rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Biodiversity

Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species. Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always apparent from morphological (outward appearance) observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal adaptation, and not all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species' existence.

Question: What can threaten endemic species with extinction?
Answer: genetic pollution

Question: What are another names for genetic pollution?
Answer: uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping

Question: What causes genetic pollution?
Answer: either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species

Question: What are are side-effects of introduction and invasion?
Answer: Hybridization and introgression

Question: What behavior causes swamping of a gene pool?
Answer: The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species
Title: Biodiversity

The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."

Question: What is the estimate age of the Earth?
Answer: about 4.54 billion years old

Question: What era contains the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth?
Answer: the Eoarchean Era

Question: What is the name of the era that predated life on Earth?
Answer: Hadean Eon

Question: Where were the billion year old microbial mat fossils found?
Answer: Western Australia

Question: Where were the 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered?
Answer: Western Greenland
Title: Biodiversity

The fossil record suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in history. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections. Some scientists believe that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago., whereas others consider the fossil record reasonably reflective of the diversification of life. Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million, the vast majority arthropods. Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection.

Question: What suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in history?
Answer: The fossil record

Question: Why are some scientists uncertain about the fossil record?
Answer: how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections.

Question: What is the estimate variation of the present global macroscopic species diversity?
Answer: from 2 million to 100 million

Question: What appears increase continually in the absence of natural selection?
Answer: Diversity
Title: Biodiversity

Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is ‘planned’ diversity or ‘associated’ diversity. This is a functional classification that we impose and not an intrinsic feature of life or diversity. Planned diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised (e.g.: crops, covers, symbionts and livestock, among others), which can be contrasted with the associated diversity that arrives among the crops, uninvited (e.g.: herbivores, weed species and pathogens, among others).

Question: What are two types of Agricultural diversity?
Answer: ‘planned’ diversity or ‘associated’ diversity

Question: What type of diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised?
Answer: Planned diversity

Question: What type of diversity arrives uninvited?
Answer: associated diversity

Question: What type of diversity includes herbivores and pathogens?
Answer: associated diversity
Title: Biodiversity

Biodiversity's relevance to human health is becoming an international political issue, as scientific evidence builds on the global health implications of biodiversity loss. This issue is closely linked with the issue of climate change, as many of the anticipated health risks of climate change are associated with changes in biodiversity (e.g. changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agricultural biodiversity and food resources etc.) This is because the species most likely to disappear are those that buffer against infectious disease transmission, while surviving species tend to be the ones that increase disease transmission, such as that of West Nile Virus, Lyme disease and Hantavirus, according to a study done co-authored by Felicia Keesing, an ecologist at Bard College, and Drew Harvell, associate director for Environment of the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future (ACSF) at Cornell University.

Question: What is becoming an international political issue?
Answer: Biodiversity's relevance to human health

Question: What issue is closely linked with changes in biodiversity?
Answer: climate change

Question: What changes in biodiversity have an effect on the climate?
Answer: changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agricultural biodiversity and food resources

Question: What types of species disappear when a new disease is introduced?
Answer: those that buffer against infectious disease transmission
Title: Biodiversity

Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Question: How many mass extinctions have happened since Life began on Earth?
Answer: five major mass extinctions

Question: When was the period where the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared?
Answer: the Cambrian explosion

Question: What happened in the Carboniferous?
Answer: rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life.

Question: When was the Permian–Triassic extinction event?
Answer: 251 million years ago

Question: How long did vertebrate recovery take?
Answer: 30 million years
Title: Biodiversity

The number of species invasions has been on the rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s. Species are increasingly being moved by humans (on purpose and accidentally). In some cases the invaders are causing drastic changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer in the Great Lakes region and the lion fish along the North American Atlantic coast). Some evidence suggests that invasive species are competitive in their new habitats because they are subject to less pathogen disturbance. Others report confounding evidence that occasionally suggest that species-rich communities harbor many native and exotic species simultaneously while some say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals. An important question is, "do invasive species cause extinctions?" Many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives, but not extinctions. Invasive species seem to increase local (i.e.: alpha diversity) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity (i.e.: beta diversity). Overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes, but even some of the most insidious invaders (e.g.: Dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in North America) have not caused their host species to become extinct. Extirpation, population decline, and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. Human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers, by introducing them for food and other purposes. Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range.

Question: What century started the increase of species invasions?
Answer: 1900s

Question: Who intentionally and unintentionally moves species around?
Answer: humans

Question: What invaders are causing changes in the Great Lakes region?
Answer: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer

Question: What invaders are causing changes along the North American Atlantic coast?
Answer: lion fish
Title: Biodiversity

Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else.[citation needed] The island of Madagascar and India are also particularly notable. Colombia is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth can be found in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species, and 18% of the bird species of the world. Madagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of endemism.[citation needed] Since the island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently.[citation needed] Indonesia's 17,000 islands cover 735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km2) and contain 10% of the world's flowering plants, 12% of mammals, and 17% of reptiles, amphibians and birds—along with nearly 240 million people. Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise from specialized habitats which require unusual adaptations, for example, alpine environments in high mountains, or Northern European peat bogs.[citation needed]

Question: How many plant species does Brazil's Atlantic Forest contain?
Answer: 20,000 plant species

Question: How many vertebrates does Brazil's Atlantic Forest contain?
Answer: 1,350 vertebrates

Question: Which country has the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide?
Answer: Colombia

Question: Which country has about 10% of the species on Earth?
Answer: Colombia

Question: What island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago?
Answer: Madagascar
Title: Biodiversity

The existence of a "global carrying capacity", limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is the question of whether such a limit would also cap the number of species. While records of life in the sea shows a logistic pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods)shows an exponential rise in diversity. As one author states, "Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 per cent of potentially habitable modes, and it could be that without human influence the ecological and taxonomic diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase in an exponential fashion until most or all of the available ecospace is filled."

Question: What limits the amount of life that can live at once on Earth?
Answer: global carrying capacity

Question: What type of animal shows a logistic pattern of growth?
Answer: life in the sea

Question: What type of animal shows an exponential rise in diversity?
Answer: life on land

Question: What percentage of potentially habitable modes have Tetrapods not yet invaded?
Answer: 64 per cent
Title: Biodiversity

From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to reach a plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century. Sir David King, former chief scientific adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor." At least until the middle of the 21st century, worldwide losses of pristine biodiverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide human birth rate.

Question: What was the increase in population from 1950 to 2011?
Answer: world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion

Question: What year started the increase of population to 7 billion?
Answer: From 1950

Question: What is the forecast plateau that the population will reach during the 21st century?
Answer: more than 9 billion

Question: Who is the former chief scientific adviser to the UK government?
Answer: Sir David King
Title: Biodiversity

The control of associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face. On monoculture farms, the approach is generally to eradicate associated diversity using a suite of biologically destructive pesticides, mechanized tools and transgenic engineering techniques, then to rotate crops. Although some polyculture farmers use the same techniques, they also employ integrated pest management strategies as well as strategies that are more labor-intensive, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy.

Question: What farms use biologically destructive pesticides
Answer: monoculture farms

Question: What is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face?
Answer: The control of associated biodiversity

Question: What farmers use integrated pest management strategies?
Answer: polyculture farmers

Question: What farmers are generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy?
Answer: polyculture farmers
Title: Biodiversity

National park and nature reserve is the area selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against damage or degradation with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation. National parks are usually owned and managed by national or state governments. A limit is placed on the number of visitors permitted to enter certain fragile areas. Designated trails or roads are created. The visitors are allowed to enter only for study, cultural and recreation purposes. Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals are prohibited. Exploitation of habitat or wildlife is banned.

Question: What types of parks receive special protection against damage or degradation?
Answer: National park and nature reserve

Question: Who selects National parks?
Answer: governments or private organizations

Question: What is the goal of protecting National Parks from damage?
Answer: with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation

Question: Who usually owns and manages National parks?
Answer: national or state governments

Question: What activities are prohibited in national parks?
Answer: Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals
Title: Biodiversity

During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, German Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050. Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with extinction. Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory). This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because few species emerge each year.[citation needed] Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates. As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years.

Question: Who is the German Federal Environment Minister?
Answer: Sigmar Gabriel

Question: What year did Gabriel estimate 30% of of all species will be extinct by?
Answer: 2050

Question: How many plant species are close to extinction?
Answer: about one eighth

Question: 2012 studies estimated what percentage of mammals could be extinct in 20 years?
Answer: 25%
Title: Biodiversity

Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community).[citation needed]

Question: What is systematically related to the numbers of species?
Answer: Habitat size

Question: What animals are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area?
Answer: Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans

Question: How is a standardized ecosystem formed?
Answer: monoculture following deforestation

Question: What leads to biodiversity loss is some countries?
Answer: lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement
Title: Biodiversity

Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences.

Question: What animal unintentionally invaded the US waterways?
Answer: the zebra mussel

Question: What animal intentionally invaded Hawaii?
Answer: mongooses

Question: What animals were not vulnerable to the mongoose?
Answer: nocturnal rats

Question: What countries experienced unintended consequences from species invasion?
Answer: Indonesia and Malaysia,
Title: Biodiversity

Less than 1% of all species that have been described have been studied beyond simply noting their existence. The vast majority of Earth's species are microbial. Contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on the visible [macroscopic] world". For example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life (see e.g., extremophile). "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder—"to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects". Insect extinction rates are high—supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis.

Question: What type of science is firmly fixated on the visible world?
Answer: Contemporary biodiversity physics

Question: What type of life is more metabolically diverse than multicellular life?
Answer: microbial life

Question: What type of life is more enviromentally diverse than multicellular life?
Answer: microbial life

Question: What rate supports the Holocene extinction hypothesis?
Answer: Insect extinction rates
Title: Biodiversity

The number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is an essential component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines and other resources to mankind. The richness of biodiversity depends on the climatic conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 70,000 species of plants are known till date. All species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc.

Question: What term describes the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms in existence?
Answer: biodiversity

Question: What ensures the survival of human species by providing food, shelter, other resources to mankind?
Answer: biodiversity

Question: What influences richness of biodiversity?
Answer: the climatic conditions and area of the region

Question: What term describes all the species of plants in existence?
Answer: flora
Title: Biodiversity

The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in the year 1968 lay book A Different Kind of Country advocating conservation. The term was widely adopted only after more than a decade, when in the 1980s it came into common usage in science and environmental policy. Thomas Lovejoy, in the foreword to the book Conservation Biology, introduced the term to the scientific community. Until then the term "natural diversity" was common, introduced by The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, "The Preservation of Natural Diversity." By the early 1980s TNC's Science program and its head, Robert E. Jenkins, Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America advocated the use of the term "biological diversity".

Question: Which scientist first used the term biological diversity?
Answer: Raymond F. Dasmann

Question: What book first contained the term biological diversity?
Answer: A Different Kind of Country

Question: What decade did the term biological diversity become common usage in science and economics?
Answer: the 1980s

Question: Who introduced the term biological diversity to the scientific community?
Answer: Thomas Lovejoy

Question: What term was common before biological diversity?
Answer: "natural diversity"