rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: History_of_science

Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

Question: What happened to geology during the Scientific Revolution?
Answer: individual theorists made important contributions

Question: What did Robert Hooke study?
Answer: earthquakes

Question: What theory did Nicholas Steno discover?
Answer: the theory of superposition

Question: What book did Thomas Burnet right in 1681?
Answer: Sacred Theory of the Earth

Question: What text did Burnet base his work off of?
Answer: the Bible
Title: History_of_science

Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.

Question: How old did biblical scholars think the Earth was?
Answer: 6,000 years

Question: Jean-Etienne Guettard and NIcolas Desmarest went to France and recorded what?
Answer: the first geological maps

Question: In the 18th century, what changed geology drastically?
Answer: comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals

Question: What are used to create geological maps?
Answer: index fossils

Question: What geological theory was applied to the Paris Basin?
Answer: layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained
Title: History_of_science

Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.

Question: What changed about the way geology was implemented during the 19th century?
Answer: shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed

Question: The idea of an ice-age that completely covered a continent was suggested by whom?
Answer: Louis Agassiz

Question: What group did Andrew Crombie Ramsay belong to?
Answer: fluvialists

Question: What did Ramsay believe about river valleys?
Answer: were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them

Question: What happened after radioactivity was realized?
Answer: radiometric dating methods were developed
Title: History_of_science

In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.

Question: What was Ignac Fulop Semmelweis' profession?
Answer: physician

Question: How did Semmelweis reduce puerperal fever?
Answer: requiring physicians to wash their hands

Question: What came after the realization that physicians should was their hands before childbirth?
Answer: the germ theory of disease

Question: What did Joseph Lister prove?
Answer: antisepsis

Question: Who did Joseph Lister base his work off of?
Answer: Louis Pasteur
Title: History_of_science

Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).

Question: Which scientist championed the idea of evolution?
Answer: Charles Darwin

Question: What was the name of the book that Darwin wrote about evolution?
Answer: On the Origin of Species

Question: What was the reception of Darwin's ideas about evolution?
Answer: both opposition and support from different parts of society

Question: Who rediscovered the laws of inheritance?
Answer: Moravian monk Gregor Mendel

Question: What was the major break through for the study of genetics?
Answer: the basic structure of DNA
Title: History_of_science

The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.

Question: The discipline of ecology is a combination of what two subjects?
Answer: Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography

Question: What did the work of Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn focus on?
Answer: the cycle of life concept

Question: Who came up with the word "ecology"?
Answer: Ernst Haeckel

Question: When was the Gaia hypothesis discovered?
Answer: in the 1960s

Question: What movement occurred during the 1970s?
Answer: Deep Ecology
Title: History_of_science

Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences[citation needed]. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.

Question: What larger group does political science belong to?
Answer: social sciences

Question: Where did the ideas of political science begin?
Answer: prehistory

Question: In history, where could you find someone studying politics?
Answer: in almost every geographic area
Title: History_of_science

In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.

Question: Where did studying politics originate?
Answer: Ancient Greece

Question: What did Plato study?
Answer: political systems

Question: What method did Plato use to understand political systems?
Answer: philosophy

Question: What did Aristotle add to Plato's work?
Answer: historical empirical evidence
Title: History_of_science

An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–-283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."

Question: Who are Kautilya and Vishnugupta usually grouped with?
Answer: Chāṇakya

Question: What did the Arthasastra say a king must use?
Answer: brutal measures

Question: When was Chanakya alive?
Answer: 350–-283 BCE
Title: History_of_science

With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action[citation needed]. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.

Question: What allowed political studies to spread?
Answer: the fall of the Western Roman Empire

Question: What new idea caused politics to cover a larger spectrum?
Answer: monotheism

Question: Where did politics touch in the Middle Ages?
Answer: churches and courts

Question: Who wrote The City of God?
Answer: Augustine of Hippo

Question: What did The City of God change?
Answer: the borders between what was religious and what was political
Title: History_of_science

Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.

Question: What new subject surface at the end of the 18th century?
Answer: Historical linguistics

Question: Who realized that languages like Sanskrit, Persian, and Greek share the same foundation?
Answer: Sir William Jones

Question: What did Sir William Jones do to document his work?
Answer: catalog all languages of the world

Question: What did Noam Chomsky add to the study of linguistics?
Answer: the development of generative linguistics

Question: What method did Chomsky use to develop generative linguistics?
Answer: a mathematical model of language
Title: History_of_science

The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.

Question: Who wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations?
Answer: Adam Smith

Question: What did Adam Smith's work cover?
Answer: The basis for classical economics

Question: What idea did Adam Smith disagree with?
Answer: mercantilism

Question: What idea did Adam Smith propose?
Answer: an "invisible hand"

Question: Who is Marxian economics named after?
Answer: Karl Marx
Title: History_of_science

In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.

Question: What did John Maynard Keynes want to separate?
Answer: microeconomics and macroeconomics

Question: What concept did Milton Friedman propose after World War II?
Answer: monetarism

Question: How did monaterism aim to control the economy?
Answer: using the supply and demand of money

Question: In the 1970s, what did monaterism turn into?
Answer: supply-side economics

Question: How did supply-side economics try to increase the amount of money in the market?
Answer: reducing taxes
Title: History_of_science

The above "history of economics" reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the to "Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.[clarification needed] It is played down that this "invisible hand" acts only "frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the individual's] intentions" because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his" invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry" is cleansed—often without indication that part of the citation is truncated. The opening passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's message is never mentioned as it cannot be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.

Question: When was Wealth of Nations written?
Answer: 1776

Question: How present was Smith's invisible hand intended to be?
Answer: frequently

Question: What happens in a market when there is competition?
Answer: lower prices

Question: What is the most important part of "Wealth"?
Answer: the division of labour
Title: History_of_science

The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.

Question: What was the beginning of psychology classified as?
Answer: a scientific enterprise

Question: What year is most commonly referred to as the beginning of psychology?
Answer: 1879

Question: Who has the first lab completely dedicated to psychology?
Answer: Wilhelm Wundt

Question: What did Hermann Ebbinghaus study?
Answer: memory studies

Question: What was Ivan Pavlov known for?
Answer: classical conditioning
Title: History_of_science

The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Question: What is the group that human psychology belongs to?
Answer: cognitive science

Question: What is investigated in cognitive science?
Answer: the mind

Question: What inventions advanced the study of cognitive science?
Answer: PET scans and CAT scans

Question: What new technology could be created as a result of studying cognitive science?
Answer: artificial intelligence
Title: History_of_science

Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.

Question: What was Ibn Khaldun's profession?
Answer: scientific systematic sociologist

Question: When did modern sociology surface?
Answer: early 19th century

Question: What is the main goal of sociology?
Answer: understanding the cohesion of social groups

Question: How did Max Weber view rationalization?
Answer: he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage"
Title: History_of_science

American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.

Question: Who was the major proponent of American sociology?
Answer: Talcott Parsons

Question: What did Parsons believe made a functional society?
Answer: structural integration

Question: What was the problem with the views of Parsons?
Answer: inequalities present in the status quo

Question: What idea from Karl Marx was used to combat the problems with structural integration?
Answer: conflict theory

Question: What is the main belief of conflict theory?
Answer: different groups compete for control over resources