metadata: authors: 0: author: Verspoor,Adriaan M.
docna: 0: docna: Lending for learning : twenty years of World
            Bank support for basic education
docty: Policy Research Working Paper
subtopic: Primary Education,Educational Sciences,Educational Institutions & Facilities,Educational Populations,Education for Development (superceded),Educational Policy and Planning - Textbook,Effective Schools and Teachers,Education For All
teratopic: Gender
abstracts: cdata!: The author traces the development of the
            World Bank's lending policies for education and draws
            lessons and recommendations from the Bank's experience.
            The Bank's lending for primary education has supported
            four main objectives : expanding educational opportunities,
            improving instructional quality, increasing efficiency, and
            strengthening management in the sector. In nonformal
            education, Bank lending has supported the goals of
            developing practical skills, promoting basic literacy, and
            building income generating skills.  The author argues that
            Bank support to education has been most successful when it
            provides for in-depth analysis of subsectoral issues,
            concentrates on a few objectives, sustains its committment
            to these objectives over a long period, and delegates to the
            borrowing country the responsibility for sectoral analysis,
            policy formulation, and project development and
            implementation.  From his review of Bank experience in
            supporting basic education, the author makes five principal
            recommendations for designing education projects : 1)
            support the locally determined processes that drive
            educational development; 2) invest in the most
            cost-effective inputs; 3) test carefully how an investment
            package works in a particular setting and monitor outcomes
            constantly; 4) strengthen the institutional capacity for
            national and regional strategic planning and management; and
            5) design projects to allow a flexible response to a wide
            variety of local needs and unplanned events.
repnme: repnme: Lending for learning : twenty years of
            World Bank support for basic education
display_title: Lending for learning : twenty years
            of World Bank support for basic education
listing_relative_url: /research/1991/05/699957/lending-learning-twenty-years-world-bank-support-basic-education
topicv3: Teachers Management m1326119 1523,Primary Education m1326139 480,Teacher Training m1326786 1532,Textbooks m1326802 2129,Education m1327048 470
publishtoextweb_dt: 2010-07-01T00:00:00Z
historic_topic: Gender
origu: Policy, Research & Ect Affairs
no_of_pages: 48
author_keys: 0: author_key: 90069
model_extractions: **Pollcy, R...aroh,** and **Exteral** Afir..

t Educat'on and Employmnent

- WPS 686

TIhis paper -a product of the Education and Employment Division, Population, Health, and Human Resources - Department is part of a larger effort in PRE to analyze in detail the lessons of the Bar's operational experience in education. Copies are availabic free fron the World Bank, 1818 H Stret NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Cynthia Cristobal, room S6-214, extension 33640 (42 pagis, with figures and tables).

Verspoor traces the development of the World Bank's lending policies for education and draws lessons and recommendations from the Bank's experience.

From his review of Bank experience in supporting basic education, Verspoor draws four lessons for those whiodesign educational development programs: The evolution of the Bank's policies for efdication lending has paralleled the evolution of priorities in the development community. When the Bank began lending for educatiq n 1963, it concentrated on training manpower fob modern sector and limited Bank lendinVto general secondary education, vocational and technical education, higher education, and teacher tsaining. As contribution of basic e.education to development was more widely recognized in the late 1960s, the Bankbegan to support primary education. And as alleviating poverty and promoting equity became priorities, the Bank began in the 1970s to expand its support for basic education -primary and nonformal educaton to help build up literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills.

oVerspoor The Bank's lending for primary education has supported four main objectives: expanding educational opportunities, improving instructional quality, increasing efficiency, and strengthening management in the sector. In nonformal education, Bank lending has supported the goals of developing practicl skills, promoting basic literacy, and building incomegenerating skills.

* The most important determinant of the'outcome of primary iducation progams is the quality of the implementation at the school level.

K The quality of the implementation depends on its -context - and what works in one place many not in another. Programs ,must be adapted to each location.

* Effective administration and effcient management are vital pieconditions for good implementation.

* The lIck of support for mechaniss to assess the outcomes of tft Bank's basic education programqs ' the critical weakness in their design.

makes five principal recommendations for designing education projects:

* Support the locally determined processes ta driveeducational developmnent, such as school improvement, community mobilizatio4, and tte planning of scools' locations.

* Invest in the most cost-effective inputs.

Verspoor argues that Bank support to education has been most successful when it provides for indepth analysis of subsec;oral issues, concentrates on a Wfv objectives, uwstains its commitmen **t** o these objectives over a long period, and delegates to the borrowing country the responsibility for sectoral analysis, policy formiuation, and project development and implementation.

* Test carefully how an investnent package works in a particular setting and monitor outcome' constantly.

* Strengtenthe institutional capacity for national and regional strategic planning and management, and for operation at the district and school levels. I

Design projects to allow a fexible rsponse to a wide vaiety of local needs and unplanned events.

The PRE Working Paper Series disseminates te findmngs of wotk under way in the Bank's Policy, Research, and Extemal AffairsComplex. Anobjective of the series isto get thesefndings out quickly, evenifpresentaiions arless than fuly polishe., The findings, interpretations, xnd conclusions in these papers do not necessarily represent official Bank policy.

Produced by the PRE DisseminationCenter
Page

# TABLE OF CONTNTS

|I.|EVOLUTION OF THE WORLDBANK'SLENDING POLICY<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|
|---|---|
|II.|PRIMARY EDUCATIONs INVESTMENT OBJECTIVES, STRATEGIES,<br>AND LESSONS.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>...<br>.<br>...<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>.....|
|III.|NONFORMAL EDUCATION AND TRAININGs INVESTMENT OBJECTIVES,<br>STRATEGIES,<br>AND LESSONS<br>.<br>...<br>. . . . . . .<br>..............<br>.<br>26|
|IV.|CONCLUSIONS<br>AND IMPLICATIONS<br>.<br>. .<br>. . . .<br>. . . . . . . . . .<br>32|
||Tables|
|Table<br>1:<br>Table 2:<br>Table 3:|World Bank Lending<br>for<br>Primary<br>Education and Non-formal<br>BasicEducation FY70-90<br>..<br>a.<br>el<br>...**..**...........<br>3<br>World Bank Lending for Primary Education and Non-formal<br>BasicEducation by Region,<br>FY70-90<br>. . ..<br>.<br>*...<br>.<br>.<br>6<br>Number of World Bank Primary Education and Non-formal<br>Basic EducationProjects FY70-90<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>**.**<br>.<br>.<br>6|
|Table 4:<br>Table 5:|Projected World Bank Lending for Primary and Non-formal<br>BasicEducation FY91-93<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>7<br>Dileanas of Large-Scale<br>Programs<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>33|

# Figures

|Figure 1: Composition of World Bank Lending for General||
|---|---|
|Education,FY63-90.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.....<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>5|
|Figure 2: A Summary Chart of the World Bank's Primary Education||
|InvestmentObjectivesand Strategies<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>23|
|Figure 3: A Summary Chart of the World Bank's Nonformal Education||
|and Training Investment Objectives and Strategies<br>.|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>. 31|
## **Boxes**

||Page|
|---|---|
|Box Is<br>Box 2:|<br>Increasing Girls Participation in School.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>12<br>Multi-grade Teaching in Colombia<br>and Double-Shift<br>System inSenegal<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>17|
|Box 3:|Research Components and Information Provision:<br>EDURURAL in North East Brasil.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>18|
|Box 4:|Measuring Educational Outcomeas Achievement<br>Testinginthe Philippines<br>..........<br>o........<br>.<br>21|
|Box 5:|Learning and Earning: Nonformal Education in<br>Indonesia and Yemen Arab Republic<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>29|
|Box 6:|<br>The Provision of Funds in Response to Local Requests<br>in Colombia<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>*.<br>*.<br>. .<br>.<br>. .<br>**9**<br>35|
|Box 7:|Evolution in the World Bank's Approach to Lending for<br>PrimaryEducationtThe<br>Malaysia Came.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>38|
|Box 8:|<br>Broadening Loans to the Education sector:|
||Maliand Bangladesh Sector<br>Loans<br>............<br>..<br>39|
|Refere|nces.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>. .<br>. . . . . .<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>. .<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>41|

# a cknowledaements

This paper was prepared for the Workshop on Basic Education at the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration in Now Delhi, India, November 6-9, 1990. A ceam of PHREE staff helped me develop the paper. Kin Bing Wu provided extensive editorial assistance; Rosemary Rinaldi, omporn Regel and Alastair Rodd prepared the tables and the boxes. Cynthia Cristobal's Word Perfect skills are to be credited for the presentation.
# * EVOLUTION OF TEM WORLD SAM' S LENDZNG POLICY

As a development institution, the World Bank supports education by provid'ng financial resources, technical assistance, and policy advice. It contributed US$11.2 billion to support education and training through 396 projects in 100 countries between 1963 and 1990. The volume of Bank<sup>1</sup> lending for basic education- totalled US$2 billion since 1970, and accounted for over a quarter of the world's multilateral aid to primary education between FY81-86.3 The Bank employs more than 100 education professionals to assist Borrowers with the development and implementation of the education loans and to appraise more than 20 education projects per year. It also ham a small division of 10 professional staff to undertake educational research and policy work. This paper will review the evolution of the Bank's lendine policy, and the objectives, strategies and lessons of lending for basic education, which includes both primary and nonformal education.4 The Bank's policy of lending for education has gone through several phases over the past two decades. At the time of its inception, the World Bank was authorized under its Articles of Agreement (1945) to provide investment capital to support projects "for productlve purposes, including...the encouragement of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries."5 In the 1950s, few development economists recognized the critical contribution of education to productivity and economic growth. In that decade, education was not considered a suitable object for Bank investment.

# Entry into Education Lending

In FY63, the World Bank began lending for education, stimulated b' the emerging view in development economics of education as an investment in human capital, and by the growing demand for financial assistance in education from its member-states. Initially, the objectives were to promote educational planning, build infrastructures, such as schools, and attract additional capital investment from other donor agencies.

I The word "Bank" used in this paper refers to the World Bank.

2 Basic education includes primary education for children and literacy and basic skills training for youths and adults. It does not include formal vocational training.

3 The World Bank's fiscal year starts on July lot. FY81-86 refers to the period from July 1, 1980 to June 30, 1986.

4 The discussion in this chapter is based on the following World Bank papers: 1971 Sector Working Paper) 1974 Sector Working Paper; Education Sector Policy Paper; Review of Bank Operations in the Education Sectorl The Dividends of Learning; and Primary Education: A World Bank Policy Paper.

World Bank, "Review of Bank Operations in the Education Sector," p. 1.

1
From FY63-71, lending was concentrated on strengthening what were considered the "productive" subsectore of education--general secondary education, vocational and technical education, higher education, and teacher training. The principal objective was tL. train manpower to support the modern sector, the expansion of which war seen as the key to development. The World Bank, as well as other international agencies, considered that basic education with its high local cost content was not very suitable for external assistance, and that external funding was best directed towards the higher levels of education.

Between FY63-71, the Bank's lending to secondary education accounted fot 71.8%, post-secondary education for 13.0%, university for 10%, adult training for 4.1%, and primary education for 1.1% of total education lending.6 Early Bank lending did not support nonformal education, defined as learning that is not part of a country's regular school system, although it covered nonformal vocational training.

# Emergence of a Sector Policy

The critical contribution of basic education to deve'opment was gradually recognized in the second half of the 1960s. Some of the requests to the Bank for educational financing (South Korea, for examplet included primary education as a priority area. In 1968, Unesco requested that the Bank support primary education, and that it consider loan applications on the basis of "the assessed needs and priorities of a recipient country."<sup>7</sup> In response, the Bank began, starting in 1970, to support primary education projects which aimed to improve efficiency and relevance of instruction. It also supported the provision of basic equipment, supplies and textbooks, and the establishment of facilities for the local production of textbooks and other teaching materials. In 1971, the Bank issued for the first time a formal statement on the priority for education lending in a "Sector Working Paper." anticipating the resource implications of the increasing demand for schooling exacerbated by th' rapid growth of school-age population, the Sector Working Paper emphasized the needs to find new iources of educational financing, improve efficiency in delivery through the use of educational radio, television, programmed learning and other instructional materials, and search for less costly alternatives to formal primary schooling, including nonformal education.

# Emg.hasis on Meeting Basic Needs

Meanwhile, the population explosion and the deterioration of the living conditions for the world's poor forced the development community to re-think its priorities and strategies. In 1973, Bank President Robert McNamara called for a major policy shift in international development assistance toward meeting the basic needs of the world's poorest people for food, shelter, clothing, clean water, health care and education. This new emphasis on equity and on the 6 World Bank, "1971 Sector Working Paper," Table 5, p. 32.

7 Romain, "Lending in Primary Educations Bank Performance Review, 196283," p. v.

2
allevietion of poverti led to tho formulation of a more comprehensive sector policy in education. The new focus g've impetus to lending for primary and non..ormal education to help build the foundation of literacy, numeracy and problea-solving -ills necessary for national development.

The "1974 Sector Working Paper" updated the 1971 paper and reiterated the importance of meeting the educational needs of the lowest 40% of the income group. The paper emphasized the urgency of improving access of the rural and urban poor to education, making curricula relevant to rural needs, promoting functional adult literacy, and making increased use of the mother tongue. The paper stressed that rural education and training should be practical, designed as an integral part of the education system, linked with rural development activities, and replicable in terms of cost and management. The paper also called for research into the conditions related to basic education, curriculum development, teacher training, institutional models, project design, use of the mass media, manageLant training, administrative reorganization, monitoring and evaluation, and planning and policy formulation by couatries. Furthermore, the Paper urged the Bank to support the local design, production and distribution of textbooks and instructional materials.

As a result, Bank lending to primary education 'ncreased from 5t between FY70-74 to 14% between FY75-79 (See Table 1). Support for nonformal education rose from nil before FY69 to 5.2% of the total education project cost between FY74-79.8 Much of the financing for basic education was for the expansion of the enrollment capacity, such as school building and pre-service teacher training.

Table 1: World Bank Landing for Primary Education and Honformal Basic E4ucation FY70-90 CUSSmi tlian

|**FY**|Total<br>**CS)**|Primary<br>Education<br>**CSO**|Nonformal<br>Basic<br>Education<br>**_CS)_**|Primary Education<br>as 2 of Total Bank<br>Lending for Education<br>(X)|Non-formal Basic<br>Education as**X**of<br>Total Bank**Lending**<br>for Education<br>(X)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|70-74 *|814.9|36.4|n.s.|**5**|n.a.|
|75-79*|1,681.9|236.7|n.a.|14|n.a.|
|80-84|2,964.2|423.7|37.8|14|1.3|
|85-90|5,530.7|1,2V3.2|18.7|23|0.3|
|Total<br>70-90|10,991.|7 1,975.0|56.5|18|0.5|

* **Data** for primary education ***lso** include **nonformal** basic edUcation.

a omain and Armstrong, "Review of World Bank Operations in Nonformal Education and Training." 3
# fommtlment to Primary Educat qn

In the 19808, the Bank's lending<sup>policy reflected the experience</sup> acquired earlier and a deepenea understanding<sup>of the complexity of educational</sup> development. It gave a higher priority<sup>to prim .y education, and adopted a</sup> diversified approach to tackling the<sup>problems. The large and growing number of</sup> out-of-school children, the persistence<sup>of dispatities between enrollments of</sup> boys and girls, the high repetition<sup>and dropout rates, the difficulty of</sup> replicating pilot projects, the<sup>problems of ruralizing the primary school</sup> curricula, and the mounting evidence<sup>on the importance of general primary</sup> education made significant rethinking<sup>in educational development strategies</sup> imperative. The "1980 Sector Policy Paper"<sup>emphasized primary education as the</sup> foundation of educational development.<sup>It called for improving access of girls</sup> and rural children to basic education,<sup>alimitation of additional investments</sup> in secondary and higher education,<sup>enhancing instructional</sup> quality by providing cost-effective school inputs<sup>and teacher training, reducing internal</sup> inefficiency, mobilizing community<sup>resources and the mass media, and building</sup> local institutions. Recognizing that improving the institutional<sup>infrastructure</sup> is a pre-condition of effective<sup>primary education investment, the paper</sup> emphasized the strengthening of<sup>the leadership in educational management,</sup> planning and research, upon which depend well-designed policies and effective administration.

In sum, the stated objectives of Bank lending for primary education in the 1980. went beyond the expansion of enrollment capacity to include improving educational quality, increasing<sup>the efficiency of program delivery,</sup> and strengthening education sector management. Bank lending for primary education increased, during the 1980s, to 23%<sup>of its total educational lending</sup> between FY85-90 (See Table 1).

Lending for nonformal education varied from period to period (see Table 1). While the 1981 paper noted the growing number of illiterates, it did not consider that nonformal education represented a viaL alternative to basic schooling, but underscored its importance in providing a second chance for those who missed formal schooling. The objectives of nonformal education and training emphasized by the Dank in that paper include practical skill development, basic literacy, and preparation for income generating activities. To date, approximately 11% of the 396 Bank-financed<sup>education projects have contained</sup> nonformal basic literacy components. Figure 1 shows the changes in the composition of Bank lending for education over the past three decades, reflecting the gradual broadening of lending objectives.

4
**Figur 1**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Composition of World Bank Lending<br>for General Education, FYB3-90<br>Pereentage of all education lending<br>40-<br>80- ___ _<br>20- 0 1 1<br>1968-60 1970-74 1976-50 181-86 1980<br>-11PrIRsy Me oSndry EMPosmeodrIy GOTeWw1w trelnrg<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# * Data do not include nonformal basic education ard technical education.

In terms of the regional distribution of Bank lending for primary and nonformal education, the region of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa (EMBNA) has the largest share (42%) of lending amounts during FYS5-90, mainly because of a large average size of loan (US$44 million) rather than a large number of projects (See Table 2). Asia, with a smaller average project size of US$21 million, accounted for 24% of the total number of primary education projects for the same period. Although Africa's share of 20% of total Bank lending for primary education remained stable during the 1980., the region's primary education's share of total regional education lending has increased steadily from 20% in FY80-84 to over 33% in FYS-89. The number of primary projects in the region accounted for half of all primary projacs financed during FY85-90.

Table 3 shows a gradual increase in all regions, except Latln America and the Caribbean (LAC), in the distribution of primary education projects over time.

**5**
Table 2: Wbrld Bank Lending for Primary Education and Nonformal Basic Education by Region, FY70-90

|(USMmillion)|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Af|rica|Asia||E|MEA<br>LAC|Tota|l|
||--<br>--<br>--<br>--|<br>--<br>--<br>--<br>-<br>-<br> <br>Nfl|--<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-|-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>|--<br>-<br>-<br>-|-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>--<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>--<br>-<br>-<br>--<br> <br> <br>|--<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>|-<br>--<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>-<br>|
|FY|Primary<br>Education|onorma<br>Basic<br> <br>Education<br>|Primary<br>Education|Nonformal<br>Basic<br>Education|Primary<br>Education|Non-formal<br>Non-formal<br> <br>Basic<br>Primary<br>Basic<br>Education<br>Educatio.<br>Education|<br>Primary<br>Education|Non-formal<br>Basic<br>Education|
|70-74 *<br>(C)<br>(Z)|<br>1.1<br> <br>3.0|n.e.<br>0.0|11.4<br>31.2|n.a.<br>0.0|14.6<br>40.0|n.a.<br>9.4<br>n.a.<br>0.0<br>25.8<br>0.0|36.5<br>100.0|n.a.<br>0.0|
|75-79 *<br>(S)<br>(S)|<br>52.0<br> <br>22.0|n.a.<br>0.0|69.0<br>29.2|n.a.<br>0.0|83.1<br>35.1|n.a.<br>32.6<br>n.a.<br>0.0<br>13.8<br>0.0|238.7<br>100.0|n.a.<br>0.0|
|80-84<br>(8)<br>(X)|100.5<br> <br>23.7|3.4<br>9.0|151.2<br>35.7|32.1<br>84.9|42.0<br>9.9|2.3<br>130.0<br>0.0<br>6.1<br>30.7<br>0.0|423.7<br>100.0|37.8<br>100.0|
|85-90<br>($)<br>(S)|249.5<br> <br>19.5|0.0<br>0.0|340.9<br>26.7|0.0<br>0.0|532.9<br>41.7|0.0<br>154.9<br>0.0<br>0.0<br>12.1<br>0.0|1278.2<br>100.0|18.7<br>100.0|
|Total<br>(a)|403.1|3.4|572.5|32.1|672.6|2.3<br>326.9<br>0.0|1975.1|37.8|
|*Data foz pri<br>Tabl*|mary<br>dtuca<br>3:<br>Rtmb r|tion also<br>inclu&:<br>o<br> of World Bank Prima<br>Africa|nformal<br>basic<br>ry Education<br>F7O-9O<br>Asia|<br>education.<br>and Nonformal<br><br>|...__________<br>Basic Educa<br>EMEN|______________--------------------------------------------<br>tion<br>Projocts<br>A<br>LAC<br>Tot|---------------------<br>al|---------------_________|
|FY|Pri<br>Edu|Nonfozmal<br>Lw.-Y<br>Basic<br>cation<br>Education|Primary<br>Education|Nonfozual<br>Basic<br>Education|<br>Primary<br>Education|Non-formal<br>Non-formal<br>Basic<br>Primary<br>Basic<br>Primary<br>Education<br>Education<br>Education<br>Education|Mon-formal<br>Basic<br>Education||
|70-74|(No.)<br>(Z)|4<br>10<br>6<br>26|3<br>11|1<br>11|...------<br>6<br>20|--------------------------------------------------__-------------_----__<br>7<br>2<br>7<br>15<br>33<br>8<br>29<br>10|-----------------------<br>25<br>27|--------------------------------|
|75-70|_(No.)_<br>CZ)|18<br>20<br>28<br>53|3<br>11|7<br>78|8<br>20|7<br>le<br>14<br>37<br>33<br>40<br>58<br>24|48<br>52||
|80-84|(No..<br>(S)|15<br>6<br>21<br>16|5<br>19|1<br>11|6<br>20|6<br>7<br>3<br>33<br>29<br>28<br>13<br>22|16<br>18||
|85-90|(NO.)|33<br>2|16|-|12|1<br>6<br>-<br>67|3||
||CX)|47<br>5|S9|0|40|5<br>24<br>0<br>44|3||
|Total|70-90<br>CX)|70<br>38<br>100<br>100|27<br>100|9<br>100|30<br>1I%0|21<br>25<br>24<br>152<br>200<br>100<br>100<br>100|92<br>100||

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -...-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
# Direction, for the 1990e

In the 1990s, the Bank will continue tc provide broad support for educational development with partioular priority to six areas:

- Improving the effectiveness and efficiency of primary educatLon;

- Increasing the access of women and girls to education;

- Strengthening science arid technology education;

- Improving the efficiency and flexibility of training systems;

- Strengthening the contributions of higher education and science and technology institutions to development; and

- Continuing support for project-related training and the development of sectoral training capacity.

Support for basic education will thus continue to be an imp. 'rtant part of Bans lending. Projections based on currently identified projects indicate that Bank lending for primary education will continue to be important over FY9193, averaging 30% of total Bank education lending for all regions. However, so far, country requests for support of rn.i.formal educrtion continue ' be low (see Table 4).

With these priorities in mind, the Bank will base it. assistance on an analysis of the relationship between educational policies and the national economy, the feasibility of implementing educational reforms, and the cap^elity of national institutions to carry out educational policies. The Bank will also emphasizes the relationship between education and training on one hand and employment policies and programs on the other hand.<sup>9</sup> in the following chapters, the Bank,s investment objectives and lessons learned from its assistance to primary and nonformal education and training will be discussed in detail.

Table 4: Projected World Bank Lending for Primary and Nonformal Basic Education FY91-93 (US$ million)

||Asi|a|Afri|ca|EME|NA|LA|C|Tot|al|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||S|%|S|%|S|%|S|%|$|%|
|Primary|100|10|680|37|510|42|100|15|1390|30|
|Nonformal<br>Basic|<br>0|<br>0|50|0||0|0|<br>0|50|1|

9 World Bank, "Dividends of Learning." 7
# 1S. PRIMARY EDUCATlON$ INVSMTMEM OBRJCTIVES, STRATEPAIS AND LESSONS

Leording for primary education 10 has supported four categories of objectives and related educational inputs:

- eduiattonal-ojortuniti2s through s-hool construction,_xaan_ina

- provision of pre-service teacher training, and strongthening the demand for schooling by helping people overcome fLnancLal, cultural or religLous barrlers to particLpation;

- imnrovina the aualitv of instructLon through curriculum development (such as revislon of syllabi, ruralizatLon of the curriculum, and lntroduction of practical subjects), and Lnstructional development (such as provision of textbooks, Ln-servLce teacher trainlng, and distance educatLon)s

- increasina the efficlency of deliverv by containing cost per pupil, manlpulatlng student flows, and reallocatLng avaLlabl- resources; and

- strengthenLna eSucatlon sector management by developlng the institutLonal capaclty for decLeion maklng, plannlng, and evaluatlon and research.

- These strategies and lessons learned wlll be dlscussed below.

# QbWective Is Expanding Educational gooortunities

Since the early 1970s, Bank prlmary education projects have provlded strong support for the expansion of educational opportunlties. Initlally, thle support focused mainly on the constructlon of school buildings. Between 1970 and 1980, the Bank provided flnancing for the supply of more than four million school places. In addition, extensive support has been provlded for increasing the supply of qualified teachers. Finally, in recent years, considerable attention has been glven to the need to address constraints on the demand for schooling, especially for girls.

School construction is a major part of educatlonal investment. In some countries the annualized capital cost represents 80% of the annual recurrent cost From the outset, the Bank emphasized the need to adapt the school deslgn to local resources, buildlng traditlons, and climate. Throughout the 1970s, Bank projects tested a wlde range of low-cost methods for the bulldlng of durable and functional schools. In the maln, three approaches have been tried, each with varylng degrees of success.

10 ThL chapter draws heavily on Romain, "LendLng ln Primary Education." World Bank, "Education in Sub-Saharan Africa." 8
The first approach is designed to reduce school construction cost by using local materials and labor and by adapting local building designs to specific school requirements. Projects, many in West Africa, that adopted this approach were successful in reducing the direct cost of construction. However, many ran into significant implementation problems. The management problems and the cost associated .th the training and supervislon of workers on dispersed eites turned out to be insurmountable in many inetances, especially where workers had to apply unfamiliar constructLon techniques, and where a publlc agency such as the Department of Public Works was responvible for managLng the construction program. Few of these programs have, in fact, gone to scale.

The second approach sets out to reduce the cost of building through the use of prefabricated components. On-site assembly of prefabricated comp-Dnents has the potential to ensure uniform building standards and facLiltates the use of durable materials. However, lmplementation difficulties in a number of countries have changed the perception of thie approach as a low-cost alternatlve.

Three major problems emerged. First, transportation problems frequently occurred in delivery of building components, particularly in projects aimed at reaching previously under-served population in difficult to reach areas. The cost-saving advantages of mass produced prefabricated materials were offset by the increase in delivery costs. Second, synchronizing individual site preparation with component delivery frequently turned out to be a source of severe implementation problems. In addition, construction tasks such as site leveling, foundation preparation, and installation of water, sewage and electrical connactionv; required professional supervision. Third, cost savings through the large-sca.le use of prefabricated materials depended on national capacities for the production of such components. Primary school building projects in Brazil, the Philippines, and Morocco would not have been possible without the national experience in the production of prefabricated components.

The third approach to schoel construction is to rely on voluntary community labor. From the perspectives of cost containment and local lnvolvement, this approach has many advantages, but it is not without problems either. Self-help construction has rarely proceeded according to a centrally established calendar. This brings an element of unpredictability in the planning process. In addition, the scope for the application of unfamiliar construction techniques is usually limited, and there is little guarantee for durability and functionality of the buildings. The experience of the Bank in school building thus demonstrates the limitations of large scale low-cost school construction programs. While the use of local community labor has considerable potential to bring down construction cost, it needs to be complemented by central support, including the training and supervision of workers in the use of building materials that are not locally available, in order to maintain momentum and ensure minimal standards. An important lesson is that the major problems are managerial and not technical.

Because of these problems, countries are well advised to use as much as possible existing schools and other buildings to reduce the need for new 9
construction. Many Bank projects have, therefore, supported the introduction of double shift-use of schools in densely populated urban areas and multi-grade teaching in rural areas. These programs have been successful where they have been well planned and included adequate training of teachers and supply of specially prepared teaching aide. A good example is the Becuela Nueva program in Colombia described under the section on increasing the efficiency of program delivery.

Pro-oorvice teacher &raining is another key part of programs designed to expand educational opportunity. Between 1963 and 1984, Bank projects supported the creation of more than 90,000 places in 110 primary teacher colleges. Most of these projects supported existing national programs.

A re-view of Bank experience in teacher training12 concluded that about one third of the projects had fully met their objectives, 20% did not meet ther., and 10% met them only partially. One reason for the unsatisfactory outcome of some major projects was the neglect to adequately analyze the problems of teacher supply and demand. Teacher requirement projections rarely took into account regional and gender variations in the demand for teachers, or how competitive teachers' salaries are in comparison with other professions in attracting and retaining the better educated. Trade-offs between pro-service and in-service training were rarely analyzed. The possibility to limit pre-service teacher training to professional preparation (practical training) and to avoid duplication with general secondary education was analyzed only in a few instances.

In recent years, analyses of sector and projects have taken a broader view of teacher training. The emphasis has shifted away from the provision of hardware (buildings, furniture, equipment and specialized facilities) to the infusion of educational inputs (develoLment of training curricula and instructional materials, training of trainers, and technical assistance). For example, between PY63 and PY84, 95% of teacher training components of completed projects supported the provision of hardware, but for the projects that were still under implementation at that time, the percentage dropped to 8S%. At the same time, 62% of the completed components and 72% of the on-going ones included the provision of educational inputs. In FY89-90, 27 projects (over two thirds) of the 41 projects approved in that period had teacher training components. Twenty-three of these projects emphasized in-service training, most often coupled with curriculum revision and provision of now textbooks.

Teacher qualifications and levels of training are important issues governing the feasibility of educational expansion. Research shows that teachers must have a "bracket" of knowledge and skills in order to teach effectively. Traditionally, teachers who have had upper secondary education have the bracket of knowledge to teach primary school. Teachers with too little education and training cannot teach effectively, but those who have high academic qualifications may also have high aspirations which are not likely to be met by the existing incentives or the social prestige of the teaching profession. Job 12 The discussion in this section draws heavily on the review by Haddad, "Teacher Training." 10
dissatisfaction may lead to low levels of performance and attrition. It is, therefore, important to carefully analyze the trade-offs between economic efficiency and educational effectiveness in the design of teacher training programs.

Several countries, for example, Burkina Faso and Senegal, have established teacher training programs that recruit lower secondary graduates for training as assistant teachers, with the understanding that, over a period of time, they will have the opportunity through effective performance and participation in in-service training programs to acquire higher qualifications. Pakistan and Bangladesh have established successful programs to recruit female assistant teachers who, with further in-service training and school-based professional support, have performed effectively in schools in their home community.

Strenathenina the demand for education is the third strategy for expanding educational opportunities. This strategy often needs to complement investments in physical facilities. Special attention is needad to remove cultural, religious or financial barriers to participation, especially for girls. Many countries have found that building schools is not enough to ensure that those who are not currently enrolled will attend school. In particular, providing access for girls does not guarantee their participation if parents do not appreciate the benefits of education sufficiently to be willing to bear the costs. Often parents must go against cultural or religious norms when sending their daughters to school. The direct and indirect costs to the family are often high: expenses for tuition and school supplies must be met and the loss of the valuable contributions made by daughters working at home and in the market place must be accepted.

Programs that are successful in increasing girlo' participation have taken financial, cultural or religious factors into account. Interventions included such measures as increasing the number of female teachers to provide role models for girls and to ease parents' anxiety about the safety of girls away from the home; designing school calendars and facilities that take account of girls' economic contributions to the family; and promoting activities to broaden perceptions of the role of women in society. A 1979 Pakistan primary education project tested two approaches to improving female teacher recruitments (i) provision of rural residences for female teachers; and (ii) local recruitment of female "assistant teachers." Results showed that providing female teachers with residences did not contribute significantly to recruitment. Several socio-cultural factors restricted the success of this approach--single females do not live alone; they could not take their relatives with them; and night guards were not provided for their protection. However, the assistant teacher program was quite successful. Because they often came from the surrounding area, females hired for these positions were already known in the local community. This increased parent.' confidence that their daughters would be safe at school. In addition, budget savings were possible because salaries were less for the assistant teachers with lower educational qualifications, and provision of female teacher residences was 11.
not necessary. Recent project. include a provision for testing a wuide range of cultural and other hindrance to feaaale schooling. (See Box 1.)

|'...''..:f.''.<br>o:<br>;..<br>incrasin<br>-il.<br>Pat.oiai<br>i S<br>.hoo<br>Tbw r<br>:-eent :<br>Wod<br>'an<br>poet<br>aeee<br>eiedireoneo<br>cocruaotgrs<br>ccs<br>oshoig<br>h 4abwEuainSco<br>(!rd$ a notd<br>_<br>oben<br>_ikdtammstnoieWmni<br>_.elps_<br>c o u r.<br>, ..,, *.*....**-**<br>-**-**- ..<br>..<br>'- -'.-... -- -.<br>.<br>~~~~~~~~~~~<br>&f-._|
|---|
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|de#lp4to<br>i*<br>rgrm<br>ynn"oemetoraiais.(OM<br>n|
|att._-,v.<br>totepo<br>and girl,.<br>brug<br>fo .rwpe<br>schol<br>f eedi<br>prgrms<br>poiin<br>Of wl*tm,<br>M;aOhn<br>ais<br>aO<br>oes<br>o~iach<br>porm...<br>3 E<br>Th Patsa<br>_5.nd Poinc_<br>_SPiu_<br>9_u.tio_<br>_Deaoist_<br>_Prjc_<br>_!wu_<br>:Fe'imnt&<br>p<br>rm<br>nslce<br>i~it<br>h<br>noain<br>foue|

chngn9th shol a.nat i 12us ittig ow lethe aha1
# Objective 2: Imnrovino the Oualitv of Instruction

The strategies for improving the quality of inetruction include curriculum development and instructional development.

Curriculum develooment has usually been considered a central element of educational quality improvement and an important means to enhance the relevance of schooling. Almost 90% of the World Bank projects supporting qualitative change programs included support for curriculum development.II Recent projects emphasize increasing quality improvement over expansion, as illustrated by the shift from support for pre-service to in-service teacher training.

Many curriculum development programs, especially those focused on the revision of syllabi and the introduction of new subject matters, have failed to meet expectations.14 Curriculum implementation was often the weakest link in the curriculum reform process. The most successful programs were those that supported a combination of curricular reforms, in-service teacher training, administrative and management training, and the provision of instructional materials.

A common theme in curriculum development, especially in the 1970s, was the ruralization of the curricula through the inclusion of domestic or rural subjects and pre-vocational skills. The projects typically provided physical plants and equipment for these subjects and supported the development of new syllabi. More thein half of a sample of 25 primary education projects approved between 1972 and 1 83 supported curriculum ruralization programs. In addition, several projects attempted to introduce metal/woodwork, bricklaying, and simple electrical repairs.

Most of these "practical subject" curricular reforms ran into significant implementation problems, especially those emphasizing vocational skill development projects. Introducing a new subject in an already overcrowded curriculum (often including two languages) has never been easy, but for practical subjects, the problem of implementation have been compounded by the often significant program cost, the requirement for specialized teacher skills, and parental expectations. Instructional improvement has been a consistent feature of Bank lending for primary education over the past 20 years. Support for the provision of textbooks, in-service training of teachers, and distance education have been the principal means.

_Textbook provislon is_ a central element in Bank lending for primary education. Before 1978, less than 10% of the Bank projects included support for textbooks. Between 1979 and 1983, 32% of the projects included a textbook 13 Verspoor, "ImplementLig Educational Change." 14 World Bank, "Education Sector Policy Paper." 13
component. Sixty-six percent or 27 of the FY89-90 projects had textbook components.

A 1985 review15 found evidence of considerable achievement. The most successful projects recognized that textbook publishing was complex and highly technical, that it required professional competencies in many specialties, and that developing a good textbook took time, three years at the minimum.

However, even with this recognition, projects underestimated the difficulties in management and institutional development. Problems in textbook provision included poor quality books, inadequate distribution systems, inability to establish and maintain production schedules, inadequate procedures to handle paper procurement, teacher training not synchronized with book publication, poor coordination between curriculum and manuscript development, and, above all, failure to establish institutions that continue to provide good quality books after project completion. Of the nine FY65-77 projects surveyed in detail, only three left behind functioning textbook provision systems. The lessons from these early projects were rapidly absorbed. Textbook components approved between FY77-83 were more thoroughly designed, using expert knowledge whenever necessary, and paying much more attention to the issues of sustainability and institutional development. In recent years, investments in textbooks are among the most carefully designed and most successful elements of Bank lending for education.

The 1985 review recommended that future projects needed to address the following issues: planning a long-term capacity building program; careful analysis of the trade-off. involved in the critical decision of whether to publish, to purchase, or to adapti and ensuring financial sustainability of book provision schemes beyond the initial investments.

The issue that has been neglected and needs urgent attention is the quality and the sequencing of the content of textbooks. A recent review<sup>16</sup> found that textbooks for math and reading in many developing countries progress to advanced levels more rapidly than the typical textbook in developed countries.

_Distance education_ is usually taken in the Bank to refer to the delivery of education programs via radio or television broadcasting and correspondence. In primary education, distance education has been designed to enrich face-to-face teaching, or to complement or replace teachers for some of the time to improve the quality of instruction in mathematics and language. Between 1963 and 1985, about 20% of the Bank's primary education projects included distance education components.

The first Bank involvement in distance education was the Ivory Coast education television experiment, which produced only marginal education benefits Is Searle, "General Operacional Review of Textbooks." 16 Paxman, et al., "Analysi of Research on Textbook Availability and Quality in Developing Countries." 14
in spite of very substantial external investments. After ten years, it had become clear that Ivory coast would not be able to sustain the immense add-on cost of educational television.

Similarly, a 198717 review of Bank experience found little additional benefit for distance learning programs designed for enrichment purposes. Where distance education was used for improvement of instruction in core subjects by complementing or replacing face-to-face teaching, evidence of learning gains has been found. Where broadcasting is complemented by printed materials, the addit-onal cost are, however, not insignificant.

Distance education has encountered significant implementation problems at the school level in many countries, especially when the technology is unfarmiliar to the teacher and difficult to adapt to classroom specific instructional imperatives. Replication beyond the pilot stage has often been difficult, especially in countries with weak administrative structures. The most successful applications have been at the secondary and higher levels and for inservice teacher education where the learners are more self-motivated than primary school pupils. Since 1985, few Bank projects have included provision for distance education programs to support primary education.

_In-service teacher training_ is increasingly recognized as a crucial element of instructional improvement programs. About 60% of the primary teacher training projects reviewed by Haddad and 85% of the FY89-90 teacher training projects, included support for in-service teacher training. Verspoor found that successfully implemented educational reform programs made ample provision for permanent and locally available in-service training and professional support. Whether carried out in the school itself, or at a local learning resource center within easy reach of area teachers, training provided to teachers as they go through the process of implementing reform programs has played an important role in the success achieved in a number of countries.20 Three mechanisms for delivering in-service training stand out as the most efficient in these reviews. First, distance education, used mainly for general skill-upgrading programs, often include correspondence courses and radio programs. Good examples are Bank supported projects in El Salvador and the Philippines. Second, the "ripple," "echo," or "cascade" method has been found to be successful. This method targets at first a small core of personnel for training. They will, in turn, train a larger group, who will then train an even larger group and so on. The provision of well developed training materials is essential to ensure the maintenance of standards in these programs. Bank projects 17 Hawkridge, "General Operational Review of Distance Education." 18 Verspoor, "Pathwayo to Change." 19 Haddad, "Teacher Training." 20 Verepoor, "Pathways to Change." 15
in Thailand, Bangladesh, and Malaysia used such an approach and have a record of success. Third, teacher resource centers at the district or sub-district level, for example, central schools, serve am the locus for short, recurrent inservice training and allow teachers the opportunity to familiarize themselves with new materials and meet fellow teachers. Examples of this approach are found in Ethiopia and Indonesia.

The effectiveness of in-service training programs wag further enhanced where systems for school-level support and supervision were established and the content explicitly designed to take account of the level of knowledge and experience of the typical course participant. Finally, a common source of problems was the under-funding of in-service training.

# Obiective 3: Increasina the Efficiency of Prooram Delivery

Attempts to increase the efficiency of resource application in primary education have focused on containing the cost per student, manipulating student flows, and reallocating available resources.

Containina cost oer student has been an important element of Bank supported strategies in many of the poorest countries. Since teachers, salaries often account for as high as 95% of the total expenditures on primary education, these efforts have centered on the efficient utilization and deployment of teachers.

A review of a sample of 30 projects, selected on the basis of their support for ambitious reform programs and approved between 1986 and 198821, found that almost 30% of them supported measures to increase the efficiency of teacher utilization. These measures included increaoing teacher/student ratios by promoting double-shift and multiple-grade teaching, and controlling teacher salary expenditures. Projects in Colombia and Senegal provide evidence of well designed multi-grade and double-shift systems. (See Box 2.) Manioulatina student flows through reduction in repetition and dropout rates and through changes in administrative procedures to raise the passing rates was another strategy to increase efficiency. This strategy was included in about one third of the projects in the above-mentioned sample. A few projects linked the analysis of cost per student to the cost per graduate, and were able to advocate increasing the former in order to reduce the latter, thereby increasing the input/output efficiency of the system.

The manipulation of student flows through automatic promotion did little to guarantee that pupils passing through the school system have actually learned something. A better strategy is to prevent failure through improvement 21 World Bank, "Annual Operational Review Fiscal 1988 Education and Training." 16
of instructional quality.22 The EDURURAL project in North East Brazil providec evidence of the cost-effectiveness of this strategy.

-. s~~~~Dub l .. ..I :.t Syste :.r Senega promtion pati8Ca basedon maseyo pescie s-lsaplowsfo

othe elent olf the porm incudngt role of- stdn sssat and: :: e z Eout and .se of a,,s;{' cone"acivt 1 for'Z difrn . gus The seon wokho sde,t,t rmtinpoeue n ut-r teahig Te hid orshp . evew erie ssson ad onenrae onZu edctoa vluto n rbemsljg 98 vlaino Esc'.l Suv ocuddta n em facdmcprfrac h m at:: .. e m a 8t:tics -. :..*i... .i..:.::..:-:::.::S......: : :;:...., . ,. .... .

doubl-h teach&in syse ae n ntwooor toeahs non '.lassro of a abou 60 stdet *ach Wh prjc ipo studen t22 Hadde,lpn oEduapproprateltei and Ecooei Eet oramoioni and Rpopetito Practices.' 17
The Bank loan supported the improvement of quality in Brazilian primary schools through the provision of textbooks, more training and better pay<sup>for teachers,</sup> improved administration, and setting achievement standards. (See<sup>Box 3.)</sup> 'U"-3 :;.. DU i : n- or 7.a st .a- **il** As pa"rt o.f _:a_<sup>_World:_Bak</sup> 0o **a** to zil .rmr s......hool in40 muniPcipaStli'ties in nine n eastern stte wre ier ae or1 ""de?tment d inqualityl i-provemonts, **uha** thpovsoofttbas classroo **m** atterial ng and b Fette pay o_toaphers,mr =administration an* better standards<sup>o casto</sup> s.adcpit O f. . thi loan, $1.25<sup>million</sup><sup>_-_</sup> _.(4 ofto.t_ proje.csa .w<sup>...</sup> o d an% valtuatibon of te<sup>project't</sup> cti o t in pi.a.s.hoo enrollments, reducing repet Wo -an. t. .niversity of ''a ra (I-C) .nd.<sup>,</sup> re . S. v he aao un $307h .0.. .. om 4"Znk"p . n. ... .. a ¢ bet.ween Stati> SVf~~~~ft.. v...-ed:.:.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' '.... .. co:.oper atin "to r e rehn w theo o~~~~~~~~~~~~~' oreticalW a sflrn.There "L ... ..- lx, ...... **.** :m I ...... a c los re.earhs > prepared an teBe _ .~~~~~~ (quesionnares, thU n:.trd.Te:id -or hol,tahr,tadnsadfiis)Te sc , ouv and n tetest. t ata,, gathereod frm ,00 tudet n hi aiisi 0mneptt ove a five-yea a'erio po1 r_m-a-t 1 aeso ohre hssome: 100 voumeis<sup>c,overn7yerofpoetaivis.S'el</sup> 'other Marti_e,inbo:PortgeeadIgih ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .o .....c ... aeteroiisS informat~ion vailabl from theresearh However, the ev~-aluatio<sup>wa-s -not</sup> ihu rbes l ouigo h the.i deeopn world The undaa ePeus Cui.t i1 For. talez ral of meaue tae,teeauon,,: nletedteopruiyt and. -.=A".'evemen. F:ialY '.t'f .. -t-h ... e eu;atinalrese componet on poli can...ge "at' th atonaunow inA d more qunittv analysi nterecig is
Reallocating available resourcel towards non-salary recurrent expenditures to ensure the availability of at least a minimal supply of instructional materials is an increasingly important feature of Bank primary education projects. A growing number of projects include explicit agreements to protect budget allocations for these expenditures. The effect of these agreements has been quite positive in many of the poorest countries. In Ghana, for example, the availability of instructional material. has been substantially increased as a result.

# Obiective 4: Strengthening Education Sector Manaaement

Managerial weaknesses have long been recognized as a major constraint on effective educational development. Three categories of related issues can be distinguished2: (i) decision making; (ii) planning; and (iii) evaluation research. Bank support for management improvement has been frequent (included in two thirds of the projects approved during the FY63-83 period), but small, representing only about 5S of total Bank lending during that period.

Decision makino in many developing country education syotems is highly centralized. This conflicts with the dominant technology of the education enterprise' and is a major source of inefficiency in resource deployment and implementation of reforms. Excessive centralization most severely affects primary education. Ultimately, the fate of educational reforms and innovations is affected by local conditions and decided at the school level and in the classroom, where the influence of central administrative authority is limited.

Several Bank projects have attempted to address this issue by supporting programs to increase decision making capacity and authority at the local level. The most common way has been the support of "nuclearization" or "clustering" programs. The programs usually have grouped schools into administrative clusters around a central school which is endowed with additional resources to support the educational improvement programs in associatad schools. Programs in Latin America (Guatemala and Honduras, for example) and Asia (Bangladesh and Nepal, for example) have adopted this approach with promising results.

A major weakness in Bank support for education management and administration has been the relative neglect of programs to train headmasters and other local administrators. Where training has been supported, it has often been focused on purely administrative matters rather than on issues of instructional leadership and community relations.

The most successful Dank-supported educational reforms have emphasized both local capacity building, mainly through clustering of schools and training of local administrators, and strengthening of central institutions for planning, research and program implementation. These investments in capacity building have been successful where they have been sustained over a period of time, usually 23 World Bank, "Primary Education." 24 Verspoor, *Planning of Educationt Where Do We Go?" 19
exceeding five years. For example, Bank support to Ethiopia, which wa sustained for more than a decade, has resulted in the establishment of a strong lcal capacity for schuol construction, textbook development and procurement, and educational planning. In the Philippines, a Textbook Board developed with Bank support played a key role in the design and implementation of effective textbook development and procurement policies. In Bangladesh, the Academy for Fundamental Education, the Textbook Board, and the National Curriculum Development tvere supported under Bank projects and provided a strong institutional base for developing and coordinating national primary education policy.

Educational planning has been a mainstay of World Bank support aimed at improving education management. Strengthening educational planning was the primargy objective of Bank assistance in 74 of the 80 countries between 1963 and 1983.2 Much of this support provided financing for expatriate technical assistance.

The results have been mixed with often valuable short-term outcomes but limited long-term improvements in national planning capaci'y. Much of the assistance focused on data collection and analysis, while neglecting implementation issues, as so often in the traditional educational planning model.<sup>27</sup> Both above-mentioned reviews argue strongly for emphasizing institutional analysis and systematic and sustained support for management development programs. In addition, Middleton2 recommends, on the basis of his review of extensive project evidence, a much more flexible, task-specific, and implementation-focused approach toward educational management.

Evaluation and research components have been consistently supported by World Bank education projects for the past two decades. For example, between 1982 and 1989, 116 of the 146 projects that were appraised during that period provided financing for 436 planned studies. Nevertheless, in most cases financial support for these components was limited, representing only 1-2% of the total loan amount. Most studies focused on the availability of education inputs, cost and finance studies, and the feasibility of the development of information systems. Only a small fraction of these studies (5.6%) was designed tc measure educational outcomes, such as academic achievement.29 (See Box 4.) a Middleton et al., "Management in World Bank Education Projects." 26 Noor, "Strengthening Education Management." 27 Verspoor, "The Planning of Education." 2 Middleton, "Management in World Bank Education Projects." D Lockheed and Rodd, "World Bank Lending for Education Research, 1982-89." 20
,.. .,-....,...,,.. .,y,p,..ide acievmn data '' Infrmtio on.the pefrac ofstudets sin"- aeted grde 6 4 :8 - ¢mani.* abnd, n tb ongrn tn sec¢tor p^ierfrac ove ti The -e econoai stats, ender, yp 6uof comaniy typet ddofschool. a oth .:liatQ of suit reOt. Thrytasidboiebderbn nniaasesmet bciv eewlbedtr butdt -wqo prncpas teh an itLnl and reginl3ed~~ hna1rotsai4 te maae b 4. tder .h ucet*for flarch TalLer ot *aS Resac and Ev.Zuatio:xs rsio 'fDivi the w:ationa Idcaioa 'reStinan cetrmWf =ge5sc il aO~a.re~~iii.t 4rdy. da erto l: ntuet o e aonl eesetwldb 4ee=pe wit th nitneo h i1e Xr3ut*l)es~m Tenrau of Blmnt iduaii an th eat& f3ncaia Outw n Sprt =df a1E prvd it*ratin4 * is~ W omutes ham, been orao to advise ib kiWB a *itrna Advieso **_* OMV4jo_** _'t.OUQy tea4z_ Wtncl MvsO> Oouuxt *s *oial 4e.L and extin .... Th powe as {e~~ie the .**....:.... u***f tsW ,si l*e..tin1mee i!1 Il _*x.e *t_ Ew col ~tOml 1 ntaio. an ult oto ii.vUb raie ~~n over the past two decades, there has been little progress in monitoring and evaluation of lank-supported projects. Most evaluations have emphasIzed the 21.
delivery of inputs with very little attention to program outcomes or cost offects. The development of national capacity are not always sustained.30 The absence of measures of educational achievement Is a major weakness in Bank lending for education, including primary education. It has hampered the ability of the Bank and developing countries to monitor the impact of investments in education and lear:n lessons from experience. A major constraint has been the weakneos of local educational research and evaluation institutions and the ineffectiveness of short-term expatriate technical assistance for building sustainable national capacity in this area which in technically complex and requires in most instances significant technology transfers.

Support for Emall-scale experimentation and testing has been an important feature of Bank projects that introduce educational reform and innovation. About two thirde of a sample of such projects which were judged at least partially successful included support for a pilot phase or a small scale experiment to be conducted before replicating on a larger scale. The weakness of monitoring and evaluation capacity has limited the effectiveness of these pilots, although, in many instances, important lessons about implementation strategies have been learnt.

# Main Lessomn

Figure 2 summarizes schematically the objectives and strategies of the various interventions for primary education development included in World Bank supported primary education projects.

Twenty years of investment in primary education in 51 countries provides a rich and diverse source of lessons to help meet the challenges ahead. At a more general level, five principal conclusions can be drawn. First, sustainability of the investment underlies success in all categories of educational objectives. This has two direct implicatlons. Costeffectiveness in the provision of physical infrastructure, teacher training and instructional materials is critical, and capacity building must accompany direct investments in schooling.

Second, experimentation and testing of now approaches is essential. Educational practice is site-specific and cannot be transferred easily. Bank experience confirms quite clearly that there are no generally applicable recipes for educational development and school improvement; what works in one country, state, district, or school does not necessarily work in another setting.

Third, the quality of implementation at the local and school levels is the critical determinant of project success. Community involvement in school construction and parental support for schooling must be systematically mobilized. Training of headmasters and professional support targeted at schools are important ingredients of successful interventions.

30 Middleton, et al., "Building Educational Evaluation Capacity in Developing Countries"; and Searle, "Evaluation in World Bank Education Projects." 22
Fourth, management issues<sup>are critical; systematic institutional</sup> analyois and early emphasis<sup>on building local and central capacity for managing</sup> educational development<sup>are essential to all implementation strategies. The</sup> principal weakness of<sup>Bank supported primary education projects is the absence</sup> of a systematic measurement<sup>of student learning and evaluation of effectiveness</sup> of various interventions.

Fifth, successful programs<sup>aim at comprehensive change, but adopt a</sup> phased implementation strategy with considerable experimentation and testing in the early phases. Curriculum change is combined with the provision of materials, in-service teacher training,<sup>and administrative</sup> and management training.<sup>The</sup> end result is a multi-faceted design with several objectives supported by a mix of interventions.

Figure 2: A Summay Cht of the<sup>World Banks Primay Education</sup> nvesment Objetives, Strategies and LemonS

|Objecties||Stategies|Main Lessons|
|---|---|---|---|
||School Constuctn<br>-|* P anoting<br>loed design,<br>laborand materials<br>Pfabicating<br>componts<br>Mobilitng voluntary<br>community labor|Problems included<br>tation;<br>manaeent;<br>t<br>of wokers<br>s<br>i<br>sIte paron<br>with component<br>delvy;<br>and maintaining minimum standards<br>Bettcr use ezsting facilities and<sup>introduce</sup><br>doubleshift and multi-gade teaching<sup>to avoid</sup><br>constrction of new buildings.|
|Expanding EducaTonal<br>Opportunities|<br>Pservicng<br>Tewher Training|*Expanding and improving<br>cxisting programs<br>Modifyng reuitment criteria<br>Limiting programs to professional<br>and practical training|Sbifted away from the provision of hardware<br>for preservice trining to support<sup>for</sup><br>educatinal inputs and in-service training.<br>Important to consider alternative<br>strategies andanalyzethe trade-offs<sup>between</sup><br>eeonomic efficency and educational<br>effectvens in desning teacher training<br>Pwm|
|||Pviding free uiforms||
||Demand Mobilization<br>|- Recruiting female teachern<br>from loeal communities<br>- Housing for female<sup>teaches</sup><br>- Locating schools closer<br>to community<br>Building sanitay facilities<br>for girl|Imporant to pay attention to cultural,<br>relgous and financial barriers<br>in designing internentions.|

23
Figure 2 A Summary Chart of the World Baet 's Primary Education Investment Objectives Strategies and Lessons <!-- Start of picture text --> Objectives Strategies Main Lessons<br>Revising syllabi Curriculum implementation is often the<br>problem. Successful programs supported<br>a combination of curricular reforms,<br>in-ervice teacher training, administrative<br>Curdculum -- Ruralizing curricula and management training, and the provision<br>Development of instructional materials. The program cost,<br>the requirement for spedalized teacher skills,<br>Introducing practical and parental resistanc have compounded<br>subjects the problem of introducing practical subjecft<br>Prviding textbooks and other Textbook publishing is complex and highly<br>instrtudiona materials technical and requires professional<br>Imptoving Instructional competencies in many specialties.<br>Quality Developing a good tetbook took three<br>years at the minimum. Future projects<br>need to analyze the trade-offs in<br>deciding whether to publish.<br>to purchase, or to adapt, and to ensure<br>fruandal sustalnablity of book piovon<br>schemes beyond the initial investments.<br>Important to pay antention to the pedagogc<br>and physical production quality of textbooks<br>Inttonal<br>Development -lP idbig In-seric Efficent delivery of in-service training<br>eacher training inludes the use of the cascade method,<br>teacher resouree centers and distance<br>eduation. Important to establish school-<br>level support and supervision and to take<br>account of teachers level of knowledge and<br>experience in content design.<br>Educational technology can work when it is<br>pat of a well-desiged instrucdonal system.<br>Effectio designs entail establishing a fit<br>among an educational problem, the pdegoical<br>Using ducationa suitabilty n cost-effetiveness of the<br>technolo technology chosen; identifying tecnological,<br>administrative and political barriers to<br>change; Nd creating an effective strategy<br>for implementing change.<br><!-- End of picture text --> 24
Figure 2: A Summary art of the World _Bas_ Pdimay Education Investment Objectives, Strategles and Lessons <!-- Start of picture text --> Objecdtvs Strategies Main Lesn<br>Ineasing student/teacher ratio<br>by doubleshift and multigade<br>teaching<br>Inceadng the efficiency of teacher<br>Containing cost - utilization has been effective in<br>per pupil in contaiing cost<br>Controlling total expenditure<br>on teacbews' salaries<br>Introducig automatic promotion Automatic promotion did Uttl to guarntee<br>! that pupils pag throu the school<br>system have actualy laned something A<br>Increasing Efficiency Manipuating a better strateg Is to pevent failure by<br>of Delivery student flows | m vn Incton quality.<br>I Impoving instrucion quality<br>! to prent epetition and dropout<br>Reallocating Protecting non-salary, recurrent Bank-Borower aggWeement to ensure<br>availabl resores - expenditure for instuconal the prwision of instructional<br>mpovement materials.<br>-<br>[ Buiding local Supportng school nudeaization Impotnt to grengthen local autonomy and<br>capadty to tain pripal and leal<br>administrtors to Improve educational<br>manag_ent, iructona leadership<br>and commity relations.<br>Emphasing insttutional<br>Traditional educational planing focuses<br>on data colectn and ans, while<br>Strengthening Educational -- Planning - negcting implementation isas<br>Management Important to el i stitudonal<br>anabsi ad management development<br>Introducng flxbk, taskspecific<br>and implementation-focused<br>manpment<br>Meaasulg educational outome Evaluation d resach are ncally<br>I ~~~~~of poliq intervention womplu and eqW in mostan<br>d8significant technolog transfers. A<br>Evaluation and mor consnt ha been the weakness<br>Research - pementao nd testing of local eductonl Search and<br>ealuation lIstutions and the in-<br>eff-tivea of short-term expatate<br>Moniting of phase_ tehnical assiance for building<br>_n t2 wa5nable natol edy<br><!-- End of picture text -->

25
# III. NONFORDAL BDUCATION AND **TDAININGs** INVUSTNBNT oWJEcTIVB, ST3RA2eGI3S AND LESSONS

Nonformal education and training (NFET), defined as learning that is not part of a country's regular school and training system, provides basic literacy to adults who have little or no formal schooling and to children who do not attend formal schools because they live too far away or their parents need them to work. In addition, NFET programs teach adults basic knowledge about health and nutrition, and agricultural and craft skills that can help them improve their living standards.

The objectives of the NFET programs supported by the Bank can be classified in three categories: (i) development of practical skills; (ii) promotion of basic literacy; and (iii) preparation for income generating activities.

Through 1989, 92 of the 375 Bank education projects financed by the Bank have contained NFET components;3 only 45 contained support for basic literacy training. Many of theme components were small, loes than US$1 million. Only six projects included MFET components of US$10 million or more, and in only one third of the projects did NFET comprise more than 10% of the total cost.

About two thirds of the NFET programs included support for the development of new curricula. Less than one fifth included financing for reading materials. About one fourth provided for audio-visual aids and materials.

Specific arrangements for evaluation were made in about 30% of the projects, and, in almost all instances, entrusted to existing regular permanent agencies. Nost of these evaluations focused on the effectiveness of delivery mechanisms and on assessment of the number of clients served. There are no reports of successful efforts to evaluate the achievement of learners.

While there are a few successes, the outcomes of many of these programs have been disappointing. This has been a major factor in the decline of Bank lending for NFET since 1985. The experience of the Bank, limited as it may be, contains many important lessons which need to be considered in re-examining ways to tap the potential of these programs to improve the quality of life and the productivlty of the poor.

# Ob1eet$ve 1s Development of Practical Skills

Practical skills training is the most common type of program for which the Bank has lent, comprising about 80% of all NFET programs. The teaching of agricultural or farming skills was the predominant area of interest, although a number of projects supported training in other rural vocational skills. Most 31 The discussion **in** this chapter draws very heavily on Romain and Armstrong, "Review of World Bank Operations in Nonformal Education and Training." 26
were based on the general notion of keeping out-of-school rural youth. in rural areas, rather than specifically identified opportunities to generate income.

A second set of programs attempted to create a low-cost alternative to primary education. This strategy was especially prevalent in Sahelian countries with very low enrollment ratios, such **as** Benin, Burkina Faso, Mauritania, Senegal, and Somalia. These programs, however, were not able to bring students up to school-equivalent levels, and, therefore, did not constitute a real alternative to primary schooling and were rejected by parents. A few attempts to provide access to primary schooling to hard-to-reach populations, much as nomads, were unsuccessful mainly because demand constraints were insufficiently appreciated.

Successful operations were typically training programs that focused on a specific and well identified need (water management in Mauritania, for example), or which provided training to special interest groups on request (Thailand and Yemen Arab Republic, for example). In addition, these programs paid considerable attention to the development of specialized agencies (Nonformal Education Department in Thailand, National Board of Nonformal Education in Yemen Arab Republic, and INACAP in Chile, for example). The implementation of these programs was phased over a decade or more, allowing the responsible agencies to learn from experience and gradually develop an experienced staff.

The teaching of family life skills was part of the practical training package in about 80% of the cases. Where the program was part of a larger practical skill program, it was not possible to identify outcomes for this type of programs separately.

# Obiective 2: Promotion of Basic Literacy

Support for literacy programs was included in 49% of the NFET programs supported by the Bank. The allocation of funds to the literacy component was, in fact, negligible. Of the completed projects with literacy components, 35% did not even mention the literacy component in the completion report and only about 25% was satisfactorily carried out. Basic literacy programs in Mali and Indonesia, however, were considered to have had outstanding results.

The successful projects had relatively large project components which had in common strong government backing, considerable support for strengthening the national management and implementation capacity, and adequate assistance for materials productions.

# Obiective 3: Prenaration for Income Generatina Activities

Income generating projects typically provide access to credit or development grants in conjunction with training. Small grants or loans are designed to help participants expand their productive activities while acquiring literacy, numeracy, and entrepreneurial skills. Income generating learning programs were included in projects which treated NFET as a significant subsector and typically comprised a much larger portion (40-100%) of the loan than any other NFET programs.

27
These income generating projects, especially the one in IndonesLa, have proven to be quLte successful. The evidence of the few Bank supported cases seems quLte positLve. CombLning lncome raisLng programs wlth literacy appears to affect both aspects positively. (See Box 5.)

# Imnlementation Stratelaes

_Radlo and telovision broadcasting_ was used to dLsemLnate educatlonal messages in about 30% of the NFET projects. With the excetlon of the Thailand project, little evidence of effectLveness has been reported . on the other hand, these components were not implemented in several projects and technLcal diffLculties hampered effectLveness in many others.

> _Mobile unit.,_ typlcally vehliles carrying audio-visual aids and other trainlng equlpment, were provided in 20% of the NFBT projects. **The experience** wlth them has not been posLtive, and they rarely served the Lntended purposes effectlvely. The lack of software, such as films and slides, and spare parts created implementation problems in almost every case for which informatLon was avaLlable.

_Reading materials_ were provided only in 20% of the NFET programs and in 16 out of the 45 literacy programs. While there may have been other source of readlng materlals in some projects, lt remalns surprising that so few projects included the proviLson of reading materlals. The Mali project supported the production of reading materials ln local languages and even produced a rural newspaper. ConsLderable materials were produced ln the successful Thailand and Indonesla projects.

_Shared use of school bulldings and teachers_ was a feature in many projects that seemed attractlve on the surface but which often encountered diffLcultLes ln practice. Problems of conflictlng claims on space, dlstance, and image adversely affected program effectiveness. Simllarly, teachers tralned in the formal system were often poorly prepared for the speclal demands of adult educatlon and tralning. Where voluntarLem was expected, it was rarely sustained.

_Training funds_ for responding in a flexible manner to locally generated NFET requests were only establlshed ln a few projects (Indonesia and Yemen, for example), but the arrangements worked well. It is hlghly slgnlficant that these arrangements were continued and strengthened through follow-up projects in these countrles.

**S** 0 everal posLtive outcomes are reported for dlitance education programs which prepare adult learners foL formal secondary quivalency exams. See David Rawkridge, "General Operatlonal RevLew of Dlstance EducatLon.

28
Boz Is Learning ROd~~~.. ........ **..** .... ....... 4o So n e l n e e .no .... b...............

The Low adu t literacy **l** evel of in many cooritries is a major constraint~~~. .. ......... **.** . to development. ?~~~~~onformal educatLon pWQVi4*5 b.w~.........U wROy<sup>.-</sup> In M c~~unot health, nutrition ion with and vocational training proportion~-V of.ltrt.d)sa~4otOS4Q2 o~ . ...... ... th vocatiofa trainingprogramsiteao riig I **hAdul** 97 h firsllrofRt _t0ay_ **_5ioy_** 4f*IIe4ig E enrolldao ut40,0 eanU ie i.U _ .~rss~a.os _an._ Is e by th 1 f w ic 4 lo ... **.** ............. d.c.t.o classes, a-oteremidr r octoalt4tn rd ml bsus development.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........... The Small Business Component (called Learning ?~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ind.) e*periment.i* i..n....... t ...e. crato a..peaio........in s ~ t pie heIa~nn funds aupply matching grants to oduction~. gr.p ...... .....0dfeen assint ~ance, oaplie by eisin"g grusWti eiatdta h t r a i n in g) i s a b o u t **.. ..... ........ ........ M W** r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ **9.** In the e ~~arly 190I an e 19 .pr ..n.a......fl in tears **-A ut 4Q ::DO** d ctn to.me **......... .. ......** .aiin **e..** Scheme . (~TS), the program relied onDsrc i4rii eiea toa-S dssminte.asi .oaioa .. ilsan..t....g.Th Initial implementation problems a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... .e. ~f,~cr **.** ..... **t** . offical **suprtma** ndao ibUainwre ~ i.ne r~ whIch emphasized a bottom-up apprc*ch~~~~~~ **.n ..** . **..** .... re~'tovllg nee. vctdie Comnt onil eecetd DC nrlvn training in response to demarid--o1f,rin~~~~~~~ **UId*~~ CQV.t....................** shortening the length of~~~~~~ **.. e.** toaco..dae..lag....be.o enrollees.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ **... i....** A Basic establish Training village **units.... .... .un .** in..ro.din **....** w ...tatdt **.. ea.** nbl hf4 TSt alw tue fo riecurrnt coss are t heDC.........,te .b teSfiane **br -'p "'"dthe** 1T6hv %be smuipall ut thyae damaoipats vLages ha educti .on cntrsi fuddfo T. atiiainrtsi Adult educatiOn programs increased~~~~-:i, .. ..om .. 00in9...2200.it18

**1h -,.te,** 'eaii-x0l .-a2n
# Main Legsonp

Nonformal education projects have had more than the usual share of implementation problems. This is not surprising since the appropriate method for delivering these components on a large scale is not well developed. Four lessons emerge from the limited Bank experlence in this area. Figure 3 summarizes the objectives, strategies and lessons of Bank investment in this area.

First, small components have at best yielded small benefits; often they have not been given the attention in preparation and supervision that they needed. The best results have been achieved in free-standing projects or projects where at least 30% of the funds was allocated to NFET. Running NFET programs as an appendix to formal programs jeopardizes potential success.

Second, experimentation and piloting of delivery strategies, programs, and materials are essential. Evaluation, including assessment of learning achievement, is critical in a systematic process of learning about what works and what does not work. Unless outcome evaluations will be systematically developed, the renewed interest in NFET will not be sustained. If outcomes are not measured, reductions in budget allocations have no known cost.

Third, the most successful programs have built-in mechanisms to respond flexibly to requests for training from the beneficiaries, on the basis of clearly spelled out procedures and criteria. Also, when income generating training is included in the package, chances for success increase. Fourth, attending to management and institutional issues is very important. Where programs have worked, there have been significant investments in building administrative and managerial capacity.

30
Figure 3: A Summary Chart of the World Bank's NonFormal Education and Training Investment Objectives and Strategies <!-- Start of picture text --> Objecties Strategies Main Lessons<br>Practical Skills Broadcasting through radio and television Successful programs focus on a spedfic<br>Development to disseminate messages and well-defined need, or provide training<br>to special interest groups on requesL They<br>paid attention to the development of<br>specialized agencies.<br>Promotion of Using mobile units to promote literacy Successful projects had strong government<br>Basic Uteracy and other training support, considerable support for<br>strengthening the national management and<br>implementation capadty, and adequate<br>Providing reading materials support for production of materials.<br>Preparation for Income- Successfl prects combine incomtSenetating<br>Generating Aetivities programs with literacy programs. Te use<br>of radio and television broadcasting and<br>Using a school building and teachers mobile units, and the shared use of school<br>in the formal education system for NFIr. buildingp and teachers are not effective<br>and susainable strategies to promote NFPT.<br>Important to provide eading materials in<br>literaq progams and training funds to<br>Setting-up training funds to respond to respond to local requests.<br>locally generated NPET requests<br><!-- End of picture text --> 31
# IV. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The World Bank has been most successful in supporting educational development where it has followed a lending strategy which comprised at least four elements: (i) in-depth analysis of (sub)aector issues; (ii) concentration on a few policy and institutional objectiveol (iii) a persistent commitment to these over an extended period of time; and (iv) an explicit delegation to the Borrower of the responsibility for sectoral analysis and policy formulation, 31 project development, and implementation These general lessons apply fully to the Bank support for basic education. At the same time, they suggest the need to structure the investment instruments 3 2 in a way that is congruent with the specific technical and organizational characteristics of basic education.

# Design Imperatives for Basic Education Investmet

The experience of the World Bank's investment in basic education, reported in the proceeding chapters, suggests that four features of basioc education development programs must be taken into account in project designt

- The _quality of the 8chool-lovel iAplementatlon_ of a fairly standard set of inputs in primary education programs is the principal determinant of outcomes. NFET are usually more experimental in the inputs they provide and face even greater challenges in this respect.

- The context in which the program is implemented strongly affects the quality of implementation. What works in one place may not be effective in another. Interactions between students, teachers, parents, and administrators have a strong impact on program implementation. Transformation and adaptatLon of the original program design should be the rule rather than the exception.

- An effectlve _admainlatratIve organizatlon_ and efficient management processes are pre-conditions for good implementation. The investment experience of the Bank provides ample evidence for the central role of competent national or state and district level institutions to effectively support schools and NFET institutions.

31 Verspoor, "Accelerated Educational Development"; and Fredrikuen, "Increasing Foreign Aid for Primary Education." 32 I use the term "lnvestment instrument" ln this context to describe the mechanism that **is** selected to regulate **the** flow of resources from central authorities to the end-users such **as** schools, school districts, or NFET deliverers.

32
- The absence of support for mechanisms to assess _program outcomea is_ the critical design weakness of Bank projects in primary education and NFET. There is little information on the impact of the program on learning and skill acquisition.

In most instances, Bank support for basic education has been designed to help countries implement large-scale programs of oducational development. Thls tendency has become stronger over the years. Even where the Bank **has** supported small-scale experiments, these have always been designed with the hope of developing a model that subsequently could be replicated nationwlde. Largescale educational development pose a set of special management probleme that will need to be addressed if interventions are to be successful. The dilemmas of implementing large-scale change programs at the school level are presented in Table 5.

Table 5S Dilemmas of Large-Scale Programs

|sc|ale change programs||<br>mplementatLon|
|---|---|---|
||COM|PLEXITY|
|i)|Complex programs<br>comprising<br>a bundle<br>of innovations<br>wlth<br>multiple<br>and open-ended<br>objectives.|Limited<br>capacity<br>to absorb<br>change,<br>calling<br>for simple<br>and well-defined<br>programs.|
||COII|TNMT|
|ii)|Responsive to issue. perceived<br>as priorities by central<br>policymakers and planners.|Prlority issues at the school<br>level may be differentg local<br>commitment to nationalprograms<br>is often<br>limlted.|
||CON|FORMITY|
|iLi)|Program desLgn sets<br>out<br>lntervention strategLes that<br>are to be applled<br>generally.|Specific<br>conditions<br>of each<br>school (district) may limit<br>applicabLilty<br>of nationally<br>defined<br>intervention<br>strategies.|
||CONSTRAI|NED RESOURCES|
|iv)|Emphasis<br>on program adoptlon,<br>llmited<br>resources<br>for external<br>assLitance<br>tothe schools.|Need for costly<br>long-term<br>school-<br>level<br>support<br>and locally<br>avaLlable<br>trainlng.|

33
The dilemmas of implementing large-scale change programs at the local level apply even more strongly to NFET programs. The capacity to implement NFET programs where none existed before iL limited. The central planner's view of what the people need is often very different from what the people want at the 33 moment the program becomes operational. Training needs are much more contextspecific, and the limited availability of resources often leads to a neglect of professional support and a reliance on voluntarism.

The major challenge for basic education programs is to reconcile the features of large-scale programs with the constraints of local-level implementation. It is, therefore, important to take into consideration implemerntation issues at the stage of project design.

The more successful projects have developed effective ways to address the issues of project complexity; to elicit commitment from the change agents and from those affected by the intervention; to allow for flexibility in adjusting to local conditionse and to strengthen the resource base.

The problem of _project complexity_ has been dealt with in two ways. First, many projects have adopted a strategy of progressive innovation, by which a sequence of smaller projects implemented progreesively ambitious innovations in a large geographic area over a decade or more. Taken together, these innovations have resulted in considerable change over time and the implementation of large-scale comprehensive reform. Bangladesh and Ethiopia illustrate this approach. A second approach is to simplify project design and drop certain elements of the projects during implementation. Quite often the victims are the NFET components.

Mobilizing and sustaining national commtment and local support is absolutely critical to successful implementation. One strategy is to communicate program objectives to local administrators, teachers, and parents from the outset, and be responsive to their needs. Programs that have made arrangements for providing support for requests emanating from the local level are among the most effective ones. The NPET programs in Indonesia and Yemen and Colombia's primary education project are successful cases.

To allow for _flexibility_ in implementation, local-level conformity is required only for core program objectives. Considerable authority is delegated to local authorities for adapting the program to local conditions. A few successful MNFT and some recent primary school improvement programs went so far 33 In many instances, pre-lnvestment needs assessments were not done. Even where they were done, the reality turned out to be different from the expectations based on survey results. See Romain and Armstrong, "Review of World Bank Operations in Nonformal Education and Training." 3 Progressive innovation is a strategy designed to implement in a large geographical area (a country, a state, a province) a number of successive changes each rather modest ln itself, which when taken together result ln considerable change over time. The long-term objective is large-scale and comprehensive reform.

34
as to provide a fund<sup>oraline of credit that allowed</sup> them to respond to local investment propocals or~ the baeis of a eet of<sup>broadly defined</sup> criteria. (See Eox 6.) ~~~~o: **~sTe** Provisiona of **lnd an esoe** :~~~~t Z4ca Inetmn Propo 4s Ani il* L_ Th olme-nte70 ?o.t **~~*wi#u4t0** prva _uih_ '--o su~tsh. -imp .menf ed' bra.at th loal. To nadgetquaten teoure the u v often clowned down,. parogrme. (spentates). wr **e** n yerothWrlBanke onthneclr~ehaasp **a** d oingm ntentoento thenee fora seuritno nudeedry tlo tcatont fr hma reoourc deanst$veopmenit.<sup>In many</sup> in eparcem, tor examp ranin Paeitermiaed Baengldshwer t heost~U admtntaters ersolne ao to preclude thundeloen of the human o dcapital bao fo/ca dee ipet hin beptent diculsubdip onjnctio wite deelo.duct 4 subidieo fo.n dneffctient eate-owted en terpriseo5 and in e cssveiltay ex.niature.an hedTeher oeofd onsate ueor oteghen.n th eor. aeL t upr exapleoinceclas oize ha Peenfoumnd ohae ~rIeaivel liettl effect on acadeic progrvement hla ntutional prga mptereiaeo have beeokor wnato mak<sup>a</sup> pnreceunt yifears,nte Worl Bearnkn hastpaideinreasrceing atenptio to thre nedfforiv were so lowy ase tpeprecludextheodevelopmento then humn capuital blase forscia an eonmi poges, nceae n uli epediurs orhuanreouc
The third strategy for strengthening the resource base is to support community self-help efforts. A school improvement fund in Mali, for example, will provide matching grants to Parent Teachers Associations that launch school improvement efforts. In other countries, funds have been allocated to support community-managed school construction efforts. In a few projects, governments have agreed to use Bank funds to support non-government organizations working at the grass-roots level.

# Investment Instruments

Bank supported education projects have not dealt effectively with the tension between the demands of large-scale coverage and local-level implementation. The policies and practices for the design, appraisal and implementation of educational projects are generally based on the procedures and investment instruments developed for infrastructure projects. The infrastructure model served the sector well during the period when the provision of physical facilitLes and equipment was a dominant lending objective. It emphasized the detailed costing of project inputs and the careful planning for their timely delivery over a four- to six-year period.

This traditional model is based on three main assumptioFirst, it assumes that program objective and design can be standardized and trarsferred across a large number of beneficiary groups, while yielding essentially the same outcomes. Second, it considers the input delivery to be the dominant variable affecting outcomes. Third, it assumes that local implementers will do what program designers "know" is the right thing.

These assumptions rarely hold for basic education projects which need to respond to diverse local needs inherent in primary education development, and even more in NFET. A number of projects have, therefore, introduced a flexible alternative to the traditional project model. This investment instrument, known as the Sector Investment Loan, provides financing for a time-slice of broad (sub)sectoral development program, focuses on policy and institutional objectives, and delegates responsibility for detailed project design and implementation to the Borrower.

The benefits of this type of lending can be substantial. A review of the early experience with it in the education sector concluded that the Sector Investment Loan has effectively supported the development of key institutions for research, planning, policy analysis, and program implementation. Furthermore, it has improved decision-making capability, and encouraged the application of more objective criteria to investments in education.<sup>3 5</sup> The sector investment instruments differ from the traditional project loan in several ways:

- They are based on a broad (sub)sectoral development program. A ten-year action program (such as the one called for by the World Conference on Education for All) specifying policy measures,

3S Johanson, "Sector Lending in Education." 36
institutional development priorLtias, investment programs, and recurrent cost implications would be a good example of a subsectoral development program.

- National staff take full responsibility for sectoral analysis, project development, appraisal and supervision of the implementations of the specific investments (sub-projects) that are the constituent elements of the subsectoral program.

- The responsibility for the appraisal and supervision of projects is usually discharged through an agency for the government, known as the intermediary.

- Bank appraisal focuses on the sub-sectoral development program and the effectiveness of the institutional arrangements of subproject preparation, appraisal, implementation and evaluation. Bank implementation support focuses essentially on the intermediary through annual and bi-annual review meetings.

The Sector Investment Loan is, in fact, a line of credit for (sub)sectoral development that allows implementatLon with maximum flexibility and responsiveness to local conditions. (See Box 7.) In many countries, however, the national institutions are not yet equipped to carry the responsibility for a full-fledged sectoral investment loan. In those cases, the sector investment loan mechanism has been adapted and limited only to those elements where national agencies exist and are sufficiently experienced to manage a subsectoral investment program. The management of school construction programs are increasingly being designed this way. Furthermore, several projects have established school improvement or training funds to support local initiatives in the context of projects that are for other components designed along more traditional lines. (See Box B.) The distinction between a traditional specific investment project and a sector investment project is, thus, not clear cut. In fact, there is a continuum of design options from which each country will have to choose in the light of prevailing local conditions and the dominant characteristics of the project.

37
,oz 7s _1:x_ voVutj .dn n he .Wo'dS"kI 1o .o en ding .for -'f **.** ,f : **,** " .e.Primar -to Ediaca ' X 'to **n,.** _0_ -- lA. '.- **'.** am le of the oestet **tr.tf a** be fou:d i' Bank-financed projects in all regn" of theor% .proje`ctexperience .- in Mala'y=si is illuttrated here a a case : **.i** :.i.

The World; Banktk ha- .in.anCe nine r:t aysa ce 96 9 ' t(otalling ts$4OS maillon a n q gher Levels, .as wll a.tin t ialoca ateaet **in** nthp i _:sector;_ Italaysia _Ed.ucaton_ Z and _tI*_ X ad1974) i hoatriuction of W i "aixo-stud andUl o- andeqt ti Thi". expanded . Ct voera-geof` eistng .. ie t bbroadcaats used to strenthe eUcawtion a ... del i Qnde priolary teachers. *. ....

Two years . late, _Ml_ improv ing Its _capac_ ility_- topa'so -_ .b n i t an eiwing nainlsho ild~.~gas:Pojaindt n -prvided for 84S "pi s s dere:eao eot fft 0 : 0 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~............ .' ......... =: i ..... , .: T o In the World vemeett' h986 -anik f pd aupported taghree _Sduc station oPXXX)_ pojcrited':a- efic ojc its in i1K: 5 financod upis~ fA6stn5 riedtaht~a~ie phase ofa . mot tr aining ollee bielt sada e.o ~rii~ .. *g* :ia asa **P** Ilarn U wr se th as.isVin c Orit overnment _man_ o "A'tion xyerg W8t na ; :. : sn. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . S--. **.......** f ;- - 0 **-** . ed areed onrm ciiritei **5ucatond** seoctor Cprogrm"to o h upojcs accelerat n polic eflansidctr reoras (I5 s o Deige Ojto: ''a or :he. t i¢d montor 'and evalut hi ucsfl *etto~ ud eete releas ed in 1 tranhe agis vdneo aisatr mlmnain 0~~~~~~~~. sta-l.e s Acyit*ibXtS Following thestu"ccuesfVl impemntaio of. th ia uNerpoet a0 seon ubsector projc _doto JNXy~_ ~ a prvdi 9. -Designed to suppor-:-:t theslSPOic betssitw.lxpde th next. sta:e. of thea oemi e :ln l o :: act:n : ': ' r . i.:. .ct .; ... performance monitring- by the an..3.

38
|: ox 8s Broaenin-<br>an<br>tom<br>"<br>W<br>th<br>.d~to<br>{.-:-r<br>.<br>.<br>M~~lali.<br>and<br>tanIaes<br>re:tQ<br>.=oan.:-|
|---|
|*Snr-odueed a ne 'f 'aneial<br>mchani.uw' to' ' '<br>)4**addionl<br>we-ou'<br>"<br>s'fo'<br>theexpanu on and<br>poeet<br>ft~z<br>.di<br>icLz.~bai<br>tdiaat.O<br>sQpor<br>Iud<br>(Pod<br>':appi<br>Ves.gxnet<br>fnauWtaX<br>_7s_<br>f*ande<br>.y do,noir's (.inita1y<br>I<br>an .,8I')<br>to<br>nahot*,btau?or<br>,,,,,e'<br>f<br>' 'ociations<br>t'PUS* 'wh'ich a'e<br>in<br>'..'<br>, 1everag<br>*y th '<br>'b<br>**.**<br>' '<br>'non-govrernment: organi;za'ti;ons; and<br>'l,ntfoz0,tes<br>h<br>catching<br>rat'<br>.i'o<br>t 'in alW ".5O:50,<br>~sn *j<br>een<br>o<br>hetpeo<br>a.Lvt=<br>supre<br>rte_g~,poiiga.<br>4I<br>it~ei~o<br>;ec an'; m:o<br>copnat=-.e;<br>f<br>::fo.Se.n:i<br>:.S<br>:.sp<br>1<br>ar<br>gt:el<br> <br> <br> <br>|
|T his--.<br>..<br>-:::-0ac: .:. . :re t X<br>-i e.:<br>m e K ta io<br>i:; -.-h-::.e.. a :.. \. : :<br>:;:Sir**:**<br>:::<br>_;:::->>f::_<br>prttyeuhol<br>rehig<br>o.rutdi;4,th+<br>~d~@<br>bW'*L't$k<br>BOOL,<br>n<br>.oqaiaiatg<br>with<br>1.:'<br>ov*,~<br>ora1iai.E<br>n<br>(v<br>_<br>__n_<br>=li<br>.AV fE4t<br>k<br>f-tLq~.<br>anpdggi,frsca<br>n<br>u~io1<br>traihLt4~<br>A*afotindviua<br>gt<br>__uso cblt<br>pet~n<br>*~~da<br>|
|Baic<br>j*,aiC4_<br>ZpetSoratfadreSn)<br>imic4~|
|kpQ~<br>u_hecitikf*lee,byt4<br>M<br>*1?etsici4.<br>schoo<br>_c=e_<br>_a__<br>__o~_<br>d<br>~wa#<br>~~<br>povnigpxiWtat<br>coli9i<br>a<br>ft~12i*ai.t ~ ~|
|Th_Nn1du_<br>__2it*e_dCto.P~t~~9)~Wiapr<br>_=R'~no_<br>proid<br>:*ar4f.:a> ::~~4<br>8<br>)IO<br>S<a<br>o u&'=inity<br>_w2i*S_<br>) #<br>hk=a<br>i= 4a<br>'<br>XaeL~<br>to 'ru p;gu<br>deind<br>2;St~A<br>WLlJ-tl~<br>4tif¶LnO<br>R"~&~<br>1_i 9si_<br>~<br>_<br>=W<br>S-a.nR.<br>1~~<br>**_lvi_**<br>_X_ m|

2;St~Au~w'oc~4 39
# Conclunlon

- Twenty years of World Bank investment in basic education has many

- lessons of success, as well as of faLlurs. Flve featuros stand out as particularly important for project designs * Support the locally determined proc.sses such as school improvement, comunity mobLlizatLon and school location planning that drive educational developmentg

- Invest in those inputs that are most cost-effective;

- Test carefully how a partlcular investment package works out ln a particular setting and monltor outcomoe constantly;

- Strengthen the institutional capacity to manage strategLc planning and manag_ment at the natLonal or regional level and to manago operation at the dLstrLct and school levelsg and

- DesLgn projects to allow for flexible response to a wide variety of local needs and unplanned events.

40
Fredrikeen, Birger. "Increased Foreign<sup>Aid for Primary Education: The Challenge</sup> for Donors." PHREE/90/30, Washington, D.C.:<sup>World Bank, 1990.</sup>

- Haddad, Wadi. "Educational and Bconomic<sup>Effects of Promotion and Repetition</sup> Practices." Staff Working Paper, no. 317,<sup>Washington, D.C.: World Bank,</sup> 1979.

- . "Teacher Trainings A Review of world Bank<sup>Experience." EDT Discussion</sup> Paper, no. 21, Washington, D.C.s World Bank,<sup>1985.</sup>

- Hawkridge, David. "General OperatLonal Review of **Distance** EducatLon." EDT Discuseion Paper, no. 68, Washington, D.C.:<sup>World Bank, 1987.</sup>

- Johanson, Richard. "Sector Lending in Education." ZDT Discuseion<sup>Paper, no.</sup> 18, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1985.

- Lockheed, Marlalne, John Middleton and<sup>**Greta**Nettleton. "Educational Technology:</sup> Sustainable and Effective Use." PHREE/91/32,<sup>Washington, D.C.: World Bank,</sup> 1991.

- , and B. Hanushok. "Improving Educational<sup>Efficiency in Developing</sup> Countries: What Do We Know?" Compare 18,<sup>no. 1: 21-36.</sup>

- and Adriaan Verapoor. "Improving Primary<sup>Education ln Developing</sup>

- Countries: A Review of Policy Options." Draft Prepared for the World Conference on EducatLon for All, Jomtien, Thailand, March 5-9, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990.

- _ , and Alastair Rodd. "Lending by the<sup>World Bank for EducatLon Research."</sup> PRE Working Paper, no. 583, Washington, D.<sup>C.: World Bank, 1991.</sup>

- Middleton, John. "Management in World Bank Zducation Projectss<sup>Analysis of</sup> Experience." EDT Discussion Paper, no. 42, WashLngton,<sup>D.C.: World Bank,</sup> 1986.

- , James Terry, and Deborah Bloch. "BuildLng<sup>BducatLonal Evaluation Capacity</sup> in Developing Countries." PPR Worklng<sup>Paper, no. 140, Washington, D.C.:</sup> World Bank, 1989.

- Moor, Abdun. "Strengthening ZducatLon<sup>Management: A Review of World Bank</sup> Assistance, 1963-83." Washington, D.C.s World<sup>Bank, 1985.</sup>

- Paxman, B., C. Denning, and A. Read. "Analysis of **Research** on Textbook As- ilablilty and Quallty ln Developing Countrles."<sup>PHR33/89/20, Washington,</sup> D.C.s World Bank, 1989.

- Romain, Ralph. "Lending _ln_ Primary EducatLons Bank Performance Review,<sup>1962-</sup> 83." ZDT DLicussion Paper, no. 20, WashLngton,<sup>D.C.: World Bank, 1985.</sup>

41
- and Lanor Armstrong. "Review of World Bank Operations in Nonformal

- Education and Training." EDT Discussion Paper, no. 63, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1987.

- Searle, Barbara, ed. "Evaluation in World Bank Education Projects: Lessons from Three Case Studies." EDT Discussion Paper, no. 5, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1985.

- . "General Operational Review of Textbooks." EDT Discussion Paper, no. 1., Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1985.

- World Bank. "1971 Sector Working Paper." Washington, D. C., 1971.

- "1974 Sector Working Paper." Washington, D. C., 1974.

- "Rev!.ew of Bank Operations in the Bducation Sector." OBD Report no. 2321,

- Washington, D. C., 1978.

- "Education Sector Policy Paper." Report No. 2689, Washington, D. C.,

- 1979.

- "Education in Sub-Saharan Africas PolicLes for Adjustment, RevitalizationB

- and Expansion." Washington, D.C., 1988.

- "Annual Operational Review FiLcal 1988 Education and Training."

- PNREE/89/06R, Washington, D. C., 1989.

"The DLvidends of Learning." Washington, D.C., 1990.

- Primary ZducatLon: A World Bank Policy Paper." WashLngton, D.C., 1990.

- Verspoor, Adriaan. "Accelerated Educational Dovelopment." PHREE/90/25, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990.

- OImpl_mntLng Educational Changes The World Bank Experience." EDT

- DLcussLon Paper, no. 44, Washington, D.C.s World Bank, 1989.

- . "Pathways to Changes Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries." PPR **Discussion** Paper, no. 53, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1989.

"Plannlng of Education: Where Do **We Go?"** mimmo, Washington, D.C., 1990.

42
# PRE Wrarking PAper Sarias

|||||Contact|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|WPt662|Trends in Social Indicators<br>and<br>Social Sector Financing|Jacques van der Gaag<br>Elene Makonnen<br>Pierre Englebert|May 1991|B. Rosa<br>33751|
|WPS66|3 Bank Holding Companies:<br>A Better<br>Structure for Conducting<br>Universal<br>Banking?|Samuel H. Talley|May 1991|Z. Seguls<br>37665|
|WPS66|4 Should Employee<br>Participation<br>Be<br>Part of Privatization?|Barbara W. Lee|May 1991|G. Orraca-Te<br>37646|
|WPS66|5 Microeconomic<br>Distortions: Static<br>losses and their Effect on the<br>Efficiency of Investment|Ram6n L6pez|**May**1991|WDR Office<br>31393|
|WPS66|6 Agricufture<br>and the Transition<br>to the<br>Market-|Karen M. Brooks<br>Jose Luis Guasch<br>Avishay Braverman<br>Csaba Csaki|May 1991|C. Spooner<br>30464|
|WPS66|7 VERs Under Imperfect<br>Competition<br>and Foreign Direct Investment:<br>A Case Study of the U.S.-Japan<br>Auto VEFR|Jaime de**Meb**<br>David Tarr|May 1991|D. Ballantyna<br>337947|
|WPS66|8 Inflation Tax and Deficit Financing<br>in Egypt.|Hinh T. Dinh<br>Marcelo Glugale|May 1991|L. Santano<br>80553|
|WPS66|9 Are High Real Interest Rates Bad for<br>World Economic<br>Growth|Nemat Shafik<br>Jalaleddin<br>Jalali|May 1991|M. DMno<br>33739|
|WPS67|0 Inflation Adjustments<br>of Financial<br>Statements: Application<br>of<br>*****<br>Intemational<br>Accounting<br>Standard 29|Yaaqov Goldschmidt<br>-<br>Jacob Yaron<br> <br>=|May 1991|C.Spooner<br>30464|
|WPS67|1 Lessons from the Heterodox<br>Stabilization<br>Programs|Miguel A. Kiguel<br>Nissan Liviatan|May 1991|E. Khine<br>39361|
|WPS67|2 The Macroeconomics<br>of Public<br>Sector Deficits: The Case of Ghana|Roummn Islam<br>Deborah<br>L Wetzel|May 1991|R. Luz<br>34303|
|WPS67|3 The Macroeconomics<br>of Publc<br>Sector Defdeis: The Case of<br>Pakistan|Nadem U. Haque<br>Peter Montiol|May 1991|R. Luz<br>34303|
|WPS67|4 Distributional<br>Effects of Adjustment<br>Poicies: Simulations<br>for Two<br>Archetype Economies|Francois<br>Bourguignon<br>Jaime de Mdlo<br>AkJko Suwa|<br>May 1991|WDROffice<br>31393|
# PRE Working Paper Series

|_Ih_|Author||Contact<br>fo<br>_Qr_p=r|
|---|---|---|---|
|WPS675 Are Buybacks Back? Menu-Driven<br>Debt-Reduction<br>Schemes<br>with<br>Heterogenous<br>Creditors|Ishac Diwan<br>Mark M. Spiegel|May 1991|S. King-Watson<br>33730|
|WPS676 Higher Education<br>in the Republic<br>of Yemen: The University<br>of Sana'a|Viswanathan<br>Selvaratnam<br>Omnpom<br>L. Regel|May 1991|C. Cristobal<br>33640|
|WPS677 On Economic<br>Transformation<br>in East-<br>Central Europe: A Historical<br>and<br>International<br>Perspective|Andres Solimano|May 1991|E. Khine<br>39361|
|WPS678 Economic<br>Growth: A Review of the<br>Theoretical<br>and Empirical Literature|David Renelt|May 1991|R. Luz<br>34303|
|WPS679 Poverty Alleviation in Mexico|Santiago Levy|May 1991|M. Stroude<br>38831|
|WPS680 On Hunger and Public Action|Martin Ravallion|May 1991|C. Spooner<br>30464|
|WPS681 Political-Economy<br>Arguments<br>for<br>UniformTariff|Arvind Panagarlya<br>Dani Rodrk|May 1991|K. Cabana<br>37947|
|WPS682 Intertemporal<br>Substitution,<br>Risk<br>Aversion,<br>and Private Savings in<br>Mexico|Patricio Arrau<br>Sweder vanWijnbergen|May 1991|S. King-Watson<br>31047|
|WPS68a Vocational<br>Schooling, Occupationa<br>Matching,<br>and Labor Market Eaming<br>in Israel|l Shoshana<br>Neuman<br>s Adrian Ziderman|May 1991|C. Cristobal<br>3640|
|WPS684 The Value of Intra-household<br>Survey<br>Data for Age-based<br>Nutritonal<br>Targeting|Lawrence<br>Haddad<br>Ravi Kanbur|May 1991|J. Sweeney<br>31021|
|WPS685 Children and Intra-household<br>Inequality: A Theoretical<br>Analysis|Ravi Kanbur|May 9IPTI'|J.SweenOy<br>31021|
|WPS686 Lending<br>for Learning: Twenty Years<br>ofWorld Bank Support<br>for Basic<br>Education|Adriaan Verspoor|Ma<br>'|C. Cristobal<br>33640|