rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Umayyad_Caliphate

Many Muslims criticized the Umayyads for having too many non-Muslim, former Roman administrators in their government. St John of Damascus was also a high administrator in the Umayyad administration. As the Muslims took over cities, they left the peoples political representatives and the Roman tax collectors and the administrators. The taxes to the central government were calculated and negotiated by the peoples political representatives. The Central government got paid for the services it provided and the local government got the money for the services it provided. Many Christian cities also used some of the taxes on maintain their churches and run their own organizations. Later the Umayyads were criticized by some Muslims for not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam. These new converts continues to pay the same taxes that were previously negotiated.

Question: What Christian saint was also an Umayyad administrator?
Answer: John of Damascus

Question: What tax collectors did the Umayyads often leave in place after they conquered regions?
Answer: Roman

Question: In addition to criticism received for employing non-Muslims, for what notable reason did some Muslims criticize the Umayyads?
Answer: not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam
Title: Umayyad_Caliphate

The Umayyads have met with a largely negative reception from later Islamic historians, who have accused them of promoting a kingship (mulk, a term with connotations of tyranny) instead of a true caliphate (khilafa). In this respect it is notable that the Umayyad caliphs referred to themselves not as khalifat rasul Allah ("successor of the messenger of God", the title preferred by the tradition), but rather as khalifat Allah ("deputy of God"). The distinction seems to indicate that the Umayyads "regarded themselves as God's representatives at the head of the community and saw no need to share their religious power with, or delegate it to, the emergent class of religious scholars." In fact, it was precisely this class of scholars, based largely in Iraq, that was responsible for collecting and recording the traditions that form the primary source material for the history of the Umayyad period. In reconstructing this history, therefore, it is necessary to rely mainly on sources, such as the histories of Tabari and Baladhuri, that were written in the Abbasid court at Baghdad.

Question: What Arabic term did the Umayyad caliphs use to refer to themselves?
Answer: khalifat Allah

Question: Where was the Abbasid court based?
Answer: Baghdad

Question: What is the Arabic term for kingship?
Answer: mulk

Question: What was the tradition Arabic title used by caliphs?
Answer: khalifat rasul Allah

Question: What does khalifat Allah translate to in English?
Answer: deputy of God
Title: Asphalt

Asphalt/bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen, in three huge deposits covering 142,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi), an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain 166 billion barrels (26.4×10^9 m3) of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. and produce over 2.3 million barrels per day (370×10^3 m3/d) of heavy crude oil and synthetic crude oil. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the bitumen is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States.

Question: What is another term for asphalt?
Answer: bitumen

Question: Besides occurrences in Canada, where in the US is asphalt found?
Answer: Utah

Question: How much of the planet's asphalt is located in Canada?
Answer: most

Question: What is the area amount of the Canadian asphalt deposits?
Answer: 142,000 square kilometres

Question: Where does most of Canada's asphalt end up these days?
Answer: oil refineries
Title: Asphalt

The first use of asphalt/bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the Tongva, Luiseño and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water. Asphaltum was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes.

Question: What group initially made use of asphalt?
Answer: indigenous peoples

Question: For what purpose did American Indians use asphalt? 
Answer: adhesive

Question: What sort of deposits does asphalt overlay?
Answer: petroleum

Question: What would early users of asphalt want to achieve by putting it on baskets?
Answer: watertight

Question: On what type of boat was asphalt used to seal planks?
Answer: canoes
Title: Asphalt

When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements, such as milling to remove a worn or damaged surface, the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt/bitumen in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes. With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt, a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the Federal Highway Administration and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments.

Question: What is used asphalt turned back into?
Answer: new pavement mixtures

Question: How much of yearly acquired asphalt is reclaimed?
Answer: 99%

Question: What percentage of new roadways are surfaced with asphalt?
Answer: 95%

Question: During what action is asphalt often reclaimed?
Answer: maintenance

Question: For what reason is asphalt removed from a road? 
Answer: worn or damaged
Title: Asphalt

In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the Syncrude Canada, Canadian Natural Resources, and Nexen upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell Scotford Upgrader near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery. A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near Redwater, Alberta, will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants.

Question: How many asphalt upgraders operate in Alberta?
Answer: five

Question: What synthetic product is produced by upgraders?
Answer: crude oil

Question: Besides crude oil, what does the Suncor Energy plant produce?
Answer: diesel fuel

Question: Where is a sixth upgrader being built in Alberta?
Answer: Redwater, Alberta

Question: How much of the production of the Redwater plant will into diesel fuel?
Answer: half
Title: Asphalt

Asphalt/bitumen is typically stored and transported at temperatures around 150 °C (302 °F). Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock", or BFS. Some dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt/bitumen, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a release agent due to environmental concerns.

Question: About what temperature is asphalt shipped?
Answer: 150 °C

Question: To promote what characteristic is diesel oil added to asphalt for shipping?
Answer: liquidity

Question: What is the liquefied mixture called? 
Answer: bitumen feedstock

Question: What truck feature is occasionally used to keep asphalt warm?
Answer: engine exhaust

Question: Due to what concerns is diesel fuel no longer used as a release agent for transporting asphalt?
Answer: environmental
Title: Asphalt

The Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman Coquand published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale.

Question: What ancient group used bitumen extraction?
Answer: Romans

Question: When were the first published reports of bitumen extraction in Albania?
Answer: 1868

Question: What government had exploitation rights for bitumen extraction?
Answer: Ottoman

Question: When were the Ottoman rights given to the Simsa company?
Answer: 1912

Question: When was management of Albanian bitumen acquired by the French?
Answer: 2001
Title: Asphalt

The word asphalt is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French asphalte, based on Late Latin asphalton, asphaltum, which is the latinisation of the Greek ἄσφαλτος (ásphaltos, ásphalton), a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch", which perhaps derives from ἀ-, "without" and σφάλλω (sfallō), "make fall". Note that in French, the term asphalte is used for naturally occurring bitumen-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads. It is a significant fact that the first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically Herodotus mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall. From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (asphalte) and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt").

Question: What is the last origination of the word asphalt?
Answer: late Middle English

Question: From what language does asphalt initially come?
Answer: Greek

Question: What are the meanings of the Greek word for asphalt?
Answer: asphalt/bitumen/pitch

Question: What is the French term for natural asphalt?
Answer: asphalte

Question: To construct what feature was asphalt brought to Babylon?
Answer: wall
Title: Asphalt

The terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt (or asphalt cement) is the carefully refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen. Geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to various forms of asphalt/bitumen as "tar", such as at the La Brea Tar Pits. Another archaic term for asphalt/bitumen is "pitch".

Question: How are the words bitumen and asphalt frequently used?
Answer: interchangeably

Question: Where is bitumen the usual term for refined residue from crude oils?
Answer: United States

Question: What group likes the term bitumen instead of asphalt?
Answer: Geologists

Question: What is a naming term for asphalt?
Answer: tar

Question: What is asphalt called outside of the US?
Answer: bitumen
Title: Asphalt

The great majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless, large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of asphalt/bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae (diatoms) and other once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50 °C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as asphalt/bitumen, kerogen, or petroleum.

Question: From where does most asphalt come?
Answer: petroleum

Question: What are the sources of natural deposits of asphalt?
Answer: once-living things

Question: How much heat is required for the natural production of asphalt?
Answer: above 50 °C

Question: Besides heat, what other requirement is needed to form asphalt?
Answer: pressure

Question: What other product of heat and pressure does the formation of asphalt and petroleum  produce?
Answer: kerogen
Title: Asphalt

The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil sands is located in the McMurray Formation of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early Cretaceous, and is composed of numerous lenses of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil. Isotopic studies attribute the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the Peace River oil sands and the Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta bitumen deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery techniques like steam-assisted gravity drainage.

Question: What is the name of the world's greatest deposit of bitumen?
Answer: Athabasca oil sands

Question: Where are the Athabasca oil sands located?
Answer: Northern Alberta

Question: What formative period  produced bitumen?
Answer: early Cretaceous

Question: How old are the Athabasca deposits?
Answer: 110 million years

Question: What percentage of recovery of bitumen is by oil wells?
Answer: 80%
Title: Asphalt

Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826 or 1827, it was used by French scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to make the oldest surviving photograph from nature. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a pewter plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a photoresist in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes.[not in citation given]

Question: In what early technology was bitumen used?
Answer: photographic

Question: What photographer used bitumen to make the earliest extant nature picture?
Answer: Joseph Nicéphore Niépce

Question: What feature of bitumen use in photography made it impractical?
Answer: hours of exposure

Question: During what period was bitumen used in printing processes?
Answer: 1850s to the 1920s

Question: Exposure to what natural element was necessary for early photographic plates?
Answer: light
Title: Asphalt

The first British patent for the use of asphalt/bitumen was 'Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen' in 1834. Then on 25 November 1837, Richard Tappin Claridge patented the use of Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849), for use in asphalte pavement, having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with Frederick Walter Simms, who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)". Indeed, mastic pavements had been previously employed at Vauxhall by a competitor of Claridge, but without success.

Question: When did Richard Tappin Claridge patent asphalt for use in pavement?
Answer: 25 November 1837

Question: When was the first British patent for the use of bitumen?
Answer: 1834

Question: Where had Claridge previously seen asphalt used as pavement?
Answer: France and Belgium

Question: What friend of Claridge's was helpful in introducing asphalt for use in pavements?
Answer: Samuel Ryland Phipson

Question: What type of pavement techniques had already been tried by a competitor of Claridge?
Answer: mastic
Title: Asphalt

Roads in the US have been paved with materials that include asphalt/bitumen since at least 1870, when a street in front of the Newark, NJ City Hall was paved. In many cases, these early pavings were made from naturally occurring "bituminous rock", such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial. Asphalt/bitumen was also used for flooring, paving and waterproofing of baths and swimming pools during the early 20th century, following similar trends in Europe.

Question: Since what date has asphalt been used for road paving in the US?
Answer: 1870

Question: In front of what NJ building was the street paved with asphalt in 1870?
Answer: City Hall

Question: What natural substance was used in early road pavings?
Answer: bituminous rock

Question: From what Virginia  mines was asphalt obtained for early street pavings?
Answer: Ritchie Mines

Question: For what purpose was asphalt used in swimming pools and baths?
Answer: waterproofing
Title: Asphalt

In 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt/bitumen, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, with these latter themselves proliferating in the 19th century. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s"

Question: In what year was asphalt used for uses aside from road paving?
Answer: 1838

Question: In what places were asphalt used as waterproofing?
Answer: pools and baths

Question: For what reason was asphalt used in the flooring of buildings?
Answer: damp proofing

Question: When was Claridge's asphalt the most often used? 
Answer: 1840s and 50s

Question: Many of what were granted in France, but denied in Britain?
Answer: patents
Title: Asphalt

The value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen were not. The nearest town, Fort McMurray, Alberta was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the bitumen to pave 600 feet of road in Edmonton, Alberta. Other roads in Alberta were paved with oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s Dr. Karl A. Clark of the Alberta Research Council patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built the Bitumount oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to 300 barrels (50 m3) per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives. Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a Provincial Historic Site.

Question: Who experimented with bitumen extraction techniques to make shipping easier?
Answer: Sidney Ells

Question: What researcher patented a hot water oil process to separate bitumen?
Answer: Dr. Karl A. Clark

Question: When did Ells begin using bitumen as a paving in Alberta?
Answer: 1915

Question: Who constructed the Bitumont oil separation plant?
Answer: Robert C. Fitzsimmons

Question: For what was most of the the Bitumont plant's output was used for waterproofing?
Answer: roofs
Title: Asphalt

Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican heavy oil in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through oil pipelines to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US Gulf coast, where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline. By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over 1.3 million barrels (210×10^3 m3) per day, of which about 65% was exported to the United States.

Question: What property of bitumen makes it difficult to move through pipelines?
Answer: extremely viscous

Question: What industry is capable of refining bitumen directly into gasoline without preprocessing?
Answer: modern oil refineries

Question: Why do refineries like to buy bitumen instead of synthetic oil?
Answer: cost is lower

Question: How much Canadian bitumen was exported to the US by 2015?
Answer: 65%
Title: Asphalt

A number of technologies allow asphalt/bitumen to be mixed at much lower temperatures. These involve mixing with petroleum solvents to form "cutbacks" with reduced melting point, or mixtures with water to turn the asphalt/bitumen into an emulsion. Asphalt emulsions contain up to 70% asphalt/bitumen and typically less than 1.5% chemical additives. There are two main types of emulsions with different affinity for aggregates, cationic and anionic. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal involves the creation of a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements.

Question: What does mixing bitumen with water create?
Answer: emulsion

Question: What percentage of bitumen is found in bitumen/water emulsions?
Answer: 70%

Question: What are the two types of bitumen emulsions?
Answer: cationic and anionic

Question: What are some bitumen emulsions blended with to make a low-cost product?
Answer: recycled

Question: What kind of asphalt pavements an cold-mix asphalt resemble?
Answer: hot-mixed