rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the Deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note that, "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law, and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647–1706) observed that in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion].". He believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions".

Question: According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism?
Answer: the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source

Question: Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men?
Answer: Pierre Bayle

Question: Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined?
Answer: Voltaire

Question: Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society?
Answer: Voltaire
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude," and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude". Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

Question: Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere?
Answer: women and the lower classes

Question: Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation?
Answer: coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges

Question: Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what?
Answer: "the opinion of the multitude,"

Question: d'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom?
Answer: "the blind and noisy multitude"
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial, and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France at least, the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.

Question: The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment?
Answer: reading materials

Question: Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices?
Answer: the Industrial Revolution

Question: In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for?
Answer: demand for information

Question: In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century?
Answer: France

Question: The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage?
Answer: just one-tenth of the total
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

Question: Whose incomes did public concerts help support?
Answer: performers' and composers'

Question: Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work?
Answer: operas and oratorios

Question: Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals?
Answer: Haydn and Mozart

Question: What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share?
Answer: Viennese Classical
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines, and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens". Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership; although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people". For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.

Question: What year was the Academy of Science in France founded?
Answer: 1635

Question: Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?"
Answer: scientists

Question: What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science?
Answer: 13 percent

Question: The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group?
Answer: elite Parisian scholars

Question: How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves?
Answer: interpreters of the sciences for the people
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Question: Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located?
Answer: northern Europe

Question: Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe?
Answer: Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh

Question: Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies?
Answer: Edinburgh

Question: Which of  France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment?
Answer: the medical university at Montpellier
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.

Question: How can associationism be defined?
Answer: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines

Question: What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward?
Answer: associationism,

Question: Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period?
Answer: the Renaissance
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail, and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

Question: What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?
Answer: universal encyclopedias

Question: What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?
Answer: to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work

Question: Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?
Answer: Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers

Question: In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?
Answer: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot

Question: Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?
Answer: d'Alembert's
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

Question: Anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology are all studies of which subject?
Answer: natural history

Question: Who criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier?
Answer: Rousseau

Question: Who replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development during the Enlightenment?
Answer: scientific societies and academies

Question: Which century is considered by some as a "drab" period, however saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics, the development of biological taxonomy, a new understanding of magnetism, and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline?
Answer: the 18th century

Question: Voltaire and Emilie du Chatelet populatized which scientific philosophy?
Answer: Newtonianism
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.

Question: Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of what?
Answer: the development of free speech and thought

Question: Who discovered carbon dioxide or fixed air?
Answer: chemist Joseph Black

Question: Who created the argument for deep time?
Answer: geologist James Hutton

Question: Who invented the steam engine?
Answer: James Watt

Question: Who launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon in November 1783?
Answer: the Montgolfier Brothers
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples, and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.

Question: For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?
Answer: Crimes and Punishments (1764)

Question: Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?
Answer: 22

Question: Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?
Answer: Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787)

Question: In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?
Answer: 1783
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities. However, contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge, while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members, and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

Question: What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?
Answer: transmission of knowledge

Question: Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?
Answer: to create knowledge

Question: By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?
Answer: 1789

Question: Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?
Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.

Question: The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?
Answer: 1789

Question: Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?
Answer: Locke

Question: The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies?
Answer: "consent of the governed"

Question: According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?
Answer: governance paradigm shift
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen, and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents; Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign", rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract.

Question: In what work did Ferguson explain how humans advanced from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract?
Answer: An Essay on the History of Civil Society

Question: In what year did Ferguson publish An Essay on the History of Civil Society?
Answer: 1767

Question: How many stages of progress did Ferguson theorize?
Answer: four

Question: Who, along with Adam Ferguson, criticized the idea of social contract theorists?
Answer: David Hume
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences, and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and, in residence, world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life.

Question: What century produced the first Russian univeristy, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press?
Answer: 18th century

Question: What did the Russian enlightenment focus on instead of societal enlightenment?
Answer: the individual

Question: From whom did Catherine the Great receive assistance in her Enlightenment ideals via correspondence?
Answer: Voltaire
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation, and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues, by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.

Question: Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation?
Answer: Bertrand Russell

Question: Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from?
Answer: 16th-century Protestants

Question: Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment?
Answer: Martin Luther