rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Phonology

In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, for example, syllable structure, stress, feature geometry, accent, and intonation.

Question: What do phonemes differentiate? 
Answer: meaning

Question: Aside from phonemes what is studied by phonology?
Answer: how sounds alternate

Question: The study of syllable structure is part of what discipline?
Answer: phonology
Title: Phonology

Phonology also includes topics such as phonotactics (the phonological constraints on what sounds can appear in what positions in a given language) and phonological alternation (how the pronunciation of a sound changes through the application of phonological rules, sometimes in a given order which can be feeding or bleeding,) as well as prosody, the study of suprasegmentals and topics such as stress and intonation.

Question: Under what topic is suprasegmentals studied?
Answer: prosody

Question: Aside from bleeding what is an order of rules that define how pronunciation of a sound changes?
Answer: feeding

Question: Phonotactics, phonological alternation and prosody are topics contained in what discipline?
Answer: Phonology

Question: Stress and intonation are studied under what topic?
Answer: prosody
Title: Phonology

The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. The same principles have been applied to the analysis of sign languages (see Phonemes in sign languages), even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds.

Question: Instead of being language-specific what kind of tools are the principles of phonological analysis designed to be?
Answer: general analytical tools

Question: What other types of language have the phonological analysis principles been applied to?
Answer: sign languages

Question: What are the principles of phonological analysis able to be applied separately from?
Answer: modality

Question: In sign languages what are not represented as instances of speech sounds?
Answer: sub-lexical units
Title: Computer

Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.

Question: In computer terms, what does CPU stand for?
Answer: central processing unit

Question: What are the devices called that are from an external source?
Answer: Peripheral devices

Question: What are two things that a computer always has?
Answer: (CPU), and some form of memory
Title: Computer

Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical analog computers were used for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first electronic digital computers were developed. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).

Question: What were analog computers originally used for?
Answer: astronomical calculations

Question: During what war were computers first used for military applications?
Answer: World War II,

Question: In computer terms, what does PC stand for?
Answer: personal computers

Question: During what war were the first digital computers invented?
Answer: World War II
Title: Computer

Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are generally considered as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from electronic toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

Question: Computers in today's age are based on what that make them much faster than earlier computers?
Answer: integrated circuits

Question: How much more powerful are modern computers versus early computers?
Answer: millions to billions of times
Title: Computer

The first known use of the word "computer" was in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: "I haue read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number." It referred to a person who carried out calculations, or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.

Question: When was the first known use of the word "computer"?
Answer: 1613

Question: In which book, was the term "computer" first used?
Answer: The Yong Mans Gleanings

Question: Who was the author of the book, The Yong Mans Gleanings?
Answer: Richard Braithwait

Question: From the end of what century, did the word "computer" take its well known meaning of today?
Answer: 19th century
Title: Computer

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example.

Question: The earliest device to help count was what?
Answer: a form of tally stick

Question: Calculi during the Fertile Crescent refers to what?
Answer: (clay spheres, cones, etc.)
Title: Computer

The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.

Question: What was the abacus first used for?
Answer: arithmetic tasks

Question: When was the Roman abacus first used?
Answer: 2400 BC

Question: Where was the Roman abacus first used?
Answer: Babylonia

Question: In medieval Europe was was placed on a table to help count money?
Answer: a checkered cloth

Question: A checkered cloth on a table was used in medieval Europe to help count what?
Answer: sums of money
Title: Computer

The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer", according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.

Question: What is thought to be the first mechanical analog computer?
Answer: The Antikythera mechanism

Question: When was the Antikythera mechanism discovered?
Answer: 1901

Question: Where was the Antikythera mechanism found in 1901?
Answer: Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera

Question: Where is the Greek Island of Antikythera located between?
Answer: Kythera and Crete

Question: The Antikythera mechanism was thought to be the first computer according to whom?
Answer: Derek J. de Solla Price.
Title: Computer

Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear-wheels, circa 1000 AD.

Question: Who invented the planisphere?
Answer: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

Question: Who is thought to have invented the astrolabe in history?
Answer: Hipparchus

Question: The astrolabe was a combination of what two devices in history?
Answer: the planisphere and dioptra

Question: The first astrolabe with gear-wheels was invented when?
Answer: 1235

Question: The first astrolabe with a mechanical calendar was invented where?
Answer: Persia
Title: Computer

The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

Question: The sector, a calculating instrument, was invented during what century?
Answer: 16th century
Title: Computer

The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time–distance problems in light aircraft. To save space and for ease of reading, these are typically circular devices rather than the classic linear slide rule shape. A popular example is the E6B.

Question: When was the slide rule first invented?
Answer: 1620–1630

Question: What is the slide rule used for?
Answer: doing multiplication and division.

Question: What industry are slide rules still used today?
Answer: Aviation
Title: Computer

In the 1770s Pierre Jaquet-Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automata) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.

Question: What was the profession of Pierre Jaquet-Droz?
Answer: a Swiss watchmaker

Question: When did Pierre Jaquet-Droz build a mechanical doll that could hold a pen?
Answer: In the 1770s

Question: Where is the doll Pierre Jaquet-Droz built today?
Answer: Musée d'Art et d'Histoire

Question: Where is the Musee d-Art et d'Histoire located?
Answer: Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Title: Computer

The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

Question: When was the tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson invented?
Answer: 1872

Question: Who invented the first tide-predicting machine in 1872?
Answer: Sir William Thomson

Question: What did Sir William Thomson's tide-predicting machine use to function?
Answer: system of pulleys and wires
Title: Computer

The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.

Question: What type of mechanisms did the differential analyzer use?
Answer: wheel-and-disc

Question: In 1876 who lobbied for the construction of the differential analyzers?
Answer: Lord Kelvin

Question: During what decade were mechanical differential analyzers developed?
Answer: 1920s

Question: In the 1920s, who was the person who developed mechanical differential analyzers?
Answer: Vannevar Bush
Title: Computer

Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.

Question: Who invented the concept of a programmable computer?
Answer: Charles Babbage

Question: Who is considered the "father of the computer"?
Answer: Charles Babbage

Question: During what century was the first mechanical computer invented by Charles Babbage?
Answer: early 19th century

Question: What year did Charles Babbage find out that An Analytical Engine was possible?
Answer: 1833
Title: Computer

The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.

Question: Who was Charles Babbage's son?
Answer: Henry Babbage

Question: Who created a simple version of the analytical engine's computing unit?
Answer: Henry Babbage

Question: When was the mill created by Henry Babbage?
Answer: 1888

Question: When was a demonstration by Henry Babbage of the mill given?
Answer: 1906
Title: Computer

The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.

Question: Who invented the first analog computer in the form of a tide-predicting machine?
Answer: Sir William Thomson

Question: When was the first analog computer in the form of a tide-predicting machine created?
Answer: 1872

Question: Who created the idea of the differential analyzer in 1876?
Answer: James Thomson

Question: James Thomson was the brother of what famous figure?
Answer: Lord Kelvin
Title: Computer

The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious.

Question: Where was the differential analyzer built by H.L. Hazen?
Answer: MIT

Question: The differential analyzer by H.L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush was first being built in what year?
Answer: 1927

Question: The torque amplifiers of the differential analyzer were created by whom?
Answer: H. W. Nieman
Title: Computer

By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remain in use in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).

Question: By what decade were analog computing devices rendered obsolete?
Answer: 50s

Question: Analog computers remain in use in what industries?
Answer: education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).
Title: Computer

The principle of the modern computer was first described by mathematician and pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper, On Computable Numbers. Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt.

Question: Who wrote the paper "On Computable Numbers"?
Answer: Alan Turing

Question: When did Alan Turing write the paper, "On Computable Numbers"?
Answer: 1936

Question: Who did Turing revise the results on the limits of proof and computation in 1931?
Answer: Kurt Gödel
Title: Computer

He also introduced the notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a Universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

Question: A Universal Machine is known as what today?
Answer: Universal Turing machine
Title: Computer

By 1938 the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

Question: What part of the US military developed an electromechanical analog computer to use on a submarine?
Answer: the United States Navy

Question: When did the US Navy invent an electromechanical computer to use on a submarine?
Answer: 1938

Question: What type of math did the Torpedo Data computer use to fire a torpedo at a moving target?
Answer: trigonometry
Title: Computer

Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.

Question: Who created the relay computer, the Z2?
Answer: Konrad Zuse

Question: When did Konrad Zuse invent the Z2?
Answer: 1939

Question: What is one of the first electromechanical relay computers?
Answer: The Z2

Question: Konrad Zuse was an engineer with what nationality?
Answer: German
Title: Computer

In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz. Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was Turing complete.

Question: When did Konrad Zuse create the Z3 computer?
Answer: 1941

Question: What was the first automatic, digital, programmable computer created by Konrad Zuse?
Answer: the Z3

Question: How many relays did the Z3 contain?
Answer: 2000

Question: What did the Z3 operate for a clock frequency?
Answer: about 5–10 Hz

Question: How many words of memory could be stored with the Z3?
Answer: 64
Title: Computer

Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes. In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer". This design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.

Question: Where did the engineer Tommy Flowers work at during the 1930s?
Answer: Post Office Research Station

Question: In what city did Tommy Flowers work in the 1930s?
Answer: London

Question: The Atanasoff-Berry computer was invented in what year?
Answer: 1942

Question: How many vacuum tubes did the Atanasoff-Berry computer use?
Answer: about 300

Question: At what school did John Vincent Atansoff and Clifford E. Berry work?
Answer: Iowa State University