rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Translation

Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable. Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal.

Question: What is sometimes used to check the accuracy of a translation?
Answer: Comparison of a back-translation with the original text

Question: How are mathematical operations checked?
Answer: by reversing the operation

Question: What operations are results from not always completely reliable?
Answer: reverse-translation operations

Question: What symbol set has a defining property of ambiguity?
Answer: linguistic

Question: What symbol set has the property of being intentionally unequivocal?
Answer: mathematical
Title: Translation

Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

Question: Who provided a humorous example of the unreliability of back-translation? 
Answer: Mark Twain

Question: When was Twain's back-translation published?
Answer: 1903

Question: For what language did Twain create a back-translation?
Answer: French

Question: What include a synopsized adaptation of Twain's story?
Answer: "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story"

Question: What had been thought for a while to be an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's story?
Answer: "The Athenian and the Frog"
Title: Translation

When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation that was made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki’s Polish version.

Question: What do researchers use back-translation to try to reconstruct when a document survives only in translation?
Answer: the original text

Question: Who was Jan Potocki?
Answer: Polish aristocrat

Question: What language was The Saragossa Manuscript originally written in?
Answer: French

Question: When had Edmund Chojecki translated portions of the Saragossa Manuscript into Polish from French?
Answer: 1847

Question: What fragments were the complete Saragossa Manuscripts now produced based on?
Answer: French-language
Title: Translation

Translation has served as a school of writing for many authors. Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary.

Question: What has served as a school of writing for many authors?
Answer: Translation

Question: Who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia?
Answer: monks

Question: What did translators shape in the course of their work?
Answer: languages

Question: What have translators acted as by conveying knowledge between cultures?
Answer: bridges

Question: Where were idioms and vocabulary imported from?
Answer: source languages
Title: Translation

Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and Doña Marina, an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to Hernán Cortés.

Question: What roles have interpreters occasionally played in history?
Answer: crucial

Question: Where were the slave-traders La Malinche was sold or given to from?
Answer: Xicalango

Question: What region did La Malinche hail from?
Answer: Mexican Gulf Coast

Question: What was La Malinche essential to?
Answer: Spanish conquest of Mexico

Question: In addition to being an interpreter and adviser, what function did La Malinche serve for Hernán Cortés?
Answer: lover
Title: Translation

Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available. With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing, translation-memory techniques, and internet applications, translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to businesses, individuals, and enterprises.

Question: What type of translation is favored by those wanting more accurate translations?
Answer: Web-based human translation

Question: What reputation does machine translations have?
Answer: frequent inaccuracy

Question: What type of translation is still the most accurate and reliable?
Answer: human

Question: Because of crowdsourcing, what type of translation are agencies able to provide?
Answer: on-demand human-translation services

Question: Who purchases the services of translation agencies?
Answer: businesses, individuals, and enterprises
Title: Translation

Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.

Question: Unedited machine translation will miss what crucial aspect of human language?
Answer: context-embedded

Question: What does it take a person to be able to do?
Answer: comprehend the context of the original text

Question: What can even translations completely done by a human still be prone to?
Answer: error

Question: How must machine translations be transformed by a human?
Answer: reviewed and edited
Title: Translation

In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.[citation needed]

Question: Where did Buddhism spread?
Answer: Asia

Question: Buddhism's spread led to what large-scale effort?
Answer: translation

Question: How long did the translation effort take?
Answer: well over a thousand years

Question: What Empire was especially good at translation?
Answer: The Tangut Empire

Question: What were the Tanguts able to do in only decades that took the Chinese centuries?
Answer: translate volumes
Title: Translation

The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain. King Alfonso X el Sabio (Alphonse the Wise) of Castille in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

Question: Who attempted a large-scale effort at translation?
Answer: Arabs

Question: What did the Arabs create Arabic versions of?
Answer: philosophical and scientific works

Question: When were some of the Arabic translations of earlier sentences translated into Latin?
Answer: Middle Ages

Question: What is Schola Traductorum in English?
Answer: School of Translation

Question: Latin translations indirectly advanced whose science and culture?
Answer: European
Title: Translation

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).

Question: What was the first great English translation?
Answer: Wycliffe Bible

Question: When was the Wycliffe Bible translated?
Answer: 1382

Question: When did the age of great English prose translation begin?
Answer: end of the 15th century

Question: What adaptation of Arthurian romances took so many liberties with the source material that it could hardly be called a translation?
Answer: Le Morte Darthur

Question: The Tyndale New Testament was one of the first great translations from what style?
Answer: Tudor
Title: Translation

Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.

Question: Whose court did Pletho arrive in and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?
Answer: Cosimo de' Medici

Question: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho carry?
Answer: Byzantine scholar

Question: When did Constantinople fall to the Turks?
Answer: 1453

Question: Who undertook translating Plato's works to Latin?
Answer: Marsilio Ficino

Question: What did religious beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?
Answer: the exact words
Title: Translation

Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.

Question: What was the guiding ideal of translators throughout the 18th century?
Answer: ease of reading

Question: If a translator didn't understand something in a text or thought it too boring to present to readers, what did they do with it?
Answer: omitted

Question: What did translators of this time assume was better than the actual text they were translating?
Answer: their own style of expression

Question: How much did the translators care about scholarship?
Answer: no more than had their predecessors

Question: What did James Macpherson "translate" from?
Answer: own composition
Title: Translation

The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.

Question: What new standards of translation came with the 19th century?
Answer: accuracy and style

Question: Who observed that the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text"?
Answer: J.M. Cohen

Question: What sort of passages were still left out of the supposed "whole" text?
Answer: bawdy

Question: What did the Victorians aim to remind the reader of their translations?
Answer: that they were reading a foreign classic

Question: How did the translation of Rubaiyat achieve an Oriental flavor?
Answer: by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes
Title: Translation

Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language—sometimes called "singing translation"—is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.

Question: What is the translation of text that is sung closely linked to?
Answer: poetry

Question: What is most vocal music set to in Western tradition?
Answer: verse

Question: What type of forms does popular music tend to retain?
Answer: stanzaic

Question: What type of example an be found of translating poetry for singing?
Answer: church hymns

Question: Who translated German chorales into English?
Answer: Catherine Winkworth
Title: Translation

Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line.

Question: How is translation of sung texts different than translations of poetry?
Answer: more restrictive

Question: Why is the translation of sung texts more restrictive?
Answer: little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation

Question: What places a great challenge on someone trying to translate music from one language to another?
Answer: assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical

Question: How can a syllable be added or deleted in prose sung texts?
Answer: by subdividing or combining notes
Title: Translation

Translations of sung texts—whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read—are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing.

Question: Who can translations of a sung text aid?
Answer: audiences, singers and conductors

Question: What type of familiar translation may be seen during an opera?
Answer: subtitles or surtitles

Question: What do professional and amateur singers often sing?
Answer: works in languages they do not know

Question: Translations help singers unfamiliar with a language do what?
Answer: understand the meaning of the words they are singing.
Title: Translation

One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the 3rd century BCE. The translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and according to legend all seventy versions proved identical. The Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian and Georgian.

Question: What is one of the first known instances of translation in the West?
Answer: rendering of the Old Testament into Greek

Question: When was the Old Testament translated into Greek?
Answer: 3rd century BCE

Question: Why is the translation of the Old Testament into Greek known as the Septuagint?
Answer: seventy translators

Question: How did each translator of the Bible work in Alexandria?
Answer: in solitary confinement

Question: According to myth, what property did all seventy versions of the bible have?
Answer: identical
Title: Translation

The period preceding, and contemporary with, the Protestant Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages—a development that contributed to Western Christianity's split into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages (although the Protestant movement was largely based on other things, such as a perceived need for reformation of the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate corruption). Lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries have been exerted by such Bible translations as Martin Luther's into German, Jakub Wujek's into Polish, and the King James Bible's translators' into English. Debate and religious schism over different translations of religious texts remain to this day, as demonstrated by, for example, the King James Only movement.

Question: During the Protestant Reformation, what local languages was the bible translated into?
Answer: European

Question: Biblical translations have caused lasting effects on what?
Answer: religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries

Question: Disparities between versions of crucial words and passages in versions of the bible contributed to what split?
Answer: Roman Catholicism and Protestantism

Question: What does the fact of the King James Only movement demonstrate?
Answer: religious schism over different translations of religious texts remain to this day

Question: Who translated the Bible to German?
Answer: Martin Luther
Title: Airport

An airport is an aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars  and terminals. Larger airports may have fixed base operator services, airport aprons, air traffic control centres, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services.

Question: What is an aerodome with facilities for flights to take off and land?
Answer: airport

Question: What is an aerially accessible open space that includes at least one active surface such as a runway or a helipad?
Answer: landing area

Question: What is an airport?
Answer: aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land
Title: Airport

The majority of the world's airports are non-towered, with no air traffic control presence. Busy airports have air traffic control (ATC) system. All airports use a traffic pattern to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft. There are a number of aids available to pilots, though not all airports are equipped with them. Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain, snow, or fog. In the U.S. and Canada, the vast majority of airports, large and small, will either have some form of automated airport weather station, a human observer or a combination of the two. Air safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and airports often have their own safety services.

Question: What does ATC stand for?
Answer: air traffic control

Question: What do airports use to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft?
Answer: traffic pattern

Question: What is an important concern in the operation of an airport?
Answer: Air safety
Title: Airport

Most of the world's airports are owned by local, regional, or national government bodies who then lease the airport to private corporations who oversee the airport's operation. For example, in the United Kingdom the state-owned British Airports Authority originally operated eight of the nation's major commercial airports - it was subsequently privatized in the late 1980s, and following its takeover by the Spanish Ferrovial consortium in 2006, has been further divested and downsized to operating just five. Germany's Frankfurt Airport is managed by the quasi-private firm Fraport. While in India GMR Group operates, through joint ventures, Indira Gandhi International Airport and Rajiv Gandhi International Airport. Bengaluru International Airport and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport are controlled by GVK Group. The rest of India's airports are managed by the Airports Authority of India.

Question: How many commercial airports did the British Airports Authority originally operate?
Answer: eight

Question: What group took over the British Airports Authority in 2006?
Answer: Spanish Ferrovial consortium

Question: What group manages the Frankfurt Airport?
Answer: Fraport

Question: Who operates, through joint ventures, Indira Gandhi International Airport?
Answer: GMR Group