rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Antibiotics

Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin.

Question: When was penicillin G first purified?
Answer: 1942

Question: When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?
Answer: 1945

Question: Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?
Answer: Norman Heatley

Question: When was the chemical make-up of penicillin discovered?
Answer: 1945

Question: Who discovered the chemical structure of penicillin?
Answer: Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
Title: Antibiotics

Vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins.

Question: What do vaccines need to work?
Answer: immune modulation or augmentation

Question: What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives?
Answer: Antibacterial vaccines

Question: What types of vaccines have been phased out?
Answer: Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates
Title: Antibiotics

Phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bacterial viruses that infect bacteria by disrupting pathogenic bacterium lytic cycles. By disrupting the lytic cycles of bacterium, phages destroy their metabolism, which eventually results in the cell's death. Phages will insert their DNA into the bacterium, allowing their DNA to be transcribed. Once their DNA is transcribed the cell will proceed to make new phages and as soon as they are ready to be released, the cell will lyse. One of the worries about using phages to fight pathogens is that the phages will infect "good" bacteria, or the bacteria that are important in the everyday function of human beings. However, studies have proven that phages are very specific when they target bacteria, which makes researchers confident that bacteriophage therapy is the definite route to defeating antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Question: What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria?
Answer: Phage therapy

Question: How have researchers been doing this?
Answer: infecting pathogenic bacteria

Question: What is a worry of using phages?
Answer: phages will infect "good" bacteria
Title: Antibiotics

In April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines continuously. The report identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of resistance of GNB. Some of these antibiotics are combination of existent treatments:

Question: How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years?
Answer: 2

Question: How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB?
Answer: seven

Question: What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production of new antibiotics does not keep up with resistance?
Answer: 2013
Title: Antibiotics

Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."

Question: Who regulates antibiotic approval?
Answer: FDA

Question: What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics?
Answer: economic incentives

Question: What are resistant bacteria called in the media?
Answer: superbugs

Question: Who is a director at the Pew Charitable Trusts?
Answer: Allan Coukell,
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

Frédéric François Chopin (/ˈʃoʊpæn/; French pronunciation: ​[fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃]; 22 February or 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849), born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin,[n 1] was a Polish and French (by citizenship and birth of father) composer and a virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, who wrote primarily for the solo piano. He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as one of the leading musicians of his era, whose "poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation." Chopin was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, and grew up in Warsaw, which after 1815 became part of Congress Poland. A child prodigy, he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising.

Question: What was Frédéric's nationalities?
Answer: Polish and French

Question: In what era was Frédéric active in?
Answer: Romantic era

Question: For what instrument did Frédéric write primarily for?
Answer: solo piano

Question: In what area was Frédéric born in?
Answer: Duchy of Warsaw

Question: At what age did Frédéric depart from Poland?
Answer: 20

Question: What year was Chopin born?
Answer: 1810

Question: What era was Chopin active during?
Answer: Romantic era

Question: Where did Chopin grow up?
Answer: Warsaw

Question: What instrument did he mostly compose for?
Answer: solo piano

Question: At what age did Chopin  leave Poland?
Answer: 20

Question: When did Chopin die?
Answer: 17 October 1849

Question: What was Chopin's full name?
Answer: Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin

Question: The majority of Chopin's compositions were for what instrument?
Answer: solo piano

Question: Chopin was active during what era?
Answer: Romantic era

Question: In what year was Chopin born?
Answer: 1810

Question: In what city was Chopin born and raised?
Answer: Warsaw

Question: How old was Chopin when he left Poland?
Answer: 20

Question: In what era of music did Chopin compose?
Answer: Romantic

Question: What year did Chopin die?
Answer: 1849
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

At the age of 21 he settled in Paris. Thereafter, during the last 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano, for which he was in high demand. Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries, including Robert Schumann. In 1835 he obtained French citizenship. After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska, from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand. A brief and unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 1838–39 was one of his most productive periods of composition. In his last years, he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling, who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848. Through most of his life, Chopin suffered from poor health. He died in Paris in 1849, probably of tuberculosis.

Question: At what age did Frédéric move to Paris?
Answer: 21

Question: How many public performances was Frédéric estimated to have given during the remainder of his life?
Answer: 30

Question: In what year did Frédéric obtain citizenship in France?
Answer: 1835

Question: In what area had Frédéric's most productive period of composition taken place?
Answer: Majorca

Question: What was Frédéric's most likely cause of death?
Answer: tuberculosis

Question: Where did he end up living when he was 21?
Answer: Paris

Question: How many public shows did he perform during the last years of his life?
Answer: 30

Question: What other composer did Chopin develop a friendship with?
Answer: Franz Liszt

Question: What year did he gain citizenship in France?
Answer: 1835

Question: What is the name of the woman he had a relationship with from 1837-847?
Answer: Maria Wodzińska

Question: At what age did Chopin move to Paris?
Answer: 21

Question: During the last 18 years he lived about how many times did Chopin perform in public?
Answer: 30

Question: What year did Chopin become a citizen of France?
Answer: 1835

Question: In the last years of his life who was the person that supported him financially?
Answer: Jane Stirling

Question: In what year did Chopin become a French citizen?
Answer: 1835

Question: Who gave Chopin money in the last years of his life?
Answer: Jane Stirling

Question: What was the likely cause of death for Chopin?
Answer: tuberculosis
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

All of Chopin's compositions include the piano. Most are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces, and some songs to Polish lyrics. His keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity. Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade. His major piano works also include mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, études, impromptus, scherzos, preludes and sonatas, some published only after his death. Influences on his compositional style include Polish folk music, the classical tradition of J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert, the music of all of whom he admired, as well as the Paris salons where he was a frequent guest. His innovations in style, musical form, and harmony, and his association of music with nationalism, were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period.

Question: What instrument did every composition by Frédéric include?
Answer: piano

Question: What concept was Frédéric credited with creating?
Answer: instrumental ballade

Question: Whose music did Frédéric admire the most and thus provide influence on his work?
Answer: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert

Question: What features marked Frédéric's performance style and made them unique?
Answer: nuance and sensitivity

Question: What establishments did Frédéric frequently visit in Paris that influenced his career?
Answer: Paris salons

Question: Which instrument do every one of his compositions include?
Answer: piano

Question: What concept did Chopin create?
Answer: instrumental ballade

Question: What are two things Chopin's performances were known for?
Answer: nuance and sensitivity

Question: What three composers influenced Chopin's work?
Answer: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert

Question: Chopin wrote some music to lyrics, what language were the lyrics?
Answer: Polish

Question: What instrument is involved in all of Chopin's work?
Answer: piano

Question: Chopin composed several songs to lyrics of what language?
Answer: Polish

Question: Chopin's performances were known for what?
Answer: nuance and sensitivity

Question: What three composers did Chopin take inspiration from?
Answer: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert

Question: What instrument was all of Chopin's compositions written for?
Answer: piano

Question: What language were some songs written in that Chopin wrote music for?
Answer: Polish

Question: Of what venue was Chopin an often invited guest?
Answer: Paris salons
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

In his native Poland, in France, where he composed most of his works, and beyond, Chopin's music, his status as one of music's earliest superstars, his association (if only indirect) with political insurrection, his love life and his early death have made him, in the public consciousness, a leading symbol of the Romantic era. His works remain popular, and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy.

Question: What was the degree of Frédéric's association with political insurrection?
Answer: indirect

Question: What parts of Frédéric's personal life influenced his legacy as a leading symbol of the era?
Answer: his love life and his early death

Question: In which era was Frédéric leave a legacy of as a leading symbol?
Answer: Romantic era

Question: In what forms of media has Frédéric been the subject of?
Answer: films and biographies

Question: Where did Chopin create the majority of his compositions?
Answer: France

Question: Chopin is a native of what country?
Answer: Poland

Question: He had a non-direct association with what?
Answer: political insurrection

Question: Chopin is closely associated with what era?
Answer: Romantic era

Question: Where did Chopin create most of his works?
Answer: France

Question: Chopin was indirectly related to what?
Answer: political insurrection

Question: Chopin is considered a prominent symbol of what?
Answer: Romantic era
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

Fryderyk Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, 46 kilometres (29 miles) west of Warsaw, in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, a Polish state established by Napoleon. The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 February 1810, and cites his given names in the Latin form Fridericus Franciscus (in Polish, he was Fryderyk Franciszek). However, the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March,[n 2] which is now generally accepted as the correct date.

Question: In what village was Frédéric born in?
Answer: Żelazowa Wola

Question: On what date was Frédéric born on?
Answer: 22 February 1810

Question: Despite the birthdate given by parish baptismal, what date is given by the composer and his family instead?
Answer: 1 March

Question: What was the latin form of Frédéric's full name?
Answer: Fridericus Franciscus

Question: How many miles was the village Frédéric born in located to the west of Warsaw?
Answer: 29

Question: Where was Chopin born?
Answer: Żelazowa Wola

Question: Who was responsible for the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw?
Answer: Napoleon

Question: When was his birthday recorded as being?
Answer: 22 February 1810

Question: What birth date is now considered as his actual birthday?
Answer: 1 March

Question: Chopin's given names in Latin are what?
Answer: Fridericus Franciscus

Question: The Duchy of Warsaw was created by whom?
Answer: Napoleon

Question: Chopin's birth is recorded as when?
Answer: 22 February 1810

Question: What birth date is now considered correct for Chopin?
Answer: 1 March

Question: What is the Latin form of Chopin's name?
Answer: Fridericus Franciscus

Question: Chopin was actually born outside of Warsaw at what location?
Answer: Żelazowa Wola

Question: What famous French leader had established the Polish state at this time?
Answer: Napoleon
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

Fryderyk's father, Nicolas Chopin, was a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen. Nicolas tutored children of the Polish aristocracy, and in 1806 married Justyna Krzyżanowska, a poor relative of the Skarbeks, one of the families for whom he worked. Fryderyk was baptized on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1810, in the same church where his parents had married, in Brochów. His eighteen-year-old godfather, for whom he was named, was Fryderyk Skarbek, a pupil of Nicolas Chopin. Fryderyk was the couple's second child and only son; he had an elder sister, Ludwika (1807–55), and two younger sisters, Izabela (1811–81) and Emilia (1812–27). Nicolas was devoted to his adopted homeland, and insisted on the use of the Polish language in the household.

Question: Who did Frédéric's father marry in 1806?
Answer: Justyna Krzyżanowska

Question: On what date was Frédéric baptised?
Answer: 23 April 1810

Question: What language did Frédéric's father, Nicolas, insist on using in the household?
Answer: Polish

Question: What was the given name of Chopin's father?
Answer: Nicolas

Question: Where was Chopin's father from?
Answer: Lorraine

Question: Chopin's father married who?
Answer: Justyna Krzyżanowska

Question: What is the name of Chopin's godfather?
Answer: Fryderyk Skarbek

Question: What is the name of Chopin's eldest sister?
Answer: Ludwika

Question: What was Chopin's father's first name?
Answer: Nicolas

Question: From where id Chopin's father emigrate from?
Answer: Lorraine

Question: What is Chopin's older sister's name?
Answer: Ludwika
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

In October 1810, six months after Fryderyk's birth, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father acquired a post teaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum, then housed in the Saxon Palace. Fryderyk lived with his family in the Palace grounds. The father played the flute and violin; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept. Chopin was of slight build, and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses.

Question: During what month did Frédéric move to Warsaw with his family?
Answer: October

Question: What language did Frédéric's father teach after they had moved to Warsaw?
Answer: French

Question: Where did Frédéric live with his family while they were in Warsaw?
Answer: the Palace grounds

Question: What two instruments did Frédéric's father play during this time?
Answer: flute and violin

Question: What was Frédéric prone to during early childhood as a result of his slight build?
Answer: illnesses

Question: When did Chopin's family move to Warsaw?
Answer: October 1810

Question: Where did Chopin's father get a teaching position?
Answer: Warsaw Lyceum

Question: What instruments did Chopin's father play?
Answer: flute and violin

Question: What instrument did Chopin's mother teach?
Answer: piano

Question: How old was Chopin when his family moved to Warsaw?
Answer: six months

Question: What language did Chopin's father teach?
Answer: French

Question: What two instruments did Chopin's father play?
Answer: flute and violin

Question: What instrument did Chopin's mother teach at the boarding house?
Answer: piano

Question: Where did Chopin live with his family in Warsaw?
Answer: Saxon Palace.
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother, but his first professional music tutor, from 1816 to 1821, was the Czech pianist Wojciech Żywny. His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny, and occasionally played duets with her brother. It quickly became apparent that he was a child prodigy. By the age of seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts, and in 1817 he composed two polonaises, in G minor and B-flat major. His next work, a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821, dedicated to Żywny, is his earliest surviving musical manuscript.

Question: Who was Frédéric's first professional teacher in music?
Answer: Wojciech Żywny

Question: Which sister did Frédéric play duets with sometimes while being tutored at this time?
Answer: Ludwika

Question: At what age did Frédéric start giving public concerts?
Answer: 7

Question: What did Frédéric compose during the year of 1817?
Answer: two polonaises

Question: What is the earliest surviving musical notation composed by Frédéric?
Answer: a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821

Question: Who was Chopin's initial piano teacher?
Answer: Wojciech Żywny

Question: Which of his sisters did Chopin sometimes duet with?
Answer: Ludwika

Question: At what age did Chopin start playing publicly?
Answer: 7

Question: What year did Chopin compose his first work?
Answer: 1817

Question: During what years did Chopin receive instruction from  Żywny?
Answer: 1816 to 1821

Question: What is the name of Chopin's first music teacher that was not an amateur musician?
Answer: Wojciech Żywny

Question: Which of Chopin's sisters would play music with him?
Answer: Ludwika

Question: How old was Chopin when he began to perform for the public?
Answer: 7

Question: Who was Chopin's earliest piece of music, that there is a record of, dedicated to?
Answer: Wojciech Żywny
Title: Frédéric_Chopin

In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by Warsaw's Russian governor for military use, and the Warsaw Lyceum was reestablished in the Kazimierz Palace (today the rectorate of Warsaw University). Fryderyk and his family moved to a building, which still survives, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace. During this period, Fryderyk was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of Russian Poland, Grand Duke Constantine; he played the piano for the Duke and composed a march for him. Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, in his dramatic eclogue, "Nasze Przebiegi" ("Our Discourses", 1818), attested to "little Chopin's" popularity.

Question: In what year was the Saxon Palace taken by the Russian governor for use regarding the military?
Answer: 1817

Question: What establishment today contains what was known as the Warsaw Lyceum during that time?
Answer: Warsaw University

Question: What building was Frédéric's new home adjacent to?
Answer: Kazimierz Palace

Question: What palace was Frédéric sometimes invited to as a companion of the ruler's son?
Answer: Belweder Palace

Question: What short poem spoke of Frédéric's popularity as a child?
Answer: Nasze Przebiegi

Question: The Saxon Palace was taken over for military use in what year?
Answer: 1817

Question: The Warsaw Lyceum was moved to where?
Answer: Kazimierz Palace

Question: As a child Chopin was invited to play with the son of whom?
Answer: Grand Duke Constantine

Question: What did Chopin create for Grand Duke Constantine?
Answer: a march

Question: In one of his works who affirmed the popularity of Chopin as a child?
Answer: Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz

Question: What was the place Chopin was invited to as a friend of ruler's son?
Answer: Belweder Palace

Question: What is the title and name of the ruler whose son Chopin was friends with?
Answer: Grand Duke Constantine

Question: What type of musical piece did Chopin compose for his friend's ruling father?
Answer: a march

Question: Who wrote in 1818 about the popularity of Chopin?
Answer: Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz