rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Transistor

BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a collector. They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small base current. In an n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) base–collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.

Question: How many terminals do BJTs have?
Answer: three

Question: How many layers of semiconductor do BJTs have?
Answer: three

Question: What are the layers of semiconductor in a BJT?
Answer: an emitter, a base, and a collector

Question: How can one find the amount of collector current?
Answer: β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current

Question: What is the usual collector current for small-signal transistors?
Answer: greater than 100
Title: Transistor

In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (VGS) is increased, the drain–source current (IDS) increases exponentially for VGS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (IGS ∝ (VGS − VT)2) (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node.

Question: What determines the conductivity in a FET?
Answer: electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals

Question: What controls the current between the drain and source?
Answer: the voltage applied between the gate and source

Question: At what rate is the drain-source current increased when the gate-source current is increased?
Answer: a roughly quadratic rate

Question: Where is a quadratic behavior not observed?
Answer: in modern devices
Title: Transistor

FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.

Question: How many groups are FETs split into?
Answer: two

Question: How is a JFET different from an IGFET?
Answer: the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel

Question: What are the names of the groups of FETs
Answer: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET)

Question: What mode do both JFET and IGFET operate in?
Answer: depletion mode

Question: What is the common term for an IFGET?
Answer: a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
Title: Transistor

FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.

Question: How are FET's separated?
Answer: depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types

Question: At what point is a channel off in enhancement-mode?
Answer: at zero bias

Question: At what point is a channel on in depletion-mode?
Answer: at zero bias

Question: What channel corresponds with high current?
Answer: n-channel devices

Question: What channel corresponds with low current?
Answer: p-channel devices
Title: Transistor

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the most commonly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. In integrated circuits, the desirable properties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits. Discrete MOSFETs can be applied in transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers.

Question: What was the most frequently used transistor in the 1960s and 70s?
Answer: bipolar junction transistor

Question: Why were BJTs so popular?
Answer: their greater linearity and ease of manufacture

Question: What are some applications of discrete MOSFETs?
Answer: transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers

Question: What were the most popular digital circuits of the time?
Answer: MOSFETs
Title: Transistor

The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering scheme, begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and C for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose transistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then 2 digits, for industrial types) follows. With early devices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g. "C" often means high hFE, such as in: BC549C) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854-800A). The more common prefixes are:

Question: What is the Pro Electron standard?
Answer: European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering scheme

Question: How many letters does the part numbering scheme begin with?
Answer: two letters

Question: What is the first letter in the part numbering scheme?
Answer: the semiconductor type

Question: What is the second letter in the part numbering scheme?
Answer: the intended use

Question: What follows the 2 letters in the part numbering scheme?
Answer: A 3-digit sequence number
Title: Transistor

The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device (dual-gate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with no significance as to device properties (although early devices with low numbers tend to be germanium). For example, 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant, but rarely gain groupings.

Question: What does the JEDEC EIA370 transistor number start with?
Answer: 2N

Question: what does the 2N is the JEDEC EIA370 mean?
Answer: a three-terminal device

Question: What follows the 2N in a JEDEC EIA370?
Answer: a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with no significance as to device properties

Question: What does a letter at the end of a device number mean?
Answer: a newer variant

Question: What does the number 2N1301 indicate?
Answer: a p–n–p germanium switching transistor
Title: Transistor

Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since devices are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote a Motorola FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 devices).

Question: What was once an indicator of the devices creator?
Answer: a manufacturer's prefix

Question: What makes a manufacturer's prefix less reliable?
Answer: devices are second-sourced

Question: What is the marking for a 2N2222A in a plastic case?
Answer: PN2222A

Question: What is a plastic version of a BC108?
Answer: PN108
Title: Transistor

The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C. In some circuits special compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate for such changes.

Question: What is the junction forward voltage?
Answer: the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT

Question: What is the purpose of a junction forward voltage?
Answer: to make the base conduct a specified current

Question: What is the ideal junction forward voltage?
Answer: lower

Question: Why is the ideal junction forward voltage lower?
Answer: less power is required to "drive" the transistor

Question: When happens to the junction forward voltage when temperature is raised?
Answer: decreases
Title: Transistor

Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n–p–n transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed for various applications.

Question: What semiconductor has the highest electron mobility?
Answer: GaAs

Question: What is quicker, a bipolar n-p-n transistor or a p-n-p transistor?
Answer: a given bipolar n–p–n transistor

Question: What is the common application of GaAs?
Answer: high-frequency applications

Question: What does HEMT stand for?
Answer: high-electron-mobility transistor

Question: What are common applications of HEMT?
Answer: satellite receivers
Title: Transistor

Discrete transistors are individually packaged transistors. Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages (see image). The two main categories are through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also known as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array (BGA) is the latest surface-mount package (currently only for large integrated circuits). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-frequency characteristics but lower power rating.

Question: What is a discrete transistor?
Answer: individually packaged transistors

Question: What are the two most common types of transistor?
Answer: through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount

Question: What is the newest surface-mount transistor?
Answer: ball grid array (BGA)

Question: What is another name for the surface-mount transistor?
Answer: surface-mount device (SMD)

Question: What is a ball grid array composed of?
Answer: solder "balls" on the underside in place of leads
Title: Modern_history

In the Pre-Modern era, many people's sense of self and purpose was often expressed via a faith in some form of deity, be that in a single God or in many gods. Pre-modern cultures have not been thought of creating a sense of distinct individuality, though. Religious officials, who often held positions of power, were the spiritual intermediaries to the common person. It was only through these intermediaries that the general masses had access to the divine. Tradition was sacred to ancient cultures and was unchanging and the social order of ceremony and morals in a culture could be strictly enforced.

Question: What did many people in the Pre-Modern era express their faith through?
Answer: via a faith in some form of deity

Question: What were Religious officials perceived as in the Pre-Modern era?
Answer: spiritual intermediaries

Question: Through whom did the general masses have access to the divine?
Answer: Religious officials

Question: What belief did ancient cultures consider sacred?
Answer: Tradition

Question: How were the moral standards of ancient cultures enforced?
Answer: strictly

Question: Who were spiritual intermediates? 
Answer: Religious officials

Question: Peoples sense of worth was expressed through what in the Pre-modern era?
Answer: via a faith in some form of deity

Question: Through who did the masses have access to the divine?
Answer: spiritual intermediaries

Question: What did social order mandate be strictly enforced?
Answer: ceremony and morals

Question: What belief was considered sacred by ancient civilizations?
Answer: Tradition
Title: Modern_history

The term "modern" was coined in the 16th century to indicate present or recent times (ultimately derived from the Latin adverb modo, meaning "just now). The European Renaissance (about 1420–1630), which marked the transition between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern times, started in Italy and was spurred in part by the rediscovery of classical art and literature, as well as the new perspectives gained from the Age of Discovery and the invention of the telescope and microscope, expanding the borders of thought and knowledge.

Question: What term was coined in the 16th century to indicate present time?
Answer: modern

Question: The term "modern" was derived from what Latin adverb?
Answer: modo

Question: What caused the transition between the middle ages and early modern times?
Answer: The European Renaissance

Question: In what country did The European Renaissance start?
Answer: Italy

Question: What two instruments were invented during The European Renaissance?
Answer: telescope and microscope

Question: The phrase modern originated form what?
Answer: Latin adverb modo

Question: What did The European renaissance mark?
Answer: transition between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern times

Question: What phrase was coined in the 16th century to reference recent times?
Answer: modern

Question: Through what time period did The European renaissance last?
Answer: 1420–1630)

Question: In what country did The European renaissance begin?
Answer: Italy
Title: Modern_history

The term "Early Modern" was introduced in the English language in the 1930s. to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form). It is important to note that these terms stem from European history. In usage in other parts of the world, such as in Asia, and in Muslim countries, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.

Question: What term was created in the 1930's to separate the middle ages form the 1800's?
Answer: Early Modern

Question: The 1800"s are referred to as?
Answer: time of the late Enlightenment

Question: What do the terms "Early Modern" and  'Modern Ages" originate from?
Answer: European history

Question: What are the terms "Early Modern" and "Modern Ages" used for i other countries?
Answer: in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.

Question: What does the term "Early Modern" mean?
Answer: to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment

Question: When was the term "Early Modern" implemented into the English language?
Answer: 1930s

Question: What time period is referred to as The Late Enlightenment?
Answer: 1800

Question: Where do the terms "Middle Ages" and "Modern Ages" originate from?
Answer: European history

Question: What are the terms "Middle Ages" and "Modern Ages" used for in other countries?
Answer: in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.
Title: Modern_history

In the Contemporary era, there were various socio-technological trends. Regarding the 21st century and the late modern world, the Information age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous but often present in daily life. The development of Eastern powers was of note, with China and India becoming more powerful. In the Eurasian theater, the European Union and Russian Federation were two forces recently developed. A concern for Western world, if not the whole world, was the late modern form of terrorism and the warfare that has resulted from the contemporary terrorist acts.

Question: In what era were there many socio-technological trends?
Answer: Contemporary era

Question: The 21st century is refereed to as what?
Answer: the Information age

Question: What device was used most during the The Information age?
Answer: computers

Question: What was a major concern for Western civilization during the 21 century?
Answer: terrorist acts

Question: In what time were there many socio-technological trends?
Answer: Contemporary era

Question: What is the 21st century also known as?
Answer: the Information age

Question: What device was used most during 21st century?
Answer: computers

Question: What was considered a threat to Western civilization?
Answer: terrorist acts
Title: Modern_history

In Asia, various Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates controlled the Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. And in Korea, from the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong is referred to as the early modern period. In the Americas, Native Americans had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire and alliance, the Inca civilization, the Mayan Empire and cities, and the Chibcha Confederation. In the west, the European kingdoms and movements were in a movement of reformation and expansion. Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century.

Question: Who controlled the Asian Sphere during the period between 1600-1868?
Answer: Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates

Question: What is the period between 1600-1868 referred to as?
Answer: the Edo period

Question: What is the Edo period also known as?
Answer: the early modern period

Question: What is time is considered the "Modern Period" in Korea?
Answer: from the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong

Question: Name one of the tribes Native Americans established in the Americas.
Answer: Aztec Empire

Question: What two groups controlled the Asian Sphere?
Answer: Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates

Question: What time is referred to as the Edo period?
Answer: 1600 to 1868

Question: What is the 'Early Modern period" known as in Japan?
Answer: the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong

Question: Name one of the tribes Native Americans formed in the Americas?
Answer: Aztec Empire
Title: Modern_history

In China, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the treasure voyages of Zheng He.

Question: Name one of the reasons urbanization grew in China.
Answer: population grew

Question: What did Nanjing and Beijing contribute to?
Answer: growth of private industry

Question: What are Nanjing and Beijing?
Answer: Large urban centers

Question: Under what rule was China not isolated?
Answer: the early Ming dynasty

Question: During The Early MIng Dynasty Chinese merchants explored all of what?
Answer: Indian Ocean

Question: What caused urbanization to increase in China?
Answer: the population grew

Question: Where did Chinese merchants explore? 
Answer: all of the Indian Ocean
Title: Modern_history

The Qing dynasty (1644–1911) was founded after the fall of the Ming, the last Han Chinese dynasty, by the Manchus. The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchens. When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Mancus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper. Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues, "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."

Question: What was founded after the fall of the Ming?
Answer: The Qing dynasty

Question: The Qing dynasty lasted through what time period?
Answer: 1644–1911

Question: What were the Manchus originally known as?
Answer: the Jurchens

Question: Why did the last Ming Emperor commit suicide?
Answer: Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels

Question: Who became allies with the Manchus to seize control over Beijing?
Answer: former Ming general Wu Sangui

Question: The Qing dynasty formed after what event?
Answer: after the fall of the Ming

Question: During what time period did the Qing dynasty rule?
Answer: 1644–1911

Question: What were the Manchus originally named?
Answer: Jurchens

Question: Who was Beijing captured by in 1644?
Answer: Li Zicheng's peasant rebels

Question: Who did the Manchus make an Ally with to seize control of Beijing?
Answer: former Ming general Wu Sangui