rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Architecture

The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders.

Question: From what ideals did Classical architecture emerge?
Answer: civic ideals

Question: These civic ideas allowed what to come into being?
Answer: new building types

Question: What ideals were Greek and Roman Classical architecture not based on?
Answer: religious or empirical ones

Question: What owes its development to the Classical orders?
Answer: Architectural "style"
Title: Architecture

Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious.

Question: When were architectural writings first made?
Answer: ancient time

Question: Aside from general advice what did the texts contain?
Answer: specific formal prescriptions

Question: What is another term for specific formal prescriptions?
Answer: canons

Question: When did Vitruvius write his canons?
Answer: 1st-century BCE

Question: What is a significant early architectural canonical type?
Answer: religious
Title: Architecture

In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

Question: What organizations were created by Medieval craftsmen?
Answer: guilds

Question: What records of the guilds are still in existence?
Answer: written contracts

Question: What was the main thing the contracts were had to do with?
Answer: ecclesiastical buildings

Question: What is another term for master mason?
Answer: Magister lathomorum
Title: Architecture

A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.

Question: What aspects of buildings did science and engineering have an effect on?
Answer: proportions and structure

Question: Who still could handle the structural calculations for designing at that time?
Answer: generalist
Title: Architecture

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.

Question: What two fields began to grow apart?
Answer: architecture and engineering

Question: What did architects often neglect in their pursuit of aesthetics?
Answer: technical aspects of building design

Question: What was a term for an architect who catered to the wealthy?
Answer: "gentleman architect"

Question: What did 19th century formal architectural training neglect?
Answer: context and feasibility

Question: Where did most architects learn their trade?
Answer: in the offices of other architects
Title: Architecture

Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.

Question: What started with the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: mass production and consumption

Question: What became cheap enough for the middle class to buy?
Answer: ornamented products

Question: As products came within their financial reach what concept began to interest the middle class?
Answer: Aesthetics
Title: Architecture

Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.

Question: What kind of books did housebuilders use?
Answer: pattern books and architectural journals

Question: What type of design did these texts allow the builders to incorporate?
Answer: current architectural design
Title: Architecture

Around the beginning of the 20th century, a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.

Question: At what century's start did revivalist fall into disfavor? 
Answer: 20th

Question: What new type of architecture was starting to come into being at this time?
Answer: Modern Architecture

Question: When did the Deutscher Werkbund get its start?
Answer: 1907

Question: What was the point of the Deutscher Werkbund?
Answer: to produce better quality machine made objects

Question: In 1919 what school opened in Weimar, Germany?
Answer: the Bauhaus school
Title: Architecture

When modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.

Question: What kind of movement was modern architecture in the beginning?
Answer: avant-garde movement

Question: Who was the new movement meant to suit the needs of?
Answer: the middle and working classes

Question: Whose needs were no longer relevant to the new style?
Answer: the rapidly declining aristocratic order

Question: What sort of details did the Modernists' want in their buildings?
Answer: functionalist

Question: What details did Modernists' do away with?
Answer: historical references and ornament
Title: Architecture

Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater.

Question: Who was instrumental in creating Organic architecture?
Answer: Frank Lloyd Wright

Question: What are two of Wright's designs?
Answer: Robie House and Fallingwater

Question: What was Wright's intention regarding humans and nature?
Answer: to promote harmony
Title: Architecture

Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed by Minoru Yamasaki.

Question: What made it possible to design architecture through new means and methods?
Answer: the Industrial Revolution

Question: What new type of construction allowed the making of skyscrapers?
Answer: steel-frame construction

Question: What style came after Modernism?
Answer: International Style

Question: What is an example of International Style?
Answer: Twin Towers

Question: Who designed the Twin Towers?
Answer: Minoru Yamasaki
Title: Architecture

Many architects resisted modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after WWII, a second generation of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, buildings with expressive sculptural facades made of unfinished concrete. But an even new younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures.

Question: What aspect of historical styles did a lot of architects find lacking in modernist styles?
Answer: decorative richness

Question: Who were three architects who influenced Brutalism?
Answer: Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen

Question: What material was used in Brutalist structures?
Answer: unfinished concrete

Question: Who disagreed with the aesthetic of Brutalism?
Answer: postwar generation
Title: Architecture

One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture, which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture, both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to be merely an aspect of postmodernism, others consider it to be a school in its own right and a later development of expressionist architecture.

Question: What school was a response to Brutalism?
Answer: the school of metaphoric architecture

Question: What are two examples of metaphoric architecture?
Answer: biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture

Question: What are biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture based after design wise?
Answer: nature

Question: What type of architecture do some consider metaphoric architecture to be a development of?
Answer: expressionist architecture
Title: Architecture

Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like Charles Moore in the USA, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio Gregotti in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents. Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building technology and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles, from high classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. Robert Venturi famously defined postmodern architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside), and upheld it against modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).

Question: When was the start of the  architectural phenomenology movement?
Answer: the late 1950s and 1960s

Question: What was  architectural phenomenology reacting to?
Answer: modernism

Question: What were the architectural phenomenologists hoping to expand?
Answer: human experience

Question: Who called postmodern architecture a "decorated shed"?
Answer: Robert Venturi

Question: What term did Venturi use for brutalist and mondernist buildings?
Answer: "ducks"
Title: Architecture

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect [Notes 1] from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability.[Notes 2] The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticised by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Question: About when did architecture begin specializing?
Answer: Since the 1980s

Question: Who can no longer design a large structure?
Answer: one person

Question: What two architectural movements have come under criticism for their focus on individuality? 
Answer: Modernism and Postmodernism
Title: Architecture

Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with profound effect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in Passive solar building design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the 1960s by Buckminster Fuller and in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques. The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.

Question: What issue has moved to the forefront in recent years?
Answer: Environmental sustainability

Question: What do architecture schools look at more and more nowadays?
Answer: the environment

Question: Who was the first to design architecture environmentally?
Answer: Frank Lloyd Wright

Question: Who was known for focusing on the environment in the 1960s?
Answer: Buckminster Fuller

Question: What organization's rating system promotes sustainability?
Answer: The U.S. Green Building Council
Title: Architecture

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism, Metaphoric architecture and New Classical Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design. This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.

Question: What are three new movements that have a focus on sustainability?
Answer: New Urbanism, Metaphoric architecture and New Classical Architecture

Question: What kinds of buildings and building developments are the new movements not in favor of?
Answer: solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.

Question: What are three things the new movements try to achieve?
Answer: smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design

Question: What older architectural movements do the newer movements not go along with?
Answer: modernist and globally uniform architecture
Title: Human_Development_Index

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and income per capita indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores higher HDI when the life expectancy at birth is longer, the education period is longer, and the income per capita is higher. The HDI was developed by the Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq, often framed in terms of whether people are able to "be" and "do" desirable things in their life, and was published by the United Nations Development Programme.

Question: Which three statistics does the HDI compile?
Answer: life expectancy, education, and income per capita

Question: Does a high ranking on the HDI indicate shorter or longer life expectancy?
Answer: longer

Question: Who developed the HDI?
Answer: Mahbub ul Haq

Question: What entity publishes the HDI?
Answer: United Nations Development Programme

Question: Does a high ranking on the HDI indicate shorter or longer life expectancy at birth?
Answer: longer
Title: Human_Development_Index

The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). While the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that "the IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for inequality)," and "the HDI can be viewed as an index of 'potential' human development (or the maximum IHDI that could be achieved if there were no inequality)."

Question: In what year did the Human Development Report introduce the IHDI?
Answer: 2010

Question: What does IHDI stand for?
Answer: Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index

Question: Which measures the potential development, the HDI or the IHDI?
Answer: the IHDI

Question: Which measures the potential development, the HDI or the IHDI?
Answer: the HDI
Title: Human_Development_Index

The origins of the HDI are found in the annual Development Reports of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). These were devised and launched by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq in 1990 and had the explicit purpose "to shift the focus of development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies". To produce the Human Development Reports, Mahbub ul Haq formed a group of development economists including Paul Streeten, Frances Stewart, Gustav Ranis, Keith Griffin, Sudhir Anand, and Meghnad Desai. Working alongside Nobel laureate Amartya Sen, they worked on capabilities and functions that provided the underlying conceptual framework. Haq was sure that a simple composite measure of human development was needed in order to convince the public, academics, and politicians that they can and should evaluate development not only by economic advances but also improvements in human well-being. Sen initially opposed this idea, but he soon went on to help Haq develop the Index. Sen was worried that it was going to be difficult to capture the full complexity of human capabilities in a single index, but Haq persuaded him that only a single number would shift the immediate attention of politicians from economic to human well-being.

Question: In what year did Mahbub ul Haq devise and launch the HDI?
Answer: 1990

Question: Who was initially opposed to the idea of creating the HDI?
Answer: Amartya Sen

Question: Mahbub ul Haq was hoping to shift the focus of development economics to what type of policies?
Answer: people-centered policies

Question: Which year was used for estimates in the 2011 report?
Answer: 1990
Title: Human_Development_Index

LE: Life expectancy at birth
MYS: Mean years of schooling (Years that a person 25 years-of-age or older has spent in schools)
EYS: Expected years of schooling (Years that a 5-year-old child will spend in schools throughout his life)
GNIpc: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita

Question: What does LE stand for?
Answer: Life expectancy at birth

Question: What does MYS stand for?
Answer: Mean years of schooling

Question: What does EYS stand for?
Answer: Expected years of schooling

Question: What does GNIpc stand for?
Answer: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita
Title: Human_Development_Index

The formula defining the HDI is promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). In general, to transform a raw variable, say , into a unit-free index between 0 and 1 (which allows different indices to be added together), the following formula is used:

Question: What entity makes the defining formula for the HDI well-known?
Answer: the United Nations Development Programme
Title: Human_Development_Index

The 2015 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Program was released on December 14, 2015, and calculates HDI values based on estimates for 2014. Below is the list of the "very high human development" countries:

Question: On what date was the 2015 Human Development Report released?
Answer: December 14, 2015

Question: Which year was used for estimates in the 2015 report?
Answer: 2014
Title: Human_Development_Index

The 2014 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Program was released on July 24, 2014, and calculates HDI values based on estimates for 2013. Below is the list of the "very high human development" countries:

Question: On what date was the 2014 Human Development Report released?
Answer: July 24, 2014

Question: Which year was used for estimates in the 2014 report?
Answer: 2013
Title: Human_Development_Index

The Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) is a "measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account."

Question: What does the IHDI specifically take into account?
Answer: Inequality

Question: Does the IHDI measure the "average" or the "potential" level of human development? 
Answer: the average level
Title: Human_Development_Index

Countries in the top quartile of HDI ("very high human development" group) with a missing IHDI: New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Liechtenstein, Brunei, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Andorra, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Cuba, and Kuwait.

Question: Which Caribbean nation is in the top quartile of HDI (but missing IHDI)?
Answer: Cuba

Question: Is the top quartile of HDI considered "high" or "very high" human development?
Answer: very high
Title: Human_Development_Index

Some countries were not included for various reasons, primarily the lack of necessary data. The following United Nations Member States were not included in the 2014 report: North Korea, Marshall Islands, Monaco, Nauru, San Marino, Somalia, India, Pakistan, South Sudan, and Tuvalu.

Question: What is the main reason that countries were excluded from the 2014 report?
Answer: lack of necessary data

Question: Which East Asian dictatorship was excluded from the 2014 report?
Answer: North Korea
Title: Human_Development_Index

The 2013 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Program was released on March 14, 2013, and calculates HDI values based on estimates for 2012. Below is the list of the "very high human development" countries:

Question: On what date was the 2013 Human Development Report released?
Answer: March 14, 2013

Question: Which year was used for estimates in the 2013 report?
Answer: 2012