rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Botany

During the 18th century, systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys, where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups (e.g. family, genus and species) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters. The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys. By the 18th century, new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide. In 1753 Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus) published his Species Plantarum, a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature. This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus. For the purposes of identification, Linnaeus's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs. The 24th group, Cryptogamia, included all plants with concealed reproductive parts, mosses, liverworts, ferns, algae and fungi.

Question: What is the meaning of dichotomous keys?
Answer: choices between pairs

Question: What is the term for keys used for identification?
Answer: diagnostic keys

Question: Why were new plants arriving in Europe in the 18th century?
Answer: newly discovered countries

Question: What book is still used for nomenclature?
Answer: Species Plantarum

Question: How are the plants classified?
Answer: number of their male sexual organs
Title: Botany

Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus had indicated. Adanson (1763), de Jussieu (1789), and Candolle (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed. The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later classification by Bentham and Hooker, which was influential until the mid-19th century, was influenced by Candolle's approach. Darwin's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity.

Question: What led scientists to believe that plants should be classified according to something other than just sexual system?
Answer: Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy

Question: In what year to Candolle introduce the Candollean system?
Answer: 1819

Question: On what did Candolle base his classification system?
Answer: morphological complexity

Question: What did Darwin introduce that changed classification systems?
Answer: concept of common descent
Title: Botany

Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first "modern" text book, Matthias Schleiden's Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik, published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany. Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co-founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831. In 1855, Adolf Fick formulated Fick's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems.

Question: What was the first modern text book?
Answer: Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik

Question: What was Schleiden's profession?
Answer: microscopist

Question: What do Fick's laws do?
Answer: calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion

Question: What theory did Schleiden co-found?
Answer: cell theory
Title: Botany

The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today. The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements. Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) produced accounts of the biogeography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.

Question: What did Warming believe that plants can do?
Answer: form communities

Question: What is the term for the most complex plant life in a specific environment?
Answer: climax vegetation

Question: Who created the concept of ecosystems?
Answer: Arthur Tansley

Question: Whose earlier work did Nicholas Vavilov build upon?
Answer: Alphonse de Candolle

Question: What history did Vavilov write about?
Answer: history of economic plants
Title: Botany

Particularly since the mid-1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration (the transport of water within plant tissues), the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures. These developments, coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures, and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere. Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher, Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research. The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals. Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones. The synthetic auxin 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides.

Question: What is transpiration?
Answer: the transport of water within plant tissues

Question: What influences water evaporation on leaves?
Answer: temperature

Question: What influences the rate of gas produced by plants?
Answer: rate of photosynthesis

Question: What enables the regulation of plant growth?
Answer: auxin plant hormones

Question: What can auxin plant hormones also be used as?
Answer: herbicides
Title: Botany

20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis. With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics, the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis. The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait, or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed. These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.

Question: What enables scientists to better study plants now?
Answer: modern techniques of organic chemical analysis

Question: What opened the door to plant genetic engineering?
Answer: all plant cells are totipotent

Question: Who introduced the idea that cells could be grown in vitro?
Answer: Gottlieb Haberlandt
Title: Botany

Modern morphology recognizes a continuum between the major morphological categories of root, stem (caulome), leaf (phyllome) and trichome. Furthermore, it emphasizes structural dynamics. Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants. Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters, relying on DNA sequences as data. Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants, answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species. The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research.

Question: What kind of relationships does systematics aim to discover?
Answer: phylogenetic

Question: What does phylogenetics use to determine plant categories?
Answer: DNA sequences

Question: What did the Angiosperm Phylogeny group use determine a phylogeny of flowering plants?
Answer: Molecular analysis of DNA

Question: Modern Morphology recognizes the structural dynamics of what?
Answer: the major morphological categories
Title: Botany

The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, medicine, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.

Question: Why are plants important to human life?
Answer: oxygen and food

Question: What is the process that converts sunlight to energy?
Answer: photosynthesis

Question: What is used to rebuild cells?
Answer: organic molecules

Question: What vital element is a byproduct of photosynthesis?
Answer: oxygen

Question: What do plant roots prevent?
Answer: soil erosion
Title: Botany

The strictest definition of "plant" includes only the "land plants" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses. Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis. They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases. The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte. Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria (now studied in bacteriology), fungi (mycology) – including lichen-forming fungi (lichenology), non-chlorophyte algae (phycology), and viruses (virology). However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi (including lichens) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses.

Question: What is the scientific name for seed plants?
Answer: gymnosperms

Question: What is the study of algae called?
Answer: phycology

Question: What two phases are included in the life cycles of embryophytes?
Answer: haploid and diploid
Title: Botany

Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants. Cyanobacteria, the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells. The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria, changing the ancient oxygen-free, reducing, atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years.

Question: What is the study of ancient, fossilized plants?
Answer: Paleobotanists

Question: What organism is credited with starting the oxygen-rich atmosphere on Earth?
Answer: cyanobacteria

Question: What can scientists learn from the fossil record?
Answer: evolutionary history of plants

Question: What was the first organism to produce oxygen through photosynthesis?
Answer: Cyanobacteria
Title: Botany

Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals. This is what ecologists call the first trophic level. The modern forms of the major staple foods, such as maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, pulses, bananas and plantains, as well as flax and cotton grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics. Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields, for example through plant breeding, making their work important to mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations. Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany.

Question: Why do food chains start with plants?
Answer: energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil

Question: What do ecologists call the start of the food chain?
Answer: first trophic level

Question: How can the yield of food plants be increased?
Answer: plant breeding

Question: Why would botanists study weeds?
Answer: problem in agriculture
Title: Botany

Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as "algae" have unique organelles known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors. Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue-green pigment chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a (as well as its plant and green algal-specific cousin chlorophyll b)[a] absorbs light in the blue-violet and orange/red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms. The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy-rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis, a process that generates molecular oxygen (O2) as a by-product.

Question: what parts of algae are unique to them?
Answer: chloroplasts

Question: From what ancient oxygen producing plant are chloroplasts descended?
Answer: cyanobacteria

Question: What color is chlorophyll?
Answer: blue-green

Question: What organelles are unique to algae?
Answer: chloroplasts

Question: From what ancient source are chloroplasts descended?
Answer: cyanobacteria

Question: What color does a plant with chlorophyll appear to be?
Answer: green
Title: Botany

The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy. Their energy is used in the light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3-carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesized. Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast. Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae, while inulin, a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae. Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose (common table sugar) for export to the rest of the plant.

Question: What is the function of ATP and NADPH molecules?
Answer: store and transport energy

Question: When is the raw form of glucose formed?
Answer: first product of photosynthesis

Question: What is stored in the chloroplast?
Answer: starch

Question: What is used instead of glucose in sunflowers?
Answer: fructose

Question: Why is table sugar produced?
Answer: for export to the rest of the plant
Title: Botany

Plants synthesize a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose, pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed. Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress. Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibers that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood. Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record. It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods. Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the C4 carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common C3 carbon fixation pathway. These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants.

Question: What polymer is used to strengthen cell walls?
Answer: lignin

Question: What weakens cell walls?
Answer: water stress

Question: What gas is in lower concentration now due to plants?
Answer: carbon dioxide

Question: What polymer is found in spores and pollen?
Answer: Sporopollenin

Question: What polymer is a major part of wood?
Answer: Lignin
Title: Botany

Phytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism. Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock. Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies. Many medicinal and recreational drugs, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (active ingredient in cannabis), caffeine, morphine and nicotine come directly from plants. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products. For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy. Popular stimulants come from plants, such as caffeine from coffee, tea and chocolate, and nicotine from tobacco. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate-rich plant products such as barley (beer), rice (sake) and grapes (wine).

Question: What is the study of the chemicals that plants produce?
Answer: Phytochemistry

Question: Hemlock is what kind of chemical produced from a plant?
Answer: toxins

Question: Where do some medicines and recreational drugs come from?
Answer: from plants

Question: Where did aspirin originally come from?
Answer: bark of willow trees

Question: Where does morphine come from?
Answer: the opium poppy
Title: Botany

Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products. Charcoal, a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood, has a long history as a metal-smelting fuel, as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder. Cellulose, the world's most abundant organic polymer, can be converted into energy, fuels, materials and chemical feedstock. Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton. Sugarcane, rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels, important alternatives to fossil fuels, such as biodiesel.

Question: How is charcoal made?
Answer: pyrolysis of wood

Question: Besides fire, what else is charcoal used for?
Answer: one of the three ingredients of gunpowder

Question: Plant oil is used for what kind of fuel?
Answer: biodiesel

Question: Rayon comes from what plant product?
Answer: cellulose
Title: Botany

Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats—the environments where they complete their life cycles. Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras, their biodiversity, genetic diversity and fitness, the adaptation of plants to their environment, and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species. The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns, productivity, environmental impact, evolution, and responses to environmental change.

Question: What are plant habitats?
Answer: environments where they complete their life

Question: What is the goal of plant ecology?
Answer: to understand

Question: What is the study of plants and the environment in which they live?
Answer: Plant ecology

Question: What do plants do in their environment?
Answer: interactions with other species
Title: Botany

Plants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too. For example, they can change their environment's albedo, increase runoff interception, stabilize mineral soils and develop their organic content, and affect local temperature. Plants compete with other organisms in their ecosystem for resources. They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation. Regions with characteristic vegetation types and dominant plants as well as similar abiotic and biotic factors, climate, and geography make up biomes like tundra or tropical rainforest.

Question: On what do plants depend in their environment?
Answer: edaphic (soil) and climatic factors

Question: How do plants interact with other species in their environment?
Answer: for resources

Question: What is the collection of plants in the environment called?
Answer: vegetation

Question: What are groupings of similar plants?
Answer: biomes