rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie  [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pembarton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

Question: What book was published in 1686 specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing?
Answer: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

Question: Who was the author of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)?
Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle

Question: Who wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782)?
Answer: Sarah Trimmer

Question: How many editions were published of Sarah Trimmer's history textbook for children?
Answer: eleven

Question: Emilie du Chatelet's translation of what Newton work was published after her death in 1756?
Answer: Principia
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as 'academic contests') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages, and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. By roughly 1725, however, this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.

Question: The practice of contests dates back to what time period?
Answer: Middle Ages

Question: Previous to 1725, what subject matter was focused on by the concours academiques?
Answer: generally religious and/or monarchical

Question: Which topics of public controversy became more widely discussed around 1725?
Answer: theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice

Question: Were the concours academiques public or private matters?
Answer: public
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the "virtuosi", who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."

Question: Where did the first English coffeehouse open in 1650?
Answer: Oxford

Question: According to Brian Cowan, was learning more or less formal in coffehouses as opposed to private institutions?
Answer: less

Question: What term did Brian Cowan give Oxford coffeehouses?
Answer: penny universities
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.

Question: Diderot, Voltaire, Mozart, Goethe, and Benjamin Franklin were all members of what secret network?
Answer: Freemasonry

Question: To whom was Freemasonry most attractive?
Answer: powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists

Question: Freemasonry expanded rapidly to nearly every country in which continent?
Answer: Europe
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick I of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. The Americans Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson came to Europe during the period and contributed actively to the scientific and political debate, and the ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Question: Trying to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance became known as what?
Answer: enlightened absolutism

Question: Which two Americans travelled to Europe during the Enlightenment and actively contributed to the scienific and political debate?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson

Question: The ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into which two United States documents?
Answer: Declaration of Independence and the Constitution

Question: Did the scientific revolution precede or follow the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: preceded
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought, and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).

Question: Kant's work continued to shape German thought and European philosophy well into what century?
Answer: 20th

Question: In what year was Immanuel Kant born?
Answer: 1724

Question: For which work is Mary Wollstonecraft best known?
Answer: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791)

Question: In what year was A Vindication on the Rights of Woman published?
Answer: 1791

Question: Mary Wollstonecraft argued for a society based on what idea?
Answer: reason
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a 'science of man', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.

Question: The basis of classical liberalism comes from whose philosophical concepts?
Answer: Hume

Question: Whose philosophical concepts directly influenceed James Madison and thus the U.S. Constitution?
Answer: Hume

Question: Who popularised Hume's philosophical concepts?
Answer: Dugald Stewart
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law; in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature, both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.

Question: What did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agree was necessary for a man to live in civil society?
Answer: social contract

Question: Who wrote Discourse on Inequality?
Answer: Rousseau

Question: Which theorist wrote Two Treatises of Government?
Answer: Locke

Question: For what reason did Rousseau feel people joined into civil society?
Answer: to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom

Question: From which state does Locke believe it is virtually improssible to break free?
Answer: state of war
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year as the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

Question: Leaders of the Enlightenment that helped design laws and programs to reform the court system are called what by historians?
Answer: enlightened despots

Question: Which enlightened despot was so over-enthusiastic that revolts broke out and nearly all of his programs were reversed?
Answer: Joseph II of Austria

Question: In what country was the model constitution of 1791 in effect for only one year?
Answer: Poland

Question: From what country was Enlightenment leader Catherine the Great?
Answer: Russia
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g. disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

Question: Did Mendelssohn and Spinoza judge religion on its moral fruits or logic of its theology??
Answer: moral fruits

Question: What did Enlightenment scholars seek to curtail and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war?
Answer: organized religion

Question: Spinoza was determined to remove what from contemporary and historical theology?
Answer: politics

Question: Did Moses Mendelssohn advise to follow a specific organized religion, or to whatever one found most convincing?
Answer: what they found most convincing
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.

Question: Who did Voltaire say that France looked to for ideas of civilization?
Answer: Scotland

Question: What was the profession of James Anderson?
Answer: agronomist

Question: Who was the first modern geologist?
Answer: James Hutton

Question: William Cullen and Joseph Black shared what two occupations?
Answer: physicist and chemist
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term 'Lumières' (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?") the German term became 'Aufklärung' (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like "les Lumières" (French), "illuminismo" (Italian), "ilustración" (Spanish) and "Aufklärung" (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment."

Question: In what year was the French term Lumieres first used?
Answer: 1733

Question: What term became the German equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
Answer: Aufklärung

Question: In what century did the term Enlightenment emerge in English?
Answer: 19th

Question: What is the Italian equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
Answer: illuminismo

Question: Did the terms, Enlightenment, Lumieres, Aufklarung and illuminismo refer to distinct or overlapping movements?
Answer: overlapping
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century"." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas".

Question: Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods?
Answer: lowered

Question: Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: increased

Question: The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution?
Answer: Industrial Revolution
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers, and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

Question: A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members?
Answer: musicians

Question: Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews?
Answer: middle

Question: Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially?
Answer: keyboard

Question: Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for?
Answer: keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors". These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who, in any case, were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.

Question: By what century in France had the men of letters fused with the elites?
Answer: mid-18th century

Question: What was the term for the oppositional literary sphere of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be-authors"?
Answer: Grub Street

Question: Could the London market support the large numbers of writers that were emerging?
Answer: not

Question: Were men travelling to London to become authors paid well or poorly by the publishing-bookselling guilds?
Answer: very poorly
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market – such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese – found journal success more difficult, and more often than not, a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

Question: During which movement were the first scientific and literary journals established?
Answer: the Enlightenment

Question: What was the title of the first scientific and literary journal?
Answer: the Parisian Journal des Sçavans

Question: In what year did the first scientific and literary journal appear?
Answer: 1665

Question: Which two languages were the most dominant languages of scientific and literary publications?
Answer: French and Latin

Question: Where were the vast majority of French language periodicals produced?
Answer: Holland
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon, and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine, while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.

Question: Which work published in 1712 explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education?
Answer: The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon

Question: In the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) how many colums of text were dedicated to wine?
Answer: over five

Question: Was the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) more dedicated to technical subjects or scientific theory?
Answer: technical subjects

Question: In what year was the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica published?
Answer: 1771

Question: The Encyclopaedia Britannica was modelled along the same lines as a work from which country?
Answer: Germany