rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Genome

New sequencing technologies, such as massive parallel sequencing have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool, as pioneered by Manteia Predictive Medicine. A major step toward that goal was the completion in 2007 of the full genome of James D. Watson, one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA.

Question: What is a recent development in sequencing methods?
Answer: massive parallel sequencing

Question: Which company has led the way in sequencing of individual genetic makeup?
Answer: Manteia Predictive Medicine

Question: Whose complete genetic information was recorded in 2007?
Answer: James D. Watson

Question: What is Watson famous for helping discover?
Answer: the structure of DNA
Title: Genome

Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome. A fundamental step in the project was the release of a detailed genomic map by Jean Weissenbach and his team at the Genoscope in Paris.

Question: What is the term for something that lists the important and notable parts of a genome?
Answer: genome map

Question: Which group was created to generate a genome map of human genetic material?
Answer: The Human Genome Project

Question: Whose genome map greatly aided the Human Genome Project?
Answer: Jean Weissenbach

Question: Where did Weissenbach and his colleagues work?
Answer: Genoscope
Title: Genome

Genome composition is used to describe the make up of contents of a haploid genome, which should include genome size, proportions of non-repetitive DNA and repetitive DNA in details. By comparing the genome compositions between genomes, scientists can better understand the evolutionary history of a given genome.

Question: What is the term that accounts for the constituents of the haploid genome?
Answer: Genome composition

Question: What aspect of a genome can genome compositions help researchers in learning about?
Answer: evolutionary history
Title: Genome

When talking about genome composition, one should distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes as the big differences on contents structure they have. In prokaryotes, most of the genome (85–90%) is non-repetitive DNA, which means coding DNA mainly forms it, while non-coding regions only take a small part. On the contrary, eukaryotes have the feature of exon-intron organization of protein coding genes; the variation of repetitive DNA content in eukaryotes is also extremely high. In mammals and plants, the major part of the genome is composed of repetitive DNA.

Question: What two types of organisms have remarkable differences in their genomic composition?
Answer: prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Question: What type of organizing can be observed in eukaryote genomes?
Answer: exon-intron

Question: In what types of eukaryotes is there a large amount of non-coding DNA?
Answer: mammals and plants
Title: Genome

Most biological entities that are more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include information stored on this auxiliary material, which is carried in plasmids. In such circumstances then, "genome" describes all of the genes and information on non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present.

Question: What is an example of an organism that has a portion of its genetic material outside of its chromosomes?
Answer: pathogenic microbe

Question: What is an example of an organism whose full complement of genetic material resides in its chromosomes?
Answer: virus

Question: Where is additional genetic material found in pathogenic microbes?
Answer: plasmids
Title: Genome

In eukaryotes such as plants, protozoa and animals, however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only information on chromosomal DNA. So although these organisms contain chloroplasts or mitochondria that have their own DNA, the genetic information contained by DNA within these organelles is not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome often referred to as the "mitochondrial genome". The DNA found within the chloroplast may be referred to as the "plastome".

Question: What are examples of classes of eukaryotes where genome only refers to the information found in chromosomes?
Answer: plants, protozoa and animals

Question: What is a name for the genetic material found within chloroplasts?
Answer: plastome

Question: What is a name for the genetic makeup of mitochondria?
Answer: mitochondrial genome
Title: Genome

Genome size is the total number of DNA base pairs in one copy of a haploid genome. The genome size is positively correlated with the morphological complexity among prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes; however, after mollusks and all the other higher eukaryotes above, this correlation is no longer effective. This phenomenon also indicates the mighty influence coming from repetitive DNA act on the genomes.

Question: What is the name for the count of all DNA base pairs in a single haploid genome?
Answer: Genome size

Question: What does genome size have a direct relationship with in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes?
Answer: morphological complexity

Question: What accounts for the breakdown of the relation between genome size and morphological complexity in higher eukaryotes?
Answer: repetitive DNA
Title: Genome

Since genomes are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico.

Question: What is a name for the reduced complement of genetic material necessary for an organism to live?
Answer: minimal genomes

Question: In what experimental contexts are experiments being carried out on minimal genomes?
Answer: in vivo and in silico
Title: Genome

The proportion of non-repetitive DNA is calculated by using the length of non-repetitive DNA divided by genome size. Protein-coding genes and RNA-coding genes are generally non-repetitive DNA. A bigger genome does not mean more genes, and the proportion of non-repetitive DNA decreases along with increasing genome size in higher eukaryotes.

Question: What are two types of non-repetitive DNA?
Answer: Protein-coding genes and RNA-coding genes

Question: In higher eukaryotes, what has an inverse relationship with genome size?
Answer: proportion of non-repetitive DNA

Question: What is the size of non-repetitive DNA divided by to get the proportion of non-repetitive DNA?
Answer: genome size
Title: Genome

It had been found that the proportion of non-repetitive DNA can vary a lot between species. Some E. coli as prokaryotes only have non-repetitive DNA, lower eukaryotes such as C. elegans and fruit fly, still possess more non-repetitive DNA than repetitive DNA. Higher eukaryotes tend to have more repetitive DNA than non-repetitive ones. In some plants and amphibians, the proportion of non-repetitive DNA is no more than 20%, becoming a minority component.

Question: What is an example of an organism which does not contain any repetitive DNA?
Answer: E. coli

Question: What are two organisms that have more non-repetitive than repetitive DNA?
Answer: C. elegans and fruit fly

Question: What is the percentage of non-repetitive DNA in some plant and amphibian genomes?
Answer: 20%
Title: Genome

The proportion of repetitive DNA is calculated by using length of repetitive DNA divide by genome size. There are two categories of repetitive DNA in genome: tandem repeats and interspersed repeats.

Question: What are two types of repetitive DNA found in genomes?
Answer: tandem repeats and interspersed repeats

Question: What is found by dividing size of repetitive DNA by length of total genome?
Answer: proportion of repetitive DNA
Title: Genome

Tandem repeats are usually caused by slippage during replication, unequal crossing-over and gene conversion, satellite DNA and microsatellites are forms of tandem repeats in the genome. Although tandem repeats count for a significant proportion in genome, the largest proportion in mammalian is the other type, interspersed repeats.

Question: Unequal crossing over can create what type of repetitive DNA?
Answer: Tandem repeats

Question: What are two examples of tandem repeats in DNA?
Answer: satellite DNA and microsatellites

Question: What is the most common type of repetitive DNA in mammals?
Answer: interspersed repeats.
Title: Genome

Interspersed repeats mainly come from transposable elements (TEs), but they also include some protein coding gene families and pseudogenes. Transposable elements are able to integrate into the genome at another site within the cell. It is believed that TEs are an important driving force on genome evolution of higher eukaryotes. TEs can be classified into two categories, Class 1 (retrotransposons) and Class 2 (DNA transposons).

Question: What is the main source of interspersed repeats?
Answer: Transposable elements

Question: What do researchers think transposable elements are key factors in when considering higher eukaryotes?
Answer: genome evolution

Question: What are the constituents of Class 1 transposable elements?
Answer: retrotransposons

Question: What are the constituents of Class 2 transposable elements?
Answer: DNA transposons
Title: Genome

Retrotransposons can be transcribed into RNA, which are then duplicated at another site into the genome. Retrotransposons can be divided into Long terminal repeats (LTRs) and Non-Long Terminal Repeats (Non-LTR).

Question: What kind of genetic material can be produced from retrotransposons?
Answer: RNA
Title: Genome

DNA transposons generally move by "cut and paste" in the genome, but duplication has also been observed. Class 2 TEs do not use RNA as intermediate and are popular in bacteria, in metazoan it has also been found.

Question: What is a term that can describe how DNA transposons move?
Answer: cut and paste

Question: DNA transposons do not use which genetic material used by Class 1 TEs?
Answer: RNA
Title: Genome

Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number (karyotype), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005).

Question: What is another word for the total count of chromosomes?
Answer: karyotype

Question: Aside from karyotype, what are other genomic traits studied by scientists?
Answer: genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content
Title: Genome

Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplication may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplication of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.

Question: What type of generation of genetic material has a big part in making the genome what it is?
Answer: Duplications

Question: What is a possible product of duplications?
Answer: genetic novelty
Title: Genome

Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes.

Question: What is an explanation for the resemblance between disparate parts of the genome?
Answer: Horizontal gene transfer

Question: In which organisms does horizontal gene transfer appear to occur commonly?
Answer: microbes

Question: Parts of which organelle genomes are thought to have ended up in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells via transfer?
Answer: chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes
Title: Comprehensive_school

A comprehensive school is a state school that does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. This is in contrast to the selective school system, where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria. The term is commonly used in relation to England and Wales, where comprehensive schools were introduced on an experimental basis in the 1940s and became more widespread from 1965. About 90% of British secondary school pupils now attend comprehensive schools. They correspond broadly to the public high school in the United States and Canada and to the German Gesamtschule.[citation needed]

Question: What kind of school does not base its admissions on academic merit?
Answer: comprehensive school

Question: What kind of school system uses academic success to judge admissions?
Answer: selective school system

Question: What countries used comprehensive schools extensively?
Answer: England and Wales

Question: How many secondary school students attend comprehensive schools in England?
Answer: 90%

Question: What is the German analogue of the comprehensive school?
Answer: Gesamtschule
Title: Comprehensive_school

Comprehensive schools are primarily about providing an entitlement curriculum to all children, without selection whether due to financial considerations or attainment. A consequence of that is a wider ranging curriculum, including practical subjects such as design and technology and vocational learning, which were less common or non-existent in grammar schools. Providing post-16 education cost-effectively becomes more challenging for smaller comprehensive schools, because of the number of courses needed to cover a broader curriculum with comparatively fewer students. This is why schools have tended to get larger and also why many local authorities have organised secondary education into 11–16 schools, with the post-16 provision provided by Sixth Form colleges and Further Education Colleges. Comprehensive schools do not select their intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude, but there are demographic reasons why the attainment profiles of different schools vary considerably. In addition, government initiatives such as the City Technology Colleges and Specialist schools programmes have made the comprehensive ideal less certain.

Question: What are some areas of learning in comprehensive schools that were not found often in grammar schools?
Answer: design and technology and vocational learning

Question: What two kinds of schools were developed in response to the costs of post-16 comprehensive school education?
Answer: Sixth Form colleges and Further Education Colleges

Question: Which types of school projects have called the model of comprehensive schools into question?
Answer: City Technology Colleges and Specialist schools programmes
Title: Comprehensive_school

In these schools children could be selected on the basis of curriculum aptitude related to the school's specialism even though the schools do take quotas from each quartile of the attainment range to ensure they were not selective by attainment. A problem with this is whether the quotas should be taken from a normal distribution or from the specific distribution of attainment in the immediate catchment area. In the selective school system, which survives in several parts of the United Kingdom, admission is dependent on selection criteria, most commonly a cognitive test or tests. Although comprehensive schools were introduced to England and Wales in 1965, there are 164 selective grammar schools that are still in operation.[citation needed] (though this is a small number compared to approximately 3500 state secondary schools in England). Most comprehensives are secondary schools for children between the ages of 11 to 16, but in a few areas there are comprehensive middle schools, and in some places the secondary level is divided into two, for students aged 11 to 14 and those aged 14 to 18, roughly corresponding to the US middle school (or junior high school) and high school, respectively. With the advent of key stages in the National Curriculum some local authorities reverted from the Middle School system to 11–16 and 11–18 schools so that the transition between schools corresponds to the end of one key stage and the start of another.

Question: How many selective grammar schools are still currently functioning in England and Wales?
Answer: 164

Question: In what year were comprehensive schools first created?
Answer: 1965
Title: Comprehensive_school

In principle, comprehensive schools were conceived as "neighbourhood" schools for all students in a specified catchment area. Current education reforms with Academies Programme, Free Schools and University Technical Colleges will no doubt have some impact on the comprehensive ideal but it is too early to say to what degree.

Question: What is a word that can be used to describe the scope of a comprehensive school's intake?
Answer: neighbourhood

Question: What are some new initiatives that may impact the concept of comprehensive schools?
Answer: Academies Programme, Free Schools and University Technical Colleges
Title: Comprehensive_school

Finland has used comprehensive schools since the 1970s, in the sense that everyone is expected to complete the nine grades of peruskoulu, from the age 7 to 16. The division to lower comprehensive school (grades 1–6, ala-aste, alakoulu) and upper comprehensive school (grades 7–9, yläaste, yläkoulu) has been discontinued.

Question: In what decade did Finland begin employing comprehensive schools?
Answer: 1970s

Question: What age ranges does Finnish comprehensive school cover?
Answer: 7 to 16
Title: Comprehensive_school

Germany has a comprehensive school known as the Gesamtschule. While some German schools such as the Gymnasium and the Realschule have rather strict entrance requirements, the Gesamtschule does not have such requirements. They offer college preparatory classes for the students who are doing well, general education classes for average students, and remedial courses for those who aren't doing that well. In most cases students attending a Gesamtschule may graduate with the Hauptschulabschluss, the Realschulabschluss or the Abitur depending on how well they did in school.

Question: What type of school is the Gesamtschule?
Answer: comprehensive

Question: What kinds of courses are offered to students who are not experiencing academic success?
Answer: remedial

Question: What are the different kinds of certificates that Gesamtschule students can earn?
Answer: the Hauptschulabschluss, the Realschulabschluss or the Abitur
Title: Comprehensive_school

The percentage of students attending a Gesamtschule varies by Bundesland. In the State of Brandenburg more than 50% of all students attended a Gesamtschule in 2007, while in the State of Bavaria less than 1% did.

Question: What percentage of Brandenburg students went to a Gesamtschule in 2007?
Answer: 50%

Question: What percentage of Bavarian students went to a Gesamtschule in 2007?
Answer: less than 1%
Title: Comprehensive_school

Starting in 2010/2011, Hauptschulen were merged with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen to form a new type of comprehensive school in the German States of Berlin and Hamburg, called Stadtteilschule in Hamburg and Sekundarschule in Berlin (see: Education in Berlin, Education in Hamburg).

Question: What was the combination of Hauptschulen with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen called in Hamburg?
Answer: Stadtteilschule

Question: What was the combination of Hauptschulen with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen called in Berlin?
Answer: Sekundarschule

Question: In what school year were Hauptschulen first combined with Realschulen and Gesamtschulen?
Answer: 2010/2011
Title: Comprehensive_school

The "Mittelschule" is a school in some States of Germany that offers regular classes and remedial classes but no college preparatory classes. In some States of Germany, the Hauptschule does not exist, and any student who has not been accepted by another school has to attend the Mittelschule. Students may be awarded the Hauptschulabschluss or the Mittlere Reife but not the Abitur.

Question: What kind of classes are not offered in Mittelschule?
Answer: college preparatory classes

Question: What certificate is not available to Mittelschule students?
Answer: Abitur

Question: What kind of school is not available in some parts of Germany?
Answer: Hauptschule
Title: Comprehensive_school

Comprehensive schools have been accused of grade inflation after a study revealed that Gymnasium senior students of average mathematical ability found themselves at the very bottom of their class and had an average grade of "Five", which means "Failed". Gesamtschule senior students of average mathematical ability found themselves in the upper half of their class and had an average grade of "Three Plus". When a central Abitur examination was established in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, it was revealed that Gesamtschule students did worse than could be predicted by their grades or class rank. Barbara Sommer (Christian Democratic Union), Education Minister of North Rhine-Westphalia, commented that: Looking at the performance gap between comprehensives and the Gymnasium [at the Abitur central examination] [...] it is difficult to understand why the Social Democratic Party of Germany wants to do away with the Gymnasium. [...] The comprehensives do not help students achieve [...] I am sick and tired of the comprehensive schools blaming their problems on the social class origins of their students. What kind of attitude is this to blame their own students? She also called the Abitur awarded by the Gymnasium the true Abitur and the Abitur awarded by the Gesamtschule "Abitur light". As a reaction, Sigrid Beer (Alliance '90/The Greens) stated that comprehensives were structurally discriminated against by the government, which favoured the Gymnasiums. She also said that many of the students awarded the Abitur by the comprehensives came from "underprivileged groups" and sneering at their performance was a "piece of impudence".

Question: What type of misconduct have comprehensive schools been alleged of engaging in?
Answer: grade inflation

Question: Which German minister criticized comprehensive schools' ability to help students succeed?
Answer: Barbara Sommer

Question: Which German politician defended comprehensive schools?
Answer: Sigrid Beer

Question: Which party does Barbara Sommer belong to?
Answer: Christian Democratic Union

Question: Which party does Sigrid Beer belong to?
Answer: Alliance '90/The Greens
Title: Comprehensive_school

Gesamtschulen might put bright working class students at risk according to several studies. It could be shown that an achievement gap opens between working class students attending a comprehensive and their middle class peers. Also working class students attending a Gymnasium or a Realschule outperform students from similar backgrounds attending a comprehensive. However it is not students attending a comprehensive, but students attending a Hauptschule, who perform the poorest.

Question: Who could be made vulnerable by the Gasemtschulen?
Answer: bright working class students

Question: From what group does an achievement gap separate working class students at comprehensive schools?
Answer: middle class peers

Question: At which school do students achieve the least success?
Answer: Hauptschule