rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: History_of_science

Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.

Question: What science is based on linguistics, mathematics, and engineering?
Answer: Computer science

Question: How has computer science helped science as a whole?
Answer: by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data

Question: What is the differing characteristic of contemporary computer science?
Answer: emphasising mathematical 'theory'
Title: History_of_science

As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.

Question: What text is the foundation of the study of the history of science?
Answer: History of the Inductive Sciences

Question: Who wrote a more professional version of History of the Inductive Sciences?
Answer: George Sarton's

Question: What was the history of science during the 20th century?
Answer: the history of great men and great ideas

Question: How could Sarton's ideas be described?
Answer: Whiggish

Question: Who studied the history of science?
Answer: interested scientists and physicians
Title: History_of_science

Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.

Question: What is the large question that the history of science answers?
Answer: what science is

Question: What did sociology in science explain?
Answer: the ways in which scientists work

Question: What was the most popular method in the 1960s regarding science studies?
Answer: to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge
Title: History_of_science

Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals. It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.

Question: What did Humboldtian science aim to do?
Answer: combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals

Question: Who was the model for Humboldtian science?
Answer: Alexander von Humboldt

Question: What idea did positivism provide?
Answer: the only valid knowledge is scientific
Title: History_of_science

The mid 20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific."

Question: Where did the social aspect of science originate?
Answer: Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962

Question: What idea did social science add to science as a whole?
Answer: positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science

Question: How did Kuhn view the history of science?
Answer: competing paradigms or conceptual systems
Title: History_of_science

Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant?"

Question: What did Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems describe the scientific community as?
Answer: a social construct

Question: What was the era called when scientists were rejecting the notion of objectivity of science?
Answer: The Science wars

Question: What was positivism called after it was revived?
Answer: scientism

Question: What did scientism aim to do?
Answer: settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies
Title: Czech_language

Czech (/ˈtʃɛk/; čeština Czech pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃɛʃcɪna]), formerly known as Bohemian (/boʊˈhiːmiən, bə-/; lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German language, spoken by over 10 million people and it is the official language of the Czech Republic. Czech's closest relative is Slovak, with which it is mutually intelligible. It is closely related to other West Slavic languages, such as Silesian and Polish. Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages, many loanwords (most associated with high culture) have been adopted in recent years.

Question: How many people speak Czech?
Answer: 10 million

Question: Which two languages strongly influenced Czech?
Answer: Latin and German

Question: In which country is Czech the official language?
Answer: Czech Republic

Question: Which language is closest to Czech?
Answer: Slovak

Question: What name was the Czech language formerly known as?
Answer: Bohemian

Question: What was Czech formerly known as?
Answer: Bohemian

Question: What languages strongly influenced Czech?
Answer: Latin and German

Question: Over how many million people speak Czech?
Answer: 10

Question: What vocabulary associated with higher classed culture have been adopted over the years?
Answer: loanwords

Question: What is the official language of the Czech republic?
Answer: Czech
Title: Czech_language

The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo-Croatian. However, most Slavic languages (including Czech) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union (which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968). Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum, with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects. (See "Dialects" below.)

Question: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?
Answer: 1968

Question: What language forms a dialect continuum with Czech?
Answer: Slovak

Question: Name three Serbo-Croatian languages that have made a point of establishing their own unique linguistic identities.
Answer: Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian

Question: Why have many Slavic languages sought to separate themselves from Russian influence?
Answer: widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union

Question: What deliberate action has been done to some languages in the name of nationalism?
Answer: highlighting of minor linguistic differences

Question: What language family is Czech?
Answer: Slavic

Question: Why did many Slavic languages distance themselves from Russian influences?
Answer: resentment against the former Soviet Union

Question: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?
Answer: 1968

Question: What language does Czech form a dialect continuum with?
Answer: Slovak
Title: Czech_language

One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation; Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.

Question: How much do the lexicons of Czech and Slovak differ, according to on study?
Answer: by 80 percent

Question: What was the high percentage of differing lexicons found to derive from?
Answer: differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation

Question: When is Slovak morphology more regular than Czech?
Answer: when changing from the nominative to the locative case

Question: The most differences between Czech and Slovak can be found in colloquial vocabulary as well as what?
Answer: some scientific terminology

Question: What does Slovak have slightly more of than Czech?
Answer: borrowed words
Title: Czech_language

The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (Čechoslováci), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and (to a lesser extent) Hungarians and other Slavs. During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II) literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech. Since then, "Czechoslovak" refers to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.

Question: Who called themselves "Czechoslavs"?
Answer: a group of 19th-century scholars

Question: Why did the Czechoslavs consider Czech and Slovak to be a single language?
Answer: The similarities

Question: When was the first Czechoslovak Republic?
Answer: 1918–1938

Question: What was standard written Slovak partially modeled on?
Answer: literary Czech

Question: When was the Prague Spring?
Answer: 1968
Title: Czech_language

Around the sixth century AD, a tribe of Slavs arrived in a portion of Central Europe. According to legend they were led by a hero named Čech, from whom the word "Czech" derives. The ninth century brought the state of Great Moravia, whose first ruler (Rastislav of Moravia) invited Byzantine ruler Michael III to send missionaries in an attempt to reduce the influence of East Francia on religious and political life in his country. These missionaries, Constantine and Methodius, helped to convert the Czechs from traditional Slavic paganism to Christianity and established a church system. They also brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the West Slavs, whose language was previously unwritten. This language, later known as Proto-Czech, was beginning to separate from its fellow West Slavic hatchlings Proto-Slovak, Proto-Polish and Proto-Sorbian. Among other features, Proto-Czech was marked by its ephemeral use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable.

Question: When did a tribe of Slavs arrive in Central Europe?
Answer: sixth century AD

Question: Who was the hero who led the Slavs to their new home, according to legend?
Answer: Čech

Question: What did the ninth century bring?
Answer: state of Great Moravia

Question: Whose influence was Rastislav eager to reduce, when he invited  Michael III to send missionaries? 
Answer: East Francia

Question: What alphabet did the missionaries bring to the West Slavs?
Answer: Glagolitic
Title: Czech_language

The Czechs' language separated from other Slavic tongues into what would later be called Old Czech by the thirteenth century, a classification extending through the sixteenth century. Its use of cases differed from the modern language; although Old Czech did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction, declension for its six cases and three genders rapidly became complicated (partially to differentiate homophones) and its declension patterns resembled those of Lithuanian (its Balto-Slavic cousin).

Question: How did Old Czech's use of cases differ from modern usage?
Answer: did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction

Question: What other language did Old Czech's declension patterns resemble?
Answer: Lithuanian

Question: How many cases did Old Czech have?
Answer: six

Question: How long was the precursor to Czech classified as Old Czech?
Answer: through the sixteenth century

Question: By the thirteenth century, what had the Czech language separated from?
Answer: other Slavic tongues
Title: Czech_language

While Old Czech had a basic alphabet from which a general set of orthographical correspondences was drawn, it did not have a standard orthography. It also contained a number of sound clusters which no longer exist; allowing ě (/jɛ/) after soft consonants, which has since shifted to e (/ɛ/), and allowing complex consonant clusters to be pronounced all at once rather than syllabically. A phonological phenomenon, Havlik's law (which began in Proto-Slavic and took various forms in other Slavic languages), appeared in Old Czech; counting backwards from the end of a clause, every odd-numbered yer was vocalized as a vowel, while the other yers disappeared.

Question: What type of orthography did Old Czech lack?
Answer: standard

Question: Why aren't some sound clusters used in modern Czech?
Answer: no longer exist

Question: How did old Czech allow some complex consonant clusters to be pronounced?
Answer: all at once

Question: What type of phenomenon is Havlik's law?
Answer: phonological

Question: Which "yer"s were vocalized as vowels?
Answer: every odd-numbered
Title: Czech_language

Bohemia (as Czech civilization was known by then) increased in power over the centuries, as its language did in regional importance. This growth was expedited during the fourteenth century by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, who founded Charles University in Prague in 1348. Here, early Czech literature (a biblical translation, hymns and hagiography) flourished. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well. Later in the century Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language.

Question: What was Czech civilization called back in the day?
Answer: Bohemia

Question: What Holy Roman Emperor expedited the growth of Bohemia in the 14th century?
Answer: Charles IV

Question: When was Charles University founded in Prague?
Answer: 1348

Question: Who contributed heavily to the effort to standardize Czech orthography?
Answer: Jan Hus

Question: What did Jan Hus advocate for among the Czech commoners?
Answer: widespread literacy
Title: Czech_language

Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance for hundreds of years, and has been a literary language in the Slovak lands since the early fifteenth century. A biblical translation, the Kralice Bible, was published during the late sixteenth century (around the time of the King James and Luther versions) which was more linguistically conservative than either. The publication of the Kralice Bible spawned widespread nationalism, and in 1615 the government of Bohemia ruled that only Czech-speaking residents would be allowed to become full citizens or inherit goods or land. This, and the conversion of the Czech upper classes from the Habsburg Empire's Catholicism to Protestantism, angered the Habsburgs and helped trigger the Thirty Years' War (where the Czechs were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain). The Czechs became serfs; Bohemia's printing industry (and its linguistic and political rights) were dismembered, removing official regulation and support from its language. German quickly became the dominant language in Bohemia.

Question: How many years as Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance?
Answer: hundreds

Question: When was the Kralice Bible published?
Answer: late sixteenth century

Question: What did the publication of the Kralice Bible spawn?
Answer: widespread nationalism

Question: In what war were the Czechs defeated at the Battle of White Mountain?
Answer: Thirty Years' War

Question: What language became dominant in Bohemia after the Czech's defeat?
Answer: German
Title: Czech_language

The consensus among linguists is that modern, standard Czech originated during the eighteenth century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. Changes include the morphological shift of í to ej and é to í (although é survives for some uses) and the merging of í and the former ejí. Sometime before the eighteenth century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.

Question: When do linguists agree modern Czech originated?
Answer: the eighteenth century

Question: What had Czech developed by the 18th century?
Answer: literary tradition

Question: Journals from the 18th century have no substantial differences from what?
Answer: modern standard Czech

Question: How much difficulty do contemporary Czechs have in understanding material from the 18th century?
Answer: little

Question: What did the Czech language abandon which survives in Slovak?
Answer: a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/
Title: Czech_language

The Czech people gained widespread national pride during the mid-eighteenth century, inspired by the Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier. Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (which had denigrated Czech and other non-Latin languages). Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts, advocating the return of the language to high culture. This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renascence).

Question: What did the Czechs as a people gain during the mid-18th century?
Answer: widespread national pride

Question: What inspired the Czech's national pride?
Answer: Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier

Question: What did Czech historians emphasize about their countrymen?
Answer: accomplishments

Question: What did Czech philologists advocate?
Answer: the return of the language to high culture

Question: What is the period during the mid-eighteenth century also remembered as?
Answer: Czech National Revival
Title: Czech_language

During the revival, in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German-language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache (Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language). Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive, and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language. However, Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival. Changes during this time included spelling reform (notably, í in place of the former j and j in place of g), the use of t (rather than ti) to end infinitive verbs and the non-capitalization of nouns (which had been a late borrowing from German). These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak. Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use.

Question: What was the professions of Joseph Dobrovský?
Answer: linguist and historian

Question: What didn't Dobrovský think Czech had a chance of returning as?
Answer: a major language

Question: What year did Joseph Dobrovský release a German-language grammar of Old Czech?
Answer: 1809

Question: What did Josef Jungmann advocate for?
Answer: a Czech linguistic revival

Question: Who disagree about whether the revivalists were motivated by nationalism or if they considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal use?
Answer: Modern scholars