rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Samkhya school espouses dualism between consciousness and matter. It regards the universe as consisting of two realities; Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness, “I-maker”). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.

Question: Which Hindu school stresses dualism between consciousness and matter?
Answer: Samkhya

Question: How does Samkhya view the universe?
Answer: two realities

Question: What is the Samkhya name for consciousness?
Answer: Puruṣa

Question: What is the Samkhya school word for matter?
Answer: prakriti

Question: What does the joining of Purusa and Prakriti produce?
Answer: buddhi
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche). Guna, it states, are of three types: Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions. The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life. Samkhya theorises a pluralism of souls (Jeevatmas) who possess consciousness, but denies the existence of Ishvara (God). Classical Samkhya is considered an atheist / non-theistic Hindu philosophy.

Question: How many types of Guna exist in Hindu philosophy?
Answer: three

Question: Which state of guna is that of compassion, positiveness, and goodness? 
Answer: Sattva

Question: Which type of guna is concened with passion and activity?
Answer: Rajas

Question: What is the focus of the guna for negativeness and destruction?
Answer: Tamas

Question: What is the interpretation of classical  of Samkhya?
Answer: atheist / non-theistic
Title: Hindu_philosophy

In Indian philosophy, Yoga is among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the dualism premises of Samkhya school. The Yoga school accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of "personal god", unlike Samkhya. The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).

Question: Of what is yoga a part  in Indian philosophy?
Answer: philosophical schools

Question: To what school of Hindu philosophy is yoga aligned?
Answer: Samkhya

Question: What concept does yoga accept the differentiates it from Samkhya?
Answer: personal god

Question: How many of the six pramanas does yoga accept?
Answer: three

Question: Unlike other schools of Samkhya, what attitude makes yoga different?
Answer: theistic
Title: Hindu_philosophy

The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism. Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy states that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman.

Question: What principle does yoga use from Samkhya?
Answer: jñāna

Question: What is the meaning of jnana?
Answer: knowledge

Question: To what does yoga say personal experimentation and knowledge lead?
Answer: moksha

Question: To what school does yoga share central ideas?
Answer: Advaita Vedanta

Question: What state in life does yoga believe is achievable?
Answer: liberation/freedom
Title: Hindu_philosophy

The Vaiśeṣika philosophy is a naturalist school; it is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation was achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school . The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE. The foundational text, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, opens as follows,

Question: What philosophy is a naturalist school?
Answer: Vaiśeṣika

Question: What is the definition of paramanu in Hindu philosophy?
Answer: atoms

Question: When was the Vaisesika darsana  produced?
Answer: first millennium BCE

Question: Who is credited with the Vaisesika darsana?
Answer: Kaṇāda Kaśyapa

Question: By understanding what does Vaisesika school believe one gains knowledge and liberation?
Answer: world of experience
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that the reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, fire). Each of these four are of two types: atomic (paramāṇu) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible. The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).

Question: According to Vaisesika philosophy, how many substances comprise reality?
Answer: four

Question: What are the substances of Vaisesika reality?
Answer: earth, water, air, fire

Question: Of what does Vaisesika philosophy say the things are made ?
Answer: atoms

Question: According to Vaisesika what is divisible into atoms?
Answer: composite

Question: What form are atoms in Vaisesika?
Answer: invisible
Title: Hindu_philosophy

In its metaphysics, Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas, it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality. The Nyāya Sūtras begin:

Question: What school of thought is closest to Vaisesika school?
Answer: Nyāya

Question: What does Nyaya say causes human suffering?
Answer: mistakes/defects

Question: What state is achieved through knowledge?
Answer: Moksha

Question: What is moksha in Hindu philosophy?
Answer: liberation

Question: Besides ignorance, what does false knowledge include in Nyaya?
Answer: delusion
Title: Hindu_philosophy

The Mīmāṃsā school has several subschools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā considered five epistemically reliable means to gaining knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added sixth to its canon of reliable epistemology - anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).

Question: How many ways does the Mimamsa separate into subschools?
Answer: several

Question: How many ways does the Prabhakara subschool of Mimamsa say there are to gain knowledge?
Answer: five

Question: How is pratyaksa defined in the Prabhakara subschool?
Answer: perception

Question: What is the word for inference in the Prabhakara subschool?
Answer: anumāṇa

Question: What is comparison and analogy in the Prabhakara school?
Answer: upamāṇa
Title: Hindu_philosophy

The metaphysics in Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the soul is eternal omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma. To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name. The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other self-knowledge, spirituality-related texts to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.

Question: What type of doctrines are contained in the Mimamsa  school?
Answer: atheistic and theistic

Question: How did the Mimamsa school view the soul?
Answer: eternal

Question: What was the focus of the Mimamsa school of philosophy?
Answer: dharma

Question: How did the Mimamsa school consider dharma?
Answer: rituals and duties

Question: What school disagreed with the principles of the Mimamsa school?
Answer: Vedanta school
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language. While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools, their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also describe, develop and derive. Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā school developed and emphasized karmakāṇḍa (that part of the śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasized jñānakāṇḍa (that portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).

Question: To what study did Mimamsa give rise?
Answer: philology

Question: What did the Mimamsa school think that language was meant to describe?
Answer: proper, correct and right

Question: What school thought that language was supposed to be widened to describe and develop?
Answer: Vedantins

Question: What parts of the Vedas did the Mimamsa school emphasize?
Answer: early parts

Question: What sections of the Vedas did the Verdanta school favor?
Answer: latter parts
Title: Hindu_philosophy

The Vedānta school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE and is the most developed and well-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). Each of these have been further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by each sub-school of Vedanta.

Question: On which sutras did the Vedanta school focus?
Answer: Upanishads and Brahma

Question: In what time did the Vedanta school become active?
Answer: first millennium BCE

Question: Which is the most developed and well known of the Hindu schools?
Answer: Vedānta

Question: How many ways did the Vedantins have of gaining knowledge?
Answer: five or six methods

Question: On what was dependent for the choice of methods in gaining knowledge?
Answer: sub-school
Title: Hindu_philosophy

The emergence of Vedanta school represented a period when a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These focussed on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. This included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman, and emphasized meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient and medieval era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.

Question: What did the Vedanta school represent in Hindu philosophy?
Answer: knowledge-centered understanding

Question: On what aspects of Vedic did the Vedanta understanding focus?
Answer: jnana

Question: On what did the Vedanta school lessen focus?
Answer: ritualism

Question: Due to differences in text interpretations,into  what did the Vedanta school separate?
Answer: many sub-schools

Question: What metaphysical concepts were included in the Vedanta school? 
Answer: ātman and Brahman
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.

Question: What means 
Answer: Advaita
Title: Hindu_philosophy

According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman. Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal". The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be". The concept of ātman is of soul, self within each person, each living being. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence. They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.

Question: According to a school of Vedanta, what is all reality?
Answer: Brahman

Question: What concepts of metaphysics are included in Vedanta?
Answer: māyā and ātman

Question: How is the reality of maya viewed in Vedanta?
Answer: always changing

Question: To what does the concept of atman refer?
Answer: soul

Question: To what do Advaita Vedantins view atman as the same?
Answer: Brahman
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.

Question: What is the philosophy of dualism?
Answer: Viśiṣṭādvaita

Question: Who was the leader in pushing the philosophy of Visistadvaita?
Answer: Ramanuja

Question: When did Ramanuja live?
Answer: c. 1037–1137

Question: For the existence of what did the Visistadvaita philosophy argue?
Answer: Supreme Being

Question: What being did Ramanuja believe was the personification of Brahman
Answer: Vishnu
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas, espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the supreme Self, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe. Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta subschool, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being. However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.

Question: Of what does Dvaita Vedanta theorize the existence?
Answer: two separate realities

Question: To what entity is the Vedanta Vishnu similar in other religions?
Answer: monotheistic God

Question: How is the God of Dvaita different from that of Advaita in actions?
Answer: takes on a personal role

Question: As what did the Dvaita school view dualism?
Answer: permanent

Question: Who did the Dvaita school identify as the Supreme Being?
Answer: Vishnu
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Question: What early philosopher proposed Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: Nimbarka

Question: In what century did Nimbarka live?
Answer: 13th-century

Question: How many categories of existence are there in Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: three

Question: What are the categories of existence in Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: Brahman, soul, and matter

Question: Who is named as the highest entity worshiped in Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: Krishna
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine. However, the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE) is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedābheda) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought— Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).

Question: In what text is Shaivism recounted?
Answer: Śvetāśvatara Upanishad

Question: When was the text on Shaivism written?
Answer: 400 – 200 BCE

Question: Who reported the major schools of Shaivism?
Answer: Vidyaranya

Question: How many major schools of Shaivism did Vidyaranya mention?
Answer: three

Question: What is the Kashmir Shaivism mentioned by Vidyaranya?
Answer: Pratyabhijña
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, "of Paśupati") is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of souls to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, soul possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.

Question: What is the oldest school of Shaivism?
Answer: Pāśupata Shaivism

Question: Who organized the Pasupata philosophy?
Answer: Lakulish

Question: When did Lakulish systematize the Pasupata Shaivism? 
Answer: 2nd century CE

Question: What school of philosophy did the Pasupatas dislike?
Answer: Vaishnava theology

Question: What aspect of Vaishnava was unpalatable for the Pasupatas?
Answer: servitude of souls
Title: Hindu_philosophy

Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the soul with God through the intellect.

Question: What group divided the world into two parts?
Answer: Pāśupatas

Question: Into what parts did the Pasupatas divide the world?
Answer: insentient and the sentient

Question: In what staet was the insentient considered to be?
Answer: unconscious

Question: How was the sentient seen as being?
Answer: conscious

Question: For the Pasupatas, how was the union of the soul with God achieved?
Answer: through the intellect