rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Karl_Popper

The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it's impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only say that the whole package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which element of the package must be replaced. An example of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune: when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's laws, the theory "There are seven planets in the solar system" was rejected, and not Newton's laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of The Logic of Scientific Discovery. For Popper, theories are accepted or rejected via a sort of selection process. Theories that say more about the way things appear are to be preferred over those that do not; the more generally applicable a theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton's laws, with their wide general application, are to be preferred over the much more specific "the solar system has seven planets".[dubious – discuss]

Question: What thesis says a scientific hypothesis is not testable in isolation from its system of theories?
Answer: Quine-Duhem

Question: Which of Popper's works responds to critiques of naive falsificationism?
Answer: The Logic of Scientific Discovery

Question: The planet Uranus' apparent failure to follow Newton's laws led to the discovery of which planet?
Answer: Neptune

Question: According to Popper, the scientific selection process favors which type of theory?
Answer: more generally applicable
Title: Karl_Popper

Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 version of his Logic of Discovery a fact later stressed by Kuhn, "that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical framework", and to that extent to have anticipated Kuhn's central point about "normal science". (But Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism.) Also, in his collection Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, "Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them."

Question: Popper believed he had already discussed similar ideas to Kuhn's about scientific communities in what work?
Answer: Logic of Discovery

Question: What aspect of Kuhn's thinking did Popper criticize?
Answer: relativism

Question: What did Popper say must be the beginning phase of science?
Answer: the critical discussion of myths

Question: According to Popper, what second layer does scientific inquiry have that pre-scientific inquiry does not?
Answer: a critical attitude
Title: Karl_Popper

Another objection is that it is not always possible to demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is using statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis. More generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis rather than of flaws in the evidence. However, this is a misunderstanding of what Popper's philosophy of science sets out to do. Rather than offering a set of instructions that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve science, Popper makes it clear in The Logic of Scientific Discovery that his belief is that the resolution of conflicts between hypotheses and observations can only be a matter of the collective judgment of scientists, in each individual case.

Question: What kind of criteria frequently used in science complicates the definitiveness of some hypotheses' falsification?
Answer: statistical

Question: What other flaws complicate the problem of identifying faulty scientific hypotheses?
Answer: flaws in the evidence

Question: According to Popper, what resolves conflicting hypotheses and observations in the long run?
Answer: the collective judgment of scientists
Title: Karl_Popper

In a book called Science Versus Crime, Houck writes that Popper's falsificationism can be questioned logically: it is not clear how Popper would deal with a statement like "for every metal, there is a temperature at which it will melt." The hypothesis cannot be falsified by any possible observation, for there will always be a higher temperature than tested at which the metal may in fact melt, yet it seems to be a valid scientific hypothesis. These examples were pointed out by Carl Gustav Hempel. Hempel came to acknowledge that Logical Positivism's verificationism was untenable, but argued that falsificationism was equally untenable on logical grounds alone. The simplest response to this is that, because Popper describes how theories attain, maintain and lose scientific status, individual consequences of currently accepted scientific theories are scientific in the sense of being part of tentative scientific knowledge, and both of Hempel's examples fall under this category. For instance, atomic theory implies that all metals melt at some temperature.

Question: Which book by Houck points out logical flaws in Popper's falsificationism?
Answer: Science Versus Crime

Question: Who argued that Popper's falsificationism was just as logically untenable as Logical Positivism's verificationism?
Answer: Carl Gustav Hempel

Question: Who wrote the book Science Versus Crime which challenged the logic of falsificationism?
Answer: Houck
Title: Karl_Popper

In 2004, philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark (Groningen, The Netherlands) published a book, called Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology, in which he claimed that Popper took some of his ideas from his tutor, the German psychologist Otto Selz. Selz never published his ideas, partly because of the rise of Nazism, which forced him to quit his work in 1933, and the prohibition of referring to Selz' work. Popper, the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is criticised in some academic quarters for his rejection of Plato, Hegel and Marx.

Question: Which German psychologist and tutor of Popper may have originated some of Popper's ideas?
Answer: Otto Selz

Question: Who claimed Otto Selz deserved credit for ideas published by Popper?
Answer: Michel ter Hark

Question: What contributed to Otto Selz's cessation of work in 1933?
Answer: the rise of Nazism

Question: What is the name of the 2004 paper that links Popper's work to that of his tutor Otto Selz?
Answer: Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology

Question: Popper is criticized for dismissing which major philosophers in his work?
Answer: Plato, Hegel and Marx
Title: Karl_Popper

According to John N. Gray, Popper held that "a theory is scientific only in so far as it is falsifiable, and should be given up as soon as it is falsified." By applying Popper's account of scientific method, Gray's Straw Dogs states that this would have "killed the theories of Darwin and Einstein at birth." When they were first advanced, Gray claims, each of them was "at odds with some available evidence; only later did evidence become available that gave them crucial support." Against this, Gray seeks to establish the irrationalist thesis that "the progress of science comes from acting against reason."

Question: Which two prominent scientists advanced theories that John N. Gray claims would never have survived the scientific method Popper describes?
Answer: Darwin and Einstein

Question: Which work by John Gray challenges Popper's falsificationism?
Answer: Straw Dogs

Question: According to Gray, what should have falsified Einstein and Darwin's theories when first proposed?
Answer: available evidence

Question: What kind of thesis does Gray advance about scientific progress?
Answer: irrationalist
Title: Karl_Popper

Gray does not, however, give any indication of what available evidence these theories were at odds with, and his appeal to "crucial support" illustrates the very inductivist approach to science that Popper sought to show was logically illegitimate. For, according to Popper, Einstein's theory was at least equally as well corroborated as Newton's upon its initial conception; they both equally well accounted for all the hitherto available evidence. Moreover, since Einstein also explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory, general relativity was immediately deemed suitable for tentative acceptance on the Popperian account. Indeed, Popper wrote, several decades before Gray's criticism, in reply to a critical essay by Imre Lakatos:

Question: Gray's approach aligns with which approach that Popper himself considered untenable?
Answer: inductivist

Question: A possible rebuttal to Gray's argument appears in Popper's reply to which philosopher?
Answer: Imre Lakatos

Question: What did general relativity do that made it tentatively acceptable when it was proposed?
Answer: explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory

Question: In contrast to Gray, which theory did Popper argue was at least equally consistent with Newton's on the available evidence?
Answer: Einstein's theory
Title: Karl_Popper

Such a theory would be true with higher probability, because it cannot be attacked so easily: to falsify the first one, it is sufficient to find that the sun has stopped rising; to falsify the second one, one additionally needs the assumption that the given day has not yet been reached. Popper held that it is the least likely, or most easily falsifiable, or simplest theory (attributes which he identified as all the same thing) that explains known facts that one should rationally prefer. His opposition to positivism, which held that it is the theory most likely to be true that one should prefer, here becomes very apparent. It is impossible, Popper argues, to ensure a theory to be true; it is more important that its falsity can be detected as easily as possible.

Question: Which type of theory is most falsifiable?
Answer: simplest

Question: What school of philosophy does Popper's thinking on induction oppose?
Answer: positivism

Question: For Popper, knowing that a theory is true is what?
Answer: impossible

Question: What quality of a useful theory must be easily detectable?
Answer: its falsity
Title: Karl_Popper

In his early years Popper was impressed by Marxism, whether of Communists or socialists. An event that happened in 1919 had a profound effect on him: During a riot, caused by the Communists, the police shot several unarmed people, including some of Popper's friends, when they tried to free party comrades from prison. The riot had, in fact, been part of a plan by which leaders of the Communist party with connections to Béla Kun tried to take power by a coup; Popper did not know about this at that time. However, he knew that the riot instigators were swayed by the Marxist doctrine that class struggle would produce vastly more dead men than the inevitable revolution brought about as quickly as possible, and so had no scruples to put the life of the rioters at risk to achieve their selfish goal of becoming the future leaders of the working class. This was the start of his later criticism of historicism. Popper began to reject Marxist historicism, which he associated with questionable means, and later socialism, which he associated with placing equality before freedom (to the possible disadvantage of equality).

Question: Who instigated the 1919 riot that reshaped Popper's political views?
Answer: Communists

Question: The 1919 riot involving Popper's comrades was part of what larger political move?
Answer: a coup

Question: Popper's critique of which doctrine has its origins in first-hand observation of communist agitation?
Answer: historicism

Question: Which historically significant communist activist was associated with the 1919 riots in which some of Popper's friends were killed?
Answer: Béla Kun

Question: What did the Marxist rioters believe would cause more death and suffering than their own agitation?
Answer: class struggle
Title: Mandolin

A mandolin (Italian: mandolino pronounced [mandoˈliːno]; literally "small mandola") is a musical instrument in the lute family and is usually plucked with a plectrum or "pick". It commonly has four courses of doubled metal strings tuned in unison (8 strings), although five (10 strings) and six (12 strings) course versions also exist. The courses are normally tuned in a succession of perfect fifths. It is the soprano member of a family that includes the mandola, octave mandolin, mandocello and mandobass.

Question: What country did the mandolin originate from?
Answer: Italian

Question: What does mandolin translate to? 
Answer: small mandola

Question: What musical family does the mandolin come from?
Answer: lute family

Question: How is the mandolin usually played?
Answer: usually plucked with a plectrum or "pick"

Question: How many courses does a mandolin commonly have? 
Answer: four
Title: Mandolin

There are many styles of mandolin, but four are common, the Neapolitan or round-backed mandolin, the carved-top mandolin and the flat-backed mandolin. The round-back has a deep bottom, constructed of strips of wood, glued together into a bowl. The carved-top or arch-top mandolin has a much shallower, arched back, and an arched top—both carved out of wood. The flat-backed mandolin uses thin sheets of wood for the body, braced on the inside for strength in a similar manner to a guitar. Each style of instrument has its own sound quality and is associated with particular forms of music. Neapolitan mandolins feature prominently in European classical music and traditional music. Carved-top instruments are common in American folk music and bluegrass music. Flat-backed instruments are commonly used in Irish, British and Brazilian folk music. Some modern Brazilian instruments feature an extra fifth course tuned a fifth lower than the standard fourth course.

Question: What are the four common styles of mandolins?
Answer: the Neapolitan or round-backed mandolin, the carved-top mandolin and the flat-backed mandolin.

Question: What is the round-back mandolin made of? 
Answer: strips of wood, glued together into a bowl

Question: Which style of mandolin has a shallower, arched back, and arched top?
Answer: round-back

Question: Which form of music do Neapolitan mandolins feature? 
Answer: European classical music and traditional music.

Question: Which mandolin is commin in American Folk music and blue grass music?
Answer: Carved-top instruments
Title: Mandolin

Much of mandolin development revolved around the soundboard (the top). Pre-mandolin instruments were quiet instruments, strung with as many as six courses of gut strings, and were plucked with the fingers or with a quill. However, modern instruments are louder—using four courses of metal strings, which exert more pressure than the gut strings. The modern soundboard is designed to withstand the pressure of metal strings that would break earlier instruments. The soundboard comes in many shapes—but generally round or teardrop-shaped, sometimes with scrolls or other projections. There is usually one or more sound holes in the soundboard, either round, oval, or shaped like a calligraphic F (f-hole). A round or oval sound hole may be covered or bordered with decorative rosettes or purfling.

Question: What did most of the development of the mandolin revolve around?
Answer: soundboard (the top)

Question: Were premandolins quiet or loud instruments? 
Answer: quiet instruments

Question: What are modern mandolins' strings made of? 
Answer: four courses of metal strings,

Question: What is the most common soundboard shape?
Answer: generally round or teardrop-shaped

Question: What are the sound holes covered with? 
Answer: bordered with decorative rosettes or purfling
Title: Mandolin

Beside the introduction of the lute to Spain (Andalusia) by the Moors, another important point of transfer of the lute from Arabian to European culture was Sicily, where it was brought either by Byzantine or later by Muslim musicians. There were singer-lutenists at the court in Palermo following the Norman conquest of the island from the Muslims, and the lute is depicted extensively in the ceiling paintings in the Palermo’s royal Cappella Palatina, dedicated by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily in 1140. His Hohenstaufen grandson Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (1194 - 1250) continued integrating Muslims into his court, including Moorish musicians. By the 14th century, lutes had disseminated throughout Italy and, probably because of the cultural influence of the Hohenstaufen kings and emperor, based in Palermo, the lute had also made significant inroads into the German-speaking lands.

Question: Who introduced the lute to Spain?
Answer: the Moors

Question: What country helped transfer the lute from Arabian to European culture? 
Answer: Sicily

Question: Who brought the lute to Sicily?
Answer: Byzantine or later by Muslim musicians

Question: What court held singer-lutenists after the Norman conquest?
Answer: Palermo

Question: What building has ceeiling painting dedicated to the lutenists? 
Answer: Palermo’s royal Cappella Palatina,
Title: Mandolin

There is confusion currently as to the name of the eldest Vinaccia luthier who first ran the shop. His name has been put forth as Gennaro Vinaccia (active c. 1710 to c. 1788) and Nic. Vinaccia. His son Antonio Vinaccia was active c. 1734 to c. 1796. An early extant example of a mandolin is one built by Antonio Vinaccia in 1759, which resides at the University of Edinburgh. Another is by Giuseppe Vinaccia, built in 1893, is also at the University of Edinburgh. The earliest extant mandolin was built in 1744 by Antonio's son, Gaetano Vinaccia. It resides in the Conservatoire Royal de Musique in Brussels, Belgium.

Question: What is there currently confusion over? 
Answer: eldest Vinaccia luthier who first ran the shop

Question: Who is said to have ran the first shop? 
Answer: Gennaro Vinaccia (active c. 1710 to c. 1788) and Nic

Question: Where does the mandolin built by Antonio Vinaccia reside?
Answer: University of Edinburgh

Question: Where does the mandolin built by Giuseppe Vinaccia reside?
Answer: University of Edinburgh

Question: Where does the mandolin that Gaetano Vinaccia reside?
Answer: Conservatoire Royal de Musique in Brussels, Belgium.
Title: Mandolin

The transition from the mandolino to the mandolin began around 1744 with the designing of the metal-string mandolin by the Vinaccia family, 3 brass strings and one of gut, using friction tuning pegs on a fingerboard that sat "flush" with the sound table. The mandolin grew in popularity over the next 60 years, in the streets where it was used by young men courting and by street musicians, and in the concert hall. After the Napoleonic Wars of 1815, however, its popularity began to fall. The 19th century produced some prominent players, including Bartolomeo Bortolazzi of Venice and Pietro Vimercati. However, professional virtuosity was in decline, and the mandolin music changed as the mandolin became a folk instrument; "the large repertoire of notated instrumental music for the mandolino and the mandoline was completely forgotten". The export market for mandolins from Italy dried up around 1815, and when Carmine de Laurentiis wrote a mandolin method in 1874, the Music World magazine wrote that the mandolin was "out of date." Salvador Léonardi mentioned this decline in his 1921 book, Méthode pour Banjoline ou Mandoline-Banjo, saying that the mandolin had been declining in popularity from previous times.

Question: What year was the beginning of the transition from mandolino to mandolin?
Answer: 1744

Question: Where did the mandolin grow in popularity? 
Answer: in the streets where it was used by young men courting and by street musicians, and in the concert hall

Question: When did the mandolin's popularity begin to fall?
Answer: After the Napoleonic Wars of 1815, however, its popularity began to fall

Question: Who were two of the promiment players in the 19th century?
Answer: Bartolomeo Bortolazzi of Venice and Pietro Vimercati

Question: What year did the export market for manodlins from Italy dry up?
Answer: 1815
Title: Mandolin

Beginning with the Paris Exposition of 1878, the instrument's popularity rebounded. The Exposition was one of many stops for a popular new performing group the Estudiantes Españoles (Spanish Students). They danced and played guitars, violins and the bandurria, which became confused with the mandolin. Along with the energy and awareness created by the day's hit sensation, a wave of Italian mandolinists travelled Europe in the 1880s and 1890s and in the United States by the mid-1880s, playing and teaching their instrument. The instrument's popularity continued to increase during the 1890s and mandolin popularity was at its height in "early years of the 20th century." Thousands were taking up the instrument as a pastime, and it became an instrument of society, taken up by young men and women. Mandolin orchestras were formed worldwide, incorporating not only the mandolin family of instruments, but also guitars, double basses and zithers.

Question: When did the mandolin's poplarity rebound?
Answer: Beginning with the Paris Exposition of 1878

Question: What popular group performed at the Paris Exposition? 
Answer: Estudiantes Españoles (Spanish Students)

Question: When was it said that mandolin's popularity peaked? 
Answer: early years of the 20th century.

Question: What instrument was the mandolin confused with during the 1880's? 
Answer: bandurria

Question: What were formed worldwide that incorporated the mandolin famiy of instruments and other instruments as well?
Answer: Mandolin orchestras
Title: Mandolin

The second decline was not as complete as the first. Thousands of people had learned to play the instrument. Even as the second wave of mandolin popularity declined in the early 20th century, new versions of the mandolin began to be used in new forms of music. Luthiers created the resonator mandolin, the flatback mandolin, the carved-top or arched-top mandolin, the mandolin-banjo and the electric mandolin. Musicians began playing it in Celtic, Bluegrass, Jazz and Rock-n-Roll styles — and Classical too.

Question: When was the second decline of mandolin popularity?
Answer: early 20th century,

Question: Why was the second decline in popularity not a strong as the first?
Answer: Thousands of people had learned to play the instrument

Question: Who created the rasonator mandolin?
Answer: Luthiers

Question: What are two types of new mandolins the Luthiers created?
Answer: mandolin-banjo and the electric mandolin

Question: What types of music did musicians begin to play the mandolins in?
Answer: Celtic, Bluegrass, Jazz and Rock-n-Roll styles — and Classical too.
Title: Mandolin

Like any plucked instrument, mandolin notes decay to silence rather than sound out continuously as with a bowed note on a violin, and mandolin notes decay faster than larger stringed instruments like the guitar. This encourages the use of tremolo (rapid picking of one or more pairs of strings) to create sustained notes or chords. The mandolin's paired strings facilitate this technique: the plectrum (pick) strikes each of a pair of strings alternately, providing a more full and continuous sound than a single string would.

Question: What happens to mandolin notes when plucked? 
Answer: decay to silence

Question: Do mandolin notes decay faster or slower than larger string instruments?
Answer: faster

Question: What is tremolo?
Answer: rapid picking of one or more pairs of strings

Question: What parts of the mandolin faciliate the tremolo technique?
Answer: paired strings

Question: What is a plectrum?
Answer: pick