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1: author: Yarrow,Noah Bunce
2: author: Surbakti,Soedarti
3: author: Cooper,Rachel Danielle
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docna: 0: docna: Inclusion in Indonesia's Education
            Sector : A Subnational Review of Gender Gaps and Children
            with Disabilities
docty: Policy Research Working Paper
subtopic: Educational Sciences,Gender and Development,Social Cohesion,Inequality,Disability
teratopic: Education,Gender,Social Development,Poverty Reduction,Social Protections and Labor
abstracts: cdata!: This study seeks to examine gender gaps
            and disability issues in education in Indonesia, and to
            suggest policy actions as well as future analytical and
            operational work to address these differences. Field visits
            were conducted to uncover drivers of gender differences, as
            well as issues of social inclusion, and to explore policy
            approaches to improve learning outcomes and educational
            achievement for all children. Secondary data analysis shows
            that Indonesia has demonstrated great progress on gender
            parity in education; however, the national averages mask
            important variations at the subnational level, including
            variations of significant male and female disadvantage
            between and within provinces. Women are still
            underrepresented in school and government leadership
            positions, as well as the workforce overall. Despite women
            making up the majority of the teaching workforce, men
            dominate the management and leadership roles in schools. The
            study also reveals significant challenges and offers policy
            recommendations to ensure inclusivity in education for
            children with disabilities.
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            Sector : A Subnational Review of Gender Gaps and Children
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display_title: Inclusion in Indonesia's
            Education Sector : A Subnational Review of Gender Gaps and
            Children with Disabilities
listing_relative_url: /research/2020/06/32138620/inclusion-indonesias-education-sector-subnational-review-gender-gaps-children-disabilities
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publishtoextweb_dt: 2020-06-17T00:00:00Z
historic_topic: Education,Gender,Social Development,Poverty Reduction,Social Protections and Labor
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model_extractions: Policy Research Working Paper 9282

# Inclusion in Indonesia’s Education Sector

A Subnational Review of Gender Gaps and Children with Disabilities _Rythia Afkar Noah Yarrow Soedarti Surbakti Rachel Cooper_ Education Global Practice June 2020
Policy Research Working Paper 9282

# **Abstract**

This study seeks to examine gender gaps and disability issues in education in Indonesia, and to suggest policy actions as well as future analytical and operational work to address these differences. Field visits were conducted to uncover drivers of gender differences, as well as issues of social inclusion, and to explore policy approaches to improve learning outcomes and educational achievement for all children. Secondary data analysis shows that Indonesia has demonstrated great progress on gender parity in education; however, the national averages mask important variations at the subnational level, including variations of significant male and female disadvantage between and within provinces. Women are still underrepresented in school and government leadership positions, as well as the workforce overall. Despite women making up the majority of the teaching workforce, men dominate the management and leadership roles in schools. The study also reveals significant challenges and offers policy recommendations to ensure inclusivity in education for children with disabilities.

This paper is a product of the Education Global Practice with support from the Australian Government. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/ prwp. The authors may be contacted at rafkar@worldbank.org or nyarrow@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
# **Inclusion in Indonesia’s Education Sector: A Subnational Review of Gender Gaps and Children with Disabilities**

Rythia Afkar, Noah Yarrow, Soedarti Surbakti, Rachel Cooper _JEL codes_ : I24, I25, J16 _Keywords_ : gender gap, education, Indonesia, female labor force participation, disability This paper is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. Funding for this research has been generously provided by the Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, through the Improving Dimensions of Teaching, Education Management and Learning <u>Environment program (ID-TEMAN). We thank the UNICEF team in Jakarta for providing input and</u> comments, and Alexander Michael Tjahjadi for excellent research assistance.

The authors can be contacted at rafkar@worldbank.org (Rythia Afkar) and nyarrow@worldbank.org (Noah Yarrow).
# 1. Introduction

_“The population of Indonesia has reached around 260 million people, half of which are female. There is tremendous potential from their economic participation, in addition to their strategic role within the family,”_ Sri Mulyani Indrawati (Minister of Finance, Indonesia) and Retno Marsudi (Minister of External Affairs, Indonesia). November 7, 2017.<sup>1</sup> Indonesia is home to 260 million people<sup>2</sup> spread over thousands of islands and has made considerable progress toward gender equality over the past decade, with improved rates of literacy, school enrollment and employment, and policies enacted to pave the way for a more **gender-equitable society.**<sup>3</sup> In the 1970s, the GPI (Gender Parity Index) for school enrollment rates for children 7-12 years old was 0.89, signaling a significant disparity in favor of males.<sup>4</sup> The gap was even wider in older children, with the GPI for school enrollment rates of 13-15 year-olds and 16-18 year-olds at 0.78 and 0.55, respectively, showing a strong female disadvantage. However, by 2019, progress toward gender parity in education participation had been achieved at the national level, with a GPI of 1.00 for school enrollment rates of 7- 12-year-olds. The ratios for 13-15-year-olds and 16-18-year-olds have now shifted to a slight female advantage, with a GPI of 1.02 and 1.03, respectively. Policies and national targets have helped to achieve greater gender equity in education, including Presidential Decree No. 9/2000 on Gender Mainstreaming in the National Development Planning and Programming; the strategic plans of MoEC (Ministry of Education and Culture) and MoRA (Ministry of Religious Affairs), the two main ministries in the education sector, and RPJMN (Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional/National Medium Term Development Plan).

Despite the massive expansion of school enrollment, Indonesia still faces challenges in its human capital development. The World Bank’s Human Capital Index (HCI) utilizes health and education indicators to measure the amount of human capital a child born today can expect to attain by the age of 18, ranking Indonesia 87 of 157 countries with a 2018 score of 0.53. This means that a child born in Indonesia today will be 53 percent as productive when she grows up as she could be if she enjoyed complete education and full health. While Indonesia’s overall score is higher than the average of lower-middle-income countries (0.48), its score still falls behind the global and East Asia Pacific (EAP) averages, at 0.57 and 0.61, respectively.<sup>5</sup> Across the five indicators that comprise the 2018 HCI, scores for girls are higher than for boys, with girls achieving an HCI of 0.55 compared with 0.52 for boys. With regard to education, girls’ learning-adjusted years of school is 8.1 compared with 7.8 for boys, demonstrating a pervasive female advantage when it comes to education in Indonesia; expected years of school and harmonized test scores are also higher for girls.<sup>6</sup>

> 1 Sri Mulyani Indrawati and Marsudi, R. (2017). Girls’ education and the future of a nation. World Bank: 3 November 2017. <u>http://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/girls-education-and-future-nation?CID=EDU_TT_Education_EN_EXT</u>

> 2 World Bank (2018). Population, total: <u>https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL</u>

> 3 The 1945 Constitution of Indonesia; Education Law No. 20/2003; Presidential Decree No. 9/2000 on Gender Mainstreaming in the National Development Planning and Programming; National Education System Law No. 20/2000; Ministry of Home Affairs Regulation No. 15/2008; Ministry of Education Regulation No. 84/2008; National Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN) 20102014; MoEC and MoRA Medium-Term Education Strategic Development Plan,  2010-2014; MoEC National Gender Mainstreaming Working Group (Pokja Gender PUG).

> 4 GPI is a ratio of female to male values of a given indicator.

> 5 <u>https://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/hci/HCI_2pager_IDN.pdf</u>

> 6 - World Bank (2018). Human Capital Project: <u>http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/human capital</u>

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**Table 1. Indonesia Human Capital Index by gender (2018)**

|Component|Boys|Girls|Overall|
|---|---|---|---|
|HCI|0.52|0.55|0.53|
|Survival to Age 5|0.97|0.98|0.97|
|Expected Years of School|12.2|12.4|12.3|
|Harmonized Test Scores|398|408|403|
|Learning-adjusted Years of School|7.8|8.1|7.9|
|Adult Survival Rate|0.8|0.86|0.83|
|Not Stunted Rate|0.65|0.67|0.66|

Source: World Bank Human Capital Project Globally, girls tend to do better than boys on international standardized tests of reading, including the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (Stoet and Geary, PLOS ONE, March 2013). Indonesia is on-trend with this global statistic, with girls outperforming boys by a wide margin (Figure. 1).

**Figure 1. Trends in reading, PISA 2000-18, by gender**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 425 419<br>415 410 409<br>402<br>405<br>394<br>395<br>383<br>380<br>385<br>386<br>375 384 383 382<br>365<br>369<br>355<br>360<br>358<br>345<br>2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018<br>Year<br>Boys Girls<br>Reading Score<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: PISA, OECD, various years In mathematics, boys’ mean performance in OECD countries is on average five points higher than girls’, and girls outperformed boys in science just by two score points (OECD 2019, PISA Insights and Interpretations). In Indonesia, however, girls scored higher than boys in mathematics by 10 score points, and girls outperformed boys in science by seven score points (OECD 2019, Indonesia Country Note). These gendered trends in performance start early in Indonesia. Based on a sample of more than 10,000 children between the ages of 6 and 9 in rural Indonesia, a World Bank study found higher levels of cognitive skills for girls on language and mathematics test scores. For example, at age 6, girls on average have a significantly higher score than boys by 0.25 standard deviation in Bahasa Indonesia and 0.24 standard deviation in mathematics. The same study found that 8-year-old girls perform significantly better than boys in non-cognitive skills, with higher scores on the social competence (0.25 standard deviation) and 3
emotional maturity domains (0.3 standard deviation) of the Early Development Instrument, a finding consistent with research from high-income countries (World Bank, 2016).

Despite the national trends of girls outperforming boys across the key metrics in schools, rates vary across the country in terms of both enrollment and performance. In Sukamara Regency, Central Kalimantan, for example, the GPI for the school enrollment rate of 16- to 18-year-olds is 1.56, showing a significant disadvantage of boys; the percentage of boys enrolled is 61 percent while the percentage of girls enrolled is 95 percent. Girls also face disadvantages in different regions, for example, in Probolinggo Regency, East Java, which has a GPI of 0.62, meaning that the percentage of boys enrolled is about one and a half times the percentage of girls.<sup>7</sup>

**Figure 2. Gender Parity Index (GPI) based on School Participation Rate 16- to 18-year-olds across districts in East Java Province**

<!-- Start of picture text -->
1.40<br>1.20<br>1.00<br>0.80<br>0.60<br>0.40<br>0.20<br>0.00<br>Source: Susenas 2018, processed.<br>Kab. Pacitan Kab. Ponorogo Kab. Trenggalek Kab. Tulungagung Kab. Blitar Kab. Kediri Kab. Malang Kab. Lumajang Kab. Jember Kab. Banyuwangi Kab. Bondowoso Kab. Situbondo Kab. Probolinggo Kab. Pasuruan Kab. Sidoarjo Kab. Mojokerto Kab. Jombang Kab. Nganjuk Kab. Madiun Kab. Magetan Kab. Ngawi Kab. Bojonegoro Kab. Tuban Kab. Lamongan Kab. Gresik Kab. Bangkalan Kab. Sampang Kab. Pamekasan Kab. Sumenep Kota Kediri Kota Blitar Kota Malang Kota Probolinggo Kota Pasuruan Kota Mojokerto Kota Madiun Kota Surabaya Kota Batu<br><!-- End of picture text -->

In response to data that show a high degree of variance in gender gaps in education in Indonesia, a team at the World Bank conducted a subnational research sample study to examine issues of gender gaps throughout the country and across different indicators, as well as issues related to students with disabilities. This study focuses primarily on the social inclusion issue of gender, while also referencing issues faced by children with disabilities—an issue that is garnering greater attention in Indonesia through the ratification of national policies, as well as international frameworks.<sup>8</sup> Findings from field visits are coupled with reviews of the literature related to school enrollment, student achievement, early marriage, literacy, labor force participation, and other studies on gender and disability in Indonesia, to determine how national trends are exhibited at local levels and what gaps in gender equality are masked by the national figures.

> 7 Calculated using Susenas 2018.

> 8 Social inclusion is defined by the World Bank as “the process of improving the terms for individuals to take part in society” and “the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and dignity of people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to take part in society” (World Bank, 2013; Inclusion Matters: The Foundation for Shared Prosperity).

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The purpose of the study is to examine gender and inclusion differences in education, and to suggest policy actions as well as future analytical and operational work to address these differences.

# 2. Methodology

The research design for the study was informed by several sources of data. Data examination of the National Social-economic Household Survey (Susenas), the National Labor Force Survey (Sakernas), Dapodik, EMIS, and the 2010 Population Census was conducted to collect gender-disaggregated data on student enrollment rates, and the composition of teacher and administrative staff in the workforce, as well as disability information. This review and analysis of existing data sources allowed for the identification of areas of subnational gender variation in education attainment and other indicators.

Susenas collects data at the household and individual levels on many aspects of social and economic characteristics, such as: consumption, labor, health and other household variables. Sakernas is a survey that is specifically designed for labor data collection. Both Susenas and Sakernas are nationally representative surveys conducted by BPS ( _Biro Pusat Statistik_ /Central Bureau of Statistics) and used by the government for national planning documents. The population census, also conducted by BPS, records the number, composition, distribution, and selected characteristics of the population with national coverage.

Administrative data used in this study is the MoEC’s Dapodik and the MoRA’s EMIS. Dapodik records selfreported information on: (i) school-level data (public-private, ownership status, establishment date, accreditation status, availability of Internet, the number of school facilities and their condition); (ii) student-level data (sex, learning groups, parents’ information); and (iii) teacher-level data (sex, employment status, certification status, education qualification). EMIS records data on Islamic schools under the MoRA, including: number of students (data available by grade depending on the published year), number and condition (good, mild-/medium-/heavy- damaged) of school facilities such as classrooms, library, laboratories (computer, science, language), ownership status (public/private), and official instructional hours. Data reliability of Dapodik and EMIS is still an issue due to large variation in school operators’ competency in managing the data system and the lack of a verification mechanism. Nevertheless, local governments use Dapodik and EMIS in their planning documents as well, because they are the only administrative data available at the school level.

Based on a desk review, districts were identified for a deeper dive to conduct the qualitative analysis to better understand gender gaps in education. Districts were selected based on existing gender gaps in enrollment at different levels of education, coupled with data on adult literacy rates, school completion rates and reports on child marriage. Field visits were conducted to selected districts in two provinces to uncover drivers of gender differences, as well as issues of social inclusion, and to explore policy approaches to improve learning outcomes and educational achievement for all children. Interviews were held with local government education officers, MoRA provincial-level and district-level education officers, and school and _madrasah_ principals. During school and _madrasah_ visits, focus group discussions were held with supervisors, teachers, parents and students. Interviews were also held with several MoEC and MoRA officials in the central government, as well as an official from the Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection (MoWECP).

There were some limitations that impacted the district selection for field visits. A number of provinces were off limits due to natural disasters, such as the earthquake and tsunami in Sulawesi, and areas that were difficult to reach, such as Nusa Tenggara and Papua. With these constraints in mind, the provinces of East Java and South Kalimantan were selected.

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# 2.1. Characteristics of Selected Districts

Table 2: Gender Parity Index for Net Enrollment Rates and Literacy Rates

|Gender<br>Parity<br>Index (GPI)<br>for:|Education<br>Level|National|East Java<br>Province|Bangkalan<br>District|Sampang<br>District|South<br>Kalimantan<br>Province|Banjar Baru<br>District|Banjarmasin<br>District|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Net<br>Enrollment<br>Rates (NER)|Primary<br>Jr. Secondary|0.99<br>1.01|0.99<br>1.00|1.00<br>0.79|0.98<br>0.89|0.98<br>1.01|0.97<br>1.14|0.96<br>1.10|
||Sr. Secondary|1.03|1.00|0.97|1.05|1.02|0.82|0.80|
|Literacy<br>rates (ages<br>50+)||0.88|0.81|0.75|0.76|0.93|0.96|0.97|

_Notes: GPI is a_ _<mark>ratio of female to male values of a given indicator. GPI for NER is a ratio of female NER to male NER. GPI for literacy is a ratio of female literacy rates to male literacy rates.</mark>_ <mark>Source: Susenas 2018.</mark>

## **_Province 1: East Java_**

The province of East Java is located on the eastern most end of the island of Java and includes the island of Madura. The population of the province is about 39.3 million people, representing 15 percent of Indonesia’s total population. The population sex ratio is 97.5, showing a higher population of females to males.<sup>9</sup> The province’s early marriage rate—a measure of marriage before 18 years of age—is 24.5 percent, meaning that around one-fourth of ever-married women aged 20-24 married before 18 years of age, and the province is ranked 14 of 33 provinces in terms of the prevalence of early marriage (UNICEF, 2016). The national average for early marriage is 23 percent. The average GPI for NERs at primary up to senior secondary school is 1.01. While the literacy<sup>10</sup> gap is insignificant for the younger generation, the gap in favor of males for older population is nearly 17 percent, or 5 percent higher than the national average. This means that women aged 50 and older are on average 17 percent less literate than men in the same age group.

In terms of teaching staff, there are about 40,000 more female teachers than male teachers at the primary level, while there are about equal numbers of female and male teachers at the junior secondary and senior secondary levels.<sup>11</sup> In terms of school principals, there are only 8,900 female principals, or 32 percent of total principals in East Java.

Two districts in East Java were selected for visits for this study, namely Bangkalan and Sampang, both of which are located on the island of Madura, which was noted by several interviewees during field visits as an area of the country that has been “left behind” in education. In 2018, the average GPI for NERs in Bangkalan at senior secondary is 0.97 and, among the population aged 50 years and over, women are 24 percent less literate than men.<sup>12</sup> In Sampang, the average GPI for NERs at the three different school levels is also 0.97, and there is a 15-percentage-point gender gap in literacy in the 50-years-and-over age group.

> 9 BPS (2018). _Statistik Indonesia 2018_ : https://www.bps.go.id/publication/2018/07/03/5a963c1ea9b0fed6497d0845/statistik- <u>indonesia-2018.html</u>

> 10 Literacy rate is the percentage of population who can read and write simple sentences.

> 11 Overview of Education and Cultural Data 2017/18.

> 12 Susenas 2018.

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### **_Province 2: South Kalimantan_**

South Kalimantan, located in southern Borneo, has a population of 4.1 million people. There is a higher population of males than females, with a population sex ratio is of 102.9.<sup>13</sup> Unlike East Java, South Kalimantan is located outside Java and is known as a migrant area; males often predominate in migrant areas as a share of the overall population, since men more commonly migrate for work. Data from the population census in 2010 show that the proportion of male migrants is 58 percent of total migrants. The average GPI for NERs at primary up to senior secondary is 0.99 and the literacy rate for males aged 50 years and above is 7.5 percentage points higher than for females in the same age group. At the primary, junior secondary and senior secondary levels there are more female than male teachers at every level, with about 8,000 more females at primary, 3,000 more at junior secondary and 1,000 more at senior secondary.<sup>14</sup> Yet, only 27 percent of school principals are female. South Kalimantan has a child marriage rate of 33.7 percent (i.e., more than one-third of ever-married females aged 20-24 years), placing it fourth of 33 provinces (UNICEF, 2016).

Unlike Sampang and Bangkalan, which are in rural areas, two urban areas were selected for field visits for this study in South Kalimantan, namely Banjar Baru and Banjarmasin. The most recent data in 2018 show that the average GPI for NERs in Banjar Baru is 0.98.<sup>15</sup> Unlike the national figure where the gender gap in literacy of the younger generation is insignificant, Banjar Baru is found to have a 2-percentage-point gender gap in literacy favoring females. For the older generation, the gender gap is lower than the national average, with a 3.09 percentage point gap favoring males.<sup>16</sup> In Banjarmasin, the average GPI for NERs is 0.95 and there is a 0.4-percentage point gender gap in adult literacy favoring males for the young generation, while for the older generation the gap is nearly 2.74 percentage points favoring males.

# 3. Findings

We use administrative, survey, and census data, and other studies to reveal several elements of gender disparity and issues of social inclusion; combined with data gathered from the field visits to East Java and South Kalimantan.

## 3.1. Gender Disparity in School Participation

Nationally, Indonesia has achieved gender parity in school participation. There is gender parity for Net Enrollment Rate (NER) at primary level (1.00). Then the gender parity index (GPI) for NER increases with each level of education, so that at senior secondary the GPI for NERs is 1.03 and at tertiary it is 1.15, showing that, relative to the school-age populations for males and females, a higher proportion of schoolage females are in school than school-age males.<sup>17</sup> The significant improvement in school participation has been accumulatively contributed by various government programs in the past decades. The national educational development program started in 1948 with the ‘alleviation of illiteracy’ program. The second stage was launched in 1973 through the presidential instruction on elementary school development assistance (locally known by the _SD Inpres Program_ ). Afterward, the 6-year compulsory education program ( _Wajar_ ) was launched in 1984, which was then followed by the 9-year compulsory education program in 1984, and currently the government is

> 13 BPS (2018).

> 14 Overview of Education and Cultural Data 2017/18.

> 15 Susenas 2018.

> 16 Susenas 2018.

> 17 Susenas 2018.

7
aiming to implement its 12-year compulsory education program. Of all these initiatives, the most beneficial program in terms of improving school participation was the _SD Inpres Program_ . The _SD Inpres Program_ started with the construction of thousands of new elementary schools. Through this program, elementary schools had to be built in every village to help children to go to school. In the period 1973-83, using _Inpres_ funding, 136,140 new schools were built, 570,000 schools were renovated, and 697,180 teachers were assigned (Tilaar, 2015). Based on the results of various Population Census, this effort increased school participation for children aged 7-12 during the period 1971-81 by 20 percentage points, or up to around 81 percent. Gelander (2012) found that _<mark>SD Inpres program</mark>_ <mark>exposure significantly increased schooling both for men and for women, but women benefitted more from the program than men.</mark> At the national level, the GPI in school participation conveys that there is no gender disparity in favor of males, but sub-nationally there is considerable variation in gender disparity, with girls at a disadvantage in many districts and boys at a disadvantage in others. This condition holds across all education levels. For example, Kotamobagu has a GPI for the NER at primary level of 1.15, which indicates that enrollment favors females. Meanwhile, in Central Buton, West Sulawesi, the GPI for the same category is 0.8, which indicates the gender parity favors males. At junior secondary level, Wonosobo, Central Java, has a significant gender gap, with the NER for females at 85 percent, while the NER for males is 64 percent. However, we find the reverse pattern in Wajo, South Sulawesi, with the NER at junior secondary for females at only 46 percent, while the NER for males is 72 percent.<sup>18</sup> These magnitudes of variation are also observed at senior secondary and higher education levels in districts across the country. However, it is important to note that the availability of a senior secondary school and a university in a district/city could influence the enrollment rates at the respective level.

In some communities in Indonesia, cultural norms dictate that a woman’s place is confined to the home, while the role of men is to be the main breadwinner and head of the household. In these communities, girls may not have as equal opportunities as boys for schooling, particularly among poorer families (USAID, 2013). Daughters are sometimes perceived to be less valuable once educated because they will be part of their husband’s family once married; this perception may lead some households to prefer to send their sons to schools, especially for poor households (Ihromi, 1995).

Interview results from field visits offer different explanations, including that parents may prefer to enroll their female children rather than their male children in pre-primary school, because girls are perceived to enjoy school more and have fewer behavioral challenges. For example, the staff of the Directorate General of Education in Banjarbaru, who also has children in school, suggested a few reasons why there are more girls in pre-primary in her district, noting that there are more girls in the population, girls like school more than boys, and girls tend to join playgroups before kindergarten at higher rates than boys. She also noted that it is possible that boys do not join kindergarten and go straight to primary. While the official age for entering primary school is 7 years of age, in many cases parents enroll their children of both genders at age 6, particularly if their child went to pre-primary or attended a play group. Parents also said they often enroll girls earlier in primary school because they are ready for school sooner than boys.<sup>19</sup> Children who are enrolled before age 7 are categorized as early entrants (EE) in primary school. This group usually continues to be early entrants when they reach junior and senior secondary schools. Susenas data from 2011-15 show that the average EE rate is between 25.78 to 27.13 percent. These figures indicate that more than one-fourth of children are not accounted for in the NER calculation, which excludes children whose age does not match their expected grade. The more recent data in Susenas 2019 show that the EE rate for girls (22.03 percent) is more than 2 percentage points higher than for boys (19.78 percent). This

> 18 Susenas, 2018. 19 In one school visited for this study, children were tested to determine if they are ready or mature enough to start school.

8
suggests that more girls than boys are hidden as students in primary schools, as the official age group for the primary school students is 7-12. This is corroborated by the results of the field visits.

Many parents in the selected research districts also noted that they decided to send their daughters to _madrasah_ following completion of primary school, and indeed in recent years _madrasah_ have been opening more seats for girls. Again, this is reflected in the literature. Some studies have pointed to parents preferring to send their daughters to _madrasah_ instead of public schools, given a preference for religious education and the ability of Islamic schools to provide values-based moral education to teach girls to become good mothers (Jackson & Parker, 2008).

For higher education (ages 19-24), the GPI for SER (School Enrollment Rate) at the national level has increased dramatically in recent decades. While the GPI in 1997 was 0.72, by 2007 it increased to 0.95. The GPI figure was about 1 from 2012 to 2014, and then stabilized above 1 during the 2015-19 period. Currently, female participation in higher education remains higher than male participation by 1 percentage point (Figure 3).

**Figure 3. Tertiary enrollment rate of population aged 19-24 by sex and Gender Parity Index**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 30 1.20<br>25 1.00<br>20 0.80<br>15 0.60<br>10 0.40<br>5 0.20<br>0 0.00<br>Male Female GPI<br>GPI<br>Percent<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Susenas various years.

At the subnational level, the SER for ages 19-24 is largely influenced by the availability of universities in the respective areas. For example, compared with the districts of Bangkalan and Sampang, Banjar Baru and Banjarmasin have more universities, and thus the SER for ages 19-24 is higher. The figures are even higher than the national average (24.40), which may be a result of some in-migration for these tertiary services. The SERs for Banjarmasin and Banjar Baru in 2018 are 39.07 and 37.11, respectively. In contrast, the SERs in Bangkalan and Sampang are much lower, at 16.15 and 16.19, respectively. Except for Sampang, the GPIs for SER in selected districts and provinces are above 1, which means that the SER for this age group is higher for girls than boys.

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# 3.2. Gender Disparity in Literacy and Student Performance

Gender parity can also be measured for literacy. In 2019, the GPI for the literacy rate for the population aged 5-50 years had a value of 1.00 at the national level, as well as at the province level for areas included in this study. The gender parity in literacy is also observed in the selected districts of Banjarmasin and Banjarbaru. However, the GPI for the literacy rate in the districts of Bangkalan and Sampang is slightly lower, at 0.97 and 0.94.<sup>20</sup> The situation for the population over age 50 nationally is different, as it does not reflect the advances in education in recent decades. The gender gap in literacy for this age group is about 11 percentage points in favor of males, which is far greater than those under 50, where the gender gap in favor of males is less than one percentage point. This higher level of inequality in the older population and almost-parity in the younger population indicates that advances in equity in education have expanded literacy for girls as explained in the previous section.

<mark>Reading proficiency is another proxy for foundational learning in other subjects. A new indicator,</mark> _<mark>Learning Poverty</mark>_ <mark>, is defined as being unable to read and understand a short, age-appropriate text by age 10. The overall Learning poverty level in Indonesia is 35 percent which means 35 percent of Indonesian children at late primary age today are not proficient in reading, adjusted for the Out-of-School children. Learning poverty for girls (29.3 percent) is much lower than boys (41.4 percent), showing female advantage in reading proficiency.</mark> On student performance, girls have slightly outperformed boys in all subjects tested in the national exam ( _Ujian Nasional_ , UN) for students from 2016 until 2018 for grade 9. The UN data show the differences in exam scores between girls and boys were largest for Indonesian language ( _Bahasa Indonesia, 66.52 and 71.19_ ), followed by English (57.23 and 54.86) with average score differences of 4.67 and 2.37, respectively, of 100 points. The average scores for mathematics and science are generally low. Girls’ average mathematics score in the past three years is 48.3, while the average score for boys is slightly lower at 46.9. Similar trends are also observed in science, where the average score difference between girls and boys is only 1.3 percentage points, with girls slightly outperforming boys. While variations of the score differences are observed at the local level, overall 96 percent of districts have similar trends in the past three years, where the average score for girls is higher than the average score for boys. In 2018, the highest score gap observed was in Bantul, where girls outperformed boys by 6.6 percentage points across all UN subjects.

On international assessments and in the classroom, girls similarly outperform boys in Indonesia. Following Indonesia’s participation in the 2018 PISA, results showed that girls scored higher in all subjects, most significantly in reading. The average scores for Indonesian boys in math, science and reading, respectively, were 373, 392 and 358, while the respective scores for girls were 383, 399 and 383.<sup>21</sup> Results from the 2015 TIMSS showed that girls scored 10 percentage points higher than boys in mathematics and 8 percentage points higher in science (Mullis et. al, 2015).

> 20 Susenas 2018.

> 21 OECD Education GPS: Indonesia Student Performance (PISA 2015).

> <u>http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=IDN&treshold=10&topic=PI</u>

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**Figure 4. Indonesian PISA 2018 scores**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 410<br>400<br>390<br>380<br>370<br>360<br>350<br>340<br>330<br>Mathematics Science Reading<br>Boys Girls<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: EdStats World Bank 2018, processed.

A World Bank study of 56,000 male and female grade 8 students on the islands of Sumatra and Java found that boys receive lower grades. Across all seven academic subjects, boys’ grades are 2 to 3 percentage points lower than girls’, which is equivalent to 0.34 to 0.55 standard deviation. The study found that girls not only have higher grades than boys, but that they have better grades all along the distribution. The survey also found that boys are more likely to miss school than girls, with 55 percent of boys reporting missing school at least one day a month, compared with 44 percent of girls (World Bank, 2018). As yet unpublished analyses from the study show that boys' lower grades and higher absenteeism rates are correlated with lower socioemotional skills, demotivating mindsets, and low perception of classroom environments.

Echoing the findings of the study noted above, during school visits for this study to East Java and South Kalimatan, principals, teachers and education officers who were interviewed reported that girls perform better than boys in most academic subjects, while boys tend to excel more in extra-curricular activities and sports. In many schools, girls perform better in STEM subjects in particular. In almost all schools, girls are said to be more diligent, mature and focused on their studies. At a senior secondary school in Surabaya that accepts students based on merit, the principal noted that more girls are accepted than boys due to better grades. The principal of a junior secondary school in Banjarmasin noted that girls perform better academically and that girls dominate the top 10 spots in every class. The principal suggested that this is because girls are more focused in their studies and are more willing to learn. At a junior secondary school in Sampang, several teachers noted that girls achieve higher grades across subjects, particularly those that are in the national exam (math, science, Indonesian and English). A district education officer in Banjarmasin noted that, at the junior secondary level, girls perform better in arts, sports, science, math, physics and social science. A district education officer in Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan, mentioned that boys tend to spend more time playing online games and are more likely to wake up late for school. Principals in Banjarmasin echoed the issue of boys playing sports and other activities rather than focusing on their studies.

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Box 1. Wasted Potential—Indonesian women have higher levels of human capital, but work less, earn less, and are promoted less Indonesia is currently failing to support the very segment of the population that has higher levels of human capital. While Indonesia’s male labor force participation rate is 83.2 percent, for females the figure is at a dismal 51 percent.<sup>22</sup> With only roughly half the female working population currently employed or seeking employment, this represents a significant loss of human capital potential for the country. Reasons for the low female participation rate in Indonesia include, among others, lack of childcare options and social norms. A World Bank study in 2017 found that Indonesian women in urban areas who live with elderly family members take up to two years after childbirth to return to work; for women without elderly family members, this period can be twice as long due to a lack of childcare options.<sup>23</sup> Once women leave the workforce for an extended period of time, they may also experience more difficulties in returning.

Even when women in Indonesia do work, they are paid less than their male counterparts. In Indonesia, the gender wage gap exists with male wages being 20 to 25 percent higher than female wages (World Bank, forthcoming). Additionally, data from Sakernas 2017 show that there is a lack of gender parity in wages in six of the top nine job industries in Indonesia. Estimation shows that Indonesia could add US$135 billion a year to annual GDP by 2025 in a best-in-region scenario with three drivers: i) higher female labor-force participation, ii) a higher share of women working full-time rather than part-time, and iii) more women working in higher productivity sectors such as manufacturing instead of agriculture (MGI, 2018).

**Figure 5. Gender Parity Index (GPI) for wages/salaries by main industries**

|Trade<br>Transportation<br>Finance<br>Services||
|---|---|
|Agriculture<br>Mining<br>Industry<br>Electricity, water, and gas<br>Construction||
|0<br>0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8<br>1|1.2|
|Source: Sakernas, 2017.||

In the civil service, women comprise about 42 percent of civil service employees across 34 ministries. Echelon positions—the system by which career progression is measured, and the level of which indicates an individual’s position of hierarchy in the civil service—comprise less than 7 percent and, of those positions, women held just 26 percent in 2016. Through interviews, it was learned that women are promoted less often and that women seek fewer opportunities for promotion. Women achieve lower scores in bidding processes for promotions and are less able to participate in training for higher echelon positions due to time constraints and responsibilities at home. Several women who were interviewed noted that there is a lack of adequate childcare facilities at district, provincial and ministry offices. Women and men both noted that some positions are targeted specifically for men and that men are seen as better leaders.

The trend is no better in the legislative and judicative bodies. Law No. 10/2008 on General Elections, Article 8/1d, states that the list of parliament member candidates proposed to the General Election Committee should consist of at least 30 percent women. However, in the last legislative election, the percentage of women selected in the national parliament was still less than 20 percent. Since the members of the legislative are elected through a <u>general election, the female candidates were not chosen because they did not garner enough votes.</u> 12
Box 1. Wasted Potential—Indonesian women have higher levels of human capital, but work less, earn less, and promoted less (Contd.) This could be caused by a cultural influence that posits that the holder of public office should be male. In judicative bodies, women representatives in high ranking officials in the Supreme Court and Constitutional Court are very few, at 8.5 percent and 11.11 percent, respectively. Women judges account for only 27 percent of judges.<sup>24</sup> To ensure that human capital in Indonesia is not wasted, policy makers must ensure that women continue to have the potential to develop their human capital by addressing the various issues that prevent women from participating in the labor force, including improving access to quality childcare and ensuring that women are compensated fairly for their labor, and have the same opportunity for career progression.

# 3.3. Gender Disparity in School Completion

The most recent national household survey (Susenas 2019) indicates that about 4.4 million children and adolescents aged 7-18 are out of school, despite large improvements in enrollment in prior decades. There are large socioeconomic and geographical disparities: adolescents of junior secondary school age from the poorest households are more than four times more likely to be out of school than those from the wealthiest households. Geographically, the out-of-school rates at the district and province levels for junior secondary age range from 1.2 percent in Riau to 22 percent in Papua. The current out-of-school population is concentrated among children with disabilities, working children, married children, children from poor families and children living in rural, remote areas. Based on qualitative data collected from the districts, boys often complete junior secondary level and then drop out to become migrant workers, as per regulations of the Ministry of Manpower that stipulate a minimum requirement of junior secondary school completion for some jobs.

Female out-of-school prevalence (1.7 percent) is slightly lower than male (2.2 percent). Nearly 2 percent of urban females and 1.2 percent of rural females aged 7-to-15-years-old had never attended school, compared with 1.1 percent of urban males and 1.9 percent of rural males.<sup>25</sup> In terms of repetition, the rates are higher for boys at the primary level. In 2018, nearly 1.7 percent of boys repeated grades in primary school, compared with 0.9 percent of girls.<sup>26</sup> Despite pro-poor programs such as _Bantuan Operasional Sekolah_ and _Program Indonesia Pintar (PIP)_ that have been implemented to ensure students from poor households can access free basic education, poverty is still a key determinant of school enrollment in Indonesia (ACDP, 2013). There is a large gap between the value of the PIP and total reported out-of-pocket costs for households. Households report education expenditures at IDR 1.19, 1.67, and 1.91 million (US$87, US$122 and US$139) for a single student in primary, junior secondary, or senior secondary school, respectively.<sup>27</sup> However, PIP benefits

> 22 Sakernas 2018.

> 23 <u>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/855851490958133680/Could-childcare-services-improve-women-s-labormarket-outcomes-in-Indonesia</u>

> 24 _Source:_ BPS, Statistik Indonesia, 2017. _Note:_ *Figure from Judges is gathered from Berita MA (January 21, 2018) reported by Azizah (https://www.mahkamahagung.go.id/id/berita/2905/ketua-ma-hakim-perempuan-indonesia-memiliki-peran-penting- <u>dalam-pembangunan-hukum-nasional).</u>

> 25 Susenas, 2019.

> 26 Repetition rate is computed from student repeaters divided by total student last academic year. Source: Primary School Statistics 2017/18 and 2018/19.

> 27 Susenas 2018 MSBP.

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remain unchanged since 2013<sup>28</sup> ; IDR 450,000, 750,000, and 1 million for each beneficiary at primary, junior secondary, and senior secondary level, respectively (World Bank, 2018). Poor households sometimes choose between sending their sons and daughters to school when resources are limited. Data from Susenas 2017 indicate that among households with out-of-school children, more than half of households with out-of-school boys (52 percent) report that economic condition is the major reason for not going to school, while only 44 percent of households with out-of-school girls stated the same reason (see also MoWECP and BPS 2018a).

**Table 3. Main reasons for dropping out from school by sex (percent)**

|Main Reason|<br>|Indonesia<br> <br>||
|---|---|---|---|
||Male|Female<br>|Total|
|Insufficient funds|33.01|30.68|31.99|
|Working|18.74|13.68|16.52|
|Marriage|0.37|12.27|5.59|
|Taking care of the household|0.37|3.65|1.81|
|Assume that current education is enough|4.26|5.24|4.69|
|Shame of Poor Economic condition|2.88|1.9|2.45|
|School is far|3.71|3.26|3.51|
|Disability|5.39|4.82|5.14|
|Other|31.27|24.51|28.3|
|Total|100|100|100|

Source: Susenas, 2017.

The same data source also shows that economic status is positively correlated with length of schooling. This applies for both males and females (Table 4). The higher gender gap in years of schooling, while insignificant, is faced by girls from the poorest (0.67 years) and the richest (0.66 years) quintiles. This gender gap includes those 15 years and older, and so captures the structure of the education system many decades ago which at that time was biased in favor of males. This gap is expected to decline and then reverse as children who have attended schools in the past two decades become adults and replace those who were educated under the former system.

**Table 4. Average years of schooling for population aged 15 and older by economic status and sex**

|Quintile Economic Status|Male|Female|Gendergap|
|---|---|---|---|
|Quintile 1|6.96|6.29|0.67|
|Quintile 2|7.77|7.21|0.56|
|Quintile 3|8.39|7.80|0.59|
|Quintile 4|9.19|8.57|0.62|
|Quintile 5|11.30|10.64|0.66|

Source: MoWECP and BPS (2018) Profil Perempuan Indonesia.

One of the main challenges in addressing the issue of out-of-school children (OOSC) is a lack of accurate data that could specifically identify who the OOSC are, where they live and why they do not go to school. Since 2016, UNICEF has been supporting a program that aims to empower local governments and communities to collect data on OOSC and build their capacity to develop plans to address their needs.

> 28 <u>https://indonesiapintar.kemdikbud.go.id/</u>

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Bone district in South Sulawesi Province is one of the first districts that introduced the Community Based Development Information System (CBDIS) program, a community-based mapping mechanism to identify OOSC by name, address and other details. Using CBDIS data, the local government organizes the “Back to School Movement” ( _Gerakan Masyarakat Lisu Massikolah or Gemar Limas_ ) to provide necessary support for these children. During the period of 2017-19, the initiative has returned 4,998 OOSC to school, either formal or non-formal schooling. This model has now been taken to scale through the government’s village development planning system to enable its wider and sustained use by village governments nationwide.

# 3.3.1. Child Marriage

Another determinant of enrollment is child marriage, often linked to poverty and gender, and also contributing to dropping out. The rate of child marriage in Indonesia has been declining in the recent years, though it is still higher than in neighboring countries (Figure 6). Indonesia’s child marriage rate— defined as the proportion of women aged 20-24 married before age 18—is lower than India’s but twice Vietnam’s (Figure 6). And <mark>because of the huge size of the Indonesian population, the country is among the top 10 countries with the highest absolute number of child brides, ranking seventh globally with 1.4 million women aged 20-24 married before age 18. S</mark> ince 2008, the rate has been relatively stagnant at 25 percent. More recent data in 2015 show a modest improvement to 22 percent.<sup>29</sup> While overall early marriage rates are high across the country, prevalence varies by district. At the provincial level, West Sulawesi had the highest prevalence of early marriage in 2015, with 34.2 percent of ever-married women aged 20-24 married before age 18. In contrast, the Riau Islands had a rate of 11.7 percent. East Java, South Kalimantan and Central Java have the greatest number of high prevalence districts (female adolescent marriage higher than 25 percent). Child marriage is particularly an issue for girls at the senior secondary level, though in some areas child marriage sometimes occurs as early as primary school, and principals noted that girls often must leave formal school if this happens.

**Figure 6. Proportion of women aged 20-24 married before age 18**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 30<br>25<br>20<br>15<br>10<br>5<br>0<br>Percent<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: UNICEF Global database (countries’ data from 2014-16).

> 29 - UNICEF (2016). Child Marriage in Indonesia: Progress on Pause. <u>https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/wp content/uploads/2016/11/UNICEF-Indonesia-Child-Marriage-Research-Brief-1.pdf</u>

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Susenas 2017 data indicate that 12.3 percent of out-of-school girls dropped out because of marriage, while the percentage of out-of-school boys who dropped out is very small, at less than 1 percent (see Table 3). In poorer areas, girls are more likely to marry early and will often drop out of school even though this is not a legal requirement. In fact, married girls are entitled to continue to attend school, but this entitlement is sometimes not understood by school directors and teachers and, even if it is understood, the child may withdraw due to social norms.

Early marriage and school attainment are closely correlated, particularly for girls, as many drop out of school if they get married. Analysis from UNICEF found that, in 2015, girls who married before the age of 18 were six times less likely to complete senior secondary school than girls who married after that age. The analysis showed that of ever-married women aged 20-24, only 8.9 percent of those who married before age 18 completed senior secondary school, while 40.1 percent of those who married before age 18 had primary school as the highest level of education completed. In addition, girls with more education are less likely to enter into early marriage.

Contradictory laws on child marriage can create confusion at the local level. It was discovered on field visits that these laws are not well understood. According to the 1974 Marriage Law, under the age of 21, parental consent is required for marriage, with minimum ages stipulated as 16 for females and 19 for males, while the 2002 Child Protection Law states that the minimum age for marriage for both genders is 18. Susenas 2018 data show that these regulations have not been fully enforced, as 1.41 percent of girls aged 10-17 were married at the time of the survey. These rates are much higher than boys who have married in the similar age group (0.10 percent). Compared with this national figure, the early marriage rates for girls are higher in the selected provinces, at 2.4 percent in South Kalimantan and 2.2 percent in East Java. Within the four selected districts, the prevalence of girls with early marriage ranges between 1.31 and 4.0 percent. Banjar Baru and Sampang have the highest prevalence of female early marriage, at 2.08 and 4.0 percent, respectively.

**Table 5. Early marriage rate in selected regions**

|**Region**|**Male**|**Female**|
|---|---|---|
|Indonesia|0.10|1.41|
|East Java|0.11|2.22|
|South|||
|Kalimantan|0.20|2.49|
|Banjarmasin|0|0|
|Banjar Baru|0|2.08|
|Bangkalan|0|1.31|
|Sampang|0.48|4.0|

Source: Susenas 2018, processed.

The 2003 Law on the National Education System states that all citizens have a right to obtain a quality education. This commitment was echoed by MoEC officials in discussions with the survey teams. Nonetheless, numerous school principals did not seem to be aware that students, in particular girls, are legally allowed to remain in school even if married. An education officer in Banjarmasin District, South Kalimantan, noted that while girls can continue their education in non-formal schools ( _ujian persamaan_ ) if they get married, they are not allowed in formal schools. A MoRA officer in Surabaya noted that there are no regulations that students cannot continue in school if married and that there is no regulation that children in school cannot get married. The officer also noted that if a girl gets married and is in senior 16
secondary school, she is still permitted to take the examination, but many parents will not allow it. A principal of a junior secondary school in Banjarmasin noted that there are local policies in place that both girls and boys are not allowed to continue in school if married. In Sampang District, East Java, study respondents and locally available data indicated that rates of early marriage from junior to senior secondary school are about 10 percent and that married girls cannot return to formal school, but instead have to join a non-formal education program.

Despite the continued prevalence of child marriage particularly among girls, the field visits indicated that overall, the practice of child marriage is declining. For instance, in Bangkalan District, East Java, the principal of a junior secondary school noted that child marriage is an issue only in the most rural areas, and that though there is a stereotype of early marriage in the area, education has changed this and it is no longer a major concern. However, an education officer for Bangkalan District noted that school dropout is a problem in some parts of the district and that girls may marry as early as primary school. At a girls’ junior secondary _madrasah_ in Bangkalan, only 60 percent of students continue on to senior secondary and 40 percent drop out at age 16/17, most commonly either for marriage or because parents believe that girls do not need to attend school once they are already literate, according to teachers and school leadership interviewed for this study. A MoRA education officer for East Java noted that, in the past, early marriage was a problem at junior secondary school but that the trend is diminishing and there are only a few cases of junior secondary age girls getting married. They stated that in the past, people believed that a girl had to get married if she attracted a suitor, otherwise she might never marry, while currently child marriage occurs mainly for economic reasons.

Sporadic efforts have been made by local governments across the country to reduce child marriage, locally known as PUP/ _Pendewasaan Usia Pernikahan_ or age maturation for marriage (Muh Bahrul Ulum, 2016). For example, in West Nusa Tenggara, the governor issued Circular Letter No. 150/1138/Kun on PUP that recommended the minimum marital age for males and females as 21 years old. Another example is from Gunung Kidul District, Yogyakarta. The regent regulated the minimum marital age at 20 years. In the district of Kebumen, there are eight villages where children must avoid early marriage and the communities are not allowed to recommend early marriage. The Commission for the Protection of Indonesian Children (KPAI) has been supportive with a positive response to PUP efforts.

3.3.2. School Violence While girls’ education is more negatively impacted by early marriage than boys’, studies on school violence have found that boys experience greater levels of violence in any form at school than do girls (PLAN, 2015). Indonesia participated in the 2015 Global Student-based School Health Survey, which found that 24 percent of males and 18 percent of females had experienced bullying in school, with even higher numbers for having experienced violence in school (39 percent for males and 21 percent for females).<sup>30</sup> More recent data of the 2018 National Survey of Children and Teenagers’ (13-24 years old) Life Experience show 33 percent of males were victims of physical violence, while 20 percent of females reported the same experience.<sup>31</sup> The survey also explored other types of violence, including sexual-based violence and emotional/psychological violence. These categories show higher prevalence for females. About 6 percent of males and 9 percent of females reported they had experienced sexual-based violence. Higher numbers are recorded for emotional/psychological violence with 50 percent and 60 percent for males and females

> 30 <u>https://www.who.int/ncds/surveillance/gshs/GSHS_2015_Indonesia_Report_Bahasa.pdf</u>

> 31 <u>https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/index.php/page/read/29/2123/kemen-pppa-luncurkan-hasil-survei-nasionalpengalaman-hidup-anak-dan-remaja-snphar-tahun-2018</u>

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respectively. The 2018 survey reported that 80 percent of the violence experienced by teenagers was perpetrated by their peers in the school and play community.

A field visit interview with a district education officer in Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan, confirmed the finding that bullying is an issue, mostly for boys, and it can lead boys to drop out of formal school and enter non-formal programs. Though bullying may be a larger issue for boys, violence against girls is a noted issue. In Sampang District, an education official noted that girls are given more care because they need physical protection, particularly during junior secondary when they are maturing. The care includes supervision at school and on the way home, as girls may be harassed on the roads in rural areas. In Sampang, teachers at a junior secondary school noted that the graduation rate of boys is lower than girls at primary and junior secondary levels. At a junior secondary _madrasah_ in Sampang, the principal noted that boys drop out at higher rates due to social influences that contribute to increased absences and that, in their perspective, girls are better at resisting such influences.

During field visits conducted for this study, principals and district education officers noted that boys drop out of school for financial reasons at the senior secondary level, and an array of other forces contributed to dropout, including bullying, an unwillingness or lack of interest in attending school, a focus on video games and drug use, as well as a lack of parental oversight. Lack of parental oversight was cited more often in rural areas as part of this survey and was often coupled with complaints of parents not understanding the importance of education due to low levels of educational attainment in the parents’ generation.

Records from MoWECP’s Simfoni PPA ( _Sistem Informasi Online Perlindungan Perempuan dan Anak_ ), a national online information system dedicated to the protection of women and children, show that in the first three months of 2020 there were already 1,489 victims of violence, where more than three-fourths are women (78 percent). About 5 percent of the victims experienced the violence in school. This might be related to the fact that 51 percent of all victims are children aged 6-17 years.<sup>32</sup> In addition to integrating efforts to reduce violence through the school system, the MoWECP has also implemented additional efforts through the family and community system, or the so-called PATBM ( _Perlindungan Anak Terpadu Barbasis Masyarakat_ ), an integrated community-based system for the protection of children.

> 32 <u>https://kekerasan.kemenpppa.go.id/ringkasan; accessed on March 30, 2020.</u>

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Box 2: Who Teaches and Who Manages?

**<u>Issue:</u>** In Indonesia, gender parity is a key issue in the education workforce—while both men and women teach, it is mostly only men who get to manage. Across MoRA and MoEC schools, women represent over half the teaching workforce at the primary, junior secondary, and senior secondary school levels. When it comes to managing and leading schools, however, data show that males dominate these roles. Women only represent 31 percent of principals at MoRA primary schools, and this figure falls as the school level increases—among senior secondary MoRA schools, only 19 percent of school principal positions are occupied by women. The story is similar for MoEC schools as well. While nearly half of primary school principal positions are occupied by women at 43 percent, at the senior secondary school level, this figure drops down to 22 percent.

**<u>Figure 7. MoRA school workforce by gender</u>**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 100%<br>77% 81%<br>69%<br>75% 64%<br>55% 53%<br>45% 47%<br>50% 36%<br>31%<br>23% 19%<br>25%<br>0%<br>Primary (MI) Jr. Sr. Primary (MI) Jr. Sr.<br>Secondary Secondary Secondary Secondary<br>(MTS) (MA) (MTS) (MA)<br>Teachers Principals<br>Male Female<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Simpatika 2019

# **<u>Figure 8. MoEC school workforce by gender</u>**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 100%<br>78%<br>74%<br>69%<br>75% 61% 59% 57%<br>50% 39% 41% 43%<br>31%<br>26%<br>22%<br>25%<br>0%<br>Primary (SD) Jr. Sr. Primary (SD) Jr. Sr.<br>Secondary Secondary Secondary Secondary<br>(SMP) (SMA) (SMP) (SMA)<br>Teachers Principals<br>Male Female<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Education Statistics MoEC 2018/9 19
Box 2: Who Teaches and Who Manages? (Contd.)

**<u>Why this may be the case?</u>** <u>: Findings from field visits revealed a variety of reasons for fewer women in school</u> leadership positions including lack of interest and social norms. In Banjarmasin District, South Kalimantan, where only eight of the thirty-five junior secondary schools have female principals, the local education officer suggested that women, especially mothers, may lack the time and interest to hold such positions. The officer also mentioned that in other cases, many women may have husbands who forbid them to take up more senior positions. Education officials in East Java also repeated similar messages, highlighting that similar challenges are faced throughout Indonesia regardless of location.

**<u>Why is this important and what needs to be done?:</u>** A lack of women in leadership positions means that female students do not have female role models to look up to, making it difficult for girls and women to envision themselves in leadership positions. These gender norms may also be reinforced through generations as students observe the predominance of men in positions of authority at schools, while women are often relegated to teaching positions and are less visible in leadership roles. To address these challenges, a concerted effort must be made to alter the social norms preventing women from striving for leadership positions, while also ensuring that women have the same opportunities as men to fill these positions.

# 4. Students with Disabilities

<mark>While gender is a well-d</mark> ocumente <mark>d factor leading to marginalization in education, disability</mark><sup>33</sup> <mark>issues are relatively less explored in the context of education. Inclusive education is about providing access to quality education for all, including the most marginalized and hard to reach.</mark> Disabled children are less likely to be enrolled in school or to progress as well as their peers without disabilities. Barriers to the inclusion of children with disabilities come from several fronts: supporting facilities such as school infrastructure, learning equipment, and special competencies of teaching staff; supporting policies for disabled children, as well as social stigma from community and family. This report, in addition to exploring the gender issues in education, aims to shine a light on the disability issues in the context of education in Indonesia. A snapshot of the challenges faced by Indonesian children with disabilities is provided in this section. Policy proposals for addressing this issue are also offered below.

## 4.1 Current State

In Indonesia, the most recent national figure for the percentage of children aged 7-18 years who have at least one type of physical difficulty—visual/auditory/motor-sensory—is 0.26 percent (Susenas, 2018). If other types of functional impairment are included such as behavioral and learning challenges, inability to understand communication, and self-care, the total prevalence rate rises to 0.48 percent, or 265,139 children. According to Susenas, the proportion of enrolled students with at least one physical impairment is 0.24 percent, 0.16 percent, and 0.12 percent at primary, junior secondary, and senior secondary, respectively, likely indicating that children with disabilities are dropping out as they encounter barriers at progressively higher levels of the education system.

> 33 Definition of “disabled” is a person who has limited physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory abilities over a long period of time and encounters difficulty in participating fully and effectively when interacting with his/her environment and in society. Law No. 19/2011 on the ratification of Convention on the Rights of the Disabled.

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**Table 6. Prevalence of disabilities at primary up to senior secondary level based on EMIS and Susenas**

|_Category_|**EMIS(e **<br>_All_<br>_disabilities_<br>_category_|**nrolled stud**<br>_Total_<br>_student_<br>_(disabled_<br>_and non-_<br>_disabled)_|**ents)**<br>_%_<br>_disabled_|_Visual_<br>_disability_|_Auditory_<br>_disability_|**SUSENAS(enrol**<br>_Motor/Sensory_<br>_disability_|**led student**<br>_With at_<br>_least_<br>_one_<br>_physical_<br>_disability_|**s)**<br>_Total_<br>_students_<br>_(disabled_<br>_and non-_<br>_disabled)_|_%_<br>_disabled_<br>_(at least_<br>_one_<br>_physical_<br>_disability)_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Primary|4,663|3,668,985|0.13%|24,730|19,486|32,991|66,752|27,678,335|0.24%|
|Junior<br>Secondary|1,902|3,167,870|0.06%|11,177|3,754|4,343|17,643|10,800,786|0.16%|
|Senior<br>Secondary|2,461|1,374,981|0.18%|6,057|1,788|2,314|9,885|8,278,110|0.12%|

Source: EMIS and Susenas 2018. Dapodik 2018 is not currently available.

In Indonesia, having a disability significantly increases a child’s likelihood of being out of school. A 2016 study by UNICEF found that in Indonesia school attendance was reduced by 61 percent for boys and 59 percent for girls with disabilities.<sup>34</sup> Data from Susenas 2018 indicate that more than one-fourth (27 percent) of adolescents with disabilities of junior secondary school age (13-15) are out of school compared with less than 1 percent among those without disabilities. For girls, the out of school rate (r 32 percent) is higher than that for boys (23 percent). Additionally, analytical work conducted by UNICEF, MoEC, and BPS has found that while primary school completion rate for children without disabilities is 95.0 percent, for children with disabilities it is only 54.0 percent. Junior secondary school completion rates are also much lower for children with disabilities at 36.6 percent, compared with 85.4 percent for children without disabilities. For senior secondary schooling, the completion rate for children without disabilities is 62.2 percent, while for children with disabilities it is 26.0 percent (UNICEF & MoEC, 2019).

At the district level, we extract the figure of disabled children from the 2010 Population Census.<sup>35</sup> The disability prevalence rates for the school-age population (7-18 years) in the selected districts of Sampang and Bangkalan are both 1.0 percent, whereas in Banjarbaru and Banjarmasin the figures are 1.47 percent and less than 0.1 percent, respectively. As the reported prevalence rate is very low, the contribution of disabled children to the SER as a whole is very small, at less than 1.0 percent in Bangkalan, Sampang and Banjarmasin, whereas in Banjarbaru the contribution is slightly higher, at 1.15 percent, in line with the higher prevalence rate reported in the census.

From the perspective of disabled children, the percentage of disabled children who participate in school (SER of disabled children) in selected districts is high. With the exception of Banjarmasin, with a percentage of nearly 60 percent, about 70 percent of disabled children in the selected districts attend school. Except for Banjar Baru where the SER of disabled females is higher than that of males (GPI of 1.14), the other three districts show that the SER of disabled males is higher than for females, following a similar pattern to their non-disabled peers.

> 34 UNICEF (2018) Progress in measuring global school enrollment gaps for children with disabilities: <u>https://blogs.unicef.org/evidence-for-action/progress-in-measuring-global-school-enrollment-gaps-for-children-withdisabilities/</u> 35 For rare cases such as prevalence of disability, Susenas cannot be calculated at the district level, as the standard error is normally high. Therefore, we rely on the more comprehensive Population Census 2010 for disability figures at the district level.

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- 4.2 Challenges in Education Service Delivery to Students with Disabilities

<mark>To help ensure inclusive education, particularly for children with disabilities, Indonesia has implemented several laws and regulations. For example, Law No. 8/2016 clearly mandates inclusive education for the disabled, Ministerial Regulation No. 33/2008 mandates that every district is required to have special needs schools at primary and junior secondary levels, and Ministerial Regulation No. 70/2009 on Inclusive Education requires every subdistrict to have at least one inclusive school at primary and junior secondary levels, and for every district to have one inclusive school at the senior secondary level. Government Regulation No. 17/2010 on the Management and Implementation of Education also addresses education for children with disabilities; including the responsibility of Provincial governments to provide at least one education institution per education level for each type of disability.</mark> <mark>Despite these efforts, evidence shows that there are major barriers to learning for children with disabilities, which include the following:</mark>

1. **Stigma and discrimination against children with disabilities prevent them from getting the help they need.** A recent UNICEF Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP) study in Bogor, Pangkajene Kepulauan, Brebes, and Banyumas districts revealed negative attitudes of school managers, teachers and school communities, stigma and discrimination against children with disabilities, and poor emotional well-being experienced by children with disabilities both in and outside the school environment (UNICEF, forthcoming).

The stigma towards children with disabilities also prevents parents from reporting their children to receive extra support from teachers and schools. One MoEC official interviewed for this study in Jakarta noted that, while the Education Law covers children with disabilities by policy, in practice it is difficult to obtain data on children with disabilities, which makes planning difficult. This was echoed by school principals during field visits, who noted that there is stigma associated with having a child with a disability, which often prevents parents from reporting their child to enroll or otherwise obtain services. This then places greater onus on teachers and principals, and the broader community to both identify and serve these children.

2. **Schools are not prepared to teach children with disabilities.** Although children with disabilities might flourish in inclusive primary schools ready and able to receive them, more challenges are found as they attempt to further their education. For example, examination protocols are rarely designed to accommodate their disability, facilities are often inaccessible, and even fewer teachers have been trained in special needs at higher levels according to interviews conducted for this research. In Surakarta, Central Java, <mark>most inclusive and special schools in Surakarta city do not adapt student assessments to the children’s specific needs (Mujahid, 2019).</mark> 3. **Unclear implementation guidelines regarding which level of government is responsible for the management of teaching children with disabilities.** While there are policies in place intended to ensure that children with disabilities have access to schools with appropriate accommodation to support their learning, in discussions with provincial- and district-level education officers, there was a lack of clarity in terms of implementation. In particular, children with special needs come under the auspices of the province, although the province is not responsible for primary schools, leaving an ambiguous area of responsibility for primary aged children with disabilities. Provincial officials indicate that mandates regarding children with special needs were largely unfunded, and 22
that the overlapping lines of responsibility at the primary level result in confusion in implementation.

4. **Insufficient resources.** School principals report that they do not receive enough resources to adequately serve the needs of children with special needs, or to adapt learning spaces to be more inclusive. At the inclusive schools that were visited for this study in East Java and South Kalimantan, principals took it as a personal mission to create special programs for students with disabilities, often without the necessary budget or dedicated resources. Discussions with principals on this issue also brought up the issue of contract versus civil servant teachers, and in every inclusive school visited the vast majority of teachers with special needs students were contract teachers.

5. **The efforts to provide education for disabled children also vary across levels of schooling** , as the costs for attending school tend to be higher for higher levels of education both for all students and especially for disabled students. This is reflected with declining participation rates for primary schools, and progressively lower rates at junior and senior secondary schools for disabled children both in South Kalimantan and East Java. The participation rates of disabled children aged 13-15 years and 16-18 years in South Kalimantan are 47.8 percent and 24.2 percent, respectively, while in East Java the figure is 84.7 percent for 13-15 years old and 49.7 percent for 16-18 years old.

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Box 3: Data for Disability in Education

## **In Indonesia, there are three data sources that capture information on students with disabilities:**

- Dapodik by MoEC: Dapodik captures the prevalence of disability variables among students on visual/auditory/motor-sensory dimensions, as well as gifted children, and those with learning difficulties, Downs syndrome, and autism.

- EMIS by MORA: EMIS currently includes data on children with disabilities in all MoRA schools along the following dimensions: physical impairments including visual, auditory, motor-sensory. Data are also collected on behavioral and learning challenges, such as the ability to concentrate, as well as behavioral issues ( _lamban belajar, sulit belajar dan gangguan komunikasi_ ).

- SUSENAS: SUSENAS also captures data on visual/auditory/motor-sensory dimensions for students, in addition to behavioral and learning challenges. Additionally, SUSENAS tracks both “inability to understand communication” and “self-care” ( _kesulitan/ gangguan berbicara dan atau memahami/ berkomunikasi dengan orang lain_ and _kesulitan/ gangguan untuk mengurus diri sendiri_ ).

**However, data verification across the three sources is difficult, as different terms are used to categorize disabilities. Furthermore, data quality issues exist as a result of unclear guidelines and a lack of understanding on the part of data operators to properly record disabilities.** For example, Dapodik may not properly classify children with Down syndrome in the right category, Susenas may include children with Down syndrome in “inability to understand communication”, and EMIS may put them in the “other health problem” category. Similarly, children with the same issue may be classified by one school under “behavioral issues” and another school may classify them under “inability to concentrate.” There also do not appear to be technical guidelines for operators to classify students, and even if there were technical guidelines, it is not clear that operators are qualified to make such classifications.<sup>1</sup>

**To address data quality and verification issues, MoEC and MoRA are currently working with staff from DFATfunded programs INOVASI and TASS on testing an approach to teacher-led disability identification.** This uses a form and an app called the _Profil Belajar Siswa_ (PBS), or Student Learning Profile. This is based on the UNICEF/Washington Group Child Functioning Module and will enable comparability across Dapodik, EMIS and BPS data sets. Guidelines for teachers have been developed and undergone several technical review processes by MoEC, MoRA and relevant education and disability experts. The system is currently being piloted initially in Lombok, East Java and Nusa Tenggara Timur.

# 5. Conclusion and Recommendations

While females are on average above males in terms of enrollment and learning at the national level, there is wide variance across indicators sub-nationally at all levels of education. This variance includes Kotamobagu, North Sulawesi, where primary enrollment favors females with a GPI of 1.15, to Central Buton, West Sulawesi, where the GPI is 0.8, favoring males. Wonosobo District is another example, where the NER in junior secondary for females is 21 percentage points higher than for males, to Wajo District, where female enrollment is 26 percentage points lower than for males. Student learning performance also varies and, while girls uniformly outperform boys, the size of the female-to-male score gap varies widely.

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Most of the data analyzed for this study confirm a female advantage in education, but this does not directly translate into the labor market, where females remain at a distinct disadvantage in most sectors. While females may achieve higher levels of education and obtain better results on assessments, female labor force participation is low compared with males’, wage disparity in many sectors of employment (main industries) is high, and in the civil service women are less likely to be promoted or to hold senior positions. While policies may be gender-sensitive and promote inclusivity, in reality, women and children with disabilities and special needs face disadvantages that will be insurmountable without adequate attention, resourcing and planning. A meaningful examination of how to raise the status of women in society is required for Indonesia to reap the full economic and development benefits from its population. The formation of gender norms starts with formal and non-formal education, both from how girls and boys are taught, and what messages they receive at school and at home, as well as the gender composition of leadership positions and the roles that women and men fill. While Indonesia should be applauded for the progress it has made, there are several areas that require greater attention:

1. **Analyzing data to identify gender imbalances at subnational levels and possible solutions to narrow the gaps:** Provinces and districts should analyze their own enrollment and learning data at the local level from a gender perspective to identify schools and sub-regions that have large gender imbalances. In those schools and sub-regions that have large differences in learning and enrollment, provinces and districts should support communities to identify the source(s) of the problem and possible ways of addressing it. Understanding the local factors driving gender inequality in the area is crucial in helping to identify possible solutions to narrow the gaps in favor of both boys and girls. Continuous monitoring should show improvements over time, otherwise further actions and support will be needed. In addition, a national program to support local research, policy and innovation would help subnational governments to identify these imbalances and address them.

2. **Gender-sensitive pre-service and in-service teacher training:** Teachers and officials interviewed for this study at all levels were unaware of gender-sensitive teacher training programs. From discussions with teachers and principals, girls are often thought to be better students due to their perceived higher levels of maturity and diligence. Including gender sensitivity and awareness in pre-service and in-service teacher training could help to reduce biases held by teachers and provide guidance to teachers on approaches to consider when teaching boys and girls, both to encourage equal participation, performance and skills development, as well as to reduce gender stereotyping and biases, and to minimize reinforcing bias through teaching practices. School management and supervisors (pengawas) should also receive training to ensure a sensitized and conducive learning environment.

3. **Promotion of female teachers to leadership positions:** There are several drivers contributing to the low number of females in leadership and management positions in the education sector, including the availability of equal opportunities for training, the multiple demands on women’s time, and views held by women and men of women’s leadership capabilities. To bring greater awareness of the lack of women in leadership positions, reports on the number of promotions and positions awarded should be publicized more broadly at the district and provincial levels, as well as the percentages of females and males in civil servant positions. Direct measures to address this imbalance should include mandating targets for school director, Pengawas, Dinas and ministry positions. Indirect measures can also be pursued, such as including information during pre-service training about requirements for hiring for leadership positions and the fact that these positions are open to women. As part of a long-term approach, stories about successful female 25
and disabled leaders could be incorporated into the school curriculum to help foster a more inclusive culture.

4. **Funding and policy action to support the identification and service provision for children with physical disabilities** **<mark>:</mark>** <mark>The Indonesian education system and curriculum is not currently meeting the needs of disabled children. This lack of adequate facilities and training combined with social stigma contributes to children with disabilities falling behind and dropping out at high rates when they do enroll. Teachers also often lack the appropriate training necessary to accommodate specific disabilities. Refining the curriculum for children with disabilities and providing teachers with training on appropriate strategies to teach students with disabilities would help to improve access to and the quality of inclusive education. This could include</mark> _<mark>implementing</mark>_ <mark>the following measures at the district and provincial levels:</mark><sup>36</sup>

- a. <mark>Improve and harmonize data systems (Dapodik, EMIS) to capture a higher level of detail regarding disabled students and the services that they are accessing, as well as teachers trained on inclusive education and in delivering special education services.</mark>

- b. <mark>School buildings and other education facilities, such as teacher training institutions, should be designed to enable an accessible and inclusive learning environment. Existing structures can be upgraded to be more accessible.</mark>

- c. <mark>All teachers should receive initial training on inclusive education during pre-service teacher education; availability of continuous professional development (CPD) of teachers on inclusive education.</mark>

- d. <mark>School leaders should be trained regarding their responsibilities for enhancing the inclusion of all students, including students with disabilities and removing barriers to their inclusion.</mark>

- e. <mark>School leaders should support teachers in enriching or adapting their strategies to students with a different readiness to learning and/or with diverse educational needs.</mark>

- f. <mark>The curriculum needs to reflect principles of equity and inclusion, while textbooks and other materials should integrate positive portrayals of students with disabilities and/or de-biasing contents into the curriculum.</mark>

- g. <mark>Provide fair and accessible assessments to allow all students to show their knowledge and skills on the same challenging content.</mark>

5. **Provide quality childcare facilities for civil servants at the district, provincial and national levels:** Lack of adequate childcare options was cited as an issue by many women in the course of this study, including those in echelon positions who struggled to balance family responsibilities with their careers. While existing policies mandate childcare facilities at ministries, interviewees noted that often these facilities are un-staffed and inactive, while these policies are not in place at the provincial or district levels. Provision of adequate childcare facilities would help to alleviate some of the burdens on women’s time that prevent them from seeking promotions or more senior positions. This should also be applied for female teachers who would like to attend training for their capacity development. Gender-sensitive actions should cover affirmative actions, such as giving opportunities to female teachers to bring along under-five children and their caregivers during the training.

> 36 Adapted from “ _Ensuring Equity and Inclusion in World Bank Education Projects_ ” 2019. Also see the WB Inclusive Education Resource Guide <u><mark>(www.worldbank.org/inclusive-education-initiative)</mark></u> .

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6. **Safe schools are increasingly a priority** for education authorities. The World Bank plans to support this essential work through additional research on gender-based violence in schools and hopes to connect it to national and local initiatives to make sure learning spaces are safe for teachers and students alike.

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