rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Energy

As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.

Question: As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in what?
Answer: irreversible states

Question: What is it referred to when more and more of energy becomes trapped in irreversible states?
Answer: inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe

Question: In this heat death of energy, what does not change?
Answer: energy of the universe
Title: Energy

According to conservation of energy, energy can neither be created (produced) nor destroyed by itself. It can only be transformed. The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. Energy is subject to a strict global conservation law; that is, whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.

Question: According to what, energy can neither be created nor destroyed by itself?
Answer: conservation of energy

Question: The total inflow of energy into a system must equal what?
Answer: total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system

Question: What can neither be created nor destroyed by itself; it can only be transformed?
Answer: energy
Title: Energy

This law is a fundamental principle of physics. As shown rigorously by Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable. This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.

Question: What shows that the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time?
Answer: Noether's theorem

Question: What is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time?
Answer: energy

Question: This mathematical entanglement of energy and time results in what?
Answer: the uncertainty principle

Question: What states it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval?
Answer: uncertainty principle
Title: Energy

In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena.

Question: What are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons?
Answer: Virtual photons

Question: What is responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges?
Answer: Virtual photons

Question: What results in Coulomb law?
Answer: electrostatic interaction between electric charges
Title: Energy

Energy transfer can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter. The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system. The portion of the energy which does not do work during the transfer is called heat.[note 4] Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy,[note 5] and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.

Question: What can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter?
Answer: Energy transfer

Question: The portion of energy which does not do work during the transfer is called what?
Answer: heat

Question: Give one example of how energy can be transferred between systems?
Answer: transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons
Title: Energy

The first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy (but not necessarily thermodynamic free energy) is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer. For homogeneous systems, with a well-defined temperature and pressure, a commonly used corollary of the first law is that, for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes, the differential change in the internal energy of the system (with a gain in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given as

Question: What asserts that energy is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer.
Answer: first law of thermodynamics

Question: The first law of thermodynamics asserts that what is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer?
Answer: energy

Question: What is a commonly used corollary of the first law?
Answer: for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes
Title: Energy

This principle is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (i.e., given new available energy states that are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between "new" and "old" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics.

Question: What is the principle that is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy?
Answer: entropy

Question: What is entropy?
Answer: measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system

Question: What is the mathematical result when an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom?
Answer: second law of thermodynamics
Title: East_Prussia

East Prussia enclosed the bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians. During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights. The indigenous Balts who survived the conquest were gradually converted to Christianity. Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Poles and Lithuanians formed minorities. From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. After the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 it became a fief of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1525, with the Prussian Homage, the province became the Duchy of Prussia. The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century.

Question: Who defeated the native Prussians during the 13 century?
Answer: Teutonic Knights

Question: What other groups during this period for form minorities?
Answer: Poles and Lithuanians

Question: The Balts were gradually converted into which religion?
Answer: Christianity

Question: Which ethnic group become dominant following the 13 century just a few hundred years later?
Answer: Germans

Question: Around when did the Old Prussian language become extinct?
Answer: 17th or early 18th century
Title: East_Prussia

Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire, the prince-electors of Brandenburg were able to proclaim themselves King of Prussia beginning in 1701. After the annexation of most of western Royal Prussia in the First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, eastern (ducal) Prussia was connected by land with the rest of the Prussian state and was reorganized as a province the following year (1773). Between 1829 and 1878, the Province of East Prussia was joined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia.

Question: Why were the prince electors able to proclaim themselves King of Prussia?
Answer: Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire

Question: In what year were the prince electors elect them selves as King?
Answer: 1701

Question: What time period did East Prussia and West Prussia join to become Prussia?
Answer: Prussia
Title: East_Prussia

The Kingdom of Prussia became the leading state of the German Empire after its creation in 1871. However, the Treaty of Versailles following World War I granted West Prussia to Poland and made East Prussia an exclave of Weimar Germany (the new Polish Corridor separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany), while the Memel Territory was detached and was annexed by Lithuania in 1923. Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, war-torn East Prussia was divided at Joseph Stalin's insistence between the Soviet Union (the Kaliningrad Oblast in the Russian SFSR and the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region in the Lithuanian SSR) and the People's Republic of Poland (the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship). The capital city Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946. The German population of the province was largely evacuated during the war or expelled shortly thereafter in the expulsion of Germans after World War II. An estimated 300,000 (around one fifth of the population) died either in war time bombings raids or in the battles to defend the province.[citation needed]

Question: What year did the Kingdom of Prussia become the leading state of the German Empire?
Answer: 1871

Question: What well known treaty would eventually would grant West Prussia to Poland?
Answer: Versailles

Question: What year did the Nazi's fall in World War II?
Answer: 1945

Question: How many died trying to defend the province in Kaliningrad?
Answer: 300,000
Title: East_Prussia

Upon the invitation of Duke Konrad I of Masovia, the Teutonic Knights took possession of Prussia in the 13th century and created a monastic state to administer the conquered Old Prussians. Local Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms were gradually Germanised. The Knights' expansionist policies, including occupation of Polish Pomerania with Gdańsk/Danzig and western Lithuania, brought them into conflict with the Kingdom of Poland and embroiled them in several wars, culminating in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War, whereby the united armies of Poland and Lithuania, defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410. Its defeat was formalised in the Second Treaty of Thorn in 1466 ending the Thirteen Years' War, and leaving the former Polish region Pomerania/Pomerelia under Polish control. Together with Warmia it formed the province of Royal Prussia. Eastern Prussia remained under the Knights, but as a fief of Poland. 1466 and 1525 arrangements by kings of Poland were not verified by the Holy Roman Empire as well as the previous gains of the Teutonic Knights were not verified.

Question: Which group took possession of Prussia in the 13th century?
Answer: Teutonic Knights

Question: Which two areas were slowly Germanized during the 13th century?
Answer: Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms

Question: What did the knights of expansionist polices eventually lead to?
Answer: several wars

Question: What year was the Second Treaty of Thorn enacted?
Answer: 1466
Title: East_Prussia

The Teutonic Order lost eastern Prussia when Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach converted to Lutheranism and secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order in 1525. Albert established himself as the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia and a vassal of the Polish crown by the Prussian Homage. Walter von Cronberg, the next Grand Master, was enfeoffed with the title to Prussia after the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, but the Order never regained possession of the territory. In 1569 the Hohenzollern prince-electors of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became co-regents with Albert's son, the feeble-minded Albert Frederick.

Question: Who converted to Lutheranism and secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order?
Answer: Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach

Question: In what year did The Teutonic Order lose Eastern Prussia?
Answer: 1525

Question: What did Albert establish himself as?
Answer: first duke of the Duchy of Prussia
Title: East_Prussia

The Administrator of Prussia, the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order Maximilian III, son of emperor Maximilian II died in 1618. When Maximilian died, Albert's line died out, and the Duchy of Prussia passed to the Electors of Brandenburg, forming Brandenburg-Prussia. Taking advantage of the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655, and instead of fulfilling his vassal's duties towards the Polish Kingdom, by joining forces with the Swedes and subsequent treaties of Wehlau, Labiau, and Oliva, Elector and Duke Frederick William succeeded in revoking king of Poland's sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia in 1660. The absolutist elector also subdued the noble estates of Prussia.

Question: In what year did Maximilian III die?
Answer: 1618

Question: What happened as a result of Maximilian's death?
Answer: Albert's line died out

Question: Who revoked the King of Poland's sovereignty over Prussia in 1660?
Answer: Frederick William
Title: East_Prussia

Although Brandenburg was a part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Prussian lands were not within the Holy Roman Empire and were with the administration by the Teutonic Order grandmasters under jurisdiction of the Emperor. In return for supporting Emperor Leopold I in the War of the Spanish Succession, Elector Frederick III was allowed to crown himself "King in Prussia" in 1701. The new kingdom ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty became known as the Kingdom of Prussia. The designation "Kingdom of Prussia" was gradually applied to the various lands of Brandenburg-Prussia. To differentiate from the larger entity, the former Duchy of Prussia became known as Altpreußen ("Old Prussia"), the province of Prussia, or "East Prussia".

Question: Brandenburg was part of what dominating force?
Answer: Holy Roman Empire

Question: What jurisdiction was the Prussian lands under?
Answer: Teutonic Order

Question: Who elected there self as King of Prussia in 1701?
Answer: Frederick III

Question: What did the former Duchy of Prussia become known as?
Answer: Altpreußen ("Old Prussia")
Title: East_Prussia

Approximately one-third of East Prussia's population died in the plague and famine of 1709–1711, including the last speakers of Old Prussian. The plague, probably brought by foreign troops during the Great Northern War, killed 250,000 East Prussians, especially in the province's eastern regions. Crown Prince Frederick William I led the rebuilding of East Prussia, founding numerous towns. Thousands of Protestants expelled from the Archbishopric of Salzburg were allowed to settle in depleted East Prussia. The province was overrun by Imperial Russian troops during the Seven Years' War.

Question: What wiped out one third of East Prussia's population during the early 1700's?
Answer: the plague and famine

Question: What was lost in Prussia's history during the Plague?
Answer: speakers of Old Prussian

Question: What military overran much of East Prussia?
Answer: Russian troops
Title: East_Prussia

In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e. the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby bridging the "Polish Corridor" between his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting remaining Poland off the Baltic Coast. The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1773 were named East Prussia. The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn). The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1773, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself a King "of" Prussia.

Question: In what year was Royal Prussia annexed?
Answer: 1772

Question: In what year was the territory of Warmia incorporated? 
Answer: 31 January 1773

Question: What was ratified in 1773 in Prussia?
Answer: The Polish Partition Sejm
Title: East_Prussia

After the disastrous defeat of the Prussian Army at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, Napoleon occupied Berlin and had the officials of the Prussian General Directory swear an oath of allegiance to him, while King Frederick William III and his consort Louise fled via Königsberg and the Curonian Spit to Memel. The French troops immediately took up pursuit but were delayed in the Battle of Eylau on 9 February 1807 by an East Prussian contingent under General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq. Napoleon had to stay at the Finckenstein Palace, but in May, after a siege of 75 days, his troops led by Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre were able to capture the city Danzig, which had been tenaciously defended by General Count Friedrich Adolf von Kalkreuth. On 14 June, Napoleon ended the War of the Fourth Coalition with his victory at the Battle of Friedland. Frederick William and Queen Louise met with Napoleon for peace negotiations, and on 9 July the Prussian king signed the Treaty of Tilsit.

Question: What defeat led to Prussia having to swear its allegiance to Napoleon?
Answer: Battle of Jena-Auerstedt

Question: What city did King Frederick William use to flee Prussia?
Answer: Königsberg

Question: What year did Napoleon end of the War of the Fourth Coalition?
Answer: 1807
Title: East_Prussia

The succeeding Prussian reforms instigated by Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg included the implementation of an Oberlandesgericht appellation court at Königsberg, a municipal corporation, economic freedom as well as emancipation of the serfs and Jews. In the course of the Prussian restoration by the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the East Prussian territories were re-arranged in the Regierungsbezirke of Gumbinnen and Königsberg. From 1905, the southern districts of East Prussia formed the separate Regierungsbezirk of Allenstein. East and West Prussia were first united in personal union in 1824, and then merged in a real union in 1829 to form the Province of Prussia. The united province was again split into separate East and West Prussian provinces in 1878.

Question: Who instigated the Prussian reforms?
Answer: Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg

Question: What was included in the reform?
Answer: emancipation of the serfs and Jews

Question: In what year was East and West Prussia first united?
Answer: 1824

Question: When did East and West Prussia split again?
Answer: 1878
Title: East_Prussia

The population of the province in 1900 was 1,996,626 people, with a religious makeup of 1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics, and 13,877 Jews. The Low Prussian dialect predominated in East Prussia, although High Prussian was spoken in Warmia. The numbers of Masurians, Kursenieki and Prussian Lithuanians decreased over time due to the process of Germanization. The Polish-speaking population concentrated in the south of the province (Masuria and Warmia) and all German geographic atlases at the start of 20th century showed the southern part of East Prussia as Polish with the number of Poles estimated at the time to be 300,000. Kursenieki inhabited the areas around the Curonian lagoon, while Lithuanian-speaking Prussians concentrated in the northeast in (Lithuania Minor). The Old Prussian ethnic group became completely Germanized over time and the Old Prussian language died out in the 18th century.

Question: Was the population of the Prussian province in 1900?
Answer: 1,996,626 people

Question: Which religious group made up the majority of the population in Prussia?
Answer: Protestants

Question: Due to Germanization which three groups saw a decrease in Prussia?
Answer: Masurians, Kursenieki and Prussian Lithuanians
Title: East_Prussia

At the beginning of World War I, East Prussia became a theatre of war when the Russian Empire invaded the country. The Russian Army encountered at first little resistance because the bulk of the German Army had been directed towards the Western Front according to the Schlieffen Plan. Despite early success and the capture of the towns of Rastenburg and Gumbinnen, in the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914 and the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes in 1915, the Russians were decisively defeated and forced to retreat. The Russians were followed by the German Army advancing into Russian territory.

Question: Which country invaded east Prussia in World War I?
Answer: Russian Empire

Question: Why did the Russian army face such little resistance when moving through Prussia?
Answer: German Army had been directed towards the Western Front

Question: In what year did the battle of Tannenberg take place?
Answer: 1914
Title: East_Prussia

With the forced abdication of Emperor William II in 1918, Germany became a republic. Most of West Prussia and the former Prussian Province of Posen, territories annexed by Prussia in the 18th century Partitions of Poland, were ceded to the Second Polish Republic according to the Treaty of Versailles. East Prussia became an exclave, being separated from mainland Germany. After the Treaty of Versailles, East Prussia was separated from Germany as an exclave; the Memelland was also separated from the province. Because most of West Prussia became part of the Second Polish Republic as the Polish Corridor, the formerly West Prussian Marienwerder region became part of East Prussia (as Regierungsbezirk Westpreußen). Also Soldau district in Allenstein region was part of Second Polish Republic. The Seedienst Ostpreußen was established to provide an independent transport service to East Prussia.

Question: In what year did Germany become a republic?
Answer: 1918

Question: What was implemented that separated East Prussia from Germany?
Answer: Treaty of Versailles

Question: What was implemented to provide transport to East Prussia?
Answer: The Seedienst Ostpreußen