rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary, and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays, and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated – and won – the competitions. Of a total of 2300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 – perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

Question: What enforced contest rule guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging?
Answer: anonymity

Question: Were the vast majority of contest participants from the wealthier strata of society or the popular classes?
Answer: wealthier strata of society

Question: Women's education common stressed which literary genre?
Answer: poetry

Question: How many prize competitions did women win out of the 2300 in France?
Answer: 49

Question: What literary genre were the majority of female winning contest entries?
Answer: poetry
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686; by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

Question: Where was the Cafe Procope established in 1686?
Answer: Paris

Question: By the 1720s. how many cafes were in Paris?
Answer: around 400

Question: In which Cafe was the Encyclopedie created?
Answer: The Café Procope

Question: Were bruits or newspapers allegedly a better source of information?
Answer: bruits
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. they promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment, and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – "liberty, fraternity, and equality" Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the "Illuminati" founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

Question: Where did Freemasonry originate?
Answer: Scotland

Question: Where did Freemasonry first spread?
Answer: England

Question: In what country was Freemaonry particularly prevalent?
Answer: France

Question: What was the most popular of all Enlightenment associations?
Answer: Freemasonry

Question: Which group was copied from the Freemasons and founded in Bavaria in 1776?
Answer: Illuminati
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property", and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn". Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Question: Who is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property"?
Answer: Locke

Question: Locke believed that the natural right to property is derived from what?
Answer: labor

Question: Locke's theory of natural rights influenced what French document?
Answer: French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

Question: Which king of Prussia saw himself as the leader of the Enlightenment?
Answer: Frederick the Great

Question: Which Enlightenment theorist was extended an invitation to live at the palace after being iprisoned by the French government?
Answer: Voltaire

Question: Who was the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786?
Answer: Frederick the Great,
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

Question: Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin

Question: Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?
Answer: both directions

Question: As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?
Answer: John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733)

Question: All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?
Answer: The Age of Reason

Question: Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?
Answer: science and religion
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters, and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself". Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. More importantly, according to Darnton, the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.

Question: What term was given to the writers of Grub Street?
Answer: the Grub Street Hacks

Question: Libelles were generally written in what form?
Answer: pamphlets

Question: Which group inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, according to Darnton?
Answer: the Grub Street hacks

Question: Which works by the Grub Street Hacks "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."?
Answer: the libelles
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and, because of their size, might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs - rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.

Question: Which venue created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life could gather and share ideas?
Answer: Coffeehouses

Question: Coffehouses were criticized by which group of people, fearing the possiblity of an environmentin which class was disregarded?
Answer: nobles

Question: Which societal group believed they held a divine right to rule and resented the idea of their subjects convening to discuss political matters?
Answer: Monarchs

Question: What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?
Answer: Monarchs
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by M D Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

Question: Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes?
Answer: upper

Question: Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy?
Answer: natural history

Question: Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes?
Answer: René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.

Question: In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent?
Answer: 1730s

Question: The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities?
Answer: British

Question: Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles?
Answer: the Parisian lodge

Question: Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"?
Answer: British

Question: What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe?
Answer: Grand Architect
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.

Question: Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities?
Answer: Coffeehouses

Question: Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery?
Answer: the Enlightenment

Question: In what year was The Spectator published?
Answer: 1711

Question: Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters?
Answer: The Spectator
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

Question: Who was the major opponent to Freemasonry?
Answer: Roman Catholic Church

Question: Which countries had a large Catholic element and therefore had confrontation with Freemasons?
Answer: France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico

Question: Do American historians downplay or attribute the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution?
Answer: downplay

Question: Who was the political enemy of the Patriots?
Answer: the Loyalists

Question: Were the Masons political or non-political in the American Revolution?
Answer: non-political
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and ending the abuses of the church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the principle of absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy.

Question: How was the Enlightenment known in French?
Answer: Siècle des Lumières

Question: Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?
Answer: The Enlightenment

Question: In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?
Answer: individual liberty and religious tolerance

Question: The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?
Answer: Roman Catholic Church
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries, and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.

Question: Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?
Answer: Paris

Question: Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?
Answer: Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Question: Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?
Answer: reason

Question: Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?
Answer: Montesquieu

Question: Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?
Answer: the United States Constitution
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire; Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); and Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an opposing intellectual movement known as Romanticism.

Question: What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?
Answer: the Encyclopédie

Question: The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?
Answer: thirty-five

Question: Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?
Answer: 1733

Question: When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?
Answer: 1754

Question: What year did the French Revolution begin?
Answer: 1789
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority; and a second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith. Both lines of thought were opposed by the conservative Counter-Enlightenment.

Question: What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?
Answer: Counter-Enlightenment.

Question: The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?
Answer: Spinoza

Question: Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?
Answer: Spinoza

Question: Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?
Answer: René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others
Title: Age_of_Enlightenment

The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

Question: Who is credited with the concept of separating church and state?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Which term describes John Locke's movement to seperate church and state?
Answer: The "Radical Enlightenment"

Question: In what year was John Locke born?
Answer: 1632

Question: In what realm did John Locke feel the government lacked authority?
Answer: the realm of individual conscience