rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Middle_Ages

The crusades were intended to seize Jerusalem from Muslim control. The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II (pope 1088–99) at the Council of Clermont in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised indulgence to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099. One feature of the crusades was the pogroms against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade, when the Jewish communities in Cologne, Mainz, and Worms were destroyed, and other communities in cities between the rivers Seine and Rhine suffered destruction. Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the military orders of the Templars and Hospitallers, which fused monastic life with military service.

Question: What pope launched the First crusade?
Answer: Urban II

Question: At what gathering was the First Crusade preached?
Answer: the Council of Clermont

Question: In what year was the First Crusade proclaimed?
Answer: 1095

Question: What Byzantine Emperor's request for assistance led to the First Crusade?
Answer: Alexios I Komnenos

Question: In what year did the First Crusade take Jerusalem?
Answer: 1099
Title: Middle_Ages

The crusaders consolidated their conquests into crusader states. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between those states and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from those states to the papacy led to further crusades, such as the Third Crusade, called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by Saladin (d. 1193) in 1187.[Z] In 1203, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a Latin Empire of Constantinople and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261, but never regained their former strength. By 1291 all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland, although a titular Kingdom of Jerusalem survived on the island of Cyprus for several years afterwards.

Question: What was the purpose of the Third Crusade?
Answer: to regain Jerusalem

Question: Who took Jerusalem in 1187?
Answer: Saladin

Question: In what year did the Fourth Crusade occur?
Answer: 1203

Question: What state was founded following the Fourth Crusade?
Answer: Latin Empire of Constantinople

Question: After 1291, where did the titular King of Jerusalem reside?
Answer: Cyprus
Title: Middle_Ages

Popes called for crusades to take place elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic. The Spanish crusades became fused with the Reconquista of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of Calatrava and Santiago by the beginning of the 12th century. Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later, and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the Order of the Sword Brothers. Another order, the Teutonic Knights, although originally founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225, and in 1309 moved its headquarters to Marienburg in Prussia.

Question: Along with the Baltic and Spain, in what area were crusades called?
Answer: southern France

Question: Where was the Teutonic Order headquartered in 1309?
Answer: Marienburg

Question: What military order was founded as a result of the Northern Crusades?
Answer: the Order of the Sword Brothers

Question: In what century did the Northern Crusades begin?
Answer: 12th

Question: What century saw the end of the Northern Crusades?
Answer: 14th
Title: Middle_Ages

During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was debate between the realists and the nominalists over the concept of "universals". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism. Scholars such as Peter Abelard (d. 1142) and Peter Lombard (d. 1164) introduced Aristotelian logic into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries cathedral schools spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns. Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the universities established in major European cities. Philosophy and theology fused in scholasticism, an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason and culminated in the thought of Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), who wrote the Summa Theologica, or Summary of Theology.

Question: What group opposed the nominalists on the subject of universals?
Answer: realists

Question: What ancient philosopher was rediscovered, leading to a revival of philosophy?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: When did Peter Lombard die?
Answer: 1164

Question: What was the name of the school of thought that combined theology and philosophy?
Answer: scholasticism

Question: Who authored the Summa Theologica?
Answer: Thomas Aquinas
Title: Middle_Ages

Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by troubadours, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the chansons de geste, or "songs of great deeds", such as The Song of Roland or The Song of Hildebrand. Secular and religious histories were also produced. Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. c. 1155) composed his Historia Regum Britanniae, a collection of stories and legends about Arthur. Other works were more clearly history, such as Otto von Freising's (d. 1158) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or William of Malmesbury's (d. c. 1143) Gesta Regum on the kings of England.

Question: What does chansons de geste mean in English?
Answer: songs of great deeds

Question: Along with The Song of Ronald, what is a notable chanson de geste?
Answer: The Song of Hildebrand

Question: Who wrote Historia Regum Britanniae?
Answer: Geoffrey of Monmouth

Question: What legendary figure was featured in the Historia Regum Britanniae?
Answer: Arthur

Question: Who was the subject of Gesta Friderici Imperatoris?
Answer: Emperor Frederick Barbarossa
Title: Middle_Ages

Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and canon law, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the Decretum.

Question: What is another name for canon law?
Answer: ecclesiastical law

Question: What is another name for Roman law?
Answer: Secular law

Question: Where could one study Roman law in 1100?
Answer: Bologna

Question: In what century was the Corpus Juris Civilis rediscovered?
Answer: 11th

Question: Who wrote the Decretum?
Answer: Gratian
Title: Middle_Ages

Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.

Question: What invention led to advances in mathematics?
Answer: algebra

Question: What influential astronomy text did Ptomely author?
Answer: Almagest

Question: In what language was Almagest originally written?
Answer: Greek

Question: In what city was a medical school located that was notably influenced by Islamic medicine?
Answer: Salerno

Question: Into what language was Almagest translated in the 12th century?
Answer: Latin
Title: Middle_Ages

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe produced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of distilled spirits, and the use of the astrolabe. Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.

Question: Along with the astrolabe, windmill and distilled spirits, what was a notable technological advancement of the 12th and 13th centuries?
Answer: mechanical clocks

Question: What was invented in approximately 1286?
Answer: Concave spectacles

Question: Near what city were concave spectacles invented?
Answer: Pisa
Title: Middle_Ages

The development of a three-field rotation system for planting crops[AA] increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production. The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the horse collar, which led to the use of draught horses in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.

Question: What fraction of land was under cultivation using the two-field system?
Answer: one half

Question: What fraction of land was under cultivate using the three-field system?
Answer: two-thirds

Question: What invention allowed horses rather than oxen to be used to plow?
Answer: the horse collar

Question: What invention led to an increase in efficiency in the farming of heavy soils?
Answer: the heavy plough

Question: In addition to requiring less pasture, what distinguishes horses from oxen?
Answer: faster
Title: Middle_Ages

The construction of cathedrals and castles advanced building technology, leading to the development of large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and tithe barns. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon. Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern-post rudder, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.

Question: Along with bridges, tithe barns and town halls, what notable new structures were built during this period?
Answer: houses

Question: What method, derived from the Romans, was traditionally used to build ships?
Answer: mortise and tenon

Question: What new shipbuilding method was invented in this period?
Answer: rib and plank

Question: What type of rudder was introduced during this period?
Answer: stern-post

Question: What type of sails were first used during this era?
Answer: lateen
Title: Middle_Ages

In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers. Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.[AB] The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour. Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.

Question: In what century did Europeans become aware of gunpowder?
Answer: 13th

Question: Who was recorded as using gunpowder in 1304?
Answer: the English

Question: Against whom was gunpowder used in 1304?
Answer: the Scots

Question: In what decade were siege cannon known to have been used?
Answer: 1320s

Question: What led to the increased use of armor in the 12th century?
Answer: The increasing use of crossbows
Title: Middle_Ages

In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" is derived. Where available, Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults. The large portal with coloured sculpture in high relief became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the capitals of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals. According to art historian C. R. Dodwell, "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive. Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed, and became crucial to politics and warfare.

Question: In what century was Romanesque architecture first used?
Answer: 10th

Question: What feature of Romanesque architecture was especially prevalent in France?
Answer: arched stone vaults

Question: Who noted the prevalence of wall-paintings in Western churches of this era?
Answer: C. R. Dodwell

Question: What non-church architectural structure developed in the 10th century?
Answer: the castle

Question: Around what year did the great wave of church-building in stone occur?
Answer: 1000
Title: Middle_Ages

Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège, contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick. Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall, a Christ in Majesty at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, on the barrel-vaulted roof.

Question: Who was a noted figure in Mosan art?
Answer: Nicholas of Verdun

Question: What year saw the death of Nicholas of Verdun?
Answer: 1205

Question: On what wall of a church was the Last Judgment typically painted?
Answer: west

Question: Where are narrative biblical scenes painted in the church at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe?
Answer: on the barrel-vaulted roof

Question: What notable Romanesque metalwork is named for Gloucester?
Answer: Gloucester Candlestick
Title: Middle_Ages

From the early 12th century, French builders developed the Gothic style, marked by the use of rib vaults, pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained glass windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals, and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England. Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.

Question: In what century did the Gothic style first flourish?
Answer: 12th

Question: In what century did the Gothic style cease to be used?
Answer: 16th

Question: Along with Reims, where is a notable Gothic cathedral in France located?
Answer: Chartres

Question: What is a notable English Gothic cathedral?
Answer: Salisbury Cathedral

Question: Among which builders was the Gothic style first used?
Answer: French
Title: Middle_Ages

During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to Janetta Benton "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops", and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses. In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco. Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.

Question: Who noted that 14th century monks bought books in shops?
Answer: Janetta Benton

Question: What form of art had the most prestige in this era?
Answer: Metalwork

Question: When did Giotto die?
Answer: 1337

Question: What were many pieces of secular art carved from in this period?
Answer: ivory

Question: Along with Duccio, what Italian artist was a noted innovator in this period?
Answer: Cimabue
Title: Middle_Ages

Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. Cluny Abbey, founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909, was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear. Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.

Question: In what century was thought given to monastic reform?
Answer: 11th

Question: In what year was Cluny Abbey founded?
Answer: 909

Question: In what part of France was Cluny Abbey founded?
Answer: Mâcon

Question: Along with rigor, what did Cluny have a reputation for?
Answer: austerity

Question: What reforms were named for the abbey at Cluny?
Answer: Cluniac Reforms
Title: Middle_Ages

Monastic reform inspired change in the secular church. The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX (pope 1049–1054), and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture, clerical marriage, and simony. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.

Question: During what century did the Investiture Controversy occur?
Answer: 11th

Question: When did the reign of Pope Leo IX begin?
Answer: 1049

Question: What pope was involved in the Investiture Controversy?
Answer: Pope Gregory VII

Question: In what year was the Concordat of Worms agreed to?
Answer: 1122

Question: What secular rulers did the Concordat of Worms increase the power of?
Answer: German princes
Title: Middle_Ages

The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians. The latter especially expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an Apostolic life. Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence.

Question: What monastic order did Bernard of Clairvaux belong to?
Answer: Cistercians

Question: When did Bernard of Clairvaux die?
Answer: 1153

Question: Along with Bari, what was a notable new pilgrimage site in this era?
Answer: Monte Gargano

Question: Along with Rome and Jerusalem, what traditional pilgrimage site saw a greater number of visitors in the High Middle Ages?
Answer: Compostela

Question: Along with the Cistercians, what new monastic order was founded in the High Middle Ages?
Answer: Carthusians
Title: Middle_Ages

In the 13th century mendicant orders—the Franciscans and the Dominicans—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy. Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, but they were condemned as heretical by the papacy. Others joined the Cathars, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the Albigensian Crusade, which in combination with the medieval Inquisition, eliminated them.

Question: Along with the Dominicans, what mendicant order was founded in the 13th century?
Answer: Franciscans

Question: What notable vow was sworn by the mendicant orders?
Answer: poverty

Question: How did the mendicant orders make a living?
Answer: begging

Question: What was the crusade against the Cathars called?
Answer: the Albigensian Crusade

Question: Along with the Cathars and Humiliati, what group was notably condemned as heretics in this period?
Answer: the Waldensians
Title: Middle_Ages

The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17. The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures. The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.

Question: In what years did the Great Famine occur?
Answer: 1315–17

Question: What period resulted in poor weather that increased crop failures?
Answer: the Little Ice Age

Question: What period preceded the Little Ice Age?
Answer: the Medieval Warm Period

Question: Along with 1317–21, what span saw extreme rains in Europe?
Answer: 1313–14

Question: In what century did the European average annual temperature decrease?
Answer: 14th