rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Pain

In his book, The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution, biologist Richard Dawkins grapples with the question of why pain has to be so very painful. He describes the alternative as a simple, mental raising of a "red flag". To argue why that red flag might be insufficient, Dawkins explains that drives must compete with each other within living beings. The most fit creature would be the one whose pains are well balanced. Those pains which mean certain death when ignored will become the most powerfully felt. The relative intensities of pain, then, may resemble the relative importance of that risk to our ancestors (lack of food, too much cold, or serious injuries are felt as agony, whereas minor damage is felt as mere discomfort). This resemblance will not be perfect, however, because natural selection can be a poor designer. The result is often glitches in animals, including supernormal stimuli. Such glitches help explain pains which are not, or at least no longer directly adaptive (e.g. perhaps some forms of toothache, or injury to fingernails).

Question: Who wrote "The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution"?
Answer: Richard Dawkins

Question: What does Dawkins explain must compete with each other in living begins?
Answer: drives

Question: What would be the most fit creature?
Answer: one whose pains are well balanced

Question: What type of designer is natural selection?
Answer: poor

Question: What might the relative intensities of pain resemble?
Answer: risk
Title: Pain

Differences in pain perception and tolerance thresholds are associated with, among other factors, ethnicity, genetics, and sex. People of Mediterranean origin report as painful some radiant heat intensities that northern Europeans describe as nonpainful. And Italian women tolerate less intense electric shock than Jewish or Native American women. Some individuals in all cultures have significantly higher than normal pain perception and tolerance thresholds. For instance, patients who experience painless heart attacks have higher pain thresholds for electric shock, muscle cramp and heat.

Question: Along with with ethnicity and genetics, what is the other factor associated with differences in pain perception?
Answer: sex

Question: What might some people of Mediterranean origin report as painful that people of this origin wouldn't?
Answer: Europeans

Question: What nationality can tolerate the least amount of electric shock?
Answer: Italian

Question: What do some individuals in all cultures have significantly higher than normal?
Answer: pain perception

Question: Patients who have painless heart attacks have higher what?
Answer: pain thresholds
Title: Pain

A person's self-report is the most reliable measure of pain, with health care professionals tending to underestimate severity. A definition of pain widely employed in nursing, emphasizing its subjective nature and the importance of believing patient reports, was introduced by Margo McCaffery in 1968: "Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever he says it does". To assess intensity, the patient may be asked to locate their pain on a scale of 0 to 10, with 0 being no pain at all, and 10 the worst pain they have ever felt. Quality can be established by having the patient complete the McGill Pain Questionnaire indicating which words best describe their pain.

Question: What is the most reliable measure of pain?
Answer: person's self-report

Question: What do health-care professionals tend to underestimate? 
Answer: severity

Question: What did Margo McCaffery introduce in 1968?
Answer: definition of pain

Question: What scale might a patient be asked to locate their pain on?
Answer: 0 to 10

Question: What are patients asked to use the McGill Pain Questionnaire to indicate?
Answer: which words best describe their pain
Title: Pain

The Multidimensional Pain Inventory (MPI) is a questionnaire designed to assess the psychosocial state of a person with chronic pain. Analysis of MPI results by Turk and Rudy (1988) found three classes of chronic pain patient: "(a) dysfunctional, people who perceived the severity of their pain to be high, reported that pain interfered with much of their lives, reported a higher degree of psychological distress caused by pain, and reported low levels of activity; (b) interpersonally distressed, people with a common perception that significant others were not very supportive of their pain problems; and (c) adaptive copers, patients who reported high levels of social support, relatively low levels of pain and perceived interference, and relatively high levels of activity." Combining the MPI characterization of the person with their IASP five-category pain profile is recommended for deriving the most useful case description.

Question: What is MPI an abbreviation for?
Answer: Multidimensional Pain Inventory

Question: How many classes of chronic pain patients are there?
Answer: three

Question: What do interpersonally distressed people feel their significant others aren't supportive of?
Answer: their pain problems

Question: What do dysfunctional people perceive the severity of their pain to be?
Answer: high

Question: What should MPI characterization of a person be combined with for deriving the most useful case descriptions?
Answer: their IASP five-category pain profile
Title: Pain

When a person is non-verbal and cannot self-report pain, observation becomes critical, and specific behaviors can be monitored as pain indicators. Behaviors such as facial grimacing and guarding indicate pain, as well as an increase or decrease in vocalizations, changes in routine behavior patterns and mental status changes. Patients experiencing pain may exhibit withdrawn social behavior and possibly experience a decreased appetite and decreased nutritional intake. A change in condition that deviates from baseline such as moaning with movement or when manipulating a body part, and limited range of motion are also potential pain indicators. In patients who possess language but are incapable of expressing themselves effectively, such as those with dementia, an increase in confusion or display of aggressive behaviors or agitation may signal that discomfort exists, and further assessment is necessary.

Question: What become critical when a person is non-verbal? 
Answer: observation

Question: What can be monitored as pain indicators?
Answer: specific behaviors

Question: What type of social behavior might patients experiencing pain exhibit?
Answer: withdrawn

Question: How can patients with dementia indicate discomfort exists?
Answer: signal

Question: Facial grimacing and guarding indicate what?
Answer: pain
Title: Pain

The experience of pain has many cultural dimensions. For instance, the way in which one experiences and responds to pain is related to sociocultural characteristics, such as gender, ethnicity, and age. An aging adult may not respond to pain in the way that a younger person would. Their ability to recognize pain may be blunted by illness or the use of multiple prescription drugs. Depression may also keep the older adult from reporting they are in pain. The older adult may also quit doing activities they love because it hurts too much. Decline in self-care activities (dressing, grooming, walking, etc.) may also be indicators that the older adult is experiencing pain. The older adult may refrain from reporting pain because they are afraid they will have to have surgery or will be put on a drug they might become addicted to. They may not want others to see them as weak, or may feel there is something impolite or shameful in complaining about pain, or they may feel the pain is deserved punishment for past transgressions.

Question: Why may older adults quit doing activities the love?
Answer: because it hurts too much

Question: What does the experience of pain have throughout cultures?
Answer: dimensions

Question: What might an aging adult not respond to the same way as a younger person would?
Answer: pain

Question: An older adult may also not report pain because they're scared they may be put on what?
Answer: a drug

Question: Aging adult's ability to recognize pain may be blunted by what?
Answer: illness
Title: Pain

Cultural barriers can also keep a person from telling someone they are in pain. Religious beliefs may prevent the individual from seeking help. They may feel certain pain treatment is against their religion. They may not report pain because they feel it is a sign that death is near. Many people fear the stigma of addiction and avoid pain treatment so as not to be prescribed potentially addicting drugs. Many Asians do not want to lose respect in society by admitting they are in pain and need help, believing the pain should be borne in silence, while other cultures feel they should report pain right away and get immediate relief. Gender can also be a factor in reporting pain. Sexual differences can be the result of social and cultural expectations, with women expected to be emotional and show pain and men stoic, keeping pain to themselves.

Question: What kind of barriers can prevent a person from telling someone they're in pain?
Answer: Cultural

Question: How can religious beliefs contribute to a person remaining in pain?
Answer: prevent the individual from seeking help

Question: Some people may not report pain because they think it's a sign what is near?
Answer: death

Question: What do many people fear pain treatment will lead to?
Answer: potentially addicting drugs

Question: What is an issue of reporting pain specific to Asians?
Answer: do not want to lose respect in society by admitting they are in pain
Title: Pain

The International Association for the Study of Pain advocates that the relief of pain should be recognized as a human right, that chronic pain should be considered a disease in its own right, and that pain medicine should have the full status of a specialty. It is a specialty only in China and Australia at this time. Elsewhere, pain medicine is a subspecialty under disciplines such as anesthesiology, physiatry, neurology, palliative medicine and psychiatry. In 2011, Human Rights Watch alerted that tens of millions of people worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe pain.

Question: What does the IASP advocate that the relief of pain should be recognized as?
Answer: a human right

Question: What should chronic pain be considered in its own right?
Answer: a disease

Question: What two countries is treating pain a specialty in?
Answer: China and Australia

Question: What is pain medicine often under disciplines like physiatry, neurology, etc?
Answer: subspecialty

Question: As of 2011, how many people worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe pain?
Answer: tens of millions
Title: Pain

 Sugar taken orally reduces the total crying time but not the duration of the first cry in newborns undergoing a painful procedure (a single lancing of the heel). It does not moderate the effect of pain on heart rate and a recent single study found that sugar did not significantly affect pain-related electrical activity in the brains of newborns one second after the heel lance procedure. Sweet oral liquid moderately reduces the incidence and duration of crying caused by immunization injection in children between one and twelve months of age.

Question: What, when taken orally, can reduce total crying time of newsborns undergoing a painful procedure?
Answer: Sugar

Question: What doesn't sugar change the effect of pain on?
Answer: heart rate

Question: Sugar also doesn't measurably change what type of electrical activity in the brains of newborns a second after the heel lance procedure?
Answer: pain-related

Question: A sweet oral liquid does moderately reduce the incidence and duration of what?
Answer: crying
Title: Pain

A number of meta-analyses have found clinical hypnosis to be effective in controlling pain associated with diagnostic and surgical procedures in both adults and children, as well as pain associated with cancer and childbirth. A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain in some conditions, though the number of patients enrolled in the studies was low, bringing up issues of power to detect group differences, and most lacked credible controls for placebo and/or expectation. The authors concluded that "although the findings provide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic pain, considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions."

Question: Clinical hypnosis may be effective in doing what with pain associated with surgical procedures in adults and children?
Answer: controlling

Question: How many studies in 2007 found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain?
Answer: 13

Question: What did the studies regarding the effectiveness of hypnosis lack?
Answer: credible controls for placebo and/or expectation

Question: What is considerable more research needed to determine for different chronic pain conditions?
Answer: effects of hypnosis
Title: Pain

Pain is the most common reason for people to use complementary and alternative medicine. An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009, concluded there is little difference in the effect of real, sham and no acupuncture. However other reviews have found benefit. Additionally, there is tentative evidence for a few herbal medicine. There is interest in the relationship between vitamin D and pain, but the evidence so far from controlled trials for such a relationship, other than in osteomalacia, is unconvincing.

Question: What is the most common reason people seek out alternative medicine?
Answer: Pain

Question: What did an analysis of the 13 studies of pain treatment conclude about the effect of real treament versus sham treatments?
Answer: little difference in the effect

Question: What medicine is there tentative evidence for the efficacy of?
Answer: herbal

Question: Some contradictory reviews of 13 high quality studies found actual what?
Answer: benefit

Question: Other than in osteomalacia, what is there no evidence of a relationship between pain and?
Answer: vitamin D
Title: Pain

Physical pain is an important political topic in relation to various issues, including pain management policy, drug control, animal rights or animal welfare, torture, and pain compliance. In various contexts, the deliberate infliction of pain in the form of corporal punishment is used as retribution for an offence, or for the purpose of disciplining or reforming a wrongdoer, or to deter attitudes or behaviour deemed unacceptable. In some cultures, extreme practices such as mortification of the flesh or painful rites of passage are highly regarded.

Question: What type of topic is physical pain important in relation to many issues?
Answer: political

Question: Corporal punishment is a form of what type of pain?
Answer: deliberate infliction

Question: How does pain inform attitudes deemed unacceptable?
Answer: deter

Question: What kind of practices do some cultures highly regard?
Answer: extreme

Question: What is corporal punishment used as retribution for?
Answer: an offence
Title: Pain

The most reliable method for assessing pain in most humans is by asking a question: a person may report pain that cannot be detected by any known physiological measure. However, like infants (Latin infans meaning "unable to speak"), animals cannot answer questions about whether they feel pain; thus the defining criterion for pain in humans cannot be applied to them. Philosophers and scientists have responded to this difficulty in a variety of ways. René Descartes for example argued that animals lack consciousness and therefore do not experience pain and suffering in the way that humans do. Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. The ability of invertebrate species of animals, such as insects, to feel pain and suffering is also unclear.

Question: What is the most reliable method of learning about pain in a human?
Answer: asking a question

Question: What can't animals answer?
Answer: whether they feel pain

Question: What did Descartes argue animals lack?
Answer: consciousness

Question: What university is Bernard Rollin associated with?
Answer: Colorado State University

Question: Can invertebrate species of animals like insects feel pain and suffering?
Answer: unclear
Title: Pain

The presence of pain in an animal cannot be known for certain, but it can be inferred through physical and behavioral reactions. Specialists currently believe that all vertebrates can feel pain, and that certain invertebrates, like the octopus, might too. As for other animals, plants, or other entities, their ability to feel physical pain is at present a question beyond scientific reach, since no mechanism is known by which they could have such a feeling. In particular, there are no known nociceptors in groups such as plants, fungi, and most insects, except for instance in fruit flies.

Question: What about pain in an animal isn't able to be known with certainty?
Answer: presence

Question: An animals physical and behavioral reactions may be inferred to indicate the presence of what?
Answer: pain

Question: Who do specialists believe can feel pain?
Answer: vertebrates

Question: No mechanism is known by which what organisms would be able to have a feeling such as pain?
Answer: plants

Question: What do fungi and fruit flies seem to lack?
Answer: nociceptors
Title: Database

A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, and IBM DB2. A database is not generally portable across different DBMSs, but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such as SQL and ODBC or JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS. Database management systems are often classified according to the database model that they support; the most popular database systems since the 1980s have all supported the relational model as represented by the SQL language.[disputed – discuss] Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a 'database'.

Question: What does DBMS stand for?
Answer: database management system

Question: What is the purpose of a DBMS?
Answer: to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases

Question: What is the most popular DBMS?
Answer: SQL language

Question: How are DBMSs classified?
Answer: according to the database model that they support
Title: Database

Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to these data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.

Question: How is data accessed?
Answer: by a "database management system" (DBMS)

Question: How much data can a DBMS store?
Answer: large quantities

Question: A DBMS consists of what?
Answer: an integrated set of computer software
Title: Database

Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. from databases before the inception of Structured Query Language (SQL). The data recovered was disparate, redundant and disorderly, since there was no proper method to fetch it and arrange it in a concrete structure.[citation needed]

Question: What do most database applications contain?
Answer: DBMSs

Question: What is used to recover data if disks suffer a failure?
Answer: RAID

Question: How can large quantities of data be accessed?
Answer: Hardware database accelerators

Question: What is required for a modern DBMS to function?
Answer: standard operating system
Title: Database

A DBMS has evolved into a complex software system and its development typically requires thousands of human years of development effort.[a] Some general-purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s. General-purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity. However, the fact that their development cost can be spread over a large number of users means that they are often the most cost-effective approach. However, a general-purpose DBMS is not always the optimal solution: in some cases a general-purpose DBMS may introduce unnecessary overhead. Therefore, there are many examples of systems that use special-purpose databases. A common example is an email system that performs many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as the insertion and deletion of messages composed of various items of data or associating messages with a particular email address; but these functions are limited to what is required to handle email and don't provide the user with all of the functionality that would be available using a general-purpose DBMS.

Question: How long can it take to create a DBMS?
Answer: thousands of human years

Question: Name three DBMSs that have been used since the 1970s.
Answer: Adabas, Oracle and DB2

Question: How is the cost to create a DBMS distributed?
Answer: spread over a large number of users

Question: Name an example of a general-purpose DBMS.
Answer: an email system
Title: Database

Many other databases have application software that accesses the database on behalf of end-users, without exposing the DBMS interface directly. Application programmers may use a wire protocol directly, or more likely through an application programming interface. Database designers and database administrators interact with the DBMS through dedicated interfaces to build and maintain the applications' databases, and thus need some more knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate and the DBMSs' external interfaces and tuning parameters.

Question: How are many databases accessed?
Answer: application software

Question: How do administrators work with the DBMS?
Answer: through dedicated interfaces

Question: What is a way for programmers to use the DBMS?
Answer: wire protocol