rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Adolescence

A broad way of defining adolescence is the transition from child-to-adulthood. According to Hogan & Astone (1986), this transition can include markers such as leaving school, starting a full-time job, leaving the home of origin, getting married, and becoming a parent for the first time. However, the time frame of this transition varies drastically by culture. In some countries, such as the United States, adolescence can last nearly a decade, but in others, the transition—often in the form of a ceremony—can last for only a few days.

Question: The transition from child-to-adulthood can be broadly defined as what?
Answer: adolescence

Question: How long does the United States believe adolescence lasts?
Answer: nearly a decade

Question: Does the time frame of adolescence vary from culture to culture or remain universally agreed upon?
Answer: varies drastically by culture

Question: Leaving school, starting a full-time job, getting married, and becoming a parent for the first time are markers in what stage of one's development, according to Hogan & Astone?
Answer: adolescence
Title: Adolescence

The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function. Furthermore, even within a single nation state or culture there can be different ages at which an individual is considered (chronologically and legally) mature enough for society to entrust them with certain privileges and responsibilities. Such milestones include driving a vehicle, having legal sexual relations, serving in the armed forces or on a jury, purchasing and drinking alcohol, voting, entering into contracts, finishing certain levels of education, and marriage. Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence.

Question: Is adolescence usually accompanied by increased parental supervision or increased independence?
Answer: independence

Question: Do milestones such as driving a vechile, serving on a jury, voting, and marriage all have a common age of responsibility?
Answer: different ages

Question: Is the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood easily agreed upon or does it vary by country?
Answer: varies by country
Title: Adolescence

Facial hair in males normally appears in a specific order during puberty: The first facial hair to appear tends to grow at the corners of the upper lip, typically between 14 to 17 years of age. It then spreads to form a moustache over the entire upper lip. This is followed by the appearance of hair on the upper part of the cheeks, and the area under the lower lip. The hair eventually spreads to the sides and lower border of the chin, and the rest of the lower face to form a full beard. As with most human biological processes, this specific order may vary among some individuals. Facial hair is often present in late adolescence, around ages 17 and 18, but may not appear until significantly later. Some men do not develop full facial hair for 10 years after puberty. Facial hair continues to get coarser, darker and thicker for another 2–4 years after puberty.

Question: When do the first facial hairs present in pubescent males?
Answer: between 14 to 17 years of age

Question: For how long does facial hair continue to get darker, coarser, and thicker?
Answer: 2–4 years after puberty

Question: Where does facial hair first present during puberty?
Answer: corners of the upper lip
Title: Adolescence

The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in the individual's height and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later, on average, than females. During their peak height velocity (the time of most rapid growth), adolescents grow at a growth rate nearly identical to that of a toddler—about 4 inches (10.3 cm) a year for males and 3.5 inches (9 cm) for females. In addition to changes in height, adolescents also experience a significant increase in weight (Marshall, 1978). The weight gained during adolescence constitutes nearly half of one's adult body weight. Teenage and early adult males may continue to gain natural muscle growth even after puberty.

Question: Do males or females experience growth spurts first?
Answer: females

Question: How much later on average do males experience their growth spurt?
Answer: two years later

Question: What is the growth rate during peak height velocity for a male adolescent?
Answer: 4 inches (10.3 cm) a year

Question: What is the growth rate during peak height velocity for a female adolescent?
Answer: 3.5 inches (9 cm)

Question: Growth rates during adolescent are comparible to those of what other life stage?
Answer: toddler
Title: Adolescence

Over the course of adolescence, the amount of white matter in the brain increases linearly, while the amount of grey matter in the brain follows an inverted-U pattern. Through a process called synaptic pruning, unnecessary neuronal connections in the brain are eliminated and the amount of grey matter is pared down. However, this does not mean that the brain loses functionality; rather, it becomes more efficient due to increased myelination (insulation of axons) and the reduction of unused pathways.

Question: Does the amount of white matter in the brain increase or decrease over the course of adolescence?
Answer: increases

Question: Does the amount of grey matter in the brain increase linearly or follow an inverted-U pattern over the course of adolescence?
Answer: inverted-U pattern

Question: During which process are unnecessary neuronal connections in the brain eliminated?
Answer: synaptic pruning

Question: Does the brain become more or less efficient as a result of synaptic pruning?
Answer: more efficient
Title: Adolescence

Adolescence is also a time for rapid cognitive development. Piaget describes adolescence as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form and the egocentric thoughts decrease. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective. A combination of behavioural and fMRI studies have demonstrated development of executive functions, that is, cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behaviour, which are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex. The thoughts, ideas and concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence one's future life, playing a major role in character and personality formation.

Question: Who describes adolescence as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form?
Answer: Piaget

Question: What is another term for congitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior?
Answer: executive functions

Question: Which cortex is commonly associated with the coordination of thoughts and behavior?
Answer: prefrontal cortex

Question: Does Piaget believe that egocentric thoughts decrease or increase during adolescence?
Answer: decrease
Title: Adolescence

The appearance of more systematic, abstract thinking is another notable aspect of cognitive development during adolescence. For example, adolescents find it easier than children to comprehend the sorts of higher-order abstract logic inherent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. Their increased facility permits them to appreciate the ways in which language can be used to convey multiple messages, such as satire, metaphor, and sarcasm. (Children younger than age nine often cannot comprehend sarcasm at all.) This also permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to social and ideological matters such as interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, morality, friendship, faith, democracy, fairness, and honesty.

Question: Do adolescents or children understand puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies most effectively?
Answer: adolescents

Question: Children under what age often cannot comprehend sarcasm?
Answer: nine

Question: Are puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies lower-order or higher-order logic?
Answer: higher-order

Question: The appearance of more systematic, abstract thinking is a notable aspect of what type of development during adolescence?
Answer: cognitive
Title: Adolescence

Because most injuries sustained by adolescents are related to risky behavior (car crashes, alcohol, unprotected sex), a great deal of research has been done on the cognitive and emotional processes underlying adolescent risk-taking. In addressing this question, it is important to distinguish whether adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors (prevalence), whether they make risk-related decisions similarly or differently than adults (cognitive processing perspective), or whether they use the same processes but value different things and thus arrive at different conclusions. The behavioral decision-making theory proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action. However, research has shown that adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, particularly social rewards, than do adults.

Question: Most injuries sustained by adolescents are related to what?
Answer: risky behavior

Question: Do adolescents, adults, or both weight the potential rewards and consequences of an action?
Answer: both

Question: Do adolescents or adults seem to give more weight to rewards?
Answer: adolescents

Question: Which theory proposes that adults and adolescents both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action?
Answer: behavioral decision-making theory
Title: Adolescence

Further distinctions in self-concept, called "differentiation," occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves. Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence. Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the personality traits adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years (see Cognitive dissonance), but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.

Question: When does differentiation appear fully developed?
Answer: by mid-adolescence

Question: Does the recognition of inconsistent content in one's self-concept typically bring distress or peace to an adolescent?
Answer: distress

Question: When adolescents begin to qualify their traits, what are they demonstrating?
Answer: differentiation
Title: Adolescence

In 1989, Troiden proposed a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity. The first stage, known as sensitization, usually starts in childhood, and is marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions. The second stage, identity confusion, tends to occur a few years later. In this stage, the youth is overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation, and begins to engage sexual experiences with same-sex partners. In the third stage of identity assumption, which usually takes place a few years after the adolescent has left home, adolescents begin to come out to their family and close friends, and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. In the final stage, known as commitment, the young adult adopts their sexual identity as a lifestyle. Therefore, this model estimates that the process of coming out begins in childhood, and continues through the early to mid 20s. This model has been contested, and alternate ideas have been explored in recent years.

Question: In what year did Troiden propose a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity?
Answer: 1989

Question: What is Troiden's first stage of development known as?
Answer: sensitization

Question: When does sensitization usually start?
Answer: childhood

Question: In what stage is youth overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation?
Answer: identity confusion

Question: Troiden's second stage is referred to as what?
Answer: identity confusion
Title: Adolescence

During childhood, siblings are a source of conflict and frustration as well as a support system. Adolescence may affect this relationship differently, depending on sibling gender. In same-sex sibling pairs, intimacy increases during early adolescence, then remains stable. Mixed-sex siblings pairs act differently; siblings drift apart during early adolescent years, but experience an increase in intimacy starting at middle adolescence. Sibling interactions are children's first relational experiences, the ones that shape their social and self-understanding for life. Sustaining positive sibling relations can assist adolescents in a number of ways. Siblings are able to act as peers, and may increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth. Older siblings can give guidance to younger siblings, although the impact of this can be either positive or negative depending on the activity of the older sibling.

Question: Does intimacy between same-sex siblings increase or decrease during adolescence?
Answer: increases

Question: When siblings act as peers, what positive effects are possible?
Answer: increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth

Question: At what stage to mixed-sex siblings generally experience an increase in intimacy?
Answer: middle adolescence
Title: Adolescence

Adolescents tend to associate with "cliques" on a small scale and "crowds" on a larger scale. During early adolescence, adolescents often associate in cliques, exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close. Despite the common notion that cliques are an inherently negative influence, they may help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity. Within a clique of highly athletic male-peers, for example, the clique may create a stronger sense of fidelity and competition. Cliques also have become somewhat a "collective parent," i.e. telling the adolescents what to do and not to do. Towards late adolescence, cliques often merge into mixed-sex groups as teenagers begin romantically engaging with one another. These small friend groups then break down further as socialization becomes more couple-oriented. On a larger scale, adolescents often associate with crowds, groups of individuals who share a common interest or activity. Often, crowd identities may be the basis for stereotyping young people, such as jocks or nerds. In large, multi-ethnic high schools, there are often ethnically-determined crowds. While crowds are very influential during early and middle adolescence, they lose salience during high school as students identify more individually.

Question: Do adolescents associate with "cliques" on a large or small scale?
Answer: small

Question: What are the positive effects that cliques may have on an adolescent?
Answer: help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity

Question: How are cliques defined?
Answer: exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close

Question: Do adolescents associate with "crowds" on a large or small scale?
Answer: larger
Title: Adolescence

Dating violence is fairly prevalent within adolescent relationships. When surveyed, 10-45% of adolescents reported having experienced physical violence in the context of a relationship while a quarter to a third of adolescents reported having experiencing psychological aggression. This reported aggression includes hitting, throwing things, or slaps, although most of this physical aggression does not result in a medical visit. Physical aggression in relationships tends to decline from high school through college and young adulthood. In heterosexual couples, there is no significant difference between the rates of male and female aggressors, unlike in adult relationships.

Question: What percentage of adolescents reporting having experienced physical violence in a relationship?
Answer: 10-45%

Question: What percentage of adolescents reported experiencing psychological aggression?
Answer: a quarter to a third

Question: Hitting, throwing objects, and slaps are examples of what type of aggression?
Answer: Physical

Question: In heterosexual adolescent couples, is there a significant difference in the rates of male and female aggressors?
Answer: no

Question: Does physical aggression decline or increase during high-school, college, and early adulthood?
Answer: decline
Title: Adolescence

The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is profoundly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior. For instance, adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities. Household chores are frequently divided into self-care tasks and family-care tasks. However, specific household responsibilities for adolescents may vary by culture, family type, and adolescent age. Some research has shown that adolescent participation in family work and routines has a positive influence on the development of an adolescent's feelings of self-worth, care, and concern for others.

Question: Does adolescent participation in family work and routines have a positive or negative influence on feelings of self-worth, care, and concern for others?
Answer: positive

Question: How are household chores frequently divided?
Answer: self-care tasks and family-care tasks

Question: What is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior?
Answer: The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities
Title: Adolescence

Adolescence is frequently characterized by a transformation of an adolescent's understanding of the world, the rational direction towards a life course, and the active seeking of new ideas rather than the unquestioning acceptance of adult authority. An adolescent begins to develop a unique belief system through his or her interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. While organized religion is not necessarily a part of every adolescent's life experience, youth are still held responsible for forming a set of beliefs about themselves, the world around them, and whatever higher powers they may or may not believe in. This process is often accompanied or aided by cultural traditions that intend to provide a meaningful transition to adulthood through a ceremony, ritual, confirmation, or rite of passage.

Question: Through what means does an adolescent develop a unique belief system?
Answer: interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments

Question: The active seeking of new ideas rather than the unquestioning acceptance of adult authority is known as what stage of development?
Answer: Adolescence

Question: What things are youth responsible for forming a set of beliefs about during adolescence?
Answer: themselves, the world around them, and whatever higher powers they may or may not believe in

Question: Ceremonies, rituals, and confirmations are examples of what?
Answer: cultural traditions that intend to provide a meaningful transition to adulthood
Title: Adolescence

Because exposure to media has increased over the past decade, adolescents' utilization of computers, cell phones, stereos and televisions to gain access to various mediums of popular culture has also increased. Almost all American households have at least one television, more than three-quarters of all adolescents' homes have access to the Internet, and more than 90% of American adolescents use the Internet at least occasionally. As a result of the amount of time adolescents spend using these devices, their total media exposure is high. In the last decade, the amount of time that adolescents spend on the computer has greatly increased. Online activities with the highest rates of use among adolescents are video games (78% of adolescents), email (73%), instant messaging (68%), social networking sites (65%), news sources (63%), music (59%), and videos (57%).

Question: What percentage of adolescent homes have access to the internet?
Answer: more than three-quarters

Question: What percentage of adolescents use the internet at least occasionally?
Answer: 90%

Question: In the last decade, has the amount oftime adolescents spend on the computer increased or dereased?
Answer: greatly increased

Question: What percentage of adolescents report using social networking sites?
Answer: (65%)

Question: What online activity has the largest number of reported adolescent particpation?
Answer: video games
Title: Adolescence

At the decision-making point of their lives, youth is susceptible to drug addiction, sexual abuse, peer pressure, violent crimes and other illegal activities. Developmental Intervention Science (DIS) is a fusion of the literature of both developmental and intervention sciences. This association conducts youth interventions that mutually assist both the needs of the community as well as psychologically stranded youth by focusing on risky and inappropriate behaviors while promoting positive self-development along with self-esteem among adolescents.

Question: What is DIS?
Answer: a fusion of the literature of both developmental and intervention sciences

Question: What are some of the negative things adolescents are susceptible to?
Answer: drug addiction, sexual abuse, peer pressure, violent crimes and other illegal activities

Question: What does the DIS focus on in adolescents?
Answer: risky and inappropriate behaviors
Title: Adolescence

Peer acceptance and social norms gain a significantly greater hand in directing behavior at the onset of adolescence; as such, the alcohol and illegal drug habits of teens tend to be shaped largely by the substance use of friends and other classmates. In fact, studies suggest that more significantly than actual drug norms, an individual's perception of the illicit drug use by friends and peers is highly associated with his or her own habits in substance use during both middle and high school, a relationship that increases in strength over time. Whereas social influences on alcohol use and marijuana use tend to work directly in the short term, peer and friend norms on smoking cigarettes in middle school have a profound effect on one's own likelihood to smoke cigarettes well into high school. Perhaps the strong correlation between peer influence in middle school and cigarette smoking in high school may be explained by the addictive nature of cigarettes, which could lead many students to continue their smoking habits from middle school into late adolescence.

Question: What does the alcohol and illegal drug habits of teens tend to be shaped by?
Answer: the substance use of friends and other classmates

Question: What is one possible reasoning behind many students choosing to continue their smoking habits from middle school into late adolescence?
Answer: addictive nature of cigarettes

Question: Do peer acceptance and social norms have a greater or lesser effect on behavior at the onset of adolescence?
Answer: significantly greater