rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Time

The theory of special relativity finds a convenient formulation in Minkowski spacetime, a mathematical structure that combines three dimensions of space with a single dimension of time. In this formalism, distances in space can be measured by how long light takes to travel that distance, e.g., a light-year is a measure of distance, and a meter is now defined in terms of how far light travels in a certain amount of time. Two events in Minkowski spacetime are separated by an invariant interval, which can be either space-like, light-like, or time-like. Events that have a time-like separation cannot be simultaneous in any frame of reference, there must be a temporal component (and possibly a spatial one) to their separation. Events that have a space-like separation will be simultaneous in some frame of reference, and there is no frame of reference in which they do not have a spatial separation. Different observers may calculate different distances and different time intervals between two events, but the invariant interval between the events is independent of the observer (and his velocity).

Question: Minkowski spacetime combines the three dimensions of space with what?
Answer: a single dimension of time

Question: In Minkowski spacetime, how can distances in space be measured?
Answer: by how long light takes to travel that distance

Question: What are two events in Minkowski spacetime separated by?
Answer: by an invariant interval

Question: The invariant interval between events is independent of what?
Answer: of the observer (and his velocity)

Question: The invariant interval that separates two events in Minkowski spacetime can either be what?
Answer: space-like, light-like, or time-like
Title: Time

In non-relativistic classical mechanics, Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time" can be used in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different observers in motion relative to each other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another measure different elapsed times for the same event.

Question: What Newtonian concept can be used in the formulation of an idea for the synchronization of clocks?
Answer: concept of "relative, apparent, and common time"

Question: In which century did physicists encounter problems with the understanding of time?
Answer: the late nineteenth century

Question: The behavior of which two phenomena caused physicists to encounter problems with their understanding of time in the late 19th century?
Answer: the behavior of electricity and magnetism

Question: Which famous scientist resolved these issues?
Answer: Einstein
Title: Time

Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together merging into spacetime in Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception as well as the measurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. For example, if a spaceship carrying a clock flies through space at (very nearly) the speed of light, its crew does not notice a change in the speed of time on board their vessel because everything traveling at the same speed slows down at the same rate (including the clock, the crew's thought processes, and the functions of their bodies). However, to a stationary observer watching the spaceship fly by, the spaceship appears flattened in the direction it is traveling and the clock on board the spaceship appears to move very slowly.

Question: Historically, time has been closely related with what?
Answer: space

Question: In which of Einstein's two theories do time and space merge into spacetime?
Answer: special relativity and general relativity

Question: According to Einsteins two relativity theories, the concept of time depends on what?
Answer: the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception

Question: A crew in a spaceship travelling nearly the speed of light will not notice the change in what?
Answer: in the speed of time on board their vessel

Question: How will the above mentioned spaceship appear to a stationary observer?
Answer: the spaceship appears flattened in the direction it is traveling
Title: Time

On the other hand, the crew on board the spaceship also perceives the observer as slowed down and flattened along the spaceship's direction of travel, because both are moving at very nearly the speed of light relative to each other. Because the outside universe appears flattened to the spaceship, the crew perceives themselves as quickly traveling between regions of space that (to the stationary observer) are many light years apart. This is reconciled by the fact that the crew's perception of time is different from the stationary observer's; what seems like seconds to the crew might be hundreds of years to the stationary observer. In either case, however, causality remains unchanged: the past is the set of events that can send light signals to an entity and the future is the set of events to which an entity can send light signals.

Question: How does the crew on board the spaceship perceive the stationary observer?
Answer: slowed down and flattened along the spaceship's direction of travel

Question: The crew's perception of what is different from a stationary observer?
Answer: time

Question: What the crew perceives as seconds might be seen as how long to a stationary observer?
Answer: hundreds of years

Question: What remains unchanged in both the cases of the spaceship crew and of the stationary observer?
Answer: causality
Title: Time

Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different time separations between events, and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Many subatomic particles exist for only a fixed fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but some that travel close to the speed of light can be measured to travel farther and survive much longer than expected (a muon is one example). According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion.

Question: Who showed, in his thought experiments, that people travelling at different speeds measured time differently?
Answer: Einstein

Question: In what case do these effects become much more noticeable?
Answer: for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light.

Question: How long do most subatomic particles exist for in a lab?
Answer: a fixed fraction of a second

Question: Einstein showed how what could be altered by high speed motion?
Answer: both temporal and spatial dimensions
Title: Time

Time appears to have a direction—the past lies behind, fixed and immutable, while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet for the most part the laws of physics do not specify an arrow of time, and allow any process to proceed both forward and in reverse. This is generally a consequence of time being modeled by a parameter in the system being analyzed, where there is no "proper time": the direction of the arrow of time is sometimes arbitrary. Examples of this include the Second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy must increase over time (see Entropy); the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big Bang, CPT symmetry, and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only traveling forwards in time (see light cone). In particle physics, the violation of CP symmetry implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry to preserve CPT symmetry as stated above. The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is also time asymmetric (see Measurement in quantum mechanics).

Question: What laws do not specify an arrow of time?
Answer: the laws of physics

Question: The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is what?
Answer: time asymmetric

Question: The direction of the arrow of time is sometimes what?
Answer: arbitrary

Question: Which law states that entropy must increase over time?
Answer: the Second law of thermodynamics,

Question: The violation of what implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry?
Answer: CP symmetry
Title: Time

Stephen Hawking in particular has addressed a connection between time and the Big Bang. In A Brief History of Time and elsewhere, Hawking says that even if time did not begin with the Big Bang and there were another time frame before the Big Bang, no information from events then would be accessible to us, and nothing that happened then would have any effect upon the present time-frame. Upon occasion, Hawking has stated that time actually began with the Big Bang, and that questions about what happened before the Big Bang are meaningless. This less-nuanced, but commonly repeated formulation has received criticisms from philosophers such as Aristotelian philosopher Mortimer J. Adler.

Question: In which publication does Hawking say that any events that existed before the Big Bang would not be accessible to us?
Answer: A Brief History of Time

Question: Stephen Hawking makes a connection between time and what?
Answer: the Big Bang

Question: What does Hawking suggest started with the big bang?
Answer: time

Question: Hawking also states that questions about what happened before the Big Bang are what?
Answer: meaningless

Question: Which philosopher has criticized Hawking's formulation?
Answer: Aristotelian philosopher Mortimer J. Adler
Title: Time

While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest moments of the universe's history. The Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems require the existence of a singularity at the beginning of cosmic time. However, these theorems assume that general relativity is correct, but general relativity must break down before the universe reaches the Planck temperature, and a correct treatment of quantum gravity may avoid the singularity.

Question: The Big Bang model is solidly established in what?
Answer: cosmology

Question: How much is known about the early states of the universe?
Answer: i

Question: Which theorems require the existence of a singularity at the beginning of time?
Answer: The Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems

Question: These theorems have to assume what theory is correct?
Answer: general relativity

Question: These theorems state that general relatively must break down before what?
Answer: before the universe reaches the Planck temperature
Title: Time

Time travel is the concept of moving backwards or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through space, and different from the normal "flow" of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all points in time (including future times) "persist" in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction since the 19th century. Traveling backwards in time has never been verified, presents many theoretic problems, and may be an impossibility. Any technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve time travel is known as a time machine.

Question: How long has time travel been a topic in science fiction?
Answer: since the 19th century

Question: Traveling which direction in time has never been verified and presents many problems?
Answer: backwards

Question: A time machine is known as any technological devise that is used for what purpose?
Answer: to achieve time travel
Title: Time

Another solution to the problem of causality-based temporal paradoxes is that such paradoxes cannot arise simply because they have not arisen. As illustrated in numerous works of fiction, free will either ceases to exist in the past or the outcomes of such decisions are predetermined. As such, it would not be possible to enact the grandfather paradox because it is a historical fact that your grandfather was not killed before his child (your parent) was conceived. This view doesn't simply hold that history is an unchangeable constant, but that any change made by a hypothetical future time traveler would already have happened in his or her past, resulting in the reality that the traveler moves from. More elaboration on this view can be found in the Novikov self-consistency principle.

Question: What is another solution to the problem of temporal paradoxes?
Answer: paradoxes cannot arise simply because they have not arisen

Question: In several works of fiction, what ceases to exist in the past which causes paradoxes not to arise?
Answer: free will

Question: What paradox cannot be enacted because it is a fact that your grandfather was not killed before your parent was conceived?
Answer: the grandfather paradox

Question: What principle elaborates more on the view described?
Answer: the Novikov self-consistency principle.
Title: Time

Psychoactive drugs can impair the judgment of time. Stimulants can lead both humans and rats to overestimate time intervals, while depressants can have the opposite effect. The level of activity in the brain of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine may be the reason for this. Such chemicals will either excite or inhibit the firing of neurons in the brain, with a greater firing rate allowing the brain to register the occurrence of more events within a given interval (speed up time) and a decreased firing rate reducing the brain's capacity to distinguish events occurring within a given interval (slow down time).

Question: What type of drugs can impair the judgement of time?
Answer: Psychoactive drugs

Question: Stimulants lead humans to overestimate what?
Answer: time intervals

Question: What causes humans to underestimate time intervals?
Answer: depressants

Question: The level of what is the reason stimulants and depressants change human perceptions of time?
Answer: The level of activity in the brain of neurotransmitters

Question: Such chemicals do what to the firing of the brain's neurons?
Answer: either excite or inhibit the firing of neurons
Title: Time

The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behavior, education, and travel behavior. Time-use research is a developing field of study. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with technology, as the television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about 20–30 minutes one-way for a large number of cities over a long period.

Question: The use of time is important in understanding what?
Answer: human behavior, education, and travel behavior

Question: What is a developing field of time related study?
Answer: Time-use research

Question: Time use is always changing with advances in what?
Answer: technology

Question: Travelling to work has been observed to be about how long for a large number of cities over a long period?
Answer: 20–30 minutes one-way
Title: Time

A sequence of events, or series of events, is a sequence of items, facts, events, actions, changes, or procedural steps, arranged in time order (chronological order), often with causality relationships among the items. Because of causality, cause precedes effect, or cause and effect may appear together in a single item, but effect never precedes cause. A sequence of events can be presented in text, tables, charts, or timelines. The description of the items or events may include a timestamp. A sequence of events that includes the time along with place or location information to describe a sequential path may be referred to as a world line.

Question: What may the description of events include?
Answer: a timestamp

Question: What never precedes cause because of causality?
Answer: effect

Question: A sequence of events used to describe a sequential path can be referred to as what?
Answer: a world line

Question: In what ways can a sequence of events be presented?
Answer: in text, tables, charts, or timelines

Question: What is another way of phrasing "time order"?
Answer: chronological order
Title: Time

Uses of a sequence of events include stories, historical events (chronology), directions and steps in procedures, and timetables for scheduling activities. A sequence of events may also be used to help describe processes in science, technology, and medicine. A sequence of events may be focused on past events (e.g., stories, history, chronology), on future events that must be in a predetermined order (e.g., plans, schedules, procedures, timetables), or focused on the observation of past events with the expectation that the events will occur in the future (e.g., processes). The use of a sequence of events occurs in fields as diverse as machines (cam timer), documentaries (Seconds From Disaster), law (choice of law), computer simulation (discrete event simulation), and electric power transmission (sequence of events recorder). A specific example of a sequence of events is the timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

Question: Uses of sequences of events include what?
Answer: stories, historical events (chronology), directions and steps in procedures, and timetables

Question: What may a sequence of events be used to describe?
Answer: processes in science, technology, and medicine

Question: The use of what occurs in fields as diverse as machines, documentaries, or computer simulation?
Answer: a sequence of events

Question: What is a specific example of a sequence of events?
Answer: the timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
Title: European_Central_Bank

The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the Eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union (EU) listed in the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states.[dated info] The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. As of 2015[update] the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005). The bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters.

Question: What former managing director od Goldman Sachs international division is president of The European Central Bank?
Answer: Mario Draghi

Question: What is the official, central bank for the euro?
Answer: The European Central Bank

Question: What is the Eurozone?
Answer: consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world

Question: Who owns the capital stock of The European Central Bank?
Answer: the central banks of all 28 EU member states

Question: What established The European Central Bank?
Answer: The Treaty of Amsterdam
Title: European_Central_Bank

The primary objective of the European Central Bank, as mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone. The basic tasks, as defined in Article 3 of the Statute, are to define and implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone, to conduct foreign exchange operations, to take care of the foreign reserves of the European System of Central Banks and operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and the technical platform (currently being developed) for settlement of securities in Europe (TARGET2 Securities). The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand.

Question: What is the main mission of the ECB?
Answer: maintain price stability within the Eurozone

Question: What gives the ECB the right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes?
Answer: Article 16 of its Statute

Question: How can a member state use euro coins?
Answer: the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand

Question: Where is the mission for the European Central Bank found?
Answer: Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB

Question: Where can the basic tasks of the European Central Bank be found?
Answer: Article 3 of the Statute
Title: European_Central_Bank

The first President of the Bank was Wim Duisenberg, the former president of the Dutch central bank and the European Monetary Institute. While Duisenberg had been the head of the EMI (taking over from Alexandre Lamfalussy of Belgium) just before the ECB came into existence, the French government wanted Jean-Claude Trichet, former head of the French central bank, to be the ECB's first president. The French argued that since the ECB was to be located in Germany, its president should be French. This was opposed by the German, Dutch and Belgian governments who saw Duisenberg as a guarantor of a strong euro. Tensions were abated by a gentleman's agreement in which Duisenberg would stand down before the end of his mandate, to be replaced by Trichet.

Question: Who was the first president of the ECB?
Answer: Wim Duisenberg

Question: What was Duisenberg's previous business experience?
Answer: former president of the Dutch central bank and the European Monetary Institute

Question: Who did the French government think was best candidate for President of the ECB?
Answer: Jean-Claude Trichet

Question: Why did the French want a French bank president?
Answer: since the ECB was to be located in Germany, its president should be French

Question: What did the French, German, Dutch and Belgian governments finally compromise on with regards to managing the ECB?
Answer: Duisenberg would stand down before the end of his mandate, to be replaced by Trichet