rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Gramophone_record

New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220 g) vinyl is commonly used for modern audiophile vinyl releases in all genres. Many collectors prefer to have heavyweight vinyl albums, which have been reported to have better sound than normal vinyl because of their higher tolerance against deformation caused by normal play. 180 g vinyl is more expensive to produce only because it uses more vinyl. Manufacturing processes are identical regardless of weight. In fact, pressing lightweight records requires more care. An exception is the propensity of 200 g pressings to be slightly more prone to non-fill, when the vinyl biscuit does not sufficiently fill a deep groove during pressing (percussion or vocal amplitude changes are the usual locations of these artifacts). This flaw causes a grinding or scratching sound at the non-fill point.

Question: What is the most used material for modern audiophile vinyl releases?
Answer: New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220 g) vinyl

Question: What is the material preference of collectors?
Answer: heavyweight vinyl

Question: How does the manufacturing process differ between heavyweight and normal vinyl?
Answer: Manufacturing processes are identical

Question: Would would a non filled area in a vinyl press cause when listening to a record?
Answer: grinding or scratching sound

Question: Which pressing of vinyl require more attention to detail, lightweight or heavyweight?
Answer: lightweight records requires more care
Title: Gramophone_record

The "orange peel" effect on vinyl records is caused by worn molds. Rather than having the proper mirror-like finish, the surface of the record will have a texture that looks like orange peel. This introduces noise into the record, particularly in the lower frequency range. With direct metal mastering (DMM), the master disc is cut on a copper-coated disc, which can also have a minor "orange peel" effect on the disc itself. As this "orange peel" originates in the master rather than being introduced in the pressing stage, there is no ill effect as there is no physical distortion of the groove.

Question: What is an effect of using worn molds when casting records?
Answer: The "orange peel" effect

Question: What is the expected finish of a vinyl record?
Answer: mirror-like

Question: On what frequencies is an orange peel effect most noticeable?
Answer: lower frequency range

Question: What is the effect on a copy if a master as an orange peel effect?
Answer: there is no ill effect

Question: What material is on a direct metal mastering disc?
Answer: copper
Title: Gramophone_record

Breakage was very common in the shellac era. In the 1934 John O'Hara novel, Appointment in Samarra, the protagonist "broke one of his most favorites, Whiteman's Lady of the Evening ... He wanted to cry but could not." A poignant moment in J. D. Salinger's 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye occurs after the adolescent protagonist buys a record for his younger sister but drops it and "it broke into pieces ... I damn-near cried, it made me feel so terrible." A sequence where a school teacher's collection of 78 rpm jazz records is smashed by a group of rebellious students is a key moment in the film Blackboard Jungle.

Question: What was a known issue of using shellac to make records?
Answer: Breakage was very common

Question: In which novel does 'Whiteman's Lady of the Evening" record get broken?
Answer: John O'Hara novel, Appointment in Samarra

Question: In Blackboard Jungle what record breaking mention is made?
Answer: teacher's collection of 78 rpm jazz records is smashed
Title: Gramophone_record

Vinyl records do not break easily, but the soft material is easily scratched. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating a "locked groove" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase "like a broken record" or "like a scratched record", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself. Locked grooves are not uncommon and were even heard occasionally in radio broadcasts.

Question: What causes clicks and pops on vinyl records?
Answer: Dust and scratches

Question: What is the cause of lock grooves on vinyl records?
Answer: Dust and scratches

Question: Where does the saying "Like a broken record" originate?
Answer: locked groove

Question: How easily do vinyl records break?
Answer: Vinyl records do not break easily

Question: What is a common damage to vinyl records?
Answer: easily scratched.
Title: Gramophone_record

Vinyl records can be warped by heat, improper storage, exposure to sunlight, or manufacturing defects such as excessively tight plastic shrinkwrap on the album cover. A small degree of warp was common, and allowing for it was part of the art of turntable and tonearm design. "wow" (once-per-revolution pitch variation) could result from warp, or from a spindle hole that was not precisely centered. Standard practice for LPs was to place the LP in a paper or plastic inner cover. This, if placed within the outer cardboard cover so that the opening was entirely within the outer cover, was said to reduce ingress of dust onto the record surface. Singles, with rare exceptions, had simple paper covers with no inner cover.

Question: What causes warping in vinyl records?
Answer: heat, improper storage, exposure to sunlight, or manufacturing defects

Question: What is a cause of once per revolution pitch variation?
Answer: warp, or from a spindle hole that was not precisely centered

Question: What method was used to protect a vinyl record?
Answer: place the LP in a paper or plastic inner cover

Question: What were often found with a paper outter cover and no inner cover?
Answer: Singles

Question: What happens if a vinyl comes with a bit of warp?
Answer: A small degree of warp was common,
Title: Gramophone_record

A further limitation of the gramophone record is that fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses; there is more vinyl per second available for fine reproduction of high frequencies at the large-diameter beginning of the groove than exist at the smaller-diameters close to the end of the side. At the start of a groove on an LP there are 510 mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200–210 mm of vinyl per second — less than half the linear resolution. Distortion towards the end of the side is likely to become more apparent as record wear increases.*

Question: When is distortion most common on a gramophone record?
Answer: Distortion towards the end of the side

Question: What happens as a record wears?
Answer: Distortion

Question: What is a drawback of using gramophones?
Answer: fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses

Question: How much vinyl can be found at the start of an LP?
Answer: 510 mm

Question: Where can you find only 200-210mm of vinyl?
Answer: ending of the groove
Title: Gramophone_record

Tonearm skating forces and other perturbations are also picked up by the stylus. This is a form of frequency multiplexing as the control signal (restoring force) used to keep the stylus in the groove is carried by the same mechanism as the sound itself. Subsonic frequencies below about 20 Hz in the audio signal are dominated by tracking effects, which is one form of unwanted rumble ("tracking noise") and merges with audible frequencies in the deep bass range up to about 100 Hz. High fidelity sound equipment can reproduce tracking noise and rumble. During a quiet passage, woofer speaker cones can sometimes be seen to vibrate with the subsonic tracking of the stylus, at frequencies as low as just above 0.5 Hz (the frequency at which a 33 1⁄3 rpm record turns on the turntable; 5⁄9 Hz exactly on an ideal turntable). Another reason for very low frequency material can be a warped disk: its undulations produce frequencies of only a few hertz and present day amplifiers have large power bandwidths. For this reason, many stereo receivers contained a switchable subsonic filter. Some subsonic content is directly out of phase in each channel. If played back on a mono subwoofer system, the noise will cancel, significantly reducing the amount of rumble that is reproduced.

Question: What would be a cause of low frequency sounds when listening?
Answer: warped disk

Question: What is a feature many stereos contain to fight back against unwanted noises?
Answer: subsonic filter

Question: What is a sounds commonly heard when listening to a vinyl that is unintentional.
Answer: Tonearm skating

Question: Which frequencies are you most likely to hear tonearm skating?
Answer: frequencies below about 20 Hz

Question: Are there any visual signs of tracking when listening to a record?
Answer: cones can sometimes be seen to vibrate with the subsonic tracking
Title: Gramophone_record

Due to recording mastering and manufacturing limitations, both high and low frequencies were removed from the first recorded signals by various formulae. With low frequencies, the stylus must swing a long way from side to side, requiring the groove to be wide, taking up more space and limiting the playing time of the record. At high frequencies, hiss, pops, and ticks are significant. These problems can be reduced by using equalization to an agreed standard. During recording the amplitude of low frequencies is reduced, thus reducing the groove width required, and the amplitude at high frequencies is increased. The playback equipment boosts bass and cuts treble so as to restore the tonal balance in the original signal; this also reduces the high frequency noise. Thus more music will fit on the record, and noise is reduced.

Question: What is a limitation of low frequency recordings?
Answer: limiting the playing time

Question: What kinds of unwanted sounds are often heard at high frequencies?
Answer: hiss, pops, and ticks

Question: What is done during recordings to help reduce unwanted sounds?
Answer: amplitude of low frequencies is reduced

Question: What is a benefit of using equalization devices?
Answer: problems can be reduced

Question: What is done to high frequency  sounds to lessen sound issues?
Answer: amplitude at high frequencies is increased
Title: Gramophone_record

In 1926 Joseph P. Maxwell and Henry C. Harrison from Bell Telephone Laboratories disclosed that the recording pattern of the Western Electric "rubber line" magnetic disc cutter had a constant velocity characteristic. This meant that as frequency increased in the treble, recording amplitude decreased. Conversely, in the bass as frequency decreased, recording amplitude increased. Therefore, it was necessary to attenuate the bass frequencies below about 250 Hz, the bass turnover point, in the amplified microphone signal fed to the recording head. Otherwise, bass modulation became excessive and overcutting took place into the next record groove. When played back electrically with a magnetic pickup having a smooth response in the bass region, a complementary boost in amplitude at the bass turnover point was necessary. G. H. Miller in 1934 reported that when complementary boost at the turnover point was used in radio broadcasts of records, the reproduction was more realistic and many of the musical instruments stood out in their true form.

Question: Whom found that they can make musical instruments sound more natural with an amplifier boost at the turnover point?
Answer: G. H. Miller

Question: What is found when a complementary boost is used at the bass turnover point?
Answer: reproduction was more realistic

Question: When frequency in the treble increases what happens to the recording amplitude?
Answer: recording amplitude decreased

Question: What happens when frequency decreases in the bass?
Answer: recording amplitude increased
Title: Gramophone_record

West in 1930 and later P. G. A. H. Voigt (1940) showed that the early Wente-style condenser microphones contributed to a 4 to 6 dB midrange brilliance or pre-emphasis in the recording chain. This meant that the electrical recording characteristics of Western Electric licensees such as Columbia Records and Victor Talking Machine Company in the 1925 era had a higher amplitude in the midrange region. Brilliance such as this compensated for dullness in many early magnetic pickups having drooping midrange and treble response. As a result, this practice was the empirical beginning of using pre-emphasis above 1,000 Hz in 78 rpm and 33 1⁄3 rpm records.

Question: Whom found Wente-style condenser microphones helpful?
Answer: P. G. A. H. Voigt

Question: How were Wente-Style condenser microphones helpful?
Answer: pre-emphasis in the recording

Question: When was a pre-emphasis most useful?
Answer: above 1,000 Hz

Question: On which recording types were pre-emphasis used most in the 1920s?
Answer: 78 rpm and 33 1⁄3 rpm

Question: In which Era was this finding most significant?
Answer: 1925 era
Title: Gramophone_record

Over the years a variety of record equalization practices emerged and there was no industry standard. For example, in Europe recordings for years required playback with a bass turnover setting of 250–300 Hz and a treble roll-off at 10,000 Hz ranging from 0 to −5 dB or more. In the US there were more varied practices and a tendency to use higher bass turnover frequencies such as 500 Hz as well as a greater treble rolloff like −8.5 dB and even more to record generally higher modulation levels on the record.

Question: What was the industry standard in Europe for record equalization?
Answer: there was no industry standard

Question: In which country was the treble roll off greater?
Answer: US

Question: Which country prefers a bass turnover setting of 250-300 Hz?
Answer: Europe

Question: What was the industry standard on equalization practices?
Answer: there was no industry standard

Question: Which country used the most varied equalization practices?
Answer: US
Title: Gramophone_record

Evidence from the early technical literature concerning electrical recording suggests that it wasn't until the 1942–1949 period that there were serious efforts to standardize recording characteristics within an industry. Heretofore, electrical recording technology from company to company was considered a proprietary art all the way back to the 1925 Western Electric licensed method used by Columbia and Victor. For example, what Brunswick-Balke-Collender (Brunswick Corporation) did was different from the practices of Victor.

Question: How far back did records show the art of sound recordings?
Answer: 1925

Question: How was standardization prior to 1942?
Answer: considered a proprietary art

Question: Around what time period was there an attempt made to standardize recordings?
Answer: 1942–1949
Title: Gramophone_record

Broadcasters were faced with having to adapt daily to the varied recording characteristics of many sources: various makers of "home recordings" readily available to the public, European recordings, lateral-cut transcriptions, and vertical-cut transcriptions. Efforts were started in 1942 to standardize within the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), later known as the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters (NARTB). The NAB, among other items, issued recording standards in 1949 for laterally and vertically cut records, principally transcriptions. A number of 78 rpm record producers as well as early LP makers also cut their records to the NAB/NARTB lateral standard.

Question: Who made the move to standardize recordings?
Answer: National Association of Broadcasters

Question: When were recording standards officially released?
Answer: 1949

Question:  Which recording types were effected by the imposed industry standards?
Answer: laterally and vertically cut records, principally transcriptions.

Question: What was one issue of a lack of industry standards?
Answer: Broadcasters were faced with having to adapt daily to the varied recording

Question: What is the NAB?
Answer: National Association of Broadcasters
Title: Gramophone_record

The lateral cut NAB curve was remarkably similar to the NBC Orthacoustic curve that evolved from practices within the National Broadcasting Company since the mid-1930s. Empirically, and not by any formula, it was learned that the bass end of the audio spectrum below 100 Hz could be boosted somewhat to override system hum and turntable rumble noises. Likewise at the treble end beginning at 1,000 Hz, if audio frequencies were boosted by 16 dB at 10,000 Hz the delicate sibilant sounds of speech and high overtones of musical instruments could survive the noise level of cellulose acetate, lacquer/aluminum, and vinyl disc media. When the record was played back using a complementary inverse curve, signal-to-noise ratio was improved and the programming sounded more lifelike.

Question: What bass settings were needed to eliminate hum?
Answer: below 100 Hz

Question: What helped cause the most life like sound?
Answer: using a complementary inverse curve

Question: How did the NBC Othacoustic curve relate to the NAB curve?
Answer: remarkably similar

Question: What was a benefit to broadcasters of recording standards?
Answer: programming sounded more lifelike.
Title: Gramophone_record

Ultimately, the New Orthophonic curve was disclosed in a publication by R.C. Moyer of RCA Victor in 1953. He traced RCA Victor characteristics back to the Western Electric "rubber line" recorder in 1925 up to the early 1950s laying claim to long-held recording practices and reasons for major changes in the intervening years. The RCA Victor New Orthophonic curve was within the tolerances for the NAB/NARTB, Columbia LP, and AES curves. It eventually became the technical predecessor to the RIAA curve.

Question: How far back could these recording practices be traced?
Answer: 1925

Question: What were the recording standards based off from?
Answer: long-held recording practices

Question: What became the predecessor to the RIAA curve?
Answer: New Orthophonic curve

Question: Who developed the New Orthophonic curve?
Answer: RCA Victor

Question: Whom wrote the publication outlining the New Orthophonic curve?
Answer: R.C. Moyer
Title: Gramophone_record

Delicate sounds and fine overtones were mostly lost, because it took a lot of sound energy to vibrate the recording horn diaphragm and cutting mechanism. There were acoustic limitations due to mechanical resonances in both the recording and playback system. Some pictures of acoustic recording sessions show horns wrapped with tape to help mute these resonances. Even an acoustic recording played back electrically on modern equipment sounds like it was recorded through a horn, notwithstanding a reduction in distortion because of the modern playback. Toward the end of the acoustic era, there were many fine examples of recordings made with horns.

Question: What was the quality of sound recordings made with horns at the end of the acoustic era?
Answer: many fine examples

Question: What were issues facing play back and recording mechanics?
Answer: acoustic limitations

Question: Why do photos show take on horns?
Answer: help mute these resonances

Question: What was the cause of delicate and fine sound loss?
Answer: took a lot of sound energy

Question: How would a record recorded with a horn sound played through modern equipment?
Answer: like it was recorded through a horn
Title: Gramophone_record

Electric recording which developed during the time that early radio was becoming popular (1925) benefited from the microphones and amplifiers used in radio studios. The early electric recordings were reminiscent tonally of acoustic recordings, except there was more recorded bass and treble as well as delicate sounds and overtones cut on the records. This was in spite of some carbon microphones used, which had resonances that colored the recorded tone. The double button carbon microphone with stretched diaphragm was a marked improvement. Alternatively, the Wente style condenser microphone used with the Western Electric licensed recording method had a brilliant midrange and was prone to overloading from sibilants in speech, but generally it gave more accurate reproduction than carbon microphones.

Question: What technique offered realistic sounds during playback?
Answer: Western Electric licensed recording method

Question: At at time was radio gaining popularity?
Answer: 1925

Question: What type of microphones were losing popularity in the 1920s?
Answer: carbon microphones used,

Question: What benefit did the use of the Wente style condenser microphone offer?
Answer: brilliant midrange

Question: What was a benefit of early radio recordings?
Answer: microphones and amplifiers
Title: Gramophone_record

It was not unusual for electric recordings to be played back on acoustic phonographs. The Victor Orthophonic phonograph was a prime example where such playback was expected. In the Orthophonic, which benefited from telephone research, the mechanical pickup head was redesigned with lower resonance than the traditional mica type. Also, a folded horn with an exponential taper was constructed inside the cabinet to provide better impedance matching to the air. As a result, playback of an Orthophonic record sounded like it was coming from a radio.

Question: What is one example of an acoustic phonograph on which one would listen to electric recordings?
Answer: Victor Orthophonic phonograph

Question: What allowed better sounds inside the cabinet of the orthoponic phonograph?
Answer: folded horn with an exponential taper

Question: What adjustments were made to the orthophonic  to accommodate electric recordings?
Answer: mechanical pickup head was redesigned with lower resonance than the traditional mica type

Question: Was it common to hear electric recordings on phonographs?
Answer: not unusual

Question: How similar was the sound of a orthodontic  record to a radio?
Answer: sounded like
Title: Gramophone_record

Eventually, when it was more common for electric recordings to be played back electrically in the 1930s and 1940s, the overall tone was much like listening to a radio of the era. Magnetic pickups became more common and were better designed as time went on, making it possible to improve the damping of spurious resonances. Crystal pickups were also introduced as lower cost alternatives. The dynamic or moving coil microphone was introduced around 1930 and the velocity or ribbon microphone in 1932. Both of these high quality microphones became widespread in motion picture, radio, recording, and public address applications.

Question: What are two examples of high quality microphones?
Answer: moving coil microphone was introduced around 1930 and the velocity or ribbon microphone

Question: What was used to dampen resonances in recordings?
Answer: Magnetic pickups

Question: When would you have first found the moving coil microphone?
Answer: around 1930

Question: What was a more economical option to magnetic pickups?
Answer: Crystal pickups

Question: In what years would you find electronic recordings played electronically?
Answer: 1930s and 1940s
Title: Gramophone_record

Over time, fidelity, dynamic and noise levels improved to the point that it was harder to tell the difference between a live performance in the studio and the recorded version. This was especially true after the invention of the variable reluctance magnetic pickup cartridge by General Electric in the 1940s when high quality cuts were played on well-designed audio systems. The Capehart radio/phonographs of the era with large diameter electrodynamic loudspeakers, though not ideal, demonstrated this quite well with "home recordings" readily available in the music stores for the public to buy.

Question: What was a benefit of the use of magnetic pickup cartridge?
Answer: high quality cuts

Question: In what era could you find good quality recordings and playbacks at home?
Answer: 1940s

Question: What was a unique feature of the Capeart radio phonographs?
Answer: large diameter electrodynamic loudspeakers

Question: How similar were live and recorded versions?
Answer: harder to tell the difference