rajpurkar/squad huggingface dataset:
Title: History_of_science

In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.

Question: What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession?
Answer: mathematician

Question: Where does the word "algebra" come from?
Answer: al-jabr

Question: Where did Arabic numerals originate?
Answer: India

Question: What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals?
Answer: decimal point notation

Question: What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to?
Answer: chemistry and medicine
Title: History_of_science

In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.

Question: Whose work did Al-Battani improve?
Answer: Hipparchus

Question: What does He Megale Syntaxis mean?
Answer: The great treatise

Question: Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon?
Answer: the Earth's axis

Question: The geocentric model is similar to what other model?
Answer: Copernican heliocentric model
Title: History_of_science

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

Question: Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy?
Answer: Ibn Sina

Question: What method did Ibn Sina introduce?
Answer: clinical trials

Question: What does Kitab al-shifa mean?
Answer: Book of Healing

Question: The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what?
Answer: standard medicinal texts

Question: What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases?
Answer: contagious
Title: History_of_science

An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."

Question: When were medieval universities created?
Answer: the 12th century

Question: Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators?
Answer: Raymond of Toledo

Question: At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into?
Answer: Latin

Question: Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly?
Answer: Michael Scotus
Title: History_of_science

At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.

Question: What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries?
Answer: Latin

Question: Who favored empirical methods?
Answer: Bacon

Question: Who favored mathematics?
Answer: Grosseteste

Question: Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277?
Answer: Pierre Duhem

Question: What era was important for scientific advancements?
Answer: the Middle Ages
Title: History_of_science

The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

Question: Who pioneered parsimony?
Answer: William of Ockham

Question: What theory is based off of projectiles' motion?
Answer: impetus

Question: What theory did impetus pave the way for?
Answer: inertia

Question: What did the Oxford Calculators measure?
Answer: the kinematics of motion
Title: History_of_science

In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.

Question: What year did the Black Death occur?
Answer: 1348

Question: What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars?
Answer: the Fall of Constantinople in 1453

Question: The invention of printing improved which society?
Answer: European

Question: Printed word enabled what?
Answer: a faster propagation of new ideas

Question: What type of mathematics aided in developing European science?
Answer: Algebra
Title: History_of_science

The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

Question: The focus on learning in the 12th century is referred to as what?
Answer: Scholasticism

Question: What began at the same time Scholasticism ended?
Answer: the Black Death

Question: Which era came after Scholasticism?
Answer: Italian Renaissance

Question: What was the focus of the Northern Renaissance?
Answer: chemistry and the biological sciences

Question: Which scientist was known for working on human cadavers?
Answer: Vesalius
Title: History_of_science

The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.

Question: What was the Scientific Revolution?
Answer: a period of major scientific advancements

Question: What year is considered to be the beginning of the Scientific Revolution?
Answer: 1543

Question: What book by Andreas Vesalius was published in 1543?
Answer: De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)

Question: What was the focus of De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus?
Answer: the Earth moved around the Sun

Question: What book was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
Answer: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
Title: History_of_science

The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century "Age of Reason" opened the avenues to the decisive steps towards modern science, which took place during the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), epitomized in the appearance of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie between 1751 and 1772. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire), the French Revolution of 1789 setting a bloody cesura indicating the beginning of political modernity[citation needed]. The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.

Question: The Age of Reason made way for which movement?
Answer: Age of Enlightenment

Question: What event is considered to be the start of political modernity?
Answer: the French Revolution of 1789

Question: What book did Denis Diderot write?
Answer: Encyclopédie
Title: History_of_science

The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.

Question: Which movement took place during the 19th century?
Answer: The Romantic Movement

Question: What theory did Darwin introduce?
Answer: theory of evolution

Question: Which physics subject was affected by The Romantic Movement?
Answer: electromagnetism

Question: What caused Romanticism to end?
Answer: Positivism

Question: What year did Positivism end?
Answer: 1880
Title: History_of_science

The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method.

Question: Which movement is considered to be a dividing line between ancient thought and classical physics?
Answer: The scientific revolution

Question: Who made the heliocentric model popular?
Answer: Nicolaus Copernicus

Question: Johannes Kepler created a model of what?
Answer: planetary motion

Question: What did Johannes Kepler's model suggest about the planets?
Answer: the planets follow elliptical orbits

Question: What was Galileo's nickname?
Answer: Father of Modern Physics
Title: History_of_science

In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).

Question: What work was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
Answer: the Principia Mathematica

Question: How many theories were included within the Principia Mathematica?
Answer: two

Question: What concept did the Law of Gravitation deal with?
Answer: the fundamental force of gravity

Question: What are Maxwell's equations about?
Answer: electromagnetism
Title: History_of_science

The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.

Question: What science subject explains anomalous results?
Answer: quantum theories

Question: What year did Einstein discover the theory of general relativity?
Answer: 1915

Question: Quantum theories became which subject in 1925?
Answer: quantum mechanics

Question: Which scientist noticed the relationship between the speed and distance of galaxies?
Answer: Edwin Hubble

Question: Edwin Hubble's discovery about galaxies allowed for which theory by Georges Lemaitre?
Answer: the Big Bang theory
Title: History_of_science

In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.

Question: Who discovered nuclear fission?
Answer: Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann

Question: Who edited the first paper about nuclear fission?
Answer: Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler

Question: What event was going on during the creation of the atomic bomb?
Answer: World War II

Question: The atomic bomb was a part of which movement?
Answer: Big Science

Question: What is the problem with general relativity and quantum mechanics?
Answer: inconsistent with each other
Title: History_of_science

Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when 'chymistry' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

Question: When did modern chemistry come into existence?
Answer: the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries

Question: Who decided that chemistry and alchemy were different?
Answer: Robert Boyle

Question: What book was written by Robert Boyle in 1661?
Answer: The Sceptical Chymist

Question: What was Antoine Lavoisier's nickname?
Answer: Father of Modern Chemistry

Question: Which theory did the law of conservation of mass disagree with?
Answer: phlogiston theory
Title: History_of_science

The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.

Question: What scientific act is Friedrich Wohler known for?
Answer: The synthesis of urea

Question: What scientific field did Wohler discover?
Answer: organic chemistry

Question: Late 19th century is marked by what event?
Answer: the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals

Question: Mixing organic chemistry with living organisms created what early form of biochemistry?
Answer: physiological chemistry

Question: Who wrote The Nature of the Chemical Bond?
Answer: Linus Pauling
Title: History_of_science

Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.

Question: What was the work of Theophrastus on rocks called?
Answer: Peri lithōn

Question: When were Theophrastus' ideas about fossils proven false?
Answer: the Scientific Revolution

Question: When did Shen Kua live?
Answer: 1031–1095

Question: What science did Shen Kua observe?
Answer: land formation