rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Predation

An alternative view offered by Richard Dawkins is of predation as a form of competition: the genes of both the predator and prey are competing for the body (or 'survival machine') of the prey organism. This is best understood in the context of the gene centered view of evolution. Another manner in which predation and competition are connected is throughout intraguild predation. Intraguild predators are those that kill and eat other predators of different species at the same trophic level, and thus that are potential competitors.

Question: Intraguild species consumer other species within?
Answer: the same trophic level

Question: Who proposes the concept of the "survival machine?"
Answer: Richard Dawkins

Question: The argument of the "survival machines" proposes that what two species are competing for the same genes?
Answer: both the predator and prey

Question: Intraguild species may try to consume each other because they are?
Answer: potential competitors

Question: Who described predation by describing competing genes within the predator?
Answer: Richard Dawkins

Question: To what part of the prey does Richard Dawkins refer to as the "survival machine"?
Answer: the body

Question: What are intraguild predators?
Answer: those that kill and eat other predators of different species at the same trophic level

Question: Which version of evolutionary theory is easiest to use when explaining predation as competition?
Answer: gene centered view

Question: What term is used to decribe predators that prey on their own competition?
Answer: Intraguild
Title: Predation

Predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. Such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. For example, grazers of a grassland may prevent a single dominant species from taking over.

Question: What is the title of a predator that maintains balance with an ecosystem?
Answer: keystone species

Question: What is the driving force for maintaining an equilibrium within an ecosystem?
Answer: biodiversity

Question: When a keystone species is lost another species might become?
Answer: dominant

Question: What is increased by keeping a single species from being dominant in an ecosystem?
Answer: biodiversity of communities

Question: Predators that prevent others from becoming dominant are called what?
Answer: keystone species

Question: What changes to a keystone predator can seriously affect an ecosystem's equilibrium?
Answer: Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density
Title: Predation

The elimination of wolves from Yellowstone National Park had profound impacts on the trophic pyramid. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species, affecting the area's plant populations. In addition, wolves often kept animals from grazing in riparian areas, which protected beavers from having their food sources encroached upon. The removal of wolves had a direct effect on beaver populations, as their habitat became territory for grazing. Furthermore, predation keeps hydrological features such as creeks and streams in normal working order. Increased browsing on willows and conifers along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation caused channel incision because they helped slow the water down and hold the soil in place.

Question: What animal's food sources were greatly affected with the loss of wolves in Yellowstone National Park?
Answer: beavers

Question: Broader ecological impacts can occur when an apex predator is removed, in the case of Yellowstone, this includes alteration to the?
Answer: hydrological features

Question: Loose soil from lack of trees along the river bed resulted in?
Answer: channel incision

Question: The removal of what animal from Yellowstonw National Park affected beaver populations?
Answer: wolves

Question: How did the removal of wolves from Yellowstone affect beaver habitats?
Answer: habitat became territory for grazing.

Question: Why were plant populations affected after wolves were eliminated from Yellowstone?
Answer: Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species

Question: How did wolves in Yellowstone help beavers eat well?
Answer: wolves often kept animals from grazing in riparian areas, which protected beavers from having their food sources encroached upon
Title: Predation

The act of predation can be broken down into a maximum of four stages: Detection of prey, attack, capture and finally consumption. The relationship between predator and prey is one that is typically beneficial to the predator, and detrimental to the prey species. Sometimes, however, predation has indirect benefits to the prey species, though the individuals preyed upon themselves do not benefit. This means that, at each applicable stage, predator and prey species are in an evolutionary arms race to maximize their respective abilities to obtain food or avoid being eaten. This interaction has resulted in a vast array of adaptations in both groups.

Question: At most there are how many step of predator-prey interaction? 
Answer: maximum of four stages

Question: What is the first step of the predator-prey interaction?
Answer: Detection of prey

Question: How does the prey improve their evolutionary abilities through predator-prey interaction? 
Answer: array of adaptations

Question: Who doesn't benefit from the predator-prey interaction? 
Answer: the individuals preyed upon

Question: How many stages can predation be divided into?
Answer: maximum of four stages

Question: What are the four stages of predation?
Answer: Detection of prey, attack, capture and finally consumption

Question: What dilemma has resulted in many predatory adaptations?
Answer: obtain food or avoid being eaten

Question: In predation's four stages, in what stage is consumption?
Answer: final
Title: Predation

One adaptation helping both predators and prey avoid detection is camouflage, a form of crypsis where species have an appearance that helps them blend into the background. Camouflage consists of not only color but also shape and pattern. The background upon which the organism is seen can be both its environment (e.g., the praying mantis to the right resembling dead leaves) or other organisms (e.g., zebras' stripes blend in with each other in a herd, making it difficult for lions to focus on a single target). The more convincing camouflage is, the more likely it is that the organism will go unseen.

Question: Which adaptation helps both predators and prey?
Answer: camouflage

Question: What term is used for an adaptation that enables species to blend into the background?
Answer: camouflage

Question: Camoflauge consists of what else, in addition to color?
Answer: shape and pattern

Question: Ogranisms use camoflauge to blend with their habitat and what else?
Answer: other organisms
Title: Predation

Mimicry is a related phenomenon where an organism has a similar appearance to another species. One such example is the drone fly, which looks a lot like a bee, yet is completely harmless as it cannot sting at all. Another example of batesian mimicry is the io moth, (Automeris io), which has markings on its wings that resemble an owl's eyes. When an insectivorous predator disturbs the moth, it reveals its hind wings, temporarily startling the predator and giving it time to escape. Predators may also use mimicry to lure their prey, however. Female fireflies of the genus Photuris, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which are then captured and eaten (see aggressive mimicry).

Question: What is the phenomenon where an organism looks like another species called?
Answer: Mimicry

Question: Which organism looks like a bee but cannot sting?
Answer: drone fly

Question: A moth that has markings resembling an owl's eyes is an example of what phenomenon?
Answer: Mimicry

Question: What is a defensive way that mimicry can be used?
Answer: startling the predator and giving it time to escape

Question: How can predators use mimicry?
Answer: to lure their prey
Title: Predation

While successful predation results in a gain of energy, hunting invariably involves energetic costs as well. When hunger is not an issue, in general most predators will not seek to attack prey since the costs outweigh the benefits. For instance, a large predatory fish like a shark that is well fed in an aquarium will typically ignore the smaller fish swimming around it (while the prey fish take advantage of the fact that the apex predator is apparently uninterested). Surplus killing represents a deviation from this type of behaviour. The treatment of consumption in terms of cost-benefit analysis is known as optimal foraging theory, and has been quite successful in the study of animal behavior. In general, costs and benefits are considered in energy gain per unit time, though other factors are also important, such as essential nutrients that have no caloric value but are necessary for survival and health.

Question: What makes predation successful?
Answer: gain of energy

Question: Treating the hunt as a cost-benefit scenario is referred to a what?
Answer: optimal foraging theory

Question: In optimal foraging theory, how are costs and benefits measured?
Answer: energy gain per unit time
Title: Predation

Social predation offers the possibility of predators to kill creatures larger than those that members of the species could overpower singly. Lions, hyenas, wolves, dholes, African wild dogs, and piranhas can kill large herbivores that single animals of the same species usually don't dispatch. Social predation allows some animals to organize hunts of creatures that would easily escape a single predator; thus chimpanzees can prey upon colobus monkeys, and Harris's hawks can cut off all possible escapes for a doomed rabbit. Extreme specialization of roles is evident in some hunting that requires co-operation between predators of very different species: humans with the aid of falcons or dogs, or fishing with cormorants. Social predation is often very complex behavior, and not all social creatures (for example, domestic cats) perform it. Even without complex intelligence but instinct alone, some ant species can destroy much larger creatures.

Question: What hunting style allows chimpanzees to prey upon colobus monkeys?
Answer: Social predation

Question: What is an example of co-coperation between predators of different species?
Answer: humans with the aid of falcons or dogs, or fishing with cormorants

Question: What is a species that does not perform social predation?
Answer: domestic cats)

Question: What are some species that use social predation to prey on animals much larger than themselves?
Answer: Lions, hyenas, wolves, dholes, African wild dogs, and piranhas
Title: Predation

It has been observed that well-fed predator animals in a lax captivity (for instance, pet or farm animals) will usually differentiate between putative prey animals who are familiar co-inhabitants in the same human area from wild ones outside the area. This interaction can range from peaceful coexistence to close companionship; motivation to ignore the predatory instinct may result from mutual advantage or fear of reprisal from human masters who have made clear that harming co-inhabitants will not be tolerated. Pet cats and pet mice, for example, may live together in the same human residence without incident as companions. Pet cats and pet dogs under human mastership often depend on each other for warmth, companionship, and even protection, particularly in rural areas.

Question: Well-fed animals in captivity can become friends with prey animals due to what motivation?
Answer: mutual advantage or fear of reprisal from human masters

Question: Why would cats and dogs potentially become companions in captivity?
Answer: warmth, companionship, and even protection

Question: Captive animals can distinguish co-inhabitats from what other group?
Answer: wild ones outside the area
Title: Predation

Predatory animals often use their usual methods of attacking prey to inflict or to threaten grievous injury to their own predators. The electric eel uses the same electric current to kill prey and to defend itself against animals (anacondas, caimans, egrets, jaguars, mountain lions, giant otters, humans, dogs, and cats) that ordinarily prey upon fish similar to an electric eel in size; the electric eel thus remains an apex predator in a predator-rich environment. A predator small enough to be prey for others, the domestic cat uses its formidable teeth and claws as weapons against animals that might confuse a cat with easier prey. Many non-predatory prey animals, such as a zebra, can give a strong kick that can maim or kill, while others charge with tusks or horns.

Question: What are some predators of the electric eel?
Answer: (anacondas, caimans, egrets, jaguars, mountain lions, giant otters, humans, dogs, and cats

Question: What defense does a zebra have against predators?
Answer: strong kick that can maim or kill

Question: What defenses does a domestic cat have against predators?
Answer: formidable teeth and claws

Question: The electric eel uses electric shock for defense and what other purpose?
Answer: to kill prey
Title: Predation

Mobbing can be an interspecies activity: it is common for birds to respond to mobbing calls of a different species. Many birds will show up at the sight of mobbing and watch and call, but not participate. It should also be noted that some species can be on both ends of a mobbing attack. Crows are frequently mobbed by smaller songbirds as they prey on eggs and young from these birds' nests, but these same crows will cooperate with smaller birds to drive away hawks or larger mammalian predators. On occasion, birds will mob animals that pose no threat.

Question: Is a species always the antagonist in a mobbing attack, or can it play roles on both sides?
Answer: species can be on both ends of a mobbing attack

Question: Which bird is an example of being both a predator and defender in mobbing attacks?
Answer: Crows

Question: Will birds often mob animals that do not pose a threat?
Answer: On occasion

Question: Crows will cooperate with small birds to drive away what predators?
Answer: hawks or larger mammalian predators
Title: Predation

Aposematism, where organisms are brightly colored as a warning to predators, is the antithesis of camouflage. Some organisms pose a threat to their predators—for example they may be poisonous, or able to harm them physically. Aposematic coloring involves bright, easily recognizable and unique colors and patterns. For example, bright coloration in Variable Checkerspot butterflies leads to decreased predation attempts by avian predators. Upon being harmed (e.g., stung) by their prey, the appearance in such an organism will be remembered as something to avoid. While that particular prey organism may be killed, the coloring benefits the prey species as a whole.

Question: What scientific term is used to describe  organisms that are brightly colored as a warning to predators?
Answer: Aposematism

Question: Does aposematism benefit only the organism ddirectly, or the entire population as a whole?
Answer: species as a whole

Question: How does aposematism help a species population?
Answer: Upon being harmed (e.g., stung) by their prey, the appearance in such an organism will be remembered as something to avoid

Question: What visual cues are characteristic of aposematism?
Answer: bright, easily recognizable and unique colors and patterns
Title: Predation

It is fairly clear that predators tend to lower the survival and fecundity of their prey, but on a higher level of organization, populations of predator and prey species also interact. It is obvious that predators depend on prey for survival, and this is reflected in predator populations being affected by changes in prey populations. It is not so obvious, however, that predators affect prey populations. Eating a prey organism may simply make room for another if the prey population is approaching its carrying capacity.

Question: What do predators depend on for survival?
Answer: prey

Question: Prey that is eaten is simply replaced by anohter when the population is close to what?
Answer: carrying capacity

Question: Predators lower what aspects of their prey?
Answer: survival and fecundity
Title: Predation

A lone naked human is at a physical disadvantage to other comparable apex predators in areas such as speed, bone density, weight, and physical strength. Humans also lack innate weaponry such as claws. Without crafted weapons, society, or cleverness, a lone human can easily be defeated by fit predatory animals, such as wild dogs, big cats and bears (see Man-eater). However, humans are not solitary creatures; they are social animals with highly developed social behaviors. Early humans, such as Homo erectus, have been using stone tools and weapons for well over a million years. Anatomically modern humans have been apex predators since they first evolved, and many species of carnivorous megafauna actively avoid interacting with humans; the primary environmental competitor for a human is other humans. The one subspecies of carnivorous megafauna that does interact frequently with humans in predatory roles is the domestic dog, but usually as a partner in predation especially if they hunt together. Cannibalism has occurred in various places, among various cultures, and for various reasons. At least a few people, such as the Donner party, are said to have resorted to it in desperation.

Question: What physical disadvantages do humans have against other apex predators?
Answer: speed, bone density, weight, and physical strength

Question: For how long have humans been using stone tools and weapons?
Answer: well over a million years

Question: What are humans' primary competitors?
Answer: other humans

Question: What is one known istance of cannibalism?
Answer: the Donner party

Question: With what species do humans hunt in partnership?
Answer: domestic dog
Title: Predation

Having small population size is a characteristic almost universally inherent to apex predators, humans and dogs by far the most blatant exceptions. Low numbers wouldn't be a problem for apex predators if there was an abundance of prey and no competition or niche overlap, a scenario that is rarely, if ever, encountered in the wild. The competitive exclusion principle states that if two species' ecological niches overlap, there is a very high likelihood of competition as both species are in direct competition for the same resources. This factor alone could lead to the extirpation of one or both species, but is compounded by the added factor of prey abundance.

Question: What two apex predators do not have a small population size?
Answer: humans and dogs

Question: Do apex predators generally have a large or small population?
Answer: small

Question: Which principle states that if two species ecologicl niches/ overlap, both species are likely to be in competition with one another?
Answer: competitive exclusion principle

Question: What other factor is relevant to the competitive exclusion principle?
Answer: prey abundance
Title: Predation

A predator's effect on its prey species is hard to see in the short-term. However, if observed over a longer period of time, it is seen that the population of a predator will correlationally rise and fall with the population of its prey in a cycle similar to the boom and bust cycle of economics. If a predator overhunts its prey, the prey population will lower to numbers that are too scarce for the predators to find. This will cause the predator population to dip, decreasing the predation pressure on the prey population. The decrease in predators will allow the small number of prey left to slowly increase their population to somewhere around their previous abundance, which will allow the predator population to increase in response to the greater availability of resources. If a predator hunts its prey species to numbers too low to sustain the population in the short term, they can cause not only the extinction or extirpation of the prey but also the extinction of their own species, a phenomenon known as coextinction. This is a risk that wildlife conservationists encounter when introducing predators to prey that have not coevolved with the same or similar predators. This possibility depends largely on how well and how fast the prey species is able to adapt to the introduced predator. One way that this risk can be avoided is if the predator finds an alternative prey species or if an alternative prey species is introduced (something that ecologists and environmentalists try to avoid whenever possible). An alternative prey species would help to lift some of the predation pressure from the initial prey species, giving the population a chance to recover, however it does not guarantee that the initial prey species will be able to recover as the initial prey population may have been hunted to below sustainable numbers or to complete extinction.

Question: When a predator hunts too much of its prey, causing both populations to dissappear, the phenomenon is called what?
Answer: coextinction

Question: Are predator's effects on prey easiest to see in the short-term or long-term?
Answer: longer period of time

Question: The rise and fall of predator and prey populations are similar to what, in the US economy?
Answer: boom and bust cycle of economics
Title: Predation

Predators may be put to use in conservation efforts to control introduced species. Although the aim in this situation is to remove the introduced species entirely, keeping its abundance down is often the only possibility. Predators from its natural range may be introduced to control populations, though in some cases this has little effect, and may even cause unforeseen problems. Besides their use in conservation biology, predators are also important for controlling pests in agriculture. Natural predators are an environmentally friendly and sustainable way of reducing damage to crops, and are one alternative to the use of chemical agents such as pesticides.

Question: How can natural predators benefit crops?
Answer: reducing damage to crops, and are one alternative to the use of chemical agents such as pesticides

Question: How are predators beneficial to agriculture?
Answer: controlling pests

Question: If removing an introduced species entirely isn't a posibility, what is the next best outcome?
Answer: keeping its abundance down

Question: Predators are used in conservation to reduce what type of species from the environment?
Answer: introduced species
Title: Marvel_Comics

Marvel counts among its characters such well-known superheroes as Spider-Man, Iron Man, Captain America, Wolverine, Thor, Hulk, Ant-Man, such teams as the Avengers, the Guardians of the Galaxy, the Fantastic Four, the Inhumans and the X-Men, and antagonists such as Doctor Doom, The Enchantress, Green Goblin, Ultron, Doctor Octopus, Thanos, Magneto and Loki. Most of Marvel's fictional characters operate in a single reality known as the Marvel Universe, with locations that mirror real-life cities. Characters such as Spider-Man, the Fantastic Four, the Avengers, Daredevil and Doctor Strange are based in New York City, whereas the X-Men have historically been based in Salem Center, New York and Hulk's stories often have been set in the American Southwest.

Question: Captain America, Thor and Ultron all inhabit what fictional milieu?
Answer: Marvel Universe

Question: Fictional placements within this setting are modeled off what?
Answer: real-life cities

Question: Spiderman's fictional city is based off what real American location?
Answer: New York

Question: What Marvel character's stories are set in an area resembling the American Southwest?
Answer: Hulk

Question: Which two groups of Marvel crimefighters are based in a fictional version of New York City?
Answer: the Fantastic Four, the Avengers