rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Communication

Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their growth and development such as the formation of Marcelia and fruiting bodies. Fungi communicate with their own and related species as well as with non fungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryote, plants and insects through biochemicals of biotic origin. The biochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to react. This implies that fungal organisms can differentiate between molecules taking part in biotic messages and similar molecules being irrelevant in the situation. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known to coordinate different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, and pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and production of signaling substances is achieved through interpretation processes that enables the organism to differ between self or non-self, a biotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, and even filter out "noise", i.e. similar molecules without biotic content.

Question: Why do fungi communicate?
Answer: to coordinate and organize their growth and development

Question: How do fungi communicate with insects?
Answer: through biochemicals of biotic origin

Question: How many primary signalling molecules are known to organize different behavioral patterns?
Answer: five

Question: What enables an organism to differentiate between self and other?
Answer: interpretation processes

Question: What is an example of "noise" that is filtered out through the interpretation processes?
Answer: similar molecules without biotic content
Title: Communication

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

Question: What acts are included in communication between parties?
Answer: confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions

Question: The forms of the acts included in communication depends on what?
Answer: abilities of the group communicating

Question: What is one dimension that communication is typically described along?
Answer: channel (through which medium)

Question: What is one target of communication?
Answer: another person or being

Question: Who said that we should examine the impact a message has on the recipient of the message?
Answer: Wilbur Schram
Title: Communication

Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent on a number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal communication, listening skills and clarification. Human language can be defined as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. Languages tend to share certain properties, although there are exceptions. There is no defined line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalism is not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages. Communication is two-way process not merely one-way.

Question: What is human communication defined as?
Answer: a system of symbols

Question: When does language learning primarily occur most intensively?
Answer: during human childhood

Question: How many human languages are there?
Answer: thousands

Question: What do human languages use to communicate with others?
Answer: patterns of sound or gesture for symbols

Question: What is an example of a language that is not restricted to properties of human language?
Answer: programming languages
Title: Communication

Family communication study looks at topics such as family rules, family roles or family dialectics and how those factors could affect the communication between family members. Researchers develop theories to understand communication behaviors. Family communication study also digs deep into certain time periods of family life such as marriage, parenthood or divorce and how communication stands in those situations. It is important for family members to understand communication as a trusted way which leads to a well constructed family.

Question: What is some factors in family communication that could affect communication between family members?
Answer: family rules, family roles or family dialectics

Question: What are some time periods that family communication study looks at?
Answer: marriage, parenthood or divorce

Question: What does trusted communication in a family lead to?
Answer: a well constructed family
Title: Communication

The broad field of animal communication encompasses most of the issues in ethology. Animal communication can be defined as any behavior of one animal that affects the current or future behavior of another animal. The study of animal communication, called zoo semiotics (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, a great share of prior understanding related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, has been revolutionized. A special field of animal communication has been investigated in more detail such as vibrational communication.

Question: How is animal communication defined?
Answer: any behavior of one animal that affects the current or future behavior of another animal

Question: What is the study of animal communication called?
Answer: zoo semiotics

Question: What is the study of human communication called?
Answer: anthroposemiotics

Question: What are some fields of knowledge concerning the animal world that have been revolutionizes in the 21st century?
Answer: animal emotions, animal culture and learning

Question: What field of communication has been investigated more thoroughly?
Answer: vibrational communication
Title: Communication

The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949 The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.

Question: Who introduced the first major model for communication in 1949?
Answer: Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver

Question: What did the first model for communication consist of?
Answer: sender, channel, and receiver

Question: What was the sender in the initial model?
Answer: the part of a telephone a person spoke into

Question: What was the channel in the initial model?
Answer: the telephone itself

Question: What was the receiver in the initial model?
Answer: the part of the phone where one could hear the other person
Title: Communication

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:

Question: A simple model is also referred to as what?
Answer: transmission model

Question: What kind of message is sent in a simple model?
Answer: a message in natural language

Question: In what form is the information or content sent in a simple model?
Answer: spoken language

Question: How is information sent through a simple model?
Answer: from an emisor/ sender/ encoder

Question: What are the strengths of the simple model?
Answer: simplicity, generality, and quantifiability
Title: Communication

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a codebook, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.

Question: How are the sender and receiver connected in a slightly more complex form of communication model?
Answer: reciprocally

Question: What is the model of communication in which the sender and receiver are connected reciprocally called?
Answer: constitutive model or constructionist view

Question: What is communication viewed as?
Answer: a conduit

Question: What is something that may alter the intended meaning of a message?
Answer: different regional traditions

Question: What is something that may cause the reception and decoding of the content of a message to be faulty?
Answer: communication noise
Title: Communication

Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil. These interactions are governed by syntactic, pragmatic, and semantic rules,[citation needed] and are possible because of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants. The original meaning of the word "neuron" in Greek is "vegetable fiber" and recent research has shown that most of the microorganism plant communication processes are neuron-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles when exposed to herbivory attack behavior, thus warning neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In stress situations plants can overwrite the genomes they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.[citation needed]

Question: What is a form of communication observed within plants?
Answer: between plant cells

Question: What part of a plant communicates with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil?
Answer: roots

Question: What is the meaning of the word neuron in Greek?
Answer: vegetable fiber

Question: How do plants communicate to warn nearby plants of danger?
Answer: via volatiles

Question: How are the plant roots able to communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil?
Answer: the decentralized "nervous system" of plants
Title: Communication

Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).

Question: What describes communication as creative and dynamic rather than discrete?
Answer: Theories of coregulation

Question: What ancient civilization did Harold Innis use as an example of his theory?
Answer: Egypt

Question: Who theorized that the types of media people use to communicate will offer different possibilities for the shape of society?
Answer: Harold Innis

Question: What did Harold Innis call papyrus?
Answer: Space Binding

Question: What did Space Binding make possible for the ancient Egyptian civilizations?
Answer: transmission of written orders across space, empires
Title: Communication

Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications. Since it is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills, communications professionals often specialize in one or two of these areas but usually have at least a working knowledge of most of them. By far, the most important qualifications communications professionals can possess are excellent writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the capacity to think critically and strategically.

Question: Why do communications professionals typically specialize in only one or two areas of communication?
Answer: it is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills

Question: Good people skills is a qualification that is important to what profession?
Answer: communications

Question: What kind of companies may engage in only a few types of communications?
Answer: Companies with limited resources

Question: What is one of the most important qualifications for a communications professional to have?
Answer: excellent writing ability
Title: Grape

Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes. Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid.

Question: What color are white grapes?
Answer: green

Question: What gene makes grapes purple?
Answer: anthocyanins

Question: What shape do grapes usually resemble?
Answer: prolate spheroid

Question: What type of food are grapes?
Answer: fruit

Question: How many grapes are generally in a cluster?
Answer: 15 to 300
Title: Grape

The cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia. The oldest winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC.[citation needed] By the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine.[citation needed] Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes,[citation needed] and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians, and Romans growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production[citation needed]. The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, as well as North Africa, and eventually in North America.

Question: How long ago were grapes first cultivated?
Answer: 6,000–8,000 years ago

Question: What microorganisms are naturally found on a grapes skin?
Answer: Yeast

Question: Where is the oldest know winery located?
Answer: Armenia

Question: What city is Syrah red wine believed to have been named after?
Answer: Shiraz

Question: How do we know that wine was made in ancient Egypt?
Answer: hieroglyphics
Title: Grape

Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France. This phenomenon has been termed the French paradox, and is thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation, polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:

Question: What do people in France eat more of that in most western countries?
Answer: animal fat

Question: What kind of the wine is regularly consumed by the French?
Answer: red wine

Question: What is the phenomenon that shows that the French have less heart disease, even though they eat more animal fat?
Answer: the French paradox

Question: What is a potential health benefit from drinking alcohol?
Answer: vasodilation
Title: Grape

Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made into wine, brandy, or vinegar. Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7–23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "must". In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes, while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.

Question: What juice is made when grapes are crushed and blended?
Answer: Grape juice

Question: What kind of grapes are made into vinegar?
Answer: fermented

Question: What is the most common grape used to make juice in North America?
Answer: Concord grapes

Question: What are Sultana grapes known as in California?
Answer: Thompson Seedless

Question: What types of grapes are commonly used to make white grape juice?
Answer: Niagara grapes
Title: Grape

Red wine may offer health benefits more so than white because potentially beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content. Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L, depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.

Question: What type of wine is fermented with grape skin?
Answer: red wine

Question: What type of wine is fermented after the grapes skin has been removed?
Answer: white wine

Question: What substance is absorbed by wine when grapes are fermented with their skins?
Answer: resveratrol

Question: What type of wine is believed to have more health benefits?
Answer: Red wine
Title: Grape

Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.

Question: What are grapes that are eaten raw classified as?
Answer: table grapes

Question: What are grapes that are used to make wine classified as?
Answer: wine grapes

Question: What specie are table grapes and wine grapes?
Answer: Vitis vinifera

Question: What Classification of grapes are typically large and seedless?
Answer: Table grape

Question: What percentage of a wine grape is sugar when it is harvested?
Answer: approximately 24%
Title: Grape

In the Bible, grapes are first mentioned when Noah grows them on his farm (Genesis 9:20–21). Instructions concerning wine are given in the book of Proverbs and in the book of Isaiah, such as in Proverbs 20:1 and Isaiah 5:20–25. Deuteronomy 18:3–5,14:22–27,16:13–15 tell of the use of wine during Jewish feasts. Grapes were also significant to both the Greeks and Romans, and their god of agriculture, Dionysus, was linked to grapes and wine, being frequently portrayed with grape leaves on his head. Grapes are especially significant for Christians, who since the Early Church have used wine in their celebration of the Eucharist. Views on the significance of the wine vary between denominations. In Christian art, grapes often represent the blood of Christ, such as the grape leaves in Caravaggio’s John the Baptist.

Question: When are grapes first mentioned in the Bible?
Answer: Genesis 9:20–21

Question: Who was the Greek and Roman god of agriculture?
Answer: Dionysus

Question: Whose blood do grapes usually represent in Christian art?
Answer: Christ

Question: Which book of the Bible talks about the use of wine during Jewish feasts?
Answer: Deuteronomy

Question: Who in the Bible first grew grapes on their farm?
Answer: Noah