rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al. found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." "Past research found that 50–80 percent of DNA from the Ashkenazi Y chromosome, which is used to trace the male lineage, originated in the Near East," Richards said.

Question: It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common with what other people?
Answer: Middle Eastern peoples

Question: It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are uncommon with what other people?
Answer: uncommon in the general European population

Question: The findings related to the Y-chromosomes suggest that males ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to where?
Answer: the Middle East
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

In 2013, however, a study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by a team led by Martin B. Richards of the University of Huddersfield in England reached different conclusions, again corroborating the pre-2006 origin hypothesis. Testing was performed on the full 16,600 DNA units composing mitochondrial DNA (the 2006 Behar study had only tested 1,000 units) in all their subjects, and the study found that the four main female Ashkenazi founders had descent lines that were established in Europe 10,000 to 20,000 years in the past while most of the remaining minor founders also have a deep European ancestry. The study states that the great majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Near East (i.e., they were non-Israelite), nor were they recruited in the Caucasus (i.e., they were non-Khazar), but instead they were assimilated within Europe, primarily of Italian and Old French origins. Richards summarized the findings on the female line as such: "[N]one [of the mtDNA] came from the North Caucasus, located along the border between Europe and Asia between the Black and Caspian seas. All of our presently available studies including my own, should thoroughly debunk one of the most questionable, but still tenacious, hypotheses: that most Ashkenazi Jews can trace their roots to the mysterious Khazar Kingdom that flourished during the ninth century in the region between the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire." The 2013 study estimated that 80 percent of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe, and only 8 percent from the Near East, while the origin of the remainder is undetermined. According to the study these findings "point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities."

Question: A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe?
Answer: 80 percent

Question: A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women from the Near East?
Answer: 8 percent

Question: A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women of undetermined origins?
Answer: while the origin of the remainder is undetermined
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as both groups – the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews – shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen. Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins.

Question: In a 2010 study, which two groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent analysis?
Answer: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews

Question: The 2010 study found that what modern population is most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews?
Answer: modern-day Italians

Question: Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be genetically similar due to what two factors?
Answer: inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, from 13 universities and academies, from 9 countries, assembling the largest data set available to date, for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. "Thus, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corroborates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region", the authors concluded.

Question: How many geneticists carried out the 2013 trans-genome study?
Answer: 30 geneticists

Question: What did the 2013 trans-genome study find in regards to Ashkenazi Jews and Khazar origins?
Answer: found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews

Question: How many universities and academies participated in the 2013 trans-genome study?
Answer: 13 universities and academies
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

The origins of the Ashkenazim are obscure, and many theories have arisen speculating about their ultimate provenance. The most well supported theory is the one that details a Jewish migration through what is now Italy and other parts of southern Europe. The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since pre-Christian times. Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until 212 CE, when Emperor Caracalla granted all free peoples this privilege. Jews were required to pay a poll tax until the reign of Emperor Julian in 363. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. But, after Christianity became the official religion of Rome and Constantinople in 380, Jews were increasingly marginalized.

Question: The most well supported theory on the origins of the Ashkenazim is one that details a Jewish migration through which modern day country?
Answer: through what is now Italy

Question: The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since what time?
Answer: pre-Christian times

Question: Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until what year?
Answer: 212 CE

Question: Who gave Jews the right to full Roman citizenship?
Answer: Emperor Caracalla
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as the 8th and 9th century. By the 11th century Jewish settlers, moving from southern European and Middle Eastern centers, appear to have begun to settle in the north, especially along the Rhine, often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers. Thus Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, invited Jacob ben Yekutiel and his fellow Jews to settle in his lands; and soon after the Norman Conquest of England, William the Conqueror likewise extended a welcome to continental Jews to take up residence there. Bishop Rüdiger Huzmann called on the Jews of Mainz to relocate to Speyer. In all of these decisions, the idea that Jews had the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenues, and enlarge trade seems to have played a prominent role. Typically Jews relocated close to the markets and churches in town centres, where, though they came under the authority of both royal and ecclesiastical powers, they were accorded administrative autonomy.

Question: Jewish communities were seen north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as which centuries?
Answer: 8th and 9th century

Question: Jewish settlers appear along the Rhine by what century?
Answer: 11th century

Question: What two factors contributed the increase in Jewish settlers along the Rhine and other similar areas?
Answer: often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

In the first half of the 11th century, Hai Gaon refers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means Germany. Rashi in the latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz. During the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. In the Mahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances.

Question: When did Hai Gaon refer to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz?
Answer: the first half of the 11th century

Question: Who is Hai Gaon thought to be referring to when he says Ashkenaz?
Answer: Germany

Question: In the latter half of the 11th century, Rashi refers to what two things?
Answer: both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the Middle Ages, by the time of the French Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the Inquisition and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly German Alsace, and speaking mainly Yiddish. The two communities were so separate and different that the National Assembly emancipated them separately in 1790 and 1791.

Question: When did France expel its original Jewish population?
Answer: the Middle Ages

Question: By the time of the French Revolution there were how many distinct Jewish populations?
Answer: two distinct Jewish populations
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

Various studies have arrived at diverging conclusions regarding both the degree and the sources of the non-Levantine admixture in Ashkenazim, particularly in respect to the extent of the non-Levantine genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages, which is in contrast to the predominant Levantine genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi paternal lineages. All studies nevertheless agree that genetic overlap with the Fertile Crescent exists in both lineages, albeit at differing rates. Collectively, Ashkenazi Jews are less genetically diverse than other Jewish ethnic divisions.

Question: All studies agree that genetic overlap with what location exists in both lineages?
Answer: Fertile Crescent
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

Before 2006, geneticists had largely attributed the ethnogenesis of most of the world's Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to Israelite Jewish male migrants from the Middle East and "the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism." Thus, in 2002, in line with this model of origin, David Goldstein, now of Duke University, reported that unlike male Ashkenazi lineages, the female lineages in Ashkenazi Jewish communities "did not seem to be Middle Eastern", and that each community had its own genetic pattern and even that "in some cases the mitochondrial DNA was closely related to that of the host community." In his view this suggested "that Jewish men had arrived from the Middle East, taken wives from the host population and converted them to Judaism, after which there was no further intermarriage with non-Jews."

Question: What year did David Goldstein report that unlike male Ashkenazi lineages, the female lineages in Ashkenazi Jewish communities did not seem to be Middle Eastern?
Answer: 2002
Title: Ashkenazi_Jews

A 2006 study by Seldin et al. used over five thousand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure. The results showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' European population groups". Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the "northern" population group, while most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the "southern" group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the "southern" group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".

Question: In a 2006 study, how many autosomal SNPs were used?
Answer: five thousand
Title: Athanasius_of_Alexandria

Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (/ˌæθəˈneɪʃəs/; Greek: Ἀθανάσιος Ἀλεξανδρείας, Athanásios Alexandrías; c. 296–298 – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor or, primarily in the Coptic Orthodox Church, Athanasius the Apostolic, was the twentieth bishop of Alexandria (as Athanasius I). His episcopate lasted 45 years (c. 8 June 328 – 2 May 373), of which over 17 were spent in five exiles ordered by four different Roman emperors. Athanasius is a renowned Christian theologian, a Church Father, the chief defender of Trinitarianism against Arianism, and a noted Egyptian leader of the fourth century.

Question: Who was the twentieth bishop of Alexandria?
Answer: Saint Athanasius of Alexandria

Question: What was one nickname for Saint Athanasius of Alexandria?
Answer: Athanasius the Great

Question: For how many years was Saint Athanasius of Alexandria a bishop?
Answer: 45 years

Question: How many years was Saint Athanasius of Alexandria in exile?
Answer: 17

Question: When did Saint Athanasius die?
Answer: 2 May 373

Question: What name is Saint Athanasius also known as?
Answer: Athanasius the Great

Question: Of what city was he bishop?
Answer: Alexandria

Question: How long did his episcopate last?
Answer: 45 years

Question: What is another name that Saint Athanasius is know as?
Answer: Athanasius the Confessor
Title: Athanasius_of_Alexandria

T. Gilmartin, (Professor of History, Maynooth, 1890), writes in Church History, Vol. 1, Ch XVII: On the death of Alexander, five months after the termination of the Council of Nice, Athanasius was unanimously elected to fill the vacant see. He was most unwilling to accept the dignity, for he clearly foresaw the difficulties in which it would involve him. The clergy and people were determined to have him as their bishop, Patriarch of Alexandria, and refused to accept any excuses. He at length consented to accept a responsibility that he sought in vain to escape, and was consecrated in 326, when he was about thirty years of age.

Question: In what year was Athanasius consecrated?
Answer: 326

Question: How old was Athanasius when he became the Patriarch of Alexandria?
Answer: about thirty years of age

Question: Did Athanasius want to be the Patriarch of Alexandria?
Answer: He was most unwilling to accept

Question: Did the people want Athanasius as their bishop?
Answer: people were determined to have him

Question: How long after the Council of Nice did Saint Athanasius die?
Answer: five months

Question: Was Saint Athanasius willing or unwilling to fill the vacancy?
Answer: unwilling

Question: In what year was he consecrated?
Answer: in 326

Question: How old was he when he was consecrated?
Answer: thirty years of age.
Title: Athanasius_of_Alexandria

Through the influence of the Eusebian faction at Constantinople, an Arian bishop, George of Cappadocia, was now appointed to rule the see of Alexandria. Athanasius, after remaining some days in the neighbourhood of the city, finally withdrew into the desert of Upper Egypt, where he remained for a period of six years, living the life of the monks, devoting himself to the composition of a group of writings; "Apology to Constantius", the "Apology for his Flight", the "Letter to the Monks", and the "History of the Arians".

Question: Where did Athanasius remain for 6 years while living as a monk?
Answer: Upper Egypt

Question: What is name of one of the compositions composed by Athanasius while he lived as a monk?
Answer: Letter to the Monks

Question: Who took over after Athanasius?
Answer: George of Cappadocia

Question: Who influenced George of Cappadocia to become the new ruler?
Answer: the Eusebian faction at Constantinople

Question: To where did Saint Athanasius withdraw?
Answer: the desert of Upper Egypt

Question: Who influenced the appointment of George of Cappadocia?
Answer: the Eusebian faction at Constantinople

Question: How long did he spend in the desert?
Answer: six years

Question: What is one thing he wrote during this time?
Answer: Apology to Constantius

Question: Who was appointed to rule the see of Alexandria?
Answer: George of Cappadocia
Title: Athanasius_of_Alexandria

The Arians no longer presented an unbroken front to their orthodox opponents. The Emperor Constantius, who had been the cause of so much trouble, died 4 November, 361 and was succeeded by Julian. The proclamation of the new prince's accession was the signal for a pagan outbreak against the still dominant Arian faction in Alexandria. George, the usurping Bishop, was flung into prison and murdered. An obscure presbyter of the name of Pistus was immediately chosen by the Arians to succeed him, when fresh news arrived that filled the orthodox party with hope. An edict had been put forth by Julian permitting the exiled bishops of the "Galileans" to return to their "towns and provinces". Athanasius received a summons from his own flock, and he accordingly re-entered his episcopal capitol on 22 February, 362.

Question: Who succeeded Emperor Constantius?
Answer: Julian

Question: Who succeeded George of Cappadocia?
Answer: Pistus

Question: In what year did Athanasius return to his episcopal capitol?
Answer: 362

Question: In what year did Emperor Constantius die?
Answer: 361

Question: How did George of Cappadocia die in prison?
Answer: murdered

Question: Were the Arians united in their oppostion?
Answer: The Arians no longer presented an unbroken front

Question: When did Athanasius re-enter the capitol?
Answer: 22 February, 362

Question: Who succeeded the Emperor Constantius?
Answer: Julian

Question: Who then succeeded George?
Answer: An obscure presbyter of the name of Pistus

Question: What happened to the usurping bishop, George?
Answer: flung into prison and murdered
Title: Athanasius_of_Alexandria

The accession of Valens gave a fresh lease of life to the Arian party. He issued a decree banishing the bishops who had been deposed by Constantius, but who had been permitted by Jovian to return to their sees. The news created the greatest consternation in the city of Alexandria itself, and the prefect, in order to prevent a serious outbreak, gave public assurance that the very special case of Athanasius would be laid before the emperor. But the saint seems to have divined what was preparing in secret against him. He quietly withdrew from Alexandria, 5 October, and took up his abode in a country house outside the city. Valens, who seems to have sincerely dreaded the possible consequences of another popular outbreak, within a few weeks issued orders allowing Athanasius to return to his episcopal see.

Question: What party benefited from the accession of Valens?
Answer: Arian

Question: Valens issued a decree banishing the bishops that were deposed by who?
Answer: Constantius

Question: What saint fled from Alexandria on 5 October to a country house outside Alexandria?
Answer: Athanasius

Question: Valens' banishment of Athanasius created the greatest consternation in what city?
Answer: Alexandria

Question: What did the decree of Valens do?
Answer: banishing the bishops who had been deposed by Constantius

Question: When the people in the city were concerned about Athanasius, what did the prefect do? 
Answer: case of Athanasius would be laid before the emperor

Question: What did  Athanasius do to protect himself?
Answer: withdrew from Alexandria, 5 October

Question: How did Valens get him to return?
Answer: issued orders allowing Athanasius to return to his episcopal see
Title: Athanasius_of_Alexandria

His biography of Anthony the Great entitled Life of Antony(Βίος καὶ Πολιτεία Πατρὸς Ἀντωνίου, Vita Antonii) became his most widely-read work. Translated into several languages, it played an important role in the spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and Western Christianity. Depicting Anthony as an illiterate and holy man who through his existence in a primordial landscape has an absolute connection to the divine truth, the biography also resembles the life of his biographer Athanasius. It later served as an inspiration to Christian monastics in both the East and the West. The so-called Athanasian Creed dates from well after Athanasius's death and draws upon the phraseology of Augustine's De trinitate.

Question: Who wrote the biography entitled Life of Antony?
Answer: Athanasius

Question: Life of Antony played an important role in the spreading of ascetic ideals in what religion?
Answer: Eastern and Western Christianity

Question: The biography, Life of Antony, also resembles of the life of who?
Answer: Athanasius

Question: The so-called Athanasian Creed draws upon the phraseology of what?
Answer: Augustine's De trinitate

Question: About whom did he write his most widely-read work?
Answer: Anthony the Great

Question: Why was this work considered to be important?
Answer: spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and Western Christianity

Question: How did he depict Anthony?
Answer: illiterate and holy

Question: What does the Athanasian Creed draw upon?
Answer: Augustine's De trinitate

Question: Whose life did Anthony's resemble?
Answer: Athanasius