rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Adolescence

A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a transitional period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of multiple transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment, as well as transitions from one living circumstance to another.

Question: Adolescene is viewed as what?
Answer: a transitional period between childhood and adulthood

Question: A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on what?
Answer: information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology.

Question: What is the purpose of adolescence?
Answer: preparation of children for adult roles.

Question: What is the cultural purpose of adolescence?
Answer: preparation of children for adult roles

Question: What is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood viewed as?
Answer: adolescence

Question: Is adolescence a period of one transition or multiple transitions?
Answer: multiple transitions

Question: What transitions occur during puberty in addition to living circumstances?
Answer: education, training, employment and unemployment
Title: Adolescence

Puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of secondary sex characteristics (for example, a deeper voice and larger adam's apple in boys, and development of breasts and more curved and prominent hips in girls) and a strong shift in hormonal balance towards an adult state. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur. The male and female gonads are subsequently activated, which puts them into a state of rapid growth and development; the triggered gonads now commence the mass production of the necessary chemicals. The testes primarily release testosterone, and the ovaries predominantly dispense estrogen. The production of these hormones increases gradually until sexual maturation is met. Some boys may develop gynecomastia due to an imbalance of sex hormones, tissue responsiveness or obesity.

Question: Puberty causes what to happen in boys?
Answer: a deeper voice and larger adam's apple

Question: What releases testosterone?
Answer: The testes

Question: What releases estrogen?
Answer: the ovaries

Question: What causes gynecomastia?
Answer: obesity.

Question: What causes puberty? 
Answer: a surge in hormone production

Question: A surge in hormone production triggers a number of physical changes during what stage of life?
Answer: Puberty

Question: Which gland secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream?
Answer: pituitary

Question: Which part of the body releases testosterone in males?
Answer: testes

Question: Which part of the body relesases estrogen in females?
Answer: ovaries

Question: An imbalance in sex hormones, tissue responsiveness, or obesity can cause what in boys?
Answer: gynecomastia
Title: Adolescence

Pubertal development also affects circulatory and respiratory systems as an adolescents' heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity. These changes lead to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. Sex differences are apparent as males tend to develop "larger hearts and lungs, higher systolic blood pressure, a lower resting heart rate, a greater capacity for carrying oxygen to the blood, a greater power for neutralizing the chemical products of muscular exercise, higher blood hemoglobin and more red blood cells".

Question: How do a person's heart and lungs change during puberty?
Answer: increase in both size and capacity

Question: Increased size and capacity of the heart and lungs result in what changes to the body?
Answer: increased strength and tolerance for exercise

Question: Which sex tends to develop larger hearts and lungs?
Answer: males

Question: Which sex tends to have more red blood cells than the other?
Answer: males

Question: Which body system are a person's lungs a major proponent of?
Answer: respiratory
Title: Adolescence

The human brain is not fully developed by the time a person reaches puberty. Between the ages of 10 and 25, the brain undergoes changes that have important implications for behavior (see Cognitive development below). The brain reaches 90% of its adult size by the time a person is six years of age. Thus, the brain does not grow in size much during adolescence. However, the creases in the brain continue to become more complex until the late teens. The biggest changes in the folds of the brain during this time occur in the parts of the cortex that process cognitive and emotional information.

Question: Is a person's brain fully developed by the time they reach puberty?
Answer: not

Question: The biggest changes in the brain during puberty occur in the parts of the cortex that process what kinds of information?
Answer: cognitive and emotional

Question: The brain reaches 90% of its adult size by the time a person reaches what year of age?
Answer: six

Question: What parts of the brain continue to become more complex into the late teens?
Answer: creases

Question: The brain reaches what percentage of its adult size by the time a person is six years old?
Answer: 90%
Title: Adolescence

Serotonin is a neuromodulator involved in regulation of mood and behavior. Development in the limbic system plays an important role in determining rewards and punishments and processing emotional experience and social information. Changes in the levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin in the limbic system make adolescents more emotional and more responsive to rewards and stress. The corresponding increase in emotional variability also can increase adolescents' vulnerability. The effect of serotonin is not limited to the limbic system: Several serotonin receptors have their gene expression change dramatically during adolescence, particularly in the human frontal and prefrontal cortex .

Question: Which neuromodulator is involved in regulation of mood and behavior?
Answer: Serotonin

Question: Are the effects of serotonin limited to the limbic system?
Answer: not

Question: Serotonin is a neuromodulator that is involved in regulation of what?
Answer: mood and behavior

Question: Which system in the brain determines rewards and punishments, emotional experiences, and social information?
Answer: limbic

Question: Which two neurotransmitters cause adolescents to be more emotional and more responsive to rewards and stresses?
Answer: dopamine and serotonin
Title: Adolescence

Adolescents' thinking is less bound to concrete events than that of children: they can contemplate possibilities outside the realm of what currently exists. One manifestation of the adolescent's increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the improvement of skill in deductive reasoning, which leads to the development of hypothetical thinking. This provides the ability to plan ahead, see the future consequences of an action and to provide alternative explanations of events. It also makes adolescents more skilled debaters, as they can reason against a friend's or parent's assumptions. Adolescents also develop a more sophisticated understanding of probability.

Question: Deductive reasoning leads to the development of what type of thinking?
Answer: hypothetical

Question: Are adolescents or children more bound to concrete events?
Answer: children

Question: What type of thinking provides the ability to plan ahead and makes adolescents more skilled debaters?
Answer: hypothetical

Question: Adolescents develop a more sophisticated understanding of what mathematical concept thanks to their increased hypothetical thinking abilties?
Answer: probability
Title: Adolescence

The timing of puberty can have important psychological and social consequences. Early maturing boys are usually taller and stronger than their friends. They have the advantage in capturing the attention of potential partners and in becoming hand-picked for sports. Pubescent boys often tend to have a good body image, are more confident, secure, and more independent. Late maturing boys can be less confident because of poor body image when comparing themselves to already developed friends and peers. However, early puberty is not always positive for boys; early sexual maturation in boys can be accompanied by increased aggressiveness due to the surge of hormones that affect them. Because they appear older than their peers, pubescent boys may face increased social pressure to conform to adult norms; society may view them as more emotionally advanced, despite the fact that their cognitive and social development may lag behind their appearance. Studies have shown that early maturing boys are more likely to be sexually active and are more likely to participate in risky behaviors.

Question: Are sexual actvity and risky behaviors more likely in boys that mature early or later?
Answer: early

Question: Increased aggresiveness and early sexual maturation in adolescent boys are due to a surge of what?
Answer: hormones

Question: Are early or late maturing boys generally taller and stronger than their friends?
Answer: Early

Question: What is one reason a late maturing boy may be less confident when comparing himself to others?
Answer: poor body image
Title: Adolescence

Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience, increases between the ages of fourteen and twenty-five, then levels off. Thus, it is during the adolescence-adulthood transition that individuals acquire the type of wisdom that is associated with age. Wisdom is not the same as intelligence: adolescents do not improve substantially on IQ tests since their scores are relative to others in their same age group, and relative standing usually does not change—everyone matures at approximately the same rate in this way.

Question: How is wisdom defined?
Answer: capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience

Question: Wisdom increases between age fourteen and what?
Answer: twenty-five

Question: Is wisdom the same thing as intelligence?
Answer: not

Question: Do adolescents perform significantly better on IQ tests than other age groups?
Answer: not

Question: What word is defined as the capacity for insight and judgement that is developed through experience?
Answer: Wisdom
Title: Adolescence

In studying adolescent development, adolescence can be defined biologically, as the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally; or socially, as a period of preparation for adult roles. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, and muscle mass, as well as major changes in brain structure and organization. Cognitive advances encompass both increases in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations. For example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles (e.g., worker or romantic partner) and how this varies across cultures or social conditions. Developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status.

Question: How is adolescence defined biologically?
Answer: the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth

Question: How is adolescence defined cognitively?
Answer: changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally

Question: How is adolescence defined socially?
Answer: a period of preparation for adult roles

Question: Changes to sex organs, height, weight, and muscle mass are examples of which type of change?
Answer: biological

Question: Increases in knowledge and the ability to think abstractly are examples of which kind of change?
Answer: Cognitive
Title: Adolescence

Jean Macfarlane founded the University of California, Berkeley's Institute of Human Development, formerly called the Institute of Child Welfare, in 1927. The Institute was instrumental in initiating studies of healthy development, in contrast to previous work that had been dominated by theories based on pathological personalities. The studies looked at human development during the Great Depression and World War II, unique historical circumstances under which a generation of children grew up. The Oakland Growth Study, initiated by Harold Jones and Herbert Stolz in 1931, aimed to study the physical, intellectual, and social development of children in the Oakland area. Data collection began in 1932 and continued until 1981, allowing the researchers to gather longitudinal data on the individuals that extended past adolescence into adulthood. Jean Macfarlane launched the Berkeley Guidance Study, which examined the development of children in terms of their socioeconomic and family backgrounds. These studies provided the background for Glen Elder in the 1960s, to propose a life-course perspective of adolescent development. Elder formulated several descriptive principles of adolescent development. The principle of historical time and place states that an individual's development is shaped by the period and location in which they grow up. The principle of the importance of timing in one's life refers to the different impact that life events have on development based on when in one's life they occur. The idea of linked lives states that one's development is shaped by the interconnected network of relationships of which one is a part; and the principle of human agency asserts that one's life course is constructed via the choices and actions of an individual within the context of their historical period and social network.

Question: Who founded the University of California, Berkeley's Institude of Human Development?
Answer: Jean Macfarlane

Question: What year was the University of California, Berkeley's Instutute of Human Development founded?
Answer: 1927

Question: What was the Univerity of California, Berkeley's Institute of Human Development formerly called?
Answer: Institute of Child Welfare

Question: What year was the Oakland Growth Study initiated?
Answer: 1931

Question: What year did data for the Oakland Growth Study stop being collected?
Answer: 1981
Title: Adolescence

The major landmark of puberty for males is the first ejaculation, which occurs, on average, at age 13. For females, it is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs, on average, between ages 12 and 13. The age of menarche is influenced by heredity, but a girl's diet and lifestyle contribute as well. Regardless of genes, a girl must have a certain proportion of body fat to attain menarche. Consequently, girls who have a high-fat diet and who are not physically active begin menstruating earlier, on average, than girls whose diet contains less fat and whose activities involve fat reducing exercise (e.g. ballet and gymnastics). Girls who experience malnutrition or are in societies in which children are expected to perform physical labor also begin menstruating at later ages.

Question: What is a male's major landmark of puberty?
Answer: first ejaculation

Question: At what average age does a male's first ejaculation occur?
Answer: 13

Question: What is a female's major landmark of puberty?
Answer: menstruation

Question: Besides heredity, what other factors contribute to when menustration begins?
Answer: diet and lifestyle

Question: Do girls who are malnourished start menustrating earlier or later than those with high-fat diets?
Answer: later
Title: Adolescence

Adolescents can conceptualize multiple "possible selves" that they could become and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the actual self toward the ideal self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.

Question: How can the ideal self be described in terms of the adolescent?
Answer: who the adolescent wishes to be

Question: How can the feared self be described in terms of the adolescent?
Answer: who the adolescent does not want to be

Question: Do adolescents demonstrate intended behavior moving towards the ideal or feared self?
Answer: ideal
Title: Adolescence

In females, changes in the primary sex characteristics involve growth of the uterus, vagina, and other aspects of the reproductive system. Menarche, the beginning of menstruation, is a relatively late development which follows a long series of hormonal changes. Generally, a girl is not fully fertile until several years after menarche, as regular ovulation follows menarche by about two years. Unlike males, therefore, females usually appear physically mature before they are capable of becoming pregnant.

Question: What term is the beginning of menstruation given?
Answer: Menarche

Question: How many years does regular ovulation follow menarche?
Answer: two years

Question: What are two areas of the reproductive system that experience growth in females during puberty?
Answer: uterus, vagina

Question: Do males or females appear physically mature before they are capable of reproduction?
Answer: females
Title: Adolescence

Primary sex characteristics are those directly related to the sex organs. In males, the first stages of puberty involve growth of the testes and scrotum, followed by growth of the penis. At the time that the penis develops, the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral gland also enlarge and develop. The first ejaculation of seminal fluid generally occurs about one year after the beginning of accelerated penis growth, although this is often determined culturally rather than biologically, since for many boys first ejaculation occurs as a result of masturbation. Boys are generally fertile before they have an adult appearance.

Question: What activity often results in a boy's first ejaculation?
Answer: masturbation

Question: What are primary sex characteristics?
Answer: those directly related to the sex organs

Question: What does the first stage of puberty involve for males?
Answer: growth of the testes and scrotum

Question: After growth of the testes and scrotum, while male body part experiences growth next?
Answer: penis

Question: Which male body parts enlarge and develop at the same time as the penis?
Answer: seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral gland
Title: Adolescence

Adolescence marks a rapid change in one's role within a family. Young children tend to assert themselves forcefully, but are unable to demonstrate much influence over family decisions until early adolescence, when they are increasingly viewed by parents as equals. The adolescent faces the task of increasing independence while preserving a caring relationship with his or her parents. When children go through puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent–child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond. Arguments often concern minor issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the adolescent's right to privacy, which adolescents may have previously viewed as issues over which their parents had complete authority. Parent-adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescent that may be in opposition to parents' values. Social media has also played an increasing role in adolescent and parent disagreements. While parents never had to worry about the threats of social media in the past, it has become a dangerous place for children. While adolescents strive for their freedoms, the unknowns to parents of what their child is doing on social media sites is a challenging subject, due to the increasing amount of predators on social media sites. Many parents have very little knowledge of social networking sites in the first place and this further increases their mistrust. An important challenge for the parent–adolescent relationship is to understand how to enhance the opportunities of online communication while managing its risks. Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, these are just relatively minor issues. Regarding their important life issues, most adolescents still share the same attitudes and values as their parents.

Question: At what stage do parents see their children as equals?
Answer: early adolescence

Question: During what stage of development is there increased parent-child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond?
Answer: puberty

Question: During puberty and adolescence, do most children share the same or different attitudes and values as their parents?
Answer: same
Title: Adolescence

The first areas of the brain to be pruned are those involving primary functions, such as motor and sensory areas. The areas of the brain involved in more complex processes lose matter later in development. These include the lateral and prefrontal cortices, among other regions. Some of the most developmentally significant changes in the brain occur in the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in decision making and cognitive control, as well as other higher cognitive functions. During adolescence, myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex increases, improving the efficiency of information processing, and neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain are strengthened. This leads to better evaluation of risks and rewards, as well as improved control over impulses. Specifically, developments in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are important for controlling impulses and planning ahead, while development in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is important for decision making. Changes in the orbitofrontal cortex are important for evaluating rewards and risks.

Question: Which part of the brain is involved in decision making and cognitive control?
Answer: prefrontal cortex

Question: Which area of the brain is important for controlling impulses and planning ahead?
Answer: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Question: Which part of the brain is important for evaluating rewards and risks?
Answer: orbitofrontal cortex

Question: Which are the first areas to be pruned during puberty?
Answer: those involving primary functions

Question: Motor and sensory skills are examples of what kind of brain function?
Answer: primary