rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

In 1918 Whitehead's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the University of London system, of which Imperial College London was a member at the time. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 (a post he held for four years), a member of the University of London's Senate in 1919, and chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council in 1920, a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924. Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department, help establish a Bachelor of Science degree (previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered), and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students.

Question: In which educational system was Whitehead employed in the late 1910s?
Answer: University of London system

Question: What was Whitehead's title at the University of London in late 1918?
Answer: Dean of the Faculty of Science

Question: What was Whitehead's last position before he traveled to America?
Answer: chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council

Question: In which year did Whitehead relocate to America?
Answer: 1924

Question: What degree program did Whitehead contribute to establishing at University of London?
Answer: Bachelor of Science

Question: When did Whitehead accept administrative positions?
Answer: 1918

Question: What was he elected at the University of London?
Answer: Dean of the Faculty of Science

Question: Where did Whitehead accept administrative positions?
Answer: University of London

Question: When did Whitehead go to America?
Answer: 1924
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

The two volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead. However, many details of Whitehead's life remain obscure because he left no Nachlass; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death. Additionally, Whitehead was known for his "almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy", and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life. This led to Lowe himself remarking on the first page of Whitehead's biography, "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."

Question: Who authored Whitehead's biography that is considered to be the most reliable description of Whitehead's life?
Answer: Victor Lowe

Question: Why was no Nachlass left behind after Whitehead's death?
Answer: his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death

Question: What was Whitehead's opinion on privacy?
Answer: almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy

Question: What did the author of Whitehead's biography comment on the first page regarding the difficulty of obtaining information about Whitehead?
Answer: "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."

Question: How many volumes is the biography of Whitehead?
Answer: two

Question: Who wrote the biography of Whitehead?
Answer: Victor Lowe

Question: What was Whitehead's wish upon his death for his family?
Answer: all of his papers be destroyed after his death.

Question: What did Whitehead believe in so profusely that it was difficult to write a biography on him?
Answer: right to privacy
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

In addition to numerous articles on mathematics, Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject: A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), Principia Mathematica (co-written with Bertrand Russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913), and An Introduction to Mathematics (1911). The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians, while the latter book was intended for a larger audience, covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations. Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century.

Question: What was Whitehead's first published book on mathematics?
Answer: A Treatise on Universal Algebra

Question: With what mathematician and philosopher did Whitehead collaborate to write Principia Mathematica?
Answer: Bertrand Russell

Question: Who was the intended audience of Whitehead's first two mathematics books?
Answer: professional mathematicians

Question: What was Whitehead's final book on mathematics?
Answer: An Introduction to Mathematics

Question: What is the significance of Principia Mathematica currently?
Answer: regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century

Question: What did Whitehead publish numerous articles about?
Answer: mathematics

Question: How many books on mathematics did Whitehead write?
Answer: three

Question: Who co-wrote Principia Mathematica with Whitehead?
Answer: Bertrand Russell

Question: Which of Whitehead's books is known as one of the most important works in mathematical logical?
Answer: Principia Mathematica

Question: When did Whitehead write his first book? 
Answer: 1898
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

At the time structures such as Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class. In a review Alexander Macfarlane wrote: "The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods, nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them, but rather the comparative study of their several structures." In a separate review, G. B. Mathews wrote, "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."

Question: What did Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions demonstrate a need for?
Answer: the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class

Question: How did Alexander Macfarlane summarize the relationship between different methods in "A Treatise on Algebra" in his review?
Answer: comparative study of their several structures

Question: What was G.B. Matthew's opinion of "A Treatise on Algebra"?
Answer: "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."

Question: Lie algebras and hypobolic quanternions drew attention to the need for what?
Answer: expand algebraic structures

Question: What did reviewer GB Mathews say algebraic structures possessed? 
Answer: unity of design

Question: Reviewer Alexander Macfarlane believed that the main idea of the work is a comparative study of what?
Answer: several structures
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead and Russell had thought originally that Principia Mathematica would take a year to complete; it ended up taking them ten years. To add insult to injury, when it came time for publication, the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians) that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds, 300 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell themselves. Despite the initial loss, today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica.

Question: How long did Whitehead and Russell expect to spend creating Principia Mathematica?
Answer: a year

Question: How long did it actually take to complete Principia Mathematica? 
Answer: ten years

Question: Why was there a funding shortfall for the publishing of Princpia Mathematica? 
Answer: the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians)

Question: Who supplied the funding to cover the shortfall?
Answer: 00 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell

Question: How prevalent is Principia Mathematica today?
Answer: today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica

Question: How long did Whitehead and Russell think it would take them to complete Principia Mathematica?
Answer: a year

Question: How long did it actually take Whitehead and Russell to complete Principia Mathematica?
Answer: ten years

Question: How many volumes was Principia Mathematica?
Answer: three

Question: How many pages was Principia Mathematica?
Answer: 2,000

Question: Who paid to publish Principia Mathematica?
Answer: Cambridge University Press
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

This is not to say that Whitehead's thought was widely accepted or even well-understood. His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon. Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead's writings. One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead's philosophy centers around the delivery of Whitehead's Gifford lectures in 1927–28 – following Arthur Eddington's lectures of the year previous – which Whitehead would later publish as Process and Reality:

Question: What is the general opinion of the difficulty level of Whitehead's work in philosophy?
Answer: generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon

Question: What lectures did Whitehead present in 1927-28?
Answer: Gifford lectures

Question: Under what name were those lectures later published?
Answer: Process and Reality

Question: Who also struggled to follow Whitehead's writings?
Answer: professional philosophers

Question: Following Arthur Eddington's lectures, what did Whitehead  publish?
Answer: Process and Reality

Question: When did Whitehead delivery the Gifford lectures?
Answer: 1927–28

Question: In all of the western canon, what is Whitehead's work considered?
Answer: the most difficult to understand
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

However, Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest. In fact, there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications. In 1927 they invited one of America's only Whitehead experts – Henry Nelson Wieman – to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead's thought. Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years, and for at least thirty years afterward Chicago's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead's thought.

Question: What affect did Matthews' opinion of the difficulty of Whitehead's works have on his interest in them?
Answer: Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest

Question: How did many philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School view Whitehead's work?
Answer: perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications

Question: What expert on Whitehead delivered a lecture at the school to explain Whitehead's ideas?
Answer: Henry Nelson Wieman

Question: What was the result of that lecture?
Answer: Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years

Question: Who was frustrated in Whitehead's books but still interested?
Answer: Mathews

Question: What school recognized the importance of Whitehead's work?
Answer: Chicago's Divinity School

Question: When was Henry Nelson Wieman invited to the Chicago Divinity school?
Answer: 1927

Question: Who was invited to the Chicago Divinity school as one of Whitehead's only experts?
Answer: Henry Nelson Wieman

Question: What happened after Henry Nelson Wieman gave a lecture about Whitehead?
Answer: hired
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

Wieman's words proved prophetic. Though Process and Reality has been called "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century," it has been little-read and little-understood, partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus." Whitehead questioned western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works, but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

Question: How has "Process and Reality" been described? 
Answer: "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century,"

Question: What did Isabelle Stengers say is the reason that "Process and Reality" is not commonly read and understood?
Answer: it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus."

Question: What effect did Whitehead have on the future of metaphysics?
Answer: he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

Question: Which publication is considered the most impressive metaphysical text?
Answer: Process and Reality

Question: Who thought Process and Reality was little-read because the reader has to separate them from normal thought?
Answer: Isabelle Stengers

Question: What philosophy in the west was challenged by Whitehead?
Answer: how the universe works

Question: What was Whitehead's philosophy able to anticipate for the 21st century?
Answer: scientific and philosophical problems

Question: What was the outcome of anticipating the scientific and philosophical problems Whitehead proposed?
Answer: novel solutions
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

It must be emphasized, however, that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them. For Whitehead, creativity is the absolute principle of existence, and every entity (whether it is a human being, a tree, or an electron) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws. Of course, most entities do not have consciousness. As a human being's actions cannot always be predicted, the same can be said of where a tree's roots will grow, or how an electron will move, or whether it will rain tomorrow. Moreover, inability to predict an electron's movement (for instance) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology; rather, the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable.

Question: What did Whitehead believe regarding creativity?
Answer: creativity is the absolute principle of existence

Question: An entity is a sum of relations, a valuation of them and what else?
Answer: reaction to them.

Question: Most entities do not have what?
Answer: consciousness

Question: All entities, being unable to predict behavior, are because of what?
Answer: the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities

Question: Not being able to predict what any entity is going to do is what principle b Whitehead?
Answer: creativity is the absolute principle of existence

Question: Other than the combination of its relations, what else defines an entity?
Answer: an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them

Question: What did Whitehead believe about an entity's relation to other entities?
Answer: has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

Since Whitehead's metaphysics described a universe in which all entities experience, he needed a new way of describing perception that was not limited to living, self-conscious beings. The term he coined was "prehension", which comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning "to seize." The term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as electrons. It is also intended to make clear Whitehead's rejection of the theory of representative perception, in which the mind only has private ideas about other entities. For Whitehead, the term "prehension" indicates that the perceiver actually incorporates aspects of the perceived thing into itself. In this way, entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them. Further, Whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes, causal efficacy (or "physical prehension") and presentational immediacy (or "conceptual prehension").

Question: What is the origin of the word "prehension"?
Answer: comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning "to seize."

Question: What is a basic description of the theory of representative perception?
Answer: the mind only has private ideas about other entities

Question: What term did Whitehead describe that perception is not limited to the living?
Answer: prehension

Question: What language does the term "prehensio" come from?
Answer: Latin

Question: What does the word "Prehensio" translate into?
Answer: to seize

Question: What entities does the term prehension apply to?
Answer: conscious or unconscious

Question: How many modes does perception occur in according to Whitehead?
Answer: two

Question: What is prehension used to define?
Answer: a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as electrons

Question: What does the term "prehension" signify regarding an entities perceptions and relations?
Answer: entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them

Question: What did Whitehead state are the two types of perception?
Answer: causal efficacy (or "physical prehension") and presentational immediacy (or "conceptual prehension")
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead describes causal efficacy as "the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go." It is, in other words, the sense of causal relations between entities, a feeling of being influenced and affected by the surrounding environment, unmediated by the senses. Presentational immediacy, on the other hand, is what is usually referred to as "pure sense perception", unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation, even unconscious interpretation. In other words, it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive (e.g. mistaking an image in a mirror for "the real thing").

Question: How do the senses affect causal efficacy?
Answer: unmediated by the senses

Question: What can be said about the accuracy of presentational immediacy?
Answer: it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive

Question: What is the term for the experience dominating primitive organisms that have a sense for fate?
Answer: causal efficacy

Question: What is the other term for "pure sense perception"?
Answer: Presentational immediacy

Question: What is it called if you mistake a reflection in a mirror for the real thing?
Answer: Presentational immediacy

Question: How does Whitehead define causal efficacy?
Answer: "the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go."

Question: How does Whitehead define presentational immediacy?
Answer: "pure sense perception", unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation, even unconscious interpretation
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

In higher organisms (like people), these two modes of perception combine into what Whitehead terms "symbolic reference", which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it. By way of illustration, Whitehead uses the example of a person's encounter with a chair. An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair. However, an artist, Whitehead supposes, "might not have jumped to the notion of a chair", but instead "might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape." This is not the normal human reaction; most people place objects in categories by habit and instinct, without even thinking about it. Moreover, animals do the same thing. Using the same example, Whitehead points out that a dog "would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such." In this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other, and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality (as the dog illustrates), while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality (as the artist illustrates).

Question: Which concept does Whitehead state is more dominant in a lower mentality?
Answer: causal relationships

Question: What is Whitehead's term for the two modes of perceptions combining?
Answer: symbolic reference

Question: What dominates more basic mentality in symbolic reference?
Answer: causal relationships

Question: What does symbolic reference link appearance with?
Answer: causation

Question: What does having sense perceptions conclude about a person?
Answer: higher grade mentality

Question: What is the purpose of symbolic reference?
Answer: links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it

Question: How does Whitehead describe the process of a typical person noticing a chair?
Answer: An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair

Question: How might an artist view a chair differently than a typical person?
Answer: "might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape."

Question: How does Whitehead say a dog may interpret the presence of a chair?
Answer: "would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such."
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead makes the startling observation that "life is comparatively deficient in survival value." If humans can only exist for about a hundred years, and rocks for eight hundred million, then one is forced to ask why complex organisms ever evolved in the first place; as Whitehead humorously notes, "they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them." He then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment, an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living, living well, and living better. In other words, Whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction. Without such a goal, he sees the rise of life as totally unintelligible.

Question: What observation did Whitehead make about life?
Answer: "life is comparatively deficient in survival value."

Question: What did Whitehead state was the biggest indicator of a higher form of life?
Answer: they are actively engaged in modifying their environment

Question: What did Whitehead believe are the goals f life?
Answer: living, living well, and living better

Question: What did Whitehead believe was the fundamental purpose of life?
Answer: increasing its own satisfaction

Question: Whitehead observes that life is deficient in what?
Answer: survival value

Question: What are higher life forms actively engaged in?
Answer: modifying their environment

Question: How many goals of living is there?
Answer: three

Question: Whitehead sees life as directed towards what purpose?
Answer: increasing its own satisfaction

Question: Without Whitehead's proposed purpose, life would be what?
Answer: unintelligible

Question: What was Whitehead's response to questions about why complex life evolved?
Answer: "they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them."