rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Emotion

An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state. Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions: e.g. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared." The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).

Question: In this theory, what action evokes an emotion?
Answer: stimulus

Question: What sort of response does the stimulus cause?
Answer: physiological

Question: How is the stimulus interpreted by the mind?
Answer: as a particular emotion

Question: In the James-Lange theory, what causes emotions?
Answer: bodily states
Title: Emotion

With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur. One of the main proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.

Question: Who argued that emotions arise from cognitive intentionality?
Answer: Richard Lazarus

Question: Along with evaluations and thoughts, what cognitive activity did theorists believe to be required for emotion?
Answer: judgments

Question: In Lazarus' view, what could the cognitive activity be if it was not conscious?
Answer: unconscious
Title: Emotion

Theories dealing with perception either use one or multiples perceptions in order to find an emotion (Goldie, 2007).A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions, and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings.

Question: What book by Prinz defended the perceptual theory?
Answer: Gut Reactions

Question: What book on the perceptual theory was written by James Laird?
Answer: Feelings

Question: What is Laird's job title?
Answer: psychologist

Question: What is Jesse Prinz's profession?
Answer: philosopher

Question: What theory argues that conceptual cognition is not required for emotional meaning?
Answer: the perceptual theory
Title: Emotion

Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities. Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities. In the field of communication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet, an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe.

Question: What discipline examines the role emotions play in culture?
Answer: sociology

Question: What discipline makes use of ethnography?
Answer: anthropology

Question: What field of study studies the organizational role of emotions?
Answer: communication sciences

Question: Who developed the concept of emotional labor?
Answer: Arlie Russell Hochschild

Question: Roughly how many people are part of EmoNet?
Answer: 700
Title: Emotion

A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (e.g., anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (e.g., increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (e.g., smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational cues. One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009). Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions. When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self, other and situation are met or not met. People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals. Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences. These more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in Turner's theory and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe. Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant.

Question: Along with anger, pride and happiness, what is an example of an emotional label?
Answer: fear

Question: Aside from increased perspiration, what is a physiological change related to emotions?
Answer: changes in pulse rate

Question: Along with smiling and frowning, what is an example of a facial or body movement caused by emotion?
Answer: baring teeth

Question: Who developed a comprehensive theory related to human emotional arousal?
Answer: Jonathan Turner

Question: How many emotional categories did Turner recognize as being founded on human neurology?
Answer: four
Title: Emotion

In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange (1834–1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.

Question: Along with William James, who was an influential 19th century theorist?
Answer: Carl Lange

Question: What was William James' nationality?
Answer: American

Question: What was the nationality of Carl Lange?
Answer: Danish

Question: What was the name of the theory that Lange and James developed independently?
Answer: the James–Lange theory

Question: In what year did Lange die?
Answer: 1900
Title: Emotion

Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history, sociology, and even computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain. It also is influenced by hormones and neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin, cortisol and GABA.

Question: Along with psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history and sociology, what field has engaged in research on emotion?
Answer: computer science

Question: Along with dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, cortisol and oxytocin, what neurotransmitter or hormone influences emotion?
Answer: GABA

Question: Along with the experience, function and origin of emotion, what aspect of emotion does current research attempt to explain?
Answer: neurobiology
Title: Emotion

A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. For example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.

Question: What are emotional episodes defined in contrast to?
Answer: emotional dispositions

Question: What other traits are emotional dispositions similar to?
Answer: character traits

Question: What category is defined to contain pleasure, pain, motivation, moods and dispositions?
Answer: affective states
Title: Emotion

The idea that core affect is but one component of the emotion led to a theory called “psychological construction.” According to this theory, an emotional episode consists of a set of components, each of which is an ongoing process and none of which is necessary or sufficient for the emotion to be instantiated. The set of components is not fixed, either by human evolutionary history or by social norms and roles. Instead, the emotional episode is assembled at the moment of its occurrence to suit its specific circumstances. One implication is that all cases of, for example, fear are not identical but instead bear a family resemblance to one another.

Question: What theory sees an emotional episode as consisting of components?
Answer: psychological construction

Question: At what point does psychological construction theory believe the components of an emotion are put together?
Answer: at the moment of its occurrence

Question: What is an example of an emotion that, under psychological construction theory, is not the same from one case to another?
Answer: fear
Title: Emotion

Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences. He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion. He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses. An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion.

Question: Who argued that physiological responses were insufficient to explain emotional experiences?
Answer: Walter Bradford Cannon

Question: Along with the physiological response, what did Cannon believe was triggered by an emotional event?
Answer: a conscious experience of an emotion

Question: Why did Cannon believe that physiological responses were insufficient cause for emotions?
Answer: too slow and often imperceptible
Title: Emotion

A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino , emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology. This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals.

Question: Who developed a situated perspective on emotion along with Andrea Scarantino?
Answer: Paul E. Griffiths

Question: What factors did the situated perspective believe to be most important?
Answer: external

Question: The situated perspective was influenced by what school of thought?
Answer: situationism

Question: Along with infant and animal emotion, what did Scarantino and Griffiths believe the situated perspective could help to explain?
Answer: phobias
Title: Emotion

Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.

Question: When did Broca publish his pioneering work?
Answer: 1878

Question: Who published a work in 1937 on the relationship between emotion and the limbic system?
Answer: Papez

Question: Along with the cingulate cortex and hippocampi, what structure is a notable part of the limbic system?
Answer: hypothalamus
Title: Emotion

In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also Music and emotion). In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

Question: Along with the philosophies of music and art, what field of philosophy studies emotions?
Answer: ethics

Question: Along with drama and melodrama, in what filmmaking genre does emotion play an important role?
Answer: romance

Question: Of what discipline is ethology a branch?
Answer: zoology

Question: Along with laboratory work, what does an ethologist engage in?
Answer: field science

Question: Along with evolution, what area of study is ethology tied to?
Answer: ecology
Title: Emotion

Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. Emilé Durkheim (1915/1965) wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian aborigine society. He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped. These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects.

Question: Who discussed the idea of a collective effervescence?
Answer: Emilé Durkheim

Question: What society was studied to describe the notion of collective effervescence?
Answer: Australian aborigine society

Question: Durkheim saw collective effervescence in what Australian aboriginal activity?
Answer: totemic rituals

Question: What is another term for collective effervescence?
Answer: emotional energy
Title: Emotion

Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003); Peter Goldie (1946–2011), a British philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; Nico Frijda (1927–2015), a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book The Emotions (1986).

Question: What theory was developed by Arnold?
Answer: the appraisal theory of emotions

Question: When did Richard Lazarus die?
Answer: 2002

Question: Who wrote 'What Is An Emotion?'?
Answer: Robert C. Solomon

Question: Who published What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings?
Answer: Oxford

Question: What is Nico Frijda's nationality?
Answer: Dutch
Title: Emotion

The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion to replace passion. According to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language. The modern word emotion is heterogeneous In some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. On the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression). One line of research thus looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse. Another line of research asks about languages other than English, and one interesting finding is that many languages have a similar but not identical term

Question: When did the word emotion enter the English language?
Answer: 1579

Question: From what French word is emotion derived?
Answer: émouvoir

Question: What does émouvoir mean in English?
Answer: to stir up

Question: Prior to the introduction of the word emotion, what word was used in its place?
Answer: passion

Question: Along with anxiety, what is an example of directionless emotion?
Answer: depression
Title: Emotion

Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.

Question: What is the thalamus a part of?
Answer: the diencephalon

Question: Who argued that an emotional stimulus triggered experiential and physiological responses to emotions at the same time?
Answer: Cannon

Question: What creatures did Bard experiment on?
Answer: animals

Question: Along with sensory and motor information, what information had to pass through the diencephalon before being processed?
Answer: physiological
Title: Emotion

There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view which response to what he has called the ‘standard objection’ to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion. The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example.

Question: Who wrote The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life?
Answer: Robert C. Solomon

Question: In what year was The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life published?
Answer: 1993

Question: What does Solomon believe emotions to be?
Answer: judgments

Question: Whose theory discussed action tendencies?
Answer: Nico Frijda

Question: The idea that judgment can't be identified with emotion is an objection to what school of thought?
Answer: cognitivism