rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

In 1929, Lionel Robbins assumed the helm of the London School of Economics (LSE). Eager to promote alternatives to what he regarded as the narrow approach of the school of economic thought that then dominated the English-speaking academic world (centred at the University of Cambridge and deriving largely from the work of Alfred Marshall), Robbins invited Hayek to join the faculty at LSE, which he did in 1931. According to Nicholas Kaldor, Hayek's theory of the time-structure of capital and of the business cycle initially "fascinated the academic world" and appeared to offer a less "facile and superficial" understanding of macroeconomics than the Cambridge school's.

Question: Lionel Robbins came to head which school in 1929?
Answer: London School of Economics

Question: In regards to economics, Lionel Robbins believe English-speaking academics had what?
Answer: narrow approach

Question: Which man's works were mostly the cause of the ''narrow approach''?
Answer: Alfred Marshall

Question: Who was responsible for bringing on Hayek at the LSE?
Answer: Lionel Robbins

Question: What did Nicholas Kaldor say Hayek brought to macroeconomics?
Answer: less "facile and superficial" understanding
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Also in 1931, Hayek critiqued Keynes's Treatise on Money (1930) in his "Reflections on the pure theory of Mr. J. M. Keynes" and published his lectures at the LSE in book form as Prices and Production. Unemployment and idle resources are, for Keynes, caused by a lack of effective demand; for Hayek, they stem from a previous, unsustainable episode of easy money and artificially low interest rates. Keynes asked his friend Piero Sraffa to respond. Sraffa elaborated on the effect of inflation-induced "forced savings" on the capital sector and about the definition of a "natural" interest rate in a growing economy. Others who responded negatively to Hayek's work on the business cycle included John Hicks, Frank Knight, and Gunnar Myrdal. Kaldor later wrote that Hayek's Prices and Production had produced "a remarkable crop of critics" and that the total number of pages in British and American journals dedicated to the resulting debate "could rarely have been equalled in the economic controversies of the past."

Question: Hayek's critical analysis of Keyne's work was published under what title?
Answer: Prices and Production

Question: Apart from easy money, what did Hayek believe unemployment was caused by?
Answer: artificially low interest rates

Question: Who did Keynes turn to for assistance in arguing his point to Hayek?
Answer: Piero Sraffa

Question: According to Nicholas Kaldor, what had Hayek's book created?
Answer: "a remarkable crop of critics"
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek continued his research on monetary and capital theory, revising his theories of the relations between credit cycles and capital structure in Profits, Interest and Investment (1939) and The Pure Theory of Capital (1941), but his reputation as an economic theorist had by then fallen so much that those works were largely ignored, except for scathing critiques by Nicholas Kaldor. Lionel Robbins himself, who had embraced the Austrian theory of the business cycle in The Great Depression (1934), later regretted having written the book and accepted many of the Keynesian counter-arguments.

Question: What was the result of Hayek's Prices and Production?
Answer: works were largely ignored

Question: Who was particularly critical of Hayek's work following Prices and Production?
Answer: Nicholas Kaldor

Question: What is the name of the first book Hayek released to revise his stances from Prices and Production?
Answer: Profits, Interest and Investment

Question: Lionel Robbins' The Great Depression was a result of his support for what?
Answer: the Austrian theory of the business cycle

Question: Who did Keynes' arguments against the Austrian theory of the business cycle eventually influence?
Answer: Lionel Robbins
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek never produced the book-length treatment of "the dynamics of capital" that he had promised in the Pure Theory of Capital. After 1941, he continued to publish works on the economics of information, political philosophy, the theory of law, and psychology, but seldom on macroeconomics. At the University of Chicago, Hayek was not part of the economics department and did not influence the rebirth of neoclassical theory which took place there (see Chicago school of economics). When, in 1974, he shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Gunnar Myrdal, the latter complained about being paired with an "ideologue". Milton Friedman declared himself "an enormous admirer of Hayek, but not for his economics. I think Prices and Production is a very flawed book. I think his [Pure Theory of Capital] is unreadable. On the other hand, The Road to Serfdom is one of the great books of our time."

Question: What topic did Hayek never write a book about as he said he would?
Answer: the dynamics of capital

Question: What topic did Hayek shy away from following Pure Theory of Capital?
Answer: macroeconomics

Question: What did Gunnar Myrdal call Hayek?
Answer: an "ideologue"

Question: Which of Hayeks books did Milton Friedman praise most?
Answer: The Road to Serfdom

Question: Which whom did Hayek share a Nobel prize?
Answer: Gunnar Myrdal
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Building on the earlier work of Ludwig von Mises and others, Hayek also argued that while in centrally planned economies an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably. This argument, first proposed by Max Weber, says that the efficient exchange and use of resources can be maintained only through the price mechanism in free markets (see economic calculation problem).

Question: What did Hayek claim those who must distribute resources would lack most?
Answer: enough information

Question: Whose work most notably influenced Hayek's argument regarding resource distribution?
Answer: Max Weber

Question: What is the one way Hayek argued that resource distribution could succeed?
Answer: through the price mechanism in free markets

Question: Other than Max Weber, who was a notable influence to Hayek's statements regarding resource distribution?
Answer: Ludwig von Mises
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Some socialists such as H. D. Dickinson and Oskar Lange, responded by invoking general equilibrium theory, which they argued disproved Mises's thesis. They noted that the difference between a planned and a free market system lay in who was responsible for solving the equations. They argued, if some of the prices chosen by socialist managers were wrong, gluts or shortages would appear, signalling them to adjust the prices up or down, just as in a free market. Through such a trial and error, a socialist economy could mimic the efficiency of a free market system, while avoiding its many problems.

Question: What did some socialists bring up as a rebuttal to Hayek's resource distribution argument?
Answer: general equilibrium theory

Question: What did socialists believe equilibrium theory invalidated?
Answer: Mises's thesis

Question: According to those who argued against Hayek, what sets planned and free markets apart is what?
Answer: who was responsible for solving the equations

Question: What type of economic system did the socialists want to avoid?
Answer: free market
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

In The Use of Knowledge in Society (1945), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronise local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse, complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous self-organization. He contrasted the use of the price mechanism with central planning, arguing that the former allows for more rapid adaptation to changes in particular circumstances of time and place. Thus, he set the stage for Oliver Williamson's later contrast between markets and hierarchies as alternative co-ordination mechanisms for economic transactions. He used the term catallaxy to describe a "self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation". Hayek's research into this argument was specifically cited by the Nobel Committee in its press release awarding Hayek the Nobel prize.

Question: Which of Hayek's books argued against the socialist price mechanism?
Answer: The Use of Knowledge in Society

Question: Which type of economy did Hayek believe the price mechanism to be less effective with?
Answer: central planning

Question: The arguments presented in The Use of Knowledge in Society created an starting point for who?
Answer: Oliver Williamson

Question: The arguments presented in Hayek's 1945 book were a large reason for being granted what award?
Answer: the Nobel prize
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek argued that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary co-operation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. In his popular book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent academic works, Hayek argued that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn leads towards totalitarianism.

Question: What was the name of the ideology Hayek criticized?
Answer: collectivism

Question: How did Hayek believe collectivism could be maintained?
Answer: a central authority

Question: According to Hayek, what is necessary for the implementation of a socialist economy?
Answer: central economic planning

Question: Hayek believed the requirements for a socialist economy would lead to what?
Answer: totalitarianism

Question: What did Hayek believe was the core responsibility of the state?
Answer: maintain the rule of law
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek also wrote that the state can play a role in the economy, and specifically, in creating a "safety net". He wrote, "There is no reason why, in a society which has reached the general level of wealth ours has, the first kind of security should not be guaranteed to all without endangering general freedom; that is: some minimum of food, shelter and clothing, sufficient to preserve health. Nor is there any reason why the state should not help to organize a comprehensive system of social insurance in providing for those common hazards of life against which few can make adequate provision."

Question: Hayek believed the state could aid the economy by doing what?
Answer: creating a "safety net"

Question: Who did Hayek say economic security should be guaranteed to?
Answer: all

Question: According to Hayek, clothing, food and shelter should be provided to what extent?
Answer: sufficient to preserve health

Question: What sort of system did Hayek propose the government create?
Answer: social insurance
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek's work on the microeconomics of the choice theoretics of investment, non-permanent goods, potential permanent resources, and economically-adapted permanent resources mark a central dividing point between his work in areas of macroeconomics and that of almost all other economists. Hayek's work on the macroeconomic subjects of central planning, trade cycle theory, the division of knowledge, and entrepreneurial adaptation especially, differ greatly from the opinions of macroeconomic "Marshallian" economists in the tradition of John Maynard Keynes and the microeconomic "Walrasian" economists in the tradition of Abba Lerner.

Question: In what economic field of study does Hayek's views differ from those in macroeconomics?
Answer: microeconomics

Question: What is the term used to describe economists following Keynes school of thought?
Answer: "Marshallian"

Question: Whose works inspire the term "Walrasian" in economics?
Answer: Abba Lerner
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

During World War II, Hayek began the ‘Abuse of Reason’ project. His goal was to show how a number of then-popular doctrines and beliefs had a common origin in some fundamental misconceptions about the social science. In his philosophy of science, which has much in common with that of his good friend Karl Popper, Hayek was highly critical of what he termed scientism: a false understanding of the methods of science that has been mistakenly forced upon the social sciences, but that is contrary to the practices of genuine science. Usually, scientism involves combining the philosophers' ancient demand for demonstrative justification with the associationists' false view that all scientific explanations are simple two-variable linear relationships.

Question: When did Hayek start working on Abuse of Reason?
Answer: During World War II

Question: What did Hayek specifically aim to expose in Abuse of Reason?
Answer: fundamental misconceptions about the social science

Question: Whose beliefs in scientific philosophy were similar to Hayek's?
Answer: Karl Popper

Question: What did Hayek use to refer to the spread of ignorance and misunderstanding within the social sciences?
Answer: scientism

Question: In scientism, it is typically believed that explanations in science are what?
Answer: simple two-variable linear relationships
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

In The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology (1952), Hayek independently developed a "Hebbian learning" model of learning and memory – an idea which he first conceived in 1920, prior to his study of economics. Hayek's expansion of the "Hebbian synapse" construction into a global brain theory has received continued attention in neuroscience, cognitive science, computer science, behavioural science, and evolutionary psychology, by scientists such as Gerald Edelman, and Joaquin Fuster.

Question: In what year was the book published in which Hayek developed Hebbian learning?
Answer: 1952

Question: Before he began studying economics, what concept did Hayek come up with that was later featured in his 1952 book?
Answer: Hebbian learning

Question: What did Hayek present in his 1952 book that affected multiple areas of science?
Answer: "Hebbian synapse"

Question: What is the name of the book in which Hayek presented the Hebbian Synapse?
Answer: The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

In the latter half of his career Hayek made a number of contributions to social and political philosophy, which he based on his views on the limits of human knowledge, and the idea of spontaneous order in social institutions. He argues in favour of a society organised around a market order, in which the apparatus of state is employed almost (though not entirely) exclusively to enforce the legal order (consisting of abstract rules, and not particular commands) necessary for a market of free individuals to function. These ideas were informed by a moral philosophy derived from epistemological concerns regarding the inherent limits of human knowledge. Hayek argued that his ideal individualistic, free-market polity would be self-regulating to such a degree that it would be 'a society which does not depend for its functioning on our finding good men for running it'.

Question: When did Hayek begin presenting his ideas on the limits of human knowledge?
Answer: the latter half of his career

Question: What did Hayek want society to function around?
Answer: a market order

Question: What is the responsibility of government in Hayek's market order?
Answer: to enforce the legal order

Question: What would be the cause of the success for the Hayek's ideal free-market?
Answer: would be self-regulating

Question: What would Hayek's free-market not require in order to function properly?
Answer: good men
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek disapproved of the notion of 'social justice'. He compared the market to a game in which 'there is no point in calling the outcome just or unjust' and argued that 'social justice is an empty phrase with no determinable content'; likewise "the results of the individual's efforts are necessarily unpredictable, and the question as to whether the resulting distribution of incomes is just has no meaning". He generally regarded government redistribution of income or capital as an unacceptable intrusion upon individual freedom: "the principle of distributive justice, once introduced, would not be fulfilled until the whole of society was organized in accordance with it. This would produce a kind of society which in all essential respects would be the opposite of a free society."

Question: What concept did Hayek dislike?
Answer: social justice

Question: How did Hayek feel regarding income distribution?
Answer: there is no point in calling the outcome just or unjust

Question: What reason does Hayek provide for differences in income distribution not being a matter of just or unjust?
Answer: the results of the individual's efforts are necessarily unpredictable

Question: According to Hayek, a society in which income is redistributed is what?
Answer: the opposite of a free society
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek’s concept of the market as a spontaneous order has been recently applied to ecosystems to defend a broadly non-interventionist policy. Like the market, ecosystems contain complex networks of information, involve an ongoing dynamic process, contain orders within orders, and the entire system operates without being directed by a conscious mind. On this analysis, species takes the place of price as a visible element of the system formed by a complex set of largely unknowable elements. Human ignorance about the countless interactions between the organisms of an ecosystem limits our ability to manipulate nature. Since humans rely on the ecosystem to sustain themselves, we have a prima facie obligation to not disrupt such systems. This analysis of ecosystems as spontaneous orders does not rely on markets qualifying as spontaneous orders. As such, one need not endorse Hayek’s analysis of markets to endorse ecosystems as spontaneous orders.

Question: What has Hayek's views on the market been used to defend?
Answer: non-interventionist policy

Question: What is the term used to describe the obligation for humans to avoid disrupting the ecosystem?
Answer: prima facie

Question: What are ecosystems views to be?
Answer: spontaneous orders

Question: One might still support spontaneous orders without agreeing with which of Hayek's assessments?
Answer: analysis of markets

Question: What is limited by the ignorance of humanity?
Answer: our ability to manipulate nature
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

With regard to a safety net, Hayek advocated "some provision for those threatened by the extremes of indigence or starvation, be if only in the interest of those who require protection against acts of desperation on the part of the needy." As referenced in the section on "The economic calculation problem," Hayek wrote that "there is no reason why... the state should not help to organize a comprehensive system of social insurance." Summarizing on this topic, Wapshott writes "[Hayek] advocated mandatory universal health care and unemployment insurance, enforced, if not directly provided, by the state." Bernard Harcourt says that "Hayek was adamant about this." In the 1973 Law, Legislation, and Liberty, Hayek wrote:

Question: According to Wapshott, who was promoting the implementation of universal health care?
Answer: Hayek

Question: Who did Hayek say should provide a safety net for society?
Answer: the state

Question: In which of Hayek's works did he make his statements regarding social insurance?
Answer: The economic calculation problem

Question: Who made the claim that Hayek was particularly determined regarding his beliefs on social insurance and a safety net?
Answer: Bernard Harcourt
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Arthur M. Diamond argues Hayek's problems arise when he goes beyond claims that can be evaluated within economic science. Diamond argued that: “The human mind, Hayek says, is not just limited in its ability to synthesize a vast array of concrete facts, it is also limited in its ability to give a deductively sound ground to ethics. Here is where the tension develops, for he also wants to give a reasoned moral defense of the free market. He is an intellectual skeptic who wants to give political philosophy a secure intellectual foundation. It is thus not too surprising that what results is confused and contradictory.”

Question: Who criticizes Hayek's ability to provide specific facts?
Answer: Arthur M. Diamond

Question: Diamond believes Hayek's weaknesses come out when he steps beyond the bounds of what topic?
Answer: economic science

Question: What term does Diamond use to refer to Hayek?
Answer: intellectual skeptic

Question: Diamond states that the final result of Hayek's statements are what?
Answer: confused and contradictory
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

Asked about the liberal, non-democratic rule by a Chilean interviewer, Hayek is translated from German to Spanish to English as having said, "As long term institutions, I am totally against dictatorships. But a dictatorship may be a necessary system for a transitional period. [...] Personally I prefer a liberal dictatorship to democratic government devoid of liberalism. My personal impression – and this is valid for South America – is that in Chile, for example, we will witness a transition from a dictatorial government to a liberal government." In a letter to the London Times, he defended the Pinochet regime and said that he had "not been able to find a single person even in much maligned Chile who did not agree that personal freedom was much greater under Pinochet than it had been under Allende." Hayek admitted that "it is not very likely that this will succeed, even if, at a particular point in time, it may be the only hope there is.", he explained, however, "It is not certain hope, because it will always depend on the goodwill of an individual, and there are very few individuals one can trust. But if it is the sole opportunity which exists at a particular moment it may be the best solution despite this. And only if and when the dictatorial government is visibly directing its steps towards limited democracy".

Question: At what point did Hayek claim dictatorships may be necessary?
Answer: a transitional period

Question: What did Hayek claim to prefer over a democratic government in the absence of liberal ideals?
Answer: a liberal dictatorship

Question: What did Hayek believe the Chilean government would become in the future?
Answer: a liberal government

Question: As claimed by Hayek, Chilean citizens had more freedom under which ruler?
Answer: Pinochet
Title: Friedrich_Hayek

For Hayek, the supposedly stark difference between authoritarianism and totalitarianism has much importance and Hayek places heavy weight on this distinction in his defence of transitional dictatorship. For example, when Hayek visited Venezuela in May 1981, he was asked to comment on the prevalence of totalitarian regimes in Latin America. In reply, Hayek warned against confusing "totalitarianism with authoritarianism," and said that he was unaware of "any totalitarian governments in Latin America. The only one was Chile under Allende". For Hayek, however, the word 'totalitarian' signifies something very specific: the want to “organize the whole of society” to attain a “definite social goal” —which is stark in contrast to “liberalism and individualism”.

Question: Hayek believed that authoritarianism was very different from what?
Answer: totalitarianism

Question: What country did Hayek arrive in where he provided his disctinction between totalitarianism and authoritarianism?
Answer: Venezuela

Question: What did Hayek believe to be absent from Latin America?
Answer: totalitarian governments

Question: What is Hayek's definition of totalitarian?
Answer: the want to “organize the whole of society” to attain a “definite social goal”