rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Protestantism

Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other. The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious demography of the Royal Society (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a correlation between Protestantism and the scientific values. Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science. Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.

Question: The rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism resulted in a corresponding rise in what?
Answer: early experimental science

Question: What religions did Merton think caused the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries?
Answer: English Puritanism and German Pietism

Question: What other reason did Merton believe causes science to advance?
Answer: an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology

Question: What religions were English scientists in the 17th century?
Answer: Puritans or other Protestants

Question: What values were thought to have a significant synergy?
Answer: ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science
Title: Protestantism

In the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle (doctrine of the two kingdoms). The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture; 1523). Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his representative church government. The Huguenots added regional synods and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches.

Question: What was the name of the doctrine that separated church and non-religious affairs?
Answer: doctrine of the two kingdoms

Question: Who added the election of laymen to church government?
Answer: Calvin

Question: When was the treatise that allowed a congregation to elect or remove a minister?
Answer: 1523

Question: Who added synods to church government?
Answer: The Huguenots

Question: What were Luther's followers advised to use when governing worldly affairs?
Answer: reason
Title: Protestantism

Politically, Calvin favoured a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of democracy: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords." Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Thus he and his followers resisted political absolutism and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy. Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle. Hugo Grotius was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.

Question: What political mixture did Calvin prefer?
Answer: aristocracy and democracy

Question: What is the term for checks and balances in a political system?
Answer: separation of powers

Question: Who paved the way for modern democracy to emerge?
Answer: Calvin

Question: Who was allowed to teach a liberal Bible interpretation?
Answer: Hugo Grotius

Question: What philosophers were given asylum?
Answer: Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle
Title: Protestantism

Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell, John Milton, John Locke, the Glorious Revolution, the English Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement. Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America, Plymouth Colony (Pilgrim Fathers; 1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) practised democratic self-rule and separation of powers. These Congregationalists were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God. The Mayflower Compact was a social contract.

Question: Whose democracies were created by Protestants?
Answer: the English and the American democracies

Question: What democratic principles were followed by the Plymouth Colony?
Answer: self-rule and separation of powers

Question: Other than the U.S., to what colonies did the British export their democratic beliefs?
Answer: Australia, New Zealand, and India

Question: What group believed that democracy was the will of God?
Answer: Congregationalists

Question: What other group in America practiced self-rule and separation of powers?
Answer: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Title: Protestantism

Protestants also took the initiative in advocating for religious freedom. Freedom of conscience had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could, therefore, not be forced on a person. The persecuted Anabaptists and Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, and they practised separation of church and state. In the early seventeenth century, Baptists like John Smyth and Thomas Helwys published tracts in defense of religious freedom. Their thinking influenced John Milton and John Locke's stance on tolerance. Under the leadership of Baptist Roger Williams, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker, and Quaker William Penn, respectively, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews. The United States Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the American Bill of Rights with its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework. The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., Latin America, Japan, and Germany). The strongest link between the American and French Revolutions was Marquis de Lafayette, an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document. The United Nations Declaration and Universal Declaration of Human Rights also echo the American constitutional tradition.

Question: What group initiated the right to religious freedom?
Answer: Protestants

Question: Where did Luther refuse to change his beliefs?
Answer: Worms

Question: What persecuted groups followed the separation of church and state?
Answer: Anabaptists and Huguenots

Question: Who wrote about religious freedom in the early 17th century?
Answer: John Smyth and Thomas Helwys

Question: How many American Protestants supported independence in America?
Answer: The great majority
Title: Protestantism

Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state – these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by Enlightenment thinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment - Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, John Toland, David Hume, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Christian Wolff, Immanuel Kant, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau - had Protestant backgrounds. For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a set of Protestant Christian assumptions", derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ("Adam and Eve"), from Genesis 1, 26-28. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed "the consent of the governed." These Lockean ideas were fundamental to the United States Declaration of Independence, which also deduced human rights from the biblical belief in creation: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."

Question: What group popularized early Protestant teachings about separation of church and state?
Answer: Enlightenment thinkers

Question: What did John Locke use as a basis for his political beliefs?
Answer: a set of Protestant Christian assumptions

Question: Whose ideas influenced the Declaration of Independence?
Answer: John Locke

Question: What Rights do the Declaration of Independence consider unalienable?
Answer: Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness

Question: What scripture did Locke use as a reference for equality?
Answer: Genesis 1, 26-28
Title: Protestantism

Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example, torture was abolished in Prussia in 1740, slavery in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln - against Southern Protestants). Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to international law. The Geneva Convention, an important part of humanitarian international law, was largely the work of Henry Dunant, a reformed pietist. He also founded the Red Cross.

Question: When did Prussia stop torture?
Answer: 1740

Question: When did Britain end slavery?
Answer: 1834

Question: Who were the first men to make large contributions to international law?
Answer: Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf

Question: Who founded the Red Cross?
Answer: Henry Dunant

Question: What international law was Henry Dunant mostly responsible for?
Answer: The Geneva Convention
Title: Protestantism

Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies. In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and woman suffrage. As an answer to the "social question" of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced insurance programs that led the way to the welfare state (health insurance, accident insurance, disability insurance, old-age pensions). To Bismarck this was "practical Christianity". These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world.

Question: Who first introduced social insurance programs?
Answer: Chancellor Otto von Bismarck

Question: What did Bismarck consider social insurance programs to be?
Answer: practical Christianity

Question: What social reform movements were Protestants working toward in the nineteen century?
Answer: the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and woman suffrage

Question: What country started programs that led to the welfare state?
Answer: Germany

Question: What area copied Bismarck's social programs the most?
Answer: the Western world
Title: Protestantism

World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Bunyan, John Donne, John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, William Wordsworth, Jonathan Swift, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, Matthew Arnold, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Theodor Fontane, Washington Irving, Robert Browning, Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Thomas Stearns Eliot, John Galsworthy, Thomas Mann, William Faulkner, John Updike, and many others.

Question: What did John Milton do for world literature?
Answer: enrich

Question: Samuel Taylor is listed as enriching what?
Answer: World literature

Question: What women writers were listed as contributors to world literature?
Answer: Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë

Question: Edgar Allen Poe added value to literature in what area?
Answer: World
Title: Protestantism

The view of the Roman Catholic Church is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered churches but rather that they are ecclesial communities or specific faith-believing communities because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood and therefore lack true apostolic succession. According to Bishop Hilarion (Alfeyev) the Eastern Orthodox Church shares the same view on the subject.

Question: The Roman Catholic Church considers Protestant denominations to be what?
Answer: ecclesial communities or specific faith-believing communities

Question: What is lacking in Protestant priesthood, according to the Roman Catholic Church?
Answer: no sacramental ministerial priesthood

Question: What does the Roman Catholic Church say is not comparable to their sacraments and dogmas?
Answer: ordinances and doctrines

Question: What other Church shares the Roman Catholic view on Protestant churches?
Answer: Eastern Orthodox

Question: What is lacking in Protestantism, according to the Roman Catholic Church?
Answer: true apostolic succession
Title: Protestantism

Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the catholic or universal church was seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Roman Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Roman Catholic Church that had left them. In order to justify their departure from the Roman Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument, saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a spiritual, invisible, and hidden church—this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation.

Question: Who were Magisterial reformers?
Answer: Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli

Question: What institution did Martin Luther believe he was reforming?
Answer: the Roman Catholic Church

Question: Instead of a visible church, what did Protestants believe there was?
Answer: a spiritual, invisible, and hidden church

Question: When did the idea of a hidden church begin?
Answer: in the early days of the Protestant Reformation

Question: What church did the Reformers claim had left them?
Answer: the Roman Catholic Church
Title: Protestantism

Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole invisible church, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the Papacy and central authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible ecclesiastical organization based on the 14th and 15th century Conciliar movement, rejecting the papacy and papal infallibility in favor of ecumenical councils, but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the Council of Trent. Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action.

Question: Who supported the Magisterial Reformation?
Answer: the ruling authorities

Question: The Reformed churches based their beliefs about ecclesiastical organization on what movement?
Answer: Conciliar

Question: What are the doctrines of the Reformed churches called?
Answer: the five solas

Question: What ecumenical council did the Reformed churches reject?
Answer: the Council of Trent

Question: What type of character became central to religious unity in Reformed churches?
Answer: invisible
Title: Protestantism

The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, the US-based United Church of Christ, the United Church of Canada, the Uniting Church in Australia and the United Church of Christ in the Philippines which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.

Question: What group has been unsuccessful in creating a unified church since 1948?
Answer: the World Council of Churches

Question: What conference was held in 1910?
Answer: the Edinburgh Missionary Conference

Question: What churches have been strongly engaged in the ecumenical movement?
Answer: Orthodox

Question: What have Orthodox churches condemned the perception of?
Answer: watering down Orthodox doctrine

Question: What types of churches have had rapidly declining memberships?
Answer: united churches
Title: Protestantism

A Protestant baptism is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of apostolic succession and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the priesthood after a period of study.

Question: If done properly, what Protestant practice does the Catholic Church recognize?
Answer: baptism

Question: What is the only other sacrament of the Protestants that the Catholic Church recognizes?
Answer: marriage

Question: Who can become ordained to the Catholic priesthood after a period of study?
Answer: Protestant ministers who become Catholics

Question: Protestants who want full communion with the Catholic Church do not have to be what?
Answer: re-baptized

Question: Why does the Catholic Church not recognize the ordination of Protestant ministers?
Answer: the lack of apostolic succession and the disunity from Catholic Church
Title: Protestantism

In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although Confessional Lutherans reject this statement. This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.

Question: What document was signed in 1999?
Answer: the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification

Question: Who rejects the statement signed in 1999?
Answer: Confessional Lutherans

Question: Who adopted the Joint Declaration in 2006?
Answer: delegates to the World Methodist Conference

Question: The Joint Declaration supposedly resolves the conflict which originally led to what movement?
Answer: the Protestant Reformation

Question: What two groups originally signed the Joint Declaration?
Answer: Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church
Title: Protestantism

There are more than 900 million Protestants worldwide,[ad] among approximately 2.4 billion Christians.[ae] In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa. Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population. Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%, 36%, 36.7%, and 40%, while in relation to the world's population at 11.6% and 13%.

Question: How many Protestants are there in the world?
Answer: more than 900 million

Question: What is the total population of Christians in the world?
Answer: approximately 2.4 billion

Question: Approximately how much of the world's population are Protestant (in fractions)?
Answer: more than one tenth

Question: What area only had about 2 million Protestants in 2010?
Answer: Middle East-North Africa

Question: What area had the largest Protestant population in 2010?
Answer: Sub-Saharan Africa