rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Energy

These developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) as the field of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time. Thus, since 1918, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time.

Question: Who largely formalized the developments that led to the theory of conservation of energy?
Answer: William Thomson

Question: What aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Clausius, Gibbs and Nernst?
Answer: Thermodynamics

Question: Who developed the concept of the introduction of laws of radiant energy?
Answer: Jožef Stefan

Question: What states that the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time?
Answer: Noether's theorem
Title: Energy

Another energy-related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph-Louis Lagrange. This formalism is as fundamental as the Hamiltonian, and both can be used to derive the equations of motion or be derived from them. It was invented in the context of classical mechanics, but is generally useful in modern physics. The Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy. Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (such as systems with friction).

Question: What is another energy-related concept?
Answer: Lagrangian

Question: Who is the Lagrangian named after?
Answer: Joseph-Louis Lagrange

Question: What is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy?
Answer: Lagrangian

Question: Is the Lagrange formalism or the Hamiltonian more convenient for non-conservative systems?
Answer: Lagrange formalism
Title: Energy

Noether's theorem (1918) states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. Noether's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalisation of the seminal formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian; for example, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.

Question: When was Noether's theorem created?
Answer: 1918

Question: What states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law?
Answer: Noether's theorem

Question: What has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations?
Answer: Noether's theorem
Title: Energy

In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor e−E/kT – that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.

Question: In the context of chemistry, what is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of it's atomic, molecular or aggregate structure?
Answer: energy

Question: What is not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy?
Answer: Chemical reactions

Question: What is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T?
Answer: e−E/kT

Question: Who created the population factor e-E/kT?
Answer: Boltzmann's

Question: What is the exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature?
Answer: Arrhenius equation
Title: Energy

In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a "feel" for the use of a given amount of energy.

Question: In biology, what is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism?
Answer: energy

Question: What is often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins?
Answer: Energy

Question: What does H-e stand for?
Answer: Human energy conversion

Question: How many watts is in one official horsepower?
Answer: 746 watts
Title: Energy

Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water (two low-energy compounds) are converted into the high-energy compounds carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Plants also release oxygen during photosynthesis, which is utilized by living organisms as an electron acceptor, to release the energy of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis as heat or light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire, or it may be made available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action.

Question: What is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis?
Answer: Sunlight

Question: What do plants release during photosynthesis?
Answer: oxygen

Question: What may be triggered suddenly by a spark?
Answer: Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis

Question: What are two low-energy compounds?
Answer: carbon dioxide and water
Title: Energy

Any living organism relies on an external source of energy—radiation from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals—to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C6H12O6) and stearin (C57H110O6) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria

Question: What does any living organism rely on to be able to grow and reproduce?
Answer: an external source of energy

Question: How many daily calories are recommended for a human adult?
Answer: 1500–2000

Question: Where are food molecules oxidised to carbon dioxide and water?
Answer: mitochondria
Title: Energy

It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. In growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings").[note 3] Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants, i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.

Question: What states that energy tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe?
Answer: The second law of thermodynamics

Question: What are remarkably inefficient in their use of the energy they receive?
Answer: living organisms

Question: Complex organisms can occupy this, that are not available to their simpler brethern?
Answer: ecological niches
Title: Energy

Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.

Question: This drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events.
Answer: Sunlight

Question: When may sunlight be stored as gravitational potential energy?
Answer: after it strikes the Earth

Question: What is an example of a solar-mediated weather event?
Answer: hurricane

Question: What occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement?
Answer: hurricane
Title: Energy

In a slower process, radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat. This thermal energy drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the thermal energy, which may be later released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store that has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy that has been stored as potential energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks. Prior to this, they represent release of energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed supernova stars created these atoms.

Question: What releases stored elastic potential energy in rocks?
Answer: Earthquakes

Question: What does radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth release?
Answer: heat

Question: What drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains via orogenesis?
Answer: thermal energy

Question: What is mechanical potential energy?
Answer: elastic strain
Title: Energy

In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

Question: What is driven by various kinds of energy transformations?
Answer: stellar phenomena

Question: What releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang?
Answer: nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun

Question: What theory states that space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements?
Answer: Big Bang

Question: Hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by what?
Answer: fusion
Title: Energy

In quantum mechanics, energy is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function. The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system. Its results can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics. The Schrödinger equation describes the space- and time-dependence of a slowly changing (non-relativistic) wave function of quantum systems. The solution of this equation for a bound system is discrete (a set of permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta. In the solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by Planck's relation:  (where  is Planck's constant and  the frequency). In the case of an electromagnetic wave these energy states are called quanta of light or photons.

Question: In quantum mechanics, what is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function?
Answer: energy

Question: What equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system?
Answer: The Schrödinger equation

Question: What describes the space-and-time dependence of a slowly changing wave function of quantum systems?
Answer: The Schrödinger equation
Title: Energy

For example, consider electron–positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its invariant mass) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process – the inverse process is called pair creation – in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons. In this system the matter (electrons and positrons) is destroyed and changed to non-matter energy (the photons). However, the total system mass and energy do not change during this interaction.

Question: What is it called when the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles remains?
Answer: electron–positron annihilation

Question: What is the inverse process called?
Answer: pair creation

Question: What is the process in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two or more annihilating photons?
Answer: pair creation
Title: Energy

There are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into work in a cyclic process, e.g. in a heat engine, as described by Carnot's theorem and the second law of thermodynamics. However, some energy transformations can be quite efficient. The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often determined by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom) considerations. In practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.

Question: What states that there are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into a work in a cyclic process?
Answer: Carnot's theorem

Question: What is the direction of transformations in energy?
Answer: what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind

Question: What is often determined by entropy considerations?
Answer: direction of transformations in energy

Question: Why are certain larger transformations not permitted?
Answer: because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces
Title: Energy

Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.

Question: Name an example of a heavy isotope?
Answer: uranium

Question: Name another example of a heavy isotope.
Answer: thorium

Question: What is a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth?
Answer: nucleosynthesis

Question: In the case of a chemical explosion, what is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a short time?
Answer: chemical potential energy
Title: Energy

Energy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum, where it can be weighed. It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it. Mass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and likewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass-energy equivalence. The formula E = mc², derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for further information).

Question: When does energy give rise to weight?
Answer: when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum

Question: Mass is also equivalent to what?
Answer: certain amount of energy

Question: Who created the formula E = mc2?
Answer: Albert Einstein

Question: In what year did Einstein create E = mc2?
Answer: 1905

Question: What quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity?
Answer: E = mc²
Title: Energy

Matter may be converted to energy (and vice versa), but mass cannot ever be destroyed; rather, mass/energy equivalence remains a constant for both the matter and the energy, during any process when they are converted into each other. However, since  is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of matter (for example, 1 kg) to other forms of energy (such as heat, light, and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (i.e., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in high-energy nuclear physics.

Question: Matter may be converted to what?
Answer: energy

Question: Energy may be converted to what?
Answer: Matter

Question: Why is a loss of energy difficult to measure by weight?
Answer: mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule

Question: Where are examples of energy transformation into matter found?
Answer: high-energy nuclear physics
Title: Energy

Thermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes. An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomisation in a crystal).

Question: Thermodynamics divides energy information into what two kinds?
Answer: reversible processes and irreversible processes

Question: What divides energy transformation into two kinds reversible processes and irreversible processes?
Answer: Thermodynamics

Question: A reversible process is one in which this does not happen.
Answer: dissipation