rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: Neptune

In the wake of the discovery, there was much nationalistic rivalry between the French and the British over who deserved credit for the discovery. Eventually, an international consensus emerged that both Le Verrier and Adams jointly deserved credit. Since 1966, Dennis Rawlins has questioned the credibility of Adams's claim to co-discovery, and the issue was re-evaluated by historians with the return in 1998 of the "Neptune papers" (historical documents) to the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. After reviewing the documents, they suggest that "Adams does not deserve equal credit with Le Verrier for the discovery of Neptune. That credit belongs only to the person who succeeded both in predicting the planet's place and in convincing astronomers to search for it."

Question: What two countries argued over credit for the discovery of Neptune? 
Answer: French and the British

Question: Who ultimately deserved credit for the discovery of Neptune? 
Answer: Le Verrier and Adams

Question: Who questioned Adams's claim to co-discovery of Neptune? 
Answer: Dennis Rawlins

Question: Who predicted Neptune's place and convinced astronomer's to search for it? 
Answer: Le Verrier

Question: Who did not deserve credit to co-discovery of Neptune? 
Answer: Adams
Title: Neptune

Claiming the right to name his discovery, Le Verrier quickly proposed the name Neptune for this new planet, though falsely stating that this had been officially approved by the French Bureau des Longitudes. In October, he sought to name the planet Le Verrier, after himself, and he had loyal support in this from the observatory director, François Arago. This suggestion met with stiff resistance outside France. French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name Herschel for Uranus, after that planet's discoverer Sir William Herschel, and Leverrier for the new planet.

Question: Who claimed the right to name Neptune? 
Answer: Le Verrier

Question: What country approved Neptune's first name? 
Answer: France

Question: What did the discoverer want to name Neptune first? 
Answer: Le Verrier

Question: What first introduced Neptune and Uranus's names? 
Answer: French almanacs

Question: Who did not approve of the first name for Neptune? 
Answer: French Bureau des Longitudes
Title: Neptune

Most languages today, even in countries that have no direct link to Greco-Roman culture, use some variant of the name "Neptune" for the planet. However, in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, the planet's name was translated as "sea king star" (海王星), because Neptune was the god of the sea. In Mongolian, Neptune is called Dalain Van (Далайн ван), reflecting its namesake god's role as the ruler of the sea. In modern Greek the planet is called Poseidon (Ποσειδώνας, Poseidonas), the Greek counterpart of Neptune. In Hebrew, "Rahab" (רהב), from a Biblical sea monster mentioned in the Book of Psalms, was selected in a vote managed by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 2009 as the official name for the planet, even though the existing Latin term "Neptun" (נפטון) is commonly used. In Māori, the planet is called Tangaroa, named after the Māori god of the sea. In Nahuatl, the planet is called Tlāloccītlalli, named after the rain god Tlāloc.

Question: What is the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean translations for Neptune? 
Answer: sea king star

Question: What god was Neptune? 
Answer: god of the sea

Question: What is the Mongolian name for Neptune? 
Answer: Dalain Van

Question: What did the Greeks call Neptune? 
Answer: Poseidon

Question: What was the Biblical sea monster that Neptune is named in Hebrew? 
Answer: Rahab
Title: Neptune

From its discovery in 1846 until the subsequent discovery of Pluto in 1930, Neptune was the farthest known planet. When Pluto was discovered it was considered a planet, and Neptune thus became the penultimate known planet, except for a 20-year period between 1979 and 1999 when Pluto's elliptical orbit brought it closer to the Sun than Neptune. The discovery of the Kuiper belt in 1992 led many astronomers to debate whether Pluto should be considered a planet or as part of the Kuiper belt. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union defined the word "planet" for the first time, reclassifying Pluto as a "dwarf planet" and making Neptune once again the outermost known planet in the Solar System.

Question: What was Neptune before Pluto was discovered? 
Answer: farthest known planet

Question: What discovery made astronomer's debate Pluto's status as a planet? 
Answer: the Kuiper belt

Question: What year did the International Astronomical Union define the word planet? 
Answer: 2006

Question: Now that Pluto isn't a planet, what is Neptune known for in our solar system? 
Answer: the outermost known planet

Question: What period was Pluto closer to the sun than Neptune? 
Answer: between 1979 and 1999
Title: Neptune

Neptune's mass of 1.0243×1026 kg, is intermediate between Earth and the larger gas giants: it is 17 times that of Earth but just 1/19th that of Jupiter.[d] Its gravity at 1 bar is 11.15 m/s2, 1.14 times the surface gravity of Earth, and surpassed only by Jupiter. Neptune's equatorial radius of 24,764 km is nearly four times that of Earth. Neptune, like Uranus, is an ice giant, a subclass of giant planet, due to their smaller size and higher concentrations of volatiles relative to Jupiter and Saturn. In the search for extrasolar planets, Neptune has been used as a metonym: discovered bodies of similar mass are often referred to as "Neptunes", just as scientists refer to various extrasolar bodies as "Jupiters".

Question: What is Neptune's mass? 
Answer: 1.0243×1026 kg

Question: How much more mass does Neptune have compared to Earth? 
Answer: 17 times

Question: What is Neptune's gravity at 1 bar? 
Answer: 11.15 m/s2

Question: What is Neptune's equatorial radius? 
Answer: 24,764 km

Question: What is Neptune referred to due to it's size and concentration of volatiles? 
Answer: ice giant
Title: Neptune

The mantle is equivalent to 10 to 15 Earth masses and is rich in water, ammonia and methane. As is customary in planetary science, this mixture is referred to as icy even though it is a hot, dense fluid. This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water–ammonia ocean. The mantle may consist of a layer of ionic water in which the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen lattice. At a depth of 7000 km, the conditions may be such that methane decomposes into diamond crystals that rain downwards like hailstones. Very-high-pressure experiments at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that the base of the mantle may comprise an ocean of liquid carbon with floating solid 'diamonds'.

Question: What is Neptune's mantle rich in? 
Answer: water, ammonia and methane

Question: What is the hot, dense fluid in Neptune referred to as? 
Answer: icy

Question: What does the fluid in Neptune have a high conductivity of? 
Answer: electrical

Question: How deep does Neptune's water-ammonia ocean go? 
Answer: 7000 km

Question: What rains on Neptune? 
Answer: diamond crystals
Title: Neptune

At high altitudes, Neptune's atmosphere is 80% hydrogen and 19% helium. A trace amount of methane is also present. Prominent absorption bands of methane exist at wavelengths above 600 nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. As with Uranus, this absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its blue hue, although Neptune's vivid azure differs from Uranus's milder cyan. Because Neptune's atmospheric methane content is similar to that of Uranus, some unknown atmospheric constituent is thought to contribute to Neptune's colour.

Question: What is Neptune's atmosphere made of? 
Answer: 80% hydrogen and 19% helium

Question: Where are absorption bands of methane on Neptune? 
Answer: wavelengths above 600 nm

Question: What gives Neptune it's blue hue? 
Answer: absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane

Question: What planet also gets it's color from atmospheric constituent? 
Answer: Uranus

Question: What color is Uranus, compared to Neptune? 
Answer: cyan
Title: Neptune

Models suggest that Neptune's troposphere is banded by clouds of varying compositions depending on altitude. The upper-level clouds lie at pressures below one bar, where the temperature is suitable for methane to condense. For pressures between one and five bars (100 and 500 kPa), clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are thought to form. Above a pressure of five bars, the clouds may consist of ammonia, ammonium sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and water. Deeper clouds of water ice should be found at pressures of about 50 bars (5.0 MPa), where the temperature reaches 273 K (0 °C). Underneath, clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide may be found.

Question: What is Neptune's clouds competition variants dependent on? 
Answer: altitude

Question: Which clouds on Neptune are suitable for methane to condense?  
Answer: upper-level

Question: What clouds form between one and five bars on Neptune? 
Answer: ammonia and hydrogen sulfide

Question: On Neptune, what do clouds above five bars consist of? 
Answer: ammonia, ammonium sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and water

Question: What is the temperature on Neptune's clouds that are at 50 bars? 
Answer: 273 K (0 °C)
Title: Neptune

High-altitude clouds on Neptune have been observed casting shadows on the opaque cloud deck below. There are also high-altitude cloud bands that wrap around the planet at constant latitude. These circumferential bands have widths of 50–150 km and lie about 50–110 km above the cloud deck. These altitudes are in the layer where weather occurs, the troposphere. Weather does not occur in the higher stratosphere or thermosphere. Unlike Uranus, Neptune's composition has a higher volume of ocean, whereas Uranus has a smaller mantle.

Question: On Neptune, which clouds cast shadows on the cloud deck below it? 
Answer: High-altitude clouds

Question: What are the widths of the cloud bands on Neptune? 
Answer: 50–150 km

Question: Where are the high altitude bands of clouds on Neptune? 
Answer: 50–110 km above the cloud deck.

Question: What does Neptune have more of compared to Uranus? 
Answer: volume of ocean

Question: Where on Neptune does weather not occur? 
Answer: higher stratosphere or thermosphere
Title: Neptune

For reasons that remain obscure, the planet's thermosphere is at an anomalously high temperature of about 750 K. The planet is too far from the Sun for this heat to be generated by ultraviolet radiation. One candidate for a heating mechanism is atmospheric interaction with ions in the planet's magnetic field. Other candidates are gravity waves from the interior that dissipate in the atmosphere. The thermosphere contains traces of carbon dioxide and water, which may have been deposited from external sources such as meteorites and dust.

Question: What is Neptune's temperature in the thermosphere? 
Answer: 750 K

Question: What would interact with Neptune's magnetic field to make it warm?
Answer: atmospheric interaction with ions

Question: Where would gravity waves in Neptune's interior dissipate? 
Answer: in the atmosphere

Question: What does Neptune's thermosphere containers traces of? 
Answer: carbon dioxide and water
Title: Neptune

Neptune also resembles Uranus in its magnetosphere, with a magnetic field strongly tilted relative to its rotational axis at 47° and offset at least 0.55 radii, or about 13500 km from the planet's physical centre. Before Voyager 2's arrival at Neptune, it was hypothesised that Uranus's tilted magnetosphere was the result of its sideways rotation. In comparing the magnetic fields of the two planets, scientists now think the extreme orientation may be characteristic of flows in the planets' interiors. This field may be generated by convective fluid motions in a thin spherical shell of electrically conducting liquids (probably a combination of ammonia, methane and water) resulting in a dynamo action.

Question: What is the rotational axis of Neptune's magnetic field? 
Answer: 47°

Question: Where is Neptune's magnetic field offset from the physical centre? 
Answer: 0.55 radii

Question: What planet besides Neptune has a sideways rotation? 
Answer: Uranus's

Question: What might cause Neptune's extreme orientation? 
Answer: flows in the planets' interiors

Question: What fluids are in Neptune's interior? 
Answer: ammonia, methane and water
Title: Neptune

The dipole component of the magnetic field at the magnetic equator of Neptune is about 14 microteslas (0.14 G). The dipole magnetic moment of Neptune is about 2.2 × 1017 T·m3 (14 μT·RN3, where RN is the radius of Neptune). Neptune's magnetic field has a complex geometry that includes relatively large contributions from non-dipolar components, including a strong quadrupole moment that may exceed the dipole moment in strength. By contrast, Earth, Jupiter and Saturn have only relatively small quadrupole moments, and their fields are less tilted from the polar axis. The large quadrupole moment of Neptune may be the result of offset from the planet's centre and geometrical constraints of the field's dynamo generator.

Question: What is Neptune's dipole magnetic moment? 
Answer: 2.2 × 1017 T·m3

Question: What is one of Neptune's non-dipolar component what may exceed the dipole moment in strength? 
Answer: strong quadrupole moment

Question: Which three planets have small quadrupole moments compared to Neptune?
Answer: Earth, Jupiter and Saturn

Question: Besides the geometrical constraints of Neptune's dynamo generator, what is another result of the quadrupole moment?
Answer: the planet's centre

Question: What is the dipole component of the magnetic field at the magnetic equator of neptune?
Answer: 14 microteslas (0.14 G)
Title: Neptune

Neptune has a planetary ring system, though one much less substantial than that of Saturn. The rings may consist of ice particles coated with silicates or carbon-based material, which most likely gives them a reddish hue. The three main rings are the narrow Adams Ring, 63,000 km from the centre of Neptune, the Le Verrier Ring, at 53,000 km, and the broader, fainter Galle Ring, at 42,000 km. A faint outward extension to the Le Verrier Ring has been named Lassell; it is bounded at its outer edge by the Arago Ring at 57,000 km.

Question: What system, like Saturn, does Neptune have? 
Answer: planetary ring system

Question: What might Neptune's rings consist of?
Answer: ice particles

Question: What might the ice particles of Neptune's rings be coated with?
Answer: silicates or carbon-based material

Question: Where is Adams ring from the center of Neptune?
Answer: 63,000 km

Question: Where is the La Verrier ring from the center of Neptune?
Answer: 53,000 km
Title: Neptune

Neptune's weather is characterised by extremely dynamic storm systems, with winds reaching speeds of almost 600 m/s (2,200 km/h; 1,300 mph)—nearly reaching supersonic flow. More typically, by tracking the motion of persistent clouds, wind speeds have been shown to vary from 20 m/s in the easterly direction to 325 m/s westward. At the cloud tops, the prevailing winds range in speed from 400 m/s along the equator to 250 m/s at the poles. Most of the winds on Neptune move in a direction opposite the planet's rotation. The general pattern of winds showed prograde rotation at high latitudes vs. retrograde rotation at lower latitudes. The difference in flow direction is thought to be a "skin effect" and not due to any deeper atmospheric processes. At 70° S latitude, a high-speed jet travels at a speed of 300 m/s.

Question: What dynamic weather does Neptune have?
Answer: storm

Question: What does Neptune's wind speeds reach? 
Answer: 600 m/s (2,200 km/h; 1,300 mph)

Question: What is the high wind speed on Neptune's cloud tops?
Answer: 400 m/s

Question: Which direction does Neptune's winds move relevant to the plant's rotation?
Answer: opposite

Question: What is the effect called that describes the flow direction on Neptune? 
Answer: skin effect
Title: Neptune

In 2007, it was discovered that the upper troposphere of Neptune's south pole was about 10 K warmer than the rest of its atmosphere, which averages approximately 73 K (−200 °C). The temperature differential is enough to let methane, which elsewhere is frozen in the troposphere, escape into the stratosphere near the pole. The relative "hot spot" is due to Neptune's axial tilt, which has exposed the south pole to the Sun for the last quarter of Neptune's year, or roughly 40 Earth years. As Neptune slowly moves towards the opposite side of the Sun, the south pole will be darkened and the north pole illuminated, causing the methane release to shift to the north pole.

Question: How much warmer is Neptune's south pole to the rest of it's atmosphere? 
Answer: 10 K

Question: Where does methane in the south pole escape to on Neptune? 
Answer: the stratosphere near the pole.

Question: What is the average temperature of Neptune's south pole? 
Answer: 73 K (−200 °C).

Question: How many earth years is Neptune's south pole exposed to the sun?
Answer: 40

Question: To which pole will Neptune's methane shift to as it moves to the opposite side of the sun?
Answer: north pole
Title: Neptune

The Scooter is another storm, a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot. This nickname first arose during the months leading up to the Voyager 2 encounter in 1989, when they were observed moving at speeds faster than the Great Dark Spot (and images acquired later would subsequently reveal the presence of clouds moving even faster than those that had initially been detected by Voyager 2). The Small Dark Spot is a southern cyclonic storm, the second-most-intense storm observed during the 1989 encounter. It was initially completely dark, but as Voyager 2 approached the planet, a bright core developed and can be seen in most of the highest-resolution images.

Question: What white cloud group on Neptune is farther south than the dark great spot?
Answer: The Scooter

Question: When was The Scooter on Neptune observed?
Answer: 1989

Question: What type of storm is The Scooter on Neptune? 
Answer: southern cyclonic storm

Question: What detected the storms on Neptune? 
Answer: Voyager 2)

Question: What is the second most intense storm on Neptune? 
Answer: The Small Dark Spot
Title: Neptune

Neptune's dark spots are thought to occur in the troposphere at lower altitudes than the brighter cloud features, so they appear as holes in the upper cloud decks. As they are stable features that can persist for several months, they are thought to be vortex structures. Often associated with dark spots are brighter, persistent methane clouds that form around the tropopause layer. The persistence of companion clouds shows that some former dark spots may continue to exist as cyclones even though they are no longer visible as a dark feature. Dark spots may dissipate when they migrate too close to the equator or possibly through some other unknown mechanism.

Question: Where are Neptune's dark spots thought to occur? 
Answer: in the troposphere

Question: What do Neptune's dark spots appear as in the cloud decks? 
Answer: holes

Question: Since Neptune's dark spots persist for several months, what are they thought to be?
Answer: vortex structures

Question: What on Neptune are associated with dark spots that are brighter?
Answer: methane clouds

Question: When Neptune's dark spots migrate too close to the equator, what do they do?
Answer: dissipate
Title: Neptune

Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating. Although Neptune lies over 50% further from the Sun than Uranus, and receives only 40% its amount of sunlight, the two planets' surface temperatures are roughly equal. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of 51.8 K (−221.3 °C). At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa), the temperature is 72.00 K (−201.15 °C). Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is sufficient to drive the fastest planetary winds seen in the Solar System. Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is more difficult to simultaneously explain Uranus's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets.

Question: Why might Neptune have more varied weather than Uranus?
Answer: higher internal heating

Question: How much farther is Neptune from the Sun than Uranus?
Answer: 50%

Question: How much percentage of the sun does Neptune get compared to Uranus?
Answer: 40%

Question: How much more energy does Neptune radiate than it receives? 
Answer: 2.61

Question: The current heat flow on Neptune might be explained by what?
Answer: heat left over from Neptune's formation
Title: Neptune

On 11 July 2011, Neptune completed its first full barycentric orbit since its discovery in 1846, although it did not appear at its exact discovery position in the sky, because Earth was in a different location in its 365.26-day orbit. Because of the motion of the Sun in relation to the barycentre of the Solar System, on 11 July Neptune was also not at its exact discovery position in relation to the Sun; if the more common heliocentric coordinate system is used, the discovery longitude was reached on 12 July 2011.

Question: When did Neptune complete it's first barycentric orbit since it's discovery?
Answer: 11 July 2011

Question: What is the Earth's orbit?
Answer: 365.26-day

Question: Why didn't Neptune appear to be in it's exact discover position? 
Answer: Earth was in a different location

Question: Using the heliocentric coordinate system, when did Neptune reach the discovery longitude? 
Answer: 12 July 2011
Title: Neptune

Neptune's orbit has a profound impact on the region directly beyond it, known as the Kuiper belt. The Kuiper belt is a ring of small icy worlds, similar to the asteroid belt but far larger, extending from Neptune's orbit at 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun. Much in the same way that Jupiter's gravity dominates the asteroid belt, shaping its structure, so Neptune's gravity dominates the Kuiper belt. Over the age of the Solar System, certain regions of the Kuiper belt became destabilised by Neptune's gravity, creating gaps in the Kuiper belt's structure. The region between 40 and 42 AU is an example.

Question: What is the region behind Neptune called? 
Answer: Kuiper belt

Question: What does the Kuiper belt consist of?
Answer: small icy worlds

Question: Where is the Kuiper belt relative to Neptune?
Answer: 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun

Question: What dominates the Kuiper belt? 
Answer: Neptune's gravity

Question: What did Neptune's gravity do to Kuiper belt? 
Answer: gaps in the Kuiper belt's structure