rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "the eclipse of Darwinism" included forms of "saltationism" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of August Weismann, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views.

Question: Why did most scientists accept the validity of evolution by the 1870s, but considered natural selection a minor part of it?
Answer: they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.

Question: What was meant by the term saltationism?
Answer: new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation

Question: What is the term for the belief that species have a tendency to change and adapt in a certain direction?
Answer: orthogenesis

Question: What was the minority view on evolution that was believed by August Weismann?
Answer: neo-Darwinism

Question: What rediscovered inheritance was thought to invalidate Darwin's views on evolution?
Answer: Mendelian inheritance
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

While some, like Spencer, used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor, others, including Alfred Russel Wallace, argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further. Some political commentaries, including Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism. Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin's scientific theory, and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution, such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel, as they were by Darwin's work. Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.

Question: Who believed that action needed to be taken to level out the social and economic playing field before natural selection could occur to improve humanity?
Answer: Alfred Russel Wallace

Question: Which political commentary attempted to widen the idea of natural selection to include competition between different races of people and countries?
Answer: Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872)

Question: Why were some political commentaries attempting to attach natural selection to human races?
Answer: to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism

Question: What uses of his ideology did Darwin object to being used?
Answer: to justify military aggression and unethical business practices

Question: What theory about humanity did Darwin oppose?
Answer: he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Natural theology was not a unified doctrine, and while some such as Louis Agassiz were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book, others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful. In the Church of England, some liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In the second edition of January 1860, Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence, which from then on read "life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one". While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted, Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature, and even in the first edition there are several references to "creation".

Question: What view did Louis Agassiz have of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: strongly opposed to the ideas in the book

Question: What view did some clergymen in the Church of England take of the theory of natural selection?
Answer: interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design

Question: What did Darwin do to show that he admired the cleric Charles Kingsley? 
Answer: Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence,

Question: What did some commentators think about Darwin changing the phrasing in his book?
Answer: some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted

Question: What were Darwin's views on the part of God in his theory?
Answer: Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". In America, Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design, and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured over natural selection as being more compatible with purpose.

Question: What was Baden Powell's opinion of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature"

Question: What did the pamphlet that Asa Gray published defend?
Answer: defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.

Question: What was a way that theologians compromised with the information in Darwin's book?
Answer: Theistic evolution became a popular compromise

Question: What was later realized that caused naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism to be embraced?
Answer: supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Even though the book had barely hinted at human evolution, it quickly became central to the debate as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial soul, and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities. This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans, or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind's position at the head of nature. While many conservative theologians accepted evolution, Charles Hodge argued in his 1874 critique "What is Darwinism?" that "Darwinism", defined narrowly as including rejection of design, was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design. Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin's text. By the early 20th century, four noted authors of The Fundamentals were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution, but fundamentalism inspired the American creation–evolution controversy that began in the 1920s. Some conservative Roman Catholic writers and influential Jesuits opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century, but other Catholic writers, starting with Mivart, pointed out that early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area. The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.

Question: How did people attempt to rationalize or reconcile the concept of natural selection?
Answer: by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans

Question: Which scientist argued that Darwinism was atheism?
Answer: Charles Hodge

Question: What controversy around Darwin's book began in the 1920s?
Answer: the American creation–evolution controversy

Question: What official position did the Vatican take on the subject of evolution in 1950?
Answer: The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Modern evolutionary theory continues to develop. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, with its tree-like model of branching common descent, has become the unifying theory of the life sciences. The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment. It makes sense of the geologic record, biogeography, parallels in embryonic development, biological homologies, vestigiality, cladistics, phylogenetics and other fields, with unrivalled explanatory power; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as medicine and agriculture. Despite the scientific consensus, a religion-based political controversy has developed over how evolution is taught in schools, especially in the United States.

Question: What branching common descent theory has become the most unifying one of the life sciences?
Answer: Darwin's theory of evolution

Question: What does the theory of evolution explain about living organisms?
Answer: The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment.

Question: In what fields has Darwin's theory of evolution become particularly essential?
Answer: medicine and agriculture

Question: What kind of controversy has begun within school systems about Darwin's theory?
Answer: a religion-based political controversy
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Interest in Darwin's writings continues, and scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work. The text of Origin itself has been subject to much analysis including a variorum, detailing the changes made in every edition, first published in 1959, and a concordance, an exhaustive external index published in 1981. Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species and the bicentenary of Darwin's birth were scheduled for 2009. They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".

Question: What kinds of things have been done by scholars interested in Darwin's work?
Answer: scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work.

Question: What has been created in 1959 and filled with information about changes in every edition of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: a variorum

Question: What was done on the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Worldwide commemorations

Question: What were the celebrants honoring with their commemorations?
Answer: They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

The dissolution of the Soviet Union was formally enacted on December 26, 1991, as a result of the declaration no. 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), although five of the signatories ratified it much later or not at all. On the previous day, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union, resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers – including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes – to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.

Question: On what date did the Soviet Union dissolve?
Answer: December 26, 1991

Question: What entity was created in place of the Soviet Union?
Answer: Commonwealth of Independent States

Question: Who was president of the Soviet Union when it came to an end?
Answer: Mikhail Gorbachev,

Question: Who became president of Russia after Gorbachev left office?
Answer: Boris Yeltsin

Question: Which flag replaced the Soviet flag at the Kremlin?
Answer: pre-revolutionary Russian flag.
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo on March 11, 1985, three hours after predecessor Konstantin Chernenko's death at age 73. Gorbachev, aged 54, was the youngest member of the Politburo. His initial goal as general secretary was to revive the Soviet economy, and he realized that doing so would require reforming underlying political and social structures. The reforms began with personnel changes of senior Brezhnev-era officials who would impede political and economic change. On April 23, 1985, Gorbachev brought two protégés, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, into the Politburo as full members. He kept the "power" ministries happy by promoting KGB Head Viktor Chebrikov from candidate to full member and appointing Minister of Defence Marshal Sergei Sokolov as a Politburo candidate.

Question: Who was General Secretary prior to Mikhail Gorbachev?
Answer: Konstantin Chernenko

Question: What caused Chernenko to leave office?
Answer: death

Question: How old was Gorbachev when he was elected as the General Secretary? 
Answer: 54

Question: What entity was responsible for Gorbachev's being elected?
Answer: Politburo

Question: To which two people did Gorbachev grant membership into the Politburo for his own reasons? 
Answer: Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov,
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

This liberalization, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. It also led indirectly to the revolutions of 1989, in which Soviet-imposed communist regimes of the Warsaw Pact were peacefully toppled (Romania excepted), which in turn increased pressure on Gorbachev to introduce greater democracy and autonomy for the Soviet Union's constituent republics. Under Gorbachev's leadership, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1989 introduced limited competitive elections to a new central legislature, the Congress of People's Deputies (although the ban on other political parties was not lifted until 1990).

Question: What party did Gorbachev belong to?
Answer: Communist Party

Question: What was the name of the legislative body that was brought into existance in 1989?
Answer: Congress of People's Deputies

Question: When were opposition parties first allowed in the Soviet Union?
Answer: 1990

Question: In which country did Warsaw Pact regime remain in place?
Answer: Romania

Question: What were some of the downsides of the more liberal Soviet Union?
Answer: nationalist movements and ethnic disputes
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

In May 1985, Gorbachev delivered a speech in Leningrad advocating reforms and an anti-alcohol campaign to tackle widespread alcoholism. Prices on vodka, wine, and beer were raised in order to make these drinks more expensive and a disincentive to consumers, and the introduction of rationing. Unlike most forms of rationing intended to conserve scarce goods, this was done to restrict sales with the overt goal of curtailing drunkenness. Gorbachev's plan also included billboards promoting sobriety, increased penalties for public drunkenness, and to censor drinking scenes from old movies. Although this program was not a direct copycat of Tsar Nicholas II's outright prohibition during World War I, Gorbachev faced the same adverse economic reaction as did the last Tsar. The disincentivization of alcohol consumption was a serious blow to the state budget according to Alexander Yakovlev, who noted annual collections of alcohol taxes decreased by 100 billion rubles. Alcohol production migrated to the black market, or through moonshining as some made "bathtub vodka" with homegrown potatoes. Poorer, less educated Russians resorted to drinking unhealthy substitutes such as nail polish, rubbing alcohol or men's cologne, which only served to be an additional burden on Russia's healthcare sector due to the subsequent poisoning cases. The purpose of these reforms, however, was to prop up the existing centrally planned economy, unlike later reforms, which tended toward market socialism.

Question: When was Gorbachev's speech addressing alcohol abuse?
Answer: May 1985

Question: Other than increasing pricing what was another measure that was introduced to decrease alcohol consumption?
Answer: rationing

Question: What was censored?
Answer: drinking scenes from old movies

Question: Whose anti-alcohol program did Gorbachev's remind people of?
Answer: Tsar Nicholas II

Question: When did Tsar Nicholas II ban alcohol?
Answer: during World War I,
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

On July 1, 1985, Gorbachev promoted Eduard Shevardnadze, First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party, to full member of the Politburo, and the following day appointed him minister of foreign affairs, replacing longtime Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko. The latter, disparaged as "Mr Nyet" in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Gromyko was relegated to the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (officially Soviet Head of State), as he was considered an "old thinker." Also on July 1, Gorbachev took the opportunity to dispose of his main rival by removing Grigory Romanov from the Politburo, and brought Boris Yeltsin and Lev Zaikov into the CPSU Central Committee Secretariat.

Question: When did Eduard Shevardnadze gain full membership in the Politburo?
Answer: July 1, 1985

Question: Who was responsible for Shevardnadze's membership?
Answer: Gorbachev

Question: Who was minister of foreign affairs prior to Shevardnadze?
Answer: Andrei Gromyko

Question: What was Gromyko's western nickname?
Answer: "Mr Nyet"

Question: Which person did Gorbachev kick out of the Politburo on the first of July?
Answer: Grigory Romanov
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

In the fall of 1985, Gorbachev continued to bring younger and more energetic men into government. On September 27, Nikolai Ryzhkov replaced 79-year-old Nikolai Tikhonov as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, effectively the Soviet prime minister, and on October 14, Nikolai Talyzin replaced Nikolai Baibakov as chairman of the State Planning Committee (GOSPLAN). At the next Central Committee meeting on October 15, Tikhonov retired from the Politburo and Talyzin became a candidate. Finally, on December 23, 1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party replacing Viktor Grishin.

Question: Who became Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985?
Answer: Nikolai Ryzhkov

Question: Who was Chairman of the Council of Ministers prior to Ryzhkov?
Answer: Nikolai Tikhonov

Question: How old was Tikhonov when he stopped being Chairman?
Answer: 79-year-old

Question: Who was the new chairman of the State Planning Committee in 1985?
Answer: Nikolai Talyzin

Question: What is an analogous office to Chairman of the Council of Ministers?
Answer: chairman of the State Planning Committee
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

The CTAG (Latvian: Cilvēktiesību aizstāvības grupa, Human Rights Defense Group) Helsinki-86 was founded in July 1986 in the Latvian port town of Liepāja by three workers: Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss. Its name refers to the human-rights statements of the Helsinki Accords. Helsinki-86 was the first openly anti-Communist organization in the U.S.S.R., and the first openly organized opposition to the Soviet regime, setting an example for other ethnic minorities' pro-independence movements.[citation needed]

Question: What party was Helsinki-86 in disagreement with?
Answer: Communist

Question: What group was the first to oppose the Soviet government publicly?
Answer: Helsinki-86

Question: Who created the CTAG?
Answer: Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss.
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

The "Jeltoqsan" (Kazakh for "December") of 1986 were riots in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, sparked by Gorbachev's dismissal of Dinmukhamed Konayev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and an ethnic Kazakh, who was replaced with Gennady Kolbin, an outsider from the Russian SFSR. Demonstrations started in the morning of December 17, 1986, with 200 to 300 students in front of the Central Committee building on Brezhnev Square protesting Konayev's dismissal and replacement by a Russian. Protesters swelled to 1,000 to 5,000 as other students joined the crowd. The CPK Central Committee ordered troops from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, druzhiniki (volunteers), cadets, policemen, and the KGB to cordon the square and videotape the participants. The situation escalated around 5 p.m., as troops were ordered to disperse the protesters. Clashes between the security forces and the demonstrators continued throughout the night in Almaty.

Question: What is the English translation of the word Jeltoqsan?
Answer: December

Question: Who was fired by Gorbachev causing riots?
Answer: Dinmukhamed Konayev

Question: What position did Konayev hold in Kazakhstan prior to his removal?
Answer: First Secretary of the Communist Party

Question: Who took the place of Konayev?
Answer: Gennady Kolbin

Question: When were the first demonstrations in Kazakhstan to protest the removal and replacement of Konayev?
Answer: December 17, 1986
Title: Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

On the next day, December 18, protests turned into civil unrest as clashes between troops, volunteers, militia units, and Kazakh students turned into a wide-scale confrontation. The clashes could only be controlled on the third day. The Almaty events were followed by smaller protests and demonstrations in Shymkent, Pavlodar, Karaganda, and Taldykorgan. Reports from Kazakh SSR authorities estimated that the riots drew 3,000 people. Other estimates are of at least 30,000 to 40,000 protestors with 5,000 arrested and jailed, and an unknown number of casualties. Jeltoqsan leaders say over 60,000 Kazakhs participated in the protests. According to the Kazakh SSR government, there were two deaths during the riots, including a volunteer police worker and a student. Both of them had died due to blows to the head. About 100 others were detained and several others were sentenced to terms in labor camps. Sources cited by the Library of Congress claimed that at least 200 people died or were summarily executed soon thereafter; some accounts estimate casualties at more than 1,000. The writer Mukhtar Shakhanov claimed that a KGB officer testified that 168 protesters were killed, but that figure remains unconfirmed.

Question: Who was demonstrating?
Answer: Kazakh students

Question: How many people were estimated by authorities to have attended the riots?
Answer: 3,000

Question: How did the Kazakh SSR government say the two protesters were killed?
Answer: blows to the head

Question: What were the attendance estimates from non governmental groups?
Answer: 30,000 to 40,000

Question: Who wrote about the KGB officer's testimony?
Answer: Mukhtar Shakhanov