rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Copper

Copper is biostatic, meaning bacteria will not grow on it. For this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels. It was originally used pure, but has since been superseded by Muntz metal. Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, copper alloys have become important netting materials in the aquaculture industry because they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling, even in extreme conditions and have strong structural and corrosion-resistant properties in marine environments.

Question: What word means that bacteria won't grow on a substrate?
Answer: biostatic

Question: What has pure copper been replaced with in the building of ships?
Answer: Muntz metal

Question: Because of copper's biostatic properties where is a common use for copper?
Answer: ships

Question: In the aquaculture industry what is copper alloys commonly used to make?
Answer: netting materials

Question: Name a property that makes copper a good material to use in marine environments?
Answer: corrosion-resistant
Title: Copper

Copper, silver and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table, and they share certain attributes: they have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d-electron shell and are characterized by high ductility and electrical conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements do not contribute much to the interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper. At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms.

Question: What group of the periodic table is copper in?
Answer: group 11

Question: Name a property that copper, silver and gold have in common.
Answer: one s-orbital electron

Question: What makes copper bondings weaker than other metals?
Answer: filled d-electron shell

Question: How is copper normally supplied?
Answer: fine-grained polycrystalline form

Question: What is a weaker form of copper than fine-grained polycrystalline?
Answer: monocrystalline forms
Title: Copper

Copper is synthesized in massive stars and is present in the Earth's crust at a concentration of about 50 parts per million (ppm), where it occurs as native copper or in minerals such as the copper sulfides chalcopyrite and chalcocite, the copper carbonates azurite and malachite, and the copper(I) oxide mineral cuprite. The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US. Native copper is a polycrystal, with the largest described single crystal measuring 4.4×3.2×3.2 cm.

Question: What is the concentration of copper in the earths crust.
Answer: 50 parts per million

Question: How large was the biggest find of copper?
Answer: 420 tonnes

Question: What year was the largest find of copper discovered?
Answer: 1857

Question: How big is the largest copper crystal that has been found?
Answer: 4.4×3.2×3.2 cm

Question: Where was the largest mass of copper found?
Answer: Michigan, US
Title: Copper

In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (χαλκός). It was an important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it was known as aes Cyprium, aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where much copper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence the English copper. Aphrodite and Venus represented copper in mythology and alchemy, because of its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.

Question: What was copper called in Greece?
Answer: chalkos

Question: In what area was copper first mined?
Answer: Cyprus

Question: What is the Greek goddess that symbolizes copper?
Answer: Aphrodite

Question: What is the Roman goddess that symbolizes copper?
Answer: Venus

Question: What property does copper have that links it to Aphrodite and Venus?
Answer: lustrous beauty
Title: Copper

Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry. They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents, terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents; in particular, the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent. These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I) acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupling and the Sonogashira coupling. Conjugate addition to enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide, especially in the presence of amine ligands.

Question: What are compounds that have a carbon-copper bond called?
Answer: organocopper compounds

Question: What does organocopper compounds reactions toward oxygen form?
Answer: copper(I) oxide

Question: What is produced when copper compounds are treated with organolithium reagents?
Answer: Gilman reagent

Question: Coupling products can be made by substituting Gilman reagent with what?
Answer: alkyl halides

Question: Which form of copper is shock sensitive?
Answer: Copper(I) acetylide
Title: Copper

The uses of copper in art were not limited to currency: it was used by Renaissance sculptors, in photographic technology known as the daguerreotype, and the Statue of Liberty. Copper plating and copper sheathing for ships' hulls was widespread; the ships of Christopher Columbus were among the earliest to have this feature. The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant starting its production in 1876. The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 while determining the metal's atomic mass; around then it was discovered that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g., tin) to copper would affect bell tones. Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the energy-efficient process accounts for 50% of the world's primary copper production.

Question: Who used copper to produce art?
Answer: Renaissance sculptors

Question: What is the photographic technology that uses copper called?
Answer: daguerreotype

Question: What famous NY city landmark is made from copper?
Answer: Statue of Liberty

Question: What famous explorers ships was one of the first to have it's hulls made of copper?
Answer: Christopher Columbus

Question: When did The Norddeutsche Affinerie electroplating plant first begin production?
Answer: 1830
Title: Copper

Copper's greater conductivity versus other metals enhances the electrical energy efficiency of motors. This is important because motors and motor-driven systems account for 43%-46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry. Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the electrical energy efficiency of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives, are enabling general-purpose induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency standards.

Question: What property of copper increases the efficiency of electrical motors?
Answer: conductivity

Question: What percentage of electrical consumption does motor systems use globally?
Answer: 43%-46%

Question: What percentage of electrical consumption does motor systems use in industry?
Answer: 69%

Question: What does the acronym NEMA stand for?
Answer: National Electrical Manufacturers Association

Question: By using copper motor rotor technology it is allowing industry to exceed what standards?
Answer: efficiency standards
Title: Copper

Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas fluorescens can both mobilize solid copper, as a cyanide compound. The ericoid mycorrhizal fungi associated with Calluna, Erica and Vaccinium can grow in copper metalliferous soils. The ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper toxicity. A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from gold mining solution; and was found to contain cyano metal complexes; such as gold, silver, copper iron and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides.

Question: Name a compond that can mobilize sold copper?
Answer: Chromobacterium violaceum

Question: What fungi can grow in copper metalliferous soils?
Answer: ericoid mycorrhizal fungi

Question: What fungus protects pine trees from copper toxicity? 
Answer: Suillus luteus

Question: What fungus grows from gold mining solution?
Answer: Aspergillus niger

Question: What fungus helps to soften heavy metal sulfides?
Answer: fungus Aspergillus
Title: Copper

Copper-alloy touch surfaces have natural intrinsic properties to destroy a wide range of microorganisms (e.g., E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Clostridium difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi). Some 355 copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9% of disease-causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as "antimicrobial materials with public health benefits," which allows manufacturers to legally make claims as to the positive public health benefits of products made with registered antimicrobial copper alloys. In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys, such as bedrails, handrails, over-bed tables, sinks, faucets, door knobs, toilet hardware, computer keyboards, health club equipment, shopping cart handles, etc. (for a comprehensive list of products, see: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces#Approved products). Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems. Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil[citation needed] and in the subway transit system in Santiago, Chile, where copper-zinc alloy handrails will be installed in some 30 stations between 2011–2014.

Question: What is an intrinsic property of copper-alloy touch surfaces?
Answer: antimicrobial

Question: 355 copper alloys have been proven to kill what percentage of bacteria?
Answer: 99.9%

Question: What does the acronym EPA stand for?
Answer: Environmental Protection Agency

Question: How many copper alloys has the EPA approved as antimicrobial materials?
Answer: 355

Question: What disease do hospitals hope to prevent by installing copper doornobs?
Answer: Legionnaires' disease
Title: Copper

Copper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating original portion of structures during restoration of damage due to dry rot. Together with zinc, copper wires may be placed over non-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss.[citation needed] Textile fibers use copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics, as do ceramic glazes, stained glass and musical instruments. Electroplating commonly uses copper as a base for other metals such as nickel.

Question: What are copper compounds in liquid form used for?
Answer: wood preservative

Question: What does copper wires along with zinc on roofs help to prevent?
Answer: moss

Question: What function does copper serve when used in textile fibers?
Answer: antimicrobial protective fabrics

Question: How is copper used with nickel?
Answer: as a base

Question: What is used to treat structures for dry rot?
Answer: Copper compounds
Title: Copper

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900, and more than half was extracted in only the last 24 years. As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast (around 1014 tons just in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, or about 5 million years' worth at the current rate of extraction). However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable, given present-day prices and technologies. Various estimates of existing copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate. Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world. Because of these and other factors, the future of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate, including the concept of peak copper, analogous to peak oil.

Question: How long has copper been in use?
Answer: at least 10,000 years

Question: What percentage of copper has been extracted since 1900?
Answer: 95%

Question: How much of mined cooper has been extracted in the last 24 years?
Answer: more than half

Question: How much copper is estimated to exsist on earth?
Answer: 1014 tons

Question: What is a major source of cooper in modern times?
Answer: Recycling
Title: Copper

The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman copper mining and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the provinces most intensely mined were those of Hispania, Cyprus and in Central Europe.

Question: What did Romans use as money in the 6th through 3rd centuriesBC?
Answer: copper lumps

Question: What became more important than the copper value for Roman coins?
Answer: the shape and look

Question: Who had his own coins produced out of brass?
Answer: Julius Caesar

Question: During the 6th through 3rd centuries BC how much copper was mined in Rome?
Answer: 15,000 t

Question: Cctavianus Augustus Caesar had his coins made out of what alloys?
Answer: Cu-Pb-Sn alloys
Title: Copper

The major applications of copper are in electrical wires (60%), roofing and plumbing (20%) and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is mostly used as a pure metal, but when a higher hardness is required it is combined with other elements to make an alloy (5% of total use) such as brass and bronze. A small part of copper supply is used in production of compounds for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture. Machining of copper is possible, although it is usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts to get good machinability characteristics.

Question: What percentage of copper is used in electrical wires?
Answer: 60%

Question: What percentage of copper is used in roofing and plumbing?
Answer: 20%

Question: What percentage of copper is used in industrial machinery?
Answer: 15%

Question: What property does combining copper with brass or bronze create?
Answer: hardness

Question: What is a metal that copper is combined with to create a greater hardness?
Answer: brass
Title: Copper

The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity (59.6×106 S/m) and thus also high thermal conductivity, which are the second highest (to silver) among pure metals at room temperature. This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature mostly originates from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak for a soft metal. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3.1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, above which it begins to heat excessively. As with other metals, if copper is placed against another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur.

Question: What is the explanation for copper's capacity for electrical conductivity?
Answer: The softness

Question: What metal has a higher thermal conductivity than copper?
Answer: silver

Question: What is the maximum premissible current density in open air of copper?
Answer: 3.1×106 A/m2

Question: What occurs when copper is placed touching another metal?
Answer: corrosion

Question: What happens to copper if an electrical current gets too high?
Answer: it begins to heat excessively
Title: Copper

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Examples include Chuquicamata in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah, United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico, United States. According to the British Geological Survey, in 2005, Chile was the top mine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru. Copper can also be recovered through the in-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method. The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage.

Question: In what form is copper extracted?
Answer: copper sulfides

Question: From what types of mines is copper extracted?
Answer: open pit mines

Question: What percentage of copper do the deposits have that are extracted?
Answer: 0.4 to 1.0% copper

Question: What country was the top producer of copper in 2005?
Answer: Chile

Question: What is the name of the process being considered in Arizona that allows copper to be recovered?
Answer: in-situ leach process
Title: Copper

Like aluminium, copper is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality, regardless of whether it is in a raw state or contained in a manufactured product. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. It is estimated that 80% of the copper ever mined is still in use today. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita).

Question: What percent of copper is recyclable?
Answer: 100%

Question: What percentage of copper that has been mined is still being used today?
Answer: 80%

Question: What other metal besides copper is 100% recyclable?
Answer: aluminium

Question: Name a metal that is recycled more often than copper?
Answer: aluminium

Question: What is the amount of copper in use, per capita, globally?
Answer: 35–55 kg
Title: Copper

The metal's distinctive natural green patina has long been coveted by architects and designers. The final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering. It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain. Architectural copper and its alloys can also be 'finished' to embark a particular look, feel, and/or color. Finishes include mechanical surface treatments, chemical coloring, and coatings.

Question: What pigment color is natural to copper?
Answer: green

Question: What property does the final patina on cooper have?
Answer: highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion

Question: What mixture of compounds is the final patina?
Answer: carbonate and sulfate

Question: What conditions effect the mixture of carbonate and sulfate in copper?
Answer: environmental

Question: What can be done to copper to give it a certain look?
Answer: finished
Title: Copper

Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity in humans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA. Corresponding amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals. A minimum dietary value for healthy growth in rabbits has been reported to be at least 3 ppm in the diet. However, higher concentrations of copper (100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency, growth rates, and carcass dressing percentages.

Question: What are copper salts sometimes used for?
Answer: suicide attempts

Question: When ingested in large amounts what does copper salts produce in humans?
Answer: copper toxicity

Question: What is the minimum amount of copper rabbits should have in their diet?
Answer: 3 ppm

Question: What is a major benefit to rabbits having a higher concentration of copper in their diet?
Answer: growth rates

Question: What amount of copper salt is toxic in animals?
Answer: 30 mg/kg
Title: Copper

Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd–2nd century BC. In North America, copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600. Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around 1000 AD; it proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early 20th century.

Question: When did Britain first use brass?
Answer: 3rd–2nd century BC

Question: Who were the first copper miners in North America?
Answer: Native Americans

Question: Where was native copper extracted with primitive tools between 800 and 1600?
Answer: Isle Royale

Question: What country had a strong copper production in 1000 AD
Answer: Peru

Question: When did commercial production of copper begin?
Answer: early 20th century
Title: Copper

There are 29 isotopes of copper. 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; they both have a spin of 3⁄2. The other isotopes are radioactive, with the most stable being 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. Seven metastable isotopes have been characterized, with 68mCu the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by β−, whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by β+. 64Cu, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways.

Question: How many isotopes are there of copper?
Answer: 29

Question: What are the two stable isotopes of cooper?
Answer: 63Cu and 65Cu

Question: Which isotope makes up about 69% of natural copper?
Answer: 63Cu

Question: What is the half life of the copper isotope 68mCu?
Answer: 3.8 minutes

Question: What is the half life of the copper isotope 67Cu?
Answer: 61.83 hours