rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Emotion

Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems. This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems (Kurt Kortschal 2013). These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring. In the five million years since the linages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified. This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In voles (Microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system (Hammock & Young 2005). Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language (Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005). Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans (Enard et al. 2002). Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions.

Question: Who researched the role of emotional phenotype temperaments on social connectedness?
Answer: Kurt Kortschal

Question: From where do zygotes derive their genetic information?
Answer: their parental germ cells

Question: What percentage of difference is there between the genetic material of humans and the genetic material of chimpanzees?
Answer: 1.2%

Question: How many million years ago did the evolution of chimpanzees and humans diverge?
Answer: five

Question: About how long ago did modern human beings first come into existence?
Answer: 200,000 years
Title: Emotion

Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of fear. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition.

Question: Along with mood, temperament, disposition and motivation, what is emotion often tied to?
Answer: personality

Question: What do some theories see as an important part of emotion?
Answer: cognition

Question: Along with sweating and muscle tension, what might be a physiological response to danger?
Answer: rapid heartbeat and breathing

Question: Sweating is a product of the arousal of what system?
Answer: nervous
Title: Emotion

Emotions have been described by some theorists as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms. Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity. Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame. Emotions have also been described as biologically given and a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors. Moods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that often lack a contextual stimulus.

Question: Who described the concept of a continuum of intensity?
Answer: Michael C. Graham

Question: What is Michael Graham's profession?
Answer: Psychotherapist

Question: What is an example of an extreme form of fear?
Answer: terror

Question: What would be an example of mild shame?
Answer: embarrassment

Question: What are non-intense feelings that lack a contextual stimulus called?
Answer: Moods
Title: Emotion

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (e.g. disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.

Question: Who has argued that emotions are discrete?
Answer: Paul Ekman

Question: How many basic emotions did Ekman recognize?
Answer: six

Question: Along with anger, disgust, happiness, sadness and fear, what is one of Ekman's basic emotions?
Answer: surprise
Title: Emotion

Western philosophy regarded emotion in varying ways. In stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and therefore a hindrance to virtue. Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue. In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas in particular. There are also theories of emotions in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective.

Question: What school of thought saw emotion as an impediment to virtue?
Answer: stoic

Question: What thinker believed that emotions were necessary for virtue?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: What did the Aristotelians call emotions?
Answer: passions

Question: Who was a notable scholastic thinker?
Answer: Thomas Aquinas

Question: Along with Descartes, Machiavelli and Hume, what notable philosopher developed a theory of emotions?
Answer: Baruch Spinoza
Title: Emotion

In his 1884 article William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion." To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."

Question: Who wrote that exciting facts lead to emotions?
Answer: William James

Question: What did James believe a stimulus act upon to produce emotion?
Answer: the autonomic nervous system

Question: What did James believe emotion was synonymous with?
Answer: the perception of bodily changes

Question: Who developed a theory similar to that of James?
Answer: Carl Lange

Question: What was the profession of Lange?
Answer: psychologist
Title: Emotion

The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example Schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyse the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural or political history perspectives. Others focus on the history of medicine, science or psychology. What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules. It is thus historically variable and open to change. Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain, Sweden and Australia.

Question: What historical school claims that sentiments and meta-emotions can be learned?
Answer: constructivist

Question: According to the constructivists, what is an example of a learned meta-emotion?
Answer: Schadenfreude

Question: Along with Germany, England, Spain and Australia, where has a research center on the history of emotions recently opened?
Answer: Sweden

Question: Along with class and race, what is regarded as an essential category of historical analysis?
Answer: gender
Title: Emotion

Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Interestingly, Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear. With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.

Question: Whose work did the theory of Stanley Schachter build on?
Answer: Gregorio Marañón

Question: What did Gregorio Marañón inject his patients with?
Answer: epinephrine

Question: What was the nationality of Gregorio Marañón?
Answer: Spanish

Question: Who was a notable student of  Stanley Schachter?
Answer: Jerome Singer

Question: In what year was the book Gut Reactions by Jesse Prinz published?
Answer: 2004
Title: Emotion

In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992), pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991) conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990) developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

Question: In what decade did sociologists focus on the social relevance of emotion?
Answer: 1990s

Question: What emotions did Cooley regard as of paramount social importance?
Answer: pride and shame

Question: Who studied rage and shame cycles in married couples?
Answer: Retzinger

Question: Who developed the social bond theory?
Answer: Scheff

Question: Along with Cooley, from whose work did Scheff derive social bond theory?
Answer: Goffman
Title: Emotion

Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience. For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (e.g., trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.). Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).

Question: What is the term for the strategies used by people to influence their emotional experiences?
Answer: Emotion regulation

Question: What type of strategy involves avoiding a situation where unwanted emotions might be experienced?
Answer: behavioral

Question: Rational emotive behavior therapy is an approach used by what psychotherapy schools?
Answer: Cognitively oriented schools

Question: What sort of therapy might examine emotions based on components of facial expressions?
Answer: Gestalt therapy
Title: Emotion

Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).

Question: What system was examined to develop the neurobiological explanation of human emotion?
Answer: limbic

Question: What classification of chemicals do dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline belong to?
Answer: neurochemicals

Question: What chemicals may mediate emotions?
Answer: pheromones

Question: Reactive responses are present in the brains of what animals?
Answer: reptiles

Question: The neurobiological explanation is specific to what types of brains?
Answer: mammalian
Title: Emotion

Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.

Question: What discipline studies the role of emotions in neural mechanisms?
Answer: Human sciences

Question: What fields studies the role of emotions in the treatment of human mental disorders?
Answer: psychiatry

Question: What profession studies the role of emotions in providing holistic health care?
Answer: Nursing

Question: What is affective neuroscience a sub-field of?
Answer: neuroscience

Question: What field studies the relationship between emotion and learning?
Answer: education
Title: Emotion

Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004) formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.

Question: Who came up with the interaction ritual theory?
Answer: Randall Collins

Question: From what work of Durkheim's was interaction ritual theory derived?
Answer: totemic rituals

Question: In addition to Durkheim, whose work influenced the development of interaction ritual theory?
Answer: Goffman

Question: What is the term for a feeling of confidence to take action?
Answer: Emotional energy

Question: What is the term for the energy generated during group gatherings, such as totemic rituals?
Answer: collective effervescence
Title: Emotion

In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions. In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science. While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion, the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper on affective computing. Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors.

Question: Of what discipline is affective computing a branch?
Answer: computer science

Question: What is the foundational document of affective computing?
Answer: Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper

Question: In affective computing, what devices are used to collect data about the physical state of a user?
Answer: passive sensors

Question: How does emotional speech processing determine a user's emotional state?
Answer: analyzing speech patterns
Title: Emotion

Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. At one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: William James with a subjective experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components. The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. A similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (e.g., anger, surprise etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts.

Question: Along with subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior and psychophysiological changes, what is another notable emotional component?
Answer: instrumental behavior

Question: With what emotional component did William James identify emotion?
Answer: subjective experience

Question: What emotional component did behaviorists identify emotion with?
Answer: instrumental behavior

Question: What academics identified emotions with physiological changes?
Answer: psychophysiologists

Question: Who discussed emotions in the context of expressive body actions and cultural labels?
Answer: Peggy Thoits
Title: Emotion

In Scherer's components processing model of emotion, five crucial elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the component processing model provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode.

Question: What model of emotion was developed by Scherer?
Answer: components processing model

Question: How many important emotional elements are present in the components processing model?
Answer: five

Question: What processes drive the other components processing model processes?
Answer: appraisal