rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: United_States_Air_Force

In response to the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted in June 2009 the resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, General Norton A. Schwartz, a former tactical airlift and special operations pilot was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot. The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps.

Question: What US Secretary of Defense accepted resignations of top US Air Force officials in June of 2009?
Answer: Robert Gates

Question: What US Secretary of the Air Force resigned following a nuclear weapons problem ?
Answer: Michael Wynne

Question: Who was appointed to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force following Mosley's resignation?
Answer: General Norton A. Schwartz

Question: What newspaper reported on Schwartz's dismantlement of the US Air Force's class system?
Answer: The Washington Post
Title: United_States_Air_Force

Daniel L. Magruder, Jr defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory. Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr. adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes an egalitarianism bred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal "warriors" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social "distance" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military.

Question: What author wrote about the US Air Force egalitarian culture?
Answer: Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr.

Question: How does the US Air Force differ from other branches of the military?
Answer: an organization in which mostly its officers fought

Question: How have the enlisted forces of the US Air Force been seen?
Answer: primarily a rear echelon support force
Title: United_States_Air_Force

Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in needed UAV operators. In spite of an urgent need for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War, the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training, and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs. Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handing innovations.

Question: What is the reason for the shortage of UAV operators in the US Air Force?
Answer: Cultural and career issues

Question: During what war the the USAF establish a new career field for piloting UAVs and drones?
Answer: Iraq War

Question: Why did the USAF change its training methods on UAVs in 2014?
Answer: large aircraft losses in training

Question: What branch of the US Military does a cultural divide prevent the US Air Force from adopting their drone protocols?
Answer: US Army
Title: United_States_Air_Force

Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from the Royal Air Force (e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as the U.S. Army Air Service, U.S. Army Air Corps and the U.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from "Friday Name Tags" in flying units to an annual "Mustache Month." The use of "challenge coins" is a recent innovation that was adopted from the U.S. Army while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the "roof stomp", practiced by Air Force members to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement.

Question: Where did some of the US Air Force traditions come from? 
Answer: Royal Air Force

Question: What traditions does the US Air Force have? 
Answer: "Friday Name Tags" in flying units

Question: What organization did the US Air Force adopt "Challenge Coins" from?
Answer: U.S. Army

Question: What does the roof stomp tradition signify in the US Air Force?
Answer: welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement
Title: United_States_Air_Force

The United States Air Force has had numerous recruiting slogans including "No One Comes Close" and Uno Ab Alto ("One From On High"). For many years, the U.S. Air Force used "Aim High" as its recruiting slogan; more recently, they have used "Cross into the Blue", "We've been waiting for you" and "Do Something Amazing", "Above All", and the newest one, as of 7 October 2010, considered a call and response, "Aim high" followed with the response, "Fly-Fight-Win" Each wing, group, or squadron usually has its own slogan(s). Information and logos can usually be found on the wing, group, or squadron websites.

Question: What was a recent US Air Force recruiting slogan? 
Answer: "No One Comes Close"

Question: What does the USAF slogan Uno Ab Alto mean? 
Answer: "One From On High"

Question: What is the most recent US Air Force recruitment slogan in October 2010?
Answer: "Aim high" followed with the response, "Fly-Fight-Win"

Question: Where can individual each USAF wing, group or squadrons individual motto be found?
Answer: wing, group, or squadron websites
Title: Light-emitting_diode

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015[update], LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Question: What type of atmosphere can LED lighting be used?
Answer: environmental

Question: What is an advantage to using LED lighting over the normal light sources?
Answer: longer lifetime

Question: What does LED stand for?
Answer: Light-emitting diodes

Question: Why are some people hesitant to use LED lighting?
Answer: more expensive

Question: What is a popular use for LED lighting?
Answer: traffic signals
Title: Light-emitting_diode

Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector. Soviet inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Kurt Lehovec, Carl Accardo and Edward Jamgochian, explained these first light-emitting diodes in 1951 using an apparatus employing SiC crystals with a current source of battery or pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953.

Question: What was the nationality of the man who discovered Electroluminescence?
Answer: British

Question: LED lighting is the end result of what phenomenon?
Answer: Electroluminescence

Question: When was Electroluminescence discovered?
Answer: 1907

Question: Who is the Soviet man that created the first LED?
Answer: Oleg Losev

Question: What type of detector did H.J. Round use to help him in his discovery?
Answer: cat's-whisker
Title: Light-emitting_diode

In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein".. had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier, and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications.

Question: What year was it discovered that early LED instruments could be used for non-radio communication?
Answer: 1957

Question: Who discovered non-radio uses for early LED devices?
Answer: Kroemer Braunstein

Question: The current in non-radio communication had to go through what type of component?
Answer: a GaAs diode

Question: What other component was needed to detect the first current of a non-radio signal?
Answer: a PbS diode

Question: What final device was needed to hear the signal from the initial GaAs diode?
Answer: audio amplifier
Title: Light-emitting_diode

In September 1961, while working at Texas Instruments in Dallas, Texas, James R. Biard and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a tunnel diode they had constructed on a GaAs substrate. By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector. On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on their findings, which described a zinc diffused p–n junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias. After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs, IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs, and Lincoln Lab at MIT, the U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared (IR) light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent US3293513), the first practical LED. Immediately after filing the patent, Texas Instruments (TI) began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first LED commercial product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit a 890 nm light output. In October 1963, TI announced the first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110.

Question: In what state what near-infrared light emission discovered? 
Answer: Texas

Question: What type of diode was used to help discover near-infrared light emission?
Answer: tunnel

Question: In what year was the patent filed for the Semiconductor Radiant Diode?
Answer: 1962

Question: What was the first practical LED?
Answer: GaAs infrared (IR) light-emitting diode

Question: The two inventors of the first practical diode were employed by what famous company?
Answer: Texas Instruments (TI)
Title: Light-emitting_diode

The first visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak, Jr., while working at General Electric Company. Holonyak first reported his LED in the journal Applied Physics Letters on the December 1, 1962. M. George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T. P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.

Question: At what global company was the first visible-spectrum LED developed?
Answer: General Electric Company

Question: What GE employee developed the visible-spectrum LED?
Answer: Nick Holonyak, Jr.

Question: What color is associated with the visible-spectrum LED?
Answer: red

Question: What color LED was later created in 1972?
Answer: yellow

Question: What graduate student of Holonyak created the yellow LED?
Answer: M. George Craford
Title: Light-emitting_diode

The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, as well as watches (see list of signal uses). Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, in the order of US$200 per unit, and so had little practical use. The Monsanto Company was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced LEDs in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and equipment. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni at Fairchild Semiconductor. The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods continue to be used by LED producers.

Question: What was the first commercial uses of LEDs?
Answer: replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps

Question: How much did the early LEDs cost?
Answer: US$200 per unit

Question: What was one use of early LED light in products?
Answer: calculators

Question: What modern company introduced LEDs in 1968?
Answer: Hewlett Packard (HP)

Question: In what decade were production costs greatly reduced for LEDs to enable successful commercial uses?
Answer: 1970s
Title: Light-emitting_diode

The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation in 1994 and was based on InGaN. In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano in Nagoya were working on developing the important GaN nucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN. Nakamura, Akasaki and Amano were awarded the 2014 Nobel prize in physics for their work. In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs).

Question: What color LED was demonstrated in 1994?
Answer: blue

Question: Who demonstrated the first blue LED?
Answer: Shuji Nakamura

Question: What did Nakamura, Akasaki, and Amano receive for their work?
Answer: 2014 Nobel prize in physics

Question: Who investigated the efficiency of high-brightness LED at Cardiff University in 1995?
Answer: Alberto Barbieri

Question: What substance did Barbieri use in his work with high-brightness LED?
Answer: indium tin oxide
Title: Light-emitting_diode

The attainment of high efficiency in blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the first white LED. In this device a Y
3Al
5O
12:Ce (known as "YAG") phosphor coating on the emitter absorbs some of the blue emission and produces yellow light through fluorescence. The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. However using different phosphors (fluorescent materials) it also became possible to instead produce green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is not only perceived by humans as white light but is superior for illumination in terms of color rendering, whereas one cannot appreciate the color of red or green objects illuminated only by the yellow (and remaining blue) wavelengths from the YAG phosphor.

Question: What LED quickly followed the blue LEDs?
Answer: white

Question: What does the YAG phosphor coating produce?
Answer: yellow light
Title: Light-emitting_diode

A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric current. The same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to it). This phenomenon is generally called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.

Question: What converts absorbed light energy into an electric current?
Answer: P-N junction

Question: What is the phenomenon where a P-N junction emits light when an electrical current is applied to it?
Answer: electroluminescence

Question: Where are the free electrons located in the production of electroluminescence?
Answer: the conduction band

Question: Whose energy levels are lower than the electrons in the electroluminescence process?
Answer: holes existing in the P-region

Question: Why is some energy in the electroluminescence process emitted as heat and light?
Answer: to recombine the electrons and the holes
Title: Light-emitting_diode

In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by Cree that consumes 24 mW at 20 milliamperes (mA). This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006, they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Nichia Corporation has developed a white LED with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA. Cree's XLamp XM-L LEDs, commercially available in 2011, produce 100 lm/W at their full power of 10 W, and up to 160 lm/W at around 2 W input power. In 2012, Cree announced a white LED giving 254 lm/W, and 303 lm/W in March 2014. Practical general lighting needs high-power LEDs, of one watt or more. Typical operating currents for such devices begin at 350 mA.

Question: In what year was a new type of blue LED produced?
Answer: 2003

Question: Who demonstrated in 2003 the new type of blue LED?
Answer: Cree

Question: How much more efficient as standard incandescents was the white LED commercially available in 2003?
Answer: four times

Question: What is the typical operating current for high-power LEDs?
Answer: 350 mA
Title: Light-emitting_diode

The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can also occur. Early red LEDs were notable for their short service life. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantitatively classify useful lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use L70 or L50, which are the runtimes (typically given in thousands of hours) at which a given LED reaches 70% and 50% of initial light output, respectively.

Question: What is a symptom of LED failure?
Answer: loss of efficiency

Question: What is rare in LED lighting?
Answer: Sudden failures

Question: What was notable in early red LEDs?
Answer: their short service life

Question: What could cause early light-output degradation in LEDs?
Answer: higher junction temperatures

Question: What is a classification used in LED lighting to describe how much usefulness it will receive?
Answer: L70 or L50
Title: Light-emitting_diode

Since LED efficacy is inversely proportional to operating temperature, LED technology is well suited for supermarket freezer lighting. Because LEDs produce less waste heat than incandescent lamps, their use in freezers can save on refrigeration costs as well. However, they may be more susceptible to frost and snow buildup than incandescent lamps, so some LED lighting systems have been designed with an added heating circuit. Additionally, research has developed heat sink technologies that will transfer heat produced within the junction to appropriate areas of the light fixture.

Question: LED efficacy is inversely proportional to what?
Answer: operating temperature

Question: Where is LED lighting very well suited?
Answer: supermarket freezer

Question: LEDs produce less waste heat than what other device?
Answer: incandescent lamps

Question: What is LED lighting more susceptible to than incandescent light?
Answer: frost
Title: Light-emitting_diode

The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride was made at Stanford University in 1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines, doctoral students in materials science and engineering. At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories, where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though the subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light. In 1974 the U.S. Patent Office awarded Maruska, Rhines and Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A) and today magnesium-doping of gallium nitride continues to be the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and laser diodes. These devices built in the early 1970s had too little light output to be of practical use and research into gallium nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, Cree introduced the first commercially available blue LED based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC). SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light spectrum.[citation needed]

Question: What students developed the first blue-violet LED?
Answer: Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines

Question: The first blue-violet LED was developed at what University?
Answer: Stanford

Question: When was the first blue-violet LED developed?
Answer: 1972

Question: What substance helped demonstrate the first blue electroluminescence?
Answer: zinc-doped gallium nitride