metadata: authors: 0: author: Mukhopadhyay,Anirban
1: author: Wheeler,David J.
2: author: Dasgupta,Susmita
3: author: Dey,Ajanta
4: author: Sobhan,Istiak
count: India
docna: 0: docna: Aquatic salinization and mangrove species in
            a changing climate : impact in the Indian Sundarbans
docty: Policy Research Working Paper
abstracts: cdata!: This paper contributes to understanding
            the physical and economic effects of salinity diffusion and
            planning for appropriate adaptation for managing the
            Sundarbans in a changing climate, with a focus on the West
            Bengal portion of the tidal-wetland forest delta. A
            five-step analysis, using high-resolution spatial
            assessments, was conducted to get a broader picture of the
            migration of mangrove species with progressive aquatic
            salinization in a changing climate. A current (2015)
            basemap, with overlays of salinity tolerance for various
            mangrove species, and projected location-specific aquatic
            salinity for 2050 were used to predict the impacts of
            salinization on mangrove species by 2050. The results
            indicate patterns of gains and losses, with dominance of
            salt-tolerant species at the expense of freshwater species.
            Overall, the impact of salinity-induced mangrove migration
            will have an adverse effect on the flow of ecosystem
            services, ultimately impacting the livelihood options of
            poor households. Resources should be directed to developing
            alternative livelihoods for mangrove-dependent households.
            In addition, efforts are needed to develop sustainable
            policies that incorporate rising salinity, changes in
            mangrove dynamics, and the welfare impacts on poor communities.
geo_reg_key: 517198,517191,517212
repnme: repnme: Aquatic salinization and mangrove species
            in a changing climate : impact in the Indian Sundarbans
display_title: Aquatic salinization and mangrove
            species in a changing climate : impact in the Indian Sundarbans
listing_relative_url: /research/2018/07/30257479/aquatic-salinization-mangrove-species-changing-climate-impact-indian-sundarbans
publishtoextweb_dt: 2018-07-13T00:00:00Z
no_of_pages: 23
author_keys: 0: author_key: 1458339
1: author_key: 1048754
2: author_key: 95558
3: author_key: 1492094
model_extractions: WPS8532 Policy Research Working Paper 8532 Aquatic Salinization and Mangrove Species in a Changing Climate Impact in the Indian Sundarbans _Anirban Mukhopadhyay David Wheeler Susmita Dasgupta Ajanta Dey Istiak Sobhan_ Development Economics Development Research Group July 2018
Policy Research Working Paper 8532

# **Abstract**

This paper contributes to understanding the physical and economic effects of salinity diffusion and planning for appropriate adaptation for managing the Sundarbans in a changing climate, with a focus on the West Bengal portion of the tidal-wetland forest delta. A five-step analysis, using high-resolution spatial assessments, was conducted to get a broader picture of the migration of mangrove species with progressive aquatic salinization in a changing climate. A current (2015) basemap, with overlays of salinity tolerance for various mangrove species, and projected location-specific aquatic salinity for 2050 were used to predict the impacts of salinization on mangrove species by 2050. The results indicate patterns of gains and losses, with dominance of salt-tolerant species at the expense of freshwater species. Overall, the impact of salinity-induced mangrove migration will have an adverse effect on the flow of ecosystem services, ultimately impacting the livelihood options of poor households. Resources should be directed to developing alternative livelihoods for mangrove-dependent households. In addition, efforts are needed to develop sustainable policies that incorporate rising salinity, changes in mangrove dynamics, and the welfare impacts on poor communities.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/research. The authors may be contacted at sdasgupta@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
# **Aquatic Salinization and Mangrove Species in a Changing Climate: Impact in the Indian Sundarbans**

Anirban Mukhopadhyay Senior Researcher, School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University David Wheeler Senior Fellow, World Resources Institute Susmita Dasgupta* Lead Environmental Economist, Development Research Group, World Bank Ajanta Dey Joint Secretary, Nature Environment & Wildlife Society Istiak Sobhan Environment Specialist, World Bank

## **JEL Classification:** Q23; Q54; Q57

**Keywords:** Mangrove, climate change, aquatic salinization, mangrove‐dependent livelihood, Sundarbans

## **This research was conducted under the South Asia Water Initiative ‐ Sundarbans Landscape.**

*Corresponding Author: Susmita Dasgupta. Email: sdasgupta@worldbank.org; Telephone: 1‐202‐473‐2679; Fax: 1‐202‐522‐2714

We would like to extend our special thanks to Dr. Kakoli Sengupta for her help with the data. Our sincere thanks go to Dr. Anamitra Anurag Danda and Dr. Sunando Bandyopadhyay for their expert opinion. We are thankful to Norma Adams for her help with the editing and Polly Means for her help with the graphics.
# **1. Introduction**

Climate change poses several threats to the Sundarbans—the world’s largest remaining contiguous mangrove forest and one of its richest ecosystems.<sup>1</sup> These threats include rise in sea level, rise in air and water temperature, and change in the frequency and intensity of precipitation and storms, among others (Alongi 2008). Worldwide, globally important mangrove ecosystems are at increasing risk from inundation, salinization, and other potential impacts of climate‐driven sea‐level rise.<sup>2</sup> Rise in sea level may even threaten the survival of mangroves if their landward migration is obstructed by a lack of adequate and suitable space for expansion and the rate of sea‐level rise is greater than that at which mangroves can migrate (Ellison and Stoddart 1991; Semeniuk 1994; UNEP 1994; McLeod and Salm 2006; Lange et al. 2010). Historically, mangroves have shown considerable resilience to fluctuations in sea level (Alongi 2002; Gilman et al. 2006; Erwin 2009); however, their future adaptation may not keep pace.

The extent of permanent inundation of the Sundarbans from climate‐driven sea‐level rise is uncertain as the region is located in the active Ganges‐Brahmaputra Delta, where sedimentation is still occurring. For the Sundarbans, increased saltwater intrusion from sea‐level rise and shortage of nutrients from freshwater flows are the greatest challenges in a changing climate (Dasgupta et al. 2015a, b; IWM 2003; Peterson and Shireen 2001; SRDI 2000, 2010; UK DEFR 2007). Healthy mangroves require daily fluxes from both ocean and freshwater sources. The Sundarbans is already facing a serious freshwater shortage during the dry season (October– May) because some major distributaries of the Ganges that feed the region are currently moribund. Anticipated alteration of riverine flows from the Himalayas and an increase in sea level will intensify salinity intrusion as climate change continues (Dasgupta et al. 2015a, b; Dasgupta et al. 2014). The associated increase in aquatic salinization will inevitably change the hydrological regime of the Sundarbans and alter its forest ecology (Barik et al. 2018; Dasgupta, Sobhan, and Wheeler 2017).

These changes have significant implications for the present and future management of the Sundarbans, as well as the forest‐based livelihoods of tens of thousands of poor inhabitants. Therefore, understanding the physical and economic effects of salinity diffusion and planning for appropriate adaptation will be critical for management of the Sundarbans, as well as for long‐ term development and poverty alleviation in adjacent areas. This paper attempts to contribute to this understanding by assessing the impact of aquatic salinization on the spatial distribution of mangrove species. The main focus of this analysis is on the Sundarbans in India, which accounts for 40 percent (about 4,200 km<sup>2</sup> ) of the 10,200 km<sup>2</sup> mangrove wetlands.

> 1 The Sundarbans is a tidal‐wetland forest delta along the Bay of Bengal, spanning coastal segments of Bangladesh and India.

> 2 Recent research suggests that sea level may rise by 1 m or more in the 21st century, which would increase the vulnerable population to about 1 billion by 2050 (Hansen et al. 2011; Vermeer and Rahmstorf 2009; Pfeffer, Harper, and O’Neel 2008; Rahmstorf 2007; Dasgupta et al. 2009; Brecht et al. 2012).

2
# **2. Data**

The Indian Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve comprises a 9,630 km<sup>2</sup> area, with a core zone of 1,700 km<sup>2</sup> . The remainder is subdivided into development (5,300 km<sup>2</sup> ), managed (2,400 km<sup>2</sup> ), and restoration (230 km<sup>2</sup> ) zones (Nandy and Kuswaha 2011). Its international border with Bangladesh is demarcated by the Harinbhanga River (known as the Raymangal, Kalindi, and Ichhamati in its north). Blasco, Saenger, and Janodet (1996) reported that the Indian mangroves consist of 58 species; Rao (1986) reported 60 species, while Naskar (1988) reported 35 true mangroves, mentioning that the Indian mangroves are richer than any other tropical mangrove formations in the world. Although ecologically resilient, the mangrove species of the Indian Sundarbans are highly sensitive to hydrological changes (Blasco, Saenger, and Janodet 1996), particularly to the salinity profile of the adjacent water column or soils. Climate‐ and/or subsidence‐driven, sea‐level rise is perhaps the single most important factor that threatens the health of the mangroves (McLeod and Salm 2006). Currently, the Indian Sundarbans is already facing a serious freshwater scarcity since most of the rivers in the region have lost connection with their parent river (i.e., glacier‐melt perennial sources of freshwater) because of siltation at off‐take and have turned into tidal‐fed rivers. Their estuarine character is now maintained by the monsoonal runoff alone (Bhadra et al. 2017; Cole and Vaidyaraman 1966; Gopal and Chauhan 2006). Freshwater flow in the region has also been affected by human‐induced hydrologic alterations in the upper reaches of the Bhagirathi Hooghly River and the Ganges‐Brahmaputra‐ Meghna system.<sup>3</sup> The region is likely to experience further changes in its salinity profile due to saltwater intrusion from sea‐level rise in the future.<sup>4</sup>

## _<u>Spatial Distribution of Mangrove Species</u>_

To understand the current spatial distribution of mangrove species in the Indian Sundarbans, Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI), sentinel, and hyperspectral data from Hyperion were used as the baseline data for this analysis. The acquisition date of the Landsat 8 OLI data is March 18, 2015 and the path/row is 138/45. Landsat 8 (OLI) has 9 spectral channels, ranging from visible to shortwave infrared bands. The spatial resolution is comparable to the ETM+. Temporal resolution of Landsat 8 is 16 days. Hyperspectral data from Hyperion were processed and used for the spectral signature generation of various mangrove species. The acquisition dates of the Hyperion data used are September 10, 2011, November 23, 2014, and November 13, 2016, respectively, and the path/row is 138/45. Hyperion images have 242 bands that include both the Visible and Near Infrared (VNIR) and Shortwave Infrared (SWIR), having a spectral range of 357 to 2,576 nm with a spectral interval of 10 nm (Figure 1).

> 3 <mark>Freshwater flow has become increasingly restricted since the 1975 construction of the Farakka Barrage Township; between 1962 and 2006, water discharge of the Ganges was reduced from 3,700 m</mark><sup>3</sup> <mark>per second to 364 m</mark><sup>3</sup> <mark>per second, strangling an already parched ecosystem and thus making the distributary networks more dependent on tidal flow bringing in sea water from the Bay of Bengal (Islam and Gnauck 2008).</mark>

> 4 The groundwater is also saline, except for a few meter‐thick, confined aquifers.

3
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## _<u>Salinity Estimates</u>_

To generate a baseline profile of aquatic salinity for the Indian Sundarbans,<sup>5</sup> a high‐ resolution, spatial point file covering four years (2012–15) was created, based on data compiled from field measurements taken by the Nature Environment & Wildlife Society (NEWS) and World Wildlife Fund‐India (WWF‐India). Given the limited amount of salinity information available for the Indian Sundarbans, this analysis also drew from the most comprehensive study to date on salinity impacts for the Bangladesh Sundarbans—which accounts for 60 percent (about 6,000 km<sup>2</sup> ) of the wetland forest—in order to arrive at a broader picture of the Sundarbans’ current and future salinity (Dasgupta, Sobhan, and Wheeler 2018).<sup>6</sup>

# **3. Methods**

To get a broader picture of the migration of mangrove species with progressive aquatic salinization in a changing climate, a five‐step analysis was conducted. In step 1, Landsat 8 (OLI), sentinel, and hyperspectral data from Hyperion were used to generate a basemap (2015) to understand the current spatial distribution of mangrove species. In step 2, a high‐resolution spatial point file of aquatic salinity covering four years (2012–15) was created from the best available, location‐specific monitored salinity data to understand the baseline aquatic salinity profile of the area. In step 3, salinity tolerance ranges for the mangrove species were computed, combining the baseline mangrove distributions and the baseline, high‐resolution aquatic salinity profile. In step 4, projections of location‐specific aquatic salinity were made for 2050. Finally, in step 5, the impacts of progressive aquatic salinization on mangrove species by 2050 were projected.

_<u>Step 1. Generate a Basemap (2015) of Mangroves in the Indian Sundarbans from Satellite Data</u>_ A high‐resolution map of mangroves was prepared from hyperspectral data from Hyperion, Landsat 8 Operations Images (OLI), and field survey data using a multi‐step procedure.

First, a field survey was conducted at 141 GPS locations to collect geographic location information on five dominant genera of Indian Sundarban mangroves— _Avicennia sp_ ., _Ceriops sp_ ., _Excoecaria sp_ ., _Heritiera sp_ . and _Sonneratia sp_ .—and their assemblages. This information was later used to generate a spectral signature of mangroves and validate the interpretation of satellite images.

Second, spectral profiles for the various mangrove species were generated from hyperspectral imagery from Hyperion. To start, 67 of 242 bands of Hyperion images were

> 5 At present, there is no geo‐coded database on aquatic or soil salinity for the Indian Sundarbans.

> 6 This paper draws extensively on spatial data from the Aquatic Salinity Information System (RSIS) for southwest coastal Bangladesh, including the Sundarbans. The RSIS provides location‐specific salinity estimates for December 2011, January–June 2012, December 2049, and January–June 2050 under 27 climate‐change scenarios (http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=websalinity_dynamics&ThisRegion=Asia&ThisCcode =BGD).

5
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First, all spreadsheet monitoring information was converted into a spatial panel database. This was an unbalanced panel, with many time‐series observations for some monitoring locations and very sparse observations for others.

The second step was to estimate a fixed‐effects regression, expressed as follows: where _S_ equals salinity (ppt) at monitoring location _i_ for period _t_ , _DS_ is the monitor dummy variable (1 for monitoring location _j_ and 0 otherwise), _DM_ equals the month dummy variable, and _y_ is the year (2012, 2013, 2014, and 2015). The testing of various yearly trends in nine spatial clusters of monitors found no significant differences from the overall trend.

The third step was to generate a projection database for the four years (2012–15) with full dummy variables for monitoring locations and months. Fourth, the projection database was used to predict salinity for all monitoring stations in all months and years. Fifth, predicted salinity was extracted for all monitoring stations in the month of highest salinity (i.e., May 2015). Sixth, the observations were mapped in ArcGIS. Finally, a high‐resolution point file was created via spatial interpolation among the observations.

# _<u>Step 3. Estimate Salinity Tolerance of Various Mangrove Species</u>_

Salinity tolerances of various relevant mangrove types (species and mixed species) were computed using geographic overlays of base mangrove distributions derived in Step 1 and the high‐resolution spatial aquatic salinity profile developed in Step 2.

# _<u>Step 4. Estimate Future (2050) Aquatic Salinity for the Indian Sundarbans</u>_

To estimate future aquatic salinity for the Indian Sundarbans, a projection model using high‐resolution point data was first developed for the Bangladesh Sundarbans. First, the _SP_ ratio (salinity in 2012 divided by salinity in 2050) was computed for each point. Next, the _SM_ ratio (salinity in 2012 divided by the maximum salinity in 2012 for all points) was computed for each point. The _SP_ is distributed (0, 1). Finally, fractional logit was used to estimate _SP = β0 + β1SM_ for all points. This functional form preserves the (0, 1) bound, while specifying the growth rate of salinity from 2012 to 2050 at a point as a function of the gap between its current salinity and the maximum salinity in the point set (i.e., effectively ocean salinity). The function fits the data extremely well.

To estimate salinity in 2050 for the Indian Sundarbans, the _SM_ ratio (salinity in 2012 divided by the maximum salinity in 2012 for all points) was computed for each point. Next, the regression coefficients from the Bangladesh computation above were used to estimate the _SP_ ratio (salinity in 2012 divided by salinity in 2050). Finally, _SP_ was used to compute salinity in 2050 and salinity in 2012 for each point.

8
<!-- Start of picture text -->
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<!-- Start of picture text --> West Bengal Sundarbans Salinity, 2012 t ‘ < ' ; West Bengal Sundarbans Salinity, 2050 " ' A ; .<br>Salinity (ppt) .. i, Ore Salinity (ppt) “ . iy 7<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> i * Oy i) (4 OTe NG aC ee s<br>| WE. o 4 yy 4,5 6 S & | Wwe ae Ny<br>ing << \oug Sma) 3, Re Ong<br><!-- End of picture text -->
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<!-- Start of picture text --> TTT<br>EEL TTL!LKLK<br>ET | eee<br>LA anSSSS ees<br>Ee<br>FC ET<br>aaa<br>£ ‘XT |<br>=<br>[|_——€Ss,—_lc ti atm<br>a<br>O% 10% 20% 20% 40% 50% om 70% a0 90% 100%<br>TM@ Ceriops Ceriops Excoecaria @ Excoecaria Excoecaria Heritiera<br>@ Excoecaria Excoecaria RhizophoraCeriops @ Excoecaria Excoecaria<br>m Sonneratia @ Avicennia Avicennia<br>@ AvicenniaBruguieraCereops AvicenniaBruguieraCereops @ Ceriops Ceriops<br>m@ Phoenix Phoenix Xylocarpus Aegiceras @Cereops Excoecaria Heritiera<br>Ceriops Excoecaria<br>BHR Sxcoecaria Heritera :<br>[EE coecaria Rhizophora Ceriops<br>Sere 7h ees!<br>os Os Wie aie:<br>‘ Les WAS Sas<br>5 a2 iy AS<br>\2<br><!-- End of picture text -->

<!-- Start of picture text --> a<br>O% 10% 20% 20% 40% 50% om 70% a0 90% 100%<br>TM@ Ceriops Ceriops Excoecaria @ Excoecaria Excoecaria Heritiera<br>@ Excoecaria Excoecaria RhizophoraCeriops @ Excoecaria Excoecaria<br>m Sonneratia @ Avicennia Avicennia<br>@ AvicenniaBruguieraCereops AvicenniaBruguieraCereops @ Ceriops Ceriops<br>m@ Phoenix Phoenix Xylocarpus Aegiceras @Cereops Excoecaria Heritiera<br><!-- End of picture text -->
# **Table 1: Estimated change in area (km**<sup>**2**</sup> **) for various mangrove species and assemblages, 2015–2050**

|**M**|||_Ei‐_|**Ma**|**ngrove Assem**|**blage, 2050**|<br>_Aii‐_||_Phi‐_|_Ci‐_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**angrove**<br>|||_xcoecara_<br>||||_vcenna_||_oenx_<br>|_erops_|
|**Assemblage,**<br>**2015**|_Ceriops‐_<br>_Excoecaria_|_Excoecaria‐_<br>_Heritiera_|_Rhizophora‐_<br>_Ceriops_|_Excoecaria_|_Sonneratia_|_Avicennia_|_Bruguiera‐_<br>_Cereops_|_Ceriops_|_Xylocarpus‐_<br>_Aegiceras_|_Excoecaria‐_<br>_Heritiera_|
|_Ceriops‐_<br>_Excoecaria_|65.967|0.727|0.819|16.842|0.212|1.130|4.211|0.0054|0.005|0|
|_Excoecaria‐_<br>_Heritiera_|0.624|32.206|2.133|4.685|0.252|12.408|14.955|0.514|0.418|0|
|_Excoecaria‐_<br>_Rhizophora‐_<br>_Ceriops_|0.092|0.063|299.115|2.525|0.121|11.126|4.910|0.358|2.291|0|
|_Excoecaria_|16.262|4.046|25.29|353.500|0.061|6.203|8.616|0.018|0.934|0|
|_Sonneratia_|0.243|0.684|4.5|0|35.007|2.885|1.356|0|0.671|0|
|_Avicennia_|4.095|0.838|12.978|14.871|0|718.681|0.005|4.986|0.049|0.084|
|_Avicennia‐_<br>_Bruguiera‐_<br>_Cereops_|8.619|7.026|29.907|0|0|23.820|338.535|5.543|2.638|0|
|_Ceriops_|1.715|0.939|5.814|4.23|0.027|4.478|12.323|148.762|1.871|0|
|_Phoenix‐_<br>_Xylocarpus‐_<br>_Aegiceras_|0.017|0.023|1.8|0.579|0.123|6.485|1.256|2.828|47.110|0|
|_Ceriops‐_<br>_Excoecaria‐_<br>_Heritiera_|0|0|0.198|0.003|0|0.824|0|0.001|0.379|0.001|

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<!-- Start of picture text --> Net Change between 2015 and 2050<br>Ceriops-Excoecaria-Heritiera |<br>Phoenix xylocarpus-Aegiceras Po<br>Ceriops SB<br>Avicennia-Bruguiera-Cereops Ez<br>Avicennia Ly<br>Sonneratia fL4<br>Excoecaria |<br>Excoecaria-Rhizophora-Ceriops ——=|<br>Excoecaria-Heritiera DIN<br>Ceriops-Excoecaria Ld<br>-20 -10 (e) 10 20<br><!-- End of picture text -->
|_griffithii, S._<br>_caseolaris_|||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Excoecaria_<br>_agallocha_||||||||||o|
|_Ceriops_<br>_decandra,_<br>_C. tagal_||||||o|||o|o|
|_Bruguiera_<br>_gymnorrhiza,_<br>_B. cylindrica_||||||o|||o|o|
|_Rhizophora_<br>_mucronata_,<br>_R. apiculate_|||||||||||
|_Xylocarpus_<br>_mekongensis,_<br>_X. granatum_||o||||||o||o|
|_Phoenix_<br>_paludosa_||||||||||o|
|_Aegiceras_<br>_corniculatum_||||||||||o|

_Note:_ () indicates information from the literature, and (o) is used to represent expert opinion.

The intertidal region where mangroves are present—the transition zone between freshwater and marine ecosystems—is well‐suited for breeding and rearing a variety of fish, crustacean, and mollusk species.<sup>9</sup> Harvesting these species from rivers and creeks provides a major livelihood source for many poor communities, who are especially vulnerable to climate‐ driven changes in mangrove species composition. The ecosystem’s increasing salinity is projected to influence the combination of stenohaline and euryhaline species, thus affecting the food web. It will take a particular toll on economically important fish catches that have specific salinity‐ tolerance limits (e.g., Parse and Bhangan).

Decline in the growth of forest land and timber species, along with reduced productivity of forest sites, may also impact the livelihood options of poor households. For example, honey collectors, called “Moulis,” obtain the first honey of the season from _Aegiceras_ and _Acanthus_ sp., which fetches a high value, at Rs. 200–250 per kg. Honey collected later in the season, mainly from _Ceriops_ and _Avicennia_ sp., fetches less (Rs. 80–120 per kg). With changes in mangrove species combinations, the fragrance and viscosity of honey—and thus its price—will vary.

Increasing salinity will also reduce the diversity of mangrove species, which could diminish the attraction of the Sundarbans as a biodiversity hotspot destination. With sea‐level rise in a changing climate, declining tourism would also adversely affect the livelihoods of poor people living in the coastal region. Although the wood quality of the _Ceriops_ ‐ _Avicennia_ group is widely

> 9 The direct relationships between particular mangrove and fish species are still being investigated.

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appreciated, salinity ingression may increase due to the altered species combination, which could affect the water table and thus water sources. Women would be especially vulnerable since they spend a significant amount of time collecting fuelwood and drinking water.

# **6. Concluding Remarks**

Despite the widely‐acknowledged, treaty‐protected ecological status of the Sundarbans, concerns related to growing aquatic salinity have not yet been incorporated into regional management protocols. Over time, eastward meandering of the Ganges and Brahmaputra is reducing freshwater inflows significantly. Because the region is quite flat, strong tidal effects may travel long distances upstream, even at the current sea level. These effects will be exacerbated by continuing sea‐level rise. As long as such dynamics continue, efforts to improve local ecological conditions through changes in hydrological regime (e.g., river training and other engineering work) will likely be futile (Potkin 2004). Thus, it appears that engineering attempts to control rising salinity in the Sundarbans are unlikely to succeed.

The Indian Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Effective conservation management will require establishment of location‐specific baseline data for tree stand structures, tree abundance, species richness and diversity, export of nutrients, hydrological patterns, rates of sedimentation, and relative sea‐level rise (McLeod and Salm 2006). Such baseline data will permit monitoring of changes in Sundarban mangrove systems over time. Since mangroves depend on fluxes of both daily tides and freshwater, management protocols should include both connectivity between mangrove systems and nearby river sources and maintenance of upland freshwater catchments. Areas should be identified that are likely to survive sea‐level rise in a changing climate. Tidal fluctuations, varying pH, and salinity should be monitored to support assisted regeneration and colonization of suitable mangrove species, where necessary. Attempts to restore mangrove areas that are currently degraded should also be undertaken.<sup>10</sup> Since changes in mangrove stocks induced by rising aquatic salinity are likely to change the prospects for forest‐based livelihoods, resources should also be directed to the development of alternative livelihoods for mangrove‐dependent households. Sea‐level rise will continue beyond 2100, even if greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are stabilized in the near future.<sup>11</sup> The impacts on globally‐important mangrove ecosystems and the socioeconomic implications for vulnerable populations will undoubtedly be an important part of this story. High‐resolution

> 10 It is worth noting that local women’s groups can be engaged in nursery preparation of these salt‐tolerant species as part of community‐based mangrove restoration activities.

> 11 Current scientific estimates are that sea level may rise by 1 m or more in the 21st century (Hansen et al. 2011; Vermeer and Rahmstorf 2009; Pfeffer, Harper, and O’Neel 2008; Rahmstorf 2007; Dasgupta et al. 2009; Brecht et al. 2012). It is feared that sea level may even rise by 3 m or more by 2100, in light of new evidence on ice‐cliff instability of the Antarctic (https://www.nature.com/articles/nature17145; http://www.nature.com/news/antarctic‐model‐ raises‐prospect‐of‐unstoppable‐ice‐collapse‐1.19638; https://climatefeedback.org/evaluation/antarctica‐doomsday‐ glaciers‐could‐flood‐coastal‐cities‐grist‐eric‐holthaus/).

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spatial assessments of such problems have been scarce. This research represents an attempt to narrow the knowledge gap for coastal West Bengal. We hope that these analyses will promote more widespread efforts to develop conservation and sustainable development policies that incorporate rising salinity, changes in mangrove dynamics, and their impacts on the welfare of poor communities.

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