rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Brain

For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.

Question: The precursor of the nervous system is called what in vertebrates?
Answer: the neural plate

Question: The neural groove is a hollow cord of cells with what in the center?
Answer: fluid-filled ventricle

Question: The forebrain splits during development into vesicles called what?
Answer: telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon

Question: The vesicle that contains the cerebral cortex is which one?
Answer: telencephalon

Question: The thalamus and hypothalamus are contained in which vesicle?
Answer: the diencephalon
Title: Brain

Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding.

Question: A growth cone of an axon is made up of a blob of what?
Answer: protoplasm

Question: What two structures does a neuron extend when it is in place during development?
Answer: dendrites and an axon
Title: Brain

In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan.

Question: The infant brain contains more of what type of cells in the brain than the adult brain?
Answer: neurons

Question: The olfactory bulb is related to what sense?
Answer: sense of smell

Question: What area of the hippocampus plays a role in storing new memories?
Answer: dentate gyrus of the hippocampus

Question: Which type of cells in the brain are generated throughout your lifetime?
Answer: Glial cells

Question: Neurogenesis is the process of what?
Answer: neurons continue to be generated throughout life
Title: Brain

The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.

Question: The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by what?
Answer: neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses

Question: What type of signals do neurons transfer from one another?
Answer: electrochemical
Title: Brain

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others.

Question: Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released at what part of the brain?
Answer: synapses

Question: What do neurotransmitters attach to?
Answer: receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell

Question: Neurons that release the same chemicals are following what rule?
Answer: Dale's principle
Title: Brain

The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.

Question: GABA is the abbreviation for what?
Answer: gamma-aminobutyric acid

Question: Which of two neurotransmitters is usually inhibitory?
Answer: gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Question: The neurostransmitter that usually excites targets is called what?
Answer: glutamate,

Question: Tranquilizers affect which of the two common neurotransmitters?
Answer: gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Title: Brain

There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.

Question: Serotonin comes from what part of the brain?
Answer: Raphe nuclei

Question: Antidepressants typically affect what chemical of the brain?
Answer: Serotonin

Question: Which chemical of the brain is involved with arousal?
Answer: Norepinephrine

Question: Norepinephrine comes from an area of the brain known as what?
Answer: locus coeruleus
Title: Brain

As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology.

Question: An EEG of the brain stands for what?
Answer: electroencephalography

Question: MEG of the brain is an abbreviation of what?
Answer: magnetoencephalography

Question: What type of test is used to tell that a brain is active even during sleep?
Answer: EEG

Question: What type of brain waves are seen in mammals during sleep?
Answer: large slow delta waves

Question: What type of brain waves are sen when a creature is awake, but inattentive?
Answer: faster alpha waves
Title: Brain

All vertebrates have a blood–brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.

Question: What type of cells have a huge role in brain metabolism?
Answer: Glial cells

Question: Glial cells control what inside the brain?
Answer: chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons
Title: Brain

Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids.

Question: Where does the brain usually get most of its energy from inside the body?
Answer: glucose (i.e., blood sugar

Question: The energy used for metabolism of the brain in humans is what percentage?
Answer: 20–25%

Question: Other sources than glucose that provide energy to the brain are what?
Answer: ketones

Question: Most vertebrates usually devote how much metabolism to the brain?
Answer: 2% and 8%
Title: Brain

From an evolutionary-biological perspective, the function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.

Question: The function of the brain from an evolutionary-biological thought is what?
Answer: provide coherent control over the actions of an animal
Title: Brain

The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.

Question: Computers were invented in what decade in history?
Answer: 1940s

Question: Neuroscience spawned from what field of science in history?
Answer: cybernetics

Question: Who wrote the book, The Computer and the Brain?
Answer: John von Neumann's

Question: When was John von Neumann's book, The Computer and the Brain published?
Answer: 1958
Title: Brain

The essence of the information processing approach is to try to understand brain function in terms of information flow and implementation of algorithms. One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.

Question: The scientific paper, What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain was released in what year?
Answer: 1959

Question: Who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery that cells in the visual cortex of monkeys become active when sharp edges move?
Answer: David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Title: Brain

Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that don't reflect this are arguably too abstractive to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, having said this, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. It remains to be seen what level of success they can achieve in the time frame of the project and the wisdom of it has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.

Question: What is the project called that is trying to build a realistic, detailed computer model of the human brain?
Answer: the Human Brain Project
Title: Brain

One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain.

Question: What type of animal has a sense that adapted into sonar?
Answer: bats

Question: What type of animal uses infrared heat to sense?
Answer: snakes

Question: The group of animals that can detect magnetic fields is what?
Answer: birds

Question: The group of creatures that can sense electric fields is what?
Answer: fish
Title: Brain

Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light-receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, vibration-sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear, or pressure-sensitive neurons in the skin. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first-order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems.

Question: Light-receptive neurons are located in what part of the eye?
Answer: retina

Question: Vibration-sensitive neurons are found in what part of the ear?
Answer: cochlea

Question: Signals are sent from the thalamus to what part of the brain?
Answer: cerebral cortex
Title: Brain

Motor systems are areas of the brain that are directly or indirectly involved in producing body movements, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.

Question: What part of the body is controlled by nuclei in the midbrain?
Answer: the eye,

Question: All the muscles controlled by motor neurons in the body are controlled by what?
Answer: spinal cord and hindbrain
Title: Brain

The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.

Question: Which motor areas of the brain control breathing and swallowing?
Answer: the medulla and pons,

Question: At the lowest level of the brain and spinal cord, are what areas?
Answer: the medulla and pons

Question: The red nucleus controls what part(s) of the body?
Answer: coordinating movements of the arms and legs

Question: A strip of tissue found at the edge of the frontal lobe is called what?
Answer: primary motor cortex

Question: The primary motor cortex sends signals to the spinal cord through what?
Answer: pyramidal tract.
Title: Brain

In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control.

Question: The brain and spinal cord work together to control what system of the body?
Answer: autonomic nervous system

Question: What system in the body controls heart rate?
Answer: autonomic nervous system

Question: What system in the body controls salivation?
Answer: autonomic nervous system

Question: Most of the processes of the autonomic nervous system are called what?
Answer: not under direct voluntary control

Question: Which system in the body controls urination?
Answer: The autonomic nervous system
Title: Brain

A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock.

Question: The SCN of the nervous system is an abbreviation for what?
Answer: suprachiasmatic nucleus

Question: The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a small part of what part of the brain?
Answer: the hypothalamus

Question: Which part of the arousal system controls the body's biological clock?
Answer: the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Question: The RHT is an abbreviation for what?
Answer: retinohypothalamic tract

Question: THE SCN receives information from the optic nerves through what?
Answer: the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT
Title: Brain

The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.

Question: A group of neuron-clusters scattered in the core of the lower brain is called what?
Answer: the reticular formation

Question: Reticular neurons transfer signals to what part of the brain?
Answer: the thalamus

Question: Damage to the reticular formation can cause what?
Answer: state of coma

Question: The SCN transfers signals to a set of areas that implement what?
Answer: sleep-wake cycles.