rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Idealism

Bradley was the apparent target of G. E. Moore's radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. The 1903 article The Refutation of Idealism is one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis. He examines each of the three terms in the Berkeleian aphorism esse est percipi, "to be is to be perceived", finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are necessarily connected so that "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are identical - "to be yellow" is "to be experienced as yellow". But it also seems there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" and "that esse is held to be percipi, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors, or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley. This argument did not show that the GEM (in post–Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid.

Question: Who wrote The Refutation of Idealism?
Answer: Moore

Question: In his rejection of idealism, whose thought did Moore attack?
Answer: Bradley

Question: Who originated the saying 'esse est percipi'?
Answer: Berkeley
Title: Idealism

Pluralistic idealism such as that of Gottfried Leibniz takes the view that there are many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world and make possible the existence of the physical universe. Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or "Absolute". Leibniz' form of idealism, known as Panpsychism, views "monads" as the true atoms of the universe and as entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being",elemental, individual, subject to their own laws, non-interacting, each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force, which is substance while space, matter and motion are phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. There is a pre-established harmony established by God, the central monad, between the world in the minds of the monads and the external world of objects. Leibniz's cosmology embraced traditional Christian Theism. The English psychologist and philosopher James Ward inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism. According to Ward the universe is composed of "psychic monads" of different levels, interacting for mutual self- betterment.

Question: Who is a notable exponent of pluralistic idealism?
Answer: Gottfried Leibniz

Question: What is the term for the type of idealism preached by Leibniz?
Answer: Panpsychism

Question: What did Leibniz believe the universe is fundamentally composed of?
Answer: monads

Question: Who was a notable disciple of Leibniz?
Answer: James Ward

Question: What does Ward see as the purpose of interaction between monads?
Answer: self- betterment
Title: Idealism

Howison's personal idealism  was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

Question: Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?
Answer: Bowne

Question: What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?
Answer: California Personalism

Question: Who is a notable realistic personal theist?
Answer: Saint Thomas Aquinas

Question: What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?
Answer: dependence upon an infinite personal God

Question: What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?
Answer: moral
Title: Idealism

J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are unreal. In The Unreality of Time he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. The Nature of Existence (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it". For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?

Question: With what university is J.M.E. McTaggart affiliated?
Answer: Cambridge

Question: In what year was The Nature of Existence published?
Answer: 1927

Question: According to McTaggart, what are the only things that have real existence?
Answer: minds

Question: What does McTaggart believe space and time to be?
Answer: unreal

Question: How does McTaggart believe minds relate to one another?
Answer: love
Title: Idealism

Thomas Davidson taught a philosophy called "apeirotheism", a "form of pluralistic idealism...coupled with a stern ethical rigorism" which he defined as "a theory of Gods infinite in number." The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and nous, rational thought, reflection and understanding. Although a perennial source of controversy, Aristotle arguably views the latter as both eternal and immaterial in nature, as exemplified in his theology of unmoved movers. Identifying Aristotle's God with rational thought, Davidson argued, contrary to Aristotle, that just as the soul cannot exist apart from the body, God cannot exist apart from the world.

Question: What was the name of the philosophy preached by Thomas Davidson?
Answer: apeirotheism

Question: What type of idealism was Thomas Davidson's philosophy?
Answer: pluralistic

Question: According to Davidson, how many gods are there?
Answer: infinite

Question: By whose philosophy was Davidson influenced?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: What did Davidson believe the God of Aristotle is synonymous with?
Answer: rational thought
Title: Idealism

Idealist notions took a strong hold among physicists of the early 20th century confronted with the paradoxes of quantum physics and the theory of relativity. In The Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements[citation needed]. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more consciousness than an external world."

Question: Among what twentieth century scientists was idealism popular?
Answer: physicists

Question: Along with quantum physics generally, what scientific doctrine caused some physicists to embrace idealism?
Answer: relativity

Question: In what year was the second edition of The Grammar of Science published?
Answer: 1900

Question: What did Pearson claim that science classifies?
Answer: contents of the mind

Question: Who is claimed to have been influenced by The Grammar of Science?
Answer: Einstein
Title: Idealism

"The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness.... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference."

Question: How do receive information from the physical world?
Answer: messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness

Question: What type of consciousness is similar but not identical to consciousness itself?
Answer: subconsciousness

Question: What is the nature of the fundamental character of reality?
Answer: mental

Question: According to the author, who would have particular trouble in accepting that reality is fundamentally mental?
Answer: physicist

Question: What is the main thing that we experience?
Answer: mind
Title: Education

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Question: What makes up Education?
Answer: knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits

Question: What methods make up Education?
Answer: storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research

Question: Where does education usually take place under?
Answer: the guidance of educators
Title: Education

After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.

Question: What occurred after the Fall of Rome with literature?
Answer: Catholic Church became the sole preserver

Question: What happened with education  during the Early Middle Ages?
Answer: church established cathedral schools

Question: What did these early schools during the Middle Ages evolve into?
Answer: medieval universities

Question: What was the name of the famous school during the high middle ages?
Answer: Chartres Cathedral School
Title: Education

Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces (e.g. classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more.

Question: Where does formal education take place?
Answer: school environment

Question: What are some of the sets or ideals most school systems follow?
Answer: student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size,

Question: Who guides the students in a formal environment?
Answer: certified teacher
Title: Education

Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country, when children enter primary education. These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education.[citation needed] Kindergarten "provide[s] a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."

Question: Whats the typical age range for pre-school?
Answer: three to seven

Question: What are pre-schools also known as?
Answer: nursery schools and as kindergarten,

Question: In what country is Kindergarten a term used for primary education?
Answer: US
Title: Education

Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first five to seven years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of children aged six to twelve are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools or elementary schools. Primary schools are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school.

Question: What is another term used for Primary education?
Answer: elementary

Question: What does primary school consist of?
Answer: first five to seven years of formal, structured education

Question: What is the name of the orgination who is striving to get all the countries on the same path with primary education?
Answer: UNESCO
Title: Education

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "postsecondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia, primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.

Question: What does secondary education comprise of?
Answer: formal education that occurs during adolescence

Question: What two examples were given of what "postsecondary" or "higher" education?
Answer: university, vocational school

Question: When does secondary schooling typically take place?
Answer: teenage years

Question: What is the purpose of secondary education?
Answer: to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.
Title: Education

Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received a higher wages.

Question: When did secondary education emerge in the United States?
Answer: 1910

Question: Why was secondary school introduced in the U.S?
Answer: rise of large corporations and advancing technology

Question: Who benefited from secondary schools?
Answer: employers and employees
Title: Education

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

Question: What was another name used for Higher Education?
Answer: tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education

Question: What is High Education?
Answer: follows the completion of a school such as a high school

Question: What does Tertiary education include?
Answer: undergraduate and postgraduate education
Title: Education

University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent like Yale University; public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education; or independent but state-funded like the University of Virginia. A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet.

Question: What does University education include?
Answer: teaching, research, and social services activities,

Question: What are usually Universities made up of?
Answer: several colleges

Question: What type of University would Yale fall under?
Answer: independent
Title: Education

In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.

Question: What was a rule for disabled people in the past for education?
Answer: not eligible for public education

Question: Who denied children with disabilities to be unable to attend a public school?
Answer: physicians or special tutors

Question: Who were some of these early physicians?
Answer: Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet

Question: What would Special Education usually only apply to in the early years of schooling in the U.S?
Answer: people with severe disabilities
Title: Education

While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools. Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system.

Question: What is another term used for Special Education Services?
Answer: alternative

Question: When were public schools become more and more developed?
Answer: 19th century

Question: What are some examples of alternative schools?
Answer: Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools
Title: Education

In time, some ideas from these experiments and paradigm challenges may be adopted as the norm in education, just as Friedrich Fröbel's approach to early childhood education in 19th-century Germany has been incorporated into contemporary kindergarten classrooms. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich.

Question: Whos educatgion approach was introduced in Germany in the 19th century and is used in most Kindergartens?
Answer: Friedrich Fröbel's

Question: Who from Switzerland was an influential in education?
Answer: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Question: Who were the founders of progressive education?
Answer: John Dewey and Francis Parker
Title: Education

Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."

Question: What makes up Indigenous education?
Answer: indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content

Question: In which two systems can Indigenous education be used?
Answer: formal and non-formal educational systems

Question: What is one of the main purposes for Indigenous education?
Answer: improve the educational success of indigenous students