rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive marsupial faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about 2.58 million years ago (the start of the Quaternary Period), the current ice age began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years.

Question: What is the link between North and South America called?
Answer: the Isthmus of Panama

Question: In which period did North and South America become linked?
Answer: Pliocene

Question: The Mediterranean was created by the collision of Europe and what?
Answer: Africa

Question: What period came after the Pliocene?
Answer: the Quaternary Period

Question: The Pliocene saw the end of what fauna in South America?
Answer: marsupial faunas
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. Ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from Vermont, Quebec, Ontario and Michigan. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in Scandinavia resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the Baltic Sea, including much of Finland. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries.

Question: How long ago did the last glacial period end?
Answer: about 10,000 years ago

Question: During what period did sea levels rice 115 feet?
Answer: Holocene

Question: By what height did sea levels rise at the end of the last glacial period?
Answer: 35 metres (115 ft)

Question: Glaciars from what period depressed the height of northern lands by 591 feet?
Answer: Pleistocene

Question: What sea did the Hudson Bay used to be a part of?
Answer: Tyrrell Sea
Title: Police

A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.

Question: What does the state want a police force to do?
Answer: enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder

Question: What are gendarmerie?
Answer: military units charged with civil policing

Question: What are police usually separate from?
Answer: military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors
Title: Police

Law enforcement, however, constitutes only part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but the predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order. In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree. The police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes.

Question: How are police usually paid?
Answer: through taxes

Question: When were police used to protect the class system?
Answer: late 18th and early 19th centuries

Question: What kind of service are police?
Answer: public sector

Question: What problem do many police forces have?
Answer: corruption

Question: How are police usually paid?
Answer: through taxes

Question: What kind of service are police?
Answer: public sector

Question: When were police used to protect the class system?
Answer: late 18th and early 19th centuries

Question: What problem do many police forces have?
Answer: corruption
Title: Police

Law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by "prefects" for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. They were appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the emperor, and they oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction. Under each prefect were "subprefects" who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area. Some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Prefects could also be women. The concept of the "prefecture system" spread to other cultures such as Korea and Japan.

Question: Which Chinese kingdoms developed law enforcement?
Answer: Chu and Jin

Question: What period was the Chu kingdom in?
Answer: Spring

Question: What period was the Jin kingdom in?
Answer: Autumn

Question: Which countries adopted the 'prefecture system' from China?
Answer: Korea and Japan

Question: What did ancient China call its police?
Answer: prefects
Title: Police

As one of their first acts after end of the War of the Castilian Succession in 1479, Ferdinand and Isabella established the centrally organized and efficient Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) as a national police force. They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835.

Question: What war ended in 1479?
Answer: War of the Castilian Succession

Question: Who formed Spain's first national police force?
Answer: Ferdinand and Isabella

Question: What was Spain's first national police force called, in Spanish?
Answer: Santa Hermandad

Question: What does Santa Hermandad mean?
Answer: Holy Brotherhood

Question: When did Spain suppress local police units?
Answer: 1835
Title: Police

In France during the Middle Ages, there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France. The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy because its authority ultimately derived from the Marshal. The marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years' 'War, and some historians trace it back to the early 12th century. Another organisation, the Constabulary (French: Connétablie), was under the command of the Constable of France. The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under King Francis I (who reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary. The resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France.

Question: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?
Answer: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France

Question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?
Answer: Great Officers of the Crown of France

Question: What was the Marshal's force called?
Answer: the Marshalcy

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in English?
Answer: the Constabulary

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in French?
Answer: Connétablie

Question: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?
Answer: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France

Question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?
Answer: Great Officers of the Crown of France

Question: What was the Marshal's force called?
Answer: the Marshalcy

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in English?
Answer: the Constabulary

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in French?
Answer: Connétablie
Title: Police

The first centrally organised police force was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city in Europe. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667 created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined the task of the police as "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties".

Question: In what year did Paris get a police force?
Answer: 1667

Question: Who created Paris's police force?
Answer: King Louis XIV

Question: What was the largest European city in 1667?
Answer: Paris

Question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in English?
Answer: lieutenant general of police

Question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in French?
Answer: lieutenant général de police
Title: Police

This office was first held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who had 44 commissaires de police (police commissioners) under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police (police inspectors). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the commissaires, each assigned to a particular district and assisted by a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of the Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities and towns.

Question: Who was Paris's first head of police?
Answer: Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie

Question: How many commissioners worked under Reynie?
Answer: 44

Question: How many policing districts was Paris divided into?
Answer: 16

Question: When was Paris's police system expanded to the rest of France?
Answer: October 1699

Question: When were police inspectors added to Paris's police?
Answer: 1709
Title: Police

The word "police" was borrowed from French into the English language in the 18th century, but for a long time it applied only to French and continental European police forces. The word, and the concept of police itself, were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression" (according to Britannica 1911). Before the 19th century, the first use of the word "police" recorded in government documents in the United Kingdom was the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714 and the creation of the Marine Police in 1798.

Question: When did the French language adopt the word 'police'?
Answer: in the 18th century

Question: Which dictionary said police were 'a symbol of foreign oppression'?
Answer: Britannica 1911

Question: What language did French borrow the word 'police' from?
Answer: English

Question: When were the Marine Police created in the UK?
Answer: 1798

Question: What was the first use of 'police' in the UK?
Answer: the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714
Title: Police

In 1797, Patrick Colquhoun was able to persuade the West Indies merchants who operated at the Pool of London on the River Thames, to establish a police force at the docks to prevent rampant theft that was causing annual estimated losses of £500,000 worth of cargo. The idea of a police, as it then existed in France, was considered as a potentially undesirable foreign import. In building the case for the police in the face of England's firm anti-police sentiment, Colquhoun framed the political rationale on economic indicators to show that a police dedicated to crime prevention was "perfectly congenial to the principle of the British constitution." Moreover, he went so far as to praise the French system, which had reached "the greatest degree of perfection" in his estimation.

Question: Who convinced the West Indies merchants in London to establish police?
Answer: Patrick Colquhoun

Question: Where did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?
Answer: docks

Question: When did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?
Answer: 1797

Question: How much cargo had been being stolen from West Indies merchants in London each year?
Answer: £500,000

Question: How did Colquhoun praise the French police?
Answer: "the greatest degree of perfection"
Title: Police

With the initial investment of £4,200, the new trial force of the Thames River Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on the game." The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives." Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Marine Police Bill on 28 July 1800, transforming it from a private to public police agency; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames. It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City, Dublin, and Sydney.

Question: What was the initial size of the Thames River Police force?
Answer: 50

Question: How many dock workers were the Thames River Police policing?
Answer: 33,000

Question: How many dock workers did Colquhoun say were criminals?
Answer: 11,000

Question: When was the Thames River Police made a public service?
Answer: 28 July 180

Question: How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police prevent in its first year?
Answer: £122,000
Title: Police

Colquhoun's utilitarian approach to the problem – using a cost-benefit argument to obtain support from businesses standing to benefit – allowed him to achieve what Henry and John Fielding failed for their Bow Street detectives. Unlike the stipendiary system at Bow Street, the river police were full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees. His other contribution was the concept of preventive policing; his police were to act as a highly visible deterrent to crime by their permanent presence on the Thames. Colquhoun's innovations were a critical development leading up to Robert Peel's "new" police three decades later.

Question: How did the Bow Street group pay their employees?
Answer: stipendiary system

Question: Who started the Bow Street detectives?
Answer: Henry and John Fielding

Question: Who came up with the concept of the 'new' police?
Answer: Robert Peel

Question: How did the Thames River Police pay their employees?
Answer: full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees

Question: What schedule did the Thames River Police employees work?
Answer: full-time
Title: Police

Meanwhile, the authorities in Glasgow, Scotland successfully petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow Police Act establishing the City of Glasgow Police in 1800. Other Scottish towns soon followed suit and set up their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Ireland, the Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 marked the beginning of the Royal Irish Constabulary. The Act established a force in each barony with chief constables and inspectors general under the control of the civil administration at Dublin Castle. By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men.

Question: Which law established Glasgow's police?
Answer: Glasgow Police Act

Question: When was Glasgow's police force established?
Answer: 1800

Question: Which law established Ireland's police?
Answer: Irish Constabulary Act

Question: When was Ireland's police force established?
Answer: 1822

Question: What was Ireland's police force called?
Answer: Royal Irish Constabulary
Title: Police

Peel, widely regarded as the father of modern policing, was heavily influenced by the social and legal philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, who called for a strong and centralized, but politically neutral, police force for the maintenance of social order, for the protection of people from crime and to act as a visible deterrent to urban crime and disorder. Peel decided to standardise the police force as an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public.

Question: Who was the 'father of modern policing'?
Answer: Peel

Question: Whose philosophy influenced Peel?
Answer: Jeremy Bentham

Question: What political position did Bentham think police should have?
Answer: neutral

Question: How did Peel standardize police?
Answer: as an official paid profession

Question: How did Peel organize police?
Answer: in a civilian fashion
Title: Police

The 1829 Metropolitan Police Act created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers, and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different to the 'Continental model' of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state.

Question: When was the Metropolitan Police Act passed?
Answer: 1829

Question: What did the Metropolitan Police Act say police were a subset of?
Answer: the judicial system

Question: Where was the 'Continental model' of police from?
Answer: France

Question: What part of the government did French police work under?
Answer: the authority of the monarch
Title: Police

In 1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in the state of Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, because of the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852.

Question: When did Rio get its first police investigator?
Answer: 1566

Question: How had the Rio police grown by the 17th century?
Answer: most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions

Question: When did Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?
Answer: July 9, 1775

Question: Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1808?
Answer: Brazil

Question: Who invaded Portugal in 1808?
Answer: French
Title: Police

In Canada, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was founded in 1729, making it the first police force in present-day Canada. It was followed in 1834 by the Toronto Police, and in 1838 by police forces in Montreal and Quebec City. A national force, the Dominion Police, was founded in 1868. Initially the Dominion Police provided security for parliament, but its responsibilities quickly grew. The famous Royal Northwest Mounted Police was founded in 1873. The merger of these two police forces in 1920 formed the world-famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Question: When did Canada get its first police?
Answer: 1729

Question: What was Canada's first police force?
Answer: Royal Newfoundland Constabulary

Question: When was the Toronto police created?
Answer: 1834

Question: When was the Montreal police created?
Answer: 1838

Question: When were the first Mounties created?
Answer: 1873
Title: Police

In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]

Question: What were the Old West's local police options?
Answer: poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses

Question: Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?
Answer: The Army

Question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?
Answer: Army

Question: Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?
Answer: Pinkerton National Detective Agency
Title: Police

Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850.

Question: Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept?
Answer: German and French

Question: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published?
Answer: 1705

Question: What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?
Answer: Traité de la Police

Question: Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?
Answer: Nicolas Delamare

Question: What was von Hornigk's career?
Answer: Political economist and civil servant