rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Political_corruption

The purpose of these instruments was to address the various forms of corruption (involving the public sector, the private sector, the financing of political activities, etc.) whether they had a strictly domestic or also a transnational dimension. To monitor the implementation at national level of the requirements and principles provided in those texts, a monitoring mechanism – the Group of States Against Corruption (also known as GRECO) (French: Groupe d'Etats contre la corruption) was created.

Question: What does GRECO stand for?
Answer: Group of States Against Corruption

Question: What is the name of the French equivalent of GRECO?
Answer: Groupe d'Etats contre la corruption

Question: The instruments used to point out the different corrupt forms looked to see if they were rigidly domestic or what?
Answer: transnational
Title: Dialect

The term dialect (from Latin dialectus, dialectos, from the ancient Greek word διάλεκτος diálektos, "discourse", from διά diá, "through" and λέγω legō, "I speak") is used in two distinct ways to refer to two different types of linguistic phenomena.

Question: What language is the word dialectus from?
Answer: Latin

Question: From what language does the word diálektos come?
Answer: Greek

Question: What does diálektos mean in English?
Answer: discourse

Question: How many different types of linguistic phenomena is the term dialect used to describe?
Answer: two

Question: How many distinct ways is the term dialect used?
Answer: two
Title: Dialect

One usage—the more common among linguists—refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed as ethnolect, and a regional dialect may be termed a regiolect. According to this definition, any variety of a language constitutes "a dialect", including any standard varieties.

Question: What is the common definition of dialect?
Answer: a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers

Question: What is the term dialect most often applied to?
Answer: regional speech patterns

Question: Aside from region, what is an example of a factor that may influence dialect?
Answer: social class

Question: What is a term for a dialect particular to a social class?
Answer: sociolect

Question: What do you call a dialect particular to a certain ethnicity?
Answer: ethnolect
Title: Dialect

The other usage refers to a language that is socially subordinated to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate or related to the standard language, but not actually derived from it. In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the standard language would not itself be considered a "dialect," as it is the dominant language in a particular state or region, whether in terms of social or political status, official status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. Meanwhile, the "dialects" subordinate to the standard language are generally not variations on the standard language but rather separate (but often related) languages in and of themselves. For example, most of the various regional Romance languages of Italy, often colloquially referred to as Italian "dialects," are, in fact, not actually derived from modern standard Italian, but rather evolved from Vulgar Latin separately and individually from one another and independently of standard Italian, long prior to the diffusion of a national standardized language throughout what is now Italy. These various Latin-derived regional languages are therefore, in a linguistic sense, not truly "dialects" of the standard Italian language, but are instead better defined as their own separate languages. Conversely, with the spread of standard Italian throughout Italy in the 20th century, various regional versions or varieties of standard Italian developed, generally as a mix of the national standard Italian with local regional languages and local accents. These variations on standard Italian, known as regional Italian, would more appropriately be called "dialects" in accordance with the first linguistic definition of "dialect," as they are in fact derived partially or mostly from standard Italian.

Question: What is the other definition of the term dialect?
Answer: a language that is socially subordinated to a regional or national standard language

Question: How does a dialect stand in relation to the standard language?
Answer: subordinate to the standard language

Question: The regional Romance languages in what country are sometimes referred to as dialects?
Answer: Italy

Question: What are 20th century variations on standard Italian called?
Answer: regional Italian

Question: From what language did the regional Romance languages of Italy derive?
Answer: Latin
Title: Dialect

A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). Where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation (including prosody, or just prosody itself), the term accent may be preferred over dialect. Other types of speech varieties include jargons, which are characterized by differences in lexicon (vocabulary); slang; patois; pidgins; and argots.

Question: Along with grammar and pronunciation, what distinguishes a dialect?
Answer: vocabulary

Question: If only the pronunciation differs from the standard language, what term is sometimes used?
Answer: accent

Question: What term is sometimes used for dialects that only differ in vocabulary?
Answer: jargons

Question: Along with slangs, patois and pidgins, what is another type of smiilar speech variety?
Answer: argots
Title: Dialect

A standard dialect (also known as a standardized dialect or "standard language") is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a correct spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a single language. For example, Standard American English, Standard British English, Standard Canadian English, Standard Indian English, Standard Australian English, and Standard Philippine English may all be said to be standard dialects of the English language.

Question: What is another term for a standard or standardized dialect?
Answer: standard language

Question: The support of what groups results in a dialect being standardized?
Answer: institutions

Question: Along with grammars and dictionaries, what publications help a dialect to become standardized?
Answer: textbooks

Question: Standard Philippine English is a standard dialect of of what language?
Answer: English

Question: Recognition from what body may help a dialect to become standardized?
Answer: government
Title: Dialect

A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support. Examples of a nonstandard English dialect are Southern American English, Western Australian English, Scouse and Tyke. The Dialect Test was designed by Joseph Wright to compare different English dialects with each other.

Question: What does a nonstandard dialect usually not have compared to a standard dialect?
Answer: institutional support

Question: What language is Scouse a dialect of?
Answer: English

Question: What was created for the sake of comparing English dialects?
Answer: The Dialect Test

Question: Who came up with the Dialect Test?
Answer: Joseph Wright

Question: Along with a syntax and grammar, what attribute does a dialect possess?
Answer: vocabulary
Title: Dialect

There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of the same language. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. The distinction is therefore subjective and depends on the user's frame of reference. For example, there is discussion about if the Limón Creole English must be considered as "a kind" of English or a different language. This creole is spoken in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendant of Jamaican people. The position that Costa Rican linguists support depends on the University they belong.

Question: In what country is Limón Creole English spoken?
Answer: Costa Rica

Question: On what coast of Costa Rica is Limón Creole English spoken?
Answer: Caribbean

Question: Speakers of Limón Creole English are descended from people of what nationality?
Answer: Jamaican
Title: Dialect

The most common, and most purely linguistic, criterion is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other; otherwise, they are said to be different languages. However, this definition becomes problematic in the case of dialect continua, in which it may be the case that dialect B is mutually intelligible with both dialect A and dialect C but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible with each other. In this case the criterion of mutual intelligibility makes it impossible to decide whether A and C are dialects of the same language or not. Cases may also arise in which a speaker of dialect X can understand a speaker of dialect Y, but not vice versa; the mutual intelligibility criterion flounders here as well.

Question: What trait is the most common way of determining if languages are dialects?
Answer: mutual intelligibility

Question: What is the term for when dialects A and B are mutually intelligible, dialect B and C are mutually intelligible, but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible?
Answer: dialect continua

Question: What is the definition of mutual intelligibility?
Answer: if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other
Title: Dialect

Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is that of linguistic authority, a more sociolinguistic notion. According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of the same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language. For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Bavarian German and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject. By way of contrast, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the "Middle High German" group of languages, a Yiddish speaker would not consult a German dictionary to determine the word to use in such a case.

Question: What term refers to another way in which dialects are distinguished from languages?
Answer: linguistic authority

Question: Under the linguistic authority criteria, what is a dialect of German along with Bavarian German?
Answer: East Franconian German

Question: Of what group of languages is Yiddish a member?
Answer: Middle High German

Question: Why is Yiddish not a dialect of German?
Answer: a Yiddish speaker would not consult a German dictionary
Title: Dialect

By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages.

Question: According to most linguistics, who speaks a dialect?
Answer: everybody
Title: Dialect

A framework was developed in 1967 by Heinz Kloss, abstand and ausbau languages, to describe speech communities, that while unified politically and/or culturally, include multiple dialects which though closely related genetically may be divergent to the point of inter-dialect unintelligibility.

Question: Who developed the abstand and ausbau languages framework?
Answer: Heinz Kloss

Question: In what year was the abstand and ausbau framework developed?
Answer: 1967

Question: What sort of unification in speech communities did the abstand and ausbau framework discuss?
Answer: politically and/or culturally
Title: Dialect

The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive: There is nothing contradictory in the statement "the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German".

Question: The language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of what language?
Answer: German
Title: Dialect

There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "variety"; "lect" is another. A more general term is "languoid", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not.

Question: What term avoids distinguishing between languages and dialects?
Answer: languoid

Question: What is the most common way of referring to a language without making the determination of whether it's a dialect or independent language?
Answer: variety

Question: Along with variety and languoid, what is another term used for a language without determining its independent status?
Answer: lect
Title: Dialect

In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction, and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status. In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages:

Question: With what social class it the standard dialect commonly associated?
Answer: the elite class

Question: What social status is the term "dialect" sometimes associated with?
Answer: low

Question: What is another term for language varieties?
Answer: dialects
Title: Dialect

The status of "language" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility.

Question: What non-linguistic developments influence the status of a language?
Answer: historical and political

Question: What dialect is the language Romansh similar to?
Answer: Lombardic alpine

Question: What language are Mandarin and Cantonese sometimes considered dialects of?
Answer: Chinese

Question: Why might Mandarin and Cantonese not be regarded as dialects?
Answer: mutual unintelligibility
Title: Dialect

Modern Nationalism, as developed especially since the French Revolution, has made the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of great political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" is often seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" tends to be seen not as "a people" in its own right, but as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy.[citation needed] The distinction between language and dialect is thus inevitably made at least as much on a political basis as on a linguistic one, and can lead to great political controversy, or even armed conflict.

Question: What event is regarded as a landmark in the development of modern nationalism?
Answer: the French Revolution

Question: If possessing a language leads to a group being regarded as a separate people, what political arrangement presumably follows?
Answer: its own independent state

Question: What political arrangement is associated with being a dialect-speaking sub-group?
Answer: regional autonomy

Question: Along with political controversy, what can the distinction between a language and dialect sometimes lead to?
Answer: armed conflict
Title: Dialect

The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot ("אַ שפּראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט"‎: "A language is a dialect with an army and navy") in YIVO Bleter 25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited.

Question: Max Weinreich is a linguist of what language?
Answer: Yiddish

Question: What does "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot" mean in English?
Answer: A language is a dialect with an army and navy

Question: When did Max Weinrich write "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot"?
Answer: 1945
Title: Dialect

When talking about the German language, the term German dialects is only used for the traditional regional varieties. That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German.

Question: When is the term 'German dialects' used in regard to the German language?
Answer: traditional regional varieties

Question: What are traditional region varieties of German distinguished from?
Answer: the regional varieties of modern standard German
Title: Dialect

The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation. Most of them are not mutually intelligible. German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended.[citation needed]

Question: After what entities are German dialects traditionally named?
Answer: Germanic tribes
Title: Dialect

The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than on the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment.

Question: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects more common?
Answer: South

Question: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects less frequently seen?
Answer: Northern Germany

Question: Dialects are more frequently seen in the countryside as compared to what population centers?
Answer: cities

Question: In what environment are dialects less common?
Answer: public

Question: In what environment are dialects more frequently heard?
Answer: familiar
Title: Dialect

The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is seldom spoken. Some Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language.

Question: What dialect of German is spoken in Switzerland?
Answer: Swiss German

Question: What dialect of German is rarely heard in Switzerland?
Answer: standard German

Question: Aside from Switzerland, what country speaks a dialect related to Swiss German?
Answer: Liechtenstein
Title: Dialect

The Low German varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects. This reflects the modern situation where they are roofed by standard German. This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language.

Question: What type of language was Low German in the Middle Ages?
Answer: an ausbau language

Question: Why are Low German varieties regarded as dialects of standard German?
Answer: they are roofed by standard German
Title: Dialect

Italy is home to a vast array of native regional minority languages, most of which are Romance-based and have their own local variants. These regional languages are often referred to colloquially or in non-linguistic circles as Italian "dialects," or dialetti (standard Italian for "dialects"). However, the majority of the regional languages in Italy are in fact not actually "dialects" of standard Italian in the strict linguistic sense, as they are not derived from modern standard Italian but instead evolved locally from Vulgar Latin independent of standard Italian, with little to no influence from what is now known as "standard Italian." They are therefore better classified as individual languages rather than "dialects."

Question: What are Italian dialects termed in the Italian language?
Answer: dialetti

Question: What language are many Italian dialects derived from?
Answer: Vulgar Latin

Question: What does 'dialetti' mean in Italian?
Answer: dialects

Question: Why might Italian dialects be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of standard Italian?
Answer: they are not derived from modern standard Italian
Title: Dialect

In addition to having evolved, for the most part, separately from one another and with distinct individual histories, the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy are also better classified as separate languages rather than true "dialects" due to the often high degree in which they lack mutual intelligibility. Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which the regional Italian languages are mutual unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages, with some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum being more or less mutually intelligible. For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely standard Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a speaker of a pure Sicilian language variant. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with a Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than a standard Italian or Sicilian language speaker. Meanwhile, a Sicilian language speaker would have an greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.

Question: What is a major reason why the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy should be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of each other?
Answer: they lack mutual intelligibility

Question: From what region of Italy does the Eastern Lombard dialect hail?
Answer: Lombardy

Question: What language family does Eastern Lombard belong to?
Answer: Gallo-Italic

Question: What type of language is Sicilian?
Answer: Neapolitan

Question: What language was spoken by Lombard immigrants to Sicily?
Answer: Sicilian Gallo-Italic