rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Humanism

During the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany (by the Left Hegelians), humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. In the Anglophone world, such modern, organized forms of humanism, which are rooted in the 18th-century Enlightenment, have to a considerable extent more or less detached themselves from the historic connection of humanism with classical learning and the liberal arts.

Question:  At the time of the French Revolution what previous focus of humanism was removed?
Answer: supernatural

Question: Protestantism differs from Humanism in its focus is on what?
Answer: supernatural

Question: What do current tenants humanism have their origins in?
Answer: 18th-century Enlightenment

Question: What was a name for humanism believers who emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?
Answer: Religious Humanism
Title: Humanism

In 1808 Bavarian educational commissioner Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined the term Humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools, and by 1836 the word "humanism" had been absorbed into the English language in this sense. The coinage gained universal acceptance in 1856, when German historian and philologist Georg Voigt used humanism to describe Renaissance humanism, the movement that flourished in the Italian Renaissance to revive classical learning, a use which won wide acceptance among historians in many nations, especially Italy.

Question:  In what year did the term humanism gain yet another layer of meaning?
Answer: 1808

Question: Who can be credited with assisting the word humanism with finding a home in the English language?
Answer: Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer

Question: Who was responsible for yet another definition of the philosophy in 1856?
Answer: Georg Voigt

Question: What nation was highly receptive to the new definition of this concept?
Answer: Italy
Title: Humanism

But in the mid-18th century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an anonymous article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of "The general love of humanity ... a virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call 'humanism', for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing". The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous grass-roots "philanthropic" and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment and the spreading of knowledge (some Christian, some not). After the French Revolution, the idea that human virtue could be created by human reason alone independently from traditional religious institutions, attributed by opponents of the Revolution to Enlightenment philosophes such as Rousseau, was violently attacked by influential religious and political conservatives, such as Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre, as a deification or idolatry of humanity. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense. The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word "humanism" by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the "mere humanity" (as opposed to the divine nature) of Christ, i.e., Unitarians and Deists. In this polarised atmosphere, in which established ecclesiastical bodies tended to circle the wagons and reflexively oppose political and social reforms like extending the franchise, universal schooling, and the like, liberal reformers and radicals embraced the idea of Humanism as an alternative religion of humanity. The anarchist Proudhon (best known for declaring that "property is theft") used the word "humanism" to describe a "culte, déification de l’humanité" ("worship, deification of humanity") and Ernest Renan in L’avenir de la science: pensées de 1848 ("The Future of Knowledge: Thoughts on 1848") (1848–49), states: "It is my deep conviction that pure humanism will be the religion of the future, that is, the cult of all that pertains to humanity—all of life, sanctified and raised to the level of a moral value."

Question: During which period was the philosophy of humanism next updated?
Answer: French Enlightenment

Question: What was the criticism of Humanism made by conservatives of the time?
Answer: idolatry of humanity

Question: Who continued to support the belief system despite its critics?
Answer: liberal reformers and radicals

Question: Who felt that humanism would surely be a major "religion" today?
Answer: Ernest Renan
Title: Humanism

At about the same time, the word "humanism" as a philosophy centred on humankind (as opposed to institutionalised religion) was also being used in Germany by the so-called Left Hegelians, Arnold Ruge, and Karl Marx, who were critical of the close involvement of the church in the repressive German government. There has been a persistent confusion between the several uses of the terms: philanthropic humanists look to what they consider their antecedents in critical thinking and human-centered philosophy among the Greek philosophers and the great figures of Renaissance history; and scholarly humanists stress the linguistic and cultural disciplines needed to understand and interpret these philosophers and artists.

Question: What was the main difference between humanism and the religions of the time?
Answer: centred on humankind

Question: What well known socialist adopted the usage of this term in Germany?
Answer: Karl Marx

Question: Who did benevolent believers in humanism turn to for ideas about the philosophy?
Answer: Greek philosophers

Question: Where did the learned believers place their focus?
Answer: linguistic and cultural disciplines
Title: Humanism

Another instance of ancient humanism as an organised system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra, composed between 1,000 BCE – 600 BCE in Greater Iran. Zarathustra's philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings dignified with choice and agency according to the intellect which each receives from Ahura Mazda (God in the form of supreme wisdom). The idea of Ahura Mazda as a non-intervening deistic divine God/Grand Architect of the universe tied with a unique eschatology and ethical system implying that each person is held morally responsible for their choices, made freely in this present life, in the afterlife. The importance placed on thought, action, responsibility, and a non-intervening creator was appealed to by, and inspired a number of, Enlightenment humanist thinkers in Europe such as Voltaire and Montesquieu.

Question: Which ancient text provides an example of the humanist way of thinking?
Answer: Gathas of Zarathustra

Question: When was this writing penned?
Answer: 1,000 BCE – 600 BCE

Question: When was this writing penned?
Answer: afterlife

Question: What well know scholar was inspired by Humanism?
Answer: Voltaire
Title: Humanism

In China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor.[citation needed] Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded.[citation needed] King Wu of Zhou has the famous saying: "Humanity is the Ling (efficacious essence) of the world (among all)." Among them Duke of Zhou, respected as a founder of Rujia (Confucianism), is especially prominent and pioneering in humanistic thought. His words were recorded in the Book of History as follows (translation):[citation needed]

Question: Who was known as being a founder of humanism thought in China?
Answer: Yellow Emperor

Question: What early adopter and developer of is associated with Confucianism?
Answer: Duke of Zhou

Question: What early adopter and developer of is associated with Confucianism?
Answer: Book of History

Question: Who is known for the thought that humanity is the most important thing in the world?
Answer: Wu of Zhou
Title: Humanism

In the 6th century BCE, Taoist teacher Lao Tzu espoused a series of naturalistic concepts with some elements of humanistic philosophy. The Silver Rule of Confucianism from Analects XV.24, is an example of ethical philosophy based on human values rather than the supernatural. Humanistic thought is also contained in other Confucian classics, e.g., as recorded in Zuo Zhuan, Ji Liang says, "People is the zhu (master, lord, dominance, owner or origin) of gods. So, to sage kings, people first, gods second"; Neishi Guo says, "Gods, clever, righteous and wholehearted, comply with human." Taoist and Confucian secularism contain elements of moral thought devoid of religious authority or deism however they only partly resembled our modern concept of secularism.

Question: When were humanism beliefs mixed with another philosophy by a Taoist thinker?
Answer: 6th century BCE

Question: What is an example of Humanism based philosophy that focused on ethics?
Answer: Silver Rule of Confucianism

Question: Who can be credited with saying essentially humans are the gods of gods?
Answer: Ji Liang

Question: Where could you read this information?
Answer: Zuo Zhuan
Title: Humanism

6th-century BCE pre-Socratic Greek philosophers Thales of Miletus and Xenophanes of Colophon were the first in the region to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason rather than myth and tradition, thus can be said to be the first Greek humanists. Thales questioned the notion of anthropomorphic gods and Xenophanes refused to recognise the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. These Ionian Greeks were the first thinkers to assert that nature is available to be studied separately from the supernatural realm. Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of rational inquiry from Ionia to Athens. Pericles, the leader of Athens during the period of its greatest glory was an admirer of Anaxagoras. Other influential pre-Socratics or rational philosophers include Protagoras (like Anaxagoras a friend of Pericles), known for his famous dictum "man is the measure of all things" and Democritus, who proposed that matter was composed of atoms. Little of the written work of these early philosophers survives and they are known mainly from fragments and quotations in other writers, principally Plato and Aristotle. The historian Thucydides, noted for his scientific and rational approach to history, is also much admired by later humanists. In the 3rd century BCE, Epicurus became known for his concise phrasing of the problem of evil, lack of belief in the afterlife, and human-centred approaches to achieving eudaimonia. He was also the first Greek philosopher to admit women to his school as a rule.

Question: Who was one of the first Greeks to adopt a humanistic outlook?
Answer: Thales of Miletus

Question: Where did this type of thinking next travel to?
Answer: Athens

Question: Who first introduced the idea that matter is made of atoms?
Answer: Democritus

Question: Who was the first person to provide education opportunities to females?
Answer: Epicurus
Title: Humanism

Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement in Europe of the later Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. The 19th-century German historian Georg Voigt (1827–91) identified Petrarch as the first Renaissance humanist. Paul Johnson agrees that Petrarch was "the first to put into words the notion that the centuries between the fall of Rome and the present had been the age of Darkness". According to Petrarch, what was needed to remedy this situation was the careful study and imitation of the great classical authors. For Petrarch and Boccaccio, the greatest master was Cicero, whose prose became the model for both learned (Latin) and vernacular (Italian) prose.

Question: When did the first wave of Humanism reach Europe?
Answer: Middle Ages and the Early Modern period

Question: Who was thought to be the original believer of humanism in of the Renaissance period?
Answer: Petrarch

Question: The study and following of classical writers was said to be a solution to what issue?
Answer: Cicero

Question: The study and following of classical writers was said to be a solution to what issue?
Answer: age of Darkness
Title: Humanism

In the high Renaissance, in fact, there was a hope that more direct knowledge of the wisdom of antiquity, including the writings of the Church fathers, the earliest known Greek texts of the Christian Gospels, and in some cases even the Jewish Kabbalah, would initiate a harmonious new era of universal agreement. With this end in view, Renaissance Church authorities afforded humanists what in retrospect appears a remarkable degree of freedom of thought. One humanist, the Greek Orthodox Platonist Gemistus Pletho (1355–1452), based in Mystras, Greece (but in contact with humanists in Florence, Venice, and Rome) taught a Christianised version of pagan polytheism.

Question:  What is one religious text that was thought to eventually lead to a peace between all?
Answer: the Jewish Kabbalah

Question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?
Answer: Renaissance Church authorities

Question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?
Answer: era of universal agreement

Question: What cities may have influenced the beliefs of Gemistus Pleto?
Answer: Florence, Venice, and Rome
Title: Humanism

The humanists' close study of Latin literary texts soon enabled them to discern historical differences in the writing styles of different periods. By analogy with what they saw as decline of Latin, they applied the principle of ad fontes, or back to the sources, across broad areas of learning, seeking out manuscripts of Patristic literature as well as pagan authors. In 1439, while employed in Naples at the court of Alfonso V of Aragon (at the time engaged in a dispute with the Papal States) the humanist Lorenzo Valla used stylistic textual analysis, now called philology, to prove that the Donation of Constantine, which purported to confer temporal powers on the Pope of Rome, was an 8th-century forgery. For the next 70 years, however, neither Valla nor any of his contemporaries thought to apply the techniques of philology to other controversial manuscripts in this way. Instead, after the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Turks in 1453, which brought a flood of Greek Orthodox refugees to Italy, humanist scholars increasingly turned to the study of Neoplatonism and Hermeticism, hoping to bridge the differences between the Greek and Roman Churches, and even between Christianity itself and the non-Christian world. The refugees brought with them Greek manuscripts, not only of Plato and Aristotle, but also of the Christian Gospels, previously unavailable in the Latin West.

Question: How were humanist able to identify the development of humanist thought?
Answer: Latin literary texts

Question: What was included in this quest for knowledge of the belief system?
Answer: Patristic literature

Question: If your were unsure of the authenticity of an ancient text how could you verify it?
Answer: philology

Question: What caused a large migration of Greek refuges in the 1450s?
Answer: Byzantine Empire

Question: What caused a large migration of Greek refuges in the 1450s?
Answer: Greek manuscripts
Title: Humanism

After 1517, when the new invention of printing made these texts widely available, the Dutch humanist Erasmus, who had studied Greek at the Venetian printing house of Aldus Manutius, began a philological analysis of the Gospels in the spirit of Valla, comparing the Greek originals with their Latin translations with a view to correcting errors and discrepancies in the latter. Erasmus, along with the French humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, began issuing new translations, laying the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Henceforth Renaissance humanism, particularly in the German North, became concerned with religion, while Italian and French humanism concentrated increasingly on scholarship and philology addressed to a narrow audience of specialists, studiously avoiding topics that might offend despotic rulers or which might be seen as corrosive of faith. After the Reformation, critical examination of the Bible did not resume until the advent of the so-called Higher criticism of the 19th-century German Tübingen school.

Question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?
Answer: 1517

Question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?
Answer: Erasmus

Question:  Erasmus can be said to have lit the match that sparked a radical change in thinking in his era along with who?
Answer: Lefèvre d'Étaples

Question: What text still remained without the type of thorough review that others texts had received by the 18th century?
Answer: the Bible
Title: Humanism

The words of the comic playwright P. Terentius Afer reverberated across the Roman world of the mid-2nd century BCE and beyond. Terence, an African and a former slave, was well placed to preach the message of universalism, of the essential unity of the human race, that had come down in philosophical form from the Greeks, but needed the pragmatic muscles of Rome in order to become a practical reality. The influence of Terence's felicitous phrase on Roman thinking about human rights can hardly be overestimated. Two hundred years later Seneca ended his seminal exposition of the unity of humankind with a clarion-call:

Question:  What author had a great impact in Rome?
Answer: P. Terentius Afer

Question: Who was able to spread the idea of equality among all through his words?
Answer: Terence

Question: From where did this school of thought emerge?
Answer: the Greeks

Question: Who again issued the same type of challenge centuries later
Answer: Seneca

Question: What was the name of the main belief Terence offered
Answer: universalism
Title: Humanism

Better acquaintance with Greek and Roman technical writings also influenced the development of European science (see the history of science in the Renaissance). This was despite what A. C. Crombie (viewing the Renaissance in the 19th-century manner as a chapter in the heroic March of Progress) calls "a backwards-looking admiration for antiquity", in which Platonism stood in opposition to the Aristotelian concentration on the observable properties of the physical world. But Renaissance humanists, who considered themselves as restoring the glory and nobility of antiquity, had no interest in scientific innovation. However, by the mid-to-late 16th century, even the universities, though still dominated by Scholasticism, began to demand that Aristotle be read in accurate texts edited according to the principles of Renaissance philology, thus setting the stage for Galileo's quarrels with the outmoded habits of Scholasticism.

Question: Who felt that looking to these ancient documents for new ideas was not the way to mover forward?
Answer: A. C. Crombie

Question:  Closer examination of what information allowed for further progress in scientific knowledge?
Answer: technical writings

Question: What group was neutral about this issue as they felt the subject unimportant? 
Answer: Renaissance humanists

Question:  When did even the scholars and professors began to at least end to examine the works of Aristotle?
Answer: 16th century,
Title: Humanism

Just as artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci – partaking of the zeitgeist though not himself a humanist – advocated study of human anatomy, nature, and weather to enrich Renaissance works of art, so Spanish-born humanist Juan Luis Vives (c. 1493–1540) advocated observation, craft, and practical techniques to improve the formal teaching of Aristotelian philosophy at the universities, helping to free them from the grip of Medieval Scholasticism. Thus, the stage was set for the adoption of an approach to natural philosophy, based on empirical observations and experimentation of the physical universe, making possible the advent of the age of scientific inquiry that followed the Renaissance.

Question: Who felt that the further examination and knowledge of studies in the arena of humanism could further art?
Answer: Leonardo da Vinci

Question: Who helped to further the movement away from Scholasticism of the time?
Answer: Juan Luis Vives

Question: Where did this initiate?
Answer: universities

Question: What type of philosophy was essential to this forwarding of thought?
Answer: Aristotelian
Title: Humanism

Early humanists saw no conflict between reason and their Christian faith (see Christian Humanism). They inveighed against the abuses of the Church, but not against the Church itself, much less against religion. For them, the word "secular" carried no connotations of disbelief – that would come later, in the nineteenth century. In the Renaissance to be secular meant simply to be in the world rather than in a monastery. Petrarch frequently admitted that his brother Gherardo's life as a Carthusian monk was superior to his own (although Petrarch himself was in Minor Orders and was employed by the Church all his life). He hoped that he could do some good by winning earthly glory and praising virtue, inferior though that might be to a life devoted solely to prayer. By embracing a non-theistic philosophic base, however, the methods of the humanists, combined with their eloquence, would ultimately have a corrosive effect on established authority.

Question: Who was able to reconcile their religious beliefs with those of humanism?
Answer: Early humanists

Question: What phrase that has come to be associated with a lack of faith was not seen as an issue for Christians?
Answer: secular

Question: During what time period did secular have a more neutral connotation?
Answer: Renaissance

Question: Petrarch felt that although he tried to do his own form of good whose life may have more meaning?
Answer: Gherardo
Title: Humanism

Eliot and her circle, who included her companion George Henry Lewes (the biographer of Goethe) and the abolitionist and social theorist Harriet Martineau, were much influenced by the positivism of Auguste Comte, whom Martineau had translated. Comte had proposed an atheistic culte founded on human principles – a secular Religion of Humanity (which worshiped the dead, since most humans who have ever lived are dead), complete with holidays and liturgy, modeled on the rituals of what was seen as a discredited and dilapidated Catholicism. Although Comte's English followers, like Eliot and Martineau, for the most part rejected the full gloomy panoply of his system, they liked the idea of a religion of humanity. Comte's austere vision of the universe, his injunction to "vivre pour altrui" ("live for others", from which comes the word "altruism"), and his idealisation of women inform the works of Victorian novelists and poets from George Eliot and Matthew Arnold to Thomas Hardy.

Question: What abolitionist was greatly affected by the writings of Comte?
Answer: Harriet Martineau

Question: What type of idea did he pose which was focused on facets of humanism?
Answer: atheistic

Question: What main idea did the English believers of Comte's philosophy take from his writings?
Answer: religion of humanity

Question: What currently used word was based in ideas from this philosopher?
Answer: altruism