rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Genocide

On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. The ECHR also noted that in the 21st century "Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the actus reu, of genocide was met in Prijedor "With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide".

Question: Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for genocide by a German court?
Answer: European Court of Human Rights

Question: In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the German courts was later rejected by international courts hearing similar cases?
Answer: wider interpretation of genocide

Question: The ECHR noted that among certain academics, what act carried out by the Serbs agains Bosnian Muslims and Croats did not constitute genocide?
Answer: ethnic cleansing

Question: The ethnic cleansing perpetrated by the Serbs against Bosnia-Herzegovina was conducted with what ultimate goal in mind?
Answer: expel Muslims and Croats from their homes

Question: Conversely the scholars who did view the Serbs' acts as constituting genocide, were backed up by what Tribunal?
Answer: the ICTY
Title: Genocide

About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krstić and Drago Nikolić, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide. Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgić lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions).

Question: In the 1990s, how many people were indicted for war crimes that were officially defined as genocide?
Answer: About 30

Question: Convicted perpetrators Popovic and Beara were found guilty of genocide despite what evasive action?
Answer: several plea bargains

Question: Tolimir was found guilty of both genocide and what other charge?
Answer: conspiracy to commit genocide

Question: Another charge beyond the act of genocide and for which Krstic and Nikolic were found guilty was what?
Answer: aiding and abetting genocide

Question: Three others were charged with participating in genocides in Bosnia by which country's courts?
Answer: German courts
Title: Genocide

Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008, Karadžić was arrested in Belgrade, and he is currently in The Hague on trial accused of genocide among other crimes. Ratko Mladić was arrested on 26 May 2011 by Serbian special police in Lazarevo, Serbia. Karadzic was convicted of ten of the eleven charges laid against him and sentenced to 40 years in prison on March 24 2016.

Question: What event occurred in March 2006 that essentially ended Milosevic's trial?
Answer: He died

Question: Where was Karadzic when he was finally arrested?
Answer: Belgrade

Question: With Milosevic dead, who did the ICTY next charge with crimes of genocide in 1995?
Answer: Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić

Question: Had Milosevic not died, what charges might he have been convicted of?
Answer: genocide or complicity in genocide

Question: Which former president was by far the most senior politician to be accused of genocidal crimes by the ICTY?
Answer: Slobodan Milošević
Title: Genocide

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.

Question: What court was established under the aegis of the United Nations to prosecute genocidal crimes in Rwanda?
Answer: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

Question: The prosecutorial efforts of the ICTR focused on genocidal acts that took place during which time period?
Answer: April 1994

Question: the ICTR was created in November 1995 by which branch of the UN?
Answer: the Security Council of the United Nations

Question: The ICTR was established for the purpose of convicting those responsible for acts of genocide and what other charges?
Answer: serious violations of the international law

Question: The charges of genocide brought up by the ICTR were against what group of people?
Answer: Rwandan citizens
Title: Genocide

There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide. The ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide." Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."

Question: What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in Sudan?
Answer: situation in Darfur

Question: In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in Darfur as an act of genocide?
Answer: Colin Powell

Question: In front of which committee did Powell testify?
Answer: the Senate Foreign Relations Committee

Question: What did UN Security Council Resolution 1564 authorize in 2004?
Answer: an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur

Question: Despite some concessions, what act did the Commission ultimately state that Sudan had not pursued?
Answer: genocidal policy
Title: Genocide

In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes," but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.

Question: To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in Darfur?
Answer: Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court

Question: What was taken into account, without mentioning specific crimes?
Answer: the Commission report

Question: China and what other permanent member of the Security Council abstained from the vote on the referral resolution?
Answer: the United States

Question: In which number report to the Council did the Prosecutor concede that crimes had been committed but evidence for prosecution was insufficient?
Answer: his fourth report
Title: Genocide

Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing. They lead to scapegoating a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy. A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into genocide. Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead to genocide. The conditions that lead to genocide provide guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalued group, creating ideologies that embrace all groups, and activating bystander responses. There is substantial research to indicate how this can be done, but information is only slowly transformed into action.

Question: In the build-up to genocide, what have other authors focused on?
Answer: structural conditions

Question: What processes are thought to create an evolution toward genocide?
Answer: psychological and social

Question: Who revealed the starting points of this evolution to be economic deterioration and political confusion?
Answer: Ervin Staub

Question: A history of what is just one factor that contributes to the probability of violence developing into genocide?
Answer: devaluation of the group

Question: What is one preventive effort in circumventing conditions that lead to genocide?
Answer: humanizing a devalued group
Title: Antibiotics

The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.

Question: What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics?
Answer: resistance of bacteria

Question: What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of?
Answer: evolution

Question: When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment?
Answer: 1943

Question: Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now?
Answer: penicillin and erythromycin

Question: What does emergence of resistance reflect?
Answer: evolutionary processes

Question: What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment?
Answer: survive high doses of antibiotics

Question: When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated?
Answer: 1943

Question: Who made the demonstration in 1943?
Answer: Luria–Delbrück
Title: Antibiotics

The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.

Question: What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon?
Answer: concentration

Question: What does this eliminate?
Answer: bacterial infection

Question: What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what?
Answer: bacterial growth phase

Question: What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity?
Answer: division of bacterial cells

Question: What does the activity of antibacterials depends on?
Answer: concentration

Question: What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail?
Answer: host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial

Question: How do you predict the clinical result?
Answer: several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy
Title: Antibiotics

Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).

Question: What do anitibiotics mostly target?
Answer: bacterial functions or growth processes

Question: Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall?
Answer: penicillins and cephalosporins

Question: Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane?
Answer: polymyxins

Question: What 3 types go after protein synthesis?
Answer: (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines

Question: Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified?
Answer: mechanism of action

Question: What is another name used for bacterial cell wall?
Answer: penicillins and cephalosporins

Question: whats another word for cell membrane?
Answer: polymyxins

Question: How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/
Answer: four

Question: What three ways are antibiotics classified?
Answer: mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity
Title: Antibiotics

With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed]

Question: What are antibiotics in chemical terms?
Answer: semisynthetic modifications

Question: What type of antibiotics include penicilin?
Answer: beta-lactam antibiotics

Question: What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things?
Answer: aminoglycosides

Question: How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created?
Answer: synthesis

Question: Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials?
Answer: various natural compounds

Question: What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds?
Answer: 2000 atomic mass units

Question: What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics?
Answer: penicillins

Question: What is penicillins produced by?
Answer: fungi
Title: Antibiotics

Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. Their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. This has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance, so much as to prompt the World Health Organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a "serious threat [that] is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country".

Question: What is one disease that has been nearly eradicated thanks to vaccines and antibiotics?
Answer: tuberculosis

Question: What is one issue that can arise from overuse of antibiotics?
Answer: overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance

Question: What organization called antimicrobial resistance a 'serious threat?'
Answer: World Health Organization

Question: In which century were antibiotics first introduced?
Answer: 20th century

Question: What can be affected by issues resulting from overuse of antibiotics?
Answer: anyone, of any age, in any country

Question: What does there medicines do for livestock?
Answer: develop resistance

Question: What organization classifies this as a current serious threat in the whole world??
Answer: World Health Organization

Question: In what century did antibiotics revolutionized medicine?
Answer: 20th

Question: Besides antimicrobial, what did the overused medicine cause? 
Answer: antibiotic resistance

Question: What other medicine worked along antibiotics to eradicate diseases like tuberculosis?
Answer: vaccination

Question: When did antibiotics revolutinzed medicine?
Answer: 20th century

Question: What happened when antibiotics was over used in livestock?
Answer: develop resistance

Question: What organization stated that the world has this serious problem?
Answer: World Health Organization

Question: What regions in the world does this apply in?
Answer: every region of the world

Question: When were antibiotics created?
Answer: 20th century

Question: What is a common problem in antibiotic use?
Answer: antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance

Question: Who else uses antibiotics besides the medical industry?
Answer: livestock raising

Question: What disease did antibiotics help eliminate?
Answer: tuberculosis
Title: Antibiotics

In empirical therapy, a patient has proven or suspected infection, but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified. While the microorgainsim is being identified the doctor will usually administer the best choice of antibiotic that will be most active against the likely cause of infection usually a broad spectrum antibiotic. Empirical therapy is usually initiated before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim causing the infection as the identification process make take several days in the laboratory.

Question: What is one kind of therapy that may be used when a patience has an infection, but it has not been identified?
Answer: empirical therapy

Question: Where do doctors perform microorganism identification testing?
Answer: laboratory

Question: What kinds of antibiotics are most commonly used for empirical therapy?
Answer: broad spectrum antibiotic

Question: At what stage does a doctor begin empirical therapy?
Answer: While the microorgainsim is being identified

Question: How long does the identification process take?
Answer: several days

Question: What happens when a doctor doesn't know the microorganism yet?
Answer: broad spectrum antibiotic

Question: What happens in empirical therapy?
Answer: a patient has proven or suspected infection, but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified

Question: When is empirical started?
Answer: before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim