rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Nutrition

In the 1500s, Paracelsus was probably the first to criticize Galen publicly. Also in the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle. Leonardo did not publish his works on this subject, but he was not afraid of thinking for himself and he definitely disagreed with Galen. Ultimately, 16th century works of Andreas Vesalius, sometimes called the father of modern medicine, overturned Galen's ideas. He was followed by piercing thought amalgamated with the era's mysticism and religion sometimes fueled by the mechanics of Newton and Galileo. Jan Baptist van Helmont, who discovered several gases such as carbon dioxide, performed the first quantitative experiment. Robert Boyle advanced chemistry. Sanctorius measured body weight. Physician Herman Boerhaave modeled the digestive process. Physiologist Albrecht von Haller worked out the difference between nerves and muscles.

Question: Who criticized Galen in the 1500s?
Answer: Paracelsus

Question: Which famous artist did not agree with Galen's theories?
Answer: Leonardo da Vinci

Question: What was a burning candle comparable to?
Answer: metabolism

Question: Which well known gas did Jan Baptist van Helmont discover?
Answer: carbon dioxide

Question: Which scientist was able to create a model for the digestive process?
Answer: Herman Boerhaave
Title: Nutrition

Sometimes overlooked during his life, James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment in 1747. Lind discovered that lime juice saved sailors that had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. Between 1500 and 1800, an estimated two million sailors had died of scurvy. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as "limeys." The essential vitamin C within citrus fruits would not be identified by scientists until 1932.

Question: When was the first nutrition experiment performed?
Answer: 1747

Question: What was the name of the overlooked physician that served in the British Navy?
Answer: James Lind

Question: The juice of which fruit was determined to have helped sailors from contracting scurvy?
Answer: lime

Question: How many sailors died from scurvy between the years 1500 and 1800?
Answer: two million

Question: Which nickname was given to the British sailors?
Answer: limeys
Title: Nutrition

In 1816, François Magendie discovered that dogs fed only carbohydrates (sugar), fat (olive oil), and water died evidently of starvation, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an essential dietary component. William Prout in 1827 was the first person to divide foods into carbohydrates, fat, and protein. During the 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Justus von Liebig quarrelled over their shared belief that animals get their protein directly from plants (animal and plant protein are the same and that humans do not create organic compounds). With a reputation as the leading organic chemist of his day but with no credentials in animal physiology, Liebig grew rich making food extracts like beef bouillon and infant formula that were later found to be of questionable nutritious value. In the 1860s, Claude Bernard discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.

Question: Which dietary component was not fed to dogs resulting in their death?
Answer: protein

Question: Who first began dividing foods into categories?
Answer: William Prout

Question: Who did Justus von Liebig argue with over the belief that animals get protein from plants?
Answer: Jean-Baptiste Dumas

Question: Which credientials did Liebig lack despite being a leading organic chemist?
Answer: animal physiology

Question: What can be synthesized using carbohydrates and proteins?
Answer: body fat
Title: Nutrition

In the early 1880s, Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost entirely of white rice) developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis), but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease, (not because of the increased protein as Takaki supposed but because it introduced a few parts per million of thiamine to the diet, later understood as a cure).

Question: What was the main component of Japanese sailor's diet?
Answer: white rice

Question: What is the scientific term for beriberi?
Answer: endemic neuritis

Question: What major symptom other than heart problems did beriberi cause?
Answer: paralysis

Question: Who made the observation that the Japanese sailor's diet was the cause for them developing beriberi?
Answer: Kanehiro Takaki

Question: What was introduced to the diet on a molecular level that prevented the sailors from contracting the disease?
Answer: thiamine
Title: Nutrition

In 1896, Eugen Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands. In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who also suffered from beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, also known as thiamine.

Question: What element can be found in thyroid glands?
Answer: iodine

Question: What group of natives suffered from beriberi?
Answer: Java

Question: Who worked with the natives to help solve their dietary issues?
Answer: Christiaan Eijkman

Question: What simple alternative food prevented the development of beriberi in chickens?
Answer: unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact

Question: How long after the natives were cured did it take for people to figure out the reason that brown rice cured them?
Answer: two decades
Title: Nutrition

In the early 20th century, Carl von Voit and Max Rubner independently measured caloric energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906, Edith G. Willcock and Frederick Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan aids the well-being of mice but it did not assure their growth. In the middle of twelve years of attempts to isolate them, Hopkins said in a 1906 lecture that "unsuspected dietetic factors," other than calories, protein, and minerals, are needed to prevent deficiency diseases. In 1907, Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart conducted the single-grain experiment, which took nearly four years to complete.

Question: What was measured in the early 20th century?
Answer: caloric energy expenditure

Question: What did Carl von Voit and Max Rubner apply to nutrition in order to receive their results?
Answer: principles of physics

Question: Which amino acid can assist with the well - being of mice but not necessarily their growth?
Answer: tryptophan

Question: What did Hopkins believe was required other than calories, protein and minerals to help prevent deficiency diseases?
Answer: unsuspected dietetic factors

Question: Which experiment related to diet was conducted that required four years to complete?
Answer: single-grain experiment
Title: Nutrition

In 1913, Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble vitamin A, and water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.

Question: What was notable about the discovered vitamin A?
Answer: fat-soluble

Question: Which property was vitamin B found to have?
Answer: water-soluble

Question: Which disease was vitamin C claimed to help prevent?
Answer: scurvy

Question: What was cod liver oil able to help cure in dogs?
Answer: rickets

Question: What was referred to as "food factor X"?
Answer: vitamin E
Title: Nutrition

The list of nutrients that people are known to require is, in the words of Marion Nestle, "almost certainly incomplete". As of 2014, nutrients are thought to be of two types: macro-nutrients which are needed in relatively large amounts, and micronutrients which are needed in smaller quantities. A type of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, i.e. non-digestible material such as cellulose, is required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals, which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

Question: Who claims that the list of nutrients that humans require is incomplete?
Answer: Marion Nestle

Question: What is the other category of nutrients that people require other than micronutrients?
Answer: macro-nutrients

Question: What is notable about cellulose in humans?
Answer: non-digestible

Question: What else, other than antioxidants, helps protect body systems?
Answer: phytochemicals

Question: In which year were nutrients categorized into their two respective categories?
Answer: 2014
Title: Nutrition

The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, protein, and water. The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.

Question: Which category is represented by carbohydrates and fats among other nutrients?
Answer: macronutrients

Question: What other significant aspect do macronutrients provide other than energy?
Answer: structural material

Question: What unit other than calories is used to measure the energy generated by nutrients?
Answer: Joules

Question: Which nutrient generally provides around 37 kJ per gram?
Answer: fats

Question: Although vitamins are important for many reasons, which role do they not play in the human body?
Answer: provide energy
Title: Nutrition

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production, just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, the carbon skeleton of the various amino acids can be metabolized to intermediates in cellular respiration; the remaining ammonia is discarded primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

Question: Other than fats, what else consists of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen?
Answer: carbohydrates

Question: If a carbohydrate is not a simple monosaccharide, what else could it be?
Answer: complex polysaccharides

Question: What do fatty acid monomers that are bound to glycerol backbones make up?
Answer: triglycerides

Question: What characteristic about fatty acids requires them to be an essential component in a diet?
Answer: cannot be synthesized in the body

Question: Which element do the amino acids that make up the core component of protein have in common?
Answer: nitrogen
Title: Nutrition

Traditionally, simple carbohydrates are believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore to raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates. Glucose stimulates the production of insulin through food entering the bloodstream, which is grasped by the beta cells in the pancreas.

Question: What was traditionally believed to be absorbed quickly causing blood - glucose levels to rapidly rise?
Answer: simple carbohydrates

Question: What is an example of a simple carbohydrate?
Answer: fructose

Question: When simple carbohydrates undergo metabolic pathways, what do they result in after partial catabolism?
Answer: glucose

Question: What is glucose able to stimulate that is required in the human body?
Answer: production of insulin

Question: Where are beta cells that attach to insulin located?
Answer: pancreas
Title: Nutrition

Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer which is indigestible as humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines, which move digesta along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel that slows the movement of food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer is still uncertain.

Question: What example of a carbohydrate is unable to be fully absorbed in humans?
Answer: Dietary fiber

Question: How many kilocalories of energy per gram is dietary fiber able to produce when successfully metabolized?
Answer: four

Question: What is the main component that makes up dietary fiber?
Answer: cellulose

Question: What is an example of a gastrointestinal problem other than diarrhea?
Answer: constipation

Question: What does soluble fiber do to help lower blood glucose levels?
Answer: slow the absorption of sugar
Title: Nutrition

A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, represent potent immune modulatory molecules.

Question: Dietary fat can be said to consist of fatty acids bonded to which molecule?
Answer: glycerol

Question: How many glycerol backbones does a triglyceride contain?
Answer: one

Question: What needs to be examined to determine whether a fat can be classified as saturated or unsaturated?
Answer: the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved

Question: Which element is present that is bonded to all of the carbons in a saturated fat?
Answer: hydrogen

Question: What kind of fat can a trans fat be categorized as?
Answer: unsaturated fat
Title: Nutrition

Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.[citation needed]

Question: Where do saturated fats in a diet typically originate from?
Answer: animal sources

Question: Which kind of fat is generally considered to be healthiest?
Answer: Unsaturated fats

Question: Which type of fat should people attempt to avoid?
Answer: trans fats

Question: What kind of state of matter do unsaturated fats typically have at room temperature?
Answer: liquids

Question: Although trans fats are harmful to human health, what property do they have that makes them useful in food processing?
Answer: rancidity resistance
Title: Nutrition

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids—omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids—seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g., weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which is one reason why a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

Question: What does it mean when it is claimed that many fatty acids are non - essential?
Answer: the body can produce them as needed

Question: At least how many fatty acids are essential to the human health and have to be consumed rather than produced by the body?
Answer: two

Question: What does EPA stand for?
Answer: eicosapentaenoic acid

Question: Outside of consumption, what would be broken down in the body to obtain DGLA and AA?
Answer: omega-6 linoleic acid

Question: What do people consume that has low amounts of the necessary essential fatty acids?
Answer: processed vegetable oils
Title: Nutrition

The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 (made from DGLA). Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). The amount and type of carbohydrates consumed, along with some types of amino acid, can influence processes involving insulin, glucagon, and other hormones; therefore, the ratio of omega-3 versus omega-6 has wide effects on general health, and specific effects on immune function and inflammation, and mitosis (i.e., cell division).

Question: What is able to prevent AA from being released from membranes?
Answer: Omega-3 EPA

Question: The conversion of omega-6 DGLA to AA is able to help regulate which process?
Answer: the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2

Question: What kind of process is the conversion of DGLA to AA?
Answer: desaturation

Question: What is an example of a hormone other than insulin that is able to control the enzyme delta-5-desaturase?
Answer: glucagon

Question: What is the scientific name for cell division?
Answer: mitosis