rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Software_testing

Software faults occur through the following processes. A programmer makes an error (mistake), which results in a defect (fault, bug) in the software source code. If this defect is executed, in certain situations the system will produce wrong results, causing a failure. Not all defects will necessarily result in failures. For example, defects in dead code will never result in failures. A defect can turn into a failure when the environment is changed. Examples of these changes in environment include the software being run on a new computer hardware platform, alterations in source data, or interacting with different software. A single defect may result in a wide range of failure symptoms.

Question: What is the first step that leads to a software failure?
Answer: programmer makes an error

Question: What is the result of the programmer making a mistake?
Answer: defect (fault, bug)

Question: When can software defects in dead code cause problems?
Answer: run on a new computer hardware platform
Title: Software_testing

A fundamental problem with software testing is that testing under all combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible, even with a simple product.:17-18 This means that the number of defects in a software product can be very large and defects that occur infrequently are difficult to find in testing. More significantly, non-functional dimensions of quality (how it is supposed to be versus what it is supposed to do)—usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, reliability—can be highly subjective; something that constitutes sufficient value to one person may be intolerable to another.

Question: What is the primary issue with running software testing?
Answer: testing under all combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible

Question: What types of software bugs are difficult to find during testing?
Answer: defects that occur infrequently

Question: What other non-functional dimensions can cause software to underperform and cause other problems?
Answer: usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, reliability
Title: Software_testing

Software developers can't test everything, but they can use combinatorial test design to identify the minimum number of tests needed to get the coverage they want. Combinatorial test design enables users to get greater test coverage with fewer tests. Whether they are looking for speed or test depth, they can use combinatorial test design methods to build structured variation into their test cases. Note that "coverage", as used here, is referring to combinatorial coverage, not requirements coverage.

Question: Although software developers are unable to test everything, what do they run to keep the testing to a minimum? 
Answer: use combinatorial test design

Question: What does the use of combinatorial testing consist of?
Answer: get greater test coverage with fewer tests

Question: What two types of testing are involved with combinatorial testing as mentioned here?
Answer: speed or test depth
Title: Software_testing

It is commonly believed that the earlier a defect is found, the cheaper it is to fix it. The following table shows the cost of fixing the defect depending on the stage it was found. For example, if a problem in the requirements is found only post-release, then it would cost 10–100 times more to fix than if it had already been found by the requirements review. With the advent of modern continuous deployment practices and cloud-based services, the cost of re-deployment and maintenance may lessen over time.

Question: What determines the cost of fixing a bug?
Answer: the earlier a defect is found

Question: Ho many more times would the cost be if the problem is found after the software's release?
Answer: 10–100 times more

Question: What could possibly lessen the cost of fixing buggy software?
Answer: cloud-based services
Title: Software_testing

There are many approaches available in software testing. Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections are referred to as static testing, whereas actually executing programmed code with a given set of test cases is referred to as dynamic testing. Static testing is often implicit, as proofreading, plus when programming tools/text editors check source code structure or compilers (pre-compilers) check syntax and data flow as static program analysis. Dynamic testing takes place when the program itself is run. Dynamic testing may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test particular sections of code and are applied to discrete functions or modules. Typical techniques for this are either using stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment.

Question: Name three approaches software testers take when testing their software?
Answer: Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections

Question: What is the term that is used to described executing programmed code with a given set of test?
Answer: dynamic testing

Question: When can dynamic testing occur?
Answer: before the program is 100% complete

Question: What are commonly used techniques during dynamic testing?
Answer: stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment
Title: Software_testing

White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing and structural testing, by seeing the source code) tests internal structures or workings of a program, as opposed to the functionality exposed to the end-user. In white-box testing an internal perspective of the system, as well as programming skills, are used to design test cases. The tester chooses inputs to exercise paths through the code and determine the appropriate outputs. This is analogous to testing nodes in a circuit, e.g. in-circuit testing (ICT).

Question: What is another term used for White-box testing?
Answer: clear box testing

Question: What is involved with White-box testing?
Answer: by seeing the source code

Question: Which two procedures are used to design test cases in White-box testing?
Answer: testing an internal perspective of the system, as well as programming skills
Title: Software_testing

Black-box testing treats the software as a "black box", examining functionality without any knowledge of internal implementation, without seeing the source code. The testers are only aware of what the software is supposed to do, not how it does it. Black-box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, all-pairs testing, state transition tables, decision table testing, fuzz testing, model-based testing, use case testing, exploratory testing and specification-based testing.

Question: What is the main difference between black-box testing and white-box testing?
Answer: seeing the source code

Question: What are the software testers aware of?
Answer: aware of what the software is supposed to do

Question: What are the first three methods mentioned that make up black-box testing??
Answer: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis
Title: Software_testing

Specification-based testing aims to test the functionality of software according to the applicable requirements. This level of testing usually requires thorough test cases to be provided to the tester, who then can simply verify that for a given input, the output value (or behavior), either "is" or "is not" the same as the expected value specified in the test case. Test cases are built around specifications and requirements, i.e., what the application is supposed to do. It uses external descriptions of the software, including specifications, requirements, and designs to derive test cases. These tests can be functional or non-functional, though usually functional.

Question: What term is used to test functionality of the software accordingly with the application requirements?
Answer: Specification-based testing

Question: What are the test cases built around?
Answer: specifications and requirements

Question: When building test cases which of the two methods used is more common over the other?
Answer: functional
Title: Software_testing

One advantage of the black box technique is that no programming knowledge is required. Whatever biases the programmers may have had, the tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality. On the other hand, black-box testing has been said to be "like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight." Because they do not examine the source code, there are situations when a tester writes many test cases to check something that could have been tested by only one test case, or leaves some parts of the program untested.

Question: What is one huge advantage to using the black-box method?
Answer: no programming knowledge is required

Question: What can black-box testing sometimes be referred to with the in-ability to see the code?
Answer: like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight.

Question: What is a good reason to have testers and developers separate?
Answer: tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality
Title: Software_testing

Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing tests, while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level. The tester is not required to have full access to the software's source code.[not in citation given] Manipulating input data and formatting output do not qualify as grey-box, because the input and output are clearly outside of the "black box" that we are calling the system under test. This distinction is particularly important when conducting integration testing between two modules of code written by two different developers, where only the interfaces are exposed for test.

Question: What does grey-box testing involve?
Answer: having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms

Question: What does a grey-box tester not need to run their test?
Answer: not required to have full access to the software's source code

Question: What does not qualify as grey-box testing?
Answer: Manipulating input data and formatting output
Title: Software_testing

By knowing the underlying concepts of how the software works, the tester makes better-informed testing choices while testing the software from outside. Typically, a grey-box tester will be permitted to set up an isolated testing environment with activities such as seeding a database. The tester can observe the state of the product being tested after performing certain actions such as executing SQL statements against the database and then executing queries to ensure that the expected changes have been reflected. Grey-box testing implements intelligent test scenarios, based on limited information. This will particularly apply to data type handling, exception handling, and so on.

Question: What does a grey-box tester implement when they have limited information?
Answer: intelligent test scenarios

Question: What dopes a typical grey-box tester sets up?
Answer: an isolated testing environment

Question: What does the tester execute while performing certain actions?
Answer: SQL statements
Title: Software_testing

There are generally four recognized levels of tests: unit testing, integration testing, component interface testing, and system testing. Tests are frequently grouped by where they are added in the software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test. The main levels during the development process as defined by the SWEBOK guide are unit-, integration-, and system testing that are distinguished by the test target without implying a specific process model. Other test levels are classified by the testing objective.

Question: What are the four recognized levels of testing software?
Answer: unit testing, integration testing, component interface testing, and system testing

Question: What are these test (level testing) typically grouped by?
Answer: software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test

Question: What is defined in the SWEBOK guide as to testing the main levels?
Answer: unit-, integration-, and system testing

Question: What are the other levels classified by?
Answer: the testing objective
Title: Software_testing

Unit testing is a software development process that involves synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software development risks, time, and costs. It is performed by the software developer or engineer during the construction phase of the software development lifecycle. Rather than replace traditional QA focuses, it augments it. Unit testing aims to eliminate construction errors before code is promoted to QA; this strategy is intended to increase the quality of the resulting software as well as the efficiency of the overall development and QA process.

Question: What is the main reasoning behind Unit testing that involves synchronization of the application on a broad spectrum? 
Answer: reduce software development risks, time, and costs

Question: Who performs the Unit testing phase?
Answer: software developer or engineer

Question: What does Unit testing look to eliminate?
Answer: construction errors

Question: By elimination construction errors, what is the expected end result?
Answer: increase the quality of the resulting software
Title: Software_testing

The practice of component interface testing can be used to check the handling of data passed between various units, or subsystem components, beyond full integration testing between those units. The data being passed can be considered as "message packets" and the range or data types can be checked, for data generated from one unit, and tested for validity before being passed into another unit. One option for interface testing is to keep a separate log file of data items being passed, often with a timestamp logged to allow analysis of thousands of cases of data passed between units for days or weeks. Tests can include checking the handling of some extreme data values while other interface variables are passed as normal values. Unusual data values in an interface can help explain unexpected performance in the next unit. Component interface testing is a variation of black-box testing, with the focus on the data values beyond just the related actions of a subsystem component.

Question: What is it called to check data passed between units?
Answer: component interface testing

Question: What is it called when data is being passed?
Answer: message packets

Question: What is an option  of component interface testing  used while sending message packets?
Answer: keep a separate log file of data items being passed

Question: What is a variation of black-box testing?
Answer: Component interface testing
Title: Software_testing

Operational Acceptance is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a quality management system. OAT is a common type of non-functional software testing, used mainly in software development and software maintenance projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and/or to become part of the production environment. Hence, it is also known as operational readiness testing (ORT) or Operations readiness and assurance (OR&A) testing. Functional testing within OAT is limited to those tests which are required to verify the non-functional aspects of the system.

Question: What is the term used to test software during a pre-release?
Answer: Operational Acceptance

Question: What does Operational Acceptance focus on?
Answer: operational readiness of the system

Question: What is Operational Acceptance limited to while testing?
Answer: limited to those tests which are required to verify the non-functional aspects of the system
Title: Software_testing

A common cause of software failure (real or perceived) is a lack of its compatibility with other application software, operating systems (or operating system versions, old or new), or target environments that differ greatly from the original (such as a terminal or GUI application intended to be run on the desktop now being required to become a web application, which must render in a web browser). For example, in the case of a lack of backward compatibility, this can occur because the programmers develop and test software only on the latest version of the target environment, which not all users may be running. This results in the unintended consequence that the latest work may not function on earlier versions of the target environment, or on older hardware that earlier versions of the target environment was capable of using. Sometimes such issues can be fixed by proactively abstracting operating system functionality into a separate program module or library.

Question: What is the most common reason for software failure?
Answer: compatibility with other application software

Question: What do developers commonly do when creating software that can lead to failures?
Answer: lack of backward compatibility

Question: What is the most common cause for software failure?
Answer: lack of its compatibility with other application software

Question: What often lacks in software developed when its released that can eventually lead to errors?
Answer: a lack of backward compatibility

Question: What does backwards compatibility always seem to be the cause of errors and bugs after a release?
Answer: test software only on the latest version of the target environment
Title: Software_testing

Regression testing focuses on finding defects after a major code change has occurred. Specifically, it seeks to uncover software regressions, as degraded or lost features, including old bugs that have come back. Such regressions occur whenever software functionality that was previously working correctly, stops working as intended. Typically, regressions occur as an unintended consequence of program changes, when the newly developed part of the software collides with the previously existing code. Common methods of regression testing include re-running previous sets of test-cases and checking whether previously fixed faults have re-emerged. The depth of testing depends on the phase in the release process and the risk of the added features. They can either be complete, for changes added late in the release or deemed to be risky, or be very shallow, consisting of positive tests on each feature, if the changes are early in the release or deemed to be of low risk. Regression testing is typically the largest test effort in commercial software development, due to checking numerous details in prior software features, and even new software can be developed while using some old test-cases to test parts of the new design to ensure prior functionality is still supported.

Question: Finding defects once a change in code had already happened is called?
Answer: Regression testing

Question: What happens to software after a major change in code that leads to regression??
Answer: stops working as intended

Question: What is a common method used during regression testing?
Answer: re-running previous sets of test-cases

Question: What determines how deep a tester will go during regression?
Answer: phase in the release process and the risk of the added features

Question: If changes need to occur during the softwares early release with regression testing how much of an impact does this have on the team as related to other testing? 
Answer: typically the largest test effort in commercial software development
Title: Software_testing

Beta testing comes after alpha testing and can be considered a form of external user acceptance testing. Versions of the software, known as beta versions, are released to a limited audience outside of the programming team known as beta testers. The software is released to groups of people so that further testing can ensure the product has few faults or bugs. Beta versions can be made available to the open public to increase the feedback field to a maximal number of future users and to deliver value earlier, for an extended or even indefinite period of time (perpetual beta).[citation needed]

Question: What typically comes after the Alpha stage in the development and testing of software?
Answer: Beta testing

Question: To whom is the beta testing released to?
Answer: limited audience outside of the programming

Question: What is it called when a public test continues indefinitely?
Answer: perpetual beta
Title: Software_testing

Destructive testing attempts to cause the software or a sub-system to fail. It verifies that the software functions properly even when it receives invalid or unexpected inputs, thereby establishing the robustness of input validation and error-management routines.[citation needed] Software fault injection, in the form of fuzzing, is an example of failure testing. Various commercial non-functional testing tools are linked from the software fault injection page; there are also numerous open-source and free software tools available that perform destructive testing.

Question: What method is used to cause a system to fail?
Answer: Destructive testing

Question: What does Destructive testing verify?
Answer: software functions properly even when it receives invalid or unexpected inputs

Question: What is one example of failure testing?
Answer: Software fault injection
Title: Software_testing

Load testing is primarily concerned with testing that the system can continue to operate under a specific load, whether that be large quantities of data or a large number of users. This is generally referred to as software scalability. The related load testing activity of when performed as a non-functional activity is often referred to as endurance testing. Volume testing is a way to test software functions even when certain components (for example a file or database) increase radically in size. Stress testing is a way to test reliability under unexpected or rare workloads. Stability testing (often referred to as load or endurance testing) checks to see if the software can continuously function well in or above an acceptable period.

Question: What method is used to test software under a specific load?
Answer: Load testing

Question: What two methods can be used when using Load Testing?
Answer: data or a large number of users

Question: What is called to test software functions when certain components increase in side?
Answer: Volume testing

Question: What is Stable testing also called?
Answer: endurance testing

Question: What method is used to test components under unexpected workloads?
Answer: Stress testing
Title: Software_testing

Development Testing is a software development process that involves synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software development risks, time, and costs. It is performed by the software developer or engineer during the construction phase of the software development lifecycle. Rather than replace traditional QA focuses, it augments it. Development Testing aims to eliminate construction errors before code is promoted to QA; this strategy is intended to increase the quality of the resulting software as well as the efficiency of the overall development and QA process.

Question: What method is used that involves synchronization of a application?
Answer: Development Testing

Question: When is development testing used?
Answer: construction phase of the software development lifecycle

Question: What does Development testing look to eliminate?
Answer: construction errors