rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Genocide

The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. However leading genocide scholar William Schabas states: “Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was in fact originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin’s vision of the nature of the crime of genocide.”

Question: Which provision was initially included in the first write-up of the Convention and then removed?
Answer: political killings

Question: What is one of the countries that objected to the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the Convention?
Answer: USSR

Question: What was the primary concern of other nations who objected to including political groups in the definition of genocide?
Answer: international intervention in domestic politics

Question: Which distinguished academic of genocide highlighted several other countries opposed to including political genocide in the Convention?
Answer: William Schabas

Question: What atrocity motivated a self-serving USSR to object to the provision of political killings drafted into the Convention?
Answer: its own Great Purge
Title: Genocide

In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide.

Question: Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?
Answer: majority of legal scholars

Question: What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of genocide?
Answer: national, racial, religious or ethnic

Question: In 2007 what former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on to further refine qualifiers of genocide?
Answer: Jorgic v. Germany

Question: What form of destruction was considered too limited by a smaller group of experts?
Answer: biological-physical
Title: Genocide

The word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as "a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group's basic existence, including language, culture, and economic infrastructure.” He created a concept of mobilizing much of the international relations and community, to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history and the international society. Australian anthropologist Peg LeVine coined the term "ritualcide" to describe the destruction of a group's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members.

Question: Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word "genocide" used in an indictment scenario?
Answer: as a descriptive term

Question: Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of an entire group?
Answer: Lemming

Question: Lemming's concept of genocide triggered legal action in which realm?
Answer: international relations and community

Question: What was the nationality of anthropologist Peg LeVine?
Answer: Australian

Question: What relative term did LeVine coin to refer to cultural destruction, without the death of its members?
Answer: "ritualcide"

Question: What term was coined to describe the destruction of culture?
Answer: ritualcide

Question: What kind of scientist is Peg LeVine?
Answer: anthropologist

Question: What elements of group existence, other than people themselves, can be targets of genocide?
Answer: language, culture, and economic infrastructure
Title: Genocide

The study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within international relations. When genocide is looked at in a general aspect it is viewed as the deliberate killing of a certain group. Yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of a state or area. In 1648 before the term genocide had been coined, the Peace of Westphalia was established to protect ethnic, national, racial and in some instances religious groups. During the 19th century humanitarian intervention was needed due to the fact of conflict and justification of some of the actions executed by the military.

Question: What has been the primary focus in the study of genocide?
Answer: legal aspect of the term

Question: In prosecuting genocide, what must the act be formally acknowledged as?
Answer: a crime

Question: In a general aspect, what is genocide viewed as?
Answer: the deliberate killing of a certain group

Question: In trials of genocidal crimes, what responsibly party is difficult to prosecute? 
Answer: officials in power of a state or area

Question: Long before genocide was established as a legal term, what treaty was in place to protect various groups from persecution and mass killings?
Answer: the Peace of Westphalia

Question: Why does genocide often go unpunished?
Answer: genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power

Question: Who was the Peace of Westphalia designed to protect?
Answer: ethnic, national, racial and in some instances religious groups

Question: What year was the Peace of Westphalia signed?
Answer: 1648
Title: Genocide

Genocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as "a crime without a name". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin, described the policies of systematic murder founded by the Nazis as genocide. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill). The word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them.

Question: When was the word "genocide" first used?
Answer: 1944

Question: What is the etymology of the term "genocide"?
Answer: The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill).

Question: What is the definition of genocide?
Answer: a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them

Question: Who coined the term "genocide"?
Answer: Raphael Lemkin

Question: Who referred to acts of genocide in 1941?
Answer: Winston Churchill

Question: The word "genocide" was unknown until what year?
Answer: 1944

Question: In 1941, how did Winston Churchill refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war?
Answer: as "a crime without a name"

Question: What was the name of the Polish-Jewish lawyer who first described Nazi atrocities as "genocide?" 
Answer: Raphael Lemkin

Question: What is the etymological basis of the word "genocide?"
Answer: Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill)

Question: As it pertains to violent crimes against targeted groups, what is the ultimate motivation within the actions of genocide?
Answer: to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them
Title: Genocide

The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the Tribunal's Statute]."

Question: Several considerations were involved in meeting the requirement to determine what?  
Answer: when the targeted part is substantial enough

Question: What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the starting point of the inquiry? 
Answer: The numeric size

Question: The number of people targeted in a genocide should not be solely evaluated by what?
Answer: absolute terms

Question: In addition to the numeric size of a targeted group, what other consideration was useful to the ICTY?
Answer: prominence within the group
Title: Genocide

In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it can—in combination with other factors—inform the analysis."

Question: The issue of what is raised by judges in Paragraph 13? 
Answer: perpetrators' access to the victims

Question: What is the basis for suggesting that several factors regarding the activity of the perpetrators be considered? 
Answer: historical examples of genocide

Question: The extent of what by the perpetrators was considered in an examination of their activity and level of control?
Answer: possible extent of their reach

Question: What will always be restricted in terms of a perpetrator's intent to destroy?
Answer: the opportunity presented to him

Question: While the factor cannot independently indicate if the targeted group is substantial, it can do what?
Answer: inform the analysis
Title: Genocide

The Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support for the Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced.

Question: On which date did the Genocide Convention become effective?
Answer: 12 January 1951

Question: What was the minimum number of countries necessary to form parties? 
Answer: 20

Question: Of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, how many were parties to the treaty?
Answer: only two

Question: What member ratified in 1970?
Answer: the United Kingdom

Question: The delay in support by certain powerful members meant the Convention was largely powerless for over how many decades?
Answer: four
Title: Genocide

Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various reasons.

Question: In 1998 it was written that the CPPCG was a legal entity resulting in which type of compromise?
Answer: a diplomatic compromise

Question: Rather than a definition, the text of the treaty is considered as what type of tool?
Answer: a research tool

Question: What does the treaty possess that others lack?
Answer: international legal credibility

Question: The writers Jonassohn and Bjornson cite various reasons for the lack of widespread support of what?
Answer: alternative definitions
Title: Genocide

Jonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and R. J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr have looked at post World War II events. Jonassohn and Björnson are critical of some of these studies, arguing that they are too expansive, and conclude that the academic discipline of genocide studies is too young to have a canon of work on which to build an academic paradigm.

Question: What two writers examined the lack of an accepted and singular definition for genocide?
Answer: Jonassohn and Björnson

Question: The two writers suggested that academics adjusted what in their different definitions to assist them in interpreting events? 
Answer: their focus

Question: What writer joined Jonassohn in the study of the whole of human history?
Answer: Frank Chalk

Question: With whom was Leo Kuper paired in research that focused on 20th century works?
Answer: R. J. Rummel

Question: Two women and what man concentrated on post World War II events?
Answer: Ted Gurr
Title: Genocide

The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted, and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator." While there are various definitions of the term, Adam Jones states that the majority of genocide scholars consider that "intent to destroy" is a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide, and that there is growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion.

Question: Some historians were critical of what exclusion in the definition of victims of genocide?
Answer: social and political groups

Question: In what book did Kakar contend that the international definition of genocide was too narrow?
Answer: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response

Question: Kakar argued that the definition should include any group defined by the perpetrator and which other group?
Answer: political groups

Question: In the writing of Chalk and Jonassohn, what is stated to be a form of one-sided mass killing?
Answer: Genocide

Question: In further elaborating on the definition, how did Chalk and Jonassohn phrase the intention of the perpetrator? 
Answer: intends to destroy a group
Title: Genocide

Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality." Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups. Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. state that "... we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist.' If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses."

Question: Harff and Gurr's definition of genocide included the promotion and execution of what, by a state or its agents?
Answer: policies

Question: Harff and Gurr further defined what in terms of ethnicity, religion or nationality?
Answer: victimized groups

Question: What was important to Harff and Gurr to distinguish from genocides?
Answer: politicides

Question: Along with ethnicity and and religion, what other characteristic defined a member of a victimized group?
Answer: nationality

Question: What did Harff define as "short-lived outbursts by mobs...?"
Answer: pogroms
Title: Genocide

According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.

Question: In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of genocide?
Answer: murder by government

Question: Rummel postulates that murder of people of government is due to national, ethnic, racial and which other membership?
Answer: religious group

Question: The legal meaning of genocide is contained in which international treaty?
Answer: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Question: Included in the CPPCG is non-killings that ultimately achieve what end?
Answer: eliminate the group

Question: In the interpretation of non-killings, the CPPCG cites the forceful relocation of children along with what other factor?
Answer: preventing births
Title: Genocide

Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'. The definition upholds the centrality of intent, the multidimensional understanding of destroy, broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide (dependent on relative group size).

Question: In terms of failed states and non-state actors, the possession of weapons of mass destruction was an issue examined by which writer?
Answer: Adrian Gallagher

Question: In Gallagher's definition of genocide, a source of what is malicious in it implementation of the destruction of a group? 
Answer: collective power

Question: Gallagher's definition upholds the centrality of what?
Answer: intent

Question: The centrality of intent broadens what definition, beyond the 1948 one?
Answer: group identity

Question: In order for a genocide classification to happen, a major part of a group has to be what?
Answer: destroyed
Title: Genocide

All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.

Question: Signatories to the CPPC are required to prevent and punish what?
Answer: acts of genocide

Question: During which times can a perpetrator of genocide be charged?
Answer: both in peace and wartime

Question: In enforcing a charge of genocide, what loophole do many of the signatories possess?
Answer: no claim of genocide could be brought against them

Question: What major western power is exempt from charges or claims of genocide against itself?
Answer: the United States

Question: Along with Cyprus, what other major signatory official protested the the immunity of others from prosecution of genocide?
Answer: Norway
Title: Genocide

Because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the Holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder. Nevertheless, the Holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and the term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael Lemkin, appeared in the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups..."

Question: In 1948 the worldwide acceptance of international laws that defined and forbade genocide was promulgated by which treaty?
Answer: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Question: Perpetrators who were tried after World War II were in general found guilty of crimes against what?
Answer: humanity

Question: An example of a more specific genocidal crime of which one could be accused was what?
Answer: crimes like murder

Question: After WWII criminals were largely prosecuted under CPPCG for their involvement in what massive genocidal effort?
Answer: the Holocaust

Question: Who is notable for coining the term "Holocaust?"
Answer: Raphael Lemkin