rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Literature

As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium.

Question: What are some classical societies whose literature is still studied today?
Answer: Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and Rome

Question: Besides entertainment or informational value, classic literature also possessed what quality?
Answer: a covert moral or didactic purpose

Question: What societal evolution helped to develop drama and satire by providing a ready audience?
Answer: urban culture

Question: From what settings did lyric poetry derive?
Answer: courts and aristocratic circles

Question: What is an example of a collection of classic Chinese lyric poetry?
Answer: the Shijing or Book of Songs
Title: Literature

In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing, produced one of the world's first print cultures. Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769-269 BCE). The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming.

Question: Subjects featured in Ancient Chinese literature include what?
Answer: philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry

Question: What two inventions helped make Chinese literature especially important and portable?
Answer: modern paper making and woodblock printing

Question: What historic period was the foundry for classic Chinese literature in the ancient world?
Answer: the Hundred Schools of Thought period

Question: What classic work of war science originated during this period?
Answer: The Art of War

Question: Who wrote The Art Of War?
Answer: Sun Tzu
Title: Literature

In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD.

Question: What were some different genres that emerged from ancient India's oral literary traditions?
Answer: drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry

Question: An important language for ancient Indian literature is what?
Answer: Sanskrit

Question: What ancient religious scriptures were among the first examples of Indian literature?
Answer: The Vedas

Question: The Vedic Period refers to what expanse of time?
Answer: the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE

Question: The Vedic Period began in the Late Bronze Age and extended until when?
Answer: the Iron Age
Title: Literature

In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.

Question: What two epic narratives were written by Homer?
Answer: the Iliad and the Odyssey

Question: Who wrote Works and Days and Theogony?
Answer: Hesiod

Question: Plato and Aristotle wrote what type of literature?
Answer: philosophical texts

Question: Who were two important Classic Greek lyric poets?
Answer: Sappho and Pindar

Question: The two great ancient Greek historians were?
Answer: Herodotus and Thucydides
Title: Literature

Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle Ages was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based and psychological form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples are the Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books.

Question: Much medieval literature was influenced by the works of what classic culture?
Answer: Roman

Question: What form of literature enjoyed the most widespread popularity during the Middle Ages?
Answer: the romance

Question: What element is characteristic of a medieval romance?
Answer: an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative

Question: What helped cause the widespread appearance of multiple forms of literature in the Renaissance?
Answer: the invention of printing

Question: What is an early example of the novel form of literature from Europe?
Answer: the German Faust books
Title: Literature

In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated literature with social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later 18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion. But as the 19th-century went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasising unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual. Writers such as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of documenting internal rather than external realities.

Question: What literary movement in the 1700s recalled the fantastical literature of medieval times?
Answer: Romanticism

Question: What elements in 19th century European literature were a reaction to the romanticism movement?
Answer: realism and naturalism

Question: What are two elements prevalent among characters at the center of romanticism works?
Answer: individual experience and emotion

Question: How did naturalism effect the greater world?
Answer: influenced social and political change

Question: 20th century literature reacted to the objectivity of naturalism in the 19th century to what?
Answer: the subjective
Title: Literature

Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of "mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.

Question: What sub-group of literature emerged in the 20th century?
Answer: Genre fiction

Question: Alternative reality genre fiction is also known as what?
Answer: science fiction

Question: Who were two 20th century writers who blurred the lines between journalism and literature?
Answer: William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson

Question: By what means did these two writers create and emergent convergence of literature and journalism?
Answer: strong subjective statements

Question: Critics based in what movement find fault in objective realism?
Answer: post-modern
Title: Literature

As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences, the "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in journals. Scientific works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton still exhibit great value, but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside of "history of science" programmes, students rarely read such works.

Question: What two elements have reduced the literary nature of scientific journals?
Answer: advances and specialization

Question: The segregation of science writing means that articles in those subjects primarily appear where?
Answer: journals

Question: The work of what classical scientists is caught between being outdated and of literary importance?
Answer: Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton

Question: In what coursework is one still likely to encounter the works of these classic scientists?
Answer: "history of science" programmes
Title: Literature

Philosophy has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major philosophers through history—Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche—have become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", but much of it does not, and some areas, such as logic, have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of mathematics.

Question: What classic area of study is now mostly reserved for academic consideration?
Answer: Philosophy

Question: Most serious studies in philosophy are segregated to what publications?
Answer: academic journals

Question: Who are some of the most important philosophers in history?
Answer: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche

Question: What aspect of modern academic philosophy is less literary than technical in nature?
Answer: logic

Question: Serious studies in logic tend to resemble what discipline, moreso than literature?
Answer: mathematics
Title: Literature

Literature allows readers to access intimate emotional aspects of a person’s character that would not be obvious otherwise. It benefits the psychological development and understanding of the reader. For example, it allows a person to access emotional states from which the person has distanced himself or herself. An entry written by D. Mitchell featured in ‘‘The English Journal’’ explains how the author utilized young adult literature in order to re-experience the emotional psychology she experienced as a child which she describes as a state of “wonder”.

Question: Literature gives the reader insights into what areas of its characters?
Answer: intimate emotional aspects

Question: How does literary fiction aid the person who reads it?
Answer: It benefits the psychological development and understanding

Question: What writer's entry in "The English Journal" was concerned with young adult fiction?
Answer: D. Mitchell

Question: Why did this author embrace young adult literature as a grownup?
Answer: to re-experience the emotional psychology she experienced as a child

Question: How did the writer refer to this psychological state experienced as a youth?
Answer: “wonder”
Title: Literature

Hogan also explains that the temporal and emotional amount which a person devotes to understanding a character’s situation in literature allows literature to be considered “ecological[ly] valid in the study of emotion”. This can be understood in the sense that literature unites a large community by provoking universal emotions. It also allows readers to access cultural aspects that they are not exposed to thus provoking new emotional experiences. Authors choose literary device according to what psychological emotion he or she is attempting to describe, thus certain literary devices are more emotionally effective than others.

Question: How does literature unite members of a society?
Answer: by provoking universal emotions

Question: How does literature expand the horizons of its readers?
Answer: allows readers to access cultural aspects that they are not exposed to

Question: What determines what literary structure a literary author uses for expression of ideas?
Answer: what psychological emotion he or she is attempting to describe

Question: What are the levers an author uses in literature to describe a psychological emotion?
Answer: literary devices
Title: Literature

Maslow’s ‘‘Third Force Psychology Theory’’ even allows literary analysts to critically understand how characters reflect the culture and the history in which they are contextualized. It also allows analysts to understand the author’s intended message and to understand the author’s psychology. The theory suggests that human beings possess a nature within them that demonstrates their true “self” and it suggests that the fulfillment of this nature is the reason for living. It also suggests that neurological development hinders actualizing the nature because a person becomes estranged from his or her true self. Therefore, literary devices reflect a characters’s and an author’s natural self. In his ‘‘Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature’’, Paris argues “D.H Lawrence’s “pristine unconscious” is a metaphor for the real self”. Thus Literature is a reputable tool that allows readers to develop and apply critical reasoning to the nature of emotions.

Question: Who conceived of "The Third Force Psychology Theory?"
Answer: Maslow

Question: The theory states that at the center of humans beings is what?
Answer: a nature within them that demonstrates their true “self”

Question: The theory suggests that the quest for this nature represents what?
Answer: the reason for living

Question: What causes a person to become separated from their "true self"?
Answer: neurological development

Question: What author espoused the theory of the "pristine unconscious?"
Answer: D.H Lawrence
Title: Literature

A significant portion of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as creative nonfiction, as can a great deal of journalism, such as literary journalism. However, these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a result, the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often(and in its better moments)has that quality. Major "literary" historians include Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canonical literary figures.

Question: What is literary historical writing sometimes called?
Answer: creative nonfiction

Question: Reporting that attempts a creative or literary bent is sometimes called what?
Answer: literary journalism

Question: What is the main function of journalism or historical documentation?
Answer: to record data or convey immediate information

Question: Who are some classic historians regarded as literary historians?
Answer: Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius
Title: Literature

Law offers more ambiguity. Some writings of Plato and Aristotle, the law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon, or even the early parts of the Bible could be seen as legal literature. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis during the reign of Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire has a reputation as significant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature; however, most legal writings rarely exhibit much literary merit, as they tend to be rather Written by Samuel Dean.

Question: What Babylonian ruler created formal law tables?
Answer: Hammurabi

Question: What religious scripture can be fit into a large, loose definition of legal literature?
Answer: the Bible

Question: Roman civil law was written and codified into a unified system by what group?
Answer: the Corpus Juris Civilis

Question: Under what Emperor did this group sit?
Answer: Justinian I

Question: What empire did Justinian preside over?
Answer: the Byzantine Empire
Title: Literature

A literary technique or literary device can be used by authors in order to enhance the written framework of a piece of literature, and produce specific effects. Literary techniques encompass a wide range of approaches to crafting a work: whether a work is narrated in first-person or from another perspective, whether to use a traditional linear narrative or a nonlinear narrative, or the choice of literary genre, are all examples of literary technique. They may indicate to a reader that there is a familiar structure and presentation to a work, such as a conventional murder-mystery novel; or, the author may choose to experiment with their technique to surprise the reader.

Question: Literary devices are employed for what reason?
Answer: produce specific effects

Question: What is one form of narration in literature?
Answer: first-person

Question: What are two types of narrative structure in literature?
Answer: linear narrative or a nonlinear narrative

Question: Why would an author utilize experimental narratives in literature?
Answer: to surprise the reader

Question: In what type of writing would a more familiar, standard literary narrative structure be employed?
Answer: a conventional murder-mystery novel
Title: Avicenna

Ibn Sina created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Mid- and Neo-Platonic, and Aristotelian) texts translated by the Kindi school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine. The Samanid dynasty in the eastern part of Persia, Greater Khorasan and Central Asia as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad as a cultural capital of the Islamic world.

Question: What was the term used to describe the age in which Ibn Sina created a big body of work?
Answer: the Islamic Golden Age

Question: What is one example of the type of translations done in the Islamic Golden Age?
Answer: Persian

Question: What school translated Greco-Roman texts during the Islamic Golden Age?
Answer: the Kindi school

Question: What was one dynasty that provided a great atmosphere for cultural development?
Answer: the Buyid dynasty

Question: What city was known as a cultural capital of the Islamic world?
Answer: Baghdad
Title: Avicenna

The study of the Quran and the Hadith thrived in such a scholarly atmosphere. Philosophy, Fiqh and theology (kalaam) were further developed, most noticeably by Avicenna and his opponents. Al-Razi and Al-Farabi had provided methodology and knowledge in medicine and philosophy. Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarezm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan. Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that he debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. Aruzi Samarqandi describes how before Avicenna left Khwarezm he had met Al-Biruni (a famous scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Iraqi (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl Masihi (a respected philosopher) and Abu al-Khayr Khammar (a great physician).

Question: What was one subject that Avicenna further developed?
Answer: theology

Question: Who is another philosopher during this Islamic Golden Age?
Answer: Al-Farabi

Question: What is the name of one library that Avicenna had access to?
Answer: Hamadan

Question: Who was the famous astronomer that Avicenna met before he left Khwarezm?
Answer: Al-Biruni

Question: What text was proof that Avicenna debated philosophy with some of the greatest scholars of the time?
Answer: the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar
Title: Avicenna

Avicenna was born c. 980 in Afšana, a village near Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan), the capital of the Samanids, a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan. His mother, named Setareh, was from Bukhara; his father, Abdullah, was a respected Ismaili scholar from Balkh, an important town of the Samanid Empire, in what is today Balkh Province, Afghanistan, although this is not universally agreed upon. His father worked in the government of Samanid in the village Kharmasain, a Sunni regional power. After five years, his younger brother, Mahmoud, was born. Avicenna first began to learn the Quran and literature in such a way that when he was ten years old he had essentially learned all of them.

Question: What present-day country was Avicenna born in?
Answer: Uzbekistan

Question: What Samanid dynasty capital was Avicenna born near?
Answer: Bukhara

Question: What present-day country is Avicenna's father thought to have come from?
Answer: Afghanistan

Question: What was Avicenna's mother's name?
Answer: Setareh

Question: By what age had Avicenna learned the entire Quran?
Answer: ten