rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Avicenna

In the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he develops a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."

Question: What philosopher did Avicenna discuss in his The Book of Healing text?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: What work of Aristotle's does Avicenna focus on?
Answer: Posterior Analytics

Question: What method did Avicenna criticize as not leading to absolute certainty?
Answer: Aristotelian induction
Title: Avicenna

An early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna. Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication. Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times. Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus and William of Ockham. Avicenna endorsed the law of noncontradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, "Anyone who denies the law of noncontradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned."

Question: What was a subject that Avicenna studied, but did not develop a theory on?
Answer: temporal logic

Question: Who expanded on Avicenna's work in temporal logic?
Answer: Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī

Question: What became the dominant system of Islamic logic?
Answer: Avicennian logic

Question: What European logician was greatly influenced by Avicenna?
Answer: Albertus Magnus

Question: Whose law of noncontradiction did Avicenna endorse?
Answer: Aristotle
Title: Avicenna

Avicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the Kitab al-nafs parts of his Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Healing) and Kitab al-najat (The Book of Deliverance). These were known in Latin under the title De Anima (treatises "on the soul").[dubious – discuss] Notably, Avicenna develops what is called the "flying man" argument in the Psychology of The Cure I.1.7 as defense of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension, which has an affinity with Descartes's cogito argument (or what phenomenology designates as a form of an "epoche").

Question: What is Avicenna's Book of Healing referred to in Arabic?
Answer: Kitab al-shifa

Question: What subject is seen throughout Avicenna's Book of Healing?
Answer: classical psychology

Question: In an argument by Avicenna, the soul is without what?
Answer: quantitative extension

Question: Whose argument is similar to Avicenna's that the soul is without quantitative extension?
Answer: Descartes

Question: What is the Latin for Avicenna's psychology parts in his Book of Healing?
Answer: De Anima
Title: Avicenna

Avicenna's psychology requires that connection between the body and soul be strong enough to ensure the soul's individuation, but weak enough to allow for its immortality. Avicenna grounds his psychology on physiology, which means his account of the soul is one that deals almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception. Thus, the philosopher's connection between the soul and body is explained almost entirely by his understanding of perception; in this way, bodily perception interrelates with the immaterial human intellect. In sense perception, the perceiver senses the form of the object; first, by perceiving features of the object by our external senses. This sensory information is supplied to the internal senses, which merge all the pieces into a whole, unified conscious experience. This process of perception and abstraction is the nexus of the soul and body, for the material body may only perceive material objects, while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial, universal forms. The way the soul and body interact in the final abstraction of the universal from the concrete particular is the key to their relationship and interaction, which takes place in the physical body.

Question: What does Avicenna ground his psychology on?
Answer: physiology

Question: According to Avicenna, the body and soul must be what in order to ensure the soul's individuation?
Answer: strong enough

Question: How does Avicenna  explain the connection between body and soul?
Answer: his understanding of perception

Question: How does man first perceive features of an object?
Answer: external senses

Question: The body and soul's interaction takes place where?
Answer: the physical body
Title: Avicenna

Avicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than Alhazen or Al-Biruni. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology. He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous. He claimed to have observed Venus as a spot on the Sun. This is possible, as there was a transit on May 24, 1032, but Avicenna did not give the date of his observation, and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology, i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth in the prevailing geocentric model.

Question: What Muslim astronomer did Avicenna influence?
Answer: Al-Biruni

Question: What subject did Avicenna consider to be a separate discipline from astrology?
Answer: mathematical astronomy

Question: What philosopher thought the stars received their light from the sun?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: What planet did Aristotle think was a spot on the sun?
Answer: Venus

Question: Where did Avicenna think Venus was in relation to the sun?
Answer: below the Sun
Title: Avicenna

Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. However Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (The Book of Minerals) is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the Kitab al-Shifa (Book of the Remedy). Ibn Sina classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir. The epistola de Re recta is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.

Question: What work by Avicenna is thought to be a fake?
Answer: Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae

Question: What is another work of Avicenna that is said to not be his creation?
Answer: the Declaratio

Question: What is definitely seen as being written by Avicenna?
Answer: The Book of Minerals

Question: What is the kitab al-Shifa?
Answer: Book of the Remedy

Question: What did Ibn Sina classify into stones?
Answer: minerals
Title: Avicenna

George Sarton, the author of The History of Science, described Ibn Sīnā as "one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history" and called him "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." He was one of the Islamic world's leading writers in the field of medicine. Along with Rhazes, Abulcasis, Ibn al-Nafis, and al-Ibadi, Ibn Sīnā is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in the Western history of medicine as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European Renaissance. His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between Galen and Aristotle's views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle's position to take into account post-Aristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge. Aristotle's dominant intellectual influence among medieval European scholars meant that Avicenna's linking of Galen's medical writings with Aristotle's philosophical writings in the Canon of Medicine (along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge) significantly increased Avicenna's importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic writers on medicine. His influence following translation of the Canon was such that from the early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, princeps medicorum ("prince of physicians").

Question: Who said that Ibn Sina was one of the greatest thinkers?
Answer: George Sarton

Question: What did George Sarton write?
Answer: The History of Science

Question: Ibn Sina was described as the most famous scientist in what religion?
Answer: Islam

Question: Who is another leading Islamic figure in medicine?
Answer: Abulcasis

Question: During what centuries was Ibn Sina ranked among such medical greats as Hippocrates?
Answer: early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries
Title: Avicenna

In modern Iran, he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians to have ever lived. A monument was erected outside the Bukhara museum[year needed]. The Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum in Hamadan was built in 1952. Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran), Avicenna Research Institute in Tehran (Iran), the ibn Sīnā Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences at Aligarh, India, Avicenna School in Karachi and Avicenna Medical College in Lahore, Pakistan Ibne Sina Balkh Medical School in his native province of Balkh in Afghanistan, Ibni Sina Faculty Of Medicine of Ankara University Ankara, Turkey and Ibn Sina Integrated School in Marawi City (Philippines) are all named in his honour. His portrait hangs in the Hall of the Avicenna Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris. There is also a crater on the Moon named Avicenna and a plant genus Avicennia.

Question: In what modern country is Avicenna considered an icon?
Answer: Iran

Question: Where is a monument located that honors Avicenna?
Answer: the Bukhara museum

Question: In what European school does Avicenna's portrait hang in their hall of medicine?
Answer: the University of Paris

Question: Where is the Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum located?
Answer: Hamadan

Question: What plant genus is named after Avicenna?
Answer: Avicennia
Title: Avicenna

In 1980, the Soviet Union, which then ruled his birthplace Bukhara, celebrated the thousandth anniversary of Avicenna's birth by circulating various commemorative stamps with artistic illustrations, and by erecting a bust of Avicenna based on anthropological research by Soviet scholars.[citation needed] Near his birthplace in Qishlak Afshona, some 25 km (16 mi) north of Bukhara, a training college for medical staff has been named for him.[year needed] On the grounds is a museum dedicated to his life, times and work.[citation needed]

Question: What superpower in 1980 created a stamp in honor of Avicenna?
Answer: the Soviet Union

Question: What was Avicenna's birthplace?
Answer: Bukhara

Question: A medical staff training college named in his honor is how many miles away from his birthplace?
Answer: 16

Question: In 1980, how many years had it been since Avicenna's birth?
Answer: thousand

Question: Besides stamps, what did the Soviet Union also create in Avicenna's honor?
Answer: a bust
Title: Avicenna

In March 2008, it was announced that Avicenna's name would be used for new Directories of education institutions for health care professionals, worldwide. The Avicenna Directories will list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The project team stated "Why Avicenna? Avicenna ... was ... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna's name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality."

Question: When was it announced that Avicenna would have medical directories named after him?
Answer: March 2008

Question: What does the Avicenna Directories contain?
Answer: where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated

Question: What was Avicenna known for?
Answer: his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west

Question: What is Avicenna's name needed for?
Answer: worldwide partnership
Title: Avicenna

The soviet film "Youth of Genius" (1982), filmed and studios Uzbekfilm and Tajikfilm, dedicated to children and youth years Avicenna. The film's director Elyor Ishmuhamedov. Romantic and stormy, performed works, danger and irresistible thirst of knowledge was the youth of Al-Husayn ibn Abdallah ibn al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Sina, which will be known around the world under the name of Avicenna – a great physician, scientist and educator X-XI centuries. The film is set in the ancient city of Bukhara at the turn of the millennium. In Louis L'Amour's 1985 historical novel The Walking Drum, Kerbouchard studies and discusses Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine. In his book The Physician (1988) Noah Gordon tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, The Physician, in 2013. Avicenna was played by Ben Kingsley.

Question: What movie was made about Avicenna's younger years?
Answer: Youth of Genius
Title: Avicenna

Ibn Sīnā wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, and De Caelo, are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine, though Metaphysics demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of Neoplatonism known as Aristotelianism in Ibn Sīnā's world; Arabic philosophers[who?][year needed] have hinted at the idea that Ibn Sīnā was attempting to "re-Aristotelianise" Muslim philosophy in its entirety, unlike his predecessors, who accepted the conflation of Platonic, Aristotelian, Neo- and Middle-Platonic works transmitted into the Muslim world.

Question: What is a rare discipline that Avicenna worked on?
Answer: alchemy

Question: On what subject is one of Avicenna's treatise based on?
Answer: Physics

Question: What doctrine is some of Avicenna's works based around?
Answer: Aristotelian doctrine

Question: According to some, what was Ibn Sina trying to do regarding his works?
Answer: "re-Aristotelianise" Muslim philosophy
Title: Avicenna

The Logic and Metaphysics have been extensively reprinted, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495, and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, etc., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836).[citation needed] Two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, Al-Shifa' (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the Bodleian Library and elsewhere; part of it on the De Anima appeared at Pavia (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium, and the long account of Ibn Sina's philosophy given by Muhammad al-Shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (Liberatio). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a حكمت مشرقيه (hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya, in Latin Philosophia Orientalis), mentioned by Roger Bacon, the majority of which is lost in antiquity, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.

Question: Who published Avicenna's poem on logic?
Answer: Schmoelders

Question: What is the name of Avicenna's larger encyclopedic treatise? 
Answer: Al-Shifa'

Question: Where is Avicenna's Al-Shifa manuscript located?
Answer: the Bodleian Library

Question: What is the shorter form of Al-Shifa called?
Answer: the An-najat

Question: What two subjects of Avicenna's have been reprinted extensively?
Answer: Logic and Metaphysics
Title: Chinese_characters

Chinese characters are logograms used in the writing of Chinese and some other Asian languages. In Standard Chinese they are called Hanzi (simplified Chinese: 汉字; traditional Chinese: 漢字). They have been adapted to write a number of other languages including: Japanese, where they are known as kanji, Korean, where they are known as hanja, and Vietnamese in a system known as chữ Nôm. Collectively, they are known as CJKV characters. In English, they are sometimes called Han characters. Chinese characters constitute the oldest continuously used system of writing in the world. By virtue of their widespread current use in East Asia, and historic use throughout the Sinosphere, Chinese characters are among the most widely adopted writing systems in the world.

Question: What are logograms used in the writing of Chinese?
Answer: Chinese characters

Question: What are Chinese characters called in standard Chinese?
Answer: Hanzi

Question: What have been adapted to write in a number of other languages?
Answer: Chinese characters
Title: Chinese_characters

Chinese characters number in the tens of thousands, though most of them are minor graphic variants encountered only in historical texts. Studies in China have shown that functional literacy in written Chinese requires a knowledge of between three and four thousand characters. In Japan, 2,136 are taught through secondary school (the Jōyō kanji); hundreds more are in everyday use. There are various national standard lists of characters, forms, and pronunciations. Simplified forms of certain characters are used in China, Singapore, and Malaysia; the corresponding traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and to a limited extent in South Korea. In Japan, common characters are written in post-WWII Japan-specific simplified forms (shinjitai), which are closer to traditional forms than Chinese simplifications, while uncommon characters are written in Japanese traditional forms (kyūjitai), which are virtually identical to Chinese traditional forms. In South Korea, when Chinese characters are used they are of the traditional variant and are almost identical to those used in places like Taiwan and Hong Kong. Teaching of Chinese characters in South Korea starts in the 7th grade and continues until the 12th grade where 1,800 total characters are taught albeit these characters are only used in certain cases (on signs, academic papers, historical writings, etc.) and are slowly declining in use.

Question: What number in the tens of thousands?
Answer: Chinese characters

Question: What requires a knowledge of three to four thousand characters?
Answer: literacy in written Chinese

Question: Which are identical to Chinese forms?
Answer: kyūjitai
Title: Chinese_characters

Most modern Chinese dictionaries and Chinese dictionaries sold to English speakers use the traditional radical-based character index in a section at the front, while the main body of the dictionary arranges the main character entries alphabetically according to their pinyin spelling. To find a character with unknown sound using one of these dictionaries, the reader finds the radical and stroke number of the character, as before, and locates the character in the radical index. The character's entry will have the character's pronunciation in pinyin written down; the reader then turns to the main dictionary section and looks up the pinyin spelling alphabetically.

Question: What use the traditional radical-based character index?
Answer: modern Chinese dictionaries

Question: What will have the character's pronunciation in pinyin?
Answer: character's entry

Question: What is at the front of most modern Chinese dictionaries?
Answer: traditional radical-based character index
Title: Chinese_characters

In Old Chinese, (e.g. Classical Chinese) most words were monosyllabic and there was a close correspondence between characters and words. In modern Chinese (esp. Mandarin Chinese), characters do not necessarily correspond to words; indeed the majority of Chinese words today consist of two or more characters due to the merging and loss of sounds in the Chinese language over time. Rather, a character almost always corresponds to a single syllable that is also a morpheme. However, there are a few exceptions to this general correspondence, including bisyllabic morphemes (written with two characters), bimorphemic syllables (written with two characters) and cases where a single character represents a polysyllabic word or phrase.

Question: What are most words in Old Chinese?
Answer: monosyllabic

Question: What almost always corresponds to a single syllable?
Answer: character

Question: What is written with two characters?
Answer: bisyllabic morphemes
Title: Chinese_characters

Modern Chinese has many homophones; thus the same spoken syllable may be represented by many characters, depending on meaning. A single character may also have a range of meanings, or sometimes quite distinct meanings; occasionally these correspond to different pronunciations. Cognates in the several varieties of Chinese are generally written with the same character. They typically have similar meanings, but often quite different pronunciations. In other languages, most significantly today in Japanese and sometimes in Korean, characters are used to represent Chinese loanwords, to represent native words independent of the Chinese pronunciation, and as purely phonetic elements based on their pronunciation in the historical variety of Chinese from which they were acquired. These foreign adaptations of Chinese pronunciation are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations, and have been useful in the reconstruction of Middle Chinese.

Question: What has many homophones?
Answer: Modern Chinese

Question: What may have a wide range of meanings?
Answer: single character

Question: What have been beneficial in the reconstruction of Middle Chinese?
Answer: Sino-Xenic pronunciations
Title: Chinese_characters

Chinese characters represent words of the language using several strategies. A few characters, including some of the most commonly used, were originally pictograms, which depicted the objects denoted, or simple ideograms, in which meaning was expressed iconically. Some other words were expressed by compound ideograms, but the vast majority were written using the rebus principle, in which a character for a similarly sounding word was either simply borrowed or (more commonly) extended with a disambiguating semantic marker to form a phono-semantic compound character.

Question: What represent words of the language using several strategies?
Answer: Chinese characters

Question: What were most words written in?
Answer: rebus principle

Question: What are some words expressed in?
Answer: compound ideograms