rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: History_of_science

In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers).

Question: Which era was marked by investigating the universe?
Answer: Classical Antiquity

Question: What type of science are making a calendar and finding cures for diseases a part of?
Answer: natural philosophy

Question: What is an example of skilled professionals?
Answer: physicians

Question: What is an example of religious devotee?
Answer: temple healers

Question: What would the first scientists have been considered?
Answer: natural philosophers
Title: History_of_science

The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640-546 BC), dubbed the "father of science", was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena, for example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BC) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded by his pupil Democritus.

Question: What are early Greek philosophers known as?
Answer: pre-Socratics

Question: What question were Greek philosophers trying to answer?
Answer: How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?

Question: Who was named "the father of science"?
Answer: Thales

Question: Which religious deity did Thales undermine with his scientific theories?
Answer: Poseidon

Question: Who was the first person to determine that the Earth is round?
Answer: Samos
Title: History_of_science

Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BC, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here", and turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced empiricism and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced many biological writings that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the Scientific Revolution.

Question: Plato and Aristotle are known for systematically discussing what?
Answer: natural philosophy

Question: What discussion technique are Plato and Aristotle responsible for?
Answer: deductive reasoning

Question: What year was the Platonic Academy founded?
Answer: 387 BC

Question: Aristotle introduced what theory?
Answer: empiricism

Question: How many species of animals were classified by Aristotle?
Answer: 540
Title: History_of_science

The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. According to Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University:

Question: Anatomy, zoology, geography, and studies like them are considered what?
Answer: factual knowledge

Question: What era utilized Greek theories?
Answer: the Hellenistic age

Question: What scientific theory was created by the Greeks?
Answer: the Socratic method

Question: Who employed logic, geometry, and natural sciences?
Answer: the Ancient Greeks

Question: Greek thought is predominately applying mathematics and what other method?
Answer: deliberate empirical research
Title: History_of_science

The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.

Question: Who created the sun-centered model of the solar system?
Answer: Aristarchus of Samos

Question: Who was able to determine the circumference of the Earth?
Answer: Eratosthenes

Question: Who made the first catalog of stars?
Answer: Hipparchus

Question: When was the Antikythera mechanism used?
Answer: 150-100 BC

Question: What was used to determine the position of planets within the solar system?
Answer: the Antikythera mechanism
Title: History_of_science

In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.

Question: Who wrote the book Elements?
Answer: Euclid

Question: What was contained within the book Elements?
Answer: the foundations of mathematical rigor

Question: Who was able to determine the the area under a parabola?
Answer: Archimedes

Question: What method did Archimedes employ to determine the area under a parabola?
Answer: exhaustion

Question: Which mathematical figure did Archimedes approximate?
Answer: Pi
Title: History_of_science

Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.

Question: What classification guide did Theophrastus create?
Answer: the first taxonomy

Question: In what year did Pliny the Elder publish the largest encyclopedia?
Answer: 77 AD

Question: What did Pliny the Elder observe about diamonds?
Answer: the octahedral shape

Question: Who do engravers use diamond dust for?
Answer: to cut and polish other gems

Question: What characteristic was Pliny the Elder the first to recognize about amber?
Answer: was a fossilized resin
Title: History_of_science

Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.

Question: The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to have traces of what?
Answer: mathematical knowledge

Question: What proportional size were the bricks that the civilization used?
Answer: 4:2:1

Question: What characteristic determined the proportions of the bricks?
Answer: stability

Question: What was the name of the ruler that they created?
Answer: the Mohenjo-daro ruler

Question: How long were the units in inches of the Mohenjo-daro ruler?
Answer: 1.32 inches
Title: History_of_science

Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".

Question: When did Aryabhata live?
Answer: 476-550

Question: What were the trigonometric functions that Aryabhata discovered?
Answer: sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine

Question: What theory did Brahmagupta suggest in 628 AD?
Answer: gravity was a force of attraction

Question: What did Brahmagupta use the number zero for?
Answer: a placeholder and a decimal digit

Question: What language did the work of Brahmagupta and Aryabhata have to be translated from?
Answer: Arabic
Title: History_of_science

Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

Question: Which text was the first to have concepts of astronomy in it?
Answer: the Vedas

Question: Who wrote the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani?
Answer: Bhāskara

Question: In what time period was the Siddhanta Shiromani written?
Answer: 12th century

Question: The second section of the Siddhanta Shiromani has how many chapters?
Answer: 13

Question: What topic does the second part of the Siddhanta Shiromani contain?
Answer: the nature of the sphere
Title: History_of_science

Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.

Question: Where are the Neolithic graveyards?
Answer: Pakistan

Question: What do the findings in the graveyards show evidence of?
Answer: proto-dentistry

Question: What kind of medicine was practiced in India before 2500 BC?
Answer: Ayurveda

Question: What is the name of the text that has information regarding Ayurveda?
Answer: Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta

Question: What information is in the Susrutasamhita of Susruta?
Answer: surgical procedures
Title: History_of_science

Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.

Question: What method did early Chinese mathematicians use to calculate?
Answer: a positional decimal system on counting boards

Question: One rod in the second box from the right is what number?
Answer: 10

Question: When did negative numbers and decimals start being used?
Answer: 1st century BC

Question: What text includes Horner's method?
Answer: The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art

Question: What advanced mathematical methods did the Tang dynasty have?
Answer: Cubic equations
Title: History_of_science

Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.

Question: What observations in astronomy did China record?
Answer: sunspots

Question: What kind of predictions were made during the 12th century?
Answer: eclipses

Question: Who made predictions in 1601?
Answer: Jesuit Matteo Ricci

Question: What year did Chinese astronomers start to observe comets?
Answer: 635

Question: How many records of sunspots are there?
Answer: 112
Title: History_of_science

Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.

Question: What was invented in 132 CE?
Answer: a seismometer

Question: What occurrence is measured by a seismometer?
Answer: an earthquake

Question: What is the Chinese name for a seismometer?
Answer: Houfeng didong yi

Question: What did the Chinese caused earthquakes?
Answer: enormous compression of trapped air

Question: What was Luoyang renamed to?
Answer: Gansu
Title: History_of_science

There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.

Question: Who discovered the idea of true north?
Answer: Shen Kuo

Question: When was Shen Kuo alive?
Answer: 1031–1095

Question: What are drydocks used for?
Answer: to repair boats

Question: What did silt and marine fossils teach Shen Kuo?
Answer: geomorphology

Question: What did Shen Kuo study to discover climate change?
Answer: petrified bamboo
Title: History_of_science

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.

Question: Who was the Needham Research Institute named after?
Answer: Joseph Needham

Question: What type of bridge originated in China?
Answer: suspension

Question: What type of map originated in China?
Answer: raised-relief

Question: What type of fan originated in China?
Answer: rotary

Question: What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent?
Answer: water-powered celestial
Title: History_of_science

With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.

Question: What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided?
Answer: the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past

Question: Where was support found for Greek philosophy?
Answer: Arab Empire

Question: What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam?
Answer: the 7th and 8th centuries

Question: How long did the Islamic Golden Age last?
Answer: until the 13th century

Question: What language did Muslim philosophers speak?
Answer: Arabic
Title: History_of_science

Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.

Question: What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks?
Answer: experiment

Question: What book did Ibn al-Haytham write?
Answer: Book of Optics

Question: What law did the Persians know of?
Answer: The law of refraction of light

Question: What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname?
Answer: the father of optics

Question: What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for?
Answer: the intromission theory of light