely to levying sales tax. [62F; H] (b) A cantena of decisions of this Court had held that the expression "sale of goods" had been used in the Government of India Act	 1935 in the same sense in which it is used in the and that it authorised the imposition of a tax only when there was a completed sale involving transfer of title to the goods. While construing Entry 54 in List II of the Seventh Schedule to the constitution interpretation was adopted and any attempt by the State Legislature to give that expression an artificial meaning or an enlarged meaning or to bring within its scope what would not be comprehended within that expression would be unconstitutional and ultra vires. [63F; 64G H; 63G] State of Madras vs Cannon Dunkerley & Co. (Madras) Ltd. ; ; The Sales Tax Officer Pilibhit vs Messrs. Budh Prakash Jai Prakash [955] 1 SCR 243	 247. Bhopal Sugar Industries Ltd. M.P. & Anr. vs P. Dube Sales Tax Officer Bhopal Region Bhopal & Anr. AIR 1964 SC 1037; K.L. Johar & Co vs Deputy Commercial Tax Officer ; Joint Commercial Tax Officer Harbour Div. II Madras vs Young Men 's India Association (Reg.) Madras & Anr. ; ; State of Maharashtra & Anr. vs Champalal Kishanlal Mohta [1971] 1 SCR 46	 followed. (c) Although a State is free to impose a tax at one or more points in a series of sales or purchases in respect of the same goods	 the Orissa Act has adopted a single point levy by enacting the proviso to section 3 under which no tax is payable on the sale of goods or class of goods declared under that section to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases. The proviso to section 8 states that "the same goods shall not be taxed at more than one point in the same series of sales or purchases by successive dealers. " Therefore	 where in a series of sales or purchases tax is levied at a particular point neither sales tax nor purchase tax can be levied at another point in the same series. [65C E] (d) Since any attempt on the part of the State to impose by legislation tax on sales or purchases in respect of what would not be "sale" or a "sale of goods" under The is unconstitutional	 any attempt by it to do so in the exercise of its power of making subordinate legislation	 would be equally unconstitutional. Similarly. where any rule or notification travels beyond the ambit of the parent Act	 it would be ultra vires the Act. Equally	 sales tax authorities purporting to act under the Act or under any rule made or notification issued thereunder cannot travel beyond the scope of such Act	 rule or notification. Thus	 the sales tax authorities under the Orissa Act cannot assess to sales tax or purchase tax	 a transaction which is not a sale or purchase of 30 goods or assess to sales tax any goods or class of goods which are liable to purchase tax or assess to tax	 whether sales tax or purchase tax	 goods at another point in the same series of sales or purchases of those goods by successive dealers who are liable to be taxed at a different point in that series. [65G H: 56A C] (2) There is no substance in the argument of the respondent that by the impugned provisions a new class of goods. not known to law	 had been created. The definition of the expression "goods ' in both the and the Orissa Act which is almost in identical terms	 includes "things attached to or forming part of The land which are agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale." [66E; G H] (a) An examination of the definitions of movable property and immovable property given in the General Clauses Act	 Registration Act and Transfer of Property Act	 show that things attached to the earth are "immovable property. " The term "attachment" means "rooted in the earth as in the case of trees and shrubs." Thus	 while trees rooted in the earth are immovable property as being things attached to the earth by reason of the definition of the term "immovable property" in various statutes namely the General Clauses Act and the Orissa General Clauses Act and the Registration Act read with the definition of the expression "attached to the earth" given in the Transfer of Property Act	 standing timber is "movable property" by reason of its exclusion from the definition of "immovable property" in the Transfer of Property Act and the Registration Act and by being expressly included within the meaning of the term "movable property" given in the Registration Act. [67E; 68F; 68G H; 69A] (b) The term "standing timber" has been judicially recognised as "a tree which ii in a state fit for the purposes of being used as wood for buildings	 houses	 bridges	 windows	 whether on the tree or cut and seasoned"	 that is	 a tree meant to be converted into timber so shortly that it could already be looked upon as timber for all practical purposes even though it is still standing. Thus	 trees which are ready to be felled would be standing timber and therefore "movable property." While trees (including bamboos) rooted in the earth being things attached to the earth are immovable property and if they are "standing timber"	 are movable property	 trees (including bamboos) rooted in the earth which are agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale are not only movable property but also goods. [o9D E; 70B C] Smt. Shantabai vs State of Bombay & Ors. ; 	 275 6	 followed. (c) The distinction which existed in English law between fructus naturales (natural growth of soil regarded as part of the soil until severance) and fructus industriales (which are chattels considered as representing the labour and expense of the occupier and thing independent of the land) does not exist in Indian law. In a case of this nature the only question that falls for consideration in Indian law is whether a transaction relates to "goods" or "movable 31 property". If it is sale of immovable property	 a document of the kind specified in section 17 of the Registration Act is required to be compulsorily registered but a document relating to sale of goods or of movable property is not required to be registered. Secondly under Entry 54 of List 11 of the Seventh Schedule the State cannot levy a tax on the sale or purchase of any property other than goods. [71C D] 3. The respondent 's contention that the impugned provisions levied a purchase tax on immovable property and not on goods and that the State Government has travelled beyond its taxing power has no merit. [71F] (a) The High Court erred in holding that the impugned provisions amounted to levying a tax on an agreement to sell and not on actual sale or purchase	 that standing trees being unascertained goods continued to be the property of the State Government until felled and therefore the title to such trees or bamboos is transferred in favour of the Forest Contractor only when the trees or bamboos were felled and severed in accordance with the terms of the contract. There is a fallacy in the reasoning of the High Court in that the High Court read merely the description of the goods given in the impugned provisions by itself and not in conjunction with their governing words. [71G H; 72A B] (b) Tax levied under section 3B is not on goods declared under that section but on the turnover of purchases of such goods. A reading of the notification	 issued under sections 3B and 5(1) as a whole makes it clear that the taxable event is not an agreement to sever standing trees or bamboos but the purchase of bamboos or standing trees agreed to be severed. [72C D] (c) The use of the terms "agreed" in the description of goods showed that there must be an agreement between the buyer and the seller and under this agreement standing trees as also bamboos must be agreed to be severed. According to the definition of "goods" such severance may be either before sale or under the contract of sale	 The makes a distinction between sale and agreement to sell and provides that where there is a transfer from the buyer to the seller of property in the goods which are the subject matter of the agreement to sell	 the contract of sale is a sale but when the transfer of property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereafter to be fulfilled it is an agreement to sell which becomes a sale when the time elapses or such conditions are fulfilled. In the first case the contract is "executed contract" while in the second it is "executory." [72E; 73C D] (d) A conspectus of the relevant sections o	 the shows that a purchase would be complete when the goods (in the case standing trees or bamboos) are specific goods. If these factors exist	 then unless a different intention appears either from the terms of the contract or can be inferred from the conduct of the parties and other circumstances of the case	 the property in such goods would pass from the seller to the buyer when the contract is made and it is immaterial whether the time of payment of the price or the time of 32 taking their delivery (of standing trees agreed to be severed or bamboos agreed to be severed or both) is postponed. If	 however	 there is an unconditional contract for the sale of unascertained goods then unless a different intention appear 	 the property in them would be transferred to the buyer when the goods are ascertained and it would be immaterial whether the time of payment of the price or the time of taking delivery of standing trees agreed to be severed or bamboos agreed to be severed or both is postponed. In either event	 the sale and purchase would be completed before severance. Therefore for the impugned provisions to apply the severance of the standing trees or bamboos must not be before sale but under the contract of sale	 that is	 after the sale thereof is completed. The absence in the impugned provisions of the words "before sale or under the contract of sale" thus made no difference. The subject matter of the impugned provisions was goods and the tax levied thereunder was on the completed purchase of goods. [76F H; 77A C] 4. The High Court has confused the question of interpretation of the impugned provisions with the interpretation of Timber Contracts and Bamboo Contracts. The question of the validity of the impugned provisions had nothing to do with the legality of any action taken thereunder to make exigible to tax a particular transaction. If a notification is invalid	 all action taken under it would be invalid also. Where on the other hand	 a Notification is valid	 an action purported to be taken thereunder contrary to the terms of that notification would be bad in law without affecting in any manner the validity of the notification. Were the interpretation placed by the High Court on the Bamboo contracts and the Timber Contracts correct	 the transactions covered by them would not be liable to be taxed under the impugned provisions and any attempt or action by the State to do so would be illegal but the validity of the impugned provisions would not be affected thereby. There is no merit in the challenge to the validity of the impugned provisions on the ground of their unconstitutionality. [77D; F H; 78A] 5. (a) The High Court also erred in its view that bamboos and trees agreed to be severed were the same as bamboos and timber after they were felled and that since bamboos and trees were liable to tax at the sale point	 taxation of the same goods at the purchase point amounted to double taxation and that this was contrary to the provisions of the Orissa Act. [78C] (b) Not only does the Orissa Act expressly forbids double taxation but it also forbids the levying of tax at more than one point in the same series of sales or purchases by successive dealers This is evident from the provisos to sections 3B and 8. Under the proviso to section 3B no tax is payable sales of goods or class of goods declared under that section to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases. Under the proviso to section 8 the same goods are not to be taxed at more than one point in the same series of sales or purchases by successive dealers. [78E F] (c) The two notifications of December 29	 1977 were issued as a result the Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) ordinance 1977 which later became the 33 Orissa Sales Tax (Amendment) Act	 1978	 while the two notifications of May 23	 1977 were issued prior to the amendment. [79A] (d) Prior to January 1	 1978 under section 5(1) tax was payable by a dealer on his taxable turnover of sales as also purchases at n certain fixed percentage. This rate applied both to sales tax and purchase tax. But the purchase tax was payable only on the turnover of purchases of goods declared B under section 3B. In respect of goods not so declared a dealer was liable to pay only sales tax. Under the proviso to this section	 if goods were declared to be liable to purchase tax	 no tax was payable on sales of such goods. Under section 5(1) the State Government was required to issue t notification only when it wanted to fix a rate of tax higher or lower than that specified in this section. If no such notification was issued then the tax payable	 be it sales tax or purchase tax	 was to be at the rate mentioned in section 5(l). Where	 however	 any goods were declared under section 3B to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases	 the notification prescribing a higher or lower rate of sales tax issued under the first proviso to section 5(1) would thereupon ceases to be observative by reason of the operation of the proviso to section 3B and it was not necessary to repeal expressly that notification. It was also not necessary for the State Government to issue a notification fixing the rate of purchase tax unless it wanted to fix a rate higher or lower than that specified in section 5(1). Where no such notification was issued	 the rate of purchase tax would be the one which was mentioned in section 5(1). [79C H] (e) After January 1	 1978 no rate of tax was specified in the Orissa Act. Under section 5(1) the State Government is given power to notify from time to time the rate of tax sales tax or purchase tax by issuing notifications. The notification dated December 29	 1977 issued under section 5(1) does not contain any entry in respect of bamboos	 or timber or in respect of bamboos agreed to be severed or standing trees agreed to be severed. If they were liable to sales tax	 they would fall under the residuary entry No. 101 and be liable to sales tax at the rate of seven percent. If any goods feeling under the residuary entry or any other entry in that notification are declared under section 3B to be liable to tax on the turnover of purchases	 the residuary entry or that particular entry would automatically cease to operate in respect of those goods by reason of the proviso to section 3B without there being any necessity to delete that particular entry or to amend the residuary entry by excluding those goods therefrom. It would be necessary for the State Government to issue a notification specifying the rate of purchase tax on those goods because unlike what the position was prior to January 1	 1978	 on and after that date the new sub section 5(1) does not specify any rate of tax but leaves it to the State Government to notify it from time to time. The High Court was in error in holding that the impugned provisions were ultra vires the Orissa Act as they amounted to "double taxation." [80A E] 6. (a) There was no substance in the contention that the two notifications of December 29	 1977 having been made in supersession of all previous notifications issued on the subject their effect was to wipe out all tax liability which accrued under the earlier notifications of May 23	 1977. [80G H] 34 (b) The word "supersession" in the notifications of December 29	 1977 was used in the same sense as the words "repeal and replacement" and	 there fore	 does not have the effect of wiping out the tax liability under the previous notifications. All that was done by using the words "in supersession of all previous notification" in the Notifications of December 29	 1977	 was to repeal and replace the previous notifications and not to wipe out any liability incurred under the previous notifications. [146C D] (c) Both sections 3B and 5(1) in express terms conferred power upon the State Government to issue notification from time to time. Under these provisions the State Government can issue a notification and repeal and replace it by another notification. [81C] (d) The issuance of the notifications became necessary by reason of the change brought about in the scheme of taxation in 1977. With effect from January 1	 1978 unless a notification was issued specifying the rate of tax	 no dealer would be liable to pay any tax under the Orissa Act. Under the amended section if the State Government wanted to tax any goods Or class of goods at a higher or lower rate it issued notifications specifications specifying such rate. Since no rate of lax was specified in the new section but was left to the State Government to fix it	 it was necessary to issue a notification consolidating all previous notifications on the subject in respect of goods liable to purchase tax which the State Government did. [82E; 83A; C; D] 7. (a) Timber contracts were not works contracts but were agreements to sell standing timber. [146D] (b) Timber contracts were not transactions of sale or purchase of standing trees agreed to be severed They were merely agreements to sell such trees. The property in the trees passed to the respondent firm only in the trees which were felled	 that is	 in timber	 after all the conditions of the contract had been complied with and after such timber was examined and checked and removed from the contract area. The impugned provisions	 therefore	 did not apply to the transactions covered by the Timber Contracts [98 A B] (c) A conspectus of the terms of the Sale Notice	 the Special Conditions of Contract	 the General Conditions of Contract and the various statutory provisions shows that the heading "sale notice of timber` ' as also the use of the words ' timber and other forest products will be sold by public auction" are not determinative of the matter. The other terms and conditions of the contract make it clear that the Timber Contracts were not unconditional contracts for the sale of goods in a deliverable state and the property in the trees specified in Schedule I of the Contract did not pass to the respondent firm when each of the contracts was made. The signing of the Timber Contracts did not result in a concluded contract because each contract was conditional upon the y State Government ratifying the acceptance of the bid	 the ratification order did not become an unconditional contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliver able state for the respondent firm had no right to sever the trees and take them away before complying with the other conditions of the contract	 namely	 furni 35 shing a Coupe Declaration Certificate within the prescribed time	 registering the property mark or trade mark	 making the security deposit and so on. This apart	 the respondent firm was not at liberty to fell trees of his choice nor was he entitled to remove the felled trees by any route which it liked but only by specified routes. [95F H; 96B C; 97A B] (d) Although under rule 40 of the Orissa Forest Contract Rules 1966	 Rules stipulates that the respondent	 firm was not entitled to any compensation for loss sustained by reason of fire	 tempest	 disease	 natural calamity or any wrongful act of a third party this only showed that after a Timber Contract was concluded the risk passed to the respondent firm. Under section 26 of the when the property is transferred to the buyer	 the goods are at the buyer 's risk whether delivery had been made or not; but this section is qualified by the phrase "unless otherwise agreed. " The Timber Contracts in this case were subject to contract to the contrary. This is made clear by rule 44 which states that "all forest produce removed from a contract area in accordance with these rules shall be at the absolute disposal of the forest contractor." [97E H] 8. (a) On the question whether the words "timber" and "logs" mean the same thing in commercial parlance the no material had been produced by the parties. Where a term has not been statutorily defined or judicially interpreted and there is insufficient material on record as to the meaning of the words	 the Court must seek to ascertain its meaning in common parlance with such aid as is available to it. The court may take the aid of dictionaries in such cases to ascertain its meaning in common parlance. In doing so	 the Court must bear in mind that a word is used in different senses according to its context and a dictionary gives all the meanings of a word and the Court would have to select the particular meaning which would be relevant to the context in which it has to interpret that word. [104E; 105B C; 146G H] (b) The Orissa Act does not define the term "timber" or "logs. " The statutory definition of "timber" given in the Orissa Forest Act	 1972 is that timber includes "trees fallen or felled and all wood cut up or sawn." The Madras Forest Act	 1882 and the 	 the two Acts in force in the State of Orissa prior to the enactment of the Orissa Forest Act	 1972 too have not given any exhaustive definition of the term "timber. " But what is apparent from these definitions is that the word "timber" is not confined merely to felled trees in the forests In subsequent Act like the Orissa Forest Produce (Control of Trade) Act	 1981 the concept that timber is not merely felled trees has been emphasised. Therefore. a conspectus of the meanings given to the term "timber" in statutes	 different dictionaries and as judicially interpreted by this Court as well as by some High Courts shows that it means "building material	 generally wood	 used for building of houses	 ships etc. and the word is applied to wood of growing trees capable of being used for structural purposes. Hence	 collectively to the trees themselves." A log according to the dictionaries means a bulky mass of wood now usually an unhewn portion of a felled tree or a length cut off for firewood. These logs will be nothing more than wood cut up or 36 sawn and would be timber. Similarly	 a beam is timber sawn in a particular way. So too ratters would be timber logs put to a particular use. In ordinary parlance a plank would be flattened and smoothed timber. ; 107A D; F] Mohanlal Vishram vs Commissioner of Sales Tax	 Madhya Pradesh	 Indore [1969] 24 STC 101; G. Ramaswamy and others vs The State of Andhra Pradesh and others [1973] 32 STC 309	 approved and Krupasindhu Sahu & Sons vs State of Orissa [1975] 35 STC 270. overruled. (a) Sales of dressed or sized logs having been assessed to sales tax	 sales to the respondent Firm of timber by the State Government from which logs were made by the respondent firm cannot be made liable to sales tax as it would amount to levying tax at two points in the same series of sales by successive dealers	 assuming that the retrospectively substituted definition of "dealer" in clause (c) of section 2 of the Orissa Sales Tax Act	 1947 is valid. [147B C] (b) Sales of logs by the respondent firm during the period June 1	 1977 and December 31	 1977 would be liable to tax at the rate of ten percent. Assuming that the sales had been assessed to tax at the rate of six percent as contended by reason of the period of limitation prescribed by section 12(8) of the Orissa Act	 the respondent firms assessment for the relevant period cannot be re opened to reassess such sales at ten per cent. [147D E] 10. (a) The Bamboo Contract is not a lease of the contract area to the respondent company in CA 219182. Nor is it a grant of an easement to the respondent company	 as it was not a grant of any right for the beneficial equipment of any of the respondent company. In addition to the right of entry there are other important rights flowing from the contract. It is a grant of a profit a prendre which in Indian law is a benefit to arise out of land and thus creates an interest is immovable property. A profit a prendre is a benefit arising out of land and in view of section 3(26) of the General Clauses Act	 it is "immovable property" within the meaning of the Transfer of Property Act. [147F H] (b) There are countervailing factors which 80 to show that a Bamboo contract is not a contract of sale of goods. It is a grant of exclusive right and licence to fell	 cut	 obtain and remove bamboos. The person giving the grant the Governor of the State	 is referred to as "grantor"; the consideration payable is "royalty" which is not a term used in legal parlance for the price of goods sold. It is not an agreement to sell bamboos standing in the contract area with the accessory licence to enter upon such area for the purpose of felling and removing bamboos nor is it for a particular felling season only. It is an agreement for a period ranging from fourteen	 thirteen and eleven years with the option to renew the contract for further terms of twelves years. The payment of royalty has no relation to the actual quantity of bamboos cut and removed. The respondent company was bound to pay a minimum royalty and the royalty paid was always in excess of the royalty due on the bamboos cut in the contract areas. The Bamboo contract conferred upon the respondent company a 37 benefit to arise out of land	 namely	 the right to cut and remove bamboos which would grow from the soil coupled with several ancillary rights and was thus a grant of a profit a prendre. Being a profit a prendre or a benefit to arise out of land any attempt on the part of the State Government to tax the amounts payable under the Bamboo Contract would not only be ultra vires the Orissa Act but also unconstitutional as being beyond the State 's taxing power under Entry 54 in List II in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India. [119C; E; 120B D; 121G H] 11. The decision of Firm Chhotabhai Jethabhai Patel & Co. vs The State of Madhya Pradesh on which the appellant relied is not good law and has been overruled by decisions of larger Benches of this Court. (State of Madhya Pradesh vs Yakinuddin ; [148A] M/s Mohanlal Hargovind of Jubbulpore vs Commissioner of Income Tax C.P. & Berar Nagpur L.R. [1949] 76 I A. 235; ILR 1949 Nagpur 892; AIR 1449 PC 311; Ananda Behra and another vs The State of Orissa and another ; and Smt. Shantabai vs State of Bombay & Orissa ; 275 6 referred to; and Board of Revenue Etc. vs A.M. Ansari Etc.[1976] 3 SCR 661 held 1 inapplicable. (a) The case of State of M.P. vs Orient Paper Mills Ltd. on which the appellant relied is not good law as that decision was given per incurium and had laid down principles of interpretation which are wrong in law. The basic and salient features of the agreement before the Court in Orient Paper Mills ' Case were the same as in the case of Mahadeo vs State of Bombay and the Court was not justified in not adverting to that case and the other cases referred to on the ground that these cases dealt with the general law of real property. [142 H; 143A]. (b) The enunciation of law made by the Court in the Orient Paper Milts case that a document should be so construed as t o bring it within the ambit of a particular statute relevant for the purpose of the dispute before the court and that in order to do so	 the Court could look at only such of the clauses of the document as also to just one or more	 of the consequences flowing from he document which would fit in with the interpretation which the court wanted to put on the document to make that statute applicable	 is fraught with considerable danger and mischief as it may expose documents to the personal predilictions and philosophies of individual judges depending upon whether according to them it would be desirable that documents of the type they have to construe should be made subject to a particular statute or not. [139E G] (c) Secondly	 in observing that the State Government	 for reasons best known to it had "left the exploitation of the forest resources in part to the private sector" the court had overlooked that it was a matter of policy for the State to decide whether such transactions should be entered into or not	 whether the transactions entered into by the State was for the industrial development of 38 the State and whether the transaction ensured employment for the people of the area and so on. (d) Thirdly	 the nature and meaning of a document cannot be deter mined by its end result or one of the consequences which flow from it. In look in merely at the end result of the agreement the court overlooked a firmly established principle that both the agreement and the sale must relate to the same subject matter and therefore	 there cannot be an agreement relating to one kind of property and a sale as regards another. [141C D] (e) In coming to the conclusion that the term "royalty" used in the document before it was merely a 'euphimism" for the "price of timber". the court overlooked the fact that the amount of royalty payable by the respondent was consideration for all the rights conferred upon it under the contract though it was to be calculated according to the quantity of bamboos felled.[141H; 142A] 13. Where there are two or more conflicting views of this court on the same point the proper course for the High Court or even for smaller Benches of this court is to find out and follow the views expressed by larger Benches of this court in preference to those expressed by smaller benches This practice has crystallised into a rule of law declared by this Court. [142E F] U.O.I. vs K.S. Subramanian [1977]1 SCR 87	 92	 followed. A works contract is a compendious term to describe conveniently a contract for the performance of work or services in which the supply of materials or some other goods is incidental. In the instant case	 the timber Contracts being agreements relating to movable property and the Bamboos Contracts being a grant of an interest in immovable property	 cannot be works contracts. The payee of the price	 namely	 the Government has not undertaken to do any work or labour. It was the contractor who had to enter upon the land to fell the trees and remove them. So is the case of Bamboo Contracts. [144H; 145A] Commissioner of Sales tax	 M.P. v Purshottam Premji [1970] 26 STC 38	 41 S.C.	 referred to.