rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power". This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion", born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates ... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power". Nevertheless, it took another century before cultural approach became central to the historiography, as typified by Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (1979).

Question: How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution?
Answer: the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment

Question: Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville?
Answer: men of letters

Question: From where did Tocqueville believe the illusory power of the men of letters came from?
Answer: the rise of "public opinion"
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge – of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage", tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another". "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance." The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness". According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.

Question: Which Jewish philosopher referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason?
Answer: Moses Mendelssohn

Question: How did Immanuel Kant describe the Enlightenment?
Answer: "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage"

Question: For whom was Enlightenment mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance?"
Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: According to historian Roy Porter, what was the Age of Enlightenment trying to capture?
Answer: the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia, and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.

Question: John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist?
Answer: Thomas Jefferson

Question: Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document?
Answer: the United States Constitution

Question: Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived?
Answer: Isaac Newton
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. It is important to note, however, that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public; women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

Question: From a historical standpoint, what was one of the most important features of the debating society?
Answer: openness to the public

Question: Were debates only open to certain economic classes, or could all attend?
Answer: all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee

Question: What were some of the issues discussed in addition to debates on religion?
Answer: politics and the role of women
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.

Question: What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment?
Answer: social conditions

Question: How did Habermas describe the public sphere?
Answer: bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state

Question: The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe?
Answer: the "bourgeois public sphere"
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century, and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority".

Question: What do Jonathon Israel claim caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th centure and early 19th century?
Answer: the ideas themselves

Question: What does Israel argue Western civilization was based on until the 1650s?
Answer: largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority

Question: Jonathon Israel rejects the notion that the revolutionary ideas were by products of what transformations?
Answer: social and economic

Question: What time period does Johnathon Israel focus on?
Answer: 1650 to the end of the 18th century
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of "common concern," and argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.

Question: How was the public sphere defined?
Answer: realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture

Question: During what centuries was the rise of the public sphere?
Answer: late 17th century and 18th century

Question: What term did Habermas give to describe the areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously exlusive territory of the state and religious authorities?
Answer: common concern

Question: The argument of the public sphere was founded on what?
Answer: reason

Question: The values of the bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to the supreme, considering everything open to criticism, and the opposition of what?
Answer: secrecy of all sorts
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. The Encyclopédie, for example, narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority") demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon, and are largely forgotten today as a result.

Question: Book sellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness in what country, especially?
Answer: France

Question: Which work narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes?
Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: Many publishing companies were located outside of which country to avoid overzealous censors?
Answer: France

Question: Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about what topics than they were in political theory itself?
Answer: criminals and political corruption

Question: What was the term given to books that did not have a dominant motif and contained something to offend almost everyone in authority?
Answer: general works
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. The Encyclopédie, for example, condemned not only by the King but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. But many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.

Question: Who helped The Encyclopedie find its way into print using the French censorship law creatively?
Answer: Malesherbes

Question: The King and Clement XII condemned which literary work?
Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: What percentage of books borrowed in England, Germany, and Norath America were novels?
Answer: 70

Question: What percentage of books borrowed were of a religious nature in England, Germany, and North America?
Answer: 1
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation". Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public", then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic".

Question: What did the Republic of Letters support?
Answer: free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation

Question: Once everyone was a part of what group did Kant believe all of society would be enlightened?
Answer: the "reading public"

Question: Who were two of the figures that participated in the Republic of Letters?
Answer: Diderot and Voltaire

Question: What did Immanuel Kant consider essential to his conception of the public sphere?
Answer: written communication
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and promoted the "enlightened" ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.

Question: Who called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture?
Answer: Jonathan Israel

Question: To what did the journals shift attention of the cultivated public away from and towards novelty and innovation?
Answer: established authorities

Question: What enlightened ideas were promoted by the journals?
Answer: toleration and intellectual objectivity

Question: The journals were a source of knowledge derived from what topics?
Answer: science and reason
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.

Question: How did dictionaries and encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words

Question: What movement were dictionaries and encyclopedias trying to promote?
Answer: to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite

Question: How did the content of encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology

Question: Encyclopedias in the 18th century tended to focus more strongly on what topics, rather than theology?
Answer: secular affairs, particularly science and technology
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.

Question: How was the Encyclopedie arranged?
Answer: according to a "tree of knowledge."

Question: The rise of empiricism caused a division between which two subjects?
Answer: the arts and sciences

Question: What was considered the trunk of the tree of knowledge?
Answer: philosophy

Question: Which editions of the Encyclopedie were less expensive and more accessible to the non-elite?
Answer: quarto and octavo

Question: How many copies of the Encyclopedie were estimated to be in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution?
Answer: 25 000
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe, and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate," and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act", and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible; "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution". In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

Question: Which society in England also played a significant role in the public sphere and spread of Enlightenment ideas?
Answer: Royal Society of London

Question: In what year was the Royal Society of London given a royal charter?
Answer: 1662

Question: Whose method based knowledge on experiementation, which had to be witnessed?
Answer: Robert Boyle

Question: Who were considered more reliable witnesses than the Oxfordshire peasants?
Answer: Oxford professors

Question: What two factors were taken into account in credibility in the Royal Society?
Answer: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution"
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional" – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues, and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority". After this date everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in," and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity".

Question: Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revoled around what subject?
Answer: "confessional"

Question: Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues were called what?
Answer: "confessional"

Question: During what time period did a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in"?
Answer: second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century

Question: The aim of confessional debates was to establish which bloc of faith should have what?
Answer: the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority"
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed that "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism. He argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

Question: According to German historian Reinhart Koselleck, which two social structures left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges

Question: Which Scottish professor believes that Masons were not a major radical or reformist network in their own right?
Answer: Thomas Munck

Question: Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspriting what type of thinking?
Answer: political thought

Question: Daniel Roche claims that Masonry promoted what idea by only attracting men of similar social background?
Answer: egalitarianism

Question: The presence of whom in the French "lodges of adoption" formed in the 1780s was die to the close ties shared with aristocratic society?
Answer: noble women