rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Unicode

Each code point has a single General Category property. The major categories are: Letter, Mark, Number, Punctuation, Symbol, Separator and Other. Within these categories, there are subdivisions. The General Category is not useful for every use, since legacy encodings have used multiple characteristics per single code point. E.g., U+000A <control-000A> Line feed (LF) in ASCII is both a control and a formatting separator; in Unicode the General Category is "Other, Control". Often, other properties must be used to specify the characteristics and behaviour of a code point. The possible General Categories are:

Question: What are the General Categories of Unicode?
Answer: Letter, Mark, Number, Punctuation, Symbol, Separator and Other

Question: What type of use is the General Category not helpful for?
Answer: not useful for every use, since legacy encodings have used multiple characteristics per single code point

Question: What is the General Category in Unicode?
Answer: Other, Control

Question: How many General Category properties does each code point have?
Answer: a single General Category property

Question: What exists within the main Unicode categories? 
Answer: subdivisions
Title: Unicode

Code points in the range U+D800–U+DBFF (1,024 code points) are known as high-surrogate code points, and code points in the range U+DC00–U+DFFF (1,024 code points) are known as low-surrogate code points. A high-surrogate code point (also known as a leading surrogate) followed by a low-surrogate code point (also known as a trailing surrogate) together form a surrogate pair used in UTF-16 to represent 1,048,576 code points outside BMP. High and low surrogate code points are not valid by themselves. Thus the range of code points that are available for use as characters is U+0000–U+D7FF and U+E000–U+10FFFF (1,112,064 code points). The value of these code points (i.e., excluding surrogates) is sometimes referred to as the character's scalar value.

Question: What are code points in the range U+D800-U+DBFF known as? 
Answer: high-surrogate code points

Question: What are code points in the range U+DC00-U+DFFF known as? 
Answer: low-surrogate code points

Question: what is another name for a high-surrogate code point? 
Answer: leading surrogate

Question: what is another name for a low-surrogate code point? 
Answer: trailing surrogate

Question: What is known as a character's scalar value? 
Answer: the range of code points that are available for use as characters
Title: Unicode

The set of graphic and format characters defined by Unicode does not correspond directly to the repertoire of abstract characters that is representable under Unicode. Unicode encodes characters by associating an abstract character with a particular code point. However, not all abstract characters are encoded as a single Unicode character, and some abstract characters may be represented in Unicode by a sequence of two or more characters. For example, a Latin small letter "i" with an ogonek, a dot above, and an acute accent, which is required in Lithuanian, is represented by the character sequence U+012F, U+0307, U+0301. Unicode maintains a list of uniquely named character sequences for abstract characters that are not directly encoded in Unicode.

Question: What is an ogonek? 
Answer: a dot above

Question: How does Unicode encode characters?
Answer: associating an abstract character with a particular code point

Question: How are some abstract characters represented in Unicode?
Answer: a sequence of two or more characters
Title: Unicode

All graphic, format, and private use characters have a unique and immutable name by which they may be identified. This immutability has been guaranteed since Unicode version 2.0 by the Name Stability policy. In cases where the name is seriously defective and misleading, or has a serious typographical error, a formal alias may be defined, and applications are encouraged to use the formal alias in place of the official character name. For example, U+A015 ꀕ YI SYLLABLE WU has the formal alias yi syllable iteration mark, and U+FE18 ︘ PRESENTATION FORM FOR VERTICAL RIGHT WHITE LENTICULAR BRAKCET (sic) has the formal alias presentation form for vertical right white lenticular bracket.

Question: What policy guaranteed that characters have a unique and immutable name?
Answer: Name Stability policy

Question: What happens when a name is defective or misleading?
Answer: a formal alias may be defined

Question: How long has this name immutability been guaranteed? 
Answer: since Unicode version 2.0
Title: Unicode

Unicode is developed in conjunction with the International Organization for Standardization and shares the character repertoire with ISO/IEC 10646: the Universal Character Set. Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 function equivalently as character encodings, but The Unicode Standard contains much more information for implementers, covering—in depth—topics such as bitwise encoding, collation and rendering. The Unicode Standard enumerates a multitude of character properties, including those needed for supporting bidirectional text. The two standards do use slightly different terminology.

Question: Who was Unicode developed in conjunction with?
Answer: International Organization for Standardization

Question: What does Unicode share a character repertoire with?
Answer: the Universal Character Set

Question: What includes topics like bitwise encoding, collation, and rendering?
Answer: The Unicode Standard

Question: What do the two standards differ in? 
Answer: slightly different terminology
Title: Unicode

The Consortium first published The Unicode Standard (ISBN 0-321-18578-1) in 1991 and continues to develop standards based on that original work. The latest version of the standard, Unicode 8.0, was released in June 2015 and is available from the consortium's website. The last of the major versions (versions x.0) to be published in book form was Unicode 5.0 (ISBN 0-321-48091-0), but since Unicode 6.0 the full text of the standard is no longer being published in book form. In 2012, however, it was announced that only the core specification for Unicode version 6.1 would be made available as a 692-page print-on-demand paperback. Unlike the previous major version printings of the Standard, the print-on-demand core specification does not include any code charts or standard annexes, but the entire standard, including the core specification, will still remain freely available on the Unicode website.

Question: What does the print on demand, core version not include? 
Answer: any code charts or standard annexes

Question: When was the Unicode Standard first published? 
Answer: 1991

Question: When was the latest version, Unicode 8.0, released?
Answer: June 2015

Question: What was the last major version of Unicode to be published in book form? 
Answer: Unicode 5.0

Question: What year was it announced that only the core specification for Unicode would be printed in physical form?
Answer: 2012
Title: Unicode

The Unicode Roadmap Committee (Michael Everson, Rick McGowan, and Ken Whistler) maintain the list of scripts that are candidates or potential candidates for encoding and their tentative code block assignments on the Unicode Roadmap page of the Unicode Consortium Web site. For some scripts on the Roadmap, such as Jurchen, Nü Shu, and Tangut, encoding proposals have been made and they are working their way through the approval process. For others scripts, such as Mayan and Rongorongo, no proposal has yet been made, and they await agreement on character repertoire and other details from the user communities involved.

Question: Michael Everson, Rick McGowan, and Ken Whistler make up what group?
Answer: Unicode Roadmap Committee

Question: What does the Unicode Roadmap Commmittee do? 
Answer: maintain the list of scripts that are candidates or potential candidates for encoding

Question: What proposal has been made for the Mayan script? 
Answer: no proposal has yet been made

Question: Where does the Unicode Roadmap Committee post information on these scripts?
Answer: Unicode Consortium Web site
Title: Unicode

Unicode defines two mapping methods: the Unicode Transformation Format (UTF) encodings, and the Universal Coded Character Set (UCS) encodings. An encoding maps (possibly a subset of) the range of Unicode code points to sequences of values in some fixed-size range, termed code values. The numbers in the names of the encodings indicate the number of bits per code value (for UTF encodings) or the number of bytes per code value (for UCS encodings). UTF-8 and UTF-16 are probably the most commonly used encodings. UCS-2 is an obsolete subset of UTF-16; UCS-4 and UTF-32 are functionally equivalent.

Question: How many mapping methods does Unicode define?
Answer: two

Question: What are the two mapping methods that Unicode defines?
Answer: Unicode Transformation Format (UTF) encodings, and the Universal Coded Character Set (UCS) encodings

Question: What do numbers in the names of the encodings indicate? 
Answer: the number of bits per code value (for UTF encodings) or the number of bytes per code value

Question: What are the most commonly used encodings? 
Answer: UTF-8 and UTF-16

Question: What does UCS stand for?
Answer: Universal Coded Character Set
Title: Unicode

The UCS-2 and UTF-16 encodings specify the Unicode Byte Order Mark (BOM) for use at the beginnings of text files, which may be used for byte ordering detection (or byte endianness detection). The BOM, code point U+FEFF has the important property of unambiguity on byte reorder, regardless of the Unicode encoding used; U+FFFE (the result of byte-swapping U+FEFF) does not equate to a legal character, and U+FEFF in other places, other than the beginning of text, conveys the zero-width non-break space (a character with no appearance and no effect other than preventing the formation of ligatures).

Question: What does BOM stand for? 
Answer: Unicode Byte Order Mark

Question: What specifies the BOM?
Answer: UCS-2 and UTF-16

Question: what is the code point of the BOM?
Answer: U+FEFF

Question: What is U+UFFE the result of? 
Answer: byte-swapping U+FEFF
Title: Unicode

The same character converted to UTF-8 becomes the byte sequence EF BB BF. The Unicode Standard allows that the BOM "can serve as signature for UTF-8 encoded text where the character set is unmarked". Some software developers have adopted it for other encodings, including UTF-8, in an attempt to distinguish UTF-8 from local 8-bit code pages. However RFC 3629, the UTF-8 standard, recommends that byte order marks be forbidden in protocols using UTF-8, but discusses the cases where this may not be possible. In addition, the large restriction on possible patterns in UTF-8 (for instance there cannot be any lone bytes with the high bit set) means that it should be possible to distinguish UTF-8 from other character encodings without relying on the BOM.

Question: What is the UTF-8 standard? 
Answer: RFC 3629

Question: Byte order marks are forbidden in protocols using what standard? 
Answer: UTF-8

Question: Why is it possible to distinguish UTF-8 from other protocols?
Answer: the large restriction on possible patterns
Title: Unicode

In UTF-32 and UCS-4, one 32-bit code value serves as a fairly direct representation of any character's code point (although the endianness, which varies across different platforms, affects how the code value manifests as an octet sequence). In the other encodings, each code point may be represented by a variable number of code values. UTF-32 is widely used as an internal representation of text in programs (as opposed to stored or transmitted text), since every Unix operating system that uses the gcc compilers to generate software uses it as the standard "wide character" encoding. Some programming languages, such as Seed7, use UTF-32 as internal representation for strings and characters. Recent versions of the Python programming language (beginning with 2.2) may also be configured to use UTF-32 as the representation for Unicode strings, effectively disseminating such encoding in high-level coded software.

Question: How is UTF-32 widely used? 
Answer: internal representation of text in programs

Question: What programming language uses UTF-32 as internal representation of characters? 
Answer: Seed7

Question: what version of python can be used with UTF-32? 
Answer: 2.2
Title: Unicode

Unicode includes a mechanism for modifying character shape that greatly extends the supported glyph repertoire. This covers the use of combining diacritical marks. They are inserted after the main character. Multiple combining diacritics may be stacked over the same character. Unicode also contains precomposed versions of most letter/diacritic combinations in normal use. These make conversion to and from legacy encodings simpler, and allow applications to use Unicode as an internal text format without having to implement combining characters. For example, é can be represented in Unicode as U+0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E) followed by U+0301 (COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT), but it can also be represented as the precomposed character U+00E9 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE). Thus, in many cases, users have multiple ways of encoding the same character. To deal with this, Unicode provides the mechanism of canonical equivalence.

Question: What combinations does unicode contain in normal use?
Answer: most letter/diacritic combinations

Question: How is the latin small letter e represented in Unicode?
Answer: U+0065

Question: How is the accent added to the small latin e? 
Answer: U+0301

Question: What precomposed character represents the small latin e with an accent? 
Answer: U+00E9
Title: Unicode

The CJK ideographs currently have codes only for their precomposed form. Still, most of those ideographs comprise simpler elements (often called radicals in English), so in principle, Unicode could have decomposed them, as it did with Hangul. This would have greatly reduced the number of required code points, while allowing the display of virtually every conceivable ideograph (which might do away with some of the problems caused by Han unification). A similar idea is used by some input methods, such as Cangjie and Wubi. However, attempts to do this for character encoding have stumbled over the fact that ideographs do not decompose as simply or as regularly as Hangul does.

Question: The CJK ideographs comprise simpler elements called what in English?
Answer: radicals

Question: Why have ideographs been unable to be simplified like Hangul?
Answer: ideographs do not decompose as simply or as regularly

Question: What would be the benefit of Unicode decomposing  ideographs?
Answer: greatly reduced the number of required code points
Title: Unicode

Many scripts, including Arabic and Devanagari, have special orthographic rules that require certain combinations of letterforms to be combined into special ligature forms. The rules governing ligature formation can be quite complex, requiring special script-shaping technologies such as ACE (Arabic Calligraphic Engine by DecoType in the 1980s and used to generate all the Arabic examples in the printed editions of the Unicode Standard), which became the proof of concept for OpenType (by Adobe and Microsoft), Graphite (by SIL International), or AAT (by Apple).

Question: What does ACE stand for? 
Answer: Arabic Calligraphic Engine

Question: Who created ACE?
Answer: DecoType

Question: When was ACE created? 
Answer: 1980s

Question: Who created OpenType?
Answer: Adobe and Microsoft

Question: Who created Graphite? 
Answer: SIL International
Title: Unicode

Instructions are also embedded in fonts to tell the operating system how to properly output different character sequences. A simple solution to the placement of combining marks or diacritics is assigning the marks a width of zero and placing the glyph itself to the left or right of the left sidebearing (depending on the direction of the script they are intended to be used with). A mark handled this way will appear over whatever character precedes it, but will not adjust its position relative to the width or height of the base glyph; it may be visually awkward and it may overlap some glyphs. Real stacking is impossible, but can be approximated in limited cases (for example, Thai top-combining vowels and tone marks can just be at different heights to start with). Generally this approach is only effective in monospaced fonts, but may be used as a fallback rendering method when more complex methods fail.

Question: where are instructions embedded to tell fonts how to output sequences? 
Answer: in fonts

Question: Can real stacking be accomplished? 
Answer: Real stacking is impossible

Question: what is a solution to the placement of combining marks? 
Answer: assigning the marks a width of zero and placing the glyph itself to the left or right of the left sidebearing
Title: Unicode

Several subsets of Unicode are standardized: Microsoft Windows since Windows NT 4.0 supports WGL-4 with 652 characters, which is considered to support all contemporary European languages using the Latin, Greek, or Cyrillic script. Other standardized subsets of Unicode include the Multilingual European Subsets: MES-1 (Latin scripts only, 335 characters), MES-2 (Latin, Greek and Cyrillic 1062 characters) and MES-3A & MES-3B (two larger subsets, not shown here). Note that MES-2 includes every character in MES-1 and WGL-4.

Question: What subset of Unicode is used by Windows? 
Answer: WGL-4 with 652 characters

Question: What are MES-1, MES-2, AND MES-3A AND MES-3B part of? 
Answer: Multilingual European Subsets

Question: What subset includes every character in MES-1 and WGL-4? 
Answer: MES-2

Question: How long has Microsoft Windows supported WGL-4? 
Answer: since Windows NT 4.0

Question: MES-1 uses what scripts only? 
Answer: Latin scripts only
Title: Unicode

Rendering software which cannot process a Unicode character appropriately often displays it as an open rectangle, or the Unicode "replacement character" (U+FFFD, �), to indicate the position of the unrecognized character. Some systems have made attempts to provide more information about such characters. The Apple's Last Resort font will display a substitute glyph indicating the Unicode range of the character, and the SIL International's Unicode Fallback font will display a box showing the hexadecimal scalar value of the character.

Question: What does rendering software display when it can't process a Unicode character? 
Answer: open rectangle, or the Unicode "replacement character"

Question: What is the code for the Unicode replacement character? 
Answer: U+FFFD

Question: What is the name of Apple's font? 
Answer: Last Resort

Question: What company uses the Unicode Fallback font? 
Answer: SIL International

Question: What does SIL's Unicode Fallback font display when it can't display a character properly? 
Answer: a box showing the hexadecimal scalar value of the character
Title: Unicode

Unicode has become the dominant scheme for internal processing and storage of text. Although a great deal of text is still stored in legacy encodings, Unicode is used almost exclusively for building new information processing systems. Early adopters tended to use UCS-2 (the fixed-width two-byte precursor to UTF-16) and later moved to UTF-16 (the variable-width current standard), as this was the least disruptive way to add support for non-BMP characters. The best known such system is Windows NT (and its descendants, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7), which uses UTF-16 as the sole internal character encoding. The Java and .NET bytecode environments, Mac OS X, and KDE also use it for internal representation. Unicode is available on Windows 95 through Microsoft Layer for Unicode, as well as on its descendants, Windows 98 and Windows ME.

Question: What is the dominant scheme for internal processing? 
Answer: Unicode

Question: What is Unicode available through Windows on? 
Answer: Microsoft Layer

Question: What was the two-byte precursor to UTF-16? 
Answer: UCS-2

Question: What is used almost exclusively for building new information processing systems? 
Answer: Unicode
Title: Unicode

MIME defines two different mechanisms for encoding non-ASCII characters in email, depending on whether the characters are in email headers (such as the "Subject:"), or in the text body of the message; in both cases, the original character set is identified as well as a transfer encoding. For email transmission of Unicode the UTF-8 character set and the Base64 or the Quoted-printable transfer encoding are recommended, depending on whether much of the message consists of ASCII-characters. The details of the two different mechanisms are specified in the MIME standards and generally are hidden from users of email software.

Question: What is recommended for email transmission of Unicode? 
Answer: the UTF-8 character set and the Base64 or the Quoted-printable transfer encoding

Question: Where are the details of the two mechanisms for email transmission specified? 
Answer: MIME standards

Question: How many different mechanisms does MIME define for encoding Unicode in email? 
Answer: two different mechanisms
Title: Unicode

Thousands of fonts exist on the market, but fewer than a dozen fonts—sometimes described as "pan-Unicode" fonts—attempt to support the majority of Unicode's character repertoire. Instead, Unicode-based fonts typically focus on supporting only basic ASCII and particular scripts or sets of characters or symbols. Several reasons justify this approach: applications and documents rarely need to render characters from more than one or two writing systems; fonts tend to demand resources in computing environments; and operating systems and applications show increasing intelligence in regard to obtaining glyph information from separate font files as needed, i.e., font substitution. Furthermore, designing a consistent set of rendering instructions for tens of thousands of glyphs constitutes a monumental task; such a venture passes the point of diminishing returns for most typefaces.

Question: How many fonts support the majority of Unicode's character repertoire? 
Answer: fewer than a dozen fonts

Question: What are the fonts that support Unicode referred to as? 
Answer: "pan-Unicode" fonts

Question: Unicode-based fonts are normally focused on supporting what? 
Answer: basic ASCII and particular scripts or sets of characters or symbols
Title: Unicode

In terms of the newline, Unicode introduced U+2028 LINE SEPARATOR and U+2029 PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR. This was an attempt to provide a Unicode solution to encoding paragraphs and lines semantically, potentially replacing all of the various platform solutions. In doing so, Unicode does provide a way around the historical platform dependent solutions. Nonetheless, few if any Unicode solutions have adopted these Unicode line and paragraph separators as the sole canonical line ending characters. However, a common approach to solving this issue is through newline normalization. This is achieved with the Cocoa text system in Mac OS X and also with W3C XML and HTML recommendations. In this approach every possible newline character is converted internally to a common newline (which one does not really matter since it is an internal operation just for rendering). In other words, the text system can correctly treat the character as a newline, regardless of the input's actual encoding.

Question: What is the code for separating lines? 
Answer: U+2028

Question: What is the code for separating paragraphs? 
Answer: U+2029

Question: How is newline normalization accomplished in Mac OS X? 
Answer: Cocoa text system

Question: How does the newliine normallization format work? 
Answer: every possible newline character is converted internally to a common newline