rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Identity_(social_science)

The first favours a primordialist approach which takes the sense of self and belonging to a collective group as a fixed thing, defined by objective criteria such as common ancestry and common biological characteristics. The second, rooted in social constructionist theory, takes the view that identity is formed by a predominantly political choice of certain characteristics. In so doing, it questions the idea that identity is a natural given, characterised by fixed, supposedly objective criteria. Both approaches need to be understood in their respective political and historical contexts, characterised by debate on issues of class, race and ethnicity. While they have been criticized, they continue to exert an influence on approaches to the conceptualisation of identity today.

Question: What approach takes the sense of self and belonging as a fixed thing?
Answer: a primordialist approach

Question: The view that identity is based on a political choice of characteristics is rooted in what theory?
Answer: social constructionist theory

Question: Primordialist and social constructionist views need to be understood in what contexts?
Answer: political and historical contexts
Title: Identity_(social_science)

The implications are multiple as various research traditions are now[when?] heavily utilizing the lens of identity to examine phenomena.[citation needed] One implication of identity and of identity construction can be seen in occupational settings. This becomes increasing challenging in stigmatized jobs or "dirty work" (Hughes, 1951). Tracy and Trethewey (2005) state that "individuals gravitate toward and turn away from particular jobs depending in part, on the extent to which they validate a "preferred organizational self" (Tracy & Tretheway 2005, p. 169). Some jobs carry different stigmas or acclaims. In her analysis Tracy uses the example of correctional officers trying to shake the stigma of "glorified maids" (Tracy & Tretheway 2005). "The process by which people arrive at justifications of and values for various occupational choices." Among these are workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 33). People in these types of jobs are forced to find ways in order to create an identity they can live with. "Crafting a positive sense of self at work is more challenging when one's work is considered "dirty" by societal standards" (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 7). "In other words, doing taint management is not just about allowing the employee to feel good in that job. "If employees must navigate discourses that question the viability of their work, and/ or experience obstacles in managing taint through transforming dirty work into a badge of honor, it is likely they will find blaming the client to be an efficacious route in affirming their identity" (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 33).

Question: Various research traditions are using what lens to examine phenomena?
Answer: the lens of identity

Question: What stigma do correctional officers have to deal with?
Answer: glorified maids

Question: The implications of identity and identity construction are discussed in what settings?
Answer: occupational settings

Question: What are people in stigmatized jobs forced to create?
Answer: an identity they can live with

Question: What are the two examples give for justifications and values for occupational choices?
Answer: workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life
Title: Identity_(social_science)

However, the formation of one's identity occurs through one's identifications with significant others (primarily with parents and other individuals during one's biographical experiences, and also with "groups" as they are perceived). These others may be benign - such that one aspires to their characteristics, values and beliefs (a process of idealistic-identification), or malign - when one wishes to dissociate from their characteristics (a process of defensive contra-identification) (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003, Chapter 1, pp 54–61).

Question: What is it called when someone aspires to the characteristics of significant others?
Answer: benign

Question: What is it called when someone wants to dissociate from the characteristics of significant others?
Answer: malign

Question: Dissociating from the characteristics of significant others is a process of what?
Answer: defensive contra-identification

Question: The formation of identity occurs through identifications with whom?
Answer: significant others
Title: Identity_(social_science)

A person may display either relative weakness or relative strength in terms of both exploration and commitments. When assigned categories, four possible permutations result: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. Diffusion is when a person lacks both exploration in life and interest in committing even to those unchosen roles that he or she occupies. Foreclosure is when a person has not chosen extensively in the past, but seems willing to commit to some relevant values, goals, or roles in the future. Moratorium is when a person displays a kind of flightiness, ready to make choices but unable to commit to them. Finally, achievement is when a person makes identity choices and commits to them.

Question: What may a person display in terms of both exploration and commitments?
Answer: relative weakness or relative strength

Question: What is the permutation when a person lacks exploration and commitment?
Answer: identity diffusion

Question: What is the permutation when a person has not chosen goals in the past but is willing to in the future?
Answer: identity foreclosure

Question: What is the permutation when a person is ready to make commitments but unable to commit?
Answer: identity moratorium

Question: What is the permutation when a person commits to identity choices?
Answer: identity achievement
Title: Identity_(social_science)

These different explorations of 'identity' demonstrate how difficult a concept it is to pin down. Since identity is a virtual thing, it is impossible to define it empirically. Discussions of identity use the term with different meanings, from fundamental and abiding sameness, to fluidity, contingency, negotiated and so on. Brubaker and Cooper note a tendency in many scholars to confuse identity as a category of practice and as a category of analysis (Brubaker & Cooper 2000, p. 5). Indeed, many scholars demonstrate a tendency to follow their own preconceptions of identity, following more or less the frameworks listed above, rather than taking into account the mechanisms by which the concept is crystallised as reality. In this environment, some analysts, such as Brubaker and Cooper, have suggested doing away with the concept completely (Brubaker & Cooper 2000, p. 1). Others, by contrast, have sought to introduce alternative concepts in an attempt to capture the dynamic and fluid qualities of human social self-expression. Hall (1992, 1996), for example, suggests treating identity as a process, to take into account the reality of diverse and ever-changing social experience. Some scholars have introduced the idea of identification, whereby identity is perceived as made up of different components that are 'identified' and interpreted by individuals. The construction of an individual sense of self is achieved by personal choices regarding who and what to associate with. Such approaches are liberating in their recognition of the role of the individual in social interaction and the construction of identity.

Question: Many scholars confuse identity as a category of practice and what other category?
Answer: category of analysis

Question: What do many scholars demonstrate a tendency towards?
Answer: their own preconceptions of identity

Question: The idea that identity is made of components that are identified by individuals is what idea? 
Answer: the idea of identification

Question: Some scholars try to introduce new concepts to capture the fluid qualities of what?
Answer: human social self-expression

Question: What is it impossible to do with identity?
Answer: define it empirically
Title: Identity_(social_science)

Gender identity forms an important part of identity in psychology, as it dictates to a significant degree how one views oneself both as a person and in relation to other people, ideas and nature. Other aspects of identity, such as racial, religious, ethnic, occupational… etc. may also be more or less significant – or significant in some situations but not in others (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003 pp26–34). In cognitive psychology, the term "identity" refers to the capacity for self-reflection and the awareness of self.(Leary & Tangney 2003, p. 3)

Question: What is identified as determining how a person views him or herself to a significant degree?
Answer: Gender identity

Question: What are racial, religious, ethnic, and occupational aspects aspects of?
Answer: identity

Question: Identity refers to the capacity for self-reflection and awareness in what scientific study?
Answer: cognitive psychology
Title: Identity_(social_science)

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) became one of the earliest psychologists to take an explicit interest in identity. The Eriksonian framework rests upon a distinction among the psychological sense of continuity, known as the ego identity (sometimes identified simply as "the self"); the personal idiosyncrasies that separate one person from the next, known as the personal identity; and the collection of social roles that a person might play, known as either the social identity or the cultural identity. Erikson's work, in the psychodynamic tradition, aimed to investigate the process of identity formation across a lifespan. Progressive strength in the ego identity, for example, can be charted in terms of a series of stages in which identity is formed in response to increasingly sophisticated challenges. The process of forming a viable sense of identity for the culture is conceptualized as an adolescent task, and those who do not manage a resynthesis of childhood identifications are seen as being in a state of 'identity diffusion' whereas those who retain their initially given identities unquestioned have 'foreclosed' identities (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003 p7-8). On some readings of Erikson, the development of a strong ego identity, along with the proper integration into a stable society and culture, lead to a stronger sense of identity in general. Accordingly, a deficiency in either of these factors may increase the chance of an identity crisis or confusion (Cote & Levine 2002, p. 22).

Question: Who was one of the earliest psychologists to take an explicit interest in identity?
Answer: Erik Erikson

Question: What distinction is sometimes referred to as the self?
Answer: ego identity

Question: The personal idiosyncrasies that separate individuals are called what?
Answer: the personal identity

Question: What are the 3 names for the collection of a person's social roles?
Answer: the social identity or the cultural identity

Question: In what tradition is Erikson's work to track identity formation throughout a lifetime?
Answer: the psychodynamic tradition
Title: Identity_(social_science)

Laing's definition of identity closely follows Erikson's, in emphasising the past, present and future components of the experienced self. He also develops the concept of the "metaperspective of self", i.e. the self's perception of the other's view of self, which has been found to be extremely important in clinical contexts such as anorexia nervosa. (Saunderson and O'Kane, 2005). Harré also conceptualises components of self/identity – the "person" (the unique being I am to myself and others) along with aspects of self (including a totality of attributes including beliefs about one's characteristics including life history), and the personal characteristics displayed to others.

Question: Whose definition of identity closely follows Erikson's?
Answer: Laing's

Question: One person's perception of another's perception is an example of what concept?
Answer: metaperspective of self

Question: The person, aspects of self, and personal characteristics displayed to others are components of what?
Answer: self/identity
Title: Identity_(social_science)

Kenneth Gergen formulated additional classifications, which include the strategic manipulator, the pastiche personality, and the relational self. The strategic manipulator is a person who begins to regard all senses of identity merely as role-playing exercises, and who gradually becomes alienated from his or her social "self". The pastiche personality abandons all aspirations toward a true or "essential" identity, instead viewing social interactions as opportunities to play out, and hence become, the roles they play. Finally, the relational self is a perspective by which persons abandon all sense of exclusive self, and view all sense of identity in terms of social engagement with others. For Gergen, these strategies follow one another in phases, and they are linked to the increase in popularity of postmodern culture and the rise of telecommunications technology.

Question: Who formulated the classifications of strategic manipulator, pastiche personality and the relational self?
Answer: Kenneth Gergen

Question: In what classification is a person who regards all experiences are role play and becomes alienated from his or her social self?
Answer: The strategic manipulator

Question: In what classification is a person who gives up the chance for a true self and adopts social perceptions of him or herself?
Answer: The pastiche personality

Question: In what classification is a person who gives up their exclusive sense of self and defines him or herself only in terms of social engagement?
Answer: the relational self

Question: The strategic manipulator, pastiche personality, and relational self are linked to the rise of what culture?
Answer: postmodern culture
Title: Identity_(social_science)

As a non-directive and flexible analytical tool, the concept of boundaries helps both to map and to define the changeability and mutability that are characteristic of people's experiences of the self in society. While identity is a volatile, flexible and abstract 'thing', its manifestations and the ways in which it is exercised are often open to view. Identity is made evident through the use of markers such as language, dress, behaviour and choice of space, whose effect depends on their recognition by other social beings. Markers help to create the boundaries that define similarities or differences between the marker wearer and the marker perceivers, their effectiveness depends on a shared understanding of their meaning. In a social context, misunderstandings can arise due to a misinterpretation of the significance of specific markers. Equally, an individual can use markers of identity to exert influence on other people without necessarily fulfilling all the criteria that an external observer might typically associate with such an abstract identity.

Question: What concept helps map and define people's experiences of self in society?
Answer: the concept of boundaries

Question: What is a volatile, flexible, and abstract thing?
Answer: identity

Question: Language, dress, behavior, and choice of space are affected by recognition by what group?
Answer: other social beings

Question: What do markers help create?
Answer: boundaries

Question: Markers can be used to exert what on other people?
Answer: influence
Title: Himachal_Pradesh

The economy of Himachal Pradesh is currently the third-fastest growing economy in India.[citation needed] Himachal Pradesh has been ranked fourth in the list of the highest per capita incomes of Indian states. This has made it one of the wealthiest places in the entire South Asia. Abundance of perennial rivers enables Himachal to sell hydroelectricity to other states such as Delhi, Punjab, and Rajasthan. The economy of the state is highly dependent on three sources: hydroelectric power, tourism, and agriculture.[citation needed]

Question: What is the third fastest growing economy in India?
Answer: Himachal Pradesh

Question: What is Himachal Pradesh ranked in the highest per capita of Indian States?
Answer: fourth

Question: What enables Himachal to sell hydroelectricity to other states?
Answer: Abundance of perennial rivers

Question: What three things is the economy of the state dependent on?
Answer: hydroelectric power, tourism, and agriculture

Question: What other Indian states does it sell hydroelectricity to?
Answer: Delhi, Punjab, and Rajasthan
Title: Himachal_Pradesh

After independence, the Chief Commissioner's Province of H.P. came into being on 15 April 1948 as a result of integration of 28 petty princely states (including feudal princes and zaildars) in the promontories of the western Himalaya, known in full as the Simla Hills States and four Punjab southern hill states by issue of the Himachal Pradesh (Administration) Order, 1948 under Sections 3 and 4 of the Extra-Provincial Jurisdiction Act, 1947 (later renamed as the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947 vide A.O. of 1950). The State of Bilaspur was merged in the Himachal Pradesh on 1 April 1954 by the Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954. Himachal became a part C state on 26 January 1950 with the implementation of the Constitution of India and the Lt. Governor was appointed. Legislative Assembly was elected in 1952. Himachal Pradesh became a union territory on 1 November 1956. Following area of Punjab State namely Simla, Kangra, Kulu and Lahul and Spiti Districts, Nalagarh tehsil of Ambala District, Lohara, Amb and Una kanungo circles, some area of Santokhgarh kanungo circle and some other specified area of Una tehsil of Hoshiarpur District besides some parts of Dhar Kalan Kanungo circle of Pathankot tehsil of Gurdaspur District; were merged with Himachal Pradesh on 1 November 1966 on enactment of Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 by the Parliament. On 18 December 1970, the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament and the new state came into being on 25 January 1971. Thus Himachal emerged as the 18th state of the Indian Union.

Question: When did the Chief Commissioners Province of HP come into being?
Answer: 15 April 1948

Question: When was the State of Himchal Pradesh Act passed?
Answer: 18 December 1970

Question: When did Himachal emerge as the 18th state of the Indian Union?
Answer: 25 January 1971

Question: When did Himachal Pradesh become a union territory?
Answer: 1 November 1956

Question: Why did the  Chief Commissioners Province of HP come into being?
Answer: as a result of integration of 28 petty princely states
Title: Himachal_Pradesh

In the assembly elections held in November 2012, the Congress secured an absolute majority. The Congress won 36 of the 68 seats while the BJP won only 26 of the 68 seats. Virbhadra Singh was sworn-in as Himachal Pradesh's Chief Minister for a record sixth term in Shimla on 25 December 2012. Virbhadra Singh who has held the top office in Himachal five times in the past, was administered the oath of office and secrecy by Governor Urmila Singh at an open ceremony at the historic Ridge Maidan in Shimla.

Question: When did Congress secure an absolute majority?
Answer: In the assembly elections held in November 2012

Question: How many seats did Congress win?
Answer: 36 of the 68 seats

Question: Who was sworn in as HImachal Pradesh's Chief Minister for a record sixth term?
Answer: Virbhadra Singh

Question: Who administered the oath of office and secrecy?
Answer: Governor Urmila Singh

Question: Where was the oath of office and secrecy taken?
Answer: historic Ridge Maidan in Shimla
Title: Himachal_Pradesh

Himachal is extremely rich in hydro electric resources. The state has about 25% of the national potential in this respect. It has been estimated that about 20,300MW of hydro electric power can be generated in the State by constructing various major, medium, small and mini/micro hydel projects on the five river basins. The state is also the first state in India to achieve the goal of having a bank account for every family.[citation needed] As per the current prices, the total GDP was estimated at ₹ 254 billion as against ₹ 230 billion in the year 2004–05, showing an increase of 10.5%. The recent years witnessed quick establishment of International Entrepreneurship. Luxury hotels, food and franchisees of recognised brands e.g. Mc Donalds, KFC and Pizza hut have rapidly spread.

Question: Himachal is extremely rich in?
Answer: hydro electric resources

Question: Who is the first state in India to have every family have a bank account?
Answer: Himachal

Question: How much hydroelectric power can be generated?
Answer: 20,300MW

Question: What has rapidly spread due to economic increase?
Answer: Luxury hotels, food and franchisees of recognised brands e.g. Mc Donalds, KFC and Pizza hut

Question: What is current GDP estimated at?
Answer: ₹ 254 billion
Title: Himachal_Pradesh

The state is well known for its handicrafts. The carpets, leather works, shawls, metalware, woodwork and paintings are worth appreciating. Pashmina shawls are a product that is highly in demand in Himachal and all over the country. Himachali caps are famous art work of the people. Extreme cold winters of Himachal necessitated wool weaving. Nearly every household in Himachal owns a pit-loom. Wool is considered as pure and is used as a ritual cloth. The well-known woven object is the shawl, ranging from fine pashmina to the coarse desar. Kullu is famous for its shawls with striking patterns and vibrant colours. Kangra and Dharamshala are famous for Kangra miniature paintings.

Question: What is the state well known for?
Answer: handicrafts

Question: The majority of all households in Himachal own a what?
Answer: pit-loom

Question: What is considered pure and used as a ritual cloth?
Answer: Wool

Question: What is Kullu famous for?
Answer: shawls with striking patterns and vibrant colours

Question: What are Kangra and Dharamshala famous for?
Answer: Kangra miniature paintings
Title: Himachal_Pradesh

The history of the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh dates back to the time when the Indus valley civilisation flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE. Tribes such as the Koilis, Halis, Dagis, Dhaugris, Dasa, Khasas, Kinnars, and Kirats inhabited the region from the prehistoric era. During the Vedic period, several small republics known as "Janapada" existed which were later conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was once again divided into several local powers headed by chieftains, including some Rajput principalities. These kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate a number of times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century. Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid regular tribute to the Mughals.

Question: What tribes inhibited the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh?
Answer: Koilis, Halis, Dagis, Dhaugris, Dasa, Khasas, Kinnars, and Kirats

Question: What time periods did the Indus Valley civilization flourish?
Answer: between 2250 and 1750 BCE

Question: Who conquered Kangara?
Answer: Mahmud Ghaznavi

Question: When did Mahmud Ghanznavi conquer Kangara?
Answer: 10th century

Question: Who marched through the lower states and captured and forts and fought many battles?
Answer: Timur and Sikander Lodi