rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Vacuum

To continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth, a compartment of the vacuum can be repeatedly closed off, exhausted, and expanded again. This is the principle behind positive displacement pumps, like the manual water pump for example. Inside the pump, a mechanism expands a small sealed cavity to create a vacuum. Because of the pressure differential, some fluid from the chamber (or the well, in our example) is pushed into the pump's small cavity. The pump's cavity is then sealed from the chamber, opened to the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size.

Question: Repeatedly closing off a compartment of a vacuum allows what?
Answer: continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth

Question: How is a vacuum created inside of a manual water pump?
Answer: a mechanism expands a small sealed cavity

Question: Why is fluid in a manual pump pushed into the pumps cavity when a small sealed cavity is expanded?
Answer: Because of the pressure differential

Question: What are pumps based off principle of sealed compartment pulling,pushing and expanding called?
Answer: displacement pumps
Title: Vacuum

The above explanation is merely a simple introduction to vacuum pumping, and is not representative of the entire range of pumps in use. Many variations of the positive displacement pump have been developed, and many other pump designs rely on fundamentally different principles. Momentum transfer pumps, which bear some similarities to dynamic pumps used at higher pressures, can achieve much higher quality vacuums than positive displacement pumps. Entrapment pumps can capture gases in a solid or absorbed state, often with no moving parts, no seals and no vibration. None of these pumps are universal; each type has important performance limitations. They all share a difficulty in pumping low molecular weight gases, especially hydrogen, helium, and neon.

Question: What pump can capture gases in a solid or absorbed state?
Answer: Entrapment pumps

Question: Entrapment pumps often work without seals, moving parts and what else?
Answer: no vibration.

Question: What pump has a higher quality vacuum than a positive displacement pump?
Answer: Momentum transfer pumps
Title: Vacuum

The lowest pressure that can be attained in a system is also dependent on many things other than the nature of the pumps. Multiple pumps may be connected in series, called stages, to achieve higher vacuums. The choice of seals, chamber geometry, materials, and pump-down procedures will all have an impact. Collectively, these are called vacuum technique. And sometimes, the final pressure is not the only relevant characteristic. Pumping systems differ in oil contamination, vibration, preferential pumping of certain gases, pump-down speeds, intermittent duty cycle, reliability, or tolerance to high leakage rates.

Question: When multiple pumps are connected in series to produce higher vacuum it is called what?
Answer: stages

Question: The choice of seals, or chamber geometry ,for example impact a pump. Together these are options are called what?
Answer: vacuum technique

Question: What are two other relevant characteristics of a pumping system along with final pressure?
Answer: oil contamination, vibration
Title: Han_dynasty

The Han dynasty (Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn cháo) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people" and the Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).

Question: What period followed the Han dynasty?
Answer: Three Kingdoms

Question: What dynasty came before the Han dynasty?
Answer: Qin

Question: Who founded the Han dynasty?
Answer: Liu Bang

Question: When did the Former Han period begin?
Answer: 206 BC

Question: When did the Later Han period end?
Answer: 220 AD
Title: Han_dynasty

The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in AD 1911.

Question: When did the Qing dynasty fall?
Answer: AD 1911

Question: What innovation was acquired from the Qin?
Answer: commanderies

Question: What philosphy in education was sanctioned by the Chinese court?
Answer: Confucianism

Question: What was an attributing factor that caused kingdoms to lose their Independence during the Han dynasty?
Answer: the Rebellion of the Seven States

Question: What class did a majority of appointed ministers come from during the Han dynasty?
Answer: scholarly gentry
Title: Han_dynasty

The Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To pay for its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the government nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han period. Science and technology during the Han period saw significant advances, including papermaking, the nautical steering rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, and a seismometer employing an inverted pendulum.

Question: In what year did the central government issue coins?
Answer: 119 BC

Question: What industry did the government use to help pay for its military campaigns?
Answer: iron

Question: In what period did several government monopolies become repealed?
Answer: Eastern Han

Question: A money based economy was first entrenched in what dynasty?
Answer: Zhou

Question: A seismometer during the Han dynasty used what type of pendulum?
Answer: inverted
Title: Han_dynasty

The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC.

Question: Which confederation defeated the Han in 200 BC?
Answer: The Xiongnu

Question: What type of campaign helped establish the Silk Road?
Answer: military

Question: In what year was Nanyue annexed?
Answer: 111 BC

Question: Which confederation conquered the territories north of the Han's border?
Answer: Xianbei

Question: In what year did Emperor Wu of Han's reign end?
Answer: 87 BC
Title: Han_dynasty

After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empress dowagers, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty ceased to exist.

Question: Which religious societies instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion?
Answer: Daoist

Question: Who killed the palace eunichs after the death of Emperor Ling?
Answer: military officers

Question: Who was the last Emperor of the Han dynasty?
Answer: Xian

Question: Which King took the seat of power from Emperor Xian?
Answer: Cao Pi

Question: In what year did Emperor Ling die?
Answer: 189 AD
Title: Han_dynasty

China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). The Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu (d. 202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, engaged in a war to decide who would become hegemon of China, which had fissured into 18 kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a capable commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia (202 BC), in modern-day Anhui. Liu Bang assumed the title "emperor" (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC). Chang'an was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han.

Question: With what action did the Qin bring together the Chinese Warring States?
Answer: conquest

Question: Which commander did Liu Bang defeat in the Battle of Gaixia?
Answer: Xiang Yu

Question: Who was the first emperor during the Qin dynasty?
Answer: Qin Shi Huangdi

Question: What ultimately caused the Qin dynasty's authority to be dissolved?
Answer: rebellion

Question: Who urged Liu Bang to become emperor?
Answer: his followers
Title: Han_dynasty

At the beginning of the Western Han dynasty, thirteen centrally controlled commanderies—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms. To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 157 BC, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal Liu family members, since the loyalty of non-relatives to the throne was questioned. After several insurrections by Han kings—the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC—the imperial court enacted a series of reforms beginning in 145 BC limiting the size and power of these kingdoms and dividing their former territories into new centrally controlled commanderies. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes. The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han.

Question: How many commanderies were in the western third of the empire?
Answer: thirteen

Question: Who could appoint staff to the kings?
Answer: imperial court

Question: When was the Rebellion of the Seven States?
Answer: 154 BC

Question: From what source did kings derive their personal income from?
Answer: tax revenues

Question: The Han court replaced several kings with members of what royal family?
Answer: Liu
Title: Han_dynasty

To the north of China proper, the nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu (r. 209–174 BC) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe. By the end of his reign, he controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, and the Tarim Basin, subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand. Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade embargo against the group. Although the embargo was in place, the Xiongnu found traders willing to supply their needs. Chinese forces also mounted surprise attacks against Xiongnu who traded at the border markets. In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi province, where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC. After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.

Question: Who was the chieftain of the Xiongnu?
Answer: Modu Chanyu

Question: What group had a trade embargo created against them?
Answer: the Xiongnu

Question: In what year were Han forces defeated in Baideng?
Answer: 200 BC

Question: What agreement established equality between the Xiongnu and the Han?
Answer: heqin

Question: What type of clothing were sent as a tribute to the Xiongnu?
Answer: silk clothes
Title: Han_dynasty

Despite the tribute and a negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu (r. 174–160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BC) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods. In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids. However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. When this plot failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. Chinese armies captured one stronghold after another and established agricultural colonies to strengthen their hold. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei, where the Han commanders Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC) and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert.

Question: The heqin agreement was reaffirmed by a court conference in what year?
Answer: 135 BC

Question: In what year did Emperor Wu begin a series of attacks in Xiongnu territories?
Answer: 133 BC

Question: What type of colony did Chinese armies use to help firm their hold on the strongholds that they had taken over?
Answer: agricultural

Question: In what year did the Battle of Mobei take place?
Answer: 119 BC

Question: Which Han commander died in the year 106 BC?
Answer: Wei Qing
Title: Han_dynasty

In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur. They repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region: Jiuquan, Zhangyi, Dunhuang, and Wuwei. The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers. On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labor. The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired laborers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier.

Question: Who made up a majority of the people on the frontier?
Answer: soldiers

Question: Who forced peasant farmers to move to new settlements?
Answer: the court

Question: In what year did Han forces stop a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion?
Answer: 111 BC

Question: Where were landowners encouraged to migrate willingly to?
Answer: the frontier

Question: How many commanderies in the new frontier were created by the Han court in the year 111 BC?
Answer: four
Title: Han_dynasty

Even before Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on Shendu (Indus River valley of North India) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies. These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire, bringing Han items like silk to Rome and Roman goods such as glasswares to China.

Question: What type of Roman item was traded on the Silk Road network?
Answer: glasswares

Question: Which diplomat helped gather information on the country of Anxi?
Answer: Zhang Qian

Question: When did Zhang Qian end his travels?
Answer: 125 BC

Question: Which network was used to exchange goods with Rome?
Answer: Silk Road

Question: What empire had established an embassy in Anxi?
Answer: Han
Title: Han_dynasty

From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs. The Han also expanded southward. The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. Yunnan was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the colonial establishments of Xuantu Commandery and Lelang Commandery in 108 BC. In China's first known nationwide census taken in 2 AD, the population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households.

Question: Which group did Han forces fight in the Tarm Basin?
Answer: the Xiongnu

Question: When was the first national census taken in China?
Answer: 2 AD

Question: What was the population of China in 2 AD?
Answer: 57,671,400

Question: What year was the Protectorate of Western Regions created in?
Answer: 60 BC

Question: Which kingdom did the Han conquer in 109 BC?
Answer: Dian
Title: Han_dynasty

To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalized several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze-coin currency. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent regency of Huo Guang (d. 68 BC). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favoring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.

Question: Who made up the bulk of the administrators of the new government monopolies?
Answer: former merchants

Question: When was the liquor monopoly abolished?
Answer: 81 BC

Question: Which faction did the Reformists oppose?
Answer: Modernist

Question: Which political faction favored budgetary reform?
Answer: The Reformists

Question: In what year did Huo Guang die?
Answer: 68 BC
Title: Han_dynasty

Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing land to equally distribute between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage. Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c. 3 AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt buildup in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD.

Question: Who tried to outlaw slavery?
Answer: Wang Mang

Question: What caused the water level in the Yellow River to increase?
Answer: Gradual silt buildup

Question: Who created a dam in the southern branch of The Yellow River?
Answer: Han engineers

Question: What emptied out to the south of the Shandong Peninsula?
Answer: The Yellow River

Question: What caused the end of Wang Mang's regime?
Answer: massive floods
Title: Han_dynasty

The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 西汉; traditional Chinese: 西漢; pinyin: Xī Hàn) or Former Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 前汉; traditional Chinese: 前漢; pinyin: Qiánhàn) (206 BC – 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 东汉; traditional Chinese: 東漢; pinyin: Dōng Hàn) or the Later Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 后汉; traditional Chinese: 後漢; pinyin: Hòu Hàn) (25–220 AD).

Question: Where did the capital move to after the reign of Guangwu?
Answer: Luoyang

Question: What era does the reign of Guangwu fall under?
Answer: Eastern Han dynasty

Question: What can the Eastern Han dynasty also be called?
Answer: Later Han dynasty

Question: Where was the capital located during the Western Han dynasty?
Answer: Chang'an

Question: What can the Western Han dynasty also be called?
Answer: Former Han dynasty
Title: Han_dynasty

The Eastern Han, also known as the Later Han, formally began on 5 August 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.

Question: On what date did the Eastern Han dynasty begin?
Answer: 5 August 25

Question: Who started a rebellion against Han in the year AD 40?
Answer: The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam

Question: Which state raided Han's Korean commanderies?
Answer: Goguryeo

Question: In what year did Ma Yuan die?
Answer: AD 49

Question: Who was the leader of the Xiongnu?
Answer: Bi