rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Insect

Humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits. A few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles; blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion but also spread diseases. Insect pollinators are essential to the life-cycle of many flowering plant species on which most organisms, including humans, are at least partly dependent; without them, the terrestrial portion of the biosphere (including humans) would be devastated. Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, respectively. In some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects.

Question: By what method do humans often try to control the spread of insects?
Answer: insecticides

Question: What portion of the biosphere would be devastated absent the complex pollination role of insects?
Answer: terrestrial

Question: What insect provides a tangible economic benefit via the production of silk?
Answer: Silkworms

Question: What insect is known to consume carrion?
Answer: blow-flies

Question: Humans consider most insects as what?
Answer: pests

Question: Humans can control insects using what?
Answer: insecticides

Question: Insects have the potential to damage what?
Answer: crops

Question: Insects can damage crops by feeing on sap, fruits, or what?
Answer: leaves

Question: Silkworms are used by humans for producing what?
Answer: silk
Title: Insect

The word "insect" comes from the Latin word insectum, meaning "with a notched or divided body", or literally "cut into", from the neuter singular perfect passive participle of insectare, "to cut into, to cut up", from in- "into" and secare "to cut"; because insects appear "cut into" three sections. Pliny the Elder introduced the Latin designation as a loan-translation of the Greek word ἔντομος (éntomos) or "insect" (as in entomology), which was Aristotle's term for this class of life, also in reference to their "notched" bodies. "Insect" first appears documented in English in 1601 in Holland's translation of Pliny. Translations of Aristotle's term also form the usual word for "insect" in Welsh (trychfil, from trychu "to cut" and mil, "animal"), Serbo-Croatian (zareznik, from rezati, "to cut"), Russian (насекомое nasekomoje, from seč'/-sekat', "to cut"), etc.

Question: What is the Latin term for insect?
Answer: insectum

Question: Who introduced the Latin term for insect, borrowing from the Greek vernacular?
Answer: Pliny the Elder

Question: How many sections does an insect's body appear to be divided?
Answer: three

Question: Which Greek philosopher used the term entomos to describe insects, making reference to their notched bodies?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: In what year is it typically reported that the word insect was first documented in English?
Answer: 1601

Question: Insect means to have a notched or divided what?
Answer: body

Question: Insects are cut into how many sections?
Answer: three sections

Question: Who gave this class of life the name "insect"?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: In what year did the word "insect" appear in a document?
Answer: 1601

Question: Who introduced the Latin version of the word "insect"?
Answer: Pliny the Elder
Title: Insect

The higher-level phylogeny of the arthropods continues to be a matter of debate and research. In 2008, researchers at Tufts University uncovered what they believe is the world's oldest known full-body impression of a primitive flying insect, a 300 million-year-old specimen from the Carboniferous period. The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, from the 396-million-year-old Rhynie chert. It may have superficially resembled a modern-day silverfish insect. This species already possessed dicondylic mandibles (two articulations in the mandible), a feature associated with winged insects, suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time. Thus, the first insects probably appeared earlier, in the Silurian period.

Question: From what period do researchers believe that the oldest known full-body impression of a flying insect originates?
Answer: Carboniferous

Question: What is believed to be the oldest known insect fossil?
Answer: Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti

Question: In what year did Tufts researchers reportedly uncover what is believed to be the oldest known impression of a flying insect?
Answer: 2008

Question: What is the term for a mandible with two articulations?
Answer: dicondylic

Question: With what type of insect is a dicondylic mandible associated?
Answer: winged

Question: What higher-level is constantly up for debate and research?
Answer: phylogeny

Question: The higher-level phylogeny is of the what?
Answer: arthropods

Question: What kind of impression has been uncovered by a University?
Answer: full-body

Question: A University discovered a primitive flying what?
Answer: insect

Question: How old is the primitive plying insect found by the University?
Answer: 300 million-year-old
Title: Insect

Late Carboniferous and Early Permian insect orders include both extant groups, their stem groups, and a number of Paleozoic groups, now extinct. During this era, some giant dragonfly-like forms reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm (22 to 28 in), making them far larger than any living insect. This gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen levels that allowed increased respiratory efficiency relative to today. The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor. Most extinct orders of insects developed during the Permian period that began around 270 million years ago. Many of the early groups became extinct during the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in the history of the Earth, around 252 million years ago.

Question: In addition to Carboniferous, what other insect order is inclusive of extant groups, stem groups and Paleozoic groups?
Answer: Early Permian

Question: To what measurement, in cm, did the wingspans of giant dragonfly-like forms reach?
Answer: 55 to 70

Question: Higher levels of what substance possibly contributed to the phenomenon of gigantism? 
Answer: oxygen

Question: How many million years ago is the Permian period believed to have begun? 
Answer: 270

Question: The most significant mass extinction of insect groups is commonly ascribed to what period?
Answer: Permian-Triassic

Question: Late Caboniferous and Early Permain are what kind of orders?
Answer: insect orders

Question: The insect orders include both of what?
Answer: extant groups

Question: The insect orders include a number of what kind of groups?
Answer: Paleozoic groups

Question: What kind of giant insect form had wingspans?
Answer: dragonfly-like forms

Question: How wide were the wingspans of the dragonfly-like forms?
Answer: 55 to 70 cm
Title: Insect

Insects were among the earliest terrestrial herbivores and acted as major selection agents on plants. Plants evolved chemical defenses against this herbivory and the insects, in turn, evolved mechanisms to deal with plant toxins. Many insects make use of these toxins to protect themselves from their predators. Such insects often advertise their toxicity using warning colors. This successful evolutionary pattern has also been used by mimics. Over time, this has led to complex groups of coevolved species. Conversely, some interactions between plants and insects, like pollination, are beneficial to both organisms. Coevolution has led to the development of very specific mutualisms in such systems.

Question: What type of defense did plants adaptively evolve in response to insects?
Answer: chemical

Question: What is the term for a plant-eating insect?
Answer: herbivores

Question: What do many insects adaptively utilize in self-defense from predators?
Answer: plant toxins

Question: How is toxicity sometimes visibly displayed by insects as a warning?
Answer: colors

Question: What is an example of a mutually beneficial process indicating the coevolution of plants and insects?
Answer: pollination

Question: Insects are considered terrestrial what?
Answer: herbivores

Question: What were insects the major selection agents of?
Answer: plants

Question: What did plants eventually form against insects?
Answer: chemical defenses

Question: Insects formed mechanisms to shield against what?
Answer: plant toxins

Question: Insects show how toxic they are with what kind of colors?
Answer: warning colors
Title: Insect

Insects can be divided into two groups historically treated as subclasses: wingless insects, known as Apterygota, and winged insects, known as Pterygota. The Apterygota consist of the primitively wingless order of the silverfish (Thysanura). Archaeognatha make up the Monocondylia based on the shape of their mandibles, while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. The Thysanura themselves possibly are not monophyletic, with the family Lepidotrichidae being a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota and the remaining Thysanura).

Question: What is the term for the class of insects with wings?
Answer: Pterygota

Question: What is the term for the class of insects without wings? 
Answer: Apterygota

Question: What group of insects are inclusive within the Monocondylia primarily due to the shape of their mandible?
Answer: Archaeognatha

Question: What is the collective group to which Thysanura and Pterygota belong?
Answer: Dicondylia

Question: Insects are historically divided into how many groups?
Answer: two groups

Question: Insects with wings are known as what?
Answer: Pterygota

Question: Does an Apterygots have wings or wingless?
Answer: wingless

Question: What is a Thysanura?
Answer: silverfish

Question: Thysanura and Pterygota are what?
Answer: Dicondylia
Title: Insect

Traditional morphology-based or appearance-based systematics have usually given the Hexapoda the rank of superclass,:180 and identified four groups within it: insects (Ectognatha), springtails (Collembola), Protura, and Diplura, the latter three being grouped together as the Entognatha on the basis of internalized mouth parts. Supraordinal relationships have undergone numerous changes with the advent of methods based on evolutionary history and genetic data. A recent theory is that the Hexapoda are polyphyletic (where the last common ancestor was not a member of the group), with the entognath classes having separate evolutionary histories from the Insecta. Many of the traditional appearance-based taxa have been shown to be paraphyletic, so rather than using ranks like subclass, superorder, and infraorder, it has proved better to use monophyletic groupings (in which the last common ancestor is a member of the group). The following represents the best-supported monophyletic groupings for the Insecta.

Question: Morphology-based and appearance-based are known as what?
Answer: systematics

Question: What class is the Hexapoda ranked?
Answer: superclass

Question: How many groups are defined in the superclass?
Answer: four groups

Question: Springtails are also known as what?
Answer: Collembola

Question: Collembola, protura, and dipkura are in a group called what?
Answer: Entognatha
Title: Insect

Paleoptera and Neoptera are the winged orders of insects differentiated by the presence of hardened body parts called sclerites, and in the Neoptera, muscles that allow their wings to fold flatly over the abdomen. Neoptera can further be divided into incomplete metamorphosis-based (Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera) and complete metamorphosis-based groups. It has proved difficult to clarify the relationships between the orders in Polyneoptera because of constant new findings calling for revision of the taxa. For example, the Paraneoptera have turned out to be more closely related to the Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. The recent molecular finding that the traditional louse orders Mallophaga and Anoplura are derived from within Psocoptera has led to the new taxon Psocodea. Phasmatodea and Embiidina have been suggested to form the Eukinolabia. Mantodea, Blattodea, and Isoptera are thought to form a monophyletic group termed Dictyoptera.

Question: Paleoptera and Neoptera are what kind of insect orders? 
Answer: winged

Question: An insects hard body parts are called what?
Answer: sclerites

Question: Insect's wings fold flat over their what?
Answer: abdomen

Question: Neoptera can be divided into what kind of "based" group?
Answer: metamorphosis-based

Question: Paraneopter and Endopterygota are closely what?
Answer: related
Title: Insect

The Exopterygota likely are paraphyletic in regard to the Endopterygota. Matters that have incurred controversy include Strepsiptera and Diptera grouped together as Halteria based on a reduction of one of the wing pairs – a position not well-supported in the entomological community. The Neuropterida are often lumped or split on the whims of the taxonomist. Fleas are now thought to be closely related to boreid mecopterans. Many questions remain in the basal relationships amongst endopterygote orders, particularly the Hymenoptera.

Question: What are likely to be paraphyletic?
Answer: The Exopterygota

Question: Strepsiptera and Diptera are controversial what?
Answer: Matters

Question: Strepsiptera and Diptera grouped together are called what?
Answer: Halteria

Question: A discussion regarding wing pairs is not supported by what community?
Answer: the entomological community

Question: What is split or lumped together by a taxonomist?
Answer: The Neuropterida
Title: Insect

Though the true dimensions of species diversity remain uncertain, estimates range from 2.6–7.8 million species with a mean of 5.5 million. This probably represents less than 20% of all species on Earth[citation needed], and with only about 20,000 new species of all organisms being described each year, most species likely will remain undescribed for many years unless species descriptions increase in rate. About 850,000–1,000,000 of all described species are insects. Of the 24 orders of insects, four dominate in terms of numbers of described species, with at least 3 million species included in Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. A recent study estimated the number of beetles at 0.9–2.1 million with a mean of 1.5 million.

Question: The true diversity within the insect species remains what?
Answer: uncertain

Question: How many insect species are estimated to exist?
Answer: 2.6–7.8 million species

Question: How many new species of all organisms are discovered each year?
Answer: 20,000

Question: Of all the species on earth, how much do insects make up?
Answer: less than 20%

Question: For many years to come, most insect species will remain as what?
Answer: undescribed
Title: Insect

Insects have segmented bodies supported by exoskeletons, the hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but interconnected units, or tagmata: a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, and, if present, one to three simple eyes (or ocelli) and three sets of variously modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax has six segmented legs—one pair each for the prothorax, mesothorax and the metathorax segments making up the thorax—and, none, two or four wings. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, though in a few species of insects, these segments may be fused together or reduced in size. The abdomen also contains most of the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive internal structures.:22–48 Considerable variation and many adaptations in the body parts of insects occur, especially wings, legs, antenna and mouthparts.

Question: What kind of bodies to insects have?
Answer: segmented bodies

Question: Insects bodies are supported by what?
Answer: exoskeletons

Question: Chitin is what kind of outer covering on an insect?
Answer: hard

Question: An insect's body is divided into what kind of units?
Answer: interconnected

Question: What is an insects head, throat, and abdomen called?
Answer: tagmata
Title: Insect

The head is enclosed in a hard, heavily sclerotized, unsegmented, exoskeletal head capsule, or epicranium, which contains most of the sensing organs, including the antennae, ocellus or eyes, and the mouthparts. Of all the insect orders, Orthoptera displays the most features found in other insects, including the sutures and sclerites. Here, the vertex, or the apex (dorsal region), is situated between the compound eyes for insects with a hypognathous and opisthognathous head. In prognathous insects, the vertex is not found between the compound eyes, but rather, where the ocelli are normally. This is because the primary axis of the head is rotated 90° to become parallel to the primary axis of the body. In some species, this region is modified and assumes a different name.:13

Question: What part of the insect contains most of the sensing organs?
Answer: head

Question: What is another word for head capsule?
Answer: epicranium

Question: What displays the most features on an insect?
Answer: Orthoptera

Question: What is the vertex also known as?
Answer: apex

Question: The vertex is usually located between what kind of eyes?
Answer: compound
Title: Insect

The thorax is a tagma composed of three sections, the prothorax, mesothorax and the metathorax. The anterior segment, closest to the head, is the prothorax, with the major features being the first pair of legs and the pronotum. The middle segment is the mesothorax, with the major features being the second pair of legs and the anterior wings. The third and most posterior segment, abutting the abdomen, is the metathorax, which features the third pair of legs and the posterior wings. Each segment is dilineated by an intersegmental suture. Each segment has four basic regions. The dorsal surface is called the tergum (or notum) to distinguish it from the abdominal terga. The two lateral regions are called the pleura (singular: pleuron) and the ventral aspect is called the sternum. In turn, the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum, the notum for the mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the metanotum. Continuing with this logic, the mesopleura and metapleura, as well as the mesosternum and metasternum, are used.

Question: The throax has how many sections?
Answer: three sections

Question: Another term for tagma is?
Answer: thorax

Question: The anterior section is closest to the what?
Answer: head

Question: The prothrorax is what segment of the insect?
Answer: anterior

Question: The pleura is made of how many lateral regions?
Answer: two
Title: Insect

The abdomen is the largest tagma of the insect, which typically consists of 11–12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax. Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum and sternum. Terga are separated from each other and from the adjacent sterna or pleura by membranes. Spiracles are located in the pleural area. Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube. Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite. Ventral sclerites are sometimes called laterosternites. During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects, 11 abdominal segments are present. In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments, but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis. Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable. If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes, confusion reigns: adult Protura have 12 segments, Collembola have 6. The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments, and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10-segmented abdomen.

Question: What is the largest tagma of an insect?
Answer: abdomen

Question: How many segments make up an insects abdomen?
Answer: 11–12 segments

Question: The abdomen is less strong than the thorax and what?
Answer: head

Question: An insects abdomen has a sclerotized tergum and what else?
Answer: sternum

Question: The pleural area holds what?
Answer: Spiracles
Title: Insect

The insect outer skeleton, the cuticle, is made up of two layers: the epicuticle, which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and a lower layer called the procuticle. The procuticle is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers: an outer layer known as the exocuticle and an inner layer known as the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, criss-crossing each other in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and hardened.:22–24 The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft-bodied insects (e.g., caterpillars), especially during their larval stages.

Question: Insect's outer skeleton is known as what?
Answer: the cuticle

Question: The cuticle has how many layers?
Answer: two

Question: Which cuticle later is like wax?
Answer: the epicuticle

Question: The epicuticle does not consist of what?
Answer: chitin

Question: Is the procuticle thinner or thicker than the epicuticle?
Answer: thicker
Title: Insect

Insects are the only invertebrates to have developed active flight capability, and this has played an important role in their success.:186 Their muscles are able to contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse, allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily be possible. Having their muscles attached to their exoskeletons is more efficient and allows more muscle connections; crustaceans also use the same method, though all spiders use hydraulic pressure to extend their legs, a system inherited from their pre-arthropod ancestors. Unlike insects, though, most aquatic crustaceans are biomineralized with calcium carbonate extracted from the water.

Question: Insects are also known as what kind of vertebra?
Answer: invertebrates

Question: Insects have developed what kind of active capability?
Answer: flight

Question: Active flight ability has played what kind of role for insects?
Answer: important

Question: How many times are insects muscles able to contract?
Answer: multiple

Question: Insects muscles are attached to their what?
Answer: exoskeletons
Title: Insect

The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly Musca domestica, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion.

Question: What is on each side of a thoracic segment?
Answer: ganglion

Question: How many ganglia are on each side of a thoracic segment?
Answer: one

Question: Ganglia are connected into a what?
Answer: a pair

Question: How many pairs of ganglia are in a segment?
Answer: one pair

Question: What other location on an insect are ganglia located?
Answer: abdomen