rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Botany

Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity. For example, plant phenology can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology, and the biological impact of climate change and global warming. Palynology, the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from thousands or millions of years ago allows the reconstruction of past climates. Estimates of atmospheric CO2 concentrations since the Palaeozoic have been obtained from stomatal densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient land plants. Ozone depletion can expose plants to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation-B (UV-B), resulting in lower growth rates. Moreover, information from studies of community ecology, plant systematics, and taxonomy is essential to understanding vegetation change, habitat destruction and species extinction.

Question: How can historical changes in the environment be detected?
Answer: plant phenology

Question: How can climate changes be determined from soil?
Answer: fossil pollen deposits in sediments

Question: What atmospheric gas can be determined from fossilized leaf sizes and shapes?
Answer: CO2

Question: What causes lower growth in plants?
Answer: Ozone depletion

Question: What does ozone depletion allow?
Answer: higher levels of ultraviolet radiation-B
Title: Botany

Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms. Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas). What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Similarly, "jumping genes" were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize. Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.

Question: Does inheritance work differently in plants?
Answer: same fundamental principles of genetics

Question: What plant did Mendel use to demonstrate inheritance?
Answer: Pisum sativum (peas)

Question: What other plant was used in the discovery of different genes?
Answer: maize

Question: Are plants and animals genetically the same?
Answer: distinctive genetic differences
Title: Botany

Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals, and cross species hybrids are often possible. A familiar example is peppermint, Mentha × piperita, a sterile hybrid between Mentha aquatica and spearmint, Mentha spicata. The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids. Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self-incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes. This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing. In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals. These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes.

Question: Are plants able to mate across species?
Answer: hybrids are often possible

Question: What common grain is the result cultivated wild hybrids?
Answer: wheat

Question: How do some plants avoid cross pollination?
Answer: pollen either fails to reach the stigma

Question: Do all plants have male and female parts?
Answer: separate individuals
Title: Botany

Unlike in higher animals, where parthenogenesis is rare, asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms. The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example. Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats, where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare, plantlets or bulbs, may develop instead of flowers, replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent. This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants. Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.

Question: Why do plants develop bulbs?
Answer: opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare

Question: What do plants do when the environment makes fertilization especially difficult?
Answer: replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction

Question: How different are the children produced by asexual parents?
Answer: genetically identical to the parent

Question: What is the term for asexual cloning?
Answer: Apomixis

Question: Does apomixis only occur in the parent?
Answer: can also happen in a seed
Title: Botany

Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid, with paired chromosomes, but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis. This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism, or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid (endopolyploidy), or during gamete formation. An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species. Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally, but may be unable to cross-breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers. These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area, may be sufficiently successful to form a new species. Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals. Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid, while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid. The commercial banana is an example of a sterile, seedless triploid hybrid. Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.

Question: What can cause the doubling of chromosome pairs?
Answer: errors in cytokinesis

Question: Are the plants produced by this error, able to reproduce?
Answer: often reproduce normally

Question: Can these plants cross breed with the parent population of plants?
Answer: unable to cross-breed successfully

Question: What happens to these new plants if they are able to reproduce?
Answer: form a new species

Question: What is a yellow example of a sterile,hybrid plant with no seeds?
Answer: commercial banana
Title: Botany

A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana, a weedy species in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA, forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants. Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in 2000. The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.

Question: What was the first plant to have its genome sequenced?
Answer: Thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana

Question: In what year was this genome sequenced?
Answer: 2000

Question: Why was this plant chosen for sequencing?
Answer: one of the smallest genomes

Question: Why is sequencing done on plants?
Answer: understanding the genetics

Question: What results from  sequencing of DNA pairs?
Answer: new knowledge about plant function
Title: Botany

Model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast. Ideally, these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced, small stature and short generation times. Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in C4 plants. The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, while not an embryophyte itself, contains a green-pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants, making it useful for study. A red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions. Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology.

Question: Why is a plant chosen for the study of its cells?
Answer: small genomes

Question: What mechanism can be studied through chromosome sequencing?
Answer: photosynthesis

Question: What common plant has been used for studying the production of sugar?
Answer: Corn

Question: What simple plant has been used to study plant cells?
Answer: red alga
Title: Botany

Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a soil rhizosphere bacterium, can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus-inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer, causing a callus infection called crown gall disease. Schell and Van Montagu (1977) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species. Today, genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops.

Question: How can a bacteria in the soil affect a plant?
Answer: can attach to plant cells

Question: How can scientists use bacteria in the study of plants?
Answer: introducing the Nif gene

Question: How are genes transferred to a plant by scientists?
Answer: in the root nodules

Question: What is this kind of introduction and transfer used for?
Answer: creation of genetically modified crops

Question: Who developed the procedures used in this transfer?
Answer: Schell and Van Montagu
Title: Botany

Epigenetics is the study of mitotically and/or meiotically heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism's genes to behave (or "express themselves") differently. One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not. Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed. Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant, and are responsible, for example, for the differences between anthers, petals and normal leaves, despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code. Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell's life. Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.

Question: What does epigenetics study?
Answer: changes in gene function

Question: How do DNA changes affect plants?
Answer: express themselves") differently

Question: When DNA has different markers, how it that presented in plants?
Answer: prevent that region of the DNA code

Question: What is a result of changes in DNA markers within a plant species?
Answer: differences

Question: Are the changes then presented, permanent?
Answer: may be temporary
Title: Botany

Epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo, which in turn become fully differentiated cells. A single fertilized egg cell, the zygote, gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma, xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tubes, guard cells of the epidermis, etc. as it continues to divide. The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others.

Question: What process causes changes in plant cells?
Answer: Epigenetic changes

Question: What is the original cell of the plant?
Answer: the zygote

Question: How are the different cells formed?
Answer: continues to divide

Question: How is it determined, which cells will be formed?
Answer: activation of some genes and inhibition of others
Title: Botany

Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodeling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.

Question: Does cell division end in plants?
Answer: remaining totipotent

Question: What happens when a plant remains totipotent?
Answer: ability to give rise to a new individual plant

Question: Why do phloem sieve tubes stop forming?
Answer: lack nuclei

Question: Why are plants able to stop and start dividing cells?
Answer: information from the environment

Question: Are lignified cells able to continue dividing?
Answer: dead at maturity
Title: Botany

The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others. There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition, biochemistry, pigmentation, chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves. The algal division Charophyta, sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta, is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants. The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.

Question: Are all algae different from land plants?
Answer: some more closely related

Question: What algae is the ancestor of true plants?
Answer: Charophyta

Question: Are all species of algae similar?
Answer: many differences

Question: To what species of algae is Charophyta related?
Answer: Chlorophyta
Title: Botany

Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem. They include mosses, liverworts and hornworts. Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian. Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day. By the end of the Devonian period, several groups, including the lycopods, sphenophylls and progymnosperms, had independently evolved "megaspory" – their spores were of two distinct sizes, larger megaspores and smaller microspores. Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory. Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers (integuments). The young sporophyte develops within the seed, which on germination splits to release it. The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage. Following the evolution of the seed habit, seed plants diversified, giving rise to a number of now-extinct groups, including seed ferns, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce "naked seeds" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary. Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms.

Question: What makes mosses different from other land plants?
Answer: lack the vascular tissues

Question: What protects the young plant in the seed?
Answer: one or two sheathing layers

Question: How does the plant escape the seed?
Answer: splits to release it

Question: What is the term for plants whose seeds do not have a protective ovary?
Answer: Gymnosperms

Question: What event led to the diversification of seed plants?
Answer: evolution of the seed habit
Title: Botany

Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life. Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism. The energy of sunlight, captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration, is the basis of almost all life. Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis. Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues. Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis.

Question: What does the plant use for internal processes?
Answer: Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water

Question: Where do plants get their energy?
Answer: sunlight

Question: How do animals use plants?
Answer: in the construction of cells and tissues

Question: Is respiration in animals similar to photosynthesis in plants?
Answer: opposite of photosynthesis

Question: What is the basis of plant physiology?
Answer: internal chemical and physical activities
Title: Botany

Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales. Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes. Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream. Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur. Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. In vascular plants, these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem. Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes.

Question: How is water transported into plants?
Answer: from roots

Question: IN what form are mineral acquired by the roots?
Answer: as soluble ions

Question: From where does the plant get the required minerals?
Answer: chemical breakdown of soil

Question: Where is sucrose produced in a plant?
Answer: the leaves

Question: How are hormones moved around a plant?
Answer: by a variety of processes
Title: Botany

The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century. Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity, and concluded "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements". About the same time, the role of auxins (from the Greek auxein, to grow) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went. The first known auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which promotes cell growth, was only isolated from plants about 50 years later. This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity. The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA, followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification.

Question: When was the theory of plant hormones introduced?
Answer: late 19th century

Question: To what did Darwin compare the top of the plant radical?
Answer: the brain of one of the lower animals

Question: Why did Darwin feel plants had something comparable to a brain?
Answer: movements of plant shoots

Question: What do auxins do?
Answer: promotes cell growth

Question: What can plant callus be coaxed into doing?
Answer: form roots and shoots
Title: Botany

Cytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division or cytokinesis. The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine. Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division, bud development, and the greening of chloroplasts. The gibberelins, such as Gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway. They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering. Abscisic acid (ABA) occurs in all land plants except liverworts, and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids. It inhibits cell division, promotes seed maturation, and dormancy, and promotes stomatal closure. It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission. Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine. It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission, and it, or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene, are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton, pineapples and other climacteric crops.

Question: What are cytokinins responsible for in plants?
Answer: control of cell division

Question: Where are cytokinins produced?
Answer: in roots

Question: How is bud development determined?
Answer: cytokinesis

Question: How is the height of a plant determined?
Answer: gibberelins

Question: What acid slows or stops cell division?
Answer: Abscisic
Title: Botany

Plant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues, whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form. All plants are multicellular eukaryotes, their DNA stored in nuclei. The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin,  larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts. Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (amyloplasts) or lipids (elaioplasts). Uniquely, streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division.

Question: What is the study of the inside of plants?
Answer: Plant anatomy

Question: What is the study of the outside of plants?
Answer: plant morphology

Question: How are plants different from animals?
Answer: primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose

Question: Where do plants store their DNA?
Answer: in nuclei

Question: Are the vacuoles of plant cells larger or smaller than animal cells?
Answer: larger