rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Bird_migration

The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning.

Question: What controls a birds migration?
Answer: a primitive trait

Question: How do birds navigate and orient themselves during migration?
Answer: endogenous programs as well as learning

Question: What is a primitive trait present even in non migrating birds?
Answer: migration

Question: What is a complex phenomenon in regards to migration?
Answer: The ability to navigate
Title: Bird_migration

The primary physiological cue for migration are the changes in the day length. These changes are also related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe (German: migratory restlessness), first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.

Question: What is the primary cue for migration?
Answer: changes in the day length

Question: How do birds act in the period before migration?
Answer: higher activity

Question: What does Zugunruhe mean in English?
Answer: migratory restlessness

Question: What do caged birds display that corresponds with migratory direction in nature?
Answer: preferential flight direction

Question: When do caged birds change their preferential direction?
Answer: the same time their wild conspecifics change course
Title: Bird_migration

In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism, males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry.

Question: What is it called when males return earlier to the breeding sites than females?
Answer: protandry

Question: What happens in polygynous species with sexual dimophism?
Answer: males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites

Question: Why do males in polygynous species return before the females?
Answer: sexual dimorphism
Title: Bird_migration

Navigation is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has also been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields (magnetoception), use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues.

Question: What is navigation based on?
Answer: a variety of senses

Question: What do many birds use as a compass?
Answer: sun

Question: What does using the sun for direction involve?
Answer: the need for making compensation based on the time

Question: What else is navigation based on?
Answer: use visual landmarks

Question: What is magnetoception?
Answer: the ability to detect magnetic fields
Title: Bird_migration

Long distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favourite wintering sites. Once the site attachment is made they show high site-fidelity, visiting the same wintering sites year after year.

Question: When do long distance migrants disperse?
Answer: as young birds

Question: What do young birds form attachments to?
Answer: potential breeding sites

Question: What else do young birds form attachments to?
Answer: wintering sites

Question: What happens when the site attachment is made?
Answer: they show high site-fidelity

Question: Where do migrating birds visit?
Answer: the same wintering sites year after year
Title: Bird_migration

The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps. Satellite tracking of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift.

Question: What are older migrating birds better at?
Answer: making corrections for wind drift

Question: How was the migrating of ospretys and honey buzzards tracked?
Answer: Satellite

Question: What do the birds do to successfully perform long distance migration?
Answer: recognize habitats and form mental maps

Question: What are examples of day migrating raptors?
Answer: ospreys and honey buzzards
Title: Bird_migration

Migratory birds may use two electromagnetic tools to find their destinations: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to long wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the sun in any way. At this stage the bird is in the position of a boy scout with a compass but no map, until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other capabilities to use. With experience it learns various landmarks and this "mapping" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination. There is a neural connection between the eye and "Cluster N", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to see the magnetic field of the earth.

Question: What two electromagnetic tools do birds use to find their destinations?
Answer: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience

Question: Where is the neural connection that is active during migration located?
Answer: between the eye and "Cluster N"

Question: What is Cluster N?
Answer: the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation

Question: What is a young bird on it's first migration compared to?
Answer: a boy scout with a compass but no map

Question: How does the magnetic field help the bird at different latitudes?
Answer: let it know when it has reached its destination
Title: Bird_migration

Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England.

Question: How can migrating birds lose their way?
Answer: flying past their destinations

Question: What is flying past their destinations called?
Answer: spring overshoot

Question: What location has become famous for bird overshooters?
Answer: Point Pelee National Park

Question: What other location is famous for spring overshoot?
Answer: Spurn in England

Question: Where do bird overshooters end up?
Answer: further north than intended
Title: Bird_migration

Reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly, can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range.

Question: What is it called when the genetic programing of young birds fail?
Answer: Reverse migration

Question: What is reverse migration?
Answer: where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly

Question: What does reverse migration lead to?
Answer: rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range

Question: How far out of range can rarities get?
Answer: thousands of kilometres
Title: Bird_migration

A related phenomenon called "abmigration" involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population. This is especially common in some waterfowl, which shift from one flyway to another.

Question: What is it called when birds from one region join birds from a different region?
Answer: abmigration

Question: What kind of bird is most likely to abmigrate?
Answer: waterfowl

Question: Who do abmigrating birds return with?
Answer: the new population
Title: Bird_migration

It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada geese Branta canadensis, microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes Grus americana.

Question: What is a re-introduction scheme?
Answer: to teach a migration route to a flock of birds

Question: What did they use to teach birds a migration route?
Answer: microlight aircraft

Question: Which birds did they reintroduce to the US?
Answer: whooping cranes

Question: Which birds did they use as a trial run?
Answer: Canada geese
Title: Bird_migration

Birds need to alter their metabolism in order to meet the demands of migration. The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations. In addition, the feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear and require to be molted. The timing of this molt - usually once a year but sometimes twice - varies with some species molting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds. Apart from physiological adaptations, migration sometimes requires behavioural changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation.

Question: What do birds need to change to meet the demands of migration?
Answer: their metabolism

Question: How often do birds molt?
Answer: usually once a year

Question: How do birds store energy?
Answer: through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep

Question: Why do birds need to molt?
Answer: feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear

Question: When do birds molt?
Answer: varies with some species
Title: Bird_migration

Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages. While it is agreed that the behavioral and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control, some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behavior to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behavior exists in nearly all avian lineages. This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behavior after the most recent glacial maximum.

Question: How was migration developed?
Answer: independently

Question: What is highly labile?
Answer: Migration in birds

Question: What causes the behavioral adaptations necessary for migration?
Answer: genetic control

Question: What exists in nearly all avian lineages?
Answer: genetic framework for migratory behavior
Title: Bird_migration

Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.

Question: What percentage increase in flight distance will often be adaptive?
Answer: 20%

Question: What kind of bird flies less efficiently?
Answer: a bird that loads itself with food

Question: What type of bird show circuitous migratory routes?
Answer: Swainson's thrush

Question: Where do Swainson's thrush fly from?
Answer: far east across North America
Title: Bird_migration

Large scale climatic changes, as have been experienced in the past, are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration. Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration, breeding as well as population variations.

Question: What is expected to have an effect on migration timing?
Answer: climatic changes

Question: What have studies shown regarding climate change?
Answer: timing changes in migration

Question: What else is climate change been shown to change?
Answer: breeding as well as population variations
Title: Bird_migration

The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species, including those of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice, which in turn may carry micro-organisms including those of concern to human health. Due to the global spread of avian influenza, bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission, but it has been found not to present a special risk; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat. Some viruses that are maintained in birds without lethal effects, such as the West Nile Virus may however be spread by migrating birds. Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton.

Question: What other species does migration help?
Answer: ectoparasites such as ticks and lice

Question: What is a greater threat of disease transmission?
Answer: import of pet and domestic birds

Question: What has been studied as a mechanism of disease transmission?
Answer: bird migration

Question: What has a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton?
Answer: Birds

Question: What virus is maintained in birds without lethal effects?
Answer: West Nile Virus
Title: Bird_migration

Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines. Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders.

Question: Who takes advantage of migrating birds?
Answer: Greater noctule bats

Question: What do greater noctule bats feed on?
Answer: nocturnal migrating passerines

Question: What do some birds of prey specialize on?
Answer: migrating waders
Title: Bird_migration

Bird migration routes have been studied by a variety of techniques including the oldest, marking. Swans have been marked with a nick on the beak since about 1560 in England. Scientific ringing was pioneered by Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen in 1899. Other techniques include radar and satellite tracking.

Question: What is the oldest way to study migration?
Answer: marking

Question: How have swans been marked?
Answer: a nick on the beak

Question: Who was scientific ringing pioneered by?
Answer: Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen

Question: Since when have swans been marked?
Answer: 1560

Question: What are other forms of studying migration?
Answer: radar and satellite tracking
Title: Bird_migration

Orientation behaviour studies have been traditionally carried out using variants of a setup known as the Emlen funnel, which consists of a circular cage with the top covered by glass or wire-screen so that either the sky is visible or the setup is placed in a planetarium or with other controls on environmental cues. The orientation behaviour of the bird inside the cage is studied quantitatively using the distribution of marks that the bird leaves on the walls of the cage. Other approaches used in pigeon homing studies make use of the direction in which the bird vanishes on the horizon.

Question: How are orientation behavior studies traditionally carried out?
Answer: the Emlen funnel

Question: What shape is the cage in the Emlen funnel?
Answer: circular

Question: What is studied quantitatively inside the cage?
Answer: The orientation behaviour

Question: What does the bird leave on the walls of the cage?
Answer: marks

Question: Where does the homing pigeon vanish?
Answer: on the horizon
Title: Bird_migration

Hunting along migration routes threatens some bird species. The populations of Siberian cranes (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) that wintered in India declined due to hunting along the route, particularly in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Birds were last seen in their favourite wintering grounds in Keoladeo National Park in 2002. Structures such as power lines, wind farms and offshore oil-rigs have also been known to affect migratory birds. Other migration hazards include pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat destruction along migration routes, denying migrants food at stopover points. For example, in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, up to 65% of key intertidal habitat at the Yellow Sea migration bottleneck has been destroyed since the 1950s.

Question: What threatens some bird species?
Answer: Hunting along migration routes

Question: What species declined due to hunting in Afghanistand and Asia?
Answer: Siberian cranes

Question: When were birds last seen in Keoladeo National Park?
Answer: 2002

Question: What can power lines, wind farms and oil rigs affect?
Answer: migratory birds

Question: What are other migration hazards?
Answer: pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat destruction
Title: Atlantic_City,_New_Jersey

It is on Absecon Island, on the Atlantic coast. Atlantic City was incorporated on May 1, 1854, from portions of Egg Harbor Township and Galloway Township. The city borders Absecon, Brigantine, Pleasantville, Ventnor City and West Atlantic City.

Question: What is the name of the island on which Atlantic City is located?
Answer: Absecon Island

Question: In what year was Atlantic City incorporated?
Answer: 1854

Question: What are the names of the two townships that became part of Atlantic City when it was incorporated?
Answer: Egg Harbor Township and Galloway Township

Question: How many other towns share a border with Atlantic City?
Answer: Absecon, Brigantine, Pleasantville, Ventnor City and West Atlantic City

Question: Which coast is Atlantic City located on?
Answer: Atlantic
Title: Atlantic_City,_New_Jersey

Because of its location in South Jersey, hugging the Atlantic Ocean between marshlands and islands, Atlantic City was viewed by developers as prime real estate and a potential resort town. In 1853, the first commercial hotel, The Belloe House, located at Massachusetts and Atlantic Avenue, was built.

Question: What is the name of the first commercial hotel built in Atlantic City?
Answer: The Belloe House

Question: In what year was the first commercial hotel built in Atlantic City?
Answer: 1853

Question: What are the names of the two avenues at which The Belloe House is located?
Answer: Massachusetts and Atlantic Avenue

Question: What are the two geographical features that Atlantic City is located between?
Answer: marshlands and islands

Question: What were the two potential aspects of Atlantic City that originally attracted developers? 
Answer: prime real estate and a potential resort town
Title: Atlantic_City,_New_Jersey

The city was incorporated in 1854, the same year in which the Camden and Atlantic Railroad train service began. Built on the edge of the bay, this served as the direct link of this remote parcel of land with Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. That same year, construction of the Absecon Lighthouse, designed by George Meade of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, was approved, with work initiated the next year. By 1874, almost 500,000 passengers a year were coming to Atlantic City by rail. In Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times, and Corruption of Atlantic City, "Atlantic City's Godfather" Nelson Johnson describes the inspiration of Dr. Jonathan Pitney (the "Father of Atlantic City") to develop Atlantic City as a health resort, his efforts to convince the municipal authorities that a railroad to the beach would be beneficial, his successful alliance with Samuel Richards (entrepreneur and member of the most influential family in southern New Jersey at the time) to achieve that goal, the actual building of the railroad, and the experience of the first 600 riders, who "were chosen carefully by Samuel Richards and Jonathan Pitney":

Question: What other US city was linked to Atlantic City by the Camden and Atlantic Railroad train service?
Answer: Philadelphia

Question: By 1874, how many passengers were coming to Atlantic City by rail each year?
Answer: 500,000

Question: What is the name of the lighthouse that is located on the Atlantic City coast?
Answer: Absecon Lighthouse

Question: Who is considered to be "Atlantic City's Godfather?"
Answer: Nelson Johnson
Title: Atlantic_City,_New_Jersey

The first boardwalk was built in 1870 along a portion of the beach in an effort to help hotel owners keep sand out of their lobbies. Businesses were restricted and the boardwalk was removed each year at the end of the peak season. Because of its effectiveness and popularity, the boardwalk was expanded in length and width, and modified several times in subsequent years. The historic length of the boardwalk, before the destructive 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane, was about 7 miles (11 km) and it extended from Atlantic City to Longport, through Ventnor and Margate.

Question: In what year was the first boardwalk built in Atlantic City?
Answer: 1870

Question: Why was the first boardwalk built in Atlantic City?
Answer: to help hotel owners keep sand out of their lobbies

Question: What year was the Great Atlantic Hurricane?
Answer: 1944

Question: What was the historic length of the boardwalk before the Great Atlantic Hurricane?
Answer: about 7 miles

Question: Before the Great Atlantic Hurricane the boardwalk extended from Atlantic City to what other city?
Answer: Longport
Title: Atlantic_City,_New_Jersey

The first road connecting the city to the mainland at Pleasantville was completed in 1870 and charged a 30-cent toll. Albany Avenue was the first road to the mainland that was available without a toll.

Question: The first road connected Atlantic City to which mainland town?
Answer: Pleasantville

Question: The first road that connected Atlantic City to the mainland was completed in what year?
Answer: 1870

Question: How much of a toll was charged on the first road to connect Atlantic City to the mainland?
Answer: 30-cent

Question: What was the name of the first road to the mainland that did not charge a toll?
Answer: Albany Avenue