rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: ASCII

ASCII developed from telegraphic codes. Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published during 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters.

Question: What was ASCII developed from? 
Answer: telegraphic codes

Question: What was the first commercial use of ASCII?
Answer: a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services

Question: When did work on the ASCII standard begin? 
Answer: October 6, 1960

Question: When was the first edition of the standard published?
Answer: 1963

Question: When was the first major revision of the code done?
Answer: 1967
Title: ASCII

The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired.:217, 236 § 5 Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.

Question: Why did the committee consider a 8 bit code?
Answer: eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal

Question: Why did the committee decide on 7bit instead?
Answer: minimize costs associated with data transmission

Question: What allowed for a parity bit for error chicking if needed?
Answer: perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position
Title: ASCII

With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code.:66, 245 There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet.:435 The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to columns 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in columns 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers.

Question: What was ASCII published as and when?
Answer: ASA X3.4-1963

Question: How many code positions were left unassigned for furture standardization?
Answer: 28 code positions

Question: When was the change to ASCII made official?
Answer: May 1963

Question: The lower case letters caused a differ in the patter, what did this cause?
Answer: simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers
Title: ASCII

Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO/IEC 646 that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Other adapted encodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam), and YUSCII (Yugoslavia). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard.

Question: What is a retified versionof ASCII?
Answer: ISO/IEC 646

Question: What type of extensions do these other character encodings have?
Answer: extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States

Question: Why did most countries need a adapted version of ASCII?
Answer: ASCII suited the needs of only the USA and a few other countries

Question: Why are the other versions of ASCII not true ASCII?
Answer: true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard
Title: ASCII

Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected.

Question: What was the most influential device that interpretated the characters?
Answer: Teletype Model 33 ASR

Question: What was the Teletype Model 33 ASR?
Answer: a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option

Question: When was paper tape popular?
Answer: until the 1980s

Question: Why was paper tape better than magnetic tape?
Answer: less costly and in some ways less fragile

Question: What code eventually became neglected?
Answer: code 15 (Control-O, Shift In)
Title: ASCII

The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line.

Question: Why were problems created when transferring files between systems?
Answer: The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage

Question: Teletype machines had to have two codes to termanate a line, what were they?
Answer: "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead)

Question: Where does the name "Carriage Return" come from?
Answer: on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary

Question: What side does the carriage have to be pushed to when starting a new line?
Answer: right
Title: ASCII

Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on mechanical typewriters, not electric typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of 23456789- were "#$%_&'() –  early typewriters omitted 0 and 1, using O (capital letter o) and l (lowercase letter L) instead, but 1! and 0) pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII !"#$% were placed in second column, rows 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent column. The parentheses could not correspond to 9 and 0, however, because the place corresponding to 0 was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing _ (underscore) from 6 and shifting the remaining characters left, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with 8 and 9. This discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the more recently introduced IBM Selectric (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers—​​following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984)—​​and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The /? pair also dates to the No. 2, and the ,< .> pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift , (comma) or . (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the ;: pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly -* =+) to :* ;+ -=.

Question: When was the first typewritter with a shift key created?
Answer: 1878

Question: What were used instead of 0 and 1? 
Answer: using O (capital letter o) and l (lowercase letter L) instead

Question: What layout did the Teletype Model 33 use?
Answer: which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII

Question: Do shift values for symbols on modern keyboards correspond closely to the ASCII table?
Answer: do not correspond as closely
Title: ASCII

Code 127 is officially named "delete" but the Teletype label was "rubout". Since the original standard did not give detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was useful specifically for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be "hand edited" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be "rubbed out" and then replacements put into the empty space.

Question: What is the official name of code 127?
Answer: delete

Question: What was code 127 labeled as for the Teletype?
Answer: rubout

Question: Why did Teletype have the code for "rubout"?
Answer: to make it an ignored character
Title: ASCII

Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS, on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based OS X operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well.

Question: Why is adding two characters at the ned of a line problemsome? 
Answer: introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone

Question: What id Multics use to simplify plain text data?
Answer: line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator

Question: What used carriage return(CR) alone as a line terminator?
Answer: Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS

Question: Who adopted this practice from Multics?
Answer: Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems

Question: When did Apple replace their CR with line feed (LF)?
Answer: since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based OS X operating system
Title: Digestion

In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.

Question: What is the first step in the human digestive system?
Answer: the action of mastication (chewing)

Question: What is saliva?
Answer: a liquid secreted by the salivary glands

Question: What is in saliva that starts to digest the starches?
Answer: salivary amylase

Question: What is the definition of bolus?
Answer: a small, round slurry mass

Question: What is the action of the food morving down the esophagus into the stomach called?
Answer: peristalsis
Title: Digestion

Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours - eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

Question: What is the practive of coprophagia behaviours?
Answer: eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food

Question: Why do some animals pass food through their gut twice?
Answer: extract more nutrition

Question: What happens with these soft feacal pellets?
Answer: excreted and generally consumed immediately

Question: Are normal droppings also eaten? 
Answer: not eaten
Title: Digestion

Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.

Question: What are the two types of digestion?
Answer: internal and external digestion

Question: When did external digestion develop?
Answer: earlier in evolutionary history

Question: What still uses the external digestion system?
Answer: most fungi

Question: What is the name of the tube that helps add in animal digestion?
Answer: gastrointestinal tract

Question: Why is internal digection better than external?
Answer: more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled
Title: Digestion

The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

Question: What elements can transfer to plant cells?
Answer: Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids

Question: Where do transferred genes enter?
Answer: the plant cell nucleus

Question: What do bacteria use as carbon and energy sources?
Answer: opines

Question: What happens to infected plant cells?
Answer: end

Question: What are endosymbionts of the bacteria?
Answer: The Ti and Ri plasmids
Title: Digestion

Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.

Question: Where are teeth found?
Answer: in the jaws (or mouths)

Question: What are teeth used for?
Answer: to tear, scrape, milk and chew food

Question: What are teeth made out of?
Answer: enamel, dentine and cementum

Question: What in human teeth enables proprioception?
Answer: a blood and nerve supply

Question: What happens when you bite something you cant chew?
Answer: our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.
Title: Digestion

The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

Question: What is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants?
Answer: The abomasum

Question: What is the abomasums close equivalent?
Answer: a monogastric stomach

Question: What does this site serve primarily as?
Answer: a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine.

Question: What happens to digesta when it moves to the small intestine?
Answer: the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs

Question: What is also digested in the small intestine?
Answer: Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine
Title: Digestion

An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

Question: What does a earthworms digestive systme consist of?
Answer: a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine.

Question: What does an earthworm eat?
Answer: dead grass, leaves, and weeds

Question: What helps the earthworm grab grass leaves and weeds?
Answer: The mouth is surrounded by strong lips

Question: What is the food coated with for easier passage?
Answer: mucus

Question: What part of the earthworm helps churn and mix the dirt and food?
Answer: The powerful muscles of the gizzard
Title: Digestion

Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.

Question: Where does the digestions of some fats start?
Answer: in the mouth

Question: Where are fats mainly digested?
Answer: the small intestine

Question: What happens when there is a presence of fat in the small intestine?
Answer: produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver

Question: What does bile from the liver help do?
Answer: helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids

Question: What is one molecule of fat?
Answer: a triglyceride
Title: Digestion

Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.

Question: What is digestion?
Answer: the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma

Question: In some organisms, how are these molecules absorbed?
Answer: these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream

Question: What are the two ways that food is broken down?
Answer: mechanical and chemical digestion

Question: What is mechanical digestion?
Answer: the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes

Question: What is chemical digestion?
Answer: enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use