rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The first time "affirmative action" is used by the federal government concerning race is in President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, which was chaired by Vice President Johnson. At Johnson's inaugural ball in Texas, he met with a young black lawyer, Hobart Taylor Jr., and gave him the task to co-author the executive order. He wanted a phrase that "gave a sense of positivity to performance under the order." He was torn between the words "positive action" and "affirmative action," and selected the later due to its alliterative quality. The term "active recruitment" started to be used as well. This order, albeit heavily worked up as a significant piece of legislation, in reality carried little actual power. The scope was limited to a couple hundred defense contractors, leaving nearly $7.5 billion in federal grants and loans unsupervised.:60

Question: Which Executive Order first contained the phrase "affirmative action"?
Answer: Executive Order 10925

Question: Who co - authored the executive order?
Answer: Hobart Taylor Jr.

Question: Who chaired the committee created by Executive Order 10925?
Answer: Vice President Johnson

Question: What was the alternative phrase to "affirmative action" that was being considered?
Answer: positive action

Question: What was the main reason that "affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?
Answer: alliterative quality
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

NAACP had many problem's with JFK's "token" proposal. They wanted jobs. One day after the order took effect, NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill filed complaints against the hiring and promoting practices of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. Lockheed was doing business with the Defense Department on the first billion-dollar contract. Due to taxpayer-funding being 90% of Lockheed's business, along with disproportionate hiring practices, black workers charged Lockheed with "overt discrimination." Lockheed signed an agreement with Vice President Johnson that pledged an "aggressive seeking out for more qualified minority candidates for technical and skill positions.:63–64 This agreement was the administration's model for a "plan of progress." Johnson and his assistants soon pressured other defense contractors, including Boeing and General Electric, to sign similar voluntary agreements indicating plans for progress. However, these plans were just that, voluntary. Many corporations in the South, still afflicted with Jim Crow laws, largely ignored the federal recommendations.:63–64

Question: Who had issues with JFK's proposal?
Answer: NAACP

Question: Who filed complaints quickly after the Executive Order was implemented?
Answer: NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill

Question: Which company was targeted by the NAACP for not having fair practices?
Answer: Lockheed Aircraft Corporation

Question: Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?
Answer: Vice President Johnson

Question: Which laws did the corporations in the South associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?
Answer: Jim Crow
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

This eventually led to LBJ's Civil Rights Act, which came shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. This document was more holistic than any President Kennedy had offered, and therefore more controversial. It aimed not only to integrate public facilities, but also private businesses that sold to the public, such as motels, restaurants, theaters, and gas stations. Public schools, hospitals, libraries, parks, among other things, were included in the bill as well. It also worked with JFK's executive order 11114 by prohibiting discrimination in the awarding of federal contracts and holding the authority of the government to deny contracts to businesses who discriminate. Maybe most significant of all, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act aimed to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees. Another provision established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as the agency charged with ending discrimination in the nation's workplace.:74

Question: Which piece of legislation quickly followed President Kennedy's assassination?
Answer: Civil Rights Act

Question: Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Civil Rights Act?
Answer: integrate public facilities

Question: Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act work closely with?
Answer: 11114

Question: What was the purpose of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act?
Answer: to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees

Question: What was the goal of the Equal Employment Opportunity C omission?
Answer: ending discrimination in the nation's workplace
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Title VII was perhaps the most controversial of the entire bill. Many conservatives accused it of advocating a de facto quota system, and claimed unconstitutionality as it attempts to regulate the workplace. Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey corrected this notion: "there is nothing in [Title VII] that will give power to the Commission to require hiring, firing, and promotion to meet a racial 'quota.' [. . .] Title VII is designed to encourage the hiring on basis of ability and qualifications, not race or religion." Title VII prohibits discrimination. Humphrey was the silent hero of the bill's passing through Congress. He pledged that the bill required no quotas, just nondiscrimination. Doing so, he convinced many pro-business Republicans, including Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen (IL) to support Title VII.:78–80

Question: Which section of the legislation was considered the most controversial?
Answer: Title VII

Question: What did critics claim that Title VII advocate?
Answer: a de facto quota system

Question: Which Senator fought back against the criticism of Title VII?
Answer: Hubert Humphrey

Question: Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to support the bill?
Answer: Everett Dirksen

Question: What position of importance other than Senator did Everett Dirksen hold?
Answer: Senate Minority Leader
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The strides that the Johnson presidency made in ensuring equal opportunity in the workforce were further picked up by his successor Nixon. In 1969 the Nixon administration initiated the "Philadelphia Order". It was regarded as the most forceful plan thus far to guarantee fair hiring practices in construction jobs. Philadelphia was selected as the test case because, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur Fletcher explained, "The craft unions and the construction industry are among the most egregious offenders against equal opportunity laws . . . openly hostile toward letting blacks into their closed circle." The order included definite "goals and timetables." As President Nixon asserted, "We would not impose quotas, but would require federal contractors to show 'affirmative action' to meet the goals of increasing minority employment."

Question: Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring equal opportunity?
Answer: his successor Nixon

Question: Which piece of legislation was begun in 1969?
Answer: Philadelphia Order

Question: Which industry of jobs did the legislation target?
Answer: construction

Question: Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against equal opportunity laws?
Answer: craft unions

Question: Who held the position of Assistant Secretary of Labor?
Answer: Arthur Fletcher
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

After the Nixon administration, advancements in affirmative action became less prevalent. "During the brief Ford administration, affirmative action took a back seat, while enforcement stumbled along.":145 Equal rights was still an important subject to many Americans, yet the world was changing and new issues were being raised. People began to look at affirmative action as a glorified issue of the past and now there were other areas that needed focus. "Of all the triumphs that have marked this as America's Century –...none is more inspiring, if incomplete, than our pursuit of racial justice."

Question: In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of affirmative action after the Nixon administration?
Answer: became less prevalent

Question: What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of affirmative action lost its momentum?
Answer: there were other areas that needed focus

Question: Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a backseat to other issues?
Answer: Ford
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

In the beginning, racial classifications that identified race were inherently suspect and subject to strict scrutiny. These classifications would only be upheld if necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest. Later the U.S. Supreme Court decided that racial classifications that benefited underrepresented minorities were to only be upheld if necessary and promoted a compelling governmental purpose. (See Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.) There is no clear guidance about when government action is not "compelling", and such rulings are rare.

Question: What kind of classification was subject to strict scrutiny?
Answer: racial

Question: What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered acceptable?
Answer: necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest

Question: Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were necessary?
Answer: U.S. Supreme Court

Question: What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is beneficial?
Answer: Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Ricci v. DeStefano was heard by the United States Supreme Court in 2009. The case concerns White and Hispanic firefighters in New Haven, Connecticut, who upon passing their test for promotions to management were denied the promotions, allegedly because of a discriminatory or at least questionable test. The test gave 17 whites and two Hispanics the possibility of immediate promotion. Although 23% of those taking the test were African American, none scored high enough to qualify. Because of the possibility the tests were biased in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, no candidates were promoted pending outcome of the controversy. In a split 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that New Haven had engaged in impermissible racial discrimination against the White and Hispanic majority.

Question: Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2009?
Answer: Ricci v. DeStefano

Question: Where was the issue of White and Hispanic firefighters heard in the case based out of?
Answer: New Haven, Connecticut

Question: How many whites were given the possibility of immediate promotion as a result of taking the controversial test?
Answer: 17

Question: What percentage of those people taking the test were African American?
Answer: 23

Question: What was the final vote count for the Supreme Court over the issue?
Answer: 5-4
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin, employed or seeking employment with the Federal Government and on government contracts"; that "it is the policy of the executive branch of the Government to encourage by positive measures equal opportunity for all qualified persons within the Government"; and that "it is in the general interest and welfare of the United States to promote its economy, security, and national defense through the most efficient and effective utilization of all available manpower".

Question: Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the United States?
Answer: Kennedy

Question: Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was a violation of the Constitution?
Answer: Executive Order 10925

Question: What were the affected industries in terms of regulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?
Answer: Federal Government and on government contracts
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes.

Question: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system discriminated against?
Answer: class

Question: Which organization believed in the class based argument?
Answer: African American Policy Forum

Question: What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action created?
Answer: African American middle class

Question: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based argument is?
Answer: non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination

Question: What does the AAPF believe the goal of affirmative action should be?
Answer: to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Following the end of World War II the educational gap between White and Black Americans was widened by Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill. This piece of legislation paved the way for white GIs to attend college. Despite their veteran status returning black servicemen were not afforded loans at the same rate as whites. Furthermore, at the time of its introduction, segregation was still the law of the land barring blacks from the best institutions. Overall, "Nearly 8 million servicemen and servicewomen were educated under the provisions of the GI Bill after World War II. But for blacks, higher educational opportunities were so few that the promise of the GI Bill went largely unfulfilled."

Question: What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Black Americans?
Answer: end of World War II

Question: What was considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?
Answer: Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill

Question: What did returning black veterans not receive?
Answer: loans at the same rate as whites

Question: How many servicemen and women were educated as a result of the GI Bill?
Answer: Nearly 8 million

Question: What opportunities were few for black veterans?
Answer: higher educational
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

According to a study by Dr. Paul Brest, Hispanics or "Latinos" include immigrants who are descendants of immigrants from the countries comprising Central and South America. In 1991, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans made up 80% of the Latino population in the United States. Latinos are disadvantaged compared to White Americans and are more likely to live in poverty. They are the least well educated major ethnic group and suffered a 3% drop in high school completion rate while African Americans experienced a 12% increase between 1975-1990. In 1990, they constituted 9% of the population, but only received 3.1% of the bachelors's degrees awarded. At times when it is favorable to lawmakers, Latinos were considered "white" by the Jim Crow laws during the Reconstruction. In other cases, according to Paul Brest, Latinos have been classified as an inferior race and a threat to white purity. Latinos have encountered considerable discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and education. Brest finds that stereotypes continue to be largely negative and many perceive Latinos as "lazy, unproductive, and on the dole." Furthermore, native-born Latino-Americans and recent immigrants are seen as identical since outsiders tend not to differentiate between Latino groups.

Question: Who conducted a study about the origins of "Latinos"?
Answer: Dr. Paul Brest

Question: How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1991?
Answer: 80%

Question: In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Latinos?
Answer: least well educated

Question: What was the percentage increase of the high school completion rate for African Americans between 1975 and 1990?
Answer: 12%

Question: How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1990 went to Latinos?
Answer: 3.1%
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The category of Native American applies to the diverse group of people who lived in North America before European settlement. During the U.S. government's westward expansion, Native Americans were displaced from their land which had been their home for centuries. Instead, they were forced onto reservations which were far smaller and less productive. According to Brest, land belonging to Native Americans was reduced from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934. In 1990, the poverty rate for Native Americans was more than triple that of the whites and only 9.4% of Native Americans have completed a bachelor's degree as opposed to 25.2% of whites and 12.2% of African Americans.

Question: Which groups can be categorized as Native Americans?
Answer: people who lived in North America before European settlement

Question: When did the Native Americans lose their land?
Answer: During the U.S. government's westward expansion

Question: Where were Native Americans forced to live after they lost their land?
Answer: reservations

Question: How much land did the Native Americans own in 1934?
Answer: 52 million acres

Question: In relation to whites, what was the poverty rate for Native Americans in 1990?
Answer: more than triple
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Early Asian immigrants experienced prejudice and discrimination in the forms of not having the ability to become naturalized citizens. They also struggled with many of the same school segregation laws that African Americans faced. Particularly, during World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in camps and lost their property, homes, and businesses. Discrimination against Asians began with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and then continued with the Scott Act of 1888 and the Geary Act of 1892. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1924 to prevent Asian immigration out of fear that Asians were stealing white jobs and lowering the standard for wages. In addition, whites and non-Asians do not differentiate among the different Asian groups and perpetuate the "model minority" stereotype. According to a 2010 article by Professor Qin Zhang of Fairfield University, Asians are characterized as one dimensional in having great work ethic and valuing education, but lacking in communication skills and personality. A negative outcome of this stereotype is that Asians have been portrayed as having poor leadership and interpersonal skills. This has contributing to the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in which although there are many qualified Asian Americans, they occupy a disproportionately small number of executive positions in businesses. Furthermore, the model minority stereotype has led to resentment of Asian success and several universities and colleges have limited or have been accused of limiting Asian matriculation.

Question: What form of discrimination did early Asian immigrants experience?
Answer: not having the ability to become naturalized citizens

Question: What law type did Asian immigrants struggle with?
Answer: school segregation

Question: Which piece of legislature marked the start of discrimination against Asians?
Answer: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

Question: Which bill was passed in an attempt to limit or prevent Asian immigration?
Answer: Immigration Act of 1924

Question: According to studies, what are Asians perceived to be lacking?
Answer: communication skills and personality
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Proponents of affirmative action recognize that the policy is inherently unequal; however, minding the inescapable fact that historic inequalities exist in America, they believe the policy is much more fair than one in which these circumstances are not taken into account. Furthermore, those in favor of affirmative action see it as an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice. "Job discrimination is grounded in prejudice and exclusion, whereas affirmative action is an effort to overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion. The most effective way to cure society of exclusionary practices is to make special efforts at inclusion, which is exactly what affirmative action does."

Question: What is one of the issues with affirmative action?
Answer: inherently unequal

Question: How do people who are in favor of affirmative action view it?
Answer: an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice

Question: What does affirmative action supposedly aim to do?
Answer: overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion

Question: What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the best way to combat exclusionary practices?
Answer: make special efforts at inclusion
Title: Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

There are a multitude of supporters as well as opponents to the policy of affirmative action. Many presidents throughout the last century have failed to take a very firm stance on the policy, and the public has had to discern the president's opinion for themselves. Bill Clinton, however, made his stance on affirmative action very clear in a speech on July 19, 1995, nearly two and a half years after his inauguration. In his speech, he discussed the history in the United States that brought the policy into fruition: slavery, Jim Crow, and segregation. Clinton also mentioned a point similar to President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough" speech, and declared that just outlawing discrimination in the country would not be enough to give everyone in America equality. He addressed the arguments that affirmative action hurt the white middle class and said that the policy was not the source of their problems. Clinton plainly outlined his stance on affirmative action, saying:

Question: Which President made their stance on affirmative action clear in 1995?
Answer: Bill Clinton

Question: How long after his inauguration was Bill Clinton's speech?
Answer: two and a half years

Question: Which speech did Bill Clinton's speech draw parallels to?
Answer: President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough"

Question: What did President Clinton claim would not be enough to give everyone in American equality?
Answer: just outlawing discrimination

Question: What was President Clinton's response to the claim that affirmative action was hurting the white middle class.
Answer: the policy was not the source of their problems