rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Biodiversity

Biodiversity provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources. A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50% of the pharmaceutical compounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals, and micro-organisms, while about 80% of the world population depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary healthcare. Only a tiny fraction of wild species has been investigated for medical potential. Biodiversity has been critical to advances throughout the field of bionics. Evidence from market analysis and biodiversity science indicates that the decline in output from the pharmaceutical sector since the mid-1980s can be attributed to a move away from natural product exploration ("bioprospecting") in favor of genomics and synthetic chemistry, indeed claims about the value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals may not provide enough incentive for companies in free markets to search for them because of the high cost of development; meanwhile, natural products have a long history of supporting significant economic and health innovation. Marine ecosystems are particularly important, although inappropriate bioprospecting can increase biodiversity loss, as well as violating the laws of the communities and states from which the resources are taken.

Question: What provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources?
Answer: Biodiversity

Question: What percentage of US drugs are derived from plants, animals, and micro-organisms?
Answer: at least 50%

Question: What field has biodiversity made critical advances in?
Answer: bionics

Question: What percentage of worldwide drugs are derived from nature?
Answer: about 80%
Title: Biodiversity

In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.

Question: What popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield?
Answer: the Green Revolution

Question: What did the high yield strains become resistant to?
Answer: local climate and diseases

Question: Who has been pushing for hybridization?
Answer: Local governments and industry

Question: What caused the loss of biodiversity?
Answer: Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion
Title: ASCII

Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart on the right. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, and a space. For example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing control characters (many now obsolete) that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, including the space (which is considered an invisible graphic:223).

Question: What is the ASCII based on?
Answer: English alphabet

Question: How many specific characters are there in the ASCII code?
Answer: 128 specified characters

Question: How many are non-printing control characters?
Answer: 33 are non-printing control characters

Question: How many characters are printable characters? 
Answer: 95 printable characters

Question: What is the space also known as what?
Answer: invisible graphic:223
Title: ASCII

The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together, and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two columns (32 positions) were reserved for control characters.:220, 236 § 8,9) The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20hex;:237 § 10 for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes,:228, 237 § 14 as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code. Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter A was placed in position 41hex to match the draft of the corresponding British standard.:238 § 18 The digits 0–9 were arranged so they correspond to values in binary prefixed with 011, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.

Question: Why was the code patterned so that most codes were together?
Answer: for ease of identification

Question: How many positions are in the first two columns?
Answer: 32 positions

Question: What did the committee decide was important?
Answer: to support uppercase 64-character alphabets

Question: Where was the letter A places in position?
Answer: 41hex
Title: ASCII

ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.

Question: ASCII was incorporated into what other character set?
Answer: Unicode

Question: How many of the symbols are the same in the beginning of the ASCII and Unicode?
Answer: 128 symbols

Question: What set is backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII?
Answer: UTF-8
Title: ASCII

When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.

Question: What casued the automatic paper tape reader to stop?
Answer: a Control-S

Question: What caused the automatic paper tape reader to start again?
Answer: Control-Q

Question: What was the warning signal called that warned the sender that there was impending overflow?
Answer: handshaking

Question: What two controls can be configured with 33 ASR?
Answer: Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4)
Title: ASCII

DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall cloned RT-11 to create CP/M he followed established DEC convention. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being a clone of CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.

Question: What are glass TTYs also known as?
Answer: CRTs or terminals

Question: What did Gary Kildall clone to create CP/M?
Answer: RT-11

Question: When was the introduction of PC DOS?
Answer: 1981

Question: What programming did IBM use in the 1970s?
Answer: EBCDIC

Question: What was IBM's PC DOS marketed as by Microsoft?
Answer: MS-DOS
Title: ASCII

C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or Usenet) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm|rg}sar." as the answer, which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar." meaning "No I've got sandwiches."

Question: What was created to solve the problem for ANSI C?
Answer: C trigraphs

Question: Why was their use limited?
Answer: their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers

Question: What did many programmers keep their computers on?
Answer: US-ASCII

Question: What what happening to the words that were sent from programmers?
Answer: contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words
Title: ASCII

The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard, Fieldata, and early EBCDIC, more than 64 codes were required for ASCII.

Question: What was ASCII based on?
Answer: teleprinter encoding systems

Question: ASCII specifies correspondence between what? 
Answer: digital bit patterns and character symbols

Question: What does ASCII correspondence allow digital devices to do?
Answer: communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information

Question: How many graphic symbols were used before ASCII?
Answer: 11 to 25 special graphic symbols

Question: How many codes were required for ASCII?
Answer: more than 64 codes
Title: ASCII

ASCII itself was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work –  according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII."

Question: When was ASCII first commercially used?
Answer: 1963

Question: What was it used for?
Answer: a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network

Question: What did TWX use before ASCII?
Answer: five-bit ITA2

Question: Who is the father of ASCII?
Answer: Bob Bemer

Question: What was the code first called in Europe?
Answer: Bemer-Ross Code
Title: ASCII

For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". RFC 2822 refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.

Question: What does the "line feed" function do?
Answer: causes a printer to advance its paper

Question: What character represents the "line feed" function?
Answer: character 10

Question: What does character 8 represent? 
Answer: backspace

Question: What does RFC 2822 refers to what kind of control characters?
Answer: control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters
Title: ASCII

Some software assigned special meanings to ASCII characters sent to the software from the terminal. Operating systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, for example, interpreted DEL as an input character as meaning "remove previously-typed input character", and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used BS for that meaning and used DEL to mean "remove the character at the cursor".[citation needed] That latter interpretation is the most common now.[citation needed]

Question: What did some software do to the ASCII characters?
Answer: assigned special meanings

Question: What interpretation became common in Unix systmes?
Answer: interpreted DEL as an input character as meaning "remove previously-typed input character"

Question: What do most other systmes use the DEL to mean?
Answer: remove the character at the cursor

Question: What did other systmes us for "remove previously-typed input character"?
Answer: BS
Title: ASCII

Computers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.

Question: What do computers attached to the ARPANET use for line endings?
Answer: CR-LF

Question: How were the connections supported? 
Answer: by transmitting a standard text format over the network

Question: Who else adopted this practice from Telnet?
Answer: The File Transfer Protocol

Question: Why did Telnet define an ASCII as a Network Virtual Terminal?
Answer: so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported

Question: What do computers using operating systems use for line endings?
Answer: LF
Title: ASCII

From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard, ultimately published as ISO/IEC 646 (1972), which would share most characters in common but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use." However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points.

Question: When was ISO/IEC 646 published?
Answer: 1972

Question: What was ASCII inteded to be?
Answer: one of several national variants of an international character code standard

Question: When was ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation?
Answer: 1967

Question: What was causing the confusion and incompatibility of the code points?
Answer: ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world
Title: ASCII

Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0–31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet. The IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.

Question: What did most early home computers develop?
Answer: their own 8-bit character sets

Question: What did Kaypro CP/M computers use?
Answer: the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet

Question: What did IBM PC replace the control-characters with?
Answer: graphic symbols such as smiley faces

Question: What did Digital Equipment Corporation develop?
Answer: Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS)

Question: What did Macintosh use instead of graphics? 
Answer: typographic punctuation marks
Title: ASCII

ASCII (i/ˈæski/ ASS-kee), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character-encoding scheme (the IANA prefers the name US-ASCII). ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that use text. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, though they support many additional characters. ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when it was surpassed by UTF-8, which is fully backward compatibe to ASCII.

Question: Who surpassed ASCII?
Answer: UTF-8

Question: ASCI was the most common character encoding on the world wide web until when?
Answer: December 2007

Question: What is the definition of ASCII?
Answer: is a character-encoding scheme

Question: What does ASCII code represent?
Answer: text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that use text

Question: What does ASCII stand for?
Answer: American Standard Code for Information Interchange
Title: ASCII

The committee debated the possibility of a shift function (like in ITA2), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.:215, 236 § 4

Question: What happened after they decided agasint shifting?
Answer: ASCII required at least a seven-bit code

Question: Why did the committee debate adding a shift function?
Answer: would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code

Question: What is different in a shifted code?
Answer: some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes

Question: Why did they decide against shifting code?
Answer: less reliable for data transmission as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable
Title: ASCII

Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (or, more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer") beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether.

Question: What was the "escape" character originally intended for?
Answer: to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning

Question: What does modern ESC code do?
Answer: most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation

Question: What does ESC generally mean for graphical user interfaces and windowing systems?
Answer: an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether
Title: ASCII

Older operating systems such as TOPS-10, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For this reason, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code (ETX), also known as Control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard.

Question: What does EOF stand for?
Answer: end-of-file

Question: What is still the conventional use of the ETX code?
Answer: to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard

Question: What did older operating systems use to mark the end of the text?
Answer: Control-Z (SUB)

Question: What else is the end-of-text code known as?
Answer: Control-C