rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Unlike the heavier guns, these smaller weapons are in widespread use due to their low cost and ability to quickly follow the target. Classic examples of autocannons and large caliber guns are the 40 mm autocannon and the 8.8 cm FlaK 18, 36 gun, both designed by Bofors of Sweden. Artillery weapons of this sort have for the most part been superseded by the effective surface-to-air missile systems that were introduced in the 1950s, although they were still retained by many nations. The development of surface-to-air missiles began in Nazi Germany during the late World War II with missiles such as the Wasserfall, though no working system was deployed before the war's end, and represented new attempts to increase effectiveness of the anti-aircraft systems faced with growing threat from [bomber]s. Land-based SAMs can be deployed from fixed installations or mobile launchers, either wheeled or tracked. The tracked vehicles are usually armoured vehicles specifically designed to carry SAMs.

Question: Smaller weapons are able to be used because of their low cost as well as what other factor?
Answer: ability to quickly follow the target

Question: Who designed the 40 mm autocannon?
Answer: Bofors of Sweden

Question: When were the surface-to-air missile systems introduced?
Answer: 1950s

Question: Where were surface-to-air missiles first developed?
Answer: in Nazi Germany

Question: How can land-based SAMs be deployed?
Answer: from fixed installations or mobile launchers
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Smaller boats and ships typically have machine-guns or fast cannons, which can often be deadly to low-flying aircraft if linked to a radar-directed fire-control system radar-controlled cannon for point defence. Some vessels like Aegis cruisers are as much a threat to aircraft as any land-based air defence system. In general, naval vessels should be treated with respect by aircraft, however the reverse is equally true. Carrier battle groups are especially well defended, as not only do they typically consist of many vessels with heavy air defence armament but they are also able to launch fighter jets for combat air patrol overhead to intercept incoming airborne threats.

Question: What kind of weapons can usually be found on smaller boats and ships?
Answer: machine-guns or fast cannons

Question: These weapons can be deadly to aircraft that is low if it is linked to what?
Answer: a radar-directed fire-control system radar-controlled cannon for point defence

Question: What type of ships are particularly well defended?
Answer: Carrier battle groups

Question: Carrier battle groups can launch what to intercept incoming threats?
Answer: fighter jets
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Rocket-propelled grenades can be—and often are—used against hovering helicopters (e.g., by Somali militiamen during the Battle of Mogadishu (1993)). Firing an RPG at steep angles poses a danger to the user, because the backblast from firing reflects off the ground. In Somalia, militia members sometimes welded a steel plate in the exhaust end of an RPG's tube to deflect pressure away from the shooter when shooting up at US helicopters. RPGs are used in this role only when more effective weapons are not available.

Question: What type of weapon can be used against hovering helicopters?
Answer: Rocket-propelled grenades

Question: What did some militia members in Somalia weld in the exhaust of the RPG tube to protect the shooter?
Answer: a steel plate

Question: What were the Somalian militia members firing RPGs at?
Answer: US helicopters

Question: An RPG fired at a steep angle has what reflecting off the ground?
Answer: the backblast

Question: When an RPG is fired at a steep angle, who is in danger?
Answer: the user
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

The British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning the altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly approaching target at 400 mph (=643.6 km/h) can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation". However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by non-ballistic factors:

Question: What term is used to describe the altitude for a gun to shoot shells against a target that is moving?
Answer: "effective ceiling"

Question: Who adopted the use of the term, effective ceiling?
Answer: The British

Question: Along with other factors, how long must a target be engaged to have effective ceiling?
Answer: for 20 seconds

Question: What affected the effective ceiling for heavy AA guns?
Answer: non-ballistic factors
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Until the 1950s guns firing ballistic munitions were the standard weapon; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges. However, the type of shell or warhead and its fuzing and, with missiles the guidance arrangement, were and are varied. Targets are not always easy to destroy; nonetheless, damaged aircraft may be forced to abort their mission and, even if they manage to return and land in friendly territory, may be out of action for days or permanently. Ignoring small arms and smaller machine-guns, ground-based air defence guns have varied in calibre from 20 mm to at least 150 mm.

Question: What was the standard weapon until the 1950s?
Answer: guns firing ballistic munitions

Question: After guns firing ballistic munitions lost their appeal, what weapon took their place?
Answer: guided missiles

Question: Which range did not use guided missiles?
Answer: the very shortest ranges

Question: Damaged aircraft can be out of action for days or what?
Answer: permanently

Question: What is the largest calibre ground-based air defence guns?
Answer: at least 150 mm
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

The British recognised the need for anti-aircraft capability a few weeks before World War I broke out; on 8 July 1914, the New York Times reported that the British government had decided to 'dot the coasts of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two quick-firing guns of special design,' while 'a complete circle of towers' was to be built around 'naval installations' and 'at other especially vulnerable points.' By December 1914 the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR) was manning AA guns and searchlights assembled from various sources at some nine ports. The Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA) was given responsibility for AA defence in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. The first were formally formed in November 1914. Initially they used QF 1-pounder "pom-pom" (a 37 mm version of the Maxim Gun).

Question: When did the British see the need to add anti-aircraft capability?
Answer: 8 July 1914

Question: Where did the New York times report say towers with guns should go?
Answer: the coasts of the British Isles

Question: What was built around naval installations?
Answer: complete circle of towers

Question: Who manned AA guns and searchlights?
Answer: Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR)

Question: Who used motorised two-gun sections?
Answer: Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA)
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

In Britain and some other armies, the single artillery branch has been responsible for both home and overseas ground-based air defence, although there was divided responsibility with the Royal Navy for air defence of the British Isles in World War I. However, during the Second World War the RAF Regiment was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this included light air defences. In the later decades of the Cold War this included the United States Air Force's operating bases in UK. However, all ground-based air defence was removed from Royal Air Force (RAF) jurisdiction in 2004. The British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command was disbanded in March 1955, but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF's Fighter Command operated long-range air -defence missiles to protect key areas in the UK. During World War II the Royal Marines also provided air defence units; formally part of the mobile naval base defence organisation, they were handled as an integral part of the army-commanded ground based air defences.

Question: Who provided part of the air defence of the British Isles in WWI
Answer: Royal Navy

Question: Who protected airfields in WWII?
Answer: RAF Regiment

Question: The United States Air Force helped protect the UK during what 'war'?
Answer: Cold War

Question: What year was ground-based air defence taken from RAF?
Answer: 2004

Question: What was disbanded in 1955?
Answer: British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

The British dealt with range measurement first, when it was realised that range was the key to producing a better fuse setting. This led to the Height/Range Finder (HRF), the first model being the Barr & Stroud UB2, a 2-metre optical coincident rangefinder mounted on a tripod. It measured the distance to the target and the elevation angle, which together gave the height of the aircraft. These were complex instruments and various other methods were also used. The HRF was soon joined by the Height/Fuse Indicator (HFI), this was marked with elevation angles and height lines overlaid with fuse length curves, using the height reported by the HRF operator, the necessary fuse length could be read off.

Question: What helped with better fuse setting?
Answer: range measurement

Question: What was the first model of HRF (Height Range Finder) used by the British?
Answer: Barr & Stroud UB2

Question: The HRF measured target distance and what else?
Answer: elevation angle

Question: What was the HRF used with to set fuses?
Answer: Height/Fuse Indicator (HFI)

Question: The fuse length could be set using height reported by whom?
Answer: HRF operator
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

By the early 20th century balloon, or airship, guns, for land and naval use were attracting attention. Various types of ammunition were proposed, high explosive, incendiary, bullet-chains, rod bullets and shrapnel. The need for some form of tracer or smoke trail was articulated. Fuzing options were also examined, both impact and time types. Mountings were generally pedestal type, but could be on field platforms. Trials were underway in most countries in Europe but only Krupp, Erhardt, Vickers Maxim, and Schneider had published any information by 1910. Krupp's designs included adaptations of their 65 mm 9-pounder, a 75 mm 12-pounder, and even a 105 mm gun. Erhardt also had a 12-pounder, while Vickers Maxim offered a 3-pounder and Schneider a 47 mm. The French balloon gun appeared in 1910, it was an 11-pounder but mounted on a vehicle, with a total uncrewed weight of 2 tons. However, since balloons were slow moving, sights were simple. But the challenges of faster moving airplanes were recognised.

Question: What kind of guns started attracting attention?
Answer: balloon, or airship, guns

Question: In addition to ammo proposals, what other need was articulated?
Answer: The need for some form of tracer or smoke trail

Question: The impact and time types of what were analyzed?
Answer: Fuzing options

Question: As of 1910, who had published info available for gun designs?
Answer: Krupp, Erhardt, Vickers Maxim, and Schneider

Question: What gun made the scene in 1910?
Answer: French balloon gun
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

All armies soon deployed AA guns often based on their smaller field pieces, notably the French 75 mm and Russian 76.2 mm, typically simply propped up on some sort of embankment to get the muzzle pointed skyward. The British Army adopted the 13-pounder quickly producing new mountings suitable for AA use, the 13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III was issued in 1915. It remained in service throughout the war but 18-pdr guns were lined down to take the 13-pdr shell with a larger cartridge producing the 13-pr QF 9 cwt and these proved much more satisfactory. However, in general, these ad-hoc solutions proved largely useless. With little experience in the role, no means of measuring target, range, height or speed the difficulty of observing their shell bursts relative to the target gunners proved unable to get their fuse setting correct and most rounds burst well below their targets. The exception to this rule was the guns protecting spotting balloons, in which case the altitude could be accurately measured from the length of the cable holding the balloon.

Question: What two guns were propped up against a hillside to get the muzzles pointed up?
Answer: French 75 mm and Russian 76.2 mm

Question: What anti-aircraft gun did the British Army begin to use?
Answer: 13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III

Question: What gun size was relined to take 13-pounder shells?
Answer: 18-pdr guns

Question: What was difficult to get set right on the new guns?
Answer: get their fuse setting correct

Question: Where did most rounds shot at aircraft usually explode?
Answer: well below their targets
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

The Treaty of Versailles prevented Germany having AA weapons, and for example, the Krupps designers joined Bofors in Sweden. Some World War I guns were retained and some covert AA training started in the late 1920s. Germany introduced the 8.8 cm FlaK 18 in 1933, 36 and 37 models followed with various improvements but ballistic performance was unchanged. In the late 1930s the 10.5 cm FlaK 38 appeared soon followed by the 39, this was designed primarily for static sites but had a mobile mounting and the unit had 220v 24 kW generators. In 1938 design started on the 12.8 cm FlaK.

Question: What treaty was supposed to stop Germany from having antiaircraft weapons?
Answer: Treaty of Versailles

Question: When did covert antiaircraft training start in Germany?
Answer: in the late 1920s

Question: When did the 10.5 centimeter FlaK 38 appear in Germany?
Answer: In the late 1930s

Question: When did the design begin for the 12.8 centimeter FlaK?
Answer: 1938

Question: What did the FlaK 39 have?
Answer: 220v 24 kW generators
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

However, the problem of deflection settings — 'aim-off' — required knowing the rate of change in the target's position. Both France and UK introduced tachymetric devices to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system was electrical, the operator entered the target range and had displays at guns; it was used with their 75 mm. The British Wilson-Dalby gun director used a pair of trackers and mechanical tachymetry; the operator entered the fuse length, and deflection angles were read from the instruments.

Question: What did the tachymetric devices do?
Answer: track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles

Question: Which system had electrical tracking?
Answer: French Brocq

Question: What gun was the French Brocq system used with?
Answer: 75 mm

Question: Which system used a pair of trackers?
Answer: British Wilson-Dalby gun director

Question: Deflection settings were also called what?
Answer: aim-off
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Poland's AA defences were no match for the German attack and the situation was similar in other European countries. Significant AA warfare started with the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. 3.7-inch HAA were to provide the backbone of the groundbased AA defences, although initially significant numbers of 3-inch 20-cwt were also used. The Army's Anti-aircraft command, which was under command of the Air Defence UK organisation, grew to 12 AA divisions in 3 AA corps. 40-mm Bofors entered service in increasing numbers. In addition the RAF regiment was formed in 1941 with responsibility for airfield air defence, eventually with Bofors 40mm as their main armament. Fixed AA defences, using HAA and LAA, were established by the Army in key overseas places, notably Malta, Suez Canal and Singapore.

Question: Poland and other European countries could not defend against what?
Answer: German attack

Question: What battle marked the beginning of significant antiaircraft warfare?
Answer: Battle of Britain

Question: What was under command of the Air Defence UK orgnisation?
Answer: Army's Anti-aircraft command

Question: The Air Defence UK grew to have how many antiaircraft corps?
Answer: 3

Question: What was formed in 1941 to protect airfields?
Answer: RAF regiment
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Britain had successful tested a new HAA gun, 3.6-inch, in 1918. In 1928 3.7-inch became the preferred solution, but it took 6 years to gain funding. Production of the QF 3.7-inch (94 mm) began in 1937; this gun was used both on mobile carriages with the field army and transportable guns on fixed mountings for static positions. At the same time the Royal Navy adopted a new 4.5-inch (114 mm) gun in a twin turret, which the army adopted in simplified single-gun mountings for static positions, mostly around ports where naval ammunition was available. However, the performance of both 3.7 and 4.5-in guns was limited by their standard fuse No 199, with a 30-second running time, although a new mechanical time fuse giving 43 seconds was nearing readiness. In 1939 a Machine Fuse Setter was introduced to eliminate manual fuse setting.

Question: When was the successful test of the 3.6-inch HAA gun?
Answer: 1918

Question: When did the 3.7-inch HAA gun become preferred?
Answer: 1928

Question: What gun did the Royal Navy start using?
Answer: 4.5-inch (114 mm) gun in a twin turret

Question: How long of a running time did the Number 199 fuse have?
Answer: 30-second running time

Question: What was introduced in 1939?
Answer: Machine Fuse Setter
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Service trials demonstrated another problem however: that ranging and tracking the new high-speed targets was almost impossible. At short range, the apparent target area is relatively large, the trajectory is flat and the time of flight is short, allowing to correct lead by watching the tracers. At long range, the aircraft remains in firing range for a long time, so the necessary calculations can in theory be done by slide rules - though, because small errors in distance cause large errors in shell fall height and detonation time, exact ranging is crucial. For the ranges and speeds that the Bofors worked at, neither answer was good enough.

Question: What was shown to be practically not possible during service trials?
Answer: ranging and tracking the new high-speed targets

Question: How was target lead watched at short range?
Answer: by watching the tracers

Question: Target area is relatively large at what range?
Answer: short range

Question: At long range what, in theory, could be used to set ranging calculations?
Answer: slide rules

Question: What small errors caused large errors in shell fall height and the time until exploding?
Answer: small errors in distance
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

Rheinmetall in Germany developed an automatic 20 mm in the 1920s and Oerlikon in Switzerland had acquired the patent to an automatic 20 mm gun designed in Germany during World War I. Germany introduced the rapid-fire 2 cm FlaK 30 and later in the decade it was redesigned by Mauser-Werke and became the 2 cm FlaK 38. Nevertheless, while 20 mm was better than a machine gun and mounted on a very small trailer made it easy to move, its effectiveness was limited. Germany therefore added a 3.7 cm. The first, the 3.7 cm FlaK 18 developed by Rheinmetall in the early 1930s, was basically an enlarged 2 cm FlaK 30. It was introduced in 1935 and production stopped the following year. A redesigned gun 3.7 cm FlaK 36 entered service in 1938, it too had a two-wheel carriage. However, by the mid-1930s the Luftwaffe realised that there was still a coverage gap between 3.7 cm and 8.8 cm guns. They started development of a 5 cm gun on a four-wheel carriage.

Question: In the 1920s, which company developed the automatic 20 mm?
Answer: Rheinmetall

Question: Which Switzerland company obtained the patent for an automatic 20 mm gun during the first World War?
Answer: Oerlikon

Question: Which company redesigned the rapid fire 2 cm FlaK 30?
Answer: Mauser-Werke

Question: What did Germany add to the 20 mm to make it more effective?
Answer: a 3.7 cm

Question: When was the first 3.7 cm FlaK 18 introduced?
Answer: 1935
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

The Germans developed massive reinforced concrete blockhouses, some more than six stories high, which were known as Hochbunker "High Bunkers" or "Flaktürme" flak towers, on which they placed anti-aircraft artillery. Those in cities attacked by the Allied land forces became fortresses. Several in Berlin were some of the last buildings to fall to the Soviets during the Battle of Berlin in 1945. The British built structures such as the Maunsell Forts in the North Sea, the Thames Estuary and other tidal areas upon which they based guns. After the war most were left to rot. Some were outside territorial waters, and had a second life in the 1960s as platforms for pirate radio stations.

Question: What were the large blockhouses called that the Germans developed?
Answer: Hochbunker "High Bunkers"

Question: Another name for the High Bunkers was what?
Answer: "Flaktürme" flak towers

Question: What was placed on the blockhouses by the Germans?
Answer: anti-aircraft artillery

Question: What city had some of the last buildings to fall in 1945?
Answer: Berlin

Question: What structure did the British build in the North Sea?
Answer: Maunsell Forts
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

The developments during World War II continued for a short time into the post-war period as well. In particular the U.S. Army set up a huge air defence network around its larger cities based on radar-guided 90 mm and 120 mm guns. US efforts continued into the 1950s with the 75 mm Skysweeper system, an almost fully automated system including the radar, computers, power, and auto-loading gun on a single powered platform. The Skysweeper replaced all smaller guns then in use in the Army, notably the 40 mm Bofors. In Europe NATO's Allied Command Europe developed an integrated air defence system, NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE), that later became the NATO Integrated Air Defence System.

Question: Which military set up a large air defence network surrounding its larger cities?
Answer: the U.S. Army

Question: What US system was created in the 1950s that included radar and computers?
Answer: the 75 mm Skysweeper system

Question: The Skysweeper replaced the small guns that the Army was using, including which one?
Answer: the 40 mm Bofors

Question: What does NADGE stand for?
Answer: NATO Air Defence Ground Environment

Question: What did NADGE become?
Answer: the NATO Integrated Air Defence System
Title: Anti-aircraft_warfare

The solution was automation, in the form of a mechanical computer, the Kerrison Predictor. Operators kept it pointed at the target, and the Predictor then calculated the proper aim point automatically and displayed it as a pointer mounted on the gun. The gun operators simply followed the pointer and loaded the shells. The Kerrison was fairly simple, but it pointed the way to future generations that incorporated radar, first for ranging and later for tracking. Similar predictor systems were introduced by Germany during the war, also adding radar ranging as the war progressed.

Question: What was the name of the mechanical computer that used automation?
Answer: the Kerrison Predictor

Question: What did the Predictor calculate after it was pointed at a target?
Answer: the proper aim point automatically

Question: How did the Predictor display the information needed?
Answer: as a pointer mounted on the gun

Question: What two things did the operators of the gun have to do?
Answer: followed the pointer and loaded the shells

Question: What other country designed similar systems to the Predictor?
Answer: Germany