rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Nutrition

Proteins are structural materials in much of the animal body (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids, which are characterized by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential and, therefore, must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

Question: What primarily makes up the enzymes in our body that regulate the chemical reactions that occur?
Answer: Proteins

Question: What is the primary component of every protein?
Answer: amino acids

Question: What is the term that refers to the body process that produces new proteins?
Answer: protein retention

Question: When the body no longer needs the amino acids that are present, through which excretion are they lost?
Answer: urine

Question: Approximately how many amino acid types does the human body generally have?
Answer: twenty
Title: Nutrition

It is possible with protein combinations of two incomplete protein sources (e.g., rice and beans) to make a complete protein source, and characteristic combinations are the basis of distinct cultural cooking traditions. However, complementary sources of protein do not need to be eaten at the same meal to be used together by the body. Excess amino acids from protein can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a process called gluconeogenesis. The amino acids remaining after such conversion are discarded.

Question: What would be required for the human body to potentially have a chance to create a complete protein source?
Answer: two incomplete protein sources

Question: Other than rice, what would be another example of an incomplete protein source?
Answer: beans

Question: What is taken from proteins and converted to glucose by the body?
Answer: Excess amino acids

Question: What is the term for the conversion of amino acids into glucose?
Answer: gluconeogenesis

Question: What happens to amino acids that are left over after the body has converted what it can to glucose?
Answer: discarded
Title: Nutrition

Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that 6–8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with “desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed.” For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Other guidelines for nutrition also have implications for the beverages we consume for healthy hydration- for example, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.

Question: What was the early recommended amount of water that was supposedly required to keep the body hydrated?
Answer: 6–8 glasses of water daily

Question: Who originally made a water intake recommendation in 1945?
Answer: Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council

Question: How much water should be taken in for each calorie of food that is consumed?
Answer: 1 milliliter

Question: What does ADI stand for?
Answer: adequate daily intakes

Question: Where do humans get the 20% of water that does not come from the beverages we drink?
Answer: food
Title: Nutrition

The EFSA panel also determined intakes for different populations. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for adults as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. Pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional fluids to stay hydrated. The EFSA panel proposes that pregnant women should consume the same volume of water as non-pregnant women, plus an increase in proportion to the higher energy requirement, equal to 300 mL/day. To compensate for additional fluid output, breastfeeding women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake values for non-lactating women.

Question: Who was similar recommended intake volumes as adults?
Answer: the elderly

Question: Other then breastfeeding women, who what other category of woman should have increased water intake?
Answer: Pregnant

Question: How much more water should pregnant women consumed compared to an average non - pregnant woman?
Answer: 300 mL/day

Question: Why should lactating women increase their water consumption?
Answer: To compensate for additional fluid output

Question: How much more water do lactating women need to consume in relation to the average woman?
Answer: 700 mL/day
Title: Nutrition

Dietary minerals are inorganic chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned, including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some minerals are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.

Question: What kind of element are dietary minerals?
Answer: inorganic chemical elements

Question: What was the term "mineral" originally meant to describe?
Answer: the less common elements in the diet

Question: In what form are some metals commonly found in the body?
Answer: ions

Question: In what form should minerals be to be absorbed easier?
Answer: ionic forms

Question: What is the most famous mineral that is artificially added that prevents goiter?
Answer: iodine
Title: Nutrition

As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as organic essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

Question: Which vitamin can be synthesized in the skin?
Answer: Vitamin D

Question: What is required for vitamin D to be synthesized?
Answer: UVB radiation

Question: What is an example of a vitamin - like compound that is not considered an essential dietary nutrient?
Answer: carnitine

Question: What has recently been discovered in the thousands, especially from examining fresh vegetables?
Answer: phytochemicals

Question: What is choline not an example of?
Answer: vitamins
Title: Nutrition

As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e.g., mutation causing) compounds known as free radicals can form. Most of these are oxidizers (i.e., acceptors of electrons) and some react very strongly. For the continued normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds. Recently, some researchers suggested an interesting theory of evolution of dietary antioxidants. Some are produced by the human body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C), and those the body cannot produce may only be obtained in the diet via direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). Phytochemicals (Section Below) and their subgroup, polyphenols, make up the majority of antioxidants; about 4,000 are known. Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network. For example, Vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or Vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself. Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water-soluble and protects those areas). When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect.

Question: What is another term that can be used to describe "potentially damaging" compounds?
Answer: mutation causing

Question: What are oxidizers?
Answer: acceptors of electrons

Question: In order for the body to function normally, what must be used to neutralize free radicals?
Answer: antioxidant compounds

Question: What subgroup of phytochemicals helps make up the majority of the body's antioxidants?
Answer: polyphenols

Question: Which area of the body does vitamin A protect?
Answer: fat areas
Title: Nutrition

Animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed. Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B12; and defending against some infectious diseases.

Question: What term collectively describes "Firmicutes" and "Bacteroidetes" among others?
Answer: phyla

Question: What is the importance of having phyla in the body?
Answer: essential to digestion

Question: Which vitamin are the bacteria present in the gut responsible for producing?
Answer: vitamin B12

Question: What role specifically in digestion do bacteria in the gut have?
Answer: breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food

Question: Where could one find a large population of gut flora?
Answer: Animal intestines
Title: Nutrition

Heart disease, cancer, obesity, and diabetes are commonly called "Western" diseases because these maladies were once rarely seen in developing countries. An international study in China found some regions had virtually no cancer or heart disease, while in other areas they reflected "up to a 100-fold increase" coincident with shifts from diets that were found to be entirely plant-based to heavily animal-based, respectively. In contrast, diseases of affluence like cancer and heart disease are common throughout the developed world, including the United States. Adjusted for age and exercise, large regional clusters of people in China rarely suffered from these "Western" diseases possibly because their diets are rich in vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, and have little dairy and meat products. Some studies show these to be, in high quantities, possible causes of some cancers. There are arguments for and against this controversial issue.

Question: Heart disease and obesity are examples of what kind of disease?
Answer: "Western" diseases

Question: In which country was a study about the presence of cancer and heart disease in different regions done?
Answer: China

Question: How much of an increase in presence of "Western" diseases was there in communities that primarily had animal - based diets as opposed to vegetable diets?
Answer: 100-fold

Question: Other than meat, what else is lacking from the people in China's diet compared to diets from the Western world?
Answer: dairy

Question: What disease was said to possibly be the result of diets that are high in meat and dairy products?
Answer: cancers
Title: Nutrition

The United Healthcare/Pacificare nutrition guideline recommends a whole plant food diet, and recommends using protein only as a condiment with meals. A National Geographic cover article from November 2005, entitled The Secrets of Living Longer, also recommends a whole plant food diet. The article is a lifestyle survey of three populations, Sardinians, Okinawans, and Adventists, who generally display longevity and "suffer a fraction of the diseases that commonly kill people in other parts of the developed world, and enjoy more healthy years of life." In sum, they offer three sets of 'best practices' to emulate. The rest is up to you. In common with all three groups is to "Eat fruits, vegetables, and whole grains."

Question: Who released a guideline that recommends that people follow a whole plant food diet?
Answer: United Healthcare/Pacificare

Question: Which magazine also recommended that people follow a whole plant food diet?
Answer: National Geographic

Question: In which year was there a cover article on the National Geographic regarding diet recommendations?
Answer: 2005

Question: How many populations were studied and surveyed for the cover article?
Answer: three

Question: Other than fruits and vegetables, what other product was highly recommended to be a part of a healthy diet?
Answer: whole grains
Title: Nutrition

Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions vary for their particular foods. "The nitrogen content of plant tissues averages about 2%, while in fungi, animals, and bacteria it averages about 5% to 10%." Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize. All animals' diets must provide sufficient amounts of the basic building blocks they need, up to the point where their particular biology can synthesize the rest. Animal tissue contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite).

Question: Other than nitrogen, what other element varies greatly between a carnivore and herbivore diet?
Answer: carbon

Question: What percentage of nitrogen content is generally found in fungi?
Answer: 5% to 10%

Question: What process of breaking down cellulose do herbivores rely on for their essential nutrients?
Answer: bacterial fermentation

Question: Other than sugar and fiber, what else are carbohydrates consisted of?
Answer: starch

Question: Where can fatty acids be found?
Answer: lipids
Title: Nutrition

Animal tissue consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream to feed the cells of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, the digestive system is the first system involved[vague]. Digestive juices break chemical bonds in ingested molecules, and modify their conformations and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of metabolism, is eliminated from the body in the feces.

Question: Through what part of the body are nutrients transported to feed cells?
Answer: bloodstream

Question: In which specific circumstance is the digestive system not the first system involved in nutrient processing?
Answer: unborn fetus

Question: What is able to break bonds in ingested molecules?
Answer: Digestive juices

Question: Molecules that are released from ingested foods are done so through which process?
Answer: digestive processes

Question: Through which manner are unabsorbed matter and waste products excreted?
Answer: feces
Title: Nutrition

Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of animal nutrition is still slowly evolving.

Question: What needs to be compared to the waste products from humans to determine what is absorbed in the body?
Answer: food

Question: It is important to examine both the feces and what other excrement when studying absorption?
Answer: urine

Question: Other than time consuming, what else are nutritional studies due to their length and variable count?
Answer: expensive

Question: At which rate is the science behind nutrition continuing to evolve?
Answer: slowly
Title: Nutrition

Plants uptake essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (consisting of mainly nitrogen and oxygen) through their leaves. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air, while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.

Question: How do plants absorb essential elements that are present in the soil?
Answer: through their roots

Question: Having leaves allows plants to absorb nutrients through which medium?
Answer: air

Question: What is the process that plants undergo in order to obtain carbohydrates?
Answer: photosynthesis

Question: What is the process called in which plants gather nutrients from the soil around their roots?
Answer: cation exchange

Question: What part of the leaf in a plant takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen?
Answer: stomata
Title: Nutrition

Research in the field of nutrition has greatly contributed in finding out the essential facts about how environmental depletion can lead to crucial nutrition-related health problems like contamination, spread of contagious diseases, malnutrition, etc. Moreover, environmental contamination due to discharge of agricultural as well as industrial chemicals like organocholrines, heavy metal, and radionucleotides may adversely affect the human and the ecosystem as a whole. As far as safety of the human health is concerned, then these environmental contaminants can reduce people's nutritional status and health. This could directly or indirectly cause drastic changes in their diet habits. Hence, food-based remedial as well as preventive strategies are essential to address global issues like hunger and malnutrition and to enable the susceptible people to adapt themselves to all these environmental as well as socio-economic alterations.

Question: What can environmental depletion lead to?
Answer: crucial nutrition-related health problems

Question: Other than malnutrition and a spread of disease, what is an example of a health problem that arose due to environmental depletion?
Answer: contamination

Question: Other than industrial chemicals, what other industry discharges chemicals that can contaminate the environment?
Answer: agricultural

Question: The release and contamination of the environment affects what important system other than the human race?
Answer: the ecosystem

Question: If people's nutritional status and health changes, what could this affect in their daily routine?
Answer: diet habits