rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Humanism

Active in the early 1920s, F.C.S. Schiller labelled his work "humanism" but for Schiller the term referred to the pragmatist philosophy he shared with William James. In 1929, Charles Francis Potter founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included Julian Huxley, John Dewey, Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann. Potter was a minister from the Unitarian tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published Humanism: A New Religion. Throughout the 1930s, Potter was an advocate of such liberal causes as, women’s rights, access to birth control, "civil divorce laws", and an end to capital punishment.

Question: What 19th century author associated his works with humanism?
Answer: F.C.S. Schiller

Question: When was the first public group for Humanist founded?
Answer: 1929

Question: Who created this group?
Answer: Charles Francis Potter

Question: When did Charles Potter and Clara Potter publish their first writings on Humanism?
Answer: 1930
Title: Humanism

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner's Behaviorism. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology.

Question: Who wotked with Carl Rogers on humanistic phycology?
Answer: Abraham Maslow

Question: What is human phycology?
Answer: psychological perspective

Question: In what century did humanistic phycology rise in prominence?
Answer: 20th century

Question: They introduced it in response to what?
Answer: psychoanalysis
Title: Humanism

Raymond B. Bragg, the associate editor of The New Humanist, sought to consolidate the input of Leon Milton Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference. Bragg asked Roy Wood Sellars to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the Humanist Manifesto in 1933. Potter's book and the Manifesto became the cornerstones of modern humanism, the latter declaring a new religion by saying, "any religion that can hope to be a synthesising and dynamic force for today must be shaped for the needs of this age. To establish such a religion is a major necessity of the present." It then presented 15 theses of humanism as foundational principles for this new religion.

Question: What groups thoughts did he seek to include?
Answer: Western Unitarian Conference

Question: Who became responsible in part for the editing of The New Humanist?
Answer: Raymond B. Bragg,

Question: How many cornerstones of this new way of thinking or religion were presented>
Answer: 15

Question: What was the name of the material that was produced from this groups and the opinions of others?
Answer: Humanist Manifesto
Title: Humanism

Renaissance humanism was an activity of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers, who by the late fifteenth century began to be referred to as umanisti – "humanists". It developed during the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries, and was a response to the challenge of scholastic university education, which was then dominated by Aristotelian philosophy and logic. Scholasticism focused on preparing men to be doctors, lawyers or professional theologians, and was taught from approved textbooks in logic, natural philosophy, medicine, law and theology. There were important centres of humanism at Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.

Question: What was the main action of humanism during the Renaissance>
Answer: cultural and educational reform

Question: When did a new term for those who followed Humanism emerge?
Answer: late fifteenth century

Question: Where was one main concentration of Humanism?
Answer: Naples

Question: What was the new term for believers of Humanism philosophy?
Answer: umanisti
Title: Humanism

Humanists reacted against this utilitarian approach and the narrow pedantry associated with it. They sought to create a citizenry (frequently including women) able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity and thus capable of engaging the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. This was to be accomplished through the study of the studia humanitatis, today known as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy. As a program to revive the cultural – and particularly the literary – legacy and moral philosophy of classical antiquity, Humanism was a pervasive cultural mode and not the program of a few isolated geniuses like Rabelais or Erasmus as is still sometimes popularly believed.

Question: What was it about the utilitatian beliefs that humanism believers did not like?
Answer: narrow pedantry

Question: What group that had been to this point neglected was included in this thought?
Answer: women

Question: What foundation of study allowed for the accomplishment of the goal of a scholarly people?
Answer: humanities

Question: Was the humanism of the time limited to scholars?
Answer: pervasive cultural mode
Title: Humanism

Contemporary humanism entails a qualified optimism about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that all people can live up to the Humanist ideals without help. If anything, there is recognition that living up to one's potential is hard work and requires the help of others. The ultimate goal is human flourishing; making life better for all humans, and as the most conscious species, also promoting concern for the welfare of other sentient beings and the planet as a whole. The focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world a better place for those who come after. In 1925, the English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead cautioned: "The prophecy of Francis Bacon has now been fulfilled; and man, who at times dreamt of himself as a little lower than the angels, has submitted to become the servant and the minister of nature. It still remains to be seen whether the same actor can play both parts".

Question: What is contemporary humanism optimistic about?
Answer: capacity of people

Question: What is the main goal of humanism optimistic?
Answer: human flourishing

Question: What is human flourishing?
Answer: making life better

Question: What doesnt conetemporary humanism  believe about human nature?
Answer: purely good
Title: Humanism

Religious humanism is an integration of humanist ethical philosophy with religious rituals and beliefs that centre on human needs, interests, and abilities. Though practitioners of religious humanism did not officially organise under the name of "humanism" until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, non-theistic religions paired with human-centred ethical philosophy have a long history. The Cult of Reason (French: Culte de la Raison) was a religion based on deism devised during the French Revolution by Jacques Hébert, Pierre Gaspard Chaumette and their supporters. In 1793 during the French Revolution, the cathedral Notre Dame de Paris was turned into a "Temple to Reason" and for a time Lady Liberty replaced the Virgin Mary on several altars. In the 1850s, Auguste Comte, the Father of Sociology, founded Positivism, a "religion of humanity". One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organisations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in 1853 in London. This early group was democratically organised, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts. The Ethical Culture movement was founded in 1876. The movement's founder, Felix Adler, a former member of the Free Religious Association, conceived of Ethical Culture as a new religion that would retain the ethical message at the heart of all religions. Ethical Culture was religious in the sense of playing a defining role in people's lives and addressing issues of ultimate concern.

Question: What was included in religious humanism that was similiar to other religion?
Answer: religious rituals

Question: When did practicers of religious humanism form under the name Humanism?
Answer: 19th and early 20th centuries

Question: Who founded a religion whose cornerstone was deism?
Answer: Jacques Hébert

Question: During what time was a religious state replaced in the Notre Dame cathedral with a symbol of Humanism?
Answer: 1793
Title: Humanism

Polemics about humanism have sometimes assumed paradoxical twists and turns. Early 20th century critics such as Ezra Pound, T. E. Hulme, and T. S. Eliot considered humanism to be sentimental "slop" (Hulme)[citation needed] or "an old bitch gone in the teeth" (Pound) and wanted to go back to a more manly, authoritarian society such as (they believed) existed in the Middle Ages. Postmodern critics who are self-described anti-humanists, such as Jean-François Lyotard and Michel Foucault, have asserted that humanism posits an overarching and excessively abstract notion of humanity or universal human nature, which can then be used as a pretext for imperialism and domination of those deemed somehow less than human. "Humanism fabricates the human as much as it fabricates the nonhuman animal", suggests Timothy Laurie, turning the human into what he calls "a placeholder for a range of attributes that have been considered most virtuous among humans (e.g. rationality, altruism), rather than most commonplace (e.g. hunger, anger)". Nevertheless, philosopher Kate Soper notes that by faulting humanism for falling short of its own benevolent ideals, anti-humanism thus frequently "secretes a humanist rhetoric".

Question: Who was one early naysayer of Humanism?
Answer: Ezra Pound

Question: What was the main reason they disagreed with the beliefs?
Answer: sentimental

Question: Who stated Humanism creates of people placeholder?
Answer: Timothy Laurie

Question: Who stated that this argument was in fact support of Humanism?
Answer: Kate Soper
Title: Humanism

In his book, Humanism (1997), Tony Davies calls these critics "humanist anti-humanists". Critics of antihumanism, most notably Jürgen Habermas, counter that while antihumanists may highlight humanism's failure to fulfil its emancipatory ideal, they do not offer an alternative emancipatory project of their own. Others, like the German philosopher Heidegger considered themselves humanists on the model of the ancient Greeks, but thought humanism applied only to the German "race" and specifically to the Nazis and thus, in Davies' words, were anti-humanist humanists. Such a reading of Heidegger's thought is itself deeply controversial; Heidegger includes his own views and critique of Humanism in Letter On Humanism. Davies acknowledges that after the horrific experiences of the wars of the 20th century "it should no longer be possible to formulate phrases like 'the destiny of man' or the 'triumph of human reason' without an instant consciousness of the folly and brutality they drag behind them". For "it is almost impossible to think of a crime that has not been committed in the name of human reason". Yet, he continues, "it would be unwise to simply abandon the ground occupied by the historical humanisms. For one thing humanism remains on many occasions the only available alternative to bigotry and persecution. The freedom to speak and write, to organise and campaign in defence of individual or collective interests, to protest and disobey: all these can only be articulated in humanist terms."

Question: In what year was the book humanism published?
Answer: 1997

Question: In what century was the horrific wars?
Answer: 20th century

Question: What is the only alternative to bigotry and persecution on many occasions?
Answer: humanism

Question: Who wrote the book humanism?
Answer: Tony Davies
Title: Humanism

The ad fontes principle also had many applications. The re-discovery of ancient manuscripts brought a more profound and accurate knowledge of ancient philosophical schools such as Epicureanism, and Neoplatonism, whose Pagan wisdom the humanists, like the Church fathers of old, tended, at least initially, to consider as deriving from divine revelation and thus adaptable to a life of Christian virtue. The line from a drama of Terence, Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto (or with nil for nihil), meaning "I am a human being, I think nothing human alien to me", known since antiquity through the endorsement of Saint Augustine, gained renewed currency as epitomising the humanist attitude. The statement, in a play modeled or borrowed from a (now lost) Greek comedy by Menander, may have originated in a lighthearted vein – as a comic rationale for an old man's meddling – but it quickly became a proverb and throughout the ages was quoted with a deeper meaning, by Cicero and Saint Augustine, to name a few, and most notably by Seneca. Richard Bauman writes:

Question: Who quoted the line of Terence most notably?
Answer: Seneca

Question: What allowed for a deeper understanding and personal exploration of older philosophers theories?
Answer: ancient manuscripts

Question: Who was the most influential supporter of the ideals of Terence?
Answer: Saint Augustine

Question: Who were the Humanists in agreement with about using these manuscripts in their quests for pure Christian living?
Answer: Church fathers
Title: Humanism

Davies identifies Paine's The Age of Reason as "the link between the two major narratives of what Jean-François Lyotard calls the narrative of legitimation": the rationalism of the 18th-century Philosophes and the radical, historically based German 19th-century Biblical criticism of the Hegelians David Friedrich Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach. "The first is political, largely French in inspiration, and projects 'humanity as the hero of liberty'. The second is philosophical, German, seeks the totality and autonomy of knowledge, and stresses understanding rather than freedom as the key to human fulfilment and emancipation. The two themes converged and competed in complex ways in the 19th century and beyond, and between them set the boundaries of its various humanisms. Homo homini deus est ("The human being is a god to humanity" or "god is nothing [other than] the human being to himself"), Feuerbach had written.

Question: What writing was considered a bridge between two other major writings?
Answer: The Age of Reason

Question: Which century was the first writing from?
Answer: 18th-century

Question: Who states imply that humans are their own Gods?
Answer: Feuerbach

Question: What was the origin of the second writing?
Answer: German
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the Earth's mass impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.

Question: The initial state of earth was what?
Answer: molten

Question: What formed on the outside of the earth after it cooled?
Answer: a solid crust

Question: How does the mass of the moon compare to earth?
Answer: about 10% of the Earth's mass

Question: What created a primordial atmosphere on earth?
Answer: Outgassing and volcanic activity

Question: Ice from what source helped to create earths oceans?
Answer: comets

Question: Powerful volcanism contributed to cause early earth to be in what state?
Answer: molten

Question: What occurred in the atmosphere of the earth after the crust was formed?
Answer: water began accumulating

Question: What size of object may have created the moon?
Answer: Mars

Question: When water was creating the oceans what was happening to atmospheric water vapor?
Answer: Condensing
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

The Earth of the early Archean (4,000 to 2,500 million years ago) may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to subduct and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of erosion and subsequent tectonic events.

Question: During what time period was the Archean era?
Answer: 4,000 to 2,500 million years ago

Question: During what period did the earths crust cooling allow the creation of plates?
Answer: Archean

Question: It is believed that a very warm earth would lead to more recycling of what?
Answer: crustal material

Question: What might have a very hot earth stopped from occurring?
Answer: cratonisation and continent formation

Question: What do some believe accounts for the small amount of Archean rocks?
Answer: erosion and subsequent tectonic events
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as graywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments and banded iron formations. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks were derived from volcanic island arcs, while the low-grade metamorphic rocks represent deep-sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island frogs and deposited in a forearc basin. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.

Question: What are Archean rocks composed of, in general?
Answer: metamorphized deep-water sediments

Question: What type of formation is indicated by low and high grade metamorphic rocks?
Answer: Greenstone

Question: From where did high grade Archean rocks originate?
Answer: volcanic island arcs

Question: Low grade metamorphic rocks are composed of what, generally?
Answer: deep-sea sediments

Question: What is a greenstone belt?
Answer: sutured protocontinents
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

The geologic record of the Proterozoic (2,500 to 541 million years ago) is more complete than that for the preceding Archean. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of these rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean-age ones, and plenty are unaltered. Study of these rocks show that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and wholly modern orogenic activity. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 Ma.

Question: During what time period did the Proterozoic era occur?
Answer: 2,500 to 541 million years ago

Question: What era came before the Proterozoic era?
Answer: Archean

Question: In what type of sea did typical Proterozoic geology come to be?
Answer: shallow epicontinental seas

Question: What type of continental behavior was unique to the Proterozoic?
Answer: rapid continental accretion

Question: What is the name for the large super continent that broke apart 750 million years ago?
Answer: Rodinia
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

The Paleozoic spanned from roughly 541 to 252 million years ago (Ma) and is subdivided into six geologic periods; from oldest to youngest they are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area.

Question: During what period was the Paleozoic era?
Answer: 541 to 252 million years ago

Question: How many periods of geology are within the Paleozoic era?
Answer: six

Question: The Permian is an example of what?
Answer: geologic periods

Question: After what continental event did the Paleozoic begin?
Answer: breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia

Question: What continent was formed at the end of the Paleozoic?
Answer: Pangaea
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma. Cambrian continents are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a Neoproterozoic supercontinent called Pannotia. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. Continental drift rates may have been anomalously high. Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia remained independent continents following the break-up of the supercontinent of Pannotia. Gondwana started to drift toward the South Pole. Panthalassa covered most of the southern hemisphere, and minor oceans included the Proto-Tethys Ocean, Iapetus Ocean and Khanty Ocean.

Question: At what rough time did the Cambrian era start?
Answer: 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma.

Question: What were the continents of the Cambrian area believed to have formerly been a part of?
Answer: Pannotia

Question: What continent moved to the southern-most part of the earth in the Cambrian era?
Answer: Gondwana

Question: What continent ranged over the majority of the southern hemisphere of earth in the Cambrian?
Answer: Panthalassa

Question: Baltica and Sibera are examples of what thing, during the Cambrian era?
Answer: independent continents
Title: Geological_history_of_Earth

The Ordovician Period started at a major extinction event called the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events some time about 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma. During the Ordovician the southern continents were collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in the equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician the continents Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica were still independent continents (since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but Baltica began to move toward Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean to shrink between them. Also, Avalonia broke free from Gondwana and began to head north toward Laurentia. The Rheic Ocean was formed as a result of this. By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.

Question: How long ago did the Ordovician period begin?
Answer: 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma.

Question: Which event precipitated the Ordovician period?
Answer: the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction

Question: What was the name of the large southernmost continent during the Ordovician?
Answer: Gondwana

Question: Which ocean decreased in size with the movement of Baltica in the Ordovician?
Answer: Iapetus Ocean

Question: What continent fractured off Gondwana in the direction of Laurentia?
Answer: Avalonia