rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Supreme_court

In South Africa, a "two apex" system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.

Question: South Africa used what type of system to determine it's high courts until 2013?
Answer: "two apex"

Question: When was the Supreme Court of Appeal created?
Answer: 1994

Question: What court in South Africa has authority over the SCA?
Answer: the Constitutional Court

Question: When did the Constitutional Court become the highest court in South Africa in all matters?
Answer: August 2013
Title: Supreme_court

In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. In the People's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese-based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.

Question: What nation's model gives the power of the high court to the legistlature?
Answer: Soviet Union

Question: What is the name of China's high court which sits as a legislative committee?
Answer: Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC)

Question: Current decisions by the NPCSC do not affect what?
Answer: cases which have already been decided

Question: Hong Kong's legal system was traditionally based on what?
Answer: common law

Question: Macau's legal system comes from what tradition?
Answer: Portuguese-based legal system
Title: Textual_criticism

Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants in either manuscripts or printed books. Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand. Given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic might seek to reconstruct the original text (the archetype or autograph) as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate versions, or recensions, of a document's transcription history. The ultimate objective of the textual critic's work is the production of a "critical edition" containing a scholarly curated text.

Question: What type of documents does a textual critic usually analyze?
Answer: a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document

Question: What is the goal of the textual critic?
Answer: the production of a "critical edition" containing a scholarly curated text.

Question: What is the proper name for textual scholarship?
Answer: philology

Question: Why are there differences in ancient copies of the same text?
Answer: Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand

Question: What do textual critics call a revised edition of a text?
Answer: recensions
Title: Textual_criticism

Many ancient works, such as the Bible and the Greek tragedies,[citation needed] survive in hundreds of copies, and the relationship of each copy to the original may be unclear. Textual scholars have debated for centuries which sources are most closely derived from the original, hence which readings in those sources are correct.[citation needed] Although biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original, the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed. Interest in applying textual criticism to the Qur'an has also developed after the discovery of the Sana'a manuscripts in 1972, which possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries.

Question: Interest in an analysis of what text has arose in the early 1970's?
Answer: Qur'an

Question: Why are scholars concerned with analysis of the Gospels over the letters?
Answer: biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original

Question: Why is it important for textual critics to analyze the Gospels?
Answer: the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed

Question: What manuscripts prompted a textual analysis of the Qur'an
Answer: Sana'a manuscripts

Question: When were the Sana'a manuscripts probably written?
Answer: possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries.
Title: Textual_criticism

In the English language, the works of Shakespeare have been a particularly fertile ground for textual criticism—both because the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation, and because the effort and expense of producing superior editions of his works have always been widely viewed as worthwhile. The principles of textual criticism, although originally developed and refined for works of antiquity, the Bible, and Shakespeare, have been applied to many works, extending backwards from the present to the earliest known written documents, in Mesopotamia and Egypt—a period of about five millennia. However, the application of textual criticism to non-religious works does not antedate the invention of printing. While Christianity has been relatively receptive to textual criticism, application of it to the Jewish (Masoretic) Torah and the Qur'an is, to the devout, taboo.[citation needed]

Question: What is one reasons Shakespeare is a good place to focus on textual criticism?
Answer: the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation,

Question: Name two of the oldest civilizations that textual criticism has focused on.
Answer: Mesopotamia and Egypt

Question: Why is there opposition to textual criticism of Jewish and Muslim religious books?
Answer: is, to the devout, taboo.

Question: Aside from Shakespeare, what is another book that is a major focus of textual criticism?
Answer: Bible

Question: Over approximately what expanse of time can textual criticism be applied to written works?
Answer: a period of about five millennia
Title: Textual_criticism

Maas comments further that "A dictation revised by the author must be regarded as equivalent to an autograph manuscript". The lack of autograph manuscripts applies to many cultures other than Greek and Roman. In such a situation, a key objective becomes the identification of the first exemplar before any split in the tradition. That exemplar is known as the archetype. "If we succeed in establishing the text of [the archetype], the constitutio (reconstruction of the original) is considerably advanced.

Question: What is the first goal when attempting to analyze a new text?
Answer: identification of the first exemplar

Question: Why is finding the first exemplar important in textual criticism?
Answer: split in the tradition

Question: The exemplar is otherwise known as what?
Answer: the archetype

Question: The final product of reconstruction is known as what?
Answer: the constitutio
Title: Textual_criticism

The textual critic's ultimate objective is the production of a "critical edition".[citation needed] This contains the text that the author has determined most closely approximates the original, and is accompanied by an apparatus criticus or critical apparatus. The critical apparatus presents the author's work in three parts: first, a list or description of the evidence that the editor used (names of manuscripts, or abbreviations called sigla); second, the editor's analysis of that evidence (sometimes a simple likelihood rating),[citation needed]; and third, a record of rejected variants of the text (often in order of preference).[citation needed]

Question: What is included in or accompanies in "critical edition"?
Answer: apparatus criticus or critical apparatus

Question: What is the purpose of the critical apparatus?
Answer: presents the author's work in three parts

Question: What is the goal of the textual critic?
Answer: a "critical edition"

Question: A critical edition of a text is accompanied by what?
Answer: apparatus criticus or critical apparatus.

Question: What is included in the first part of the critical apparatus?
Answer: a list or description of the evidence that the editor used (names of manuscripts, or abbreviations called sigla)

Question: What is included in the second part of the critical apparatus?
Answer: the editor's analysis of that evidence (sometimes a simple likelihood rating)

Question: What is included in the final part of the critical apparatus?
Answer: a record of rejected variants of the text (often in order of preference)
Title: Textual_criticism

Before mechanical printing, literature was copied by hand, and many variations were introduced by copyists. The age of printing made the scribal profession effectively redundant. Printed editions, while less susceptible to the proliferation of variations likely to arise during manual transmission, are nonetheless not immune to introducing variations from an author's autograph. Instead of a scribe miscopying his source, a compositor or a printing shop may read or typeset a work in a way that differs from the autograph. Since each scribe or printer commits different errors, reconstruction of the lost original is often aided by a selection of readings taken from many sources. An edited text that draws from multiple sources is said to be eclectic. In contrast to this approach, some textual critics prefer to identify the single best surviving text, and not to combine readings from multiple sources.

Question: Why are there multiple variations of texts before the advent of the printing press?
Answer: literature was copied by hand

Question: Are printed editions immune to variation?
Answer: not immune to introducing variations from an author's autograph

Question: How do differences in works arise when using a printing press?
Answer: a compositor or a printing shop may read or typeset a work in a way that differs from the autograph

Question: An edited text compiled through many sources is known as what?
Answer: eclectic.
Title: Textual_criticism

When comparing different documents, or "witnesses", of a single, original text, the observed differences are called variant readings, or simply variants or readings. It is not always apparent which single variant represents the author's original work. The process of textual criticism seeks to explain how each variant may have entered the text, either by accident (duplication or omission) or intention (harmonization or censorship), as scribes or supervisors transmitted the original author's text by copying it. The textual critic's task, therefore, is to sort through the variants, eliminating those most likely to be un-original, hence establishing a "critical text", or critical edition, that is intended to best approximate the original. At the same time, the critical text should document variant readings, so the relation of extant witnesses to the reconstructed original is apparent to a reader of the critical edition. In establishing the critical text, the textual critic considers both "external" evidence (the age, provenance, and affiliation of each witness) and "internal" or "physical" considerations (what the author and scribes, or printers, were likely to have done).

Question: Different documents that represent the same original text are called what?
Answer: witnesses

Question: What are the variations in the text of witnesses known as?
Answer: variant readings, or simply variants or readings.

Question: How or why do variations enter a witness text?
Answer: either by accident (duplication or omission) or intention (harmonization or censorship)

Question: As well as representing the original text, a critical text must also do what?
Answer: document variant readings

Question: Why is it important to document variations in witness texts when compiling a critical text?
Answer: so the relation of extant witnesses to the reconstructed original is apparent to a reader of the critical edition.
Title: Textual_criticism

The collation of all known variants of a text is referred to as a variorum, namely a work of textual criticism whereby all variations and emendations are set side by side so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication. The Bible and the works of William Shakespeare have often been the subjects of variorum editions, although the same techniques have been applied with less frequency to many other works, such as Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass, and the prose writings of Edward Fitzgerald.

Question: What is a variorum?
Answer: The collation of all known variants of a text

Question: What is the purpose of a variorum?
Answer: so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication

Question: Name one author who is less frequently the subject of a variorum.
Answer: Edward Fitzgerald

Question: Name two works that are often the subject of a variorum.
Answer: The Bible and the works of William Shakespeare
Title: Textual_criticism

Eclectic readings also normally give an impression of the number of witnesses to each available reading. Although a reading supported by the majority of witnesses is frequently preferred, this does not follow automatically. For example, a second edition of a Shakespeare play may include an addition alluding to an event known to have happened between the two editions. Although nearly all subsequent manuscripts may have included the addition, textual critics may reconstruct the original without the addition.

Question: What is often included in an eclectic reading?
Answer: an impression of the number of witnesses

Question: Why would someone prefer a second edition to a first edition?
Answer: a second edition of a Shakespeare play may include an addition alluding to an event known to have happened between the two editions

Question: Do textual critics always include additions found in the majority of subsequent versions of a work?
Answer: textual critics may reconstruct the original without the addition.
Title: Textual_criticism

External evidence is evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, and relationship to other known witnesses. Critics will often prefer the readings supported by the oldest witnesses. Since errors tend to accumulate, older manuscripts should have fewer errors. Readings supported by a majority of witnesses are also usually preferred, since these are less likely to reflect accidents or individual biases. For the same reasons, the most geographically diverse witnesses are preferred. Some manuscripts show evidence that particular care was taken in their composition, for example, by including alternative readings in their margins, demonstrating that more than one prior copy (exemplar) was consulted in producing the current one. Other factors being equal, these are the best witnesses. The role of the textual critic is necessary when these basic criteria are in conflict. For instance, there will typically be fewer early copies, and a larger number of later copies. The textual critic will attempt to balance these criteria, to determine the original text.

Question: What is external evidence?
Answer: evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, and relationship to other known witnesses.

Question: Why are older manuscripts preferred?
Answer: Since errors tend to accumulate, older manuscripts should have fewer errors.

Question: What characteristic of a compilation of witnesses is the most beneficial to a textual critic?
Answer: geographically diverse

Question: What characteristic of a single witness is the most beneficial to a textual critic?
Answer: more than one prior copy (exemplar) was consulted in producing the current one
Title: Textual_criticism

Two common considerations have the Latin names lectio brevior (shorter reading) and lectio difficilior (more difficult reading). The first is the general observation that scribes tended to add words, for clarification or out of habit, more often than they removed them. The second, lectio difficilior potior (the harder reading is stronger), recognizes the tendency for harmonization—resolving apparent inconsistencies in the text. Applying this principle leads to taking the more difficult (unharmonized) reading as being more likely to be the original. Such cases also include scribes simplifying and smoothing texts they did not fully understand.

Question: Is a lectio brevrio or lectio difficilior approach more akin to the original text?
Answer: Applying this principle leads to taking the more difficult (unharmonized) reading as being more likely to be the original.

Question: What is the main principle of lectio brevior?
Answer: scribes tended to add words, for clarification or out of habit

Question: Define "lectio brevior"
Answer: shorter reading

Question: What is the main principle of lectio difficilior?
Answer: the tendency for harmonization—resolving apparent inconsistencies in the text.

Question: Define "lectio difficilior"
Answer: more difficult reading
Title: Textual_criticism

Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901) and Fenton J. A. Hort (1828–1892) published an edition of the New Testament in Greek in 1881. They proposed nine critical rules, including a version of Bengel's rule, "The reading is less likely to be original that shows a disposition to smooth away difficulties." They also argued that "Readings are approved or rejected by reason of the quality, and not the number, of their supporting witnesses", and that "The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others."

Question: How many rules were proposed in the 1881 publication of the New Testament in Greek?
Answer: They proposed nine critical rules

Question: What is Bengel's rule?
Answer: The reading is less likely to be original that shows a disposition to smooth away difficulties.

Question: Does ease of reading correlate to accuracy in relation to the original text?
Answer: "The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others."

Question: What is more important for a textual critic: quality or quantity?
Answer: Readings are approved or rejected by reason of the quality, and not the number, of their supporting witnesses

Question: What is the criteria needed to include or dismiss a reading when critiquing texts?
Answer: The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others.
Title: Textual_criticism

Since the canons of criticism are highly susceptible to interpretation, and at times even contradict each other, they may be employed to justify a result that fits the textual critic's aesthetic or theological agenda. Starting in the 19th century, scholars sought more rigorous methods to guide editorial judgment. Best-text editing (a complete rejection of eclecticism) became one extreme. Stemmatics and copy-text editing – while both eclectic, in that they permit the editor to select readings from multiple sources – sought to reduce subjectivity by establishing one or a few witnesses presumably as being favored by "objective" criteria.[citation needed] The citing of sources used, and alternate readings, and the use of original text and images helps readers and other critics determine to an extent the depth of research of the critic, and to independently verify their work.

Question: When did scientists begin searching for a more defined guideline for textual criticism?
Answer: 19th century

Question: What inclusion helps readers and critics understand the motivation behind the compiler?
Answer: The citing of sources used, and alternate readings, and the use of original text and images

Question: What is a further benefit of including sources, texts and original images in a critique?
Answer: the depth of research of the critic

Question: Is textual criticism immune to bias on the part of the critic?
Answer: justify a result that fits the textual critic's aesthetic or theological agenda
Title: Textual_criticism

Stemmatics, stemmology or stemmatology is a rigorous approach to textual criticism. Karl Lachmann (1793–1851) greatly contributed to making this method famous, even though he did not invent it. The method takes its name from the word stemma. The Ancient Greek word στέμματα and its loanword in classical Latin stemmata may refer to "family trees". This specific meaning shows the relationships of the surviving witnesses (the first known example of such a stemma, albeit with the name, dates from 1827). The family tree is also referred to as a cladogram. The method works from the principle that "community of error implies community of origin." That is, if two witnesses have a number of errors in common, it may be presumed that they were derived from a common intermediate source, called a hyparchetype. Relations between the lost intermediates are determined by the same process, placing all extant manuscripts in a family tree or stemma codicum descended from a single archetype. The process of constructing the stemma is called recension, or the Latin recensio.

Question: What is stemmatics?
Answer: a rigorous approach to textual criticism

Question: What is a cladogram?
Answer: The family tree is also referred to as a cladogram.

Question: What is implied when two witnesses have a number of errors in common?
Answer: it may be presumed that they were derived from a common intermediate source

Question: What is a hyparchetype?
Answer: a common intermediate source

Question: What is recension?
Answer: The process of constructing the stemma
Title: Textual_criticism

The process of selectio resembles eclectic textual criticism, but applied to a restricted set of hypothetical hyparchetypes. The steps of examinatio and emendatio resemble copy-text editing. In fact, the other techniques can be seen as special cases of stemmatics in which a rigorous family history of the text cannot be determined but only approximated. If it seems that one manuscript is by far the best text, then copy text editing is appropriate, and if it seems that a group of manuscripts are good, then eclecticism on that group would be proper.

Question: Which steps most closely resembles copy-text editing?
Answer: examinatio and emendatio

Question: What process is best used when only one manuscript is viable?
Answer: copy text editing

Question: What process is best used when there are a number of viable manuscripts available?
Answer: eclecticism