rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Gene

The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA.:7.6 The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence. Most changes to a gene's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution. Additionally, any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate. Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly. The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related.

Question: What does comparing the sequence alignment of genes' DNA measure?
Answer: The relationship between genes

Question: What is the degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes called?
Answer: conserved sequence

Question: How do genes typically accumulate mutations over time?
Answer: by neutral molecular evolution

Question: Under what type of selection are genes constrained so they change more slowly?
Answer: stabilizing

Question: What type of analyses can the sequence differences between genes be used for?
Answer: phylogenetic
Title: Gene

The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way comprise a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.:7.6

Question: What is the most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages?
Answer: gene duplication

Question: What creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome?
Answer: gene duplication

Question: What are the genes that result from eukaryotic gene duplication called?
Answer: paralogs

Question: What type of copy can gene duplication sometimes result in?
Answer: nonfunctional

Question: What are functional copies of a gene which have a loss of function due to mutation called?
Answer: pseudogenes
Title: Gene

De novo or "orphan" genes, whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes, are extremely rare. Estimates of the number of de novo genes in the human genome range from 18 to 60. Such genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes, with few if any introns. Two primary sources of orphan protein-coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change, such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons, and formation through mutation of "cryptic" transcription start sites that introduce a new open reading frame in a region of the genome that did not previously code for a protein.

Question: What is a gene whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes called?
Answer: De novo or "orphan" genes

Question: What is the estimate of the number of orphan genes in the human genome?
Answer: 18 to 60

Question: How do the lengths of orphan genes compare to most eukaryotic genes?
Answer: typically shorter

Question: How does the structure of orphan genes compare to most eukaryotic genes?
Answer: simpler in structure

Question: What is one primary source of orphan protein-coding genes?
Answer: gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change
Title: Gene

Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction. This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes, sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication. It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance, virulence, and adaptive metabolic functions. Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes, likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin.

Question: What is the  transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction known as?
Answer: Horizontal gene transfer

Question: In what type of organism is horizontal gene transfer a common source of new genes?
Answer: prokaryotes

Question: What is one trait that horizontal gene transfer is a common means of spreading?
Answer: antibiotic resistance

Question: In what type of organism is horizontal gene transfer rare?
Answer: eukaryotes

Question: What is one example of horizontal gene transfer in eukaryotes?
Answer: alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin
Title: Gene

The genome size, and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms. The smallest genomes occur in viruses (which can have as few as 2 protein-coding genes), and viroids (which act as a single non-coding RNA gene). Conversely, plants can have extremely large genomes, with rice containing >46,000 protein-coding genes. The total number of protein-coding genes (the Earth's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences.

Question: What is one characteristic that varies widely between organisms?
Answer: genome size

Question: In which type of organism do the smallest genomes occur?
Answer: viruses

Question: What is the smallest number of protein coding genes that a virus can have?
Answer: 2

Question: Which organism acts as a single non coding RNA gene?
Answer: viroids

Question: What is the estimate for the total number of protein coding genes on Earth?
Answer: 5 million
Title: Gene

Although the number of base-pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s, the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes, and methods of detecting them have been refined. Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2,000,000. Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50,000–100,000 transcribed genes (expressed sequence tags). Subsequently, the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes, and the total number of protein-coding genes was revised down to ~20,000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome. Of the human genome, only 1–2% consists of protein-coding genes, with the remainder being 'noncoding' DNA such as introns, retrotransposons, and noncoding RNAs.

Question: Since when has the number of base pairs of DNA in the human genome been known?
Answer: the 1960s

Question: What was the highest initial theoretical prediction of the number of human genes?
Answer: 2,000,000

Question: What sort of variants did the Human Genome Project indicate that many of the measured transcripts were?
Answer: alternative variants

Question: After the Human Genome Project, how many genes were encoded on the mitochondrial genome?
Answer: 13

Question: What percentage of the human genome consists of protein coding genes?
Answer: 1–2%
Title: Gene

Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism's survival. This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress. Only a small portion of an organism's genes are essential. In bacteria, an estimated 250–400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which is less than 10% of their genes. Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher, at 1000 genes (~20% of their genes). Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes, mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes (~10% of their genes).

Question: What are the set of genes which are thought to be crucial for the survival of an organism?
Answer: Essential genes

Question: What does the definition of essential genes assume an absence of?
Answer: environmental stress

Question: How many genes are essential for Escherichia coli?
Answer: 250–400

Question: What fraction of Escherichia coli's essential genes are orthologs?
Answer: Half

Question: How many essential genes does Saccharomyces cerevisiae have?
Answer: 1000 genes
Title: Gene

Housekeeping genes are critical for carrying out basic cell functions and so are expressed at a relatively constant level (constitutively). Since their expression is constant, housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression. Not all essential genes are housekeeping genes since some essential genes are developmentally regulated or expressed at certain times during the organism's life cycle.

Question: What type of genes are necessary for performing basic cell functions?
Answer: Housekeeping genes

Question: At what relative level are housekeeping genes expressed at?
Answer: constant

Question: When investigating gene expression, what type of genes are used as a control for experiments?
Answer: housekeeping genes

Question: How are some essential genes regulated?
Answer: developmentally

Question: When are some essential genes expressed?
Answer: at certain times during the organism's life cycle
Title: Gene

Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short-form abbreviation), which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC. Symbols are chosen to be unique, and each gene has only one symbol (although approved symbols sometimes change). Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species, particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism.

Question: What committee has established gene nomenclature for every known human gene?
Answer: HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)

Question: How can the gene nomenclature be accessed? 
Answer: through a database maintained by HGNC

Question: How many symbols does each gene have?
Answer: only one

Question: With what is it preferred that symbols are kept consistent with?
Answer: homologs in other species

Question: What type of model does the mouse play a role for?
Answer: common model
Title: Gene

Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.

Question: What is known as the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology?
Answer: Genetic engineering

Question: When did techniques begin to be developed to add, remove and edit genes?
Answer: the 1970s

Question: What sort of enzymes do recently developed genome engineering techniques use?
Answer: engineered nuclease enzymes

Question: What sort of DNA repair is created by modern genetic engineering techniques?
Answer: targeted

Question: What term refers to extensive genetic engineering of an organism?
Answer: synthetic biology
Title: Gene

Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.

Question: What has become a common research tool with model organisms?
Answer: Genetic engineering

Question: What do scientists explore by adding genes to mice with a certain gene's function disrupted?
Answer: that gene's function

Question: What is an application for which organisms have been modified for?
Answer: agriculture

Question: What is another for which  organisms have been modified for?
Answer: industrial biotechnology

Question: What is yet another application for which  organisms have been modified for?
Answer: medicine
Title: Gene

For multicellular organisms, typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism. However, the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases.

Question: For what sort of organisms is the embryo normally engineered?
Answer: multicellular organisms

Question: What techniques can be used to alter the genomes of an adult organism to treat genetic disease?
Answer: gene therapy techniques

Question: What part of the organism is usually created which becomes a developed genetically altered organism?
Answer: the embryo

Question: What can be changed in an adult organism using gene therapy techniques?
Answer: the genomes of cells

Question: What can be treated using genetic engineering?
Answer: genetic diseases
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Guinea-Bissau (i/ˈɡɪni bɪˈsaʊ/, GI-nee-bi-SOW), officially the Republic of Guinea-Bissau (Portuguese: República da Guiné-Bissau, pronounced: [ʁeˈpublikɐ dɐ ɡiˈnɛ biˈsaw]), is a country in West Africa. It covers 36,125 square kilometres (13,948 sq mi) with an estimated population of 1,704,000.

Question: What is the official name for Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: the Republic of Guinea-Bissau

Question: Where is Guinea-Bissau located?
Answer: West Africa

Question: How many square miles is Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: 13,948 sq mi

Question: What is the estimated population of Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: 1,704,000

Question: How many kilometers does Guinea-Bissau cover?
Answer: 36,125
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Gabu, as well as part of the Mali Empire. Parts of this kingdom persisted until the 18th century, while a few others were under some rule by the Portuguese Empire since the 16th century. In the 19th century, it was colonized as Portuguese Guinea. Upon independence, declared in 1973 and recognised in 1974, the name of its capital, Bissau, was added to the country's name to prevent confusion with Guinea (formerly French Guinea). Guinea-Bissau has a history of political instability since independence, and no elected president has successfully served a full five-year term.

Question: What kingdom was Guinea-Bissau once part of?
Answer: Gabu

Question: What empire was Guinea-Bissau once part of?
Answer: Mali Empire

Question: What year was Guinea-Bissau declared independent?
Answer: 1973

Question: What country did Guinea-Bissau seek to differentiate itself from?
Answer: Guinea (formerly French Guinea)

Question: Guinea-Bissau has a history of what since independence?
Answer: political instability
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Only 14% of the population speaks Portuguese, established as the official language in the colonial period. Almost half the population (44%) speaks Crioulo, a Portuguese-based creole language, and the remainder speak a variety of native African languages. The main religions are African traditional religions and Islam; there is a Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) minority. The country's per-capita gross domestic product is one of the lowest in the world.

Question: What percentage of the population speaks Portuguese?
Answer: 14%

Question: What percentage of the population speaks Crioulo?
Answer: 44%

Question: What are the two main religions?
Answer: African traditional religions and Islam

Question: What is their gross domestic product status?
Answer: one of the lowest in the world

Question: What is the minority religion?
Answer: Christian (mostly Roman Catholic)
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Guinea-Bissau is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Economic Community of West African States, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Latin Union, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, La Francophonie and the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone.

Question: What Islamic organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?
Answer: Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

Question: What Portuguese organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?
Answer: Community of Portuguese Language Countries

Question: What West African organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?
Answer: Economic Community of West African States

Question: What South Atlantic organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?
Answer: South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone

Question: What Latin organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?
Answer: the Latin Union
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Gabu, part of the Mali Empire; parts of this kingdom persisted until the 18th century. Other parts of the territory in the current country were considered by the Portuguese as part of their empire. Portuguese Guinea was known as the Slave Coast, as it was a major area for the exportation of African slaves by Europeans to the western hemisphere. Previously slaves had been traded by Arabs north to the northern part of Africa and into the Middle East.

Question: What area was known as the Slave Coast?
Answer: Portuguese Guinea

Question: Who exported African slaves to the western hemisphere?
Answer: Europeans

Question: What kingdom was Guinea-Bissau once a part of?
Answer: Gabu

Question: How long did the Mali Empire persist?
Answer: until the 18th century

Question: Who traded slaves into the Middle East?
Answer: Arabs
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Early reports of Europeans reaching this area include those of the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto's voyage of 1455, the 1479–1480 voyage by Flemish-French trader Eustache de la Fosse, and Diogo Cão. In the 1480s this Portuguese explorer reached the Congo River and the lands of Bakongo, setting up the foundations of modern Angola, some 4200 km down the African coast from Guinea-Bissau.

Question: When was Alvise Cadamosto's voyage?
Answer: 1455

Question: When was Eustache de la Fosse's voyage?
Answer: 1479–1480

Question: What was the name of the Portuguese explorer?
Answer: Diogo Cão

Question: What river did Diogo Cao reach in the 1480's?
Answer: Congo River

Question: What country is about 4200 km from Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: Angola
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Although the rivers and coast of this area were among the first places colonized by the Portuguese, who set up trading posts in the 16th century, they did not explore the interior until the 19th century. The local African rulers in Guinea, some of whom prospered greatly from the slave trade, controlled the inland trade and did not allow the Europeans into the interior. They kept them in the fortified coastal settlements where the trading took place. African communities that fought back against slave traders also distrusted European adventurers and would-be settlers. The Portuguese in Guinea were largely restricted to the port of Bissau and Cacheu. A small number of European settlers established isolated farms along Bissau's inland rivers.

Question: What areas were the first places colonized by the Portuguese?
Answer: the rivers and coast

Question: When did the Portuguese first set up trading posts in Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: 16th century

Question: When did the Portuguese explore the interior of Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: 19th century

Question: Who controlled the inland trade in Guinea-Bissau during this time?
Answer: local African rulers

Question: What ports were the Portuguese restricted to?
Answer: Bissau and Cacheu
Title: Guinea-Bissau

For a brief period in the 1790s, the British tried to establish a rival foothold on an offshore island, at Bolama. But by the 19th century the Portuguese were sufficiently secure in Bissau to regard the neighbouring coastline as their own special territory, also up north in part of present South Senegal.

Question: Who tried to establish a rival foothold at Bolama?
Answer: the British

Question: When was a rival foothold  attempted at Bolama?
Answer: the 1790s

Question: Who regarded Bolama as their own in the 19th century?
Answer: the Portuguese

Question: What other area did the Portuguese regard as their special territory?
Answer: part of present South Senegal

Question: What rival did the Portuguese fend off in Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: the British
Title: Guinea-Bissau

An armed rebellion beginning in 1956 by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) under the leadership of Amílcar Cabral gradually consolidated its hold on then Portuguese Guinea. Unlike guerrilla movements in other Portuguese colonies, the PAIGC rapidly extended its military control over large portions of the territory, aided by the jungle-like terrain, its easily reached borderlines with neighbouring allies, and large quantities of arms from Cuba, China, the Soviet Union, and left-leaning African countries. Cuba also agreed to supply artillery experts, doctors, and technicians. The PAIGC even managed to acquire a significant anti-aircraft capability in order to defend itself against aerial attack. By 1973, the PAIGC was in control of many parts of Guinea, although the movement suffered a setback in January 1973 when Cabral was assassinated.

Question: What group started an armed rebellion in Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC)

Question: When did the armed rebellion begin?
Answer: 1956

Question: Who was the leader of the armed rebellion?
Answer: Amílcar Cabral

Question: Who supplied doctors and technicians to the rebels?
Answer: Cuba

Question: When was Cabral assassinated?
Answer: January 1973
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Independence was unilaterally declared on 24 September 1973. Recognition became universal following the 25 April 1974 socialist-inspired military coup in Portugal, which overthrew Lisbon's Estado Novo regime.

Question: When was independence declared?
Answer: 24 September 1973

Question: What date was independence considered universal? 
Answer: 25 April 1974

Question: What event caused the recognition to be universal?
Answer: socialist-inspired military coup

Question: Where did a coup take place?
Answer: Portugal

Question: Who was overthrown in the coup?
Answer: Lisbon's Estado Novo regime
Title: Guinea-Bissau

Luís Cabral, brother of Amílcar and co-founder of PAIGC, was appointed the first President of Guinea-Bissau. Following independence, the PAIGC killed thousands of local Guinean soldiers who had fought along with the Portuguese Army against guerrillas. Some escaped to settle in Portugal or other African nations. One of the massacres occurred in the town of Bissorã. In 1980 the PAIGC acknowledged in its newspaper Nó Pintcha (dated 29 November 1980) that many Gueinean soldiers had been executed and buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole, and Mansabá.

Question: Who was the first President of Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: Luís Cabral

Question: How many Guinean soldiers did the PAIGC kill?
Answer: thousands

Question: Where did one of the massacres occur?
Answer: Bissorã

Question: When did the PAIGC acknowledge the executions?
Answer: 29 November 1980

Question: Where were the soldiers buried?
Answer: Cumerá, Portogole, and Mansabá
Title: Guinea-Bissau

The country was controlled by a revolutionary council until 1984. The first multi-party elections were held in 1994. An army uprising in May 1998 led to the Guinea-Bissau Civil War and the president's ousting in June 1999. Elections were held again in 2000, and Kumba Ialá was elected president.

Question: Who controlled the country prior to 1984?
Answer: a revolutionary council

Question: When were the first multi-party elections held?
Answer: 1994

Question: What led to the Guinea-Bissau Civil War?
Answer: An army uprising

Question: When was the president ousted?
Answer: June 1999

Question: Who was elected president in the 2000 election?
Answer: Kumba Ialá