rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

Jefferson and James Madison's conceptions of separation have long been debated. Jefferson refused to issue Proclamations of Thanksgiving sent to him by Congress during his presidency, though he did issue a Thanksgiving and Prayer proclamation as Governor of Virginia. Madison issued four religious proclamations while President, but vetoed two bills on the grounds they violated the first amendment. On the other hand, both Jefferson and Madison attended religious services at the Capitol. Years before the ratification of the Constitution, Madison contended "Because if Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body." After retiring from the presidency, Madison wrote of "total separation of the church from the state." " "Strongly guarded as is the separation between Religion & Govt in the Constitution of the United States," Madison wrote, and he declared, "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government is essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States." In a letter to Edward Livingston Madison further expanded, "We are teaching the world the great truth that Govts. do better without Kings & Nobles than with them. The merit will be doubled by the other lesson that Religion flourishes in greater purity, without than with the aid of Govt." Madison's original draft of the Bill of Rights had included provisions binding the States, as well as the Federal Government, from an establishment of religion, but the House did not pass them.[citation needed]

Question: Whose conceptions of separation have long been argued over?
Answer: Jefferson and James Madison's

Question: What did Jefferson refuse to issue, when it was sent to him by Congress during his presidency?
Answer: Proclamations of Thanksgiving

Question: Where did both Jefferson and Madison attend religious services?
Answer: at the Capitol

Question: How many religious proclamations did Madison issue while President?
Answer: four

Question: What is essential to the purity of both religion and civil government?
Answer: practical distinction
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

Jefferson's opponents said his position was the destruction and the governmental rejection of Christianity, but this was a caricature. In setting up the University of Virginia, Jefferson encouraged all the separate sects to have preachers of their own, though there was a constitutional ban on the State supporting a Professorship of Divinity, arising from his own Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Some have argued that this arrangement was "fully compatible with Jefferson's views on the separation of church and state;" however, others point to Jefferson's support for a scheme in which students at the University would attend religious worship each morning as evidence that his views were not consistent with strict separation. Still other scholars, such as Mark David Hall, attempt to sidestep the whole issue by arguing that American jurisprudence focuses too narrowly on this one Jeffersonian letter while failing to account for other relevant history

Question: What did Jefferson's opponents accuse him of wanting to do to Christianity? 
Answer: destruction

Question: What did Jefferson encourage the separate sects at the University of Virginia to have of their own?
Answer: preachers

Question: How was the state banned from supporting a Professorship of Divinity?
Answer: Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom

Question: What scheme did Jefferson apparently support when it came to University students?
Answer: attend religious worship each morning

Question: What does Mark David Hall think people focus on way too much?
Answer: one Jeffersonian letter
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

Jefferson's letter entered American jurisprudence in the 1878 Mormon polygamy case Reynolds v. U.S., in which the court cited Jefferson and Madison, seeking a legal definition for the word religion. Writing for the majority, Justice Stephen Johnson Field cited Jefferson's Letter to the Danbury Baptists to state that "Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order." Considering this, the court ruled that outlawing polygamy was constitutional.

Question: When did Jefferson's letter enter American jurisprudence?
Answer: 1878

Question: What was the case that used Jefferson's letter?
Answer: Reynolds v. U.S.

Question: What was the topic of Reynolds v. U.S.?
Answer: Mormon polygamy

Question: What was the court seeking, in using Jefferson's letter?
Answer: legal definition for the word religion

Question: What did the court rule outlawing polygamy was?
Answer: constitutional
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

Jefferson and Madison's approach was not the only one taken in the eighteenth century. Jefferson's Statute of Religious Freedom was drafted in opposition to a bill, chiefly supported by Patrick Henry, which would permit any Virginian to belong to any denomination, but which would require him to belong to some denomination and pay taxes to support it. Similarly, the Constitution of Massachusetts originally provided that "no subject shall be hurt, molested, or restrained, in his person, liberty, or estate, for worshipping God in the manner and season most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience... provided he doth not disturb the public peace, or obstruct others in their religious worship," (Article II) but also that:

Question: What approach was not the only one taken in the 18th century?
Answer: Jefferson and Madison's

Question: What did Jefferson draft his Statute of Religious Freedom in opposition to?
Answer: a bill

Question: Who was the chief supporter of the bill that got Jefferson motivated to draft his Statute?
Answer: Patrick Henry

Question: What did Patrick Henry want to require Virginians to pay taxes to support?
Answer: some denomination

Question: What did the Constitution of Massachusetts express no one would be restrained from doing?
Answer: worshipping God
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

The Duke of York had required that every community in his new lands of New York and New Jersey support some church, but this was more often Dutch Reformed, Quaker or Presbyterian, than Anglican. Some chose to support more than one church. He also ordained that the tax-payers were free, having paid his local tax, to choose their own church. The terms for the surrender of New Amsterdam had provided that the Dutch would have liberty of conscience, and the Duke, as an openly divine-right Catholic, was no friend of Anglicanism. The first Anglican minister in New Jersey arrived in 1698, though Anglicanism was more popular in New York.

Question: What did the Duke of York require every community in his lands to support?
Answer: some church

Question: Instead of Anglican, what were the churches most often supported in New York and New Jersey?
Answer: Dutch Reformed, Quaker or Presbyterian

Question: What were taxpayers free to do after they paid the Duke of York his local tax?
Answer: to choose their own church

Question: Why was the Duke not a friend of Anglicanism?
Answer: openly divine-right Catholic,

Question: When did the first Anglican minister arrive in New Jersey?
Answer: 1698
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

The original charter of the Province of East Jersey had restricted membership in the Assembly to Christians; the Duke of York was fervently Catholic, and the proprietors of Perth Amboy, New Jersey were Scottish Catholic peers. The Province of West Jersey had declared, in 1681, that there should be no religious test for office. An oath had also been imposed on the militia during the French and Indian War requiring them to abjure the pretensions of the Pope, which may or may not have been applied during the Revolution. That law was replaced by 1799.

Question: What did the original charter of the Province of East Jersey restrict membership in its Assembly to?
Answer: Christians

Question: What was the Duke of York's relationship to his religion described as being?
Answer: fervently Catholic

Question: What religious sect were the proprietors of Perth Amboy?
Answer: Scottish Catholic

Question: What did the Province of West Jersey specify there would not be for those running for an office, in 1681?
Answer: religious test

Question: When was an oath requiring militia to abjure the pretensions of the pope replaced?
Answer: 1799
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

The first amendment to the US Constitution states "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof" The two parts, known as the "establishment clause" and the "free exercise clause" respectively, form the textual basis for the Supreme Court's interpretations of the "separation of church and state" doctrine. Three central concepts were derived from the 1st Amendment which became America's doctrine for church-state separation: no coercion in religious matters, no expectation to support a religion against one's will, and religious liberty encompasses all religions. In sum, citizens are free to embrace or reject a faith, any support for religion - financial or physical - must be voluntary, and all religions are equal in the eyes of the law with no special preference or favoritism.

Question: What does the first amendment to the US Constitution state?
Answer: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof"

Question: What is the first part of the First Amendment know as?
Answer: "establishment clause"

Question: What is the last part of the sentence of the First Amendment known as?
Answer: "free exercise clause"

Question: What do the two clauses of the First Amendment for the basis of?
Answer: the Supreme Court's interpretations of the "separation of church and state" doctrine.

Question: What are citizens of the United States free to embrace or reject as they choose?
Answer: a faith
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

Some legal scholars, such as John Baker of LSU, theorize that Madison's initial proposed language—that Congress should make no law regarding the establishment of a "national religion"—was rejected by the House, in favor of the more general "religion" in an effort to appease the Anti-Federalists. To both the Anti-Federalists and the Federalists, the very word "national" was a cause for alarm because of the experience under the British crown. During the debate over the establishment clause, Rep. Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts took issue with Madison's language regarding whether the government was a national or federal government (in which the states retained their individual sovereignty), which Baker suggests compelled Madison to withdraw his language from the debate.

Question: What is John Baker of LSU's profession?
Answer: legal scholars

Question: Why was a more general "religion" used in the language of the First Amendment?
Answer: to appease the Anti-Federalists

Question: Why was the word "national" a cause for alarm to both Federalists and Anti-Federalists?
Answer: because of the experience under the British crown

Question: Who took issue with Madison's language during the debate over the establishment clause?
Answer: Elbridge Gerry

Question: What was Elbridge Gerry's constituency? 
Answer: Massachusetts
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

Others, such as Rep. Roger Sherman of Connecticut, believed the clause was unnecessary because the original Constitution only gave Congress stated powers, which did not include establishing a national religion. Anti-Federalists such as Rep. Thomas Tucker of South Carolina moved to strike the establishment clause completely because it could preempt the religious clauses in the state constitutions. However, the Anti-Federalists were unsuccessful in persuading the House of Representatives to drop the clause from the first amendment.

Question: Where was Representative Roger Sherman from?
Answer: Connecticut

Question: Why did Sherman believe the establishment clause was unnecessary? 
Answer: Constitution only gave Congress stated powers

Question: What power was not granted to Congress by the Constitution?
Answer: establishing a national religion

Question: What was Tucker concerned the establishment clause could preempt?
Answer: religious clauses in the state constitutions

Question: Where was Representative Thomas Tucker from?
Answer: South Carolina
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments, intended to secure rights for former slaves. It includes the due process and equal protection clauses among others. The amendment introduces the concept of incorporation of all relevant federal rights against the states. While it has not been fully implemented, the doctrine of incorporation has been used to ensure, through the Due Process Clause and Privileges and Immunities Clause, the application of most of the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights to the states.

Question: When was the 14th Amendment to the US Constitution created?
Answer: post-Civil War

Question: What was the intent of the 14th Amendment?
Answer: secure rights for former slaves

Question: What does the 14th Amendment also introduce the concept of?
Answer: incorporation of all relevant federal rights against the states

Question: What clauses does the 14th Amendment include?
Answer: due process and equal protection clauses

Question: What has the doctrine of incorporation been used to ensure?
Answer: application of most of the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights to the states
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

The incorporation of the First Amendment establishment clause in the landmark case of Everson v. Board of Education has impacted the subsequent interpretation of the separation of church and state in regard to the state governments. Although upholding the state law in that case, which provided for public busing to private religious schools, the Supreme Court held that the First Amendment establishment clause was fully applicable to the state governments. A more recent case involving the application of this principle against the states was Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994).

Question: What landmark case has impacted all subsequent interpretations of the separation of church and state in regard to state governments?
Answer: Everson v. Board of Education

Question: What did the Supreme Court uphold in Everson v. Board of Education?
Answer: state law

Question: What did the Supreme Court hold the First Amendment establishment clause was fully applicable to?
Answer: state governments

Question: What was a recent case involving the application of the principle of the establishment clause against states?
Answer: Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet

Question: When was the case of v. Grumet?
Answer: 1994
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

Jefferson's concept of "separation of church and state" first became a part of Establishment Clause jurisprudence in Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878). In that case, the court examined the history of religious liberty in the US, determining that while the constitution guarantees religious freedom, "The word 'religion' is not defined in the Constitution. We must go elsewhere, therefore, to ascertain its meaning, and nowhere more appropriately, we think, than to the history of the times in the midst of which the provision was adopted." The court found that the leaders in advocating and formulating the constitutional guarantee of religious liberty were James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Quoting the "separation" paragraph from Jefferson's letter to the Danbury Baptists, the court concluded that, "coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured."

Question: What did Jefferson's concept of 'separation of church and state" became part of what jurisprudence?
Answer: Establishment Clause

Question: What case was Jefferson's concept apropos to?
Answer: Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145

Question: What does the constitution guarantee when it comes to religion?
Answer: freedom

Question: What word is not defined in the Constitution?
Answer: religion

Question: Who had Jefferson's letter been sent to?
Answer: the Danbury Baptists
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

The centrality of the "separation" concept to the Religion Clauses of the Constitution was made explicit in Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947), a case dealing with a New Jersey law that allowed government funds to pay for transportation of students to both public and Catholic schools. This was the first case in which the court applied the Establishment Clause to the laws of a state, having interpreted the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as applying the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal legislature. Citing Jefferson, the court concluded that "The First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state. That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach."

Question: When was the centrality of the "separation" concept to the Religion Clauses of the Constitution made explicit?
Answer: 1947

Question: What was the topic of the Everson v. Board of Education?
Answer: government funds to pay for transportation of students to both public and Catholic schools

Question: What case was the concept relevant?
Answer: Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1

Question: What was the case of Everson v. Board of Education the first instance of?
Answer: court applied the Establishment Clause to the laws of a state

Question: How must the wall separating church and state be kept?
Answer: high and impregnable
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

While the decision (with four dissents) ultimately upheld the state law allowing the funding of transportation of students to religious schools, the majority opinion (by Justice Hugo Black) and the dissenting opinions (by Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge and Justice Robert H. Jackson) each explicitly stated that the Constitution has erected a "wall between church and state" or a "separation of Church from State": their disagreement was limited to whether this case of state funding of transportation to religious schools breached that wall. Rutledge, on behalf of the four dissenting justices, took the position that the majority had indeed permitted a violation of the wall of separation in this case: "Neither so high nor so impregnable today as yesterday is the wall raised between church and state by Virginia's great statute of religious freedom and the First Amendment, now made applicable to all the states by the Fourteenth." Writing separately, Justice Jackson argued that "[T]here are no good grounds upon which to support the present legislation. In fact, the undertones of the opinion, advocating complete and uncompromising separation of Church from State, seem utterly discordant with its conclusion yielding support to their commingling in educational matters."

Question: What did the decision ultimately uphold?
Answer: state law

Question: What was the state allowed to continue to fund?
Answer: transportation of students to religious schools

Question: What did both the majority and dissenting opinions reiterate?
Answer: that the Constitution has erected a "wall between church and state"

Question: What was the disagreement between the Justices over whether funding breached what?
Answer: that wall

Question: What did Justice Jackson argue there were no grounds upon which to support what?
Answer: the present legislation
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

In 1962, the Supreme Court addressed the issue of officially-sponsored prayer or religious recitations in public schools. In Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962), the Court, by a vote of 6-1, determined it unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and require its recitation in public schools, even when the prayer is non-denominational and students may excuse themselves from participation. (The prayer required by the New York State Board of Regents prior to the Court's decision consisted of: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. Amen.") As the Court stated:

Question: When did the Supreme Court address the issue of officially sponsored prayer in public schools?
Answer: 1962

Question: What was the case in 1962 where the Supreme Court addressed the issue of officially sponsored school prayer?
Answer: Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421

Question: By what vote did the Supreme Court determine it unconstitutional for state official to compose an official school prayer?
Answer: 6-1

Question: Even if a prayer is non-denominational it's still considered what?
Answer: unconstitutional
Title: Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States

The court noted that it "is a matter of history that this very practice of establishing governmentally composed prayers for religious services was one of the reasons which caused many of our early colonists to leave England and seek religious freedom in America." The lone dissenter, Justice Potter Stewart, objected to the court's embrace of the "wall of separation" metaphor: "I think that the Court's task, in this as in all areas of constitutional adjudication, is not responsibly aided by the uncritical invocation of metaphors like the "wall of separation," a phrase nowhere to be found in the Constitution."

Question: What was one of the reasons early colonists left England to seek religious freedom in America?
Answer: governmentally composed prayers for religious services

Question: Who was the lone dissenter in the Supreme Court's ruling?
Answer: Justice Potter Stewart

Question: What did Stewart object to?
Answer: the court's embrace of the "wall of separation" metaphor

Question: Stewart felt the court was not responsibly aided by the uncritical invocation of what?
Answer: metaphors

Question: Stewart pointed out that the phrase "Wall of separation" was nowhere to be found in what?
Answer: the Constitution