rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Middle_Ages

The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea. Painted or carved wooden relief altarpieces became common, especially as churches created many side-chapels. Early Netherlandish painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck (d. 1441) and Rogier van der Weyden (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450 printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of incunabula, or works printed before 1500, by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small woodcuts, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive engravings supplied a wealthier market with a variety of images.

Question: Who carved the Pulpit in Sant'Andrea?
Answer: Giovanni Pisano

Question: Along with being carved, how were altarpieces often decorated in this period?
Answer: Painted

Question: When did Rogier van der Weyden die?
Answer: 1464

Question: Of what nationality was Jan van Eyck?
Answer: Netherlandish

Question: What does incunabula refer to?
Answer: works printed before 1500
Title: Middle_Ages

The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of ignorance and superstition" that placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity." This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment, when scholars contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period, to the detriment of the Middle Ages. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world; Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.

Question: Along with the Renaissance, during what period were the Middle Ages disparaged?
Answer: Enlightenment

Question: What era did Renaissance scholars negatively compare the Middle Ages to?
Answer: the Classical world

Question: How did scholars of the Enlightenment see the Middle Ages?
Answer: as a time of ignorance and superstition

Question: What did Enlightenment scholars consider to be inferior to reason?
Answer: faith
Title: Middle_Ages

Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian Edward Grant writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century], they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities". Also, contrary to common belief, David Lindberg writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".

Question: What is Edward Grant a historian of?
Answer: Science

Question: Who argued that scholars in the Middle Ages were rarely coerced by the Church?
Answer: David Lindberg

Question: According to Grant, the medieval use of reason was the forerunner the revolutionary rationalism of what century?
Answer: 18th
Title: Middle_Ages

The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat. This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere. Lindberg and Ronald Numbers, another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference". Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", or "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by current historical research.

Question: During what century was it first proposed that people in the Middle Ages thought the Earth was flat?
Answer: 19th

Question: Along with autopsies, what is it erroneously believed that the medieval Church forbade?
Answer: dissections

Question: According to a misconception, what did the rise of Christianity destroy?
Answer: ancient science

Question: According to another misconception, what field of study was the medieval Church opposed to?
Answer: natural philosophy

Question: Along with Lindberg, who is a notable scholar of the Middle Ages?
Answer: Ronald Numbers
Title: Phonology

Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.

Question: What is phonology a branch of?
Answer: linguistics

Question: What kind of systems are the traditional focus of phonology? 
Answer: phonemes

Question: The study of sign language is a part of what?
Answer: Phonology
Title: Phonology

The word phonology (as in the phonology of English) can also refer to the phonological system (sound system) of a given language. This is one of the fundamental systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax and its vocabulary.

Question: What part of a language can phonology as a word also refer to?
Answer: the phonological system

Question: What is another term for phonological system?
Answer: sound system

Question: Aside from syntax and the phonological system, what else comprises a language?
Answer: vocabulary

Question: What sort of language system is phonology?
Answer: fundamental
Title: Phonology

Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists, phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics, and phonology to theoretical linguistics, although establishing the phonological system of a language is necessarily an application of theoretical principles to analysis of phonetic evidence. Note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. Some subfields of modern phonology have a crossover with phonetics in descriptive disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory phonology or laboratory phonology.

Question: What branch of linguistics is phonology distinguished from?
Answer: phonetics

Question: What kind of linguistics is phonetics considered to be a part of?
Answer: descriptive

Question: Phonology is generally considered a part of the theoretical side of what discipline?
Answer: linguistics

Question: When was the phonome's modern concept developed?
Answer: mid 20th century

Question: What subfield of modern phonology other than phsycholinguistics crosses over with phonetics? 
Answer: speech perception
Title: Phonology

The word phonology comes from the Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, "voice, sound," and the suffix -logy (which is from Greek λόγος, lógos, "word, speech, subject of discussion"). Definitions of the term vary. Nikolai Trubetzkoy in Grundzüge der Phonologie (1939) defines phonology as "the study of sound pertaining to the system of language," as opposed to phonetics, which is "the study of sound pertaining to the act of speech" (the distinction between language and speech being basically Saussure's distinction between langue and parole). More recently, Lass (1998) writes that phonology refers broadly to the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language, while in more narrow terms, "phonology proper is concerned with the function, behavior and organization of sounds as linguistic items." According to Clark et al. (2007), it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use.

Question: What language does phonology as a word come from?
Answer: Greek

Question: What Greek word is -logy derived from?
Answer: lógos

Question: Who in 1939 defined phonology?
Answer: Nikolai Trubetzkoy

Question: A distinction was drawn between language and what?
Answer: speech

Question: When did Lass write about phonology?
Answer: 1998
Title: Phonology

The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, the Sanskrit grammar composed by Pāṇini in the 4th century BC. In particular the Shiva Sutras, an auxiliary text to the Ashtadhyayi, introduces what can be considered a list of the phonemes of the Sanskrit language, with a notational system for them that is used throughout the main text, which deals with matters of morphology, syntax and semantics.

Question: What type of grammar was phonology first a part of?
Answer: Sanskrit

Question: What is the name of ancient Sanskrit grammar?
Answer: Ashtadhyayi

Question: Who first composed the Ashtadhyayi?
Answer: Pāṇini

Question: During what time period did Panini do his work?
Answer: 4th century BC

Question: What other text was related to the Ashtadhyayi?
Answer: the Shiva Sutras
Title: Phonology

The Polish scholar Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (together with his former student Mikołaj Kruszewski) introduced the concept of the phoneme in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of phonetic alternations (what is now called allophony and morphophonology), and had a significant influence on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure.

Question: When was the phoneme as a concept introduced?
Answer: 1876

Question: Who was Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's student?
Answer: Mikołaj Kruszewski

Question: What nationality was de Courtenay?
Answer: Polish

Question: What was de Courtenay's profession?
Answer: scholar

Question: Who was influenced by  Jan Baudouin de Courtenay?
Answer: Ferdinand de Saussure
Title: Phonology

An influential school of phonology in the interwar period was the Prague school. One of its leading members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie (Principles of Phonology), published posthumously in 1939, is among the most important works in the field from this period. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, although this concept had also been recognized by de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century.

Question: What was Nikolai Trubetzkoy's publication?
Answer: Principles of Phonology

Question: When was Principles of Phonology published?
Answer: 1939

Question: What is Trubetzkoy considered to have founded?
Answer: morphophonology

Question: What school was Trubetzkoy a member of?
Answer: the Prague school.

Question: What was Trubetzkoy's title?
Answer: Prince
Title: Phonology

In 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or −. There are at least two levels of representation: underlying representation and surface phonetic representation. Ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation (the so-called surface form). An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems.

Question: When was The Sound Pattern of English published?
Answer: 1968

Question: Other than Chomsky who else published The Sound Pattern of English?
Answer: Morris Halle

Question: Besides the syllable what was downplayed as a result of SPE's influence on phonological theory?
Answer: emphasis on segments

Question: What other discipline was combined with phonology by the generativists?
Answer: morphophonology
Title: Phonology

Natural phonology is a theory based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and (more explicitly) in 1979. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes that interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed is language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second most prominent natural phonologist is Patricia Donegan (Stampe's wife); there are many natural phonologists in Europe, and a few in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Nathan. The principles of natural phonology were extended to morphology by Wolfgang U. Dressler, who founded natural morphology.

Question: Whose publications started the theory of Natural phonology?
Answer: David Stampe

Question: According to Stampe what is phonology based on?
Answer: a set of universal phonological processes

Question: Aside from being active what other condition can the universal phonological processes exist in?
Answer: suppressed

Question: Who is the number two natural phonologist?  
Answer: Patricia Donegan

Question: Who was the founder of natural morphology?
Answer: Wolfgang U. Dressler
Title: Phonology

In 1976 John Goldsmith introduced autosegmental phonology. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as operating on one linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as involving some parallel sequences of features which reside on multiple tiers. Autosegmental phonology later evolved into feature geometry, which became the standard theory of representation for theories of the organization of phonology as different as lexical phonology and optimality theory.

Question: Who founded autosegmental phonology?
Answer: John Goldsmith

Question: When did John Goldsmith share his work?
Answer: 1976

Question: What did Autosegmental phonology morph into?
Answer: feature geometry
Title: Phonology

Government phonology, which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of principles and vary according to their selection of certain binary parameters. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures in this field include Jonathan Kaye, Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, Monik Charette, and John Harris.

Question: When was Government phonology first seen?
Answer: the early 1980s

Question: What is responsible for differences in surface realizations according to Government phonology?
Answer: restricted variation

Question: Jonathan Kaye is an important person in what form of phonology?
Answer: Government
Title: Phonology

In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed optimality theory—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints ordered by importance; a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become a dominant trend in phonology. The appeal to phonetic grounding of constraints and representational elements (e.g. features) in various approaches has been criticized by proponents of 'substance-free phonology', especially Mark Hale and Charles Reiss.

Question: When did Prince and Smolensky develop their theory?
Answer: 1991

Question: Where was optimality theory created?
Answer: LSA summer institute

Question: Aside from Alan Prince who brought optimality theory to morphology?
Answer: John McCarthy

Question: Who were prominent critics of optimality theory?
Answer: Mark Hale and Charles Reiss
Title: Phonology

Broadly speaking, government phonology (or its descendant, strict-CV phonology) has a greater following in the United Kingdom, whereas optimality theory is predominant in the United States.[citation needed]

Question: What followed government phonology?
Answer: strict-CV phonology

Question: Where is government phonology popular?
Answer: the United Kingdom,

Question: What theory is seen more in the US?
Answer: optimality theory
Title: Phonology

An integrated approach to phonological theory that combines synchronic and diachronic accounts to sound patterns was initiated with Evolutionary Phonology in recent years.

Question: What is Evolutionary Phonology an integrated approach to?
Answer: phonological theory

Question: What is combined to sound patterns by Evolutionary Phonology?
Answer: synchronic and diachronic accounts

Question: When did Evolutionary Phonology come into being?
Answer: recent years.

Question: What sort of approach did Evolutionary Phonology take?
Answer: integrated
Title: Phonology

An important part of traditional, pre-generative schools of phonology is studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as phonemes. For example, in English, the "p" sound in pot is aspirated (pronounced [pʰ]) while that in spot is not aspirated (pronounced [p]). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations (allophones) of the same phonological category, that is of the phoneme /p/. (Traditionally, it would be argued that if an aspirated [pʰ] were interchanged with the unaspirated [p] in spot, native speakers of English would still hear the same words; that is, the two sounds are perceived as "the same" /p/.) In some other languages, however, these two sounds are perceived as different, and they are consequently assigned to different phonemes. For example, in Thai, Hindi, and Quechua, there are minimal pairs of words for which aspiration is the only contrasting feature (two words can have different meanings but with the only difference in pronunciation being that one has an aspirated sound where the other has an unaspirated one).

Question: What are the units called that traditional phonology studies?
Answer: phonemes

Question: What is another word for variations?
Answer: allophones

Question: What is the opposite of aspirated?
Answer: unaspirated
Title: Phonology

Part of the phonological study of a language therefore involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. The presence or absence of minimal pairs, as mentioned above, is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two sounds should be assigned to the same phoneme. However, other considerations often need to be taken into account as well.

Question: What type of language study involves trying to deduce underlying phonomes?
Answer: phonological

Question: Aside from finding out what underlying phonemes are there what does the phonological study of a language try to find out about the language?
Answer: sound inventory

Question: What kind of speaker data does studying a language phonologically involve examining? 
Answer: native
Title: Phonology

The particular contrasts which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, [f] and [v], two sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation and differ in voicing only, were allophones of the same phoneme in English, but later came to belong to separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in historical linguistics.

Question: What kind of linguistics describes how factors of languages change in history?
Answer: historical

Question: With the passage of time what particular things phonemic in a language are known to change?
Answer: contrasts

Question: In the past sounds that now belong to separate phonemes were allophones of what kind of phoneme in English?
Answer: the same phoneme
Title: Phonology

The findings and insights of speech perception and articulation research complicate the traditional and somewhat intuitive idea of interchangeable allophones being perceived as the same phoneme. First, interchanged allophones of the same phoneme can result in unrecognizable words. Second, actual speech, even at a word level, is highly co-articulated, so it is problematic to expect to be able to splice words into simple segments without affecting speech perception.

Question: How do speech perception and articulation findings and insights affect previous and more traditional ideas?
Answer: complicate

Question: How does interchanging allophones of the same pheneme render words?
Answer: unrecognizable

Question: What does splicing words affect?
Answer: speech perception
Title: Phonology

Different linguists therefore take different approaches to the problem of assigning sounds to phonemes. For example, they differ in the extent to which they require allophones to be phonetically similar. There are also differing ideas as to whether this grouping of sounds is purely a tool for linguistic analysis, or reflects an actual process in the way the human brain processes a language.

Question: What are assigned to phonemes by different linguists?
Answer: sounds

Question: What part of a human does language processing?
Answer: brain

Question: The phonetical similarity of what thing causes disagreements between linguists?
Answer: allophones
Title: Phonology

Since the early 1960s, theoretical linguists have moved away from the traditional concept of a phoneme, preferring to consider basic units at a more abstract level, as a component of morphemes; these units can be called morphophonemes, and analysis using this approach is called morphophonology.

Question: When did theoretical linguists turn away traditional phoneme concepts?
Answer: early 1960s

Question: On what level do theoretical linguists consider basic units?
Answer: abstract

Question: What is a name for the basic morpheme unit?
Answer: morphophonemes

Question: What is the act of analyzing morphophones called?
Answer: morphophonology

Question: What kind of linguists are leaving the old methods behind?
Answer: theoretical