rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Infrared

Heat is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that is associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiations are associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (i.e., the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.

Question: What is the term for transit energy flowing as a result of differences in temperature?
Answer: Heat

Question: What type of heat transmission can propagate through a vacuum?
Answer: thermal radiation

Question: What object emits thermal radiation in the X-ray spectrum?
Answer: the solar corona

Question: The visible, ultraviolet and X-ray spectra are all above what spectrum?
Answer: infrared
Title: Infrared

Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14 μm) and produce images of that radiation. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperatures, according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to "see" one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature, therefore thermography allows one to see variations in temperature (hence the name).

Question: What is the range of the electromagnetic spectrum in micrometers?
Answer: 0.9–14

Question: In nanometers, what is the electromagnetic spectrum's range?
Answer: 900–14,000

Question: What law states that infrared radiation is emitted by objects based on temperature?
Answer: the black body radiation law

Question: What happens to the amount of radiation an object emits as temperature increases?
Answer: increases

Question: What type of cameras see infrared radiation?
Answer: Thermographic
Title: Infrared

The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.)

Question: What irradiates clouds of gas in the galaxy and makes them glow?
Answer: imbedded stars

Question: What can be detected via infrared prior to their emitting visible light?
Answer: protostars

Question: What objects emit less of their energy as infrared light versus visible light?
Answer: Stars
Title: Infrared

Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

Question: What sort of equipment uses the infrared spectrum in the absence of sufficient visible light?
Answer: night vision

Question: What do night vision devices convert ambient light photons into?
Answer: electrons

Question: Along with a chemical process, what type of process is used by night vision devices to convert infrared into visible light?
Answer: electrical
Title: Infrared

IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation that is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to encode the data. The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances. Infrared remote control protocols like RC-5, SIRC, are used to communicate with infrared.

Question: What is the IrDA?
Answer: the Infrared Data Association

Question: What does the acronym LEDs stand for?
Answer: light-emitting diodes

Question: What is a term for when something is switched on and off?
Answer: modulated

Question: What device is used to transform infrared radiation into an electric current?
Answer: silicon photodiode

Question: Why does infrared not cause trouble for devices in adjacent rooms?
Answer: IR does not penetrate walls
Title: Infrared

In the semiconductor industry, infrared light can be used to characterize materials such as thin films and periodic trench structures. By measuring the reflectance of light from the surface of a semiconductor wafer, the index of refraction (n) and the extinction Coefficient (k) can be determined via the Forouhi-Bloomer dispersion equations. The reflectance from the infrared light can also be used to determine the critical dimension, depth, and sidewall angle of high aspect ratio trench structures.

Question: What letter represents the index of refraction?
Answer: n

Question: What letter represents the extinction Coefficient?
Answer: k

Question: What equations are used to figure out the index of refraction and extinction Coefficient?
Answer: Forouhi-Bloomer dispersion

Question: Along with critical dimension and depth, what can the infrared light reflectance be used to determine in regard to high aspect ratio trench structures?
Answer: sidewall angle

Question: What reflectance is measured from a semiconductor wafer's surface to determine the index of refraction?
Answer: light
Title: Infrared

Infrared cleaning is a technique used by some Motion picture film scanner, film scanners and flatbed scanners to reduce or remove the effect of dust and scratches upon the finished scan. It works by collecting an additional infrared channel from the scan at the same position and resolution as the three visible color channels (red, green, and blue). The infrared channel, in combination with the other channels, is used to detect the location of scratches and dust. Once located, those defects can be corrected by scaling or replaced by inpainting.

Question: What is the name of the technique used in scanners to minimize the effects of dust and scratches?
Answer: Infrared cleaning

Question: Along with red and blue, what is the third visible color channel?
Answer: green

Question: Along with replacement via inpainting, what procedure is used in infrared cleaning to remove the effect of scratches and dust?
Answer: scaling

Question: Along with the visible light channels, what channel is used to locate scratches and dust in scanners?
Answer: infrared
Title: Infrared

Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation from the sun and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to atmosphere. Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and water vapor, but also carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons, absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the greenhouse effect keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

Question: Along with the surface of the Earth, what objects absorb radiation from the sun?
Answer: clouds

Question: After Earth surface's absorbs radiation, in what spectrum is much of it re-emitted?
Answer: infrared

Question: Along with water vapor, what atmospheric substance primarily absorbs the infrared emitted by the Earth?
Answer: cloud droplets

Question: What notable warming effect does the presence of infrared absorbers contribute to?
Answer: greenhouse
Title: Biodiversity

Biodiversity, a contraction of "biological diversity," generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species, between species, and between ecosystems. It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is richest in the tropics. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future.

Question: What term refers to  the variety and variability of life on Earth?
Answer: Biodiversity

Question: What types of variations does Biodiversity refer to?
Answer: genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation

Question: What type of biodiversity happens near the equator?
Answer: Terrestrial biodiversity

Question: Where on Earth is biodiversity the most abundnant?
Answer: It is richest in the tropics.

Question: Where is sea surface temperature the highest?
Answer: along coasts in the Western Pacific
Title: Biodiversity

This multilevel construct is consistent with Dasmann and Lovejoy. An explicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the 1982 World National Parks Conference. Wilcox's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and ecosystem)...". The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". This definition is used in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.

Question: Who is the author of the biodiversity research paper?
Answer: Bruce A. Wilcox

Question: Who commissioned the biodiversity research paper?
Answer: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

Question: At what event was the biodiversity research paper presented?
Answer: 1982 World National Parks Conference

Question: What year did the United Nations Earth Summit define "biological diversity"?
Answer: 1992
Title: Biodiversity

On the other hand, changes through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used in population biology, demography and macrosociology, as well as fossil biodiversity) than with exponential and logistic models. The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth arises from a second-order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth. The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity. The similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend with cyclical and stochastic dynamics.

Question: What model correlates much better than the hyperbolic model?
Answer: the Phanerozoic

Question: What model is widely used in macrosociology?
Answer: hyperbolic model

Question: What models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback?
Answer: exponential and logistic models

Question: What model implies a second-order positive feedback?
Answer: Hyperbolic model

Question: What can be accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity?
Answer: The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth
Title: Biodiversity

Interspecific crop diversity is, in part, responsible for offering variety in what we eat. Intraspecific diversity, the variety of alleles within a single species, also offers us choice in our diets. If a crop fails in a monoculture, we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with something new. If a wheat crop is destroyed by a pest we may plant a hardier variety of wheat the next year, relying on intraspecific diversity. We may forgo wheat production in that area and plant a different species altogether, relying on interspecific diversity. Even an agricultural society which primarily grows monocultures, relies on biodiversity at some point.

Question: What has some responsibility for offering variety in what we eat?
Answer: Interspecific crop diversity

Question: What is the variety of alleles within a single species?
Answer: Interspecific crop diversity

Question: When do we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with something new?
Answer: If a crop fails in a monoculture

Question: What can destroy a wheat crop?
Answer: a pest

Question: What type of a society primarily grows monocultures?
Answer: agricultural society
Title: Biodiversity

In absolute terms, the planet has lost 52% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund. The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago". Of that number, 39% accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39% for the marine wildlife gone, and 76% for the freshwater wildlife gone. Biodiversity took the biggest hit in Latin America, plummeting 83 percent. High-income countries showed a 10% increase in biodiversity, which was canceled out by a loss in low-income countries. This is despite the fact that high-income countries use five times the ecological resources of low-income countries, which was explained as a result of process whereby wealthy nations are outsourcing resource depletion to poorer nations, which are suffering the greatest ecosystem losses.

Question: What percentage of biodiversity has the planet lost since 1970
Answer: 52%

Question: What year was they study done by the World Wildlife Fund?
Answer: 2014

Question: What percentage accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone?
Answer: 39%

Question: What percentage accounts for the marine wildlife gone?
Answer: 39%

Question: What percentage accounts for the freshwater wildlife gone?
Answer: 76%
Title: Biodiversity

A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependent—that diversity among species requires diversity within a species, and vice versa. "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down, and the community becomes dominated by a single species." At present, the most threatened ecosystems are found in fresh water, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, which was confirmed by the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment", organised by the biodiversity platform, and the French Institut de recherche pour le développement (MNHNP).

Question: In which year was the study published that found biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependent?
Answer: 2007

Question: Who conducted the 2007 study?
Answer: National Science Foundation

Question: What can cause a break down of a biodiversity system?
Answer: If any one type is removed from the system

Question: Where are the most threatened ecosystems found?
Answer: in fresh water
Title: Biodiversity

Finally, an introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces. In Belgium, Prunus spinosa from Eastern Europe leafs much sooner than its West European counterparts, disrupting the feeding habits of the Thecla betulae butterfly (which feeds on the leaves). Introducing new species often leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive. The exotic organisms may be predators, parasites, or may simply outcompete indigenous species for nutrients, water and light.

Question: What may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces?
Answer: an introduced species

Question: Where does the Prunus spinosa leaf much sooner?
Answer: In Belgium

Question: What animal can its feeding habits disturbed by the Prunus spinosa?
Answer: leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive

Question: What species struggle to with the introduction of new species?
Answer: endemic and other local species

Question: What types of new species can be introduced?
Answer: The exotic organisms may be predators, parasites
Title: Biodiversity

The forests play a vital role in harbouring more than 45,000 floral and 81,000 faunal species of which 5150 floral and 1837 faunal species are endemic. Plant and animal species confined to a specific geographical area are called endemic species. In reserved forests, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products. The unclassed forests covers 6.4 percent of the total forest area and they are marked by the following characteristics:

Question: What plays a vital role in harbouring floral and faunal species?
Answer: The forests

Question: How many endemic floral species do forests harbor?
Answer: 5150

Question: How many endemic faunal species do forests harbor?
Answer: 1837

Question: What types of animals and plans are confined to a specific geographical area?
Answer: endemic species

Question: What types of activities are granted rights in reserved forests?
Answer: hunting and grazing
Title: Biodiversity

Global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, give "sovereign national rights over biological resources" (not property). The agreements commit countries to "conserve biodiversity", "develop resources for sustainability" and "share the benefits" resulting from their use. Biodiverse countries that allow bioprospecting or collection of natural products, expect a share of the benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution that discovers/exploits the resource to capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when such principles are not respected.[citation needed]

Question: What global agreement gives sovereign national rights over biological resources?
Answer: the Convention on Biological Diversity

Question: What agreement commits countries to conserve biodiversity?
Answer: the Convention on Biological Diversity

Question: What agreement commits countries to develop resources for sustainability?
Answer: the Convention on Biological Diversity

Question: What is the process of collecting natural products?
Answer: bioprospecting
Title: Biodiversity

Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).

Question: What can typically cause mass extinctions?
Answer: Rapid environmental changes

Question: What percentage of species is estimated to be extinct?
Answer: More than 99 percent

Question: How many species have ever lived on earth?
Answer: over five billion species

Question: How many species currently live on earth?
Answer: Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million,

Question: What is the estimated weight of the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth?
Answer: 50 billion tonnes
Title: Biodiversity

The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the Cambrian explosion—a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend, and vertebrate diversity shows an overall exponential trend. This dramatic rise in diversity was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as mass extinction events. A significant loss occurred when rainforests collapsed in the carboniferous. The worst was the Permian-Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago. Vertebrates took 30 million years to recover from this event.

Question: Which era included a rapid growth period?
Answer: the Cambrian explosion

Question: The Phanerozoic era covers what time period?
Answer: the last 540 million years

Question: In which era, did the first phylum of multicellular organisms appear?
Answer: the Cambrian explosion

Question: What type of diversity showed an overall exponential trend?
Answer: vertebrate diversity

Question: In which event did the rainforests collapsed in the carboniferous?
Answer: the Permian-Triassic extinction event
Title: Biodiversity

Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extinctions. Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population, and Over-harvesting. The most authoritative classification in use today is IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats which has been adopted by major international conservation organizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International, and BirdLife International.

Question: Who describes the "Evil Quartet"?
Answer: Jared Diamond

Question: What describes habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extinctions?
Answer: Evil Quartet

Question: What describes Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population, and Over-harvesting?
Answer: HIPPO

Question: What is the most authoritative classification in use today?
Answer: IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats

Question: What funding organization uses the IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats?
Answer: the World Wildlife Fund