rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Sahara

By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and dead were buried facing due west.

Question: What were Egyptians herding in the early BCE period?
Answer: cattle

Question: By what time period were the Egyptians constructing  large buildings?
Answer: 6000 BCE

Question: What items replaced previously items made of stone?
Answer: Metal objects

Question: In which direction were the dead facing when they were   buried?
Answer: due west
Title: Sahara

By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in the Earth's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.

Question: By What time period was the Sahara dry like it is today?
Answer: 3400 BCE

Question: What was the main reason that the Sahara became so   dry?
Answer: reduced precipitation and higher temperatures

Question: What area is known for having the majority of the trade?
Answer: the Nile Valley
Title: Sahara

By 500 BCE, Greeks arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.

Question: Where did the Greeks established their trading colonies?
Answer: Red Sea

Question: Which coast did the Carthaginians explore for trade?
Answer: the Atlantic coast

Question: Who would raid the desert leaving the people in constant   fear?
Answer: nomadic Berber
Title: Sahara

An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fezzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.

Question: What time period did the Garamantes arrive in?
Answer: 500 BCE

Question: What did the Garamantes do in order to bring water to   their crops?
Answer: digging tunnels

Question: How many towns are believed to be found by   Archaeologists?
Answer: eight major towns

Question: What was the reason for the collapse of the Garamantes   civilization?
Answer: depleted available water
Title: Sahara

The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia (Arabian peninsula) the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries, Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. The trade across the desert intensified. A significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.

Question: What group of people ruled the northern shoes of the   Sahara?
Answer: Byzantine Empire

Question: What time period did the Muslim conquest of North Africa   take place?
Answer: mid-7th to early 8th centuries

Question: What is the estimated number of slaves that were   transported each year?
Answer: 6,000 to 7,000 slaves
Title: Sahara

In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present-day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present-day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Trade exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactures from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.

Question: During the 1500 who was a valued part of the Ottoman   Empire?
Answer: Egypt

Question: What did the Ottoman Empire provide to its people?
Answer: freedom of movement for citizens and goods

Question: What was the local language during this time in Egypt?
Answer: Arabic
Title: Sahara

European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present-day Algeria, Chad, Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans-Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.

Question: What time period did the colonialism of the Sahara begin?
Answer: 19th century

Question: What country conquered the Algiers from the Ottomans in   1830?
Answer: France

Question: During what time were good moved through more modern   means?
Answer: 20th century
Title: Sahara

Arabic dialects are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. The live in the Red Sea Hills of southeastern Egypt and eastern Sudan. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term Amazigh (which includes the Guanche language spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the Afro-Asiatic or Hamito-Semitic family.[citation needed] Unlike neighboring West Africa and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with Tuareg and Berber leaders and culture. The legacy of the French colonial era administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the Third and Fourth republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was primarily conducted in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation," contributing much to preserving indigenous cultural identities in the region.

Question: What is the most common dialect spoken in the Sahara?
Answer: Arabic

Question: What language is mainly spoken in West Africa?
Answer: French

Question: What was the traditional language of Bureaucratic affairs?
Answer: Arabic
Title: Rule_of_law

The rule of law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour, including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16th century Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford used the phrase in his argument against the divine right of kings. The rule of law was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. The concept, if not the phrase, was familiar to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, who wrote "Law should govern".

Question: Which Scottish theologian is first credited with using the phrase "rule of law"?
Answer: Samuel Rutherford

Question: Which British jurist later made the phrase "rule of law" popular in the 1800s?
Answer: A. V. Dicey

Question: What phrase Ariostle also use which is closely related to "the rule of law"?
Answer: Law should govern

Question: Samuel Rutherford used the principle of the rule of law to argue what point?
Answer: against the divine right of kings

Question: According to the rule of law, what should hold the determination for rules in a land? 
Answer: law
Title: Rule_of_law

Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law, including law makers themselves. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy where the rulers are held above the law. Lack of the rule of law can be found in both democracies and dictatorships, for example because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms for restoring it. Government based upon the rule of law is called nomocracy.

Question: In what forms of government are leaders not held to the same laws as ordinary citizens?
Answer: autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy

Question: According to the rule of law, who must obey the laws?
Answer: every citizen

Question: What are governments called that are created with the rule of law in mind?
Answer: nomocracy

Question: What happens to the rule of law if a government does not have an effective system for maintenance and restoration?
Answer: decay

Question: For what reasons might democratic societies not follow the rule of law?
Answer: neglect or ignorance of the law
Title: Rule_of_law

In the West, the ancient Greeks initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men. Plato advocated a benevolent monarchy ruled by an idealized philosopher king, who was above the law. Plato nevertheless hoped that the best men would be good at respecting established laws, explaining that "Where the law is subject to some other authority and has none of its own, the collapse of the state, in my view, is not far off; but if law is the master of the government and the government is its slave, then the situation is full of promise and men enjoy all the blessings that the gods shower on a state." More than Plato attempted to do, Aristotle flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws. In other words, Aristotle advocated the rule of law:

Question: On what principle did the Ancient Greeks first think was best for governance? 
Answer: rule by the best men

Question: According to Plato, who was above the law?
Answer: king

Question: What type of kingdom was purported by Plato?
Answer: benevolent monarchy

Question: Under what rule did Aristotle believe a nation should be led?
Answer: rule of law

Question: To what did Plato compare a government that follows laws?
Answer: slave
Title: Rule_of_law

There has recently been an effort to reevaluate the influence of the Bible on Western constitutional law. In the Old Testament, there was some language in Deuteronomy imposing restrictions on the Jewish king, regarding such things as how many wives he could have, and how many horses he could own for his personal use. According to Professor Bernard M. Levinson, "This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented...." The Deuteronomic social vision may have influenced opponents of the divine right of kings, including Bishop John Ponet in sixteenth-century England.

Question: In which book of the Bible are limitations on Jewish monarchs outlined?
Answer: Deuteronomy

Question: Who was against the divine rights of kings in England during the 1500s?
Answer: Bishop John Ponet

Question: What principle did the restrictions on the right of kings, as detailed in Deuteronomy, influence later opposition?
Answer: divine right of kings

Question: What historical book may have a significant impact on contemporary law making practices?
Answer: Bible

Question: According to the restrictions placed on Jewish kings in Deuteronomy, ownership over what was regulated?
Answer: horses
Title: Rule_of_law

In 1607, English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke said in the Case of Prohibitions (according to his own report) "that the law was the golden met-wand and measure to try the causes of the subjects; and which protected His Majesty in safety and peace: with which the King was greatly offended, and said, that then he should be under the law, which was treason to affirm, as he said; to which I said, that Bracton saith, quod Rex non debed esse sub homine, sed sub Deo et lege (That the King ought not to be under any man but under God and the law.)."

Question: To what did English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke compare the law?
Answer: golden met-wand

Question: According to English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke, what should Kings follow?
Answer: God and the law

Question: When did English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke speak in the Case of Prohibitions?
Answer: 1607

Question: How did the king feel about what was said in the Case of Prohibitions?
Answer: greatly offended

Question: What was Edward Coke's official title?
Answer: Chief Justice Sir
Title: Rule_of_law

Despite wide use by politicians, judges and academics, the rule of law has been described as "an exceedingly elusive notion". Among modern legal theorists, one finds that at least two principal conceptions of the rule of law can be identified: a formalist or "thin" definition, and a substantive or "thick" definition; one occasionally encounters a third "functional" conception. Formalist definitions of the rule of law do not make a judgment about the "justness" of law itself, but define specific procedural attributes that a legal framework must have in order to be in compliance with the rule of law. Substantive conceptions of the rule of law go beyond this and include certain substantive rights that are said to be based on, or derived from, the rule of law.

Question: What is another word for a thin definition?
Answer: formalist

Question: What is another word for a thick definition?
Answer: substantive

Question: Who commonly, or at least attempt to, abide by the rule of law?
Answer: politicians, judges and academics

Question: On what do aspects of the rule of law do formalist definitions focus?
Answer: specific procedural attributes

Question: What is the third and lesser referred to approach on defining the rule of law?
Answer: functional
Title: Rule_of_law

Most legal theorists believe that the rule of law has purely formal characteristics, meaning that the law must be publicly declared, with prospective application, and possess the characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty, but there are no requirements with regard to the content of the law. Others, including a few legal theorists, believe that the rule of law necessarily entails protection of individual rights. Within legal theory, these two approaches to the rule of law are seen as the two basic alternatives, respectively labelled the formal and substantive approaches. Still, there are other views as well. Some believe that democracy is part of the rule of law.

Question: According to legal theorists, what characteristics must the rule of law have?
Answer: generality, equality, and certainty

Question: According to some, what is the rule of law is formed to protect?
Answer: individual rights

Question: What system of government is considered as a component of the rule of law?
Answer: democracy

Question: According to some legal theorists, for what are there no requirements for something to be considered a law?
Answer: content

Question: What are the two approaches to defining the concept of the rule of law?
Answer: formal and substantive
Title: Rule_of_law

The "formal" interpretation is more widespread than the "substantive" interpretation. Formalists hold that the law must be prospective, well-known, and have characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty. Other than that, the formal view contains no requirements as to the content of the law. This formal approach allows laws that protect democracy and individual rights, but recognizes the existence of "rule of law" in countries that do not necessarily have such laws protecting democracy or individual rights.

Question: Which interpretation of the rule of law is used on a larger scale?
Answer: formal

Question: According to the formalist approach, what else, besides democracy, can laws protect?
Answer: individual rights

Question: According to the formalist approach, how much notoriety must a law have?
Answer: well-known

Question: How many requirements for content are there for the rule of law under the formalist approach?
Answer: no requirements

Question: Which interpretation of the rule of law is less commonly used?
Answer: substantive
Title: Rule_of_law

The functional interpretation of the term "rule of law", consistent with the traditional English meaning, contrasts the "rule of law" with the "rule of man." According to the functional view, a society in which government officers have a great deal of discretion has a low degree of "rule of law", whereas a society in which government officers have little discretion has a high degree of "rule of law". Upholding the rule of law can sometimes require the punishment of those who commit offenses that are justifiable under natural law but not statutory law. The rule of law is thus somewhat at odds with flexibility, even when flexibility may be preferable.

Question: According to the functional interpretation, what principle is opposite of the rule of man?
Answer: rule of law

Question: What level of discretion do governments with a high degree of the "rule of law" have?
Answer: little

Question: What level of discretion do governments with a low degree of the "rule of law" have?
Answer: a great deal

Question: What happens to those that do not follow to the rule of law?
Answer: punishment

Question: What fights against the rule of law?
Answer: flexibility
Title: Rule_of_law

The rule of law has been considered as one of the key dimensions that determine the quality and good governance of a country. Research, like the Worldwide Governance Indicators, defines the rule of law as: "the extent to which agents have confidence and abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract enforcement, the police and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime or violence." Based on this definition the Worldwide Governance Indicators project has developed aggregate measurements for the rule of law in more than 200 countries, as seen in the map below. A government based on the rule of law can be called a "nomocracy", from the Greek nomos (law) and kratos (power or rule).

Question: For how many countries have rule of law aggregate measurements been developed?
Answer: more than 200 countries

Question: What is the term that described a government based on the rule of law?
Answer: nomocracy

Question: What is the Greek word for law?
Answer: nomos

Question: What is the Greek word for power?
Answer: kratos

Question: What is a key qualifier for determining good governance?
Answer: rule of law
Title: Rule_of_law

All government officers of the United States, including the President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, state judges and legislators, and all members of Congress, pledge first and foremost to uphold the Constitution. These oaths affirm that the rule of law is superior to the rule of any human leader. At the same time, the federal government has considerable discretion: the legislative branch is free to decide what statutes it will write, as long as it stays within its enumerated powers and respects the constitutionally protected rights of individuals. Likewise, the judicial branch has a degree of judicial discretion, and the executive branch also has various discretionary powers including prosecutorial discretion.

Question: According to the Constitution, what is superior to the rules of man?
Answer: rule of law

Question: What does the President and Supreme Court Justices vow to stand by?
Answer: the Constitution

Question: What do the President and Supreme Court justices vow to uphold?
Answer: the Constitution

Question: According to the Constitution, to what is the rule of law superior?
Answer: the rule of any human leader

Question: What branch of the government has prosecutorial discretion?
Answer: executive branch

Question: What branch of government can determine what acts it writes?
Answer: legislative branch

Question: Which branch of government has judicial discretion?
Answer: judicial branch
Title: Rule_of_law

Scholars continue to debate whether the U.S. Constitution adopted a particular interpretation of the "rule of law," and if so, which one. For example, John Harrison asserts that the word "law" in the Constitution is simply defined as that which is legally binding, rather than being "defined by formal or substantive criteria," and therefore judges do not have discretion to decide that laws fail to satisfy such unwritten and vague criteria. Law Professor Frederick Mark Gedicks disagrees, writing that Cicero, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and the framers of the U.S. Constitution believed that an unjust law was not really a law at all.

Question: Who disagrees with the ideas proposed by John Harrison?
Answer: Law Professor Frederick Mark Gedicks

Question: For what body of principles is it debated whether or not it was constructed according to the rule of law?
Answer: U.S. Constitution

Question: According to John Harrison, through the Constitution, what is law?
Answer: that which is legally binding

Question: According to Frederick Mark Gedicks, who believed that unjust laws were not really laws?
Answer: the framers of the U.S. Constitution