rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Memory

Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage. This memory loss includes, retrograde amnesia which is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the time of brain damage.

Question: Was Hebb's thought of the relationship between short and long term memory true?
Answer: research showed this to be false

Question: Which drugs seemed to help someone remember earlier events?
Answer: cortisol or epinephrine

Question: What relationship does excitement and memory share?
Answer: excitement enhances memory

Question: Bob was in a car accident and couldn't remember his wifes name, what part of his brain could have been damaged?
Answer: hippocampus
Title: Memory

One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Convergence-divergence zones might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.

Question: Is it important to know how information is coded in the brain?
Answer: that is crucial

Question: Have researchers learned anything studying plasticity?
Answer: have gained much knowledge

Question: What are the roles of Covergence-divergence zones?
Answer: might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.

Question: What has most of the research on memories revolved around?
Answer: simple learning in simple neuronal circuits;
Title: Memory

Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007).

Question: What do cognitive neuroscientists believe memory is?
Answer: the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation

Question: What suggests that memory has two different components?
Answer: term of internal representation

Question: What showed that memory exists even before that memory is known to the person?
Answer: Moscovitch 2007

Question: What is an engram trace?
Answer: the underpinning physical neural changes
Title: Memory

In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. It can best be summarized as remember how to do something. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Question: What is another term for procedural memory?
Answer: implicit memory

Question: If bob remembered how to bake a cake after seeing this on television what memory is he using?
Answer: procedural memory

Question: What set of skills is reliant on procedural memory?
Answer: motor skills

Question: If Bob does throws 15 more free throws than he did last week, how many more explicit memories has he gained?
Answer: no new explicit memories have been formed,
Title: Memory

The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague.[citation needed] Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics.

Question: Which model explains why bob has an easier time reading a book, and then discussing it rather than reading two books?
Answer: working memory model

Question: Which concept is criticised for being unworthy and too broad?
Answer: concept of a central executive

Question: Which part of memory allows us to go about our daily lives?
Answer: Working memory
Title: Memory

One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals’ performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal order in which they learned information; source memory tasks that require them to remember the specific circumstances or context in which they learned information; and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example.

Question: What do most elderly people worry about?
Answer: memory loss,

Question: Is an eldery person with alzheimers having the same problem as a similar aged person experiencing memory loss?
Answer: memory loss is qualitatively different

Question: Which part of the brain is associated with the memory loss an elderly person suffers?
Answer: frontal regions

Question: Which memory is an elderly person helping by using appointment books?
Answer: prospective memory
Title: Memory

It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can recall information over the short-term, they have difficulty recalling the temporal order of information. It is only by 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions of a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order - that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2. In other words, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence (such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step sequence. Researchers have suggested that these age differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6-months.

Question: Does a 6 month old have short term memory?
Answer: can recall information over the short-term

Question: What age can an infabt recall steps in an order?
Answer: 9 months of age

Question: What part of a two step sequence can a 6 month old remember?
Answer: one step of a two-step sequence

Question: What part of the brain is not fully developed in infants which can cause the memory differences in ages?
Answer: the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed
Title: Memory

Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, concerning information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Episodic memories often reflect the "firsts" in life such as a first kiss, first day of school or first time winning a championship. These are key events in one's life that can be remembered clearly. Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon.[citation needed]

Question: When remembering your first day of school or first dance, which memory are you using?
Answer: Episodic memories

Question: Which type of memory enables us to remember knowledge of the world?
Answer: Semantic memory

Question: When fondly remembering your memory, which type of memory are you using?
Answer: Autobiographical memory

Question: Which type of memory is used when remembering something that we've seen?
Answer: Visual memory
Title: Memory

Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats. An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans. In this study, 48 healthy female and male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or ‘Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test’) for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) as well as how many they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.

Question: What can cause your memory to deterioriate or not work as well?
Answer: Stress

Question: Which hormones are produces when a animal is stressed out?
Answer: adrenal hormones

Question: Who performed a study that involved having peoples hands in cold water while also memorizing words?
Answer: L. Schwabe and O. Wolf

Question: What did L. Schwabes and O. Wolfs study seem to conlcude?
Answer: stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.
Title: Memory

Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.

Question: What trouble can interference cause?
Answer: can hamper memorization and retrieval

Question: What is retroactive interference?
Answer: when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information

Question: What is proactive interference?
Answer: where prior learning disrupts recall of new information

Question: What is a term used to describe being able to learn something quicker due to an older ability?
Answer: positive transfer.
Title: Memory

Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information. A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information after a 24-hour delay. Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can recall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-olds after up to five weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long as twelve months. In addition, studies have shown that with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas 14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximately six exposures in order to be able to remember it.

Question: In 1960 did people believe an infant was able to remember things?
Answer: Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information.

Question: What is the minimum age researchers think a child begins to have memory?
Answer: . A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information

Question: Does a persons memory capacity increase with age?
Answer: Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time

Question: Who has a better memory retention a 6 month old or a 9 month old?
Answer: 9-month-olds
Title: Memory

Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

Question: What role does the amygdala play in memory?
Answer: thought to be involved in emotional memory

Question: Can you pin point certain areas of the brain to certain memories. 
Answer: it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions

Question: What changes can be linked to learning and memory?
Answer: neuronal synapses,

Question: What is the hippocampus's relationship to memory?
Answer: believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning
Title: Memory

The more long term the exposure to stress is, the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the function of the hippocampus. Research shows that subjects placed in a stressful situation for a short amount of time still have blood glucocorticoid levels that have increased drastically when measured after the exposure is completed. When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they have often difficulties. Prenatal stress also hinders the ability to learn and memorize by disrupting the development of the hippocampus and can lead to unestablished long term potentiation in the offspring of severely stressed parents. Although the stress is applied prenatally, the offspring show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are subjected to stress later on in life.

Question: Does it matter how long someone is exposed to stress to have an impact on their memory?
Answer: the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the function of the hippocampus

Question: Whar does research show happens to blood glucorticoid levels during stressful events?
Answer: levels that have increased drastically

Question: Can a unborn child face issues with stress than can affect their future abilities?
Answer: prenatally, the offspring show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are subjected to stress later on in life.

Question: Do the people studied in different research perform as well after stress as they did before becoming in contact with stressful situations?
Answer: When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they have often difficulties
Title: Memory

Stressful life experiences may be a cause of memory loss as a person ages. Glucocorticoids that are released during stress damage neurons that are located in the hippocampal region of the brain. Therefore, the more stressful situations that someone encounters, the more susceptible they are to memory loss later on. The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus are destroyed due to glucocorticoids decreasing the release of glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in return kills neurons. Stressful life experiences can also cause repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind. This directly relates to traumatic events in one's past such as kidnappings, being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a child.

Question: What neurons are damaged during stressful events?
Answer: The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus

Question: What can make someone more prone to memory loss as they age?
Answer: the more stressful situations that someone encounters,

Question: What will a person often do with extremely stressful memories?
Answer: repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind

Question: What is the cause of neuron loss due to stress?
Answer: high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors
Title: Memory

Sleep does not affect acquisition or recall while one is awake. Therefore, sleep has the greatest effect on memory consolidation. During sleep, the neural connections in the brain are strengthened. This enhances the brain’s abilities to stabilize and retain memories. There have been several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory, as memories are enhanced through active consolidation. System consolidation takes place during slow-wave sleep (SWS). This process implicates that memories are reactivated during sleep, but that the process doesn’t enhance every memory. It also implicates that qualitative changes are made to the memories when they are transferred to long-term store during sleep. When you are sleeping, the hippocampus replays the events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortex then reviews and processes memories, which moves them into long-term memory. When you do not get enough sleep it makes it more difficult to learn as these neural connections are not as strong, resulting in a lower retention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes it harder to focus, resulting in inefficient learning. Furthermore, some studies have shown that sleep deprivation can lead to false memories as the memories are not properly transferred to long-term memory. Therefore, it is important to get the proper amount of sleep so that memory can function at the highest level. One of the primary functions of sleep is thought to be the improvement of the consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test. Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day, suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal.

Question: Does sleep hurt a persons memory?
Answer: There have been several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory,

Question: What does SWS stand for?
Answer: slow-wave sleep

Question: What take place during SWS?
Answer: System consolidation

Question: What is the role of the neocortex whe it relates to memory?
Answer: reviews and processes memories, which moves them into long-term memory

Question: In studies what is a relationship between sleeping and learning?
Answer: activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day
Title: Memory

A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted, it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.

Question: Can one increase their brain efficency?
Answer: people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency

Question: What can a person do to increase their brain efficiency?
Answer: simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction

Question: In a study performed with 17 subjects, what relationship did healthy changes and brain efficiency have?
Answer: After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance.

Question: Do lifestyle changes definitely have an affect on long term memory?
Answer: it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.