rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Circadian_rhythm

Studies conducted on both animals and humans show major bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and abusive drugs. It is indicated that these abusive drugs affect the central circadian pacemaker. Individuals suffering from substance abuse display disrupted rhythms. These disrupted rhythms can increase the risk for substance abuse and relapse. It is possible that genetic and/or environmental disturbances to the normal sleep and wake cycle can increase the susceptibility to addiction.

Question: What do studies show has a bidirectional relationship with the circadian system?
Answer: abusive drugs

Question: What do abusive drugs effect in the circadian system?
Answer: circadian pacemaker

Question: What do drug abusers show in their circadian processes?
Answer: disrupted rhythms

Question: What can the disrupted circadian system cause?
Answer: abuse and relapse

Question: What can disruption to genetics and environment in the sleep cycle cause?
Answer: susceptibility to addiction
Title: Circadian_rhythm

What drove circadian rhythms to evolve has been an enigmatic question. Previous hypotheses emphasized that photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms may have originated together in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high levels of damaging ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. However, evidence for this is lacking, since the simplest organisms with a circadian rhythm, the cyanobacteria, do the opposite of this - they divide more in the daytime. Recent studies instead highlight the importance of co-evolution of redox proteins with circadian oscillators in all three kingdoms of life following the Great Oxidation Event approximately 2.3 billion years ago. The current view is that circadian changes in environmental oxygen levels and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of daylight are likely to have driven a need to evolve circadian rhythms to preempt, and therefore counteract, damaging redox reactions on a daily basis.

Question: What is theorized to have evolved with circadian rhythms?
Answer: photosensitive proteins

Question: What is thought that circadian rhythm evolved to protect?
Answer: replicating DNA

Question: From what did  DNA need to be protected in the earliest cells? 
Answer: ultraviolet radiation

Question: One possible reason for the development of the circadian system is the need to counteract what ?
Answer: redox reactions

Question: What environmental event occurred 2.3 million years ago?
Answer: Great Oxidation Event
Title: Circadian_rhythm

Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events; clock-mutant mice are hyperphagic and obese, and have altered glucose metabolism. In mice, deletion of the Rev-ErbA alpha clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes. However, it is not clear whether there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.

Question: What is the body clock gene in animals necessary to ensure?
Answer: cellular/metabolic events

Question: What do mice without the clock gene become?
Answer: hyperphagic and obese

Question: Beside obesity, how else does the lack of a circadian clock effect   the mice?
Answer: glucose metabolism

Question: How certain is it that these circadian clock  effects are the same in humans?
Answer: not clear

Question: What gene needs to be deleted to cause obesity in mice?
Answer: Rev-ErbA alpha clock
Title: Circadian_rhythm

The primary circadian "clock" in mammals is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of cells located in the hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep–wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The retina of the eye contains "classical" photoreceptors ("rods" and "cones"), which are used for conventional vision. But the retina also contains specialized ganglion cells that are directly photosensitive, and project directly to the SCN, where they help in the entrainment (synchronization) of this master circadian clock.

Question: Where is the primary circadian gene located in humans?
Answer: suprachiasmatic nucleus

Question: Where are these cell groups found in humans?
Answer: hypothalamus

Question: What would the loss of the SCN cells cause in the sleep-wake rhythm?
Answer: complete absence

Question: What provides information to the SCN?
Answer: eyes

Question: What special cells in the eyes communicate directly to the SCN cells?
Answer: ganglion
Title: Circadian_rhythm

Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights.[dubious – discuss] The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.[citation needed] A more stringent study conducted in 1999 by Harvard University estimated the natural human rhythm to be closer to 24 hours, 11 minutes: much closer to the solar day but still not perfectly in sync.

Question: What did early research show people preferred as a day length?
Answer: 25 hours

Question: What was the fault not considered in the early theories of day length?
Answer: artificial light

Question: What did electric lighting in the evening do to the test subjects circadian phase?
Answer: delayed

Question: To what is the 24 hours, 11 minutes day outcome of research closest ?
Answer: solar day

Question: When did more stringent testing determine that humans preferred a 24 hour day? 
Answer: 1999
Title: Circadian_rhythm

More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal gland,[citation needed] oesophagus, lungs, liver, pancreas, spleen, thymus, and skin.[citation needed] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven. There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.[citation needed]

Question: Where else beside the SCN cells are independent circadian rhythms also found?
Answer: organs and cells

Question: What is the term for the independent clocks?
Answer: peripheral oscillators

Question: What is the SCN considered to be in comparison to the peripheral oscillators?
Answer: master clock

Question: In what body gland are the peripheral oscillators located?
Answer: adrenal gland

Question: To what do oscillators in the skin respond?
Answer: light
Title: Elizabeth_II

Elizabeth's many historic visits and meetings include a state visit to the Republic of Ireland and reciprocal visits to and from the Pope. She has seen major constitutional changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation, and the decolonisation of Africa. She has also reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms. She is the world's oldest reigning monarch as well as Britain's longest-lived. In 2015, she surpassed the reign of her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-reigning British head of state and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history.

Question: Who is the world's oldest reigning monarch?
Answer: Elizabeth

Question: Than which queen has Elizabeth ruled longer?
Answer: Queen Victoria

Question: How is Victoria related to Elizabeth?
Answer: great-great-grandmother

Question: In what year did Elizabeth pass Victoria's length of rule?
Answer: 2015

Question: In the history of what is Elizabeth the longest reigning queen?
Answer: world history
Title: Elizabeth_II

During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war. Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent. In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.

Question: Who did England propose to affiliate with Wales to quell Welsh nationalism?
Answer: Elizabeth

Question: Why did Britain not want Elizabeth to associate with conscientious objectors?
Answer: Britain was at war

Question: What did Elizabeth join in 1946?
Answer: Welsh Gorsedd of Bards

Question: Who was the always the Prince of Wales?
Answer: heir apparent

Question: Who wanted to name Elizabeth Princess of Wales?
Answer: Herbert Morrison
Title: Elizabeth_II

Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world. Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell. In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding. The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.

Question: When were Elizabeth and Philip married?
Answer: 20 November 1947

Question: At what famous cathedral was Elizabeth married?
Answer: Westminster Abbey

Question: How many wedding gifts did Elizabeth and Philip receive?
Answer: 2500

Question: Who designed Elizabeth's wedding gown?
Answer: Norman Hartnell

Question: What former King was not invited to the wedding?
Answer: Duke of Windsor
Title: Elizabeth_II

Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out." Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession. Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend. In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.

Question: Who did Princess Margaret want to marry?
Answer: Peter Townsend

Question: What did Queen Elizabeth ask Margaret to do instead of marring Townsend?
Answer: wait for a year

Question: What act would the Church of England not permit?
Answer: remarriage after divorce

Question: Who did Princess Margaret marry in 1960?
Answer: Antony Armstrong-Jones

Question: What title was Armstrong-Jones given?
Answer: Earl of Snowdon
Title: Elizabeth_II

The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited, Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch". Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments. Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised the Queen to appoint the Earl of Home as prime minister, advice that she followed. The Queen again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister. In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving her of involvement.

Question: Aside from her choice of Eden's successor, what crisis caused Elizabeth to be criticized?
Answer: Suez crisis

Question: What did Lord Altrincham accuse Elizabeth of being?
Answer: out of touch

Question: When did Macmillan resign?
Answer: 1963

Question: Who did Elizabeth appoint as Prime Minister after the resignation of Macmillan?
Answer: Earl of Home

Question: When was a formal mechanism for electing the Minister adopted?
Answer: 1965
Title: Elizabeth_II

A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals. As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, stating that she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general. The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.

Question: During the Australian constitutional crisis, what Prime Minister was dismissed?
Answer: Gough Whitlam

Question: Who dismissed Whilam from the post of Australian Prime Minister?
Answer: Governor-General Sir John Kerr

Question: Who appealed to Elizabeth to reverse the dismissal of Whitlam?
Answer: Speaker Gordon Scholes

Question: What did Whitlam have in the House of Representatives?
Answer: a majority

Question: What did Elizabeth decline to do in response to the appeal by Scholes?
Answer: interfere
Title: Elizabeth_II

In 1987, in Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau. The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. Elizabeth, as monarch of Fiji, supported the attempts of the Governor-General, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic. By the start of 1991, republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of the Queen's private wealth—which were contradicted by the Palace—and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family. The involvement of the younger royals in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout was ridiculed and the Queen was the target of satire.

Question: When did Elizabeth support constitutional amendments in Canada?
Answer: 1987

Question: What politician criticized the proposed changes?
Answer: Pierre Trudeau

Question: In 1987 what elected government was removed in a coup?
Answer: Fijian government

Question: What did coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka declare Fiji to be?
Answer: republic

Question: In 1991 what money issue of the Queen was a feature of public criticism?
Answer: private wealth
Title: Elizabeth_II

In 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee. Her sister and mother died in February and March respectively, and the media speculated whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure. She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, which began in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable" after a power cut plunged the King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness. As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. A million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London, and the enthusiasm shown by the public for the Queen was greater than many journalists had expected.

Question: What did Elizabeth celebrate in 2002?
Answer: Golden Jubilee

Question: When did Elizabeth's mother die in 2002?
Answer: March

Question: What relative of Elizabeth died in February of 2002?
Answer: Her sister

Question: How many people in London attended each day of the the three day event? 
Answer: million

Question: What group was surprised by the public's approval of the Queen?
Answer: journalists
Title: Elizabeth_II

The Queen, who opened the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two different countries. For the London Olympics, she played herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond. On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA for her patronage of the film industry and was called "the most memorable Bond girl yet" at the award ceremony.

Question: When did Elizabeth open the Summer Olympics in Montreal?
Answer: 1976

Question: When did Queen Elizabeth open the Summer Olympics in London?
Answer: 2012

Question: For what event did Elizabeth appear in a film as part of the opening ceremonies?
Answer: London Olympics

Question: What actor also appeared with Elizabeth in the film?
Answer: Daniel Craig

Question: For what activity related to the film industry did Elizabeth receive a BAFTA award?
Answer: patronage
Title: Elizabeth_II

Elizabeth's personal fortune has been the subject of speculation for many years. Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (equivalent to about £25 million today). In 1993, Buckingham Palace called estimates of £100 million "grossly overstated". She inherited an estimated £70 million estate from her mother in 2002. The Sunday Times Rich List 2015 estimated her private wealth at £340 million, making her the 302nd richest person in the UK.

Question: What has been a subject of speculation concerning Elizabeth's wealth?
Answer: personal fortune

Question: What was Elizabeth's wealth extimated to be in 1971?
Answer: £2 million

Question: What did the palace call estimates of Elizabeth wealth in 1993?
Answer: "grossly overstated"

Question: What did the Sunday Times estimate Elizabeth's fortune to be in 2015?
Answer: £340 million

Question: Where does Elizabeth's wealth place her in the list of the richest in the UK?
Answer: 302nd
Title: Elizabeth_II

Times of personal significance have included the births and marriages of her children, grandchildren and great grandchildren, her coronation in 1953, and the celebration of milestones such as her Silver, Golden and Diamond Jubilees in 1977, 2002, and 2012, respectively. Moments of sadness for her include the death of her father, aged 56; the assassination of Prince Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten; the breakdown of her children's marriages in 1992 (her annus horribilis); the death in 1997 of her son's former wife, Diana, Princess of Wales; and the deaths of her mother and sister in 2002. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and severe press criticism of the royal family, but support for the monarchy and her personal popularity remain high.

Question: When was Elizabeth's coronation?
Answer: 1953

Question: When was Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee?
Answer: 2012

Question: How old was Elizabeth's father at the time of his death?
Answer: 56

Question: How did Prince Philip's uncle, Lord Mounbatten, die?
Answer: assassination

Question: In what year did Elizabeth's  son's ex-wife die?
Answer: 1997
Title: Elizabeth_II

Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died. The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries: English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.

Question: When was the coronation of Elizabeth as Queen?
Answer: 2 June 1953

Question: How was much of the ceremony of Elizabeth's coronation presented to the public?
Answer: televised

Question: What Commonwealth symbols were embroidered on Elizabeth's gown?
Answer: floral emblems

Question: What is the emblem of England?
Answer: Tudor rose

Question: What people have a thistle for their Commonwealth emblem?
Answer: Scots
Title: Elizabeth_II

In 1957, she made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session. Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada. In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran. On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins. Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen." Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported that extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination. No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; the Queen's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.

Question: When did Elizabeth address the UN General Assembly?
Answer: 1957

Question: What parliamentary session did Elizabeth open in 1957 while on tour? 
Answer: 23rd Canadian Parliament

Question: On a tour to Ghana in 1961 what did Elizabeth dismiss as a fear?
Answer: her safety

Question: In 1964 what was reported that Quebec extremists planned ?
Answer: Elizabeth's assassination
Title: Elizabeth_II

In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed the Queen's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband. In 1978, the Queen endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist dictator, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena, though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands". The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.

Question: What Jubilee did Elizabeth celebrate in 1977?
Answer: Silver

Question: When did Princess Margaret separate from her husband?
Answer: 1977

Question: In what year did Nicolae Ceausescu visit the UK?
Answer: 1978

Question: Who, in 1979, was discovered to be a communist spy?
Answer: Anthony Blunt

Question: What group assassinated Lord Mountbatten?
Answer: Provisional Irish Republican Army