rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography, starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals. The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents. Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide. His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. He went on to say: "On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case." Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. These species would become modified over time, but would still be related to species found on the continent, and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern. Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands, many of which he had investigated experimentally.

Question: Why couldn't differences in flora and fauna be explained by differences in regions alone?
Answer: South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals

Question: What did Darwin consider that could explain why different regions could have such different species when they are close together?
Answer: barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions.

Question: What was the combination of effects that Darwin considered the most important in determining the differences in species that evolved separately in similar environments?
Answer: His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification.
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin discusses morphology, including the importance of homologous structures. He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos. Darwin discusses rudimentary organs, such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in baleen whales, are found only in embryonic stages.

Question: What theory does Darwin discuss that is related to the importance of homologous structures?
Answer: morphology

Question: What are some examples that Darwin gives of species whose basic form of limbs is similar, but who have vastly different uses for them?
Answer: the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat

Question: What does Darwin note about the embryos of many different species in the same class?
Answer: animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos

Question: What are some examples of rudimentary organs that Darwin discusses in the chapter?
Answer: e wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

The final chapter reviews points from earlier chapters, and Darwin concludes by hoping that his theory might produce revolutionary changes in many fields of natural history. Although he avoids the controversial topic of human origins in the rest of the book so as not to prejudice readers against his theory, here he ventures a cautious hint that psychology would be put on a new foundation and that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man". Darwin ends with a passage that became well known and much quoted:

Question: What hopes does Darwin have for his theory in the natural history fields?
Answer: that his theory might produce revolutionary changes

Question: Why did Darwin avoid the topic of the origins of humans in most of his book?
Answer: so as not to prejudice readers against his theory

Question: What does Darwin allude to hoping in the final chapter of On the Origin of Species about humans?
Answer: that psychology would be put on a new foundation and that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man"
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change. He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from Vestiges, and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism. Therefore, the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.

Question: What were Darwin's two important aims about evolution?
Answer: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change

Question: What did heknow his readers were already familiar with from Vestiges?
Answer: the concept of transmutation of species

Question: How did Darwin view Vestiges in the introduction to On the Origin of Species?
Answer: his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism.

Question: What is Darwin's belief about the accumulation of adaptive variations?
Answer: the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred, supporting the idea of branching, adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism. Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines, showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created. The structure of Darwin's argument showed the influence of John Herschel, whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a vera causa (true cause) if three things could be demonstrated: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations.

Question: What does Darwin do to show that his theory can support many theories that could not be explained by individual creation of species?
Answer: Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines

Question: Whose scientific philosophy argued that a mechanism could be called a vera causa if three things could be shown as true?
Answer: John Herschel

Question: What are the three things John Herschel maintains need to be shown to allow for a mechanism be called a true cause?
Answer: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

While the book was readable enough to sell, its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction. Unlike the still-popular Vestiges, it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation, though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression. Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science, and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments. David Quammen has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience, but noted that Darwin's literary style was uneven: in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read, while in other places his writing was beautiful. Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics, and recommended the first edition. James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay, it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on, which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail. He added that some parts of Origin are dense, but other parts are almost lyrical, and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books, which broadened its audience.

Question: What reason did David Quammen believe that On the Origin of Species was weakened in later editions?
Answer: Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics

Question: Why did James T. Costa think that On the Origin of Species was more likely to draw interest than a larger book that Darwin had been working on?
Answer: because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay

Question: What did On Origin of Species avoid in order to raise its chance of being taken seriously?
Answer: it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation

Question: What element of On the Origin of Species ensured that the book would be taken seriously by scientists?
Answer: its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction.

Question: Why did James T. Costa think the larger, abandoned book would not have been as successful?
Answer: would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

The book aroused international interest and a widespread debate, with no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications. Much of the initial reaction was hostile, but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science. There was much less controversy than had greeted the 1844 publication Vestiges of Creation, which had been rejected by scientists, but had influenced a wide public readership into believing that nature and human society were governed by natural laws. The Origin of Species as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform. Its proponents made full use of a surge in the publication of review journals, and it was given more popular attention than almost any other scientific work, though it failed to match the continuing sales of Vestiges. Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms, and the newly coined term Darwinism was used to cover the whole range of evolutionism, not just his own ideas. By the mid-1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.

Question: Why did On the Origin of Species likely raise so much interest and debate?
Answer: no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications

Question: Why was the book taken seriously even though much of the response was hostile?
Answer: Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science

Question: What field of ideas latched onto On the Origin of Species when it became a widespread success?
Answer: social reform

Question: What did Darwin's book do for the field of scientific study of evolution?
Answer: Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms

Question: What was the term used to not only describe Darwin's theories, but the whole spectrum of evolution-ism after his book met with success?
Answer: Darwinism
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature, but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour. Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic, while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design. Early support for Darwin's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862. Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection. Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line.

Question: What was the general response from scientific readers to Lamarck's written work?
Answer: the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour

Question: What was the likely reason that Darwin's ideas were accepted more readily than Lamarck's?
Answer: natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible.

Question: Which school did opponents to Darwin's method support?
Answer: the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences

Question: Where did early support for Darwin's findings come from?
Answer: the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862

Question: Who authored research supporting insect mimicry  using natural selection?
Answer: Henry Walter Bates
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Evolution had less obvious applications to anatomy and morphology, and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Despite this, Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species, and questioned if Darwin's gradualism was sufficient without sudden leaps to cause speciation. Huxley wanted science to be secular, without religious interference, and his article in the April 1860 Westminster Review promoted scientific naturalism over natural theology, praising Darwin for "extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated" and coining the term "Darwinism" as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science. Huxley gained influence, and initiated the X Club, which used the journal Nature to promote evolution and naturalism, shaping much of late Victorian science. Later, the German morphologist Ernst Haeckel would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies.

Question: Who supported Darwin's theories on evolution despite it having little impact on his own research?
Answer: Thomas Henry Huxley

Question: What did Huxley's 1860 article in the Westminster Review promote?
Answer: scientific naturalism over natural theology

Question: Why did Huxley coin the name "Darwinism?"
Answer: as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science

Question: What did the morphologist Ernst Haeckel convince Huxley of about comparative anatomy and paleontology?
Answer: that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist Richard Owen, an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan. Owen's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming", with new species appearing by natural birth. Others that rejected natural selection, but supported "creation by birth", included the Duke of Argyll who explained beauty in plumage by design. Since 1858, Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class. Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting featuring the legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate. In two years of acrimonious public dispute that Charles Kingsley satirised as the "Great Hippocampus Question" and parodied in The Water-Babies as the "great hippopotamus test", Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains. Others, including Charles Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace, thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process. Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871).

Question: Who was the leading naturalist in Britain?
Answer: Richard Owen,

Question: How did Owen respond to On the Origin of Species with his review?
Answer: bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming"

Question: What was the debate between Huxley and Owen concerning humans and apes?
Answer: Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class

Question: What was the primary debate at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting of 1860?
Answer: legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate

Question: When did Darwin publish his own explanation of the question of the evolution of man and ape?
Answer: Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871)
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

Evolutionary ideas, although not natural selection, were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of homology in morphology from Goethe's Metamorphosis of Plants and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy. Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives, but enthused political radicals. Ernst Haeckel was particularly ardent, aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie. Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in palaeontology. Haeckel used embryology extensively in his recapitulation theory, which embodied a progressive, almost linear model of evolution. Darwin was cautious about such histories, and had already noted that von Baer's laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching.

Question: While evolutionary ideas were accepted by German biologists, what was not?
Answer: natural selection

Question: What led to more misgivings of conservative scientists when Bronn's German translation of On the Origin of Species was published?
Answer: Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives

Question: Which group of people was excited by the German translation of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: political radicals

Question: Why were political radicals such as Ernst Haekel so interested in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by Clémence Royer, but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism. The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the Malthusian aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by Karl Marx and by Leo Tolstoy, who had the character Levin in his novel Anna Karenina voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views.

Question: What was the general feeling toward Darwin's ideas in France?
Answer: Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism

Question: What people in what country had embraced the idea of evolution for many years before Darwin published his theory?
Answer: The intelligentsia in Russia

Question: Which aspects of evolution theory were thought to be unimportant by many who read Darwin's work?
Answer: the Malthusian aspects

Question: Which author voiced his displeasure of the morality of Darwin's views in a novel?
Answer: Leo Tolstoy
Title: On_the_Origin_of_Species

There were serious scientific objections to the process of natural selection as the key mechanism of evolution, including Karl von Nägeli's insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection. Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics. His estimate that the age of the Earth allowed gradual evolution was disputed by William Thomson (later awarded the title Lord Kelvin), who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years. Darwin accepted blending inheritance, but Fleeming Jenkin calculated that as it mixed traits, natural selection could not accumulate useful traits. Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition. Mivart supported directed evolution, and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection. In response, Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition. The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century.

Question: What justification for his objections to the process of natural selection did Karl von Nägel give?
Answer: insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection

Question: What was Darwin's concession to Karl von Nägel's objections?
Answer: Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics

Question: Who disputed Darwin's estimate that the age of the earth allowed gradual evolution of species?
Answer: William Thomson

Question: What were William Thomson's reasons for disputing Darwin's estimate?
Answer: calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years

Question: When were the problems of the earth and heredity resolved?
Answer: in the 20th century