rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Szlachta

The tribes were ruled by clans (ród) consisting of people related by blood or marriage and theoretically descending from a common ancestor, giving the ród/clan a highly developed sense of solidarity. (See gens.) The starosta (or starszyna) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Strongholds called grόd were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. The opole was the territory occupied by a single tribe. (Manteuffel 1982, p. 44)

Question: What ruled over the tribes?
Answer: clans (ród)

Question: What did the clans people all have in common?
Answer: theoretically descending from a common ancestor

Question: What gave them a sense of solidarity? 
Answer: related by blood or marriage

Question: What were stronghold called?
Answer: grόd

Question: What was the territory occupied by a single tribe?
Answer: opole
Title: Szlachta

Mieszko I of Poland (c. 935 – 25 May 992) established an elite knightly retinue from within his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the Lekhitic tribes and preserving the unity of his state. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such a retinue, as well.

Question: WHo established an elite knightly retinue?
Answer: Mieszko I of Poland

Question: How long was Miesko I of Poland reigning?
Answer: (c. 935 – 25 May 992)

Question: Along with uniting the lekhitic tribes what did poland succeed in?
Answer: preserving the unity of his state

Question: Who also established this retinue as well?
Answer: Mieszko I's successors
Title: Szlachta

Another class of knights were granted land by the prince, allowing them the economic ability to serve the prince militarily. A Polish nobleman living at the time prior to the 15th century was referred to as a "rycerz", very roughly equivalent to the English "knight," the critical difference being the status of "rycerz" was almost strictly hereditary; the class of all such individuals was known as the "rycerstwo". Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other class of rycerstwo, which became the szlachta/nobility ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish nobility beginning about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/nobility obtained more privileges granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal law, resulting in the belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/noble birth) could serve as officials in state administration.

Question: WHat was a polish nobleman referred to as before the 15th century?
Answer: rycerz

Question: What is roughly the same to the english version of rycerz?
Answer: knight

Question: What people did the rycerstwo class represent?
Answer: wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes

Question: What positive did the szlachta class receive?
Answer: gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues.

Question: What did ducal law implement for the rycerstwo/nobility?
Answer: could serve as officials in state administration.
Title: Szlachta

The Period of Division from, A.D., 1138 – A.D., 1314, which included nearly 200 years of feudal fragmentation and which stemmed from Bolesław III's division of Poland among his sons, was the genesis of the social structure which saw the economic elevation of the great landowning feudal nobles (możni/Magnates, both ecclesiastical and lay) from the rycerstwo they originated from. The prior social structure was one of Polish tribes united into the historic Polish nation under a state ruled by the Piast dynasty, this dynasty appearing circa 850 A.D.

Question: WHen was the period of Division?
Answer: A.D., 1138 – A.D., 1314

Question: What stemmed the period of division?
Answer: Bolesław III's division of Poland among his sons

Question: What tribe was the prior social structure from?
Answer: Polish

Question: WHen did the Piast dynasty appear?
Answer: 850 A.D.

Question: Polish nation ruled by what dynasty?
Answer: Piast dynasty,
Title: Szlachta

Some możni (Magnates) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms, even though the Piasts attempted to deprive them of their independence. These możni (Magnates) constantly sought to undermine princely authority.:75, 76 In Gall Anonym's chronicle, there is noted the nobility's alarm when the Palatine Sieciech "elevated those of a lower class over those who were noble born" entrusting them with state offices. (Manteuffel 1982, p. 149)

Question: What did some Mozni regard themselves with?
Answer: co-proprietors of Piast realms

Question: What did the magnates do to the Piasts realms?
Answer: attempted to deprive them of their independence

Question: Who constantly sought to undermine princely authority?
Answer: możni
Title: Szlachta

In Lithuania Propria and in Samogitia prior to the creation of the Kingdom of Lithuania by Mindaugas, nobles were named die beste leuten in sources that were written in German language. In the Lithuanian language nobles were named ponai. The higher nobility were named 'kunigai' or 'kunigaikščiai' (dukes)—i.e., loanword from Scandinavic konung. They were the established local leaders and warlords. During the development of the state they gradually became subordinated to higher dukes, and later to the King of Lithuania. Because of expansion of Lithuanian duchy into lands of Ruthenia in the mid of 14th century a new term appeared to denominate nobility bajorai—from Ruthenian (modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages) бояре. This word to this day is used in Lithuanian language to name nobility, not only for own, but also for nobility of other countries.

Question: WHat were nobles named in german language?
Answer: die beste leuten

Question: What were the nobles named in lithuanian?
Answer: ponai

Question: What were the higher nobility named?
Answer: kunigai' or 'kunigaikščiai'

Question: The kunigai were subordinate to who?
Answer: King of Lithuania.

Question: What word is used to denominate nobility?
Answer: бояре
Title: Szlachta

After the Union of Horodło the Lithuanian nobility acquired equal status with the Polish szlachta, and over time began to become more and more polonized, although they did preserve their national consciousness, and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots. In the 16th century some of the Lithuanian nobility claimed that they were of Roman extraction, and the Lithuanian language was just a morphed Latin language. This led to paradox: Polish nobility claimed own ancestry from Sarmatian tribes, but Sarmatians were considered enemies to Romans. Thus new Roman-Sarmatian theory was created. Strong cultural ties with Polish nobility led that in the 16th century the new term to name Lithuanian nobility appeared šlėkta—a direct loanword from Polish szlachta. From the view of historical truth Lithuanians also should use this term, šlėkta (szlachta), to name own nobility, but Lithuanian linguists forbade the usage of this Polish loanword. This refusal to use word szlachta (in Lithuanian text šlėkta) complicates all naming.

Question: What other group had equal status with the lithuanian nobility?
Answer: Polish szlachta

Question: What did the polish szlachta become more of?
Answer: polonized

Question: What did some lithuanian nobility claim that caused a paradox?
Answer: they were of Roman extraction

Question: What is the new term used for the lithuanian nobility?
Answer: šlėkta

Question: Who forbid the use of the word slekta?
Answer: Lithuanian linguists
Title: Szlachta

The process of polonization took place over a lengthy period of time. At first only the highest members of the nobility were involved, although gradually a wider group of the population was affected. The major effects on the lesser Lithuanian nobility took place after various sanctions were imposed by the Russian Empire such as removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas few years after the November Uprising. After the January Uprising the sanctions went further, and Russian officials announced that "Lithuanians are Russians seduced by Poles and Catholicism" and began to intensify russification, and to ban the printing of books in the Lithuanian language.

Question: WHo was first invloved in the polonization?
Answer: the highest members of the nobility

Question: Who imposed various sanction on the people?
Answer: Russian Empire

Question: What was an example of imposing sanctions on lithuanians?
Answer: removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas

Question: What did the russian officials announce as a sanction?
Answer: "Lithuanians are Russians seduced by Poles and Catholicism"

Question: What language was banned from printing on books?
Answer: Lithuanian language.
Title: Szlachta

In Ruthenia the nobility gradually gravitated its loyalty towards the multicultural and multilingual Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became a part of it. Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried with Lithuanian ones.

Question: What group did the Nobility of Ruthenia gravitate its loyalty towards?
Answer: Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Question: What type of people were the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?
Answer: multicultural and multilingual

Question: What eventually became a part of the grand duchy of lithuania?
Answer: principalities of Halych and Volhynia

Question: What was common for families of ruthenian and lithuanian?
Answer: intermarried
Title: Szlachta

The Orthodox nobles' rights were nominally equal to those enjoyed by Polish and Lithuanian nobility, but there was a cultural pressure to convert to Catholicism, that was greatly eased in 1596 by the Union of Brest. See for example careers of Senator Adam Kisiel and Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki.

Question: What other rights were equal to orthodox nobles?
Answer: Polish and Lithuanian nobility

Question: What social pressure was pressing down the people?
Answer: convert to Catholicism

Question: What greatly eased the cultural pressure towards Catholicism. 
Answer: Union of Brest

Question: What year was the union of brest
Answer: 1596
Title: Szlachta

In the Kingdom of Poland and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, ennoblement (nobilitacja) may be equated with an individual given legal status as a szlachta (member of the Polish nobility). Initially, this privilege could be granted by monarch, but from the 1641 onward, this right was reserved for the sejm. Most often the individual being ennobled would join an existing noble szlachta clan and assume the undifferentiated coat of arms of that clan.

Question: Before 1641 the privileged ennoblement was granted by what?
Answer: by monarch

Question: What right was reversed by sijm?
Answer: ennoblement

Question: What would be given to the enobled one?
Answer: undifferentiated coat of arms

Question: After 1641 who was given the privilege of ennoblement?
Answer: sejm

Question: What clan was given the privileged of enoblement?
Answer: szlachta clan
Title: Szlachta

According to heraldic sources total number of legal ennoblements issued between the 14th century and the mid-18th century, is estimated at approximately 800. This is an average of only about two ennoblements per year or only 0.000 000 14 – 0.000 001 of historical population. Compare: historical demography of Poland.

Question: Around what time was the total legal number of ennoblement at 800?
Answer: between the 14th century and the mid-18th century,

Question: What is average for ennoblements between 14th and min 18th century.
Answer: two ennoblements per year

Question: What type of sources give information regarding total number of enablements?
Answer: heraldic sources
Title: Szlachta

According to heraldic sources 1,600 is a total estimated number of all legal ennoblements throughout the history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century onward (half of which were performed in the final years of the late 18th century).

Question: What was the toalt number of legal ennoblements thoughout history of poland and polish commonwealth
Answer: 1,600

Question: When did theys tart recording the ennoblements?
Answer: 14th century onward

Question: When were most ennoblements implemented?
Answer: final years of the late 18th century
Title: Szlachta

In the late 14th century, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vytautas the Great reformed the Grand Duchy's army: instead of calling all men to arms, he created forces comprising professional warriors—bajorai ("nobles"; see the cognate "boyar"). As there were not enough nobles, Vytautas trained suitable men, relieving them of labor on the land and of other duties; for their military service to the Grand Duke, they were granted land that was worked by hired men (veldams). The newly formed noble families generally took up, as their family names, the Lithuanian pagan given names of their ennobled ancestors; this was the case with the Goštautai, Radvilos, Astikai, Kęsgailos and others. These families were granted their coats of arms under the Union of Horodlo (1413).

Question: WHo reformed the grand duchy army?
Answer: Vytautas the Great

Question: vytautas created what for compromising professional warriors?
Answer: bajorai

Question: What names did the newly formed noble families take afteR?
Answer: Lithuanian pagan given names of their ennobled ancestors

Question: What is an example of noble family name?
Answer: Goštautai,

Question: Who gave the coat of arms to others?
Answer: Union of Horodlo
Title: Szlachta

Significant legislative changes in the status of the szlachta, as defined by Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, consist of its 1374 exemption from the land tax, a 1425 guarantee against the 'arbitrary arrests and/or seizure of property' of its members, a 1454 requirement that military forces and new taxes be approved by provincial Sejms, and statutes issued between 1496 and 1611 that prescribed the rights of commoners.

Question: Who defined the significant legislative changes?
Answer: Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries

Question: What is one exemption was part of the significant changes in legislation?
Answer: 1374 exemption from the land tax,

Question: What did the 1425 requirement entail? 
Answer: requirement that military forces and new taxes be approved by provincial Sejms

Question: What were the statutes issued between 1496 and 1611 prescribed from?
Answer: rights of commoners
Title: Szlachta

Nobles were born into a noble family, adopted by a noble family (this was abolished in 1633) or ennobled by a king or Sejm for various reasons (bravery in combat, service to the state, etc.—yet this was the rarest means of gaining noble status). Many nobles were, in actuality, really usurpers, being commoners, who moved into another part of the country and falsely pretended to noble status. Hundreds of such false nobles were denounced by Hieronim Nekanda Trepka in his Liber generationis plebeanorium (or Liber chamorum) in the first half of the 16th century. The law forbade non-nobles from owning nobility-estates and promised the estate to the denouncer. Trepka was an impoverished nobleman who lived a townsman life and collected hundreds of such stories hoping to take over any of such estates. It does not seem he ever succeeded in proving one at the court. Many sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower' orders of society, but most historians agree that nobles of such base origins formed a 'significant' element of the szlachta.

Question: What was a rarest rare to become a noble?
Answer: service to the state

Question: Many nobles were actually surprisingly acting in what way?
Answer: really usurpers, being commoners,

Question: Who denounced many nobles?
Answer: Hieronim Nekanda Trepka

Question: When did the denouncing of many nobles take place?
Answer: first half of the 16th century

Question: What did the nobles lose by being denounced?
Answer: owning nobility-estates and promised the estate to the denouncer
Title: Szlachta

The Polish nobility enjoyed many rights that were not available to the noble classes of other countries and, typically, each new monarch conceded them further privileges. Those privileges became the basis of the Golden Liberty in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite having a king, Poland was called the nobility's Commonwealth because the king was elected by all interested members of hereditary nobility and Poland was considered to be the property of this class, not of the king or the ruling dynasty. This state of affairs grew up in part because of the extinction of the male-line descendants of the old royal dynasty (first the Piasts, then the Jagiellons), and the selection by the nobility of the Polish king from among the dynasty's female-line descendants.

Question: THe polish nobility had many positives compared to others including what?
Answer: many rights

Question: What was the nobilities commonwealth?
Answer: Poland

Question: WHo elected the king?
Answer: not of the king or the ruling dynasty

Question: WHy did the state affairs partly grow up on?
Answer: the extinction of the male-line descendants of the old royal dynasty

Question: The selection of nobility oh the polish kingdom was selected my whom?
Answer: dynasty's female-line descendants.
Title: Szlachta

Poland's successive kings granted privileges to the nobility at the time of their election to the throne (the privileges being specified in the king-elect's Pacta conventa) and at other times in exchange for ad hoc permission to raise an extraordinary tax or a pospolite ruszenie.

Question: When did kings grant privileges to the nobles?
Answer: at the time of their election to the throne

Question: What specified the kings privileges?
Answer: king-elect's Pacta conventa

Question: What was also in exchange during he election of the throne?
Answer: ad hoc permission to raise an extraordinary tax

Question: What did nobles get in from the king during election?
Answer: privileges
Title: Szlachta

In 1355 in Buda King Casimir III the Great issued the first country-wide privilege for the nobility, in exchange for their agreement that in the lack of Casimir's male heirs, the throne would pass to his nephew, Louis I of Hungary. He decreed that the nobility would no longer be subject to 'extraordinary' taxes, or use their own funds for military expeditions abroad. He also promised that during travels of the royal court, the king and the court would pay for all expenses, instead of using facilities of local nobility.

Question: When did buda king casimir issue the heir to his nephew?
Answer: 1355

Question: who issied the first country wide privilege for the nobility? 
Answer: Buda King Casimir III the Great

Question: WHo is the nephew of buda king casimer III the great?
Answer: Louis I of Hungary

Question: What was promised by Buda King Casimer?
Answer: the nobility would no longer be subject to 'extraordinary' taxes

Question: WHo would pay for expenses during travels or the royal courts?
Answer: the king and the court
Title: Szlachta

In 1374 King Louis of Hungary approved the Privilege of Koszyce (Polish: "przywilej koszycki" or "ugoda koszycka") in Košice in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga. He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility and exempted the entire class from all but one tax (łanowy, which was limited to 2 grosze from łan (an old measure of land size)). In addition, the King's right to raise taxes was abolished; no new taxes could be raised without the agreement of the nobility. Henceforth, also, district offices (Polish: "urzędy ziemskie") were reserved exclusively for local nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights. Finally, this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders.

Question: When did King Louis of Hungary approve the privilege of Koszyce?
Answer: 1374

Question: WHy did King louis approve the privilege?
Answer: in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga

Question: What did king louis of hungary do for the nobles?
Answer: exempted the entire class from all but one tax

Question: WHat happened to the kings right to raise taxes?
Answer: abolished

Question: What could the king do to nobles injured or taken during war?
Answer: King to pay indemnities
Title: Szlachta

In 1422 King Władysław II Jagiełło by the Privilege of Czerwińsk (Polish: "przywilej czerwiński") established the inviolability of nobles' property (their estates could not be confiscated except upon a court verdict) and ceded some jurisdiction over fiscal policy to the Royal Council (later, the Senat of Poland), including the right to mint coinage.

Question: Who establishd the inviolability of nobles property?
Answer: King Władysław II Jagiełło

Question: When did the established right for inviolability of nobles property?
Answer: 1422

Question: What happened to the right to mint coinage?
Answer: ceded
Title: Szlachta

In 1430 with the Privileges of Jedlnia, confirmed at Kraków in 1433 (Polish: "przywileje jedlneńsko-krakowskie"), based partially on his earlier Brześć Kujawski privilege (April 25, 1425), King Władysław II Jagiełło granted the nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest, similar to the English Magna Carta's Habeas corpus, known from its own Latin name as "neminem captivabimus (nisi jure victum)." Henceforth no member of the nobility could be imprisoned without a warrant from a court of justice: the king could neither punish nor imprison any noble at his whim. King Władysław's quid pro quo for this boon was the nobles' guarantee that his throne would be inherited by one of his sons (who would be bound to honour the privileges theretofore granted to the nobility). On May 2, 1447 the same king issued the Wilno Privilege which gave the Lithuanian boyars the same rights as those possessed by the Polish szlachta.

Question: Where did the confirmation of privileges of Jedlnia take place?
Answer: at Kraków in 1433

Question: WHat was the privileges of jedlnia based mostly off of?
Answer: Brześć Kujawski privilege

Question: What was simliar to the english magna cartas habeas corpus?
Answer: nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest

Question: What does a court need to imprison a member of the nobility? 
Answer: warrant from a court of justice

Question: What was the nobles guarantee that his throne would be inherited by his sons? 
Answer: King Władysław's quid pro quo for this boon
Title: Szlachta

In 1454 King Casimir IV granted the Nieszawa Statutes (Polish: "statuty cerkwicko-nieszawskie"), clarifying the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks (local parliaments). The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks, and the nobility were protected from judicial abuses. The Nieszawa Statutes also curbed the power of the magnates, as the Sejm (national parliament) received the right to elect many officials, including judges, voivods and castellans. These privileges were demanded by the szlachta as a compensation for their participation in the Thirteen Years' War.

Question: When were the Nieszawa statutes granted?
Answer: 1454

Question: What did the Nieszawa statues clarify?
Answer: the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks

Question: THe nobility was protected from what?
Answer: judicial abuses

Question: Whos power was curbed?
Answer: magnates

Question: Why did the szlachta demand privileges?
Answer: their participation in the Thirteen Years' War.