rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Brain

Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern.

Question: There are two types of sleep called what?
Answer: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM

Question: What type of sleep involves dreaming?
Answer: REM sleep

Question: The three types of brain activity that can be measured are what?
Answer: REM, light NREM and deep NREM

Question: Slow wave sleep is also known as what?
Answer: deep NREM sleep

Question: During what stage of sleep do serotonin and norepinephrine levels drop?
Answer: slow wave sleep
Title: Brain

For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.)

Question: Homeostasis is defined as what?
Answer: The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body

Question: Homeostasis is Greek for what phrase?
Answer: "standing still"

Question: The milieu interieur term was used by what physiologist?
Answer: Claude Bernard

Question: Homeostasis is like what household tool?
Answer: a thermostat.
Title: Brain

In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.

Question: The hypothalamus is located at the base of what?
Answer: the forebrain

Question: In vertebrates, the most important part of the brain is what?
Answer: the hypothalamus,

Question: A collection of small nuclei at the base of the forebrain is called what?
Answer: the hypothalamus,

Question: The gland directly underneath the hypothalamus is which gland?
Answer: the pituitary gland

Question: The pituitary gland sends hormones through what in the body?
Answer: the bloodstream
Title: Brain

Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.

Question: A set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain is called what?
Answer: basal ganglia

Question: The basal ganglia is thought to be the central location at which what are made?
Answer: decisions

Question: Which neurotransmitter plays a large role in drug abuse?
Answer: dopamine

Question: Which of the two systems, reward or punishment is better understood?
Answer: The reward mechanism
Title: Brain

Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process.

Question: In what year did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo publish a paper about long-term potentiation?
Answer: 1971

Question: BDNF is an abbreviation for what term?
Answer: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor

Question: Learning and memory expressed as changes in the synaptic connections was first theorized by whom?
Answer: Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Title: Brain

The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy.

Question: What field of science studies the brain and the central nervous system?
Answer: neuroscience

Question: What scientific field tries to understand the mind and behavior?
Answer: Psychology

Question: What field of science strives to diagnose and treat diseases of the nervous system?
Answer: neurology

Question: Psychiatry is the branch of science that does what?
Answer: study, prevent, and treat mental disorders

Question: Cognitive science seeks to join what two branches of science with other fields?
Answer: neuroscience and psychology
Title: Brain

The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.

Question: The oldest known method of studying the brain is what?
Answer: anatomical,

Question: What do neuroanatomists study?
Answer: the large-scale structure of the brain

Question: What type of study uses medical imaging techniques to correlate changes in brain structure?
Answer: neuroanatomy

Question: Until what century was brain studying mostly anatomical?
Answer: the middle of the 20th century,
Title: Brain

Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures. Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.

Question: What do neurophysiologists study?
Answer: the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain

Question: The most common tools that neurophysiologists use are what?
Answer: drugs and recording devices

Question: What type of receptors does the brain lack?
Answer: pain receptors

Question: Electrodes are often glued to what like in EEG studies?
Answer: the scalp
Title: Brain

Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges, surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.

Question: The brain is surrounded by what type of fluid?
Answer: cerebrospinal fluid

Question: The brain is separated from the bloodstream by what feature?
Answer: the blood–brain barrier

Question: The two main structures that protect the brain are what?
Answer: the skull and meninges

Question: What type of disease if often studied to understand damage to the brain?
Answer: strokes

Question: What type of animal is most commonly used to study brain damage?
Answer: rats
Title: Brain

Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.

Question: Computational neuroscience is concerned with what two studies?
Answer: the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation.
Title: Brain

Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain  and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity. The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using Cre-Lox recombination it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.

Question: What is the most common test subjects for studying of the brain?
Answer: mice
Title: Brain

The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni-1 cave complex. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.

Question: Where was the oldest brain that was found?
Answer: Armenia

Question: How old was the oldest brain discovered thought to be?
Answer: over 5,000 years old

Question: The oldest known brain discovered was found in how old of a person?
Answer: 12 to 14-year-old

Question: The oldest brain found in a cave was from what gender of human?
Answer: girl
Title: Brain

Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:

Question: The seal of the soul was debated to lie in what two organs of the body?
Answer: brain or heart.

Question: Aristotle thought the soul lied in what organ?
Answer: the heart

Question: Who invented the atomic theory of matter?
Answer: Democritus,

Question: The "father of medicine" is a name given to whom in history?
Answer: Hippocrates

Question: What philosopher in history argued for a three-part soul?
Answer: Democritus
Title: Brain

The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits". Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.

Question: The physician Galen was from which country in history?
Answer: Roman

Question: What period in history was anatomical  studies of nerves greatly increased?
Answer: the Renaissance

Question: Who coined the term pneumata psychikon?
Answer: The Roman physician Galen

Question: Penumata psychikon is usually translated as what?
Answer: animal spirits
Title: Brain

The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of Camillo Golgi, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.

Question: Who found out that a shock of electricity to an exposed nerve of a dead frog caused contractions?
Answer: Luigi Galvani

Question: The tool that was invented to stain only a small fractions of neurons was called what?
Answer: the Golgi stain

Question: What nationality was santiago Ramon y Cajal?
Answer: Spanish
Title: Brain

In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:

Question: Work in the first half the 20th century in electrical properties of nerve cells were by what two main scientists?
Answer: Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley
Title: Brain

In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "Decade of the Brain" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.

Question: Which decade in history was officially called the "Decade of the Brain"?
Answer: the 1990s
Title: Brain

In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including multielectrode recording, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time; genetic engineering, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally; genomics, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

Question: Multielectrode recording allows what?
Answer: the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;

Question: Genetic engineering allows what?
Answer: molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;

Question: What does genomics allow the study of?
Answer: variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

Question: During what century was multielectrode recording invented?
Answer: the 21st century,

Question: Genetic engineering was first discovered in what century?
Answer: the 21st century,
Title: Near_East

Near East (French: Proche-Orient) is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia. Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire. The term has fallen into disuse in English, and has been replaced by the term Middle East.

Question: What is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia?
Answer: Near East (French: Proche-Orient)

Question: The term near east was originally applies to the maximum extent of what empire?
Answer: Ottoman Empire

Question: The term Near East has fallen into disuses in what language?
Answer: English

Question: What has replaced the term Near East?
Answer: Middle East
Title: Near_East

The Encyclopædia Britannica defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines the region similarly, but also includes Afghanistan while excluding the countries of North Africa and the Palestinian territories. According to the National Geographic Society, the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories and are 'generally accepted as comprising the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey'.

Question: Who defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt. Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Isreal, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen?
Answer: The Encyclopædia Britannica

Question: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also includes what Country in the definition of Near East?
Answer: Afghanistan

Question: What group believes the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories?
Answer: the National Geographic Society
Title: Near_East

At the beginning of the 19th century the Ottoman Empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain, but by 1914 had lost all of it except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace to the rise of Balkan nationalism, which saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria. Up until 1912 the Ottomans retained a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace, which were lost in the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13.

Question: What empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain at the beginning of the 19th century?
Answer: the Ottoman Empire

Question: When did the Ottoman Empire lose all of it's empire except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace?
Answer: 1914

Question: The rise of what saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria?
Answer: the rise of Balkan nationalism

Question: Until what year did the Ottomans retain a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?
Answer: 1912

Question: When did the Ottomans lose the territory of Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?
Answer: the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13