metadata: authors: 0: author: van der Gaag, Jacques
1: author: Makonnen, Elene
2: author: Englebert,
docna: 0: docna: Trends in social indicators and social
            sector financing
docty: Policy Research Working Paper
subtopic: Health Care Services Industry,Reproductive Health,Early Child and Children's Health,Nutrition,Educational Sciences,Law and Justice Institutions
teratopic: Education
abstracts: cdata!: Over the past three decades, per capita
            GDP has increased worldwide.  The authors examine whether
            this has resulted in better quality of life in developing
            countries.  This paper documents the evolution of social
            indicators (health, education, nutrition), private
            consumption, and government expenditure on the social
            sectors.  They conclude that developing countries made
            uneven progress in the quality of life in the period under
            study.  Key findings include:  (a) health indicators showed
            stable improvements in all regions, but Africa's rates
            were the slowest; (b) of all social indicators, education
            made the greatest gains, however, net enrollment ratios
            actually decreased in Africa in the 1980s; (c) while
            developing nations as a group enjoyed improved indices of
            undernutrition in 1965-85, the degree of undernutrition
            worsened in more than one-third of sub-Saharan African
            countries; (d) Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean
            also saw declines in average per capita private consumption
            during the 1980s; and (e) the share of total government
            expenditure on health remained stable in all regions, but
            that of education declined in Africa, South Asia, and Latin
            America and the Caribbean.  The authors also note that any
            effort to assess trends is severely hampered by lack of
            information.  The quality of existing data is not
            systematically trustworthy, and there are many gaps.
repnme: repnme: Trends in social indicators and social
            sector financing
display_title: Trends in social indicators and
            social sector financing
listing_relative_url: /research/1991/05/699966/trends-social-indicators-social-sector-financing
topicv3: Infant and Child Mortality m1326544 1446,Education m1327048 470,Mortality m1504365 3661,Health m1504661 3480,Malnutrition m1627088 4737
publishtoextweb_dt: 2010-07-01T00:00:00Z
historic_topic: Education
origu: Policy, Research & Ect Affairs
no_of_pages: 135
model_extractions: <!-- Start of picture text --> Plc,Research, and External AHfalrs<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Welfare and Human Resources<br><!-- End of picture text --> WPS **662** This papera product of the Welfare and Human Resources Division, Population and Human Resources Department-is part of a largereffort in PRE to improve knowledge ontrends inpoverty and its correlates: malnutrition, illiteracy, illness, and premature death. Copies arc available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Brenda Rosa, room S9-137, extension 33751 (129 pages, with tables).

Over the past three decades, per capita GDP has increased worldwide. Van der Gaag, Makonnen, and Englebert examine whether this has resulted in better quality of life in developing countries. Their paper docum, Is the evolution of social indicators (health, education, nutrition), private consumption, and govemnent expenditure on the social sectors.

The authors conclude that developing countries made uneven progress in the quality of life in the period under study. Among the key findings:

* Hcalth indicators (mortality, immunization coverage, life expectancy) showed stable improvements in aU regions, but Africa's rates were the slowest.

* Of all social indicators, education made the greatest gains. In Africa, however, net enrollment ratios actually decreased in the 1 980s.

* While developing nations as a group enjoyed improved indices of undemutrition in

1965-85, the degree of undemutrition worsened in more than one-third of Sub-Saharan African countnes.

* The two regions characterized by economic difficulties in the 1980s - Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean - also saw declines in average per capita private consumption during that decade.

* The share of total government expenditure on health remained stable in all regions, but that of education declines in Africa, South Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean.

The authors also note that any effort to assess trends is severely hampered by lack of infonnation. The quality of existing data is not systematically trustworthy, and there are many gaps. The World Bank and most bilateral and multilateral agencies are placing increasing emphasis on monitoring the impact of programs. The necd for simple, up-to-date data may trigger morc vigorous data collection.

iThc PRE Working Paper Series disseminiates the findings of work under way in the Bank's Policy. Research, and Extemal Affairs Complex. An objective ofthcseries is to get thesc findings out quickly, even if presentations are less than fullypolished. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in these papers do not neccssarily represent official Bank policy.

Produced by the PRE Dissemination Center
# Table of Contents

|Page|
|---|
|Chapter I:<br>Introduction .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .<br>.<br>_1_|
|Chapter II:<br>Health .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .<br>.<br>_3_|
|The data .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .<br>.<br>_3_|
|The trends . . . .10|
|The causes of decline in child mortality . . . . . . . .15|
|Chapter III: Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24|
|The data .............................<br>. 26|
|The trends ............................<br>. 28|
|Chapter IV: Nutrition ........................<br>. 33|
|The data .............................<br>. 33|
|The trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35|
|Chapter V:<br>Per Capita Private Consumption .... . . . . . . . . . .<br>. 39|
|The data ........<br>......................<br>. 40|
|The trends ............................<br>. _40_|
|Chapter VI: Social Sector Expenditurei . . . . . . . .43|
|The data .|
|The trends<br>.|
|Chapter<br>VII: Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . .49|
|<br> <br>List of Tables|
|Table 1: Infant mortality rates: DHS, the<sup>World Bank,</sup><br> <br>|
|and the UN_........................._<br>_._<br>_6_|
|Health 1: Under 5 Child Mortality Rates (Hill and<br>Pebley data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <sup>. . . . . . . 51</sup>|
|Health 2: Under 5 Child Mortality Rates<sup>(interpolated</sup><br>UN data) . . . . . 55<br>Health 3: Immunization for BCG .59|
|Health 4: Immunization for Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus . . . . . . 63<br>Health 5: Immunization against Poliomyelitis.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>. . . . . . . . 67|
|---|
|Health .<br>Imunization against<br>Measles ................<br>. 71|
|Education 1: Net Enrollment Rates ..................<br>. 75|
|Education 2: Gross Enrollment Rates .................<br>. 79|
|Education 3: Frimary School Completion Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83|
|Education 4: Primary Students in Private Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 87|
|Education 5: Student/School Ratios ..................<br>. 91|
|Education 6: Student Teacher Ratios .................<br>. 95|
|Undernutrition 1: Index of Undernutrition . . . . . .<br>. . . . . . . . 99|
|Undernutrition 2: Index of Undernutrition Summary Table . . . . . . . . 103|
|Consumption 1: Growth in Per Capita Private Consumption.<br>. . . . . . . 104|
|Consumption 2: Growth in Per Capita Private Consumption<br>Summary Table ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .<br>. 108|
|Consumption 3: Index of Per Capita Private Consumption . . . . . . . . . 109|
|Consumption 4: Index of Per Capita Private Consumption<br>Summary Table ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .<br>. 113|
|Expenditure 1: Education Expenditure as Percent of Total<br>Government Expenditure .......................<br>. 114|
|'Expenditure 2: Educatlon Expenditure as Percent of Total<br>Government Expenditure SummAry Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118|
|Expenditure 3: Health Expenditure as Percent of Total<br>Government Expenditure .......................<br>. 119|
|Expenditure 4: Health Expenditure as Percent of Total<br>Government Expendlture Summary Table ................<br>. 123|
|Expenditure 5: Other Welfare Expenditure as Percent of Total<br>Government Expenditure .......................<br>. 124|
|Expendlture 6: Other Welfare Expenditure as Percent of Total<br>Government Expenditure Summary Table ................<br>. 128|
|Expenditure 7: Interest Payments as Percent of Total<br>Government Expendlture Summary Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129|
1 Economic development, as measured by growth in<sup>per capita GDP, is</sup> strongly correlated with a large number of variables that<sup>try to capture the</sup> "quality of life" or welfare status of a population. Such<sup>variables include</sup> life expectancy, child and infant mortality, literacy,<sup>nutritional status,</sup> access to clean drinking water, availability of school and<sup>teachers, clinics</sup> and doctors, and so forth. Taking these correlations for granted,<sup>one can</sup> expect that on average the quality of life has improved<sup>tremendously over the</sup> past three decades since per capita GDP increased<sup>worldwide.</sup> Yet, such an aggregated picture masks substantial regional<sup>differences</sup> in performance. Asian countries, for instance, showed<sup>a per capita growth</sup> rate of 5.7 per cent during the period 1980-89, while<sup>that of sub-Saharan</sup> Africa (excluding South Africa) declined by 0.3<sup>per cent (most recent estimate</sup> from World Development Report). Did the social<sup>indicators of lining standards</sup> show a similar trend? Did infant mortality rates<sup>drop sharply in Asia and</sup> increase in Africa? Did the gains in life expectancy<sup>of the 1960s and 1970s</sup> erode in the 1980s? Are school enrollment ratios declining<sup>in stagnating</sup> countries, with apparently tragic consequences for future<sup>growth?</sup> These and many related questions have been<sup>rassed, and answers have been</sup> suggested by many development specialists and institutions, most recently by the World Bank (World Development Report 1990)<sup>and UNDP (Human Development</sup> Report, 1990).
2 The purpose of this paper is to document the trends in s Al indicators for the past three decades. The paper will assess the evolution of those indicators in the 1980s, monitor their earlier development, and appraise the regional differences in achieving better living standards. As such an exercise is, undoubtedly, severely hampered by the lack of reliable information, assessing the quality of the data will be an essential part of this study. In addition, the paper will try to go to the original source and purge the data from any interpolation, extrapolation, and other "fillers".

The paper deals with social indicators per se (health, education, nutrition). but also with private consumption as the main economic indicator of well-being, and with government expenditures on the social sectors.
3 MThR II HEALTH This chapter reviews input and output health indicators. Life expectancy is regarded as the best outcome indicator of the health status of a population. It is a summary measure of many other variables, including infant, child and adult mortality and morbidity. Though of a lesser .ope, child and infant mortality provide a more detailed picture of the health situation of the youngest part of the population and are directly related to other social variables such as nutrition. water supply, and even parents' education.1 Child mortality is also determined by government's efforts to immunize their population, and to provide them with health services, including physicians and nurses. Immunization coverage and physicians per population will therefore also be reviewed in this chapter.

More than other social indicators, health indicators suff3r from a critical lack of good quality data. Ir.deed, while it does not require excessive research for a state to know how many childreu are enrolled in its schools for example, gathering information on births and deaths, on the other hand, can raise considerable problems, especially in remote, rural areas. There may te no incentive for population to travel long distances to report a relative's death. If a birth or death is belatedly or not reported, not only 1Susan Cochrane, "The Effects of Education on Fertility and Mortality." Educatiov and Training Series Discussion Paper EDT26 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986).
4 ar6 birth rates and mortality ratet affected, but also fertility and life expectancy indicators. By the same token, in the absence of sufficient health personnel, the causes of death may be poorly reported, and the toll of major diseases often has to be guessed, although 'ith advanced statistical methods.

The relative spreading over time of national censuses is a cause of scattered, sporadic data, too. Because of the lack of systematic censuses in many countries, it is often not possible to assess trends, as observations at two different points in time may not be available. This is especially true for Sub-Saharan Africa which is, in general, the region with the least and least reliable data.

Furthermore, when datA are collected, the quality of the collection procedure is not always guaranteed. Irternational organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) collect their data by means of standard annual questionnaires despatched, through foreign affairs ministries, to their individual member countries. How each country itself obtains its data is less well known and procedures vary from country to . -try. Data gathered from administrative sources may reflect some official, bureaucratic or procedural bias, such as urban or institutional coverage when reporting on hospitals, clinics, and the like.

Because of the lack of complete time series for many social indicators, experts in development organizations resort to statistical methods to generate the missing data. When faced with gaps between observations, they assess the trend for the available data and assign intermediate values -- i.e., they
S interpolate --, within this trend,<sup>for the missing years. When the beginning</sup> or the end of a time series is<sup>missing, asjessing a trend is&more delicate</sup> procedure and experts have to resort<sup>to their knowledge of the country's</sup> conditions to supplement their projections.<sup>Such extrapolations are</sup> definitely less reliable than actual<sup>data and interpolations.</sup> Because of different projection<sup>or estimation methods, data compiled by</sup> different sources can show substantial<sup>discrepancies. Such discrepancies may</sup> not always be easy to understand or<sup>justify. For instance, consider the case</sup> of data on infant mortality rates.<sup>2</sup> Table 1 shows differing infant mortality data for a few selected countries from<sup>three different sources: the World</sup> Bank, the United Nations, and Westinghouse''s Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS).3 2For a good discussion of the data problem relative to mortality, see Christopher Murray, "A Critical<sup>Review of International Mortality Data," Soc.</sup> Sci. Ned., vol. 25, no.7 (1987),<sup>pp. 773-781.</sup> 3The World Bank, SociaL Indicators of Devplmuent 1988 (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1988); United Nations,<sup>Mortalitv of Children under age 5! World</sup> Estimates and ProJections. 1950-2025<sup>(New York: The United Nations, 1988)</sup> Population Studies, No 105.
6 Table 11_ Infant mgrtalitX ratest DHS. the Wo2rld Bank. and the VA

|1|971-7|5|19|76-80||1981|-86|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|DHS|WB|UN|DHS|UN|DHS|WI|UN|
|Burundi<br>100|132|135|103|130|75|115|124|
|Liberia<br>192|112|155|164|143|144|89|132|
|Mali<br>170|196|203|156|191|108|-33|180|
|Senegal<br>120|157|162|97|154|86|124|142|
|Sri Lanka<br>40|<br>37|56|39|48|25|29|39|
|Thailand<br>55|<br>60|65|41|56|35|51|48|
|Morocco<br>104|115|122|92|110|73|93|97|
|Dominican<br>Rep.<br>80|<br>88|94|75|84|68|51|75|
|Ecuador<br>97|<br>87|95|72|82|58|50|70|
|Guatemala<br>92|<br>87|95|86|82|73|66|70|
|Trinidad<br>&Tobago 47|<br>28|30|37|26|26|29|24|

Note: 1971-75 refers to 1975 for the World Bank. 1981-86 refers to any year between 1981 and 1986 for the World Bank. For DHS, 1971-75 sometimes covers 1972-76 or 1972-77. For the UN, 1976-80 is 1975-80, and 1981-86 is 1980-85.

Note, in the above example, only the DHS data are fully based on actual observations. World Bank and UN data uve both actual data and resort to irn.er- and extrapolations for years with missing data. It is, however, Impossible for the data user to discern the actual from the projected or "filled" data, without inside knowledge of the data processing.

In addition, actual data from DHS, the Bank or the UN differ in their nature. Bank and UN data, are a compilation of survey data such as those from DHS, censuses, and civil regirtration sources, based on the respective organization's best judgment. Thus, the final Bank and UN data may differ as they reflect adjustments and accuracy cross-checks based on other available estimates.
DHS data are based on both direct and Indirect estimates. Direct estimates refer to vital registration data and maternit; nistories (interviews of womea about birth and death history over, say, the last two decades). Indirect estimatea do not carry information on each individual child. The procedure is simpler and faster: women are asked how many born alive children they have had, and how many died. Infant and child mortality figures are derived from the answers. This i-ethod is, of course, somewhat less accurate and is subject to recall and truncation bias.

The data in the anne:. tables on irfant and under five mortality, immunization, and physicians per pcpulation result from a careful review of different sources. As such they represent what we believe may be the best data currently available on tiaese indicators. The various sources are footnoted at the bottom of each table.

Life expectancy is defined as the number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of his/her birth were to stay the same throughout his/her life. Data on life expectancy is very scarce. The main source is an article by the UN, which itselZ uses several other sources.4 Most of the countries covered are unfortunately developed countries. According to the UN secretariat, The data set used for the analysis of the leas developed countries consists of 78 national life tables for the period 1945-1981 whose agesex patterns of mortality hrv been evaluated as relatively reliable 4United Nations Secretariat, ley Differetials in Survivorship in the Developing World: Levels. Regional Patterns and Demogranhic Determinants (1988); A.J. Coale and P. Demeny, Regional Model Lifg Tables And Stable Populations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966); United Nations, Levels and Trends of Mortality since 1950 (1982); WHO magnetic tapes.
1... 3All of these life tables are based on recorded age and sex patterns of mortality, as derived either from vital registration, or from vital statistics and population data collected through sample surveys. In some case;,, recorded mortality levels have been adjusted, based on the application of a variety of analytical techniques, because of the incompleteness of the collected death data (relative to that of recorded births or population).

This paper relies on interpolated data produced by the World Bank ANDREX database, as the UN life expectancy data was decidedly too scant. Although the data are adequate for assessing time trends and comparing among regions, country and year specific numbers should be taken with considerable caution. As these data can be derived directly from ANDREX, they have not been reproduced as part of the annex tables in this report.

Infant mortality covers the death of children eunder one year of age and is expressed per thousand. Child mortality is most frequently defined as referring to the death rate, also per thousand, of children between age one and are 5. Under five mortality, also occasionally referred to as child mortality, encompasses both earlier measures. This paper, uses under five mortality rather than infant and child mortality. The main reason for this is that under five mortality gives a broader picture of the health of children under five (both children and infants) and is less affected by cultural factors such as the time of weaning which may differ among countries and consequently affect the infant mortality picture.
9 We present two sets of under five mortality data. The first one (Table Health 1), generated by Hill and Pebley,<sup>5</sup> comprises only empirical data, thoroughly checked agalnst one another, and is a very reliable source of country sr-cific data. Hill and Pebley used estimates from UN (1988) for North Africa, Asia and the Americas, but attempted to exclude all those estimates not based on data. The selection was done by the authors, helped by the author of the UN report, and, according to them, *it is hoped that the numbers left are soundly based and relatively reliable." Numbers from the most recent past available from very recent surveys, such as the DHS, have also been incorporated "where possible and where consistent wlth earlier estimates." In the case of Sub-Saharan Africa, data were drawn from a paper by Althea Hill on child mortality in sub-Saharan Africa.<sup>6</sup> Althea Hill's numbers are also the product of *careful evaluation of the underlying data," and have been enriched by more recent data such as DHS. Data were obtained for 67 developing countries, with many incomplete t.ries. Unfortu.iately, the scarcity of observations make it of little use for intertemporal and interregional comparisons as no aggregation is really possible. To circumvent that problem, this paper presents UN mortality data (Health 2), with interpolations and extrapolations.? This table is less adequate for specific country information, yet it gives a good picture of both the trends

> 5Kenneth Hill and Ann R. Pebley, "Levels, Trends and Patterns of Child Nortality in the Developing World." Prepared for the Workshop on Child Survival Programs: Issues for the 1990s (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and Public Health). November 20-21. Processed.

> 6Althea Hill, Mild Ko.Talit **in** sub-Sahar Afica. Paper presented to IUSSP seminar on Hortality and Society in Sub-Saharan Africa. (Yaound6, Cameroon, 1987).

TUnited Nations, (1rtalitX of hildren Under Agp_5 (1988).
10 over time and of the specific levels of dlfferent regions. Its main weakness, however, is its unabated tendency to give estimates mechanically decreasing with time, a consequence of the statistical models used to generate those estimates.

Immunization data refer to the vaccination of children under one year of age against tuberculosis (BCG vaccine; table Health 3), diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus (DPT vaccine, table Health 4), poliomyelitis (table Health 5) and measles (table Health 6). Our data was kindly supplied by the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) from the World Health Organisation (WHO) in Geneva. Data is collected by the ministries of health in each country. Their districts collect the data on a monthly or quarterly basis and forwards them to the central government which compiles the data on an annual basis, as part of the routine national notification system. The figures quoted in the table are percentage of children immunized by 12 months of age.

# The trends

The data on life expectancy set a pattern of regional performance which remains valid for many other social indicators, even beyond the field of health. Most recent estimates (1988) put Africa at a low 51 years of age life expectancy (only weighted data used in the analysis), as against 56.5 for South Asia, 67.6 for East Asia, 63.1 for Europe, Middle East and North Afrlca, 66.8 for LatLn America and the Caribbean, and 71.5 for Eastern Europe.
Not only does Africa have the lowest current record of life expectancy, its past rate of improvement has also been slowest, despite starting from the lowest point in the 19609. In 25 years -- between 1960 and 1985 -- the average life expectancy for Africa increased by 9.4 years. For South Asia the increase was 13.1 years; for East Asia, an astounding 28.8 years; for EMENA 10.3 years; for LAC 9.9 years, and for Eastern Europe, 4 years.

Clearly the improvement in life expectancy closely follows improvements in economic performance. East Asia's life expectancy boom parallels its impressive GDP growth rate, while Africa's slow growth echoes its virtual economic, stagnation. South Asia, which starts in 1960 at a level close to Africa's, improves more substantially. This reflects the good performance of India and the outstanding social achievements of Sri Lanka. Within regions, economic differences also bear some impact. Low income African countries increase their life expectancy from 40.1 in 1960 to 50.7 in 1988 while middle income African countries start a little higher with 41 years and climb to 53.4 in 1988. The opposite is true in East Asia where low income countries improve their life expectancy faster than middle income countries and eventually pass them. Yet this is more the achievement of one country --China -- than of a sub-region.

Overall, therefore, with substantial inter- and intraregional differences, the pattern is one of significant progress. Several East Asian, Middle Eastern and Latin American countries reached by the 1970s and early 1980s, levels of life expectancy equivalent to those of industrialized
12 countries of Europe and North<sup>America. South Asia and Africa are still</sup> lagging behind but progress,<sup>although slower, has also been registered there.</sup> Declines in infant and child mortality<sup>rates (which mean that more</sup> children get to live beyond age<sup>1 and beyond age 5) are considered the one</sup> main reason for increases<sup>in life expectancy. While this generally holds true</sup> at the global level, such declines<sup>have, like life expectancy increases, been</sup> uneven among different regions.<sup>The data on child mortality rate from HIl</sup> and Pebley reflect this<sup>very woll (Table Health 1).</sup> In general, African countries appear<sup>to have higher child mortality</sup> rates and a lower pace of decline<sup>than other regions, except maybe South Asia.</sup> only five African countries offer<sup>observations for every quinquennium since</sup> 1960: Botswana, Ghana, Liberia,<sup>Senegal, and Uganda. Botswana offers by far</sup> the most successful story with<sup>an under five mortality (5qO) of 70 per</sup> thousand in 1980-85, and a more<sup>rapid rate of decline in the last years than</sup> earlier. Senegal, too, fastens<sup>its rate of decline in the 1980s, although</sup> moderately. On the other<sup>hand, Liberia's rate of decline slows down despite</sup> the still high level of its<sup>5qO (220). Ghana and Uganda see their child</sup> mortality actually increase in<sup>the 1980s, after two decades of decline. The</sup> civil war situation of Uganda<sup>in the last 10 to 15 years is a plausible</sup> explanation of its poor<sup>performance. Ghana's is more puzzling, and some have</sup> pointed towards its repeated<sup>and radical adjustment policies of the 1980s for</sup> an explanation.
13 Performances vary widely within Africa too. While Botswana's child mortality decreases fast to reach a relatively low level by the 1980s, other countries improve much slower. By 1970-75, Mali's 5qO still stood at 325 and decreased only to 272 by 1980-85. Malawi's 5qO was 333 by 1970-75. By the 1980s, half the sample was still well above 200.

In South Asia too, 5qO is high and decline slow. It appears, despite the limited number of observations, that the rate of decline has been slowing down between 1960 and the late 1970s. Here too, wide internal variations are observable. Sri Lanka, which has had remarkable social policies, high levels of government spending on social services, and many well performing indicators, shows the fastest decline and the lowest mortality in 1975-80, with only 66 per thousand, but Bangladesh still peaks at 215 in 1980-85.

East Asia's performance is strongly influenced by China which has accomplished tremendous progress since 1960, falling from a child mortality of 162 per thousand in 1960-65 to 58 per thousand in 1975-80. Other countries such as Hong Kong and Singapore, and, to a lesser extent, Korea and Malaysia, have lowered their mortality rates to levels equivalent to industrialized countries by the 1980s. Still, Indonesia's decline has been slower and its 5qO was still 122 by 1980-85.

It is in Latin America that samples are most consistent over time. If one takes into account only those thirteen countries for which time series are complete from 1960 to 1985, and weight the average, the steady and significant improvement of child mortality is obvious. Weighted averages go from 133 in
14 1960-65, to 116 in 1965-70, to 104 in 1970-75,<sup>to 88 in 1975-80, and end up to</sup> a low average of 71 for the 1980s.

Within Middle East and North Africa,<sup>the differences between countries</sup> are widespread. Kuwait has a 5qO<sup>of only 27 per thousand in 1980-85, compared</sup> with 141 for Turkey and 166 for<sup>Egypt.</sup> This supports the conclusion of Hill<sup>and Pebley, that "child mortality</sup> is, and has been over the entire period<sup>under consideration,</sup> higher in Africa than in [...] other regions. Second, even within<sup>regions and time periods</sup> there is a tremendous range of child mortality<sup>conditions. Third, in all</sup> [...I regions, child mortality has generally<sup>been falling over the last two</sup> and a half decades."<sup>8</sup> Inter- and extrapolated UN data (Table<sup>Health 2) give a similar story,</sup> yet a more complete one. Africa as<sup>a whole remains above 200 per thousand for</sup> the 1980-85 quintile, a decidedly<sup>poor performance. Only middle income</sup> African countries pass below the threshold<sup>of 200 with a weighted average of</sup> 180 per thousand in 1980-85. Countries<sup>with the biggest under five mortality</sup> are the Gambia (302), Mali (312),<sup>and Sierra Leone (312). Mauritius brings</sup> the best success story with only 36<sup>per thousand, the only country in Africa</sup> to fall below 100. It did, however,<sup>start at only 89 in 1960-85.</sup> Here too South Asia starts at<sup>a similar point to Africa (259 in 196-65)</sup> but improves its under five mortality<sup>further, to 169 per thousand in 1980-85.</sup> 8Hill and Pebley (1989), op.cit. p.6.
15 East Asia's record is once again influenced by China. Its average for 1980-85 is 66 per thousand with China, but goes up to 100 without China. Singapore's mortality of 12 per thousand is noteworthy as equal to that of industrialized countries. EMENA countries have had a steady improvement over the years but remain above 100 in 1980-85, essentially because of countries such as Afghanistan (340, no Improvement since 1970), and Yemen (223). While many countries in Latin America have reached levels below 50 per thousarnI, the continent's achievement (84 per thousand in 1980-85) remains hampered by the high mortality of Bolivia (197), Haiti (189), and Peru (143). Though Eastern Europe compares favorably to developing countries with 24 per thousand in 1980-85, this is still about twice as much as Western European countries.

# The causes of decline in child mortality

The causes of decline in child mortality are both medical, i.e. health related, and socio-economic. These two sets of causes are partly linked as improvements in socio-economic conditions affect health related indicators such as nutrition or safe water supply.

Medical interpretations of mortality declines depend on what are the main causes of death in a given country: smallpox, diarrhea, malaria, influenza, pneumonia, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, typhoid, cholera, and so forth. In high mortality populations, infectious and parasitic diseases tend to bear almost exclusive responsibility for shortening life.
16 Diarrhea is no doubt one of the main sources of infant mortality. The World Health, Organization estimates that every child under five years of age in the developing world suffers from, on average, 2 to 3 episodes of diarrhea a year, and that acute diarrheal diseases cause some 4 to 5 million deaths each year.<sup>9</sup> According to Levine and others,10 condition **s** uch as poverty, underdevelopment, and lack of education facilitate the widespread transmission of the pathogens that cause diarrheal disease, dysentery, and enteric fever in young children. In addition to promotion of breast feeding and other nutritional interventions, one of the best interventions against diarrhea so far -- except in extremely severe cases --, and the one which has probably had the most impact on decreasing the death toll due to diarrhea, is the Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT).

ORT is the treatment of dehydration due to diarrhea by the use of Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) provided through local primary health care infrastructure. ORS are composed of sodium chloride, 3.5 g; trisodium citrate, 2.9 g; potassium chloride, 1.5 g; glucose, 20g; dissolved in one liter of drinking water.11 9J.D. Snyder and N.H. Merson, "The magnitude of the global problem of acute diarrheal disease: a review of active surveillance data,' World Health Organization, 60:605-613, 1982.

1%M.M. Levine, G. Losonski, and others, "Pediatric Diarrhea: the Challenge of Prevention," Pediatric Infectious Diseases, vol. 5, no. 1 (1986) pp. S29-S43. 11M.H. Merson and R.C. Hogan, "The World Health Organization Diarrheal Diseases Control Program," in Public Health and Prevoentve edicine, ed. John Last (Norwalk, CT: Appleton Century Crofts, 1986).
17 While less than 10 per cent of the estimated world needs of ORS were produced in 1980, t6e picture dramatically improved in the 1980s. According to UNICEF, today 112 developing countries have :ograms which promote the use of ORT; global production of WHO/UNICEF ORS formula has reached 300 mn liters a year; almost 60 per cent of the developing world's under five children now have access to a source of ORS; almost one quarter of children with diarrhea are being treated with ORS or other appropriate fluids such as rice water, soups, gruels, fruit juices; the number of deaths caused by diarrheal dehydration is steadily falling. ORT may be preventing 750,000 to 1 mn deaths a year.<sup>12</sup> Other diseases, such as measles, cholera, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, tetanus, or whooping cough, owe their decline to immunization. Immunization data collected or generated by the World Health Organization (WHO) have not become generally available until the 1980s, as most vaccination programs did not start until the 1970s. Vaccination against measles does not appear to start anywhere until the 1980s. Before that, only a handful of countries collected vaccination data on a somewhat regular basis (Sri Lanka, Costa Rica, Chile).

Furthermore, the quality of the existing data is not systematically trustworthy. Some countries have distribution figures, which are not vaccination figures. Between the moment the vaccine leaves the central headquarters of the health ministry in the capital, and the moment it reaches the arm of the child -- if it does -- many things may have gone wrong, making 12UNICEF (1989), op.cit. p.8.
1.8

the vaccine impotent and useless. Yet, in oplte of the above-mentioned shortcomings WHO statistics appear to be the best available. Caution should still be used, however, as not all countries collect new coverage data every year. In such cases, it appears that WHO reports the previous year coverage unchanged. This is why some 17 countries (mostly African) report the exact same coverage for each disease in 1987 and 1988, and four in 1986 and 1987.

In 1974, at a time when fewer than 5 per cent of children in developing countries were immunized, the World Health Organization (WHO) established the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) whose goal was to reduce infant morbidity and mortality by making immunization available for all children of the world by 1990. The emphasis was put on diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, measles, poliomyelitis, and tuberculosis.13 Although the target was not achieved, immunization coverage increased dramatically in the 1970s and into the 1980s. A comparison of immunization coverage in 1981 and 1986-87 by UNICEF, points towards substantial progress, in the 1980s, in the rate of coverage. In countries with very high child mortality,14 tuberculosis coverage rose from 26 to 46 per cent, diphtheri **a** nd tetanus from 14 to 27 per cent, poliomyelitis from 7 to 28 per cent, and measles from 19 to 33 per cent. In countries with high child mortality, tuberculosis coverage improved from 55 to 72 per cent, diphtheria and tetanus from 36 to 66 per cent, poliomyelitis from 30 to 62 per cent, and measles from 24 to 55 per cent. Countries with 13R.H. Henderson, A. Galazka, and J. Keja, "Reducing vaccine-Preventable Morbidity and Mortality: the Expanded Program on Immunization,' in John Last (ed.) (1986).

14 UNICEF uses a country classification by level of child mortality, as opposed to the Bank which uses levels of income. The end result is, however, roughly equivalent.
19 middle child mortality improve their coverag.<sup>on average from 57 to 75 per</sup> cent for tuberculosis, from 47 to 70 for diphtheria<sup>and tetanus, from 46 to 74</sup> per cent for poliomyelitis, and from 40 to 59<sup>per cent for measles.15</sup> Data compiled from the WHO Expanded Program on<sup>Immunization (Tables</sup> Health 3 to 6) indicate a continuous improvement<sup>of immunization coverage in</sup> the second part of the 1980s for all regions.<sup>Yet, coverage against every</sup> disease as of 1985 was still below 50 per cent<sup>for Africa. For South Asia, it</sup> was below 50 per cent for all diseases but<sup>Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus</sup> (DPT), but it would have been for DPT too if<sup>it were not for India. East Asia</sup> is well above 50 per cent for each disease, and<sup>China is above 75 per cent for</sup> each too. ENENA and IAC countries immunize<sup>on average two thirds of their</sup> children. Eastern Europe reports rates of coverage<sup>close to 100 per cent for</sup> all diseases. However, recent information<sup>of the health status of Eastern</sup> European children indicate that these<sup>figures might have been overestimated.</sup> When compared to the 1970s and early 1980s,<sup>the immunization data show</sup> the dramatic speeding up of the pace of coverage<sup>increase. Although the</sup> reduced s.ze of the time frame does not permit<sup>much intertemporal comparisons,</sup> there is no doub' as to the improvement<sup>of the global situation. Africa alone</sup> jumps by 350 per cent between 1985 and 1986<sup>which was declared African</sup> Immunization Year. According to EPI<sup>experts, a[p]rogress achieved in</sup> different [rlegions largely reflects differences<sup>in socioeconomic development</sup> 15UNICEF (1989), op.cit. p.98-99.
20 and emphacizes the point that rapid increase in immunization coverage is most easily obtained where the health infrastructure Is already developed."16 A country by country analysis reveals, however, the fragility of achievements in the field of immin.,zation. Results aee precarious as the target population fully changes from one year to another. In Africa, for example, Benin's poliomyelitis coverage fell from 93 per cent in 1986 to 16 per cent a year later. 61 per cent of Cameroon's Infants were protected against diphtheria and tetanus in 1987 for only 20 per cent in 1988. Yemen's example is probably the most dramatic. Having reached an impressive average coverage of 80 per cent in 1986, it fell to a low 18 per cent in 1987, only to fall further to 16 per cent in 1988.

In addition to the fluctuations in coverage, there remains a handful of countries, all of them among the least developed, where immunization is still waiting to take off. These include the following countries which, by 1988, were still below 20 per cent global coverage: Cameroon, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Bangladesh, and Yemen.

The global spread of vaccination in developing countries, a relatively low cost health intervention, offers a plausible explanation as to why infant and under five mortality rates did not generally respond to economic recession in the 1980s. While living conditions may have been close to hardship for most children, a simple intervention such as immunization, most probably 1<sup>6</sup> Keja, Chan, Brenner, and Henderson. Effectiveness of the Expanded Programme on Immunization, World Health Statistics Ouarterlv, 12 (1986).
21 prevented hundreds of thousands of them from dying. The relatively inexpensive nature of immunization -- between $1.5 and $10 per fully immunized child'? -- may have shielded it from economic setbacks.

The socio-economic dimensions of child mortality declines have been analyzed by Samuel Preston.<sup>1</sup> 8 Preston, who believes that individual mortality rates are sensitive to private living standards, seeks to extend this observation to a national level so as to account for international differences in life expectancy. Some indication of the importance of private living standards for international mortality differenceg may be gained, according to him, by examining the importance of income distribution as a factor in those differences. Preston expects that mortality responds nonlinearly to individual income levels in which case the distribution of income within a nation should influence its aggregate level of mortality. Therefore, life expectancy of the population as a whole is a function of the mean national income and of the distribution of income.

The distribution of income seems, however, to be a more important variable than the level of national income per se, which implies that the mortality risks facing a family earning $10,000 a year or $100 per yaar are not strongly influenced by the prevailing level of national income in the nation in which they reside.

# 17UNICEF, Thg State of the World's Children (1990), processed.

"<sup>8</sup> Samuel H. Preston, "Causes and Consequences of Mortality Declines in Less Developed Countries during the Twentieth Century. " Richard Easterlin, "Population and Economic Change in Developing Countries" (Philadelphia, 1976). (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980) pp. 289-360.
22 Preston believes in the existence of a structural shift in the relation between life expectancy and national income level, literacy rate and daily calorie consumption between 1940 and 1977, because about 8 years of the increase in life expectancy is not explained by his regression. Yet, Preston offers an explanation for Africa's poor performance. Most African countries seem to fall beneath the expected relation based on the 1940 relation. According to the author, that is due to the scattered character of African population which makes it difficult to be reached, and to the fact that Africa did not receive as much health aid as Latin America.

The influence of income level and income distribution appears, however, probably less determinan **t** han strictly medical factors. When life expectancy is regressed against national income, literacy, calorie consumption, malarial endemicity, and international health aid, it appears indeed that 40 per cent of the increase in life expectancy is attributable to factors associated with malarial endemicity. Whether or not this is attributable to antimalarial programs remains, however, to be seen. Preston also believes that the influenza/pneumonia/bronchitis group has accounted for perhaps a third of the mortality decline. Diarrheal diseases probably account for another 9 per cent or so of the decline, and the principal method of control has been improvements in water supply, nutrition and sewerage that are in fact closely associated with economic development.

In general, therefore, mortality from every disease should decline as personal and national living standards rise. There is however, continuing concern that the current financial and economic crisis faced by LDCs may
23 threaten their earlier achievement. The apparent continuous improvement or stability of health indicators in the l9COs should, to some extent, alleviate this concern.
24

# CHAE III DUCATQN

Of all social indicators, educational data<sup>have probably displayed the</sup> strongest expansionary trends over the<sup>last three decades. In most developing</sup> countries, enrollments have increased at<sup>all levels of education, soaring</sup> especially at the primary level. The absolute<sup>number of children enrolled in</sup> primary schools in the developing world<sup>increased by almost 200 million</sup> between 1965 and 1985.19 Yet, in spite of the tremendous progress<sup>accomplished so far, there</sup> remain many problems associated with<sup>education in developing countries.</sup> First, the spectacular increase in absolute<sup>enrollment figures hides the even</sup> larger increase in population growth.<sup>Therefore, the target of Universal</sup> Primary Enrollment (UPE), heralded by<sup>many in the 1960s, has remained so far</sup> an empty promise, with some 150 million<sup>children still out of school in</sup> developing countries by 1985.20 Second, enrollment figures conceal attendance<sup>data. Often, children</sup> officially registered in school do<sup>not show up in class. Not so infrequently</sup> either, teachers may display high levels<sup>of absenteeism. Governments are also</sup> sometimes known to inflate enrollment<sup>figures, considered as a sign of their</sup>

> 19Lockhoed, Verspoor and others, Improving Primary<sup>Education in Develoning</sup> Coun&rIss: A Review of Poligy Options<sup>(Washington,</sup> D.C.: World Bank, 1990). 20Lockheed, Verspoor and others (1990), op. cit.
25 regime's social achievements. Unfortunately, attendance data are not available. In addition, enrollment masks the qualitative dimensions of educational systems. Although developing countries' enrollments have risen to levels close to developed countries, thelr achievement levels have consistently lagged behind.21 Also veiled by enrollment figures are the significant numbers of drop outs and repetitions.

Third, and certainly most preoccupying, educational data do not always display the same continuous improvements in the 1980s as health indicators do. For several developing countries, whether low or middle income, adjusting or non adjusting, enrollments have gone down in the 1980s, reversing a trend established over several decades. Of all regions, Africa, where enrollments were already lowest, has suffered most of this educational setback.

In the next pages, we review the data on enrollments at the three levels of education, with emphasis on primary education as the most important level, at which literacy is acquired. After reporting on the sources of the data and their reliability, we turn to a detailed analysis of them, with regional differentiation, covering the historical trends and practical problems raised in the previous paragraphs.

> 2 1International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Science Achievement in Seventeen CountriesA Preliminary RAort, (Oxford/New York: Pergamon Press, 1988).
26 The data International educational data are primarily collected and compiled by the United Nations Education, Science, and Culture Organization (UNESCO). Enrollment figures come from both official government data and<sup>UNESCO's own</sup> estimates. They refer to the calendar year in which tha academic<sup>year starts.</sup> UNESCO cautions users about the fact that data may vary substantially according to the date of collection, alluding thereby to the problem of dropouts.

The best outcome measures of an education system are literacy rates and other achievement indicators. Unfortunately, literacy rates are unreliable and there is no systematic evaluation of the achievement of school graduates which would be internationally comparable. Achievement data have been collected by the International Assoclation for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), and through research done for the World Bank. Twenty-nine developed and developing countries have been covered, allowing limited comparisons between development levels. The IEA conducted its study<sup>of</sup> achievement at three different levels of education by running the same tests in different countries. Similar procedures were used by Heyneman and Livingston. Unfortunately, the scope of the research is too limited to be of universal interest. and to allow actual interregional comparisons. Furthermore, the observations are static in time and offer no time series.

22Heyneman, The Evaluation of Human capital in Malawi, World Bank Staff Working Paper, no. 420 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1980); and Livingston Perceptions of the Intended and ImRlemented Mathematics Curriculum, 1985 (processed).
27 The second best option is to concentrate on completion rates, which tell the observer at least how many students fLnish the cycle they have begun. One needs to make here the relatively strong assumption that students have learned the curriculum of their cycle and oeen adequately tested on it. Furthermore, data on completion rates are relatively scant, particularly for the purposes of cross-country analysis. (See for instance data on primary school completion Table Education 3.) More easily available but carrying less relevant information are enrollment rates, both gross and net. Enrollment figures are generally used as the main indicator of the health of an education system, in their ratio form, i.e., as a percentage of the relevant school age population. Gross enrollment rates (GERs) for a given education level give the percentage of total number of children of all ages enrolled at that level over the total number of children in the specific age groups. Net enrollment rates (NERs) give the percentage of children of the typical age group for a given school level as a percentage of the number that age in the population (e.g., 6-11 years olds enrolled in primary school as percent of the 6-11 year old population). Because of repeaters, children who stay in school beyond the set age or who enter school before the regular age, gross enrollment ratios often go beyond 100 per cent, making aggregate analysis less accurate. Net enrollment ratios are adjusted for repeaters and remain within the 100 per cent limit.<sup>3</sup> Tables Education 1 and 2 present net and gross enrollment rates. Enrollment figures include students in both public and private schools. The data are derived from other tables in the Bank's recent policy 2Net enrollment ratios over l00X are the result of inconsistencies in the enrollment data or errors due to the interpolation of the population data.
28 paper on primary education (Lockheed, Verspoor and others) which in turn is largely based in UNESCO data.

Tpe trends During the 1960s and the 1970s,<sup>most developing</sup> countries, whether low or middle income, experienced a phenomenal expansion of their primary education capacity. Primary school enrollments went up from 195.5 million in 1965 to 278.4 mn in 1980, a 42<sup>per cent increase</sup> in 15 years, in low income countries; from 47.8 million to 93.7 mn, or<sup>a 96 per cent increase,</sup> over the same period fo lower middle<sup>income countries;</sup> and from 54.7 to 85 million, or a 55.3 per cent increase, for upper middle income countries.24 The expansion of primary school enrollments is as dramatic when looked at region by region. In Africa, enrollment **s** oared between 1970<sup>and 1980 from</sup> 20.3 million to 45.7 million.<sup>In Asia, it went from 239.4 million to 323.7</sup> million, and in Latin America and the Caribbean from 46.6 million to 64.8 million over the same period. These<sup>figures</sup> correspond to increases of 125, 35, and 39 per cent, respectively.5 Africa's increase is sharpest as its coverage was initially lowest. These figures witness the tremendous efforts put by developing countries in their struggle towards universal primary education. Indeed, the total number<sup>of schools</sup> doubled in developing countries between 1965 and 1986.

24Lockheed, Verspoor and others (1990) op.cit. Annexes Table 2. 2<sup>5</sup> UNESCO yearbook, 1988.
29 The impressive expansionary trends revealed by the growth in enrollment are confirmed by the similar increase occurring In gross enrollment ratios -- (GERs) which, as stated earlier, are the total enrollment figures regardless of the age of children -- divided by the number of children in the relevant school-age population. In the case of primary<sup>education,</sup> the schoolage population spans from 6 to 11 years old.<sup>Gross enrollment</sup> ratios, therefore, provide a precious indicator of the capacity of an education system. GERs increased from 40.8 in 1965 to 63.5 in<sup>1980 in low income</sup> countries, from 78.3 to 99 in lower middle income<sup>countries,</sup> and from 99.5 to 102.3 in upper middle income countries.26 Female enrollment as a percentage of total enrollment, though still critically low at all income levels, rose nevertheless. Overall, however, the higher the level of development, the higher the proportion of girls enrolled in primary schools. In low income<sup>countries,</sup> girls enrollments went up from 35 to 40 per cent between 1965 and 1930;<sup>in lower middle income countries</sup> the percentage increase was lower, from 44 per cent to 48<sup>per cent; finally,</sup> in upper middle income countries, girls enrollment almost stagnated, hardly gaining one point, from 48 to<sup>49 per cent.</sup> When looked at by regions, gross enrollment ratios confirm the predicament of African education. From 1965<sup>to 1980 GERs follow a steady</sup> upward trend, going from 39 to<sup>78 per cent. Yet, in the first half of the</sup> 26GERs higher than 100 are explained by the presence of repeaters, or the fact that children below or above the relevant age group may already or still be in primary school. As the absorptive capacity of secondary education increases, GERs stabilize around 100.
30 1980s, enrollments fall back to 70 per cent, indicating that progress in Africa is actually being reversed. This Ls an al_,rming development particularly in the light of the fact that enrollment levels in Africa remaln the lowest in the world. By 1985 East Asia, EMENA, and LAC had virtual universal primary enrollment. South Asia benefits from India's performance and reached 87 per cent (but only 65 without India).

Although GERs provide indication on the capacity of an educational system, one has to refer to net enrollment ratios (NERs) as regards the coverage by the education system of the relevant population group. NERs give the number of primary school-age children (typically 6-11 years old) in school as a percentage of the number that age in the population, with an adjustment for repeaters. Net enrollment ratios rose steadily for low and lower income countries, and culminated at high levels for upper middle income countries during the 1960s and the 1970s. Although progress has been substantial, low income countries still hardly reached 50 per cent NERs by 1985, up from 28.8 in 1965; lower and upper middle income countries revolved around 90 per cent by 1985, virtually reaching universal enrollment, up from 67 and 85 per cent in 1965.

Net enrollment ratios confirm the picture rendered by GERs. NERs in Africa peak in 1980 with a weak 59.7 per cent, then decrease to 55.7 per cent in 1985. What is worse, completion rates (Table Education 3) indicate that only 67.2 per cent of children in African primary school actually complete their cycle, down from 67.5 in 1980. In other words, compared to other regions, Africa has the lowest enrollment rates and fewer of its enrolled
31 children finish school. South Asia reaches 53 per cent without India (less than Africa) and 73 per cent with India. East Asia stlll has universal primary enrollment. Asia also has highest student per school ratios than Africa. That means Asia manages to put more kids per school, which increases efficiency and reducers the costs of education. One possible explanation is that Asia's populations are less scattered than Africa's, where there are many small village schools, underfunded, Lll-equipped, and with poorly trained and isolated instructors who consider such assignment as a punishment. EHENA's net enrollments are much lower than its gross enrollments, indicating that its secondary schools' absorptive capacity may be weak and its repetition rates high. Latin America and Eastern Europe reach virtual Universal Primary Enrollment.

Yet, despite the overall apparent progress in trends in education enrollment ratios, developing countries need to guard against the powerful odds of their steady population growth rates outpacing this progress. Until the early 1980s, enrollment growth outpaced school age population growth. The progress mentioned above were therefore possible. In the late 1980s, however, steep drops in enrollment growth occurred in low and lower middle income countries. Although the growth in enrollment rates fell sharply, it remained higher than population growth only by about .5 percent -- barely sufficient to maintain existing levels of coverage and to avoid on an aggregate basis, regression in enrollment ratios (except for Africa).
32 By 1985, an estimated 150 million children of the age group 6-11 were out of school in developing countries.2 "Over 90 per cent of these chlldren lived in low and lower middle income countries; about 60 per cent of them were girls; and nearly sixty per cent lived in four of the most populous countries (Bangladesh, India, Nigeria, and Pakistan). Given present population growth rates, the 6-11 year old population will reach 679 million by the year 2000, which will necessitate creating 195 million more primary school places than presently exist for universal primary enrollment to be attained."28 27Lockheed, Verspoor and others. (1990) 2&Lockheed, Verspoor and others. (1990)
33

# CHAPTER IV EMMD FT;S;g

Global food production growth outpaced the growth in world population over the past three decades. Yet, vast population groups throughout the developing world, continue to suffer from problems of hunger and malnutrition. _Aun_ overwhelming majority of the at-risk groups are concentrated in Asia and Africa. Two sets of indicators, namely indicators of undernutrition and malnutrition, are used to identify and monitor at-risk population groups. The firL.: relates to deficiency of caloric intake; and the latter relates to deficiency of one or more essential nutrients in the daily diet.29

# The data

Undernutrition. Based on caloric intake data by country from BESD, this paper used index of undernutrition for developing countries, to e..smine regional trends in nutritional status during the period 1965-85. The index is calculated as the ratio of the shortfall/or surplus in per capita caloric consumption to per capita caloric requirements. FAO periodically publishes average caloric requirement norms by country for a reference man or woman. The caloric requirement norms for 1977, the latest available figures in BESD, 29Undernutrition is defined in terms of adequacy of caloric intake which, continued over a long period, results in either loss of normal body weight or reduction in physical activity or both. Malnutrition is distinct from undernutrition, in that malnutrition is also measured in terms of the deficiency in diet of one or more essential nutrients.
34 are used as a benchmark In the calculation. Tables on undernutrLtion indices by country and region are presented in the annex.

uillQo;2L;f2D Two sets of data are used to assess prevalence of malnutrition: child anthropometric measurements on weight for age, weight for height, and height for age and data on dietary deficiencies of micronutrients. The anthropometric measurements are used as indicators of overall malnutrition (underweight), acute malnutrition (wasting) and chronic malnutrition (stunting), respectively. Data on underweight population tends to be more readily available than that on wasting and stunting-. In addition, data on weight at birth is increasingly being collected, largely, however, as an indicator of maternal, rather than child, malnutrition. In general, the number of national surveys of undernutrition as measured by anthropometry has increased from 6 in 1974 to over 50, at present. For a review of the available data and assessment of child malnutrition in 76 countries refer to a recent UNICEF publication: "A Global, Regional and Country Assessment of Child Malnutrition."30 Availability of data on essential nutrient intake is mixed. Per capita protein intake in grams is readily available from BESD. Availability of national data on the prevalence of iodine deficiency in school children is relatively good particularly for countries in Latin America. On the other 30Beverly Carlson and Teresa Wardlaw, "A Global, Regional and Country Assessment of Child Malnutrition," UNICEF Staff Working Paper No. 7 (New York: UNICEF, 1990).
35 hand, data on iron and vitamin A deficiency in school age children tend to be scanty.31

# The trends

Developing countries as a group enjoyed improvements (reduction) in their indices of undernutrition during the period 1965-1985. (Undernutrition tables 1 and 2). However, undernutrition remains a problem in many subSaharan African, South Asian, and low income LAC countries. The degree of underratrition worsened in over one-third of sub-Saharan African countries. Ease . -* .,ad the most impressive record with its undernutrition index impl !t .'. i 16.74 in 1965 to minus 11.5 in 1985. Note, however, that this record is largely due to improvements in the undernutrition indices of China, Indonesia and the Philippines. Finally bear in mind that these indices dc not tell us anything about the actual size of the undernourished population in Asia.

A recent UN report on the world nutrition situation confirms these trends and also reveals the staggering magnitude of the global nutritional problem.32 Based on estimates of the proportion of undernourished population by region (see table below), the report concludes that during t 1960-85, 3tFor more details on the available data in this area, refer to Rae Galloway, "The Prevalence of Malnutrition and Parasites in School-Age Children: An Annotated Bibliography," PHREE, World Bank, 1989.

32Administrative Committee on Coordination - Subcommittee on Nutrition ACC/SCN. "First Report on the World Nutrition Situation" November 1987. For country coverage and regional grouping used in the analysis, see Table 3. Members of ACC/SCN are: FAO, IBRD, ILO, UN, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNU, WFP, and WHO.
36 malnutrition increased in much of Africa, remained stable in South<sup>America and</sup> decreased in Asia and Central America.

# Proportion of Undernourished Population by Region

|IL2|1269171|931|
|---|---|---|
|Sub-Saharan Africa|24|26|
|South Asia|21|17|
|Southeast Asia|18|8|
|Central America and Caribbean|20|15|
|South America|9|8|
|Near East and North Africa|15|5|

Note: Based on UN estimates as presented in the First Report on the World Nutrition Situation. Country groups ueed in this le exclude China and also differ from those used throughout this report.

Although UN estimates for China on "undernourished population" are not available. other available indicators suggest improvements in nutritional status in China. For instance, per caplta food production in China increased by 75 percent over the past 25 years; and index of undernutrition improved continuously during the early eighties from 1.2 in 1980 to -11.4 in 1986.

Improvements in the populous regions of Asia suggest an overall decline in the proportion of the world population suffering from undernutrition.<sup>As</sup> is the case with the use of undernutrition index, focusing only on the proportions masks the overwholming magnitude of the global nutritional problem at hand. The absolute number of the undernourished increased in sub-Saharan Africa from 60 million at the end of the sixties, to 80 million at the end of the seventies, and to 100 million by mig-eighties. In spite of the improvements mentioned above, about 170 million, or almost half of the world's
37 undernourished population continue to live in South Asia. Finally,<sup>with</sup> growth that has taken in population of the countries grouped<sup>under South</sup> America In the UN report, the number of<sup>undernourished are likely to have</sup> risen in these countries.

Anthropometric data also suggest the regional trends portrayed above. UNICEF assessment of child malnutrition<sup>in 76 countries reveals that during</sup> 1980 to 1984 the prevalence of underweight<sup>children increased in a majority of</sup> the sub-Saharan African countries, remained the<sup>same in Latin America and</sup> decreased in Asia. About 36 percent, or 150<sup>million children under five in</sup> the developing world, excluding China, are underweight;<sup>39 percent or 163</sup> million are stunted; and 8 percent or 35 million<sup>are wasted. By all accounts</sup> about two thirds of the malnourished children<sup>in the world live in Asia.33</sup> The evidence on mlcronutrient deficiencies is mixed.<sup>Assuming that many</sup> poor households are likelv to consume more inferior<sup>food items that contain</sup> less protein but more calories during periods<sup>of falling income, this paper</sup> briefly ) 3oks at the evidence suggested by the<sup>available data in BESD. The</sup> ratio of protein intake as a proportion of caloric<sup>intake during 1980-86 for</sup> all developing countrles remains stable with a very<sup>close relationship between</sup> calorle and protein intakes. This suggests that<sup>the protein consumption</sup> pattern of countrles as a group has not changed<sup>during the eighties. This,</sup> however, has to be weighed against the observation<sup>that: "Protein consumption</sup> "Carlson and Wardlaw (1990).
38 is an 'nreliable indicator of<sup>malnutrition because generally applicable</sup> &tandards of requirements are<sup>more difficult to define."></sup> The most important micronutrients<sup>from the point of view of their</sup> nutritional consequences and the<sup>number of people affected are iodine, iron</sup> and vitamin A. The best known iodine<sup>deficient areas are the Andes in Latin</sup> America, Himalayas in Asia, and the<sup>mountainous areas of sub-Saharan Africa.</sup> Of the estimated 800 million people<sup>at risk of iodire deficiency, about 85</sup> percent are in Asia. The remainder<sup>are equally distributed between Africa and</sup> Latin America. In general, sufficient<sup>data to study regional trends over time</sup> in dietary deficiency in micronutrients<sup>is not available.</sup> In summary, the indicators examined<sup>in this paper only reveal broad</sup> trends, at the aggreg&te level in<sup>the nutrition problem in developing</sup> countries. From the point of view<sup>of household nutritional objective the</sup> policy focus must be on actually<sup>identifying the affected households for</sup> short-term targeted nutritional interventions.<sup>In addition, programs aimed at</sup> strengthening their capacity to<sup>acquire the minimum caloric requirements</sup> through increased income or production<sup>and to cope with the nutritional</sup> consequences of fluctuations<sup>in income or production are essential elements of</sup> the longer-term policy focus.

34Reutlinger Shlomo and Marcelo Selowsky, "Malnutrition and Poverty: Magnitude and Policy Options,"<sup>World Bank Staff Occasional Paper No. 23</sup> (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1976), p.<sup>9</sup> .
39

# CHAPTER V PER CAPITA PRIVATE CONSUMPTION

The consumption of goods is the basis for economic welfare (Deaton, 1986).35 Therefore, at the individual level, per capita private consumption, rather than per capita GDP, is preferred as an indicator of welfare level. Glewe (1988)36 adds that using consumption rather than income data is also supported by the argument that the former is a better indicator of life-cycle welfare than the latter because while income may fluctuate over short periods of time, consumption is allocated more evenly ("smoothed") over time.

Private consumption is the market value of all goods and services purchased or received, including income in kind, by households and nonprofit organizations. It excludes purchases of dwellings but includes imputed rent for owner-occupied dwellings. Note, however, that per capita private consumption does not capture important non-consumption measures of welfare discussed earlier, such as life expectancy, infant mortality, and literacy. It is therefore important to look at both social indicators, particularly those of health and education, as well as private consumptions to gain a broader understanding of the standards of living of individuals and households.

> 35Angus Deaton, "The Measurement of Welfare: Theory and Practical Guidelines," ISMS Working Paper No. 7 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1980).

36Paul Glewwe, "The Distribution of Welfare in C6te d'Ivoire in 1985," LSMS Working Paper No. 29 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988).
40

# MMda4Az

The World Bank's economic and social database (BESD) provides comprehensive socio-economic ana financial data for both developed and developing countries. As of March 1990, BESD contained 30 data files from the World Bank International Economics Department, IMF Bureau of Statistics, UN, UNESCO, UNIDO, FAO, and ILO. The annex tables on consumption are based on data from the national accounts (NA) - one of the.data files maintained by the World Bank. NA is updated continuously as new data become available. The developing countries for which consumption data are available range from a minimum of 74 countries for the period 1960-65 to a maximum of 91 countries for that of 1980-85.

Table Consumption 1 presents growth in per capita private consumption using constant 1980 local currency. This paper endorses the view that for purposes of welfare comparisons, weighted averages are more suitable than simple arithmetic averages (see Kakwani, 1990).37 The aggregations in the annex tables are therefore population weighted averages.

# The trend

The group of 60 developing countries with complete data for the period 1960 to 1988 have enjoyed growth in per capita private consumption from the sixties to the eighties, with largest increase during the late sixties. 37Nanak Kakwani, "Growth Rates and Aggregate Welfare: An International Comparison." Forthcoming LSNS Working Paper, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990).
41 (Table Consumption 2). During the period 1960-65 average annual growth in per capita consumption was 6 per cent. By the late sixties, 1965-70, this increase had reached 17 per cent per annum. The sharpest decrease in average annual growth in per capita private consumption took place during the early seventies with average annual growth decreasing from 17 per cent (1965-70) to 10 per cent (1970-75). This large reflects the slow down of growth in the low income Asian countries in the early seventies. In fact, all three South Asian countries in the sample, i.e. Bangladesh, India and Pakistan, experienced negative per capita growth during this period. Note that these countries enjoyed considerable Iiiprovement in performance since the late seventies while that of countries in Africa and in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) deteriorated substantially.

For instance, among all the countries (see Table Consumption 1) with consumption data, the proportion of Afrlcan countries with negatsLi growth in average annual growth in per capita private consumption increased from onethird (10 out of 30) in 1960-65, to over half (18 out of 34) in 1980-85. In LAC, this proportion increased from a little over one-fifth (3 out of 20) to over four-fifths (19 out of 23) during the same periods. All the Asian countries enjoyed positive growth in per capita consumption during the late sixties and eighties. However during the early seventies about one-third (5 out of 15) Asian countries had negative growth in per capita consumption. While positive growth in per capita consumption was more or less the norm for the countries of EKEEA and Eastern Europe during the sixties and seventies, some of the countries (Algeria, Syria, Poland, Yugoslavia) experienced negative per capita consumption during the eighties.
42 In summary, the index of per capita consumption using 1980 as the base year shows that the improving trend in consumption growth enjoyed by the developing world over the last three decades has been led by the good performance of countries in Asia and ENENA. (Table Consumption 4). Although the countries in Africa, LAC, and Eastern Europe also enjoyed consumption growth up to 1980, they encountered negative consumption growth during the eighties.
43

# gBAm u VI MSO J.zgL. KMI Is=

Balancing short-term reform and long-term growth objectives within an environment of budgetary restraint placed issues of size and compositions of government expenditures high on the development agenda of the eighties. In particular, the renewed focus on long-term human capital formation and poverty reduction, coupled wlth the concern that burden of Inevitable public expenditure cuts during the periods of stabilizatLon and adjustment may disproportionately fall on the social sectors, resulted In heightening the development concerns about efficient and equitable allocation of social expenditures. These issues have particularly been pressing in the developing countries where the public sector is the major financier of social servlces and the inadequate provision of social services as well as the associated infrastructure base remain inadequate. The developments mentioned have, on the whole, drawn increasing attention to trends in social sector expenditures and the data bases necessary for monitoring these trends.

Government expenditure data are a key to the analysls of public expenditure programs and the deslgn of policies for rationalizing these programs. However the data remain inadequate especially for purposes of cross country comparisons. The World Bank has, in recent years, conducted public expenditure reviews (PERs) for an increasing number of developing countries. While these reviews are a useful source of data on overall government expenditures at the country level, they tend to have limited focus on social sector expenditures. The IMF Government Finance Statistics (IMFGPS) - a data
44 file in BESD provides government<sup>expenditure data in a form suitable for</sup> cross-country and inter-regional analysis. Sources of data<sup>on social</sup> expenditures at the regional<sup>level include McGreevey (1990),38</sup> Grosh (1990),39 Sahn (1989),40 PAHO (1989).1

# The data

Public Social Sector Expenditure<sup>tables 1 through 6 are based on data</sup> from IMFGFS. The tables are<sup>useful for assessing trends in the shares of</sup> public spending on education,<sup>health and "other welfare" programs. *Other</sup> welfare" includes expenditures<sup>on social security and welfare; housing and</sup> community amenities; and recreational,<sup>cultural and religious affairs and</sup> services.

Note, the tables include only central<sup>government data. Ideally,</sup> consolidated general government<sup>statistics that include information on all</sup> levels of government, i.e.<sup>central, state, and local, should be used to</sup> construct public expenditure<sup>tables. However, IMFGFS provides expenditures by</sup> function are only available<sup>at the central government level. A major drawback</sup> 38Bill McGreevey, "Social Security in Latin America: Issues and Options for the World Bank," (Human Resources<sup>Division, TAC Technical Department,</sup> World Bank, 1990).

> 3914argaret Grosh, "Social Spending<sup>in Latin America: The Story of the</sup> 19809s, (Human Resources Department,<sup>LAC Technical Department,</sup> World Bank, 1990).

4<sup>1</sup> David Sahn, "Fiscal and Exchange<sup>Rate Reforms in Africa: Considering the</sup> Impact Upon the Poor." Cornell<sup>University. (Prepared for USAID African Bureau,</sup> 1989). (unpublished).

41Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), "Health and Development: Repercussions of the Economic Crisis," (PAHO: Washington, D.C.).
45 of relying only on central government sources is that It does not account for country differences ln the relative share of central government expenditures to total government expenditure. On the positive side, entries under the central government category, are available for more countries and are, by far, more detailed than those under the state, local or government level.

# The trends

Education Expenditure as Percent of Total Government Expenditure. For a group of 49 countries with complete data for the periods 1975, 1980, and 1985, the share of education expenditure has remained at around 13 per cent (13.65 per cent, 13.70 per cent, 13.01 per cent, respectively). This has largely been influenced by the record of East Asian countries.

The regional disaggregation shows that the share of education expenditures during 1975-1985 declined in Africa, South Asia and Eastern Europe while that of East Asia and EHENA increased. The share of education expenditure increased only slightly in the EHMENA region as a whole but there was an average of about 3 per cent, among East Asian middle income countries. There were, however, notable country variations. For example, in ENENA, there was an increase of 15.39 per cent in Yemen Arab Republic and a decrease of 13.17 per cent in Turkey. In East Asia, there was an increase of 8 per cent in the Philippines, 4 per cent in Korea, and 1.5 per cent in per cent in Indonesia.
46 During the same period, the decreases of 3.67 per cent and 2.06 per cent, occurred in middle income countries in LAC (18.78 per cent to 15.11 per cent) and low income countries in Africa (15.93 per cent to 13.87 per cent), respectively. Examples of declining shares of education expenditure during 1975-85, include 10.03 per cent in Costa Rica (28.78 per cent to 18.75 per cent), 6.97 per cent in Mexico (18.52 per cent to 11.55 per cent), 5.72 per cent in Ethiopia (15.61 per cent to 9.82 per cent), 5.00 per cent in Uruguay (11.45 per cent to 6.42 per cent), 4.40 per cent in Peru (20.56 per cent to 16.16 per cent), 4.25 per cent in Kenya (24.00 per cent to 19.75 per cent), and 4.18 per cent in Tanzania (12.46 per cent to 8.28 per cent).

Health Expenditure as Percent of Total Government Expenditure. By and large, the share of government expenditure on health is lower than that on education expenditure in the group of 49 countries with complete datL 4r the periods 1975, 1980, and 1985. The share of health expenditure remained at around 6 per cent of total expenditure during the period 1975-1985 (6.03 per cent, 6.23 per cent, and 6.30 per cent, respectively). The share of health expenditure increased in East Asia (4.26 per cent to 5.28 per cent), South Asia (4.65 per cent to 4.10 per cent) and Eastern Europe (12.50 per cent to 0.38 per cent) decreased.

"Other Welfare" Expenditure as Percent of Total Government Expenditure. The share of "other welfare" expenditures in a group of 48 countries with complete data for the period 1975-1980 - 1985 declined from about 15 per cent to 13.33 per cent to 13.08 per cent (Expenditure Table 6). In 1985, the share of "Other welfare expenditures was lower than that of 1975 in all the regions
47 except EMENA. During thls period, the share of "other welfare" expenditures were the highest in LAC and lowest in East Asia.

Inter-regional comparison of trends in social sector expenditure **s** hows that relative to the other regions, the six low income countries of South Asia as a group (i.e., Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka), had among the lowest shares of health and education expenditures. On the other hand the group of East Asian countries (i.e., Indonesia, Korea, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand had relatively larger public expenditure allocations to the education sector. Relative to the other regions, central government expenditure allocatlons to health and "other welfare" programs are larger in the LAC region. Central government expenditure allocations in Africa compared to the overall average for all developing countries, is higher for education, lower for "other welfare programs," and about equal for health.

In summary, the relative share of education expenditure in total central government expenditusce has tended to be more than<sup>twice as large as that of</sup> health. In 1975, 1980, and 1985 health expenditure as a share of central government expenditure was about 6 per cent, and that of education expenditure was around 13 per cent. The share of expenditures on "other welfare" was also around 13 per cent. On the whole there is better expenditure data on education than health. Other than the consolidated central government expenditure data from IMFGFS, there is currently little data on government expenditure by function suitable for cross-country comparison.
48 Finally, in examining the sectoral trends In public expenditure programs of developing countries it is important to note that Interest payments are taking up an Increasing share of the expenditure envelop available to these governments. For instance, for a sample of 44 developing count,. 38 with available data, the share of public expenditures taken up by interest payments has almost tripled from 4.70 percent In 1975 to 12.06 percent in 1985 (see Expenditure Table 7).
49 Though inter-regional variations exist, on the whole developing countries have enjoyed progress in social indicators over the past three decades. Similarly, these countries as a group benefitted from growth in per capita private consumption throughout the period 1960-88. The following trends stand out. Health indicators such as child mortality, immunization coverage, life expectancy, have shown continuous and stable improvements in all regions. This period has also seen the global improvements in gross primary school enrollment ratios with the notable exception of the record in some African countries where progress has actually being reversed during the late eighties. The predicament of Africa is also revealed by increasing problems of undernutrition in a majority of the countries in the region. For instance, the degree of undernutrition, as measured by the ratio of the shortfall in per capita caloric consumption, worsened in over two-thirds of the sub-saharan African countries. The proportion of the undernourished population in this region increased from 60 million at the end of the sixties to 100 million by mid-eighties. The two regions characterized by economic difficulties in the eighties, Africa and LAC, also saw declines in average per capita private consumption during this period. Finally, whilot the share of total government expenditures on health remained stables in all regions, that of education declined in Africa, South Asia and LAC.

The renewed focu) on poverty reduction in World Bank operations has given high visibility to the issues of quality and reliability of data on social indicators and social sector financing. Similarly, most bilateral and
so multilateral agencies are placing increasing emphasis on monitoring social indicators to aosess the impact of their ongoing programs and new initiatives for improvlng varLous aspects of human condtiLons. In thls connectlor., maintainLng sLmple, yet up-to-date social as wvel as economic varlables that can serve as lndlcators of progress ln the fight against poverty ln developlng countrles wlll, in the final analysLs, also help focus development assistance on poverty reductlon.
51

# Health **1** : UNDER 5 CHILD MORTALITY RATES (Hill and Pebley data)

|~**.** ..<br>.<br>....<br>.<br>. . ...<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br><br> <br>! ----------**-**.-.---<br>-<br>.. ......<br>. . . . . . . . <br>1<br>AFRICA<br>(W)|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>1960-65 1<br>. . . .<br>.|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>965-70 1<br> . . . . .|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>970-75 1<br> . . . .|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>975-80 1<br> . .<br>.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.<br>980-85<br> . . . .|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|(U)<br>|245|235|222|196|186|
|(LW)<br>(NV)<br>, ,_,,.. ...<br>..<br>...<br>. ._......<br>.............<br>1 M Angola|..<br>...<br>......|..<br>...........|.........|...|.<br>.......|
|1LBenin||255|237|215||
|1MBotswana|165|155|133|105|70|
|1LBurkina Faso|283|273|269|||
|1L Burundi|243|226|223|||
|1MCameroon<br>|249|225|200|||
|1LCape Verde||||||
|ILCentral African Rep.|293|257|220|||
|1LChad||||||
|1LComoros||||||
|1MCongo,P.R.|180|161||||
|1 M C6ted'lvoire||255|217|||
|1 L Djibouti||||||
|1LEquatorial<br>Guinea||||||
|<br>1LEthiopia||||||
|1 M Gabon||||||
|1LGambia, The|347|343||||
|<br>1LGhana|218|196|174|150|160|
|1LGuinea<br>||||||
|1LGuinea-Bissau||||||
|1L Kenya|199|177|158|||
|1 L Lesotho|197|188|183|||
|1 L Liberia|294|279|275|243|220|
|1 L Madagascar||||||
|1LMalawi|355|344|333|||
|1 LMali|||325|302|272|
|1 L MauritLnia||||||
|1MMauritius||||||
|1 L Mozambique||282|282|||
|1 L Niger||||||
|ILNigeria|196|182|161|161||
|1LRwanda|229|222|234|230||
|1LSaoTomeand Principe||||||
|<br>1MSenegal|282|282|275|242|210|
|<br>1LSierraLeone|392|381||||
|1 L SomalLa||||||
|1LSudan|200|200||||
|1 M Swaziland||||||
|1 L Tanzania|237|229|219|||
|1 L Togo|267|227||||
|<br>*............................................................|<br>...........|||||
52

|.**..** **....**<br>_, **..........**.....<br>_<br>........<br>.......................|1960-65 1|.....<br>965-70 1|................<br>970-75 1|......<br>975-80|...<br>1980-85|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 L Uganda|212|192|179|170|185|
|1 L Zaire||||||
|1 L Zambia|207|187||||
|1 K Zimbabwe|155|153|145|137||
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)||||||
|<br>(U)|196|204|198|172|215|
|WITHOUT INDIA (W)||||||
|,,,,<br>,<br>,<br>.<br>...<br>..<br>.<br>|.<br>,,,<br>,,,_..|,.<br>..........<br>|.......<br>.........<br>|.<br>..<br>|<br>...<br>|
|2 L Bangladesh||228|228|221|215|
|2 L Bhutan||||||
|2 L India|||218|199||
|2 L Kyatnmar||||||
|<br>2 L Nepal|290|260|240|||
|2 L Pakistan||239|226|200||
|2L Sri Lanka|101|87<br>|79|66||
|. _<br>.....**..**<br>......<br>.**.....**<br>__ ...............<br>_._<br>...<br>3<br>EAST ASIA (W)|....<br>.......|*.................................|||..|
|(U)|129|106|77|61|54|
|<br>(LW)||||||
|(KU)<br>WITHOUT CHINA (W)||||||
|....<br>__.....................................<br>3LChina|162|..<br>__.__. __<br>113|__**..**<br>...<br>_.<br>83|.......<br>58||
|3M Hong kong|47|32|21|16|12|
|<br>3L Indonesia|225|201|175|146|122|
|3 L Kampuchea||||||
|<br>3 K Korea, Republic of|99|76|61|48||
|<br>3<br>L Lao, PDR||||||
|<br>3 M Malaysia|91|72|62|46|41|
|3 K Papua New Guinea|232|193||||
|<br>3M Philippines|128|114|101|89|83|
|<br>3 M Singapore|42|31|23|16|12|
|3 K Thailand|136|118|91|70|55|
|3 M Taiwan||||||
|<br>_.<br>___..........................._.|...<br>..<br>..<br>__|_....................||||
|4<br>EKENA<br>(W)||||||
|(U)|185|173|167|136|99|
|. .__.<br>__.-... ......<br>..<br>...<br>............<br>|.............|||........||
|4 L Afghanistan||||||
|<br>4 M Algeria||||||
|<br>4 M Bahrain||||||
|4 M Egypt, Arab Rep. of||280|240|196|166|
|<br>4 K Greece||||||
|4 K Iran, Islamic Rep. of||||||
|4 M Iraq||||||
|<br>4 M Israel||||||
|4 K Jordan<br>__.. ...<br>__.........<br>..........................|150|109<br>_. ...<br>..........|92<br>........|76<br>...............|61<br>....**.**|
53 ..................... ..........

|............<br>......................|..........................<br>1960-65<br>1|................<br>965-70<br>1|970-75<br>1|975-80<br>|1980-85|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|.......<br>_...................................<br>|......................<br>|.....<br>||||
|4N Kuwait|107|73|55|42|27|
|4 N Lebanon||||||
|4N LibyanArab Republic||||||
|4 N Malta||||||
|4 N Morocco||||||
|4 N Oman||||||
|4MPortugal||||||
|4 M Saudi Arabia||||||
|4 N Spain||||||
|4 M Syrian Atab Republic||160|125|97||
|<br>4 N Tunisia|245|210|180|130||
|4 M Turkey|239|206|184|159|141|
|4 N Yemen Arab Republic|||290|249||
|4 L Yemen, PDR||||||
|...<br>..<br>...<br>..<br>...<br>......<br>................<br>5<br>LAC (W)|.........|..<br>...|...........................||,,...,,,<br>...|
|<br>(U)|114|112|111|81|68|
|5nArgentina|72|68|58|48|42|
|5MBahamas||||||
|5M Barbados||||||
|5 N Bolivia|||244|||
|5 M Brazil|152|139|125|107|86|
|5M Chile|136|112|79|52|28|
|5M Colombia|135|119|89|64|42|
|5MCostaRica|112|88|64|35|24|
|5M Cuba|77|61|45|28|21|
|5N Dominican Republic|||132|98|88|
|5 N Ecuador|175|156|136|116|90|
|5 N E1 Salvador||||||
|SNGuatemala||193|162|139|118|
|5L Guyana||||||
|<br>5 L Haiti|||232|207|189|
|5 N Honduras||195|171|||
|5 M Jamaica|77|62|48|32||
|5 M Mexico|127|113|100|87|77|
|5 N Nicaragua||||||
|<br>5MPanama|97|82|68|47|37|
|5 N Paraguay||||||
|<br>5 M Peru|218|194|159|147|112|
|S M Suriname||||||
|5NTrinidad and Tobago|53|50|37|32|28|
|5 MUruguay|53|54|52|49|34|
|<br>5N Venezuela||||||

.................. **...** ........

... ..... ........ ....................... ................ ..................................
54 1960-65 1965-70 1970-75 1975-80 1980-85 ,__ *..................................................... *._.......... .. ... .. ... _. 6 EASTERN EUROPE (W) (U) 6 H Bulgaria 6 M Czechoslovakia 6 N GDR 6 M Hungary 6 M Poland 6 N Romania 6 N Yugoslavia Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low income; N - middle income; _LW_ - low income weighted average; NW - middle income weighted average. Source: Hill art Peobley. 1988.
55 Health 2 : UNDER 5 CHILD MORTALITY RATES (interpolated UN data)

||1960-65 1|...----<br>965-70 1|970-75 1|975-80|1980-85|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1<br>AFRICA<br>(W)|279|260|239|218|203|
|(U)|270|252|234|217|201|
|(LW)|280|263|241|221|205|
|(MW)|265|241|220|197|180|
|1MAngola|334|312|291|271|251|
|1 L Benin|296|270|255|220|202|
|1MBotswana|168|160|136|115|106|
|1 L Burkina Faso|365|320|275|265|254|
|1 L Burundi|246|237|228|219|209|
|1 M Cameroon|260|230|200|185|170|
|1 L Cape Verde|201|176|149|123|104|
|1 L Central African Rep.|300|270|250|245|240|
|1L Chad|318|302|281|261|241|
|1L Comoros|209|193|175|158|142|
|1M Congo, P.R.|222|184|145|137|129|
|1N Cote dl'voire|300|260|240|185|165|
|1L Djibouti||||||
|1L Equatorial Guinea|307|291|271.|251|232|
|1 L Ethiopia|286|273|262|262|262|
|1M Gabon|275|250|223|205|186|
|1L Gambia, The|360|350|337|323|302|
|<br>1 L Ghana|215|197|183|169|161|
|1L Guinea|338|321|305|289|269|
|1 L Guinea-Bissau|307|291|276|261|241|
|1 L Kenya|197|179|161|143|128|
|1L Lesotho|203|194|180|169|152|
|1L Liberia|296|282|262|242|224|
|1 L Madagascar|171|153|135|119|104|
|<br>1 L Malawi|359|347|334|310|287|
|1 L Mali|367|363|358|335|312|
|1 L Mauritania|296|281|266|251|232|
|1 M Mauritius|89|93|77|48|36|
|1 L Mozambique|300|294|289|282|262|
|1 L Niger|312|296|281|266|246|
|1 L Nigeria|310|290|250|209|191|
|1 L Rwanda|240|237|237|237|223|
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe||||||
|<br>1 M Senegal|305|290|275|259|240|
|<br>1 L Sierra Leone|396|385|358|335|312|
|1 LSomalia|286|273|262|262|262|
|1 LSudan|282|263|245|221|198|
|1 M Swaziland|224|220|215|209|191|
|1 L Tanzania|242|228|219|210|192|
|1 L Togo|287|238|204|186|168|
|<br>,...........................................................................................................||||||
56 ..... **.** ..... **..** ................. **...** .... **.**

|1960-65<br>1|965-70<br>1<br>|970-75<br>1<br>|975-80<br>1<br>|980-85<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 L Uganda<br>210|197|194|190|186<br>|
|<br>1 L Zaire<br>246<br>|232<br>|214<br>|195<br>|178<br>|
|1 L Zambia<br>219<br> <br>|192<br>|164<br>|153<br>|142<br>|
|1 N Zimbabwe<br>175|165|151|137|128|
||...........................|...||...<br>.....**.**.....**..**...|
|..........<br>.............................<br>2<br>SOUTH ASIA(W)<br>259<br>|_<br>233<br>|<br>214<br>|196<br>|169<br>|
|(U)<br>238<br> <br>|210<br>|193<br>|179<br>|162<br>|
|WITHOUT INDIA (W)<br>239|214|202|188<br>...........|173<br>...|
|**.. ..** **.......**...<br>......................................................<br>2 L Bangladesh<br>250|228|228<br>|221<br>|204<br>|
|<br>2 L Bhutan<br>290|260|240<br>|230<br>|215<br>|
|2 L India<br>265<br>|239<br>|218<br>|199<br>|167<br>|
|2 L Xyanmiar<br>209|160<br>|120<br>|105<br>|97<br>|
|2 L Nepal<br>290<br>|260<br>|240<br>|230<br>|215<br>|
|2 L Pakistan<br>260<br>|239<br>|226<br>|200<br>|182<br>|
|2LSriLanka<br>101<br><br>|87<br><br><br><br>.<br>.|79<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>|66<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|52<br>.<br>.|
|. . . .....<br>...<br>...<br>......<br>...<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br> <br> <br>|.<br>.<br><br><br>||||
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)<br>164<br>|122<br>|94<br>|72<br>|66<br>|
|(U)<br>136|117<br>|110<br>|109<br>|86<br>|
|(LW)<br>170<br> <br>|125<br>|96<br>|73<br>|67<br>|
|(KW)<br>115<br> <br> <br>|97<br>|81<br>|67<br>|59<br>|
|WITHOUT<br>CHINA (U)<br>171<br>**.**.<br>....<br>_._**.**.....<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>|150<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|130<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>|117<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|100<br>.<br>.<br>.|
|3L China<br>162<br> <br>|113<br>|83<br>|58<br>|55<br>|
|31Hong kong<br>47<br>|32<br>|21<br>|16<br>|12<br>|
|3L Indonesia<br>225<br>|201<br>|173<br>|155<br>|135<br>|
|3 L Kampuchea<br>208<br>|193<br>|271<br>|387<br>|239<br>|
|3NKorea, Republic of<br>99<br>|76<br>|61<br>|48<br>|39<br>|
|3 L Lao, PDR<br>224|221|217<br>|201<br>|180<br>|
|3N Malaysia<br>91|72|62|46|41|
|<br>3NPapua New Guinea|||||
|<br>3NPhilippines<br>128<br>|114<br>|101<br>|89<br>|83<br>|
|3NSingapore<br>42<br> <br>|31<br>|23<br>|16<br>|12<br>|
|31Thailand<br>136|118|91|75|61|
|3 N TaLwan|||||
|<br> <br> <br>||||124|
|4<br>EHENA<br>(W)<br>210|190|166|144||
|<br>(U)<br>206|178|151|128|110|
|<br>...........................................................|||..<br>...|......<br>.........**.**. .. ......|
|<br>|5|340|340|340|
|4 L Afghanistan<br>372|37||||
|<br>4 N Algeria<br>255|230|200|165|128|
|<br>4N Bahrain<br>166|109|73|48|38<br>|
|4 N Egypt, Arab Rep. of<br>290|280|240|186<br>|148<br>|
|<br>4NGreece<br>60|50|39|28<br>|19<br>|
|4NIran,<br>Islamic<br>Rep. of<br>244|224|190|176<br>|168<br>|
|<br>4 M Iraq<br>207<br> <br>|168<br>|138<br>|117<br>|107<br>|
|4 N Israel<br>36|30|27|21|16|
|4NJordan<br>197|150|116|88|72|
57

||1960-65<br>1|965-70<br>1|970-75<br>1|975-80<br>1|980-85|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|__**.**......................................................................................|||||..................**......** **.**.|
|4 MKuwait|107|73|55|42|27|
|4 M Lebanon|84|69|62|62|62|
|4 M Libyan Arab Republic|245|205|180|160|142|
|4 M Malta|38|31|24|17|15|
|4 M Morocco|250|220|190|165|142|
|4 M Oman|365|325|271|218|186|
|4 M Portugal|102|80|55|36|24|
|4MSaudi Arabia|270|228|186|146|120|
|4 M Spain|49|37|25|19|12|
|4MSyrian Arab Republic|197|160|125|97|79|
|4MTunisia|245|210|180|150|121|
|4 1 Turkey|239|206|184|159|115|
|4 M Yemen Arab Republic|365|325|290|249|223|
|4 L Yemen, PDR<br>...<br>.....<br>........<br>..............|365<br>.........|325<br>_. ...<br>. ....|290<br>......<br>|249<br>_.......<br>...|223<br>......<br>....|
|5<br>LAC (W)|142|128|111|95|84|
|(U)|141|124|105|89<br>|75<br> <br>|
|___._......................<br>_..............<br>|..........................|||..<br>|...<br>........................ ....**.**.....<br>|
|5 MArgentina|72|68|58|48|42|
|5 MBahamas||||||
|5MBarbados|74|55|38|31|17|
|5 M Bolivia|275|259|244|221|197|
|5 MBrazil|152|139|125|107|96|
|5MChile|136|112|79|52|28|
|5 M Colombia|135|119|102|83|75|
|5M Costa Rica|112|88|64|35|24|
|5M Cuba|77|61|45|28|20|
|5M Dominican Republic|184|158|132|111|94|
|5MEcuador|175|156|136|116|96|
|5 M E1 Salvador|190|161|137|114|98|
|5 M Guatemala|218|193|162|139|118|
|5 L Guyana|84|74|72|63|45|
|5 L Haiti|281|257|232|207|189|
|5 1 Honduras|218|195|171|147|126|
|5MJamaica|77|62|48|32|27|
|5MMexico|127|113|100|87|77|
|5MNicaragua|197|173|150|140|115|
|<br>5 M Panama|97|82|68|47|37|
|5MParaguay|126|105|82|74|67|
|<br>5 M Peru|220|200|167|156|143|
|5MSuriname|86|72|63|56|45|
|5 M Trinidad and Tobago|53|50|37|32|28|
|5MUruguay|53|54|52|49|34|
|5 M Venezuela|103|84|67|56|47|
|||<br>..............|<br>...................|<br>....................|.....................|
58

|.**........**<br>,<br>..................<br>.....................|1960-65|v..............<br>1965-70|............<br>1970-75|1975-80|......<br>1980-85|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|6<br>EASTERN EUROPE (W)|57|<br>45|<br>36|<br>29|<br>24|
|(U)|54|43|35|28|24|
|.<br>*.<br>..<br>....<br>.<br>...<br>...<br>...<br>...........................|...||..............|||
|6<br>Bul8garia|44|<br>36|<br>30|<br>27|<br>22|
|6 H Czechoslovakia|27|<br>27|<br>24|<br>22|<br>18|
|6 M CDR|37|<br>26|<br>20|<br>16|<br>14|
|6 M Hungary|49|<br>41|<br>37|<br>29|<br>22|
|6 M Poland|57|<br>41|<br>31|<br>26|<br>22|
|6 M Romania|70|<br>60|<br>47|<br>39|<br>33|
|6 M Yugoslavla|96|<br>72|<br>53|<br>40|<br>34|

.__. .. ....... **..** ........ ...... .__...... .. ... ........... .............................. ..

Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low income; N - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; KW - middle income weighted average. Source: United Nations. 1988.
59

# Health 3 : IM1UNIZATION OR BCC

|.<br>...<br><br>*|.......................<br>1980<br>****ee|...............<br>1981<br>*.................|1982<br>...........a.|...................<br>1983|1984|1985|1986|........<br>1987|1988<br>...|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|...........................<br>||<br>|<br>|<br>|<br>|<br>||<br>|<br>|
|1<br>AFRICA(W)|NA|<br>NA|NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|
|(U)|31|50|44|57|54|55|56|56|26|
|(LW)<br>|NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|
|(KW)|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|**...**<br>||.|........|**.**||**..........**||**.**|**....**|
|1 M Angola<br>||||||||||
|1 L Benin|||||60|27||53||
|1 M Botswana|70|80|78|83|70|68|67|||
|1 L Burkina Faso||16||||17||||
|1 L Burundi||65||37|||68|85||
|1 M Cameroon||8||46|49||||26|
|1 L Cape Verde|||||||99|||
|1 L Central African Rep.|17|26|25||32|35|37|42||
|1LChad||||||||31||
|1 L Comoros|||||56||61|49||
|I M Congo, P.R.||92||90|80|89||||
|1M C6te 4'Ivoire||||||||||
|IL Djibouti|||5||66|58|38|42||
|1 L Equatorial<br>Guinea||||||29||||
|1 L Ethiopia||10||16|11|||27||
|1HGabon||||||50|80|||
|_LGambia, The||99||||92||96||
|1 L Ghana|9|<br>67|51|31||||||
|1 L Guinea|||||||6|||
|1 L Guinea-Bissau|||||42|33|89|98||
|1 L Kenya||||||82|80|||
|1 L Lesotho||81||98||||||
|1 L Liberia||87|||||41|41||
|1 L Madagascar|21|25|22|31|28|31|47|36||
|1 L Malawi||86|91|95|75|87|99|92||
|1 L Mali||19|||||15|22||
|1 L Mauritania||57||||||||
|1 M Mauritius|89|87|89|88|88|79|86|||
|1 L Mozambique||46|56|59|49|47||||
|1 L Niger||28||||||||
|<br>1 L Nigeria||23|||12|17|28|37||
|<br>1 L Rwanda||51||||83||89||
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe||95|||82|75|99|||
|<br>1 M Senegal||||||32||||
|<br>1LSierra Leone|36|35|32|70|80|||||
|1 L Somalia|6|2|7|<br>7|17|31|28|33||
|1 L Sudan|2|3|3|<br>5|8|12|22|46||
|1 M Swaziland||59||77|73|79|74|||
|1 L Tanzania||78|66|86|69|93||94||
|1 L Too||||||||||
|g<br>......................................................|............|......||||||||
60

|...<br>.....<br>1980<br>.. .. -..----<br>*----*.................<br>......<br>..........<br>|1981<br>.....<br>|1982|1983<br>....|..<br>...<br>1984<br>...............|...........<br>1985<br> <br>|1986<br>|1987<br>..<br>|1988<br>.--...<br>--|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|I L Uganda|18||||37<br>|51<br>|74<br>||
|1 L Zaire<br>|34||||57|52|54||
|1L Zambia<br>||||71<br>|||||
|1 NZimbabwe|64|||69|89|86|85||
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)<br>8|12|14|21|24|26|32|46||
|(U)<br>21|27|30|35|37|38|42|50||
|<br>WITHOUT INDIA (W)<br>9|12|15|25|33|30|38|46||
|.<br>.......................................................................<br>2 L Bangladesh<br>0|<br>1|<br>1|<br>2|<br>2|<br>2|<br>4|13|23|
|<br>2 L Bhutan<br>43|63|39|46|21|21|32|38||
|2 L India<br>8|<br>12|14|20|21|25|30|46|72|
|2 L Nyanmar<br>9|15|20|28|36|45|28|45||
|2 L Nepal<br>22|32|59|53|56|67|66|78||
|2 L Pakistan<br>6|11|12|35|55|41|69|72<br>||
|2 LSri Lanka<br>61|58|65|64|66|65|67|61||
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)<br>62|59|72|71|61|66|67|76||
|(U)<br>80|67|79|78|72|74|68|85||
|(LW)<br>NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA||
|(MW)<br>73<br> <br>|64<br>|83<br>|81<br>|68<br>|67<br>|67<br>|84<br>||
|WITHOUT CHINA (W)<br>62|59|72|71|61|66|67|76||
|=<br>|<br>|||<br>|<br>||<br>||
|...........<br>__.....<br>...............<br> <br>3 LChina|..<br>._.|.|..<br>_<br>|..<br>.|..<br>._.|.|..<br>.<br>85|._.|
|3M Hong kong<br>99||98|98|96|99|96|97||
|<br>3 L Indonesia<br>61|55|60|60|54|65|67|68|74|
|3L Kampuchea|||||||||
|<br>3 M Korea, Republic<br>of|42|99|84|47|47|47|95||
|3 L Lao, PDR|||||||||
|3 N Malaysia<br>94|91|95|91|96|100|100|96||
|3 M Papua New Guinea<br>62|64|49|58|66|73|76|74||
|3 N Philippines<br>94|61|66|76|76|76|72|92||
|<br>3 M Singapore<br>85|8;|80|77|74|72|92|97||
|<br> <br>3 N Thailand<br>68|<br>71|<br>85|<br>82|<br>63|<br>60|<br>62|<br>61|54|
|3 M Taiwan|||||||||
|.................................................................|.......||||||||
|4<br>EMENA<br>(W)<br>NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA||
|<br>(U)<br>47|54|39|57|42|.53|57|69||
|.......................................|..........|..........|..||||||
|4 L Afghanistan<br>33|<br>8|10||11|17|18|27||
|4 M Algeria|59||||||||
|<br>4 M Bahrain<br>63|||||||||
|4 N Et Arab Re of<br>72|71|74|||84|77|72||
|gyp, p.<br> <br>4 N Greece|<br>95|<br>|<br>56|||<br>3|||
|<br>4 N Iran Islamic Rep of<br>7|<br>6|<br>10|<br>10|<br>13|64|83|56||
|, .<br> <br>4 N Iraq<br>76|<br>76|<br> <br>9|<br>62|<br>||<br>78|<br>99||
|<br> <br>4 N Israel<br>75<br>|<br>70|<br> <br>68<br>|||||||
|4NJordan<br>32||2|||||||
|<br> <br>.....<br>......................<br>.|,.------|--|||||||
61

||1980|1981|1982|1983|1984|1985|1986|1987 1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|~~..............<br>...|....................|......||||,.......|...||
|4M Kuwait|2||2||3|<br>3|<br>4||
|4 M Lebanon|||||||||
|4 1 Libyan Arab Republic|||||||||
|4 M Malta|||||||||
|4 M Morocco||||70|<br>67||72|<br>87|
|4 M Oman|||||||||
|4MPortugal||74|<br>76|<br>76|<br>79|<br>82|<br>71||
|4MSaudi Arabia|33|<br>49|<br>56|<br>72||47|<br>66|<br>93|
|4 M Spain|||||||||
|4 M Syrian Arab Republic|35|<br>36|<br>33|<br>42|<br>43|<br>48|100|<br>60|
|4 M Tunisia|65|<br>65|<br>83||76|<br>81|<br>83|<br>94|
|_4 M_Turkey<br>|74|<br>42|<br>47|<br>65|||27|<br>34|
|4 M Yemen Arab Republic|||||||||
|<br>4 LYemen, PDR<br>..........................................................<br> <br>|............<br>|..<br> <br>|<br>||||||
|5<br>IAC (W)|55|<br>59|<br>60|<br>76|<br>68|<br>58|<br>63|<br>72|
|(U)|51|<br>61|<br>64|<br>67|<br>67|<br>71|<br>69|<br>75|
|..........................................................|............|..|||||||
|5MArgentina|62|<br>63|<br>64|<br>61|<br>78|<br>89|<br>89|<br>91|
|5MBahamas|||||||||
|5MBarbados|||||||||
|5MBolivia|31|<br>30|<br>31|<br>27|<br>23|24|<br>15|<br>31|
|5MBrazil|56|<br>62|<br>57|<br>99|<br>75|58|<br>56|<br>68|
|5HChile|96|100|<br>98|<br>87|<br>96|92|<br>99|<br>97|
|5 M Colombia|45|<br>57|<br>65|<br>79|<br>62||69|<br>80|
|5MCosta Rica|80|<br>81|<br>81|<br>81|<br>85|85|<br>61|<br>81|
|eHCuba|99|<br>97|97|<br>96|<br>97|98|<br>99|<br>96|
|5MDominican Republic|12|<br>34|<br>52|<br>41|43|51|||
|5MEcuador|75|<br>82|99|<br>84|<br>99|99|<br>93|<br>85|
|_5_MEl Salvador|56|<br>47|46|48|47|50|<br>51|<br>55|
|5 NGuatemala|36|<br>29|28|24|33|30|<br>7|<br>34|
|5L Guyana|68||78|73|<br>49|98|<br>76|<br>69|
|5L Haiti|19|<br>60|58|62|71|57||45|
|5MHonduras|28|<br>46|57|55|37|65|<br>72|<br>66|
|5M HJamaica|38||27|56|48|51|<br>73|92|
|5M Mexico|48|41|50|52|47|16|<br>54|71|
|5MNicaragua|33|<br>65|82|80|88|97|<br>99|93|
|SM Panama|68|77|83|81|77|94|<br>91|89|
|5M Paraguay|31|42|47|55|80|99|<br>51|66|
|5M Peru|57|63|65|61|63|70|<br>54|61|
|5MSuriname||||||||100|
|5 M Trinidad and Tobago|1||||||||
|_5_HUruguay|56|76|76|99|93|92|<br>92|98|
|5 M Venezuela|72|77|76|82|92||86||
|....<br>........<br>....<br>...........|-,,.....<br>.|............||. ......|....|..|...<br>...|......<br>..<br>...........**.**.....|
62 <!-- Start of picture text --> . . .. * . 4 * *...... ...<br>1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988<br>~~~~~~~0 .............. 0. ............ .... .. ..<br>6 PASTERN EUROPE (W) 96 96 95 95 95 95 95 95<br>(U) 97 97 99 95 96 95 95 98<br>.............. .............. *5*O ...................... 99. ** . ....<br>6 M4 Bu1garLe 97 99 99 99 99<br>6 M Czechoslovakia 95 99 99 99 99 99 99<br>6 M CDR 99 95 99 99 99 99 99 99<br>6 N Hungary 99 99 99 99 99 99<br>6 M Poland 93 95 95 95 95<br>6 M Romania 93 95<br>6 M Yugoslavia 99 85 84 85 84<br>... *0..t....S..*........ .* w0.....S....ff* ... .*S.e.S.... 0.. ....<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low income; X - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; KW - middle Income weighted average. Source: Expanded Programme on ImmuniZation, WHO.
**63**

# Health 4 : IHOUNIZATION FOR **DIPUTEUI,** PERTUSSIS AND TETANUS

|...<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>. ...<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.<br>1980|.<br>.<br>1981|.<br>......<br>1982|..<br>1983|..<br>1984|..<br>0...<br>1985|.<br>1986|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>1987 1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|..............<br>..........................................||||||.|,<br>.|.<br>_<br>,<br>.,,,.|
|1 AFRICA (W)|MA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|(U)|30|32|31|34|39|40|40|43|
|(LW)<br>|NA|<br>NA|NA|<br>NA<br>|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|**(MW)**<br>|NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|NA<br>|<br>**NA**<br>|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|..........................................................<br>1MAngola|...........|.||...|||||
|**1**L Benin|||||78|17|21|29|
|1 4 Botswana||64|63|73|79|68|65||
|1 L Burkina Faso||2|||||34||
|1L Burundi||38||27|||65|70|
|1M Cameroon||5||25|27|50||20|
|1 L Cape Verde||||23|||45||
|1 L Central African Rep.|13|12|14|||||22|
|1 L Chad||||1|||10|13|
|1 L Comoros|||||31||29||
|14 Congo, P.R.||42||50|53|54|71||
|1MC6te d'Ivoire|||||||30||
|1L Djibouti|||6||21|30|26|60|
|1 L Equatorial<br>Guinea||||||3|||
|1L Ethiopia||6||9|<br>7|6|<br>6|16|
|1 M Gabon||||14||14|48||
|1L Gambia, The||80||48||77|72|77|
|'L Ghana|7|22|23|19|||35||
|1 L Guinea|||||||2||
|1L Guinea-Bissau||||9|18|18|29|56|
|1L Kenya||||||70|72||
|1 L Lesotho||56||55|||||
|1L Liberia||39||23|||15|19|
|1 L Madagascar|48|40|15|23|19|23|22||
|1 L Malawi||66|50|71|58|52|70|55|
|1 L Mali|||||||3|6|
|1 L Mauritania||18|||||||
|1<br>Mauritius|87|82|94|89|83|85|86||
|1 L Mozambique||56|43|38|32|29|||
|<br>1 L Niger||6|||||5||
|1 L Nigeria|||||5|9|16|21|
|<br>1 L Rwanda||17||59||50|87|79|
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe||42||26|49|42|65||
|<br>1 M Senegal||||||54|||
|<br>1L Sierra Leone|13|15|10|24|21||||
|1L Somalia|9|<br>2|4|5|10|22|17|25|
|1 L Sudan|1|<br>1|2|3|4|8|14|29|
|1 M Swaziland||30||49|50|61|73||
|1 L Tanzania|59|58|50|52|52|69||81|
|1 L Togo|||||||23||
|<br>. ..... .............<br>..<br>...<br>,_...|......|................|||............|..................|.................|..............................|
64 ..............--.-.. .....................................................

||1980|1981<br>|1982|1983<br>|1984|1985<br>|1986<br>|1987<br>|1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 L Uganda||9<br>||14<br>||14<br>|21<br>|39<br>||
|1 L Zaire<br>||18||16<br>||37|32<br>|36||
|1 L Zambia||||83<br>|58<br>||66<br>|||
|1 M Zimbabwe||39||30|60|72|75|77||
|<br>.............................................|............|<br>...........|...|||||||
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)|24|25|30|33|37|39|48|52|54|
|(U)|14|16|20<br>|24<br>|29<br>|32<br>|39<br>|43<br>|50|
|WITHOUT INDIA (W)|5|<br>6|<br>9|13|24|21|32|36||
|||<br>|...<br>......<br> <br>|**.........**<br>..<br> <br>|**...........**<br> <br>|**......**.....<br>|.....<br> <br>|<br>||
|2L Bangladesh|0.2|<br>1|<br>1|<br>1|<br>2|3|<br>5|<br>9||
|<br>2L Bhutan|6|13|10|16|<br>9|22|16|27|27|
|2L India|31|31|37|40|41|45|53|58|73|
|2L Myanmar|4|5|13|14|14|18|25|23||
|2L Nepal|8|16|18<br>|23<br>|27<br>|32<br>|38<br>|46<br>||
|2L Pakistan|2|<br>3|<br>5|15|44|30|56|62||
|2L Sri Lanka|46|45|56|61|66|71|77|77||
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)|29|29|25|32|31|41|57|59|30|
|(U)|59|52|49|55|53|60|66|70|61|
|(LW)|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA|
|(K4W)|56<br>|55<br>|47<br>|59<br>|54<br>|65<br>|66<br>|68<br>||
|WITHOUT CHINA (W)|29|29|25|32|31|41|57|59|30|
|,.<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..|..<br>..<br>..|..<br>..<br>.|..<br>.<br>.<br>.|..|.<br>.<br>..<br>..|<br>..<br>.<br>..|<br>.<br>.<br>.......|.<br>..<br>..<br>**..**|**.**....<br>*>.....**.**<br>...<br>.......**....**|
|3L China||||||||75||
|3N Hong kong|73|80|83|83|85<br>|87<br>|84<br>|83<br>||
|3LIndonesia||0.2|<br>1|<br>3|<br>6|16|48|48|61|
|3 L Kampuchea||||||||||
|<br>3M Korea, Republic<br>of|70|61|61|69|76|76|76|85||
|3 L Lao, PDR||||||||||
|3MMalaysia|58|54|60|58|54|59|59|72||
|3N Papua New Guinea|32<br>|32<br>|29<br>|27<br>|34<br>|40<br>|44<br>|45<br>||
|3 M Philippines|49|51|53|61|36|59|55|73||
|<br>3 M Singapore<br>|84<br>|87<br>|82<br>|86<br>|76<br>|78<br>|91<br>|98<br>||
|3 M Thailand|49|52|21|49|53|62|71|48||
|3 M Taiwan<br>.....<br>............<br>........................|||..|......|...<br>.|........|.....|..............|. ..|
|4<br>EMENA<br>(W)|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA||
|<br>(U)|43|49|47|51|50|60|68|74||
|<br>..<br>........<br>.................|.......|............|........|||....|..........||**.**<br>. ....**..**.....**...**..........**.......**<br>.. .|
||||||16|15|11|25||
|4L Afghanistan|4|3|5|||||||
|<br>4 M Algeria||33||||||||
|<br>4 M Bahrain|45|60|42||80|64|80|89||
|4 N Egypt, Arab Rep. of|84|82|83|||95|80|81||
|<br>4 MGreece|72|95|||60|54|80|82||
|4 M Iran, Islamic Rep. of|32|29|41|33|46|51|76|74||
|4H Iraq|13|13|18|16|||91|76||
|4M Israel|84<br>|91<br>|92<br>|89<br>|87<br>|92<br>|92<br>|87<br>||
|4 MJordan|30|81|75|76|44|53|88|89||
|.......|.................|......||||||.|.<br>..|
65

||1980|1981|1982|1983|1984|1985|1986|1987 1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|...<br>......<br>_.............<br>,...........|.........................|...............|||||||
|4 H Kuwait|79|<br>54|<br>79|<br>82|<br>95|<br>98|90|<br>94<br>|
|4MLebanon|||4||4|60|30|91|
|4HLibyan ArabRepublic|||||||||
|4MMalta|||||||||
|4MMorocco||43|44|42|46||53|78|
|4MOman|||||||||
|4 M Portugal|73|<br>75<br>|<br>78<br>|<br>79<br>|<br>78|<br>72<br>|<br>81||
|4M SaudiArabia|41|53|62|67||50|75|<br>89|
|4 NSpain||||||95|87|88|
|<br>4M Syrian Arab Republic|13|<br>14|<br>14|<br>20|<br>22|<br>26|86|<br>36|
|<br>4 M Tunisia|36|<br>36|<br>52||61|<br>69|72|<br>89|
|4 M Turkey|42|64|<br>58|<br>56<br>|||45<br>|71<br>|
|4 M Yemen Arab Republic|1|2|<br>3|<br>4|6|<br>10|<br>11|14|
|4 L Yemen, PDR<br>.........................................................|.............|.|||||||
|S<br>LAC (W)|39|<br>43|<br>47|<br>51|<br>56|<br>55|<br>52|<br>59|
|(U)|37|<br>41|<br>48|<br>50|<br>52|<br>56|62|<br>61<br>0|
|||<br>|<br> <br>|<br> <br>..........|<br> <br>..........|<br> <br>...||<br> <br><br>... ..........-..|
|5M Argentina|41|46|<br> <br>61|<br> <br>57|<br> <br>66|<br> <br>63|67|<br>75|
|<br>_e_M Bahamas|||||||||
|S M Barbado3|||||||||
|snBolivia|11|<br>13|<br>12|<br>10|<br>6|<br>33|<br>29|<br>24|
|5 M Brazil*|40|47|<br>51|<br>61|<br>67|<br>62|52|<br>57|
|SH Chile|94|9?|100|<br>83|<br>94|<br>91|92|<br>93|
|5 M Colombia|16|<br>20|<br>26|<br>42|54|<br>61|57|<br>58|
|5M Costa Rica|86|83|<br>81|<br>84|<br>71|<br>75|94|<br>91|
|_e_M Cuba*|67|67|<br>99|<br>99|<br>86|<br>91|99|<br>87|
|_M_M Dominican Republic|35|<br>27|<br>28|<br>24|<br>20|<br>18||80|
|<br>5 HEcuador|10|<br>26|<br>35|<br>31|<br>48|<br>41|43|<br>51|
|5 M El Salvador*|43|42|<br>42|<br>21|<br>21|<br>54|<br>66|<br>53|
|5 M Guatemala*|43|42|<br>45|<br>43|48|21|33|<br>16|
|SL Guyana|35|<br>45|<br>53|<br>56|<br>70|<br>75|64|<br>67|
|<br>5L Haiti|3|14|<br>13|<br>9|14|<br>19||28|
|5 N Honduras|31|38|<br>53|<br>52|<br>41|59|63|<br>58|
|5 M JamAica|34|39|34|58|57|60|74|81|
|5MMexico|41|41|38|41|52|40|34|62|
|5 MNicaragua|15|23|26|22|30|35|55|43|
|<br>S M Panama|47|49|60|61|59|73|70|73|
|5 M Paraguay|17|28|<br>34|<br>45|67|54|52|58|
|<br>5 M Peru|14|18|<br>21|<br>23|28|<br>48|50|<br>43|
|<br>5 M Suriname|<br>25|<br>27|<br> <br> <br>61|<br> <br> <br>85|<br>80|<br> <br>84|80|<br>71|
|5 M Trinidad and Tobago|24|52|<br>54|<br>60|65|<br>75|70|<br>79|
|5 M Uruguay*|53|57|<br>67|<br>73|<br>62|<br>63|70|<br>70|
|<br>5 N Venezuela|56|54|<br>53|<br>58|33|<br>49|58|<br>54|

....... **..** ............., **.** ...

........................................................................
66

|................................................................|........|1980|1981|1982|1983 1|984 1985|1986|1987 1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|6<br>EASTERN EUROP|E (W)|92|92|95|94|94<br>94|95|96|
||(U)|99|93|98|95|95<br>94|95|98|
|...............................<br>6 M Bulgaria||.....|.................<br>97|.................<br>|..|99 99|99|99|
|6 M Czechoslovak|ia||95|99|98|99 99|99|99|
|6 M GDR|||80|97|96|90 90|94|95|
|6 N Hungary||99|99|99|99|99 99|99|99|
|<br>6MPoland|||95||95|96<br>96|97||
|6M Romania||||||95<br>89|90||
|6M Yugoslavia|||90||85|89 89|90||

........................................................................

Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low income; M - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; . - middle income weighted average. Source: Expanded Programme on Immunization, WHO.

* two shots only.
67 .. ........ **....** ...........

# Health 5 : IHQUNIZATION AGAINST<sup>POLIONYELITIS</sup>

._. .. . ....................... .. .... . ..................... _...... 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985<sup>1986 1987 1988</sup>

|..___......**..**......**...**...........<br>_.<br>. .<br>.............................................................<br>1<br>AFRICA<br>(W)<br>(U)<br>|NA<br>26<br>|NA<br>28<br>|NA<br>28<br>|NA<br>36<br>|NA<br>36<br>|NA<br>37<br>|NA<br>38<br>|NA<br>39<br>|19|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|(LW)|NA|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>|NA<br>||
|(MW)|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA||
|........<br>......................|...|_._. ...|...<br>...|..|..|...|.....|.||
|1MAngola<br>|||||93|16||29||
|1 L Benin||||||||||
|1 M Botswana||71|49|69|67|67|60|||
|1 L Burkina Faso||2||||||||
|1 L Burnmdi||6||20|||56|46||
|1 M Cameroon||5||25|26||||19|
|1 L Cape Verde|||||||58|||
|1 L Central African Rep.|13|12|14|||||22<br>||
|'L Chad||||||||13||
|1 L Comoros|||||32||24|30||
|1 N Congo, P.R.||42||||||||
|1 N Cote D'Ivoire|||||||30|||
|1 L Djibouti|||6||21|30|26|60||
|1LEquatorial Guinea||||||4<br>||||
|1LEthiopia||6||9|6|6<br>|6<br>|||
|1 M Gabon||||||44|48|||
|1 L Gambia, The||69||||55||82||
|iL Ghana|7|25|2S|17||||||
|1L Guinea|||||||1<br>|||
|1L Guinea-Bissau|||||4|18|30|54||
|1L Kenya||||||70|72|||
|1L Lesotho||54||80||||||
|1L Liberia||26||||||||
|1L Madagascar|||8|11|21|20|28|21||
|1L Malawi||68|36|67|59|46|56|50||
|1L Mali|||||||3|6||
|1 L Mauritania||18||||||||
|1 M Mauritius|87|82|94|89|83|85|84|||
|1 L Mozambique||32|43|38|32|25||||
|1 L Niger||6||||||||
|1 L Nigeria|||||3|10|21|||
|<br>1 L Rwanda||15||||S6||78||
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe||48|||48|45|66|||
|1 N Senegal||||||54||||
|1L Sierra Leone|7|13|9|23|22|||||
|1L Somalia|8|2|4|5|10|22|17|25||
|1L Sudan|1|1|2|3|4|8|14|29||
|1 N Swaziland||22||49|49|59|72|||
|1 L Tanzania|57|49|49|38|48|65||||
|1 L Togo||||||||||

.......................... ....................................................................
68

|__**.**_**..**<br>**....** **..**.............................................|1980|1981|1982|1983 1|..<br>984 1|...<br>..<br>985|...........<br>1986|1987<sup>1</sup>|..<br><sup>988</sup>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||||||13|21|40||
|1 L Uganda||8||||||||
|<br>1 L Zaire||18||||34|33|36||
|1 L Zambia|||||50|||||
|1 N Zimbabwe||38||||||||
|,_.<br>...<br>...<br>...<br>..<br>.<br>.<br>..<br>..<br>.|.<br>.<br>|.<br>..|.<br>.|..<br>.|..<br>.|.<br>.|.<br>.|..<br>..|<br>.|
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)|3|6|10|16|26|30|41|46|47|
|(U)|11|12|13|17|22|25|34|40|46|
|WITHOUT INDIA (W)|4|5|6|10|21|17|29|34||
|~~..**..**<br>...<br>....<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.<br>|.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.|.<br>.|
|_<br>2L Bangladesh|0.1|0.4|1|1|1|2|4|8||
|2L Bhutan|4|11|10|14|8|22|16|27|27|
|2L India|3|7|12|18|28|35|45|50|64|
|2 L Myanmar|||1|3|3|3|5|13||
|2 L Nepal||1|3|4|6|20<br>|34<br>|40<br>||
|2L Pakistan|2|3|5|15|44|30|56|62||
|2L Sri Lanka|48|49|57|66|65|65|77|78||
|=_**.**<br>__.<br>..<br>...<br>...<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>.|.<br>.<br>|.<br>.<br>.|.<br>.<br>.<br>|.<br>.<br>|..<br>.<br>|.<br>.<br>|.<br>.<br>.<br>|.<br>.<br>|.<br>.|
|3<br>EAS' ASIA (W)|27|25|27|33|36|42|57|58||
|(U)|60|51|49|56|61|64|67|71|62|
|(LW)|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|(MW)<br>|51<br>|48<br>|52<br>|60<br>|64<br>|68<br>42|67<br>57|70<br>58||
|WITHOUT CHINA (W)|27|25|27|33|36|||||
|||||||||77||
|3L China||||||||||
|3N Hong kong|86|90|90|90|91|92|88|86||
|3L Indonesia||0.2|1|4|7|14|46|45|62|
|3L Kampuchea||||||||||
|3N Korea, Republic of|89|62||78|80|80|80|93||
|3L Lao, PDR||||||||||
|3NMalaysia|74|64|61|53|89|87|62|72||
|<br>3N Papua New Guinea|29|32|27|27|32|34|42|46||
|3M Philippines|43|44|50|58|54|61|55|73||
|3 N Singapore|83|88|83|88|79|81|94|97||
|3N Thailand|19|31|34|46|53|61|70|47||
|3 N Taiwan<br>______**..**.<br>....<br>...<br>......<br>..<br>...<br>..<br>......|<br>.....<br>|.<br>..<br>|..............<br>|||..................<br>||||
|4<br>EMENA<br>(W)|35|40|53|40|45|46|65|64||
|(U)|50|52|50|52|53|63|69|74||
|.......<br>..................<br>...|......|.....|.............||..|..............|||.........<br>.... .............**..**.|
|4L Afghanistan|3|3|5||16|15|11|25||
|<br>4MAlgerla||30||||&||||
|<br>4 N Bahrain|76|61|43||80|64|80|89||
|4 N Egypt Arab Rep. of|84|84|81|||95|79|81||
|,<br>4M Greece|<br>90|95|||98|96|9|97||
|4 N Iran, Islamic Rep. of|38|47|74|34|50|51|79|74||
|<br>4 M Iraq|16|16|2|16|||91|76||
|<br>4_N_Israel|88|93|93|88|87|93|93|88||
|_4N_Jordan|32|87|84|77|41|54|88|89||

. . ....... **....** ...................... -.. *........... *.......... ... ... ..........
69 ....... ..................... .

... ....... ..................................................

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985<sup>1986 1987 1988</sup>

|..<br>.<br>.<br>..............<br>..<br>..<br>...<br>......<br>......<br>4 M Kuwait|...........<br>81|76|...<br>88|..<br>...<br>89|..........<br>95<br>|99<br>|...........<br>90<br>|<br>.<br>94<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|4 K Lebanon|||9||4|60|30|91|
|4 M Libyan Arab Republic|||||||||
|4 N Malta|||||||||
|4 M Morocco||45|44|42|46||53|78|
|4 N Oman|||||||||
|4 N Portugal|73|75|78|79|78|72<br>|81<br>||
|4 N Saudi Arabia|50|52|63|68||48<br>|76<br>|89<br>|
|4 M Spain||||||91<br>|87<br>|80<br>|
|4 N Syrian Arab Republic|13|14<br>|14<br>|20|22<br>|26<br>|86<br>|36<br>|
|4 M Tunisia|37|37|52||61|69|72<br>|89<br>|
|4 N Turkey|63|69|61<br>|59<br>|||45<br>|70<br>|
|4 N Yemen Arab Republic|1|2|3|4|6|10|11|14|
|4 L Yemen, PDR<br>~~~~<br>...|...<br>......|.....|.<br>...|..........||..<br>...|<br>._.......|........|
|**......**<br>.. . . . . . ..<br>.___..|<br>||||||||
|C<br>LAC (W)|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|(U)|48|47|57|57|65|61|73|70|
|<br>...<br>.... ......................|......|...|...................||||||
|_<br>___<br>5 N Argentina|91|38|94|73|64|69|85||
|5 N Bahamas|||||||||
|5N Barbados|||||||||
|SN Bolivia|14|15|15|10|57<br>|30<br>|31<br>|28<br>|
|5 N Brazil|99|99|99|99|89|86|89|90|
|5N Chile|77|96|100|94|96|89|86|95|
|5MColombia|16|22|27|44|60|62|65<br>|82<br>|
|5N Costa Rica|86|85|78|84|81|75<br>|94<br>|89<br>|
|5 N Cuba|99|82|82|94|99|88|99|86|
|5N Dominican Republic|46|42|37|22|99|11||79<br>|
|5M Ecuador|19|19|36|32|36|39|43|51|
|5NEl Salvador|42|38|42|20|44|54<br>|70<br>|57<br>|
|aH Guatemala|42|42|45|43<br>|47<br>|21<br>|36<br>|18<br>|
|5L Guyana|42|37|73|59|41|77<br>|67|77<br>|
|5L Haiti|8|3|7|6|12|19||28<br>|
|5N Honduras|31|37|53|51|84|58|63|61|
|S M Jamaica|34|37|68|57|56|58|74|82<br>|
|5 H Mexico|91|85|85|88|91|67|96|97<br>|
|5 M Nicaragua|21|52|50|75|73|70|89|85|
|5 H Panama|45|50|61|60|70|71|71|74|
|5M Paraguay|14|26|39<br>|47<br>|59<br>|97<br>|99<br>|93<br>|
|SM Peru|16|18|21|22|26|47|50|45|
|5 N Suriname|24|22|53|83|79|84|80<br>|70<br>|
|5 N Trinidad and Tobago|38|55|59|61|66|74|71<br>|80<br>|
|5M Uruguay|59|58|72|77|83|58|83|70|
|5 N Venezuela|95|75|76|77|59|59|67|64|
|<br>,. ..............<br>........................................||||||. ......|<br>..|..<br>......|

* .-...*-_ .. ........ **.** ..
70

|.**...............**<br>...................<br>.....<br>_ .|1980<br> .............<br>|1981<br>..........|1982 1983<br>.................|1984<br>.............|1985|1986|1987 1988<br>_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|6<br>EASTERN EUROPE|(W)<br>NA|NA|NA NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|
||(U)<br>98|95|98 94|96|95|96|98|
|_6_N Bulgaria||98||99|99|100|100|
|<br>6 N Czechoslovak|ia|95|98 98|98|99|98|98|
|6 N GDR||90|96 95|97|93|94|94|
|6M Hungary|98|98|99 98|98|99|99|99|
|6 N Poland||95|<br>95|97||99||
|6 N Romania||||92|90|90||
|_6_N Yugoslavia||95|<br>85|89|90|89||

Note: U - unweighted; W weighted; L - low income; M - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; NW - middle income weighted average. Source: Expanded Programms on Immunization, WHO.
71

# Health 6 : IMMUNIZATION AGAINST MEASLES

|.**..**_ ..............<br>__**.**. ..................<br>_.. ..<br>1980|.<br>_...<br>1981|......<br>1982|_. ...<br>1983|_...............<br>1984|........<br>1985|1986|1987|.x._<br>1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|........<br>......................<br>_.<br> <br> <br> <br>|_.___............<br> <br>|........<br> <br>|<br>|<br>|._._...<br> <br>|__............<br> <br>|...._.......<br> <br>|.<br> <br>|
|1<br>AFRICA<br>(W)<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br>|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|
|(U)<br>38<br>|<br>38|<br>36|<br>40|<br>35|<br>39|<br>43|<br>37|<br>47|
|(LW)<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br>|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|
|(NW)<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|
|.<br>__.**.**..<br>__..............................|....|..|....................|...|||_|._._. .....<br>.......**.**|
|1 N Angola<br>||||||||<br>_|
|1 L Benin||||63|<br>23||30||
|1 M Botswana<br>63<br>|<br>68|<br>68|<br>76|<br>71|<br>68|<br>62|||
|1 L Burkina Faso|23||||38||||
|1 L Burundi<br>|30||45|||42|<br>55||
|1 N Cameroon<br>|16||25|<br>31||||14|
|1 L Cape Verde||||||59|||
|1 L Central African Rep.<br>12<br>|<br>16|<br>16|||||17||
|1 L Chad<br>|||||||16||
|1 L Comoros<br>||||42|18|<br>26|<br>21||
|1 M Congo, P.R.<br>|49||59|<br>54|67||||
|1 M C6te d'Ivoire<br>|||||||||
|1 L Djibouti<br>||15||20|27|<br>19|<br>61||
|1L Equatorial Guinea|||||12||||
|1LEthiopia|7||16|13|12|<br>10|<br>13||
|1 N Gabon||||||58|<br>58||
|1 L Gambia, The||71||||75|||
|1 L Ghana|16|23|<br>21|1|||63||
|1L Guinea<br>|||||||9||
|1LGuinea-Bissau<br>||||||35||60|
|1 L Kenya<br>|||||63|<br>65|||
|1 L Lesotho<br>|49||73||||||
|1 L Liberia|99|||||39|40||
|1 L Madagascar<br>||||1|28|<br>18|19||
|1 L Nalawi|65|58|<br>67|56|51|<br>66|53||
|1 L Mali||||||5|8||
|1 L Mauritania|45||||||||
|1 M Mauritius||34|53|44|61|75|||
|1 L Nozambique<br>|32<br>|58|51|50|39||||
|1 L Niger<br>|19||||||||
|1L Nigeria|55|||17|9|17|24||
|1 L Rwanda|42||||52||74||
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe|25|||48|35|58|||
|1 M Senegal|||||40||||
|1 L Sierra Leone|36|28|23|49|66||||
|1 L Somalia|9|2|4|6|16|34|25|<br>29|
|1 L Sudan||1|1|2|3|6|11|<br>22|
|1 H Swaziland||30||41|43|49|66||
|1 L Tanzavia|84|76|62|69|53|76||88|
|1 L Togo|||||||||

.. . *__._._...... ......... .......................... .. ... ....... ....................

<!-- Start of picture text --> _...._._.<br><!-- End of picture text -->
72 .. .. ... . **.** ......... .... ......... .......................... .... .......... .....

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

|**..** **.....** **...**<br>.........**.**...........<br>..................................<br>1 L Uganda|......................|.......|22||||17|27|..<br>48|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|<br>1 L Zaire||17|23|24|29|30|41|<br>39|39|
|1 L Zambia||||||49||||
|1 M Zimbabwe|||56|||62|<br>78|74|73|
|.<br>._<br>......<br>......<br>.**........**<br>............<br>..<br>..<br>.......<br>2<br>SOUTH ASIA W|....<br>1|................<br> <br>1|<br>2|10|....<br>17|.<br>....<br>15|.........<br>25|27|...|
|<br>()||<br>|<br>|||||||
|(U)|11|<br>5|<br>7|13|14|23|25|25|44|
|WITHOUT INDIA (W)<br>|1|<br>1|<br>2|10|17|15|25|27||
|...............<br>¢...<br>......<br>......................<br>|.....||<br>|<br>|...<br>...<br> <br>|............<br> <br>|......<br> <br>|<br>||
|2L Bangladesh||0.3|<br>1|<br>1|<br>1|<br>1|<br>3|<br>6||
|<br>2L Bhutan|21|21|20|21|10|27|15|23||
|2 L India||0.1|||||1|17|44|
|2 L Myamuar|||||||3|14||
|<br>2 L Nepal||2|<br>2|11|24|46|66|<br>0||
|2L Pakistan|1|<br>2|<br>3|19|33|23|41|53||
|2 L Sri Lanka<br> <br>|||||3|20|47|60||
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|(U)|42|31|26|22|36|44|47|67|55|
|(LW)|NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|NA|
|<br>(NW)<br> <br>|NA<br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|<br>NA<br> <br>|NA<br>|<br>NA<br>|NA<br>|
|WITHOUT<br>CHINA (W)|NA|<br>NA|NA|NA|<br>NA|<br>NA|NA|NA|NA|
|..........<br>.............................|||..<br>...|............|...||........|....................|..<br>...................**.....**......|
|<br> <br>3 L China|||<br>|||||<br>77|<br>|
|3N Hong kong|74||||80|||85||
|3L Indonesia|||0|<br>2|<br>7|16|47|46|55|
|3L Kampuchea||||||||||
|<br>3 N Korea, Republic<br>of|4|<br>5|<br>5|||89|89|95||
|<br>3L Lao, PDR||||||||||
|3N Malaysia||||11|23|20|20|63||
|<br>3 N Papua New Guinea||||6|21|26|33|_||
|<br>3 N Philippines|||22|30|47|55|53|68||
|<br>3 N Singapore|47|57|78|63|67|73|85|94||
|<br>3 N Thailand|||||6|26|45|34||
|3 N Taiwan<br>.........<br>................<br>..<br>...<br>...........<br> <br>|.............**...**<br>.....<br>|.....................<br>|....<br>|||||.........<br>||
|4<br>EK M<br>(W)|32|37|40|36|40|42|61|63||
|(U)|40|41|36|35|38|44|57|66||
|........................<br>...................................|...................|||||||||
|4L Afghanistan|11|<br>6|8||13|14|14|31||
|4 N Algeria||17||||||||
|<br>4 M Bahrain|63|43|37||65|50|60|73||
|4 N Egypt, Arab Rep. of|78|65|69|||74|78|86||
|<br>4MGreece|||||75|77|39|81||
|4MIran,<br>Islamic Rep.of|39|48|55|38|51|51|80|76||
|<br>4 N Iraq|35|33|<br>0|5|||75|69||
|4 N Israel|69|83|88|85|85|85|88|88||
|4 MJordan|29|40|48|46|30|39|81|87||
73 ......... ..............................

_......................................

|.........<br>.............................................|1980|1981|1982|1983|1984|1985|1986|1987 1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|4N Kuwait|71|<br>66|<br>10|<br>14|<br>7|<br>4|<br>93|<br>95|
|4 N Lebanon|||1||0|<br>23|<br>30|<br>81|
|4 N Libyan Arab Republic|||||||||
|4 NMalta|||||||||
|4M Morocco||||35|<br>40||48|<br>76|
|4MOman|||||||||
|4 M Portugal|54|<br>70|<br>48|46|<br>47|<br>63|<br>66|<br>74|
|4 M Saudi Arabia|8|12|<br>53|<br>65||46|<br>67|<br>80|
|4 M Spain||||||38|<br>79|<br>83|
|4 N Syrian Arab Republic|13|<br>14|<br>14|18|<br>20|<br>30|<br>63|<br>31|
|4 M Tunisia|65|<br>65|<br>43||55|<br>59|<br>67|<br>79|
|4 M Turkey|27|<br>52|<br>64|30|||34|<br>50|
|4 M Yemen Arab Republic|2|3|4|5|<br>7|<br>11|<br>13|<br>15|
|<br>4 L Yemen, PDR|||||||||
|..........................................................|.............|.|||||||
|5<br>LAC (W)|40|48|50|47|<br>52|<br>55|<br>54|<br>53|
|||<br>43|45|47|<br>50|<br>55|<br>53|<br>61|
|(U)|38|<br>|||<br>|<br>|<br>|<br>|
|..........................................................|............|..|||||||
|5NArgentina|58|<br>73|<br>95|69|<br>66|<br>67|<br>87|<br>81|
|5 M Bahamas|||||||||
|S N Barbados|||||||||
|5M Bolivia|13|<br>17|<br>15|13|<br>20|<br>21|<br>17|<br>33|
|S M Brazil|56|<br>73|68|67|80|63|55|55|
|5NChile|87|<br>93|<br>95|92|100|<br>92|<br>91|<br>92|
|5M Colombia|13|<br>26|<br>27|43|<br>49|53|<br>56|<br>59|
|5M Costa Rica|60|71|<br>69|82|<br>76|<br>81|<br>55|<br>90|
|5 MCuba|48|49|55|94|82|85|86|100|
|5MDominican Republic|29|17|24|23|19|24||71|
|<br>5MEcuador|24|31|<br>44|34|<br>54|<br>54|<br>49|<br>46|
|5 M El Salvador|45|44|43|46|<br>41|71|<br>51|<br>48|
|5 N Guatemala|23|8|12|9|<br>24|<br>23|<br>47|<br>24|
|5 L Guyana|||68|44|<br>56|<br>40|<br>42|<br>52|
|<br>5 L Haiti|||||8|21||23|
|5 N Hondurss|35|38|55|49|<br>44|53|<br>60|<br>57|
|5 MJamaica|||12|15|60|64|36|62|
|5MMexico|35|33|37|23|21|64|60|54|
|S M Nicaragua|15|20|40|38|<br>42|49|61|<br>44|
|<br>5 Mlanama|<br>47|<br>53|<br>64|<br>60|<br>65|83|73|78|
|<br>5 MParaguay|<br>19|<br>16|<br>26|<br>37|<br>62|<br>46|<br>46|56|
|<br>5 N Peru|<br>21|<br>24|<br>28|<br>28|<br> <br>35|<br> <br>53|<br> <br>41|<br>35|
|S M Suriname||39|17|71|<br>79|<br>73|<br>78|<br>70|
|5 N Trinidad and Tobago|||||10|<br>32|<br>42|<br>68|
|<br>5 M Uruguay|50|95|52|65|<br>66|59|<br>82|<br>99|
|<br>S N Venezuela|50|43|45|42|41|56|48|57|
|<br>.**.**..<br>__...__.........................<br>........|<br>.................|<br>......|||<br>,|<br>*.................||....|
74

|1980|1981|1982|1983|1984|1985|1986|1987 1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|6<br>EASTERN EUROPE (W)<br>NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|NA|
|(U)<br>99<br>. . ...<br>...<br>..<br>...<br>...<br>......<br>....<br>..........|91<br>...|98<br>.<br>.....|91<br>.......|96<br>...|95<br>.......|95<br>.|97<br>....|
|6 M Bulgaria|98|||98|99|99|100|
|6MCzechoslovakia|95|99|98|99|98|98|98|
|6C<br>GDR|95|95|97|97|98|99|98|
|6M Hungary<br>99|99|99|99|99|99|99|99|
|6 N Poland|65||75|95|94|95||
|6 M Romania|||83||88|81|89|
|6 N Yugoslavia<br>._. ...........................<br>...<br>.|95<br>.....|<br>^.........|95<br>.|90<br>. ......|91<br>........|92<br>........|.|

Note: U - unweighted; V - weighted; L - low it-ome; N - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; NW - middle income weighted average. Source: Expanderd Programme on Immunization, WHO.
75

# Education 1 : NET ENROLLXENT RATES

|,................................................................................<br>1960<br>...............................................|1965<br>1970<br>0.......|1975<br>1980<br>1985<br>MRE<br>.........................|
|---|---|---|
|1<br>AFRICA<br>(W)|31.3<br>35.6|44.6<br>59.7<br>55.7|
|(U)|38.0<br>43.4|49.9<br>57.2<br>57.5|
|(LW)|28.9<br>32.9|42.2<br>57.7<br>53.1|
|(MW)|505<br>577|634<br>750<br>754|
|<br>........................................................................|.<br>.<br>....|.<br>.<br>.<br>w|
|1MAngola|29.0*<br>52.7*|<br>65.9*<br>86.3*<br>42.7*|
|1 L Benin|25.0<br>28.0|40.5<br>51.0<br>50.7|
|1 M Botswana|41.1*<br>51.5*|59.0<br>75.9<br>99.1*|
|1 L Burkina Faso|9.3<br>9.3|13.4*<br>16.6*<br>26.8*|
|1 L Burundi|25.6<br>25.7|14.6<br>22.2*44.4*|
|1MCameroon|53.1<br>62.1|69.5<br>74.6<br>78.5|
|1 L Cape Verde|||
|1 L Central African Rep.|37.1<br>49.0|51.7<br>56.9<br>62.0|
|1 L Chad|22.9<br>24.2|25.3<br>25.8<br>31.4|
|1 L Comoros|||
|1MCongo, P.R.|80.4<br>92.5|112.6 108.9 115.8|
|1M Cote d'Ivoire|42.9*<br>47.6 *|52.4*<br>70.4*<br>66.5*|
|1 L Djibouti|||
|1 L Equatorial<br>Guinea|||
|1L Ethiopia|4.7<br>9.3*|15.2*<br>28.3*<br>26.4*|
|1M Gabon|92.5 115.7|116.4 111.0 109.5|
|1LGambia, The|||
|1 L Ghana|71.2<br>53.9|58.8<br>64.2<br>58.7|
|1L Guinea|28.8*<br>28.8 *|26.1*<br>30.9 *<br>24.9<br>*|
|1L Guinea-Bissau|||
|1 L Kenya|40.2<br>49.1|89.6<br>90.0<br>87.3|
|<br>1 L Lesotho|60.4<br>60.3|69.1<br>63.3<br>69.9|
|1 L Liberia|27.2<br>33.5|37.4<br>47.6<br>21.5|
|1L Madagascar|50.3<br>63.9|76.9<br>96.5<br>80.3|
|<br>1 L Malawi|34.5*<br>25.9|36.3<br>39.8<br>41.4|
|1 L Mali|18.0*<br>14.1|16.7<br>16.9<br>14.1|
|1 L Mauritania|7.4<br>10.6|15.3<br>24.3<br>33.2|
|1MMauritius|84.3<br>84.2|90.6<br>92.0<br>91.5|
|1L Mozambique|23.8<br>28.6|32.2<br>40.8<br>50.3*|
|<br>1L Niger|8.6<br>13.4*|18.7*<br>24.7*<br>26.7*|
|<br>1 L Nigeria|27.6<br>27.9|40.9<br>79.5<br>63.2|
|1L Rwanda|53.3<br>68.1*|52.2*<br>66.8*<br>66.2*|
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe|||
|<br>1 M Senegal|24.7<br>25.6|29.8<br>36.9<br>43.7|
|<br>1 L Sierra Leone|23.0<br>28.6|32.3<br>44.8<br>48.3|
|1 L Somalia|3.7<br>4.6|17.6<br>18.1<br>9.6|
|1L Sudan|19.8*<br>33.6*|42.8*<br>45.9*<br>45.6*|
|1 M Swaziland|||
|1L Tanzania|22.8<br>24.3 *<br>..............|37.2 *<br>58.5*<br>46.8<br>*<br>.......................................................................|
76

|...............<br>_.<br>.......<br>, ...........................<br>1960<br>1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|.................<br>*.....<br>.....................................................||,|||
|1 L Togo<br>44.6<br> <br>|54.7<br>|75.9<br>|81.3<br>|66.8|
|1 L Uganda<br>27.6<br> <br>|29.6<br>|32.2<br>|34.8<br>|48.3<br>|
|1 L Zaire<br>55.3|70.4|72.9|72.2|72.1|
|1 L Zambia<br>63.8*|83.1*|86.7|*<br>76.1*|<br>82.6*|
|1MZimbabwe<br>85.1*|76.3*|72.1|*<br>84.2*|121.8*|
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)<br>57.7|59.4|63.3|65.4|73.6|
|(U)<br>42.2|42.9|45.5|54.9|61.0|
|<br>WITHOUT INDIA (W)<br>39.0|41.2|47.5|49.8|53.3|
|..................<br>_.,,,,,<br>....................||o.......|.....|....|
|2 L Bangladesh<br>38.2|39.4|53.9|49.9|47.6|
|<br>2 L Bhutan<br>4.3|4.0|6.0|11.0|18.8|
|2 L India<br>63.8|65.3|68.7|70.8|80.8|
|2 L Nyanmar<br>47.5|59.4|58.5|<br>63.6|<br>71.2|
|<br>2 L Nepal<br>21.3|22.2|33.9|<br>57.4|<br>66.0|
|<br>2 L Pakistan<br>28.7|31.4|35.7|<br>33.7|<br>42.5|
|2 L Sri Lanka<br>91.7|78.7|62.0|<br>97.9|100.1|
|. .......................<br>.**.**..**....**<br>**....**<br>..<br>...<br>.....<br>...........<br>_<br>...<br>...<br>.............<br> <br> <br>||.<br>|.....<br>..........<br> <br>|.......<br>.<br> <br>|
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)<br>87.6|83.2|82.4|<br>84.2|<br>95.7|
|<br>(U)<br>76.5|76.2|80.4|<br>86.7|<br>93.1|
|<br>(LW)<br>86.8|81.7|80.7|<br>82.0|<br>95.4|
|(MW)<br>93.3|94.0|95.7|100.2|97.8|
|WITHOUT CHINA (W)<br>78.1|81.4|85.8|<br>97.6|103.5|
|=. .....<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.|.<br>._<br>-<br>-|--<br>-<br>-|.-<br>-<br>--|-<br>--<br>-<br>--<br>-<br>-|
|3 LChina<br>90.5*|83.7*|81.4*|<br>79.9*|<br>93.1*|
|3NHong kong<br>78.0|86.7|92.1|<br>95.3|<br>94.4|
|<br>3L Indonesia<br>64.1*|72.2*|78.7*|<br>97.7*|111.1<br>*|
|3 L Kampuchea<br>65.0|24.6|32.1|<br>38.3|<br>82.3|
|<br>3MKorea, Republic<br>of<br>91.7|94.5|99.5|104.3|<br>93.9|
|<br>3 L Lao, ?DR<br>36.3|49.2|57.7|<br>82.7|<br>80.5|
|3M Nalaysia<br>84.7|88.1|94.5|<br>92.6|<br>99.9|
|3M PapuaNewGuinea<br>44.5*|52.3*|58.0*|<br>60.7*|<br>64.6*|
|<br>3 NPhilippines<br>104.2*|97.8*|96.4*|<br>96.1*|<br>97.0*|
|<br>3 M Singapore<br>90.8|94.2|99.1|<br>99.4|104.3|
|<br>3MThailand<br>91.4*|94.8*|94.9 *|106.5*|103.5*|
|3 M Taiwan|||||
|..<br>.........<br>,.<br>_....<br>.............<br>...............|....................|.....................||.....**..**...............**..**...|
|4<br>EMENA<br>(W)<br>62.7|69.1|72.0|<br>74.3|<br>79.1|
|<br>(U)<br>61.0|62.3|70.9|<br>75.1|<br>78.7|
|....<br>........<br>...<br>......<br>............<br>.....................................||||...<br>......<br>...... .....**..**.................................|
|4L Afghanistan<br>15.9*|21.5*|20.1|33.7*|<br>20.7|
|<br>4 N Algeria<br>52.9|60.1|76.6|<br>81.4|<br>85.6|
|<br>4 M Bahrain|||||
|4 M Egypt, Arab Rep. of<br>65.5|67.1|72.5|<br>76.8|<br>85.9|
|<br>4 N Greece<br>98.5|97.3|96.9|<br>96.4|<br>89.9|
|41M Iran, Islamic Rep. of<br>61.1*|71.2*|74.4|<br>69.6|<br>82.7|
|4 N Iraq<br>63.9*|55.4|78.8|<br>99.7|<br>86.4|
|4 M Israel<br>989|995|986|<br>924|<br>920|
|<br>.<br>.. . ........ ......................................<br>_................................................|.<br>....|.|<br>.|<br>.<br>..**..**<br>_ ..............................................|
77

|.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>..<br>*<br>0.<br>I<br>1960|1965|1970<br>1975<br>1980<br>1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|
|4MJordan|81.0|62.5<br>78.6<br>73.0<br>76.0|
|4 M Kuwait|75.0|57.9<br>62.8<br>66.4<br>61.0|
|4 M Lebanon|79.0|85.6<br>74.5<br>77.2<br>69.0|
|4 N LLbyan Arab Republic|56.7|85.7 112.2 108.2 107.1|
|4 M Malta|||
|4 M Morocco|39.8|40.3*<br>47.7<br>*<br>64.0*<br>63.5|
|4MOman||3.0<br>32.2<br>50.0<br>77.0|
|4 M Portugal|103.3*|86.0<br>90.3<br>98.5 100.5|
|<br>4 N Saudi Arabia|23.4|32.4<br>42.1<br>49.7<br>54.6|
|4 N Spain|78.4|88.2<br>89.8<br>88.6<br>91.9|
|<br>4MSyrian Arab Republic|59.3|69.5<br>87.1<br>91.2<br>96.5|
|<br>4 N TuniLia|68.7|75.5<br>79.1<br>82.9<br>94.2|
|4 N Turkey|65.0|87.3*<br>71.7<br>64.8<br>75.3|
|<br>4 M Yemen Arab Republic|7.5|11.3*<br>27.4*<br>43.4*<br>72.2|
|4 L Yemen, PDR|25.4*|50.3*<br>75.4*<br>69.4*<br>71.5|
|................................................................................|||
|5 LAC (W)|71.5|78.2<br>83.6<br>88.7<br>91.5|
|(U)|75.3|78.3<br>82.1<br>85.7<br>88.3|
|...<br>**......**.................<br>.....<br>.............<br>...<br>...<br>|....<br>..........<br>|.......<br>....................<br>.....<br> <br> <br> <br>|
|5 N Argentina|92.6|96.8<br>97.9<br>95.1<br>95.2|
|<br>5 M Bahamas|||
|5 H Barbados|||
|5 H Bolivia|74.8*|67.9<br>78.0<br>86.6<br>84.3|
|5 NBrazil|65.9*|73.4*<br>80.5*<br>88.6*<br>90.1|
|' M Chile|100.3*|90.4<br>92.3<br>89.6<br>88.8|
|CNColombLa|65.9*|79.1*<br>87.2*<br>81.8<br>75.9|
|<br>5 M Costa Rica|101.4*|89.0<br>92.1<br>89.3<br>83.9|
|5M Cuba|90.5|94.6<br>99.5<br>97.6<br>93.7|
|5 N Dominican<br>Republic|73.3*|77.3*<br>86.2*<br>99.9*107.3*|
|<br>C M Ecuador|73.4|78.7<br>78.2<br>87.8<br>88.8|
|5NEl Salvador|60.9*|68.3*<br>78.7*<br>79.0*<br>73.8|
|5 M Guatemala|43.7*|50.4*<br>54.4 *<br>60.5*<br>65.4|
|5 L Guyana|||
|<br>5 L Haiti|29.9*|33.6*<br>39.0*<br>36.5<br>54.7|
|5NHonduras|68.2*|78.4*<br>77.9*<br>80.8*<br>91.0|
|5MJamaica|88.5|95.2<br>89.7<br>94.0<br>98.5|
|<br>5MMexico|66.6|77.8<br>83.3<br>92.6 100.5|
|<br>SM Nicaragua|53.9*|64.3*<br>66.5*<br>77.3*<br>84.9|
|<br>5 M Panama|<br>82.6*|74.1<br>87.4<br>88.5<br>88.6|
|<br>5M Paraguay|80.0*|88.4*<br>88.8*<br>95.2*<br>95.2|
|<br>5 M Peru|<br>70.5|<br>77.7<br>84.1<br>86.5<br>97.5|
|<br>5 M Suriname|||
|<br>5 M Trinidad<br>and Tobago|104.7|95.1<br>89.7<br>91.2<br>88.8|
|<br> <br>5 N Uruguay|85.4|82.8<br>81.2<br>83.0<br>91.0|
|<br>5 N Venezuela|**8**26*|88.9*<br>92.6 *103.2*105.6|
||. <br>......................|<br> <br>...................................<br>........................|
78

||1960|1965|1970|1975|<br>1980|1985<br>*|<br>MRE<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|................<br>..............................<br>6<br>EASTERN EUROPE (W)|...................|96.8<br>|89.2<br>|89.5<br> <br>|90.2<br> <br>|................<br>90.3<br> <br>|.....<br>.........................................<br>|
|(U)<br><br> <br> <br>|....................|97.3<br>.......................|90.0<br>..........|<br>89.6|<br>90.2|<br>91.|.|
|...<br>.....<br>..<br>...<br>,,...<br>...<br>.......<br>6 M Bulgaria|,,,|<br>98.7|<br> *100.1<br>|* 97.0<br>|*100.0<br>|*105.<br>|7<br>*<br>|
|6XCzechoslovakia||100.0<br>|<br>99.7<br> <br>|100.<br> <br>|0 100.0<br> <br>|100.<br> <br>|0<br>|
|6 M GDR||105.5|*<br>73.2<br>|<br>67.5<br> <br>|<br>68.3<br> <br>|<br>67.<br> <br>||
|6 M Hungary||100.0<br>|<br>94.3<br> <br>|<br>95.6<br> <br>|<br>94.0<br> <br>|<br>98.9<br>||
|6 N Poland||98.4|*<br>95.6<br>|*<br>98.6<br> <br>|*<br>99.5<br> <br>|*100.<br> <br>|7*<br>|
|6 M Romania||100.<br>|1<br>*<br>88.0<br> <br>|<br>89.1<br> <br>|<br>91.6<br> <br>|<br>86.5<br>||
|6 M Yugoslavia<br>.,._..........,,,.,_.........................<br>.....<br>............|.|78.5<br>............|*<br>79.3<br>......|*<br>79.2<br>..........................|*<br>77.9<br>.|*77.1|*<br>.|

Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low income; X - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; KW - middle income weighted average.

Source: Lockheed, Verspoor and others. 1990.

* Primary sehool starts at 7 years old; Figures adjusted accordingly.
79 Education

# 2 : GROSS ENROLLMENT RATES

|._. ............<br>_____<br>_.__............<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>1960<br>.**....**.**.........**<br>......................................................................|.<br>..<br>.<br>1965|.<br>.<br>.<br>1970|.<br>..<br>.<br>1975|.<br>.<br>.<br><br>1980|.<br>._.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1<br>AFRI'>A (W)|38.8<br>|45.4<br>|58.3<br>|78.0<br>|70.4<br>|
|(U)<br>|44.4<br>|50.2<br>|62.1<br>|73.0<br>|72.0<br>|
|(LW)|36.3<br>|42.6<br>|55.5<br>|75.7<br>|67.7<br>|
|(tW)|59.7|69.2|81.2|96.5|91.5|
|.........<br>.........................|____.,.........<br>|....<br>|..<br>|...<br>|.<br>..<br>_<br>...<br>|
|1 M Angola|41.4<br>|75.3<br>|121.5<br>|158.2<br>|78.4<br>|
|1 L Benin|33.7<br>|36.4<br>|50.4<br>|63.5<br>|64.7<br>|
|1B<br>Botswana|61.5|65.0<br>|71.8<br>|92.3<br>|107.9<br>|
|1 L 3urkina Faso|11.7<br>|12.0<br>|14.7<br>|18.3<br>|28.6<br>|
|1 L Burundi|27.1<br>|J0.4<br>|22.2<br>|28.6<br>|52.5<br>|
|1 4 Camerovn|78.1|89.2|97.5|103.5|107.7|
|1LCape Verde||||||
|1 L CentralAfrican<br>Rep.|50.6<br>|63.8<br>|72.7<br>|- 71.5<br>|76.7<br>|
|1L Chad|32.9|34.7|34.5|35.7|43.5|
|1 L Comoros||||||
|1 4 Congo, P.R.||||||
|IM C6te d'Ivoire|48.9|56.5|60.7|74.2|69.6|
|1 L Djibouti<br>||||||
|1LEquatorial Guinea||||||
|<br>1L Ethiopia|8.6|13.6|20.1<br>|35.1<br>|33.7<br>|
|1KGabon|||102.0|115.0|152.9|
|1 L Gambia, The||||||
|1 LGhana|69.2|62.3|72.0|80.0|76.0|
|1 L Guinea|29.3|29.4|27.0|31.4|30.2|
|1 L Guinea-Bissau||||||
|1L Kenya|54.6|62.1|103.9|115.2|98.4|
|1L Lesotho|90.7|87.0<br>|105.6<br>|102.5<br>|113.3<br>|
|1LLiberia|45.7|55.8|40.9|48.6|35.5<br>|
|1 L Madagascar|71.9|86.1|97.0|142.7|112.6|
|<br>1L Halawi|42.1|35.8<br>|55.9<br>|60.0<br>|61.7<br>|
|1 L Mali|21.9|22.4|24.3|24.8|21.o|
|1 L Mauritania|12.1|14.6|20.3<br>|36.6<br>|49.4<br>|
|1 M Hauritius|95.0|93.4|107.3<br>|107.9<br>|105.3<br>|
|1 LHozambique|33.0|39.7|82.7<br>|99.2<br>|85.8<br>|
|1 L Niger|10.8|14.2|19.7<br>|27.0<br>|27.8<br>|
|1 L Nigeria|31.7|36.6<br>|52.6<br>|97.5<br>|77.2<br>|
|<br>1 L Rwanda|56.2|69.6|55.0|62.9|62.6|
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe||||||
|<br>1 1 Senegal|40.0|41.4|41.2|45.9|55.5|
|<br>1 LSierra Leone|29.4<br>|34.8<br>|38.5<br>|51.7<br>|53.2<br>|
|1 L Somalia|8.2|8.1|56.0<br>|34.0<br>|20.0|
|1 L Sudan|32.1|37.9|46.6|49.9|49.8|
|1 M Swaziland||||||
|1 L Tanzania|31.8<br>|34.0<br>|52.6<br>|92.8<br>|72.2<br>|
|1 LTogo|61.3|71.0<br>.......|99.0<br>......**.........**|121.7<br>**..**..............|95.4<br>**..........**<br>.<br>...|
80

|.<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>.<br>1960<br>1965|.<br>..<br>..<br>..<br> <br>1970|.<br>..<br>.<br>.<br>.<br> <br>1975|<br>1980|<br>1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|...<br>.....<br>. .....................<br>*...<br>......<br>|................||...................|...............<br>......**..**...|
|1 L Uganda<br>41.5|<br>37.7<br>|44.0<br> <br>|<br>49.5<br> <br>|<br>65.0<br> <br>|
|1 L Zaire<br>72.7|<br>97.9|<br>97.5|<br>94.4|<br>94.2|
|1 L Zambia<br>55.5|<br>89.7|<br>96.6|<br>98.0|106.0|
|1 M Zimbabwe<br>77.8|<br>69.8|<br>69.9|<br>84.9|135.1|
|<br>|<br> <br>...........|<br> <br>...............|<br>...............|....................................|
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)<br>69.9|<br>72.0|<br>76.3|<br>77.9|<br>87.4|
|(U)<br>50.2|<br>55.2|<br>59.7|<br>68.9|<br>74.2|
|WITHOUT INDIA (W)<br>48.3|<br>54.2|<br>62.5|<br>62.0|<br>65.8|
|---------.|||||
|2 L Bangladesh<br>50.2|<br>54.3|<br>73.4|<br>61.6|<br>60.1|
|<br>2 L Bhutan<br>6.0|<br>5.8|<br>8.6|<br>15.7|<br>26.5|
|2 L India<br>76.9|<br>77.8|<br>80.9|<br>83.3|<br>95.0|
|2 L Myanmar<br>67.9|<br>87.6|<br>84.9|<br>90.9|104.5|
|<br>2 L Nepal<br>25.0|<br>26.2|<br>51.5|<br>88.3|<br>82.2|
|<br>2 L Pakistan<br>33.0|<br>35.8|<br>41.0|<br>39.3|<br>48.2|
|2 L Sri Lanka<br>92.5|<br>99.0|<br>77.4|102.9|103.0|
|.......................................................................|..._||||
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)<br>100.5|89.9|114.8|110.5|119.6|
|(U)<br>84.4|<br>83.1|<br>90.3|<br>95.3|102.2|
|(LW)<br>101.2|89.0|117.0|111.3|122.5|
|<br>(MW)<br>95.6|<br>96.7|<br>98.5|104.9|<br>99.7|
|WITHOUT CHINA (W)<br>83.5|<br>86.7|<br>90.9|104.7|108.1|
|..................................|||||
|3L China<br>105.8|90.9|122.2|112.4|123.5|
|3 N Hong kong<br>99.5|116.6|119.6|106.5|104.5|
|<br>3L Indonesia<br>71.9|<br>80.0|<br>86.0|107.2|117.6|
|3 L Kampuchea<br>82.1|<br>30.3|<br>39.8|<br>47.4|101.8|
|<br>3M Korea, Republic of<br>100.7|103.4|106.9|109.9|<br>96.4|
|<br>3LLao, PDR<br>41.9|<br>57.0|<br>67.0|<br>94.0|<br>94.0|
|3M Malaysia<br>86.4|<br>88.7|<br>94.5|<br>92.6|100.2|
|<br>3 N Papua New Guinea<br>43.9|<br>51.6|<br>57.1|<br>58.9|<br>64.0|
|<br> <br>3N Philippines<br>112.1|<br> <br>108.3|<br> <br>107.1|<br> <br>112.6|<br>106.2|
|<br> <br>3 N Singapore<br>105.3|<br>105.5|<br>109.7|<br>107.7|<br>119.7|
|<br>3 M Thaillard<br>78.4|<br>81.4|<br>83.6|<br>98.9|<br>96.1|
|<br> <br>3 N Talwan|||||
||...........|...............|...............|....................................|
|4<br>EMENA<br>(W)<br>78.9|<br>83.2|<br>88.5|<br>89.5|<br>95.9|
|<br> <br> <br>(U'<br>70.5|<br>73.8|<br>83.4|<br>87.5|<br>93.2|
|<br>...............................<br>.....|................|...............|...||
|4 L AfL;ianistan<br>21.7|<br>26.9|<br>24.8|<br>33.7|<br>20.0|
|<br>4 M Algeria<br>67.7.|<br>76.1|<br>92.7|<br>94.8|<br>93.0|
|<br>4MBahrain|||||
|<br>4 N Egypt, Arab Rep. of<br>71.7|<br>72.1|<br>75.0|<br>77.8|<br>87.0|
|<br>4 N Greece<br>1097|1072|1044|1029|1042|
|<br>.<br>4 M Iran Islamic Re of<br>634|.<br> <br>725|.<br> <br>932|.<br> <br>872|.<br>1070|
|, p.<br>.<br>4 M Iraq<br>73.8|<br>.<br> <br>68.8|<br>.<br> <br>98.6|<br>.<br>114.6|.<br> <br>99.9|
|<br> <br>4 N Israel<br>94.7|<br> <br> <br>95.9|<br> <br> <br>96.5|<br> <br>95.0|<br><br> <br>96.8|
|4N Jordan<br>941|<br>720|<br>865|<br>816|<br>854|
|<br>.<br>....|<br>.<br>..........|<br>.<br>...............<br>....|<br>.<br>...............<br>...............|<br>.<br>........<br>.....|
81

||1960<br>1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|......<br>...............<br>_...............<br>|...<br>..<br>|............................<br>|................<br> 926|1021|960|
|4 M Kuwait<br>|117.2<br>|88.1<br>|.<br>|.<br>|.<br>|
|4 N Lebanon<br>|110.6|121.4|106.4|111.4|111.8|
|4NLibyan Arab Republic<br>||||||
|4 H Malta<br>||||||
|4 M Morocco<br>|56.7<br>|51.5<br> <br>|62.0<br>|83.0<br>597|77.5<br>885|
|4 N Oman<br>|0.0<br>|<br>3.3<br>|44.0<br>|.<br>|.<br>|
|4 M Portugal<br>|88.7<br>|94.9<br>|116.8<br>|123.2<br>|123.7<br>|
|4 M Saudi Arabia<br>|33.7<br>|45.3<br>|57.5<br>|62.6<br>|69.4<br>|
|4 N Spain<br>|115.1<br> <br>|122.8<br>|111.2<br>|109.0<br>|112.9<br>|
|4 M Syrian Arab Republlc<br>|<br>69.6<br>|77.5<br>|95.6<br>|101.6<br>|108.4<br>|
|4MTunisia<br>|91.2<br>|100.4<br>|97.4<br>|103.1<br>|116.4<br>|
|4 M Turkey<br>|100.8<br>|109.6<br>|107.6<br>|96.4<br>|113.3<br>|
|4 M Yemen Arab Republic<br>|9.9<br>|12.4<br>|28.8<br>|45.9<br>|82.3<br>|
|4 L Yemen, PDR<br>.................<br> <br>|20.6<br>|57.1<br>.......<br>|81.0<br>..............<br>|65.0<br>................<br>|70.2<br>..........................<br>|
|5<br>LAC (W)<br>|98.1<br>|114.8<br>|98.5<br>|106.0<br>|107.5<br>|
|(U)|92.2|98.9|97.9|101.6|103.6|
|||=<br>e|<br>||*<br>|
|...<br>...<br>...<br>...<br>...<br>..<br>|..<br>...<br>...<br>...<br>|.....<br> <br>.. <br>|<br>..<br>....<br>|...<br>...<br>|<br>.. ...<br>. .<br>|
|5M Argentina<br>|101.0|105.4|106.1|106.1|107.4|
|5MBahamas<br>||||||
|5 N Barbados<br>||||||
|5 M Bolivia<br>|84.0<br>|76.2<br>|84.9<br>|84.3<br>|89.0<br>|
|5 M Brazil<br>|107.2<br>|143.1<br>|87.8<br>|98.9<br>|100.9<br>|
|5 M Chile<br>|119.0<br>|104.8<br>|112.2<br>|108.8<br>|105.7<br>|
|5MColombla<br>|87.4<br>|108.4<br>|117.9<br>|128.5<br>|117.2<br>|
|5N Costa Rica<br>|107.6<br>|109.7<br>|107.0<br>|104.8<br>|97.4<br>|
|SM Cuba<br> <br>|127.9<br>|120.9<br>|124.4<br>|108.4<br>|104.4<br>|
|5M Dominican<br>Republic<br>|87.3<br>|98.4<br>|102.2<br>|117.6<br>|126.5<br>|
|5 N Ecuador<br>|88.9<br>|96.2<br>|101.0<br>|113.1<br>|112.4<br>|
|5N El Salvador<br>|75.8<br>|84.0<br>|74.4<br>|74.9<br>|75.1<br>|
|5 M Guatemala<br>|50.5|58.3|63.2|70.8|76.5|
|5L Guyana<br>||||||
|5 L Haiti|47.9<br>|53.7<br>|62.3<br>|73.6<br>|95.4<br>|
|5 N Honduras<br>|77.4<br>|88.2<br>|87.6<br>|92.8<br>|101.9<br>|
|5 M Jamaica<br>|108.9<br>|118.8<br>|97.5<br>|100.7<br>|105.6<br>|
|5Mri.xico<br>|88.8<br>|99.7<br>|105.0<br>|115.5<br>|118.6<br>|
|5N Nicaragua<br>|67.1<br>|80.0<br>|82.0<br>|99.0<br>|101.5<br>|
|5 MPanama<br>|96.8<br>|99.1<br>|113.6<br>|106.2<br>|105.0<br>|
|5 M Paraguay<br>|93.7<br>|103.0<br>|99.3<br>|103.7<br>|102.5<br>|
|5 N Peru|101.9|106.6|113.5|114.0|122.4|
|5MSuriname||||||
|5 N Trinidad<br>and Tobago<br>|98.5<br>|110.9<br>|105.2<br>|97.6<br>|94.7<br>|
|5 M Uruguay<br>|113.4<br>|112.1<br>|106.6<br>|106.4<br>|110.2<br>|
|5M Venezuela|97.2|98.6|99.7|108.7|108.5|
|<br>..............................................|....................|||||

-..--. --. ----------
82 ................ ........

|, .**.**......<br>...............................<br>..<br>..........................<br>6<br>EASTERN EUROPE (W)|...<br>...........<br>1960<br>.....................|..<br>...............<br>1965 1970<br>............................................<br>98.1 103.8<br>|..................<br>1975 1980 1985<br>101.8 99.7 99.6<br>|MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|(U)||97.6 103.1|101.3 99.2 99.6||
|6MBulgaria||103.3 100.9<br>|98.8 97.8 102.3<br>||
|6 H Czechoslovakia||98.7 96.9<br>|96.4 91.6 98.9<br>||
|6 H GDR||67.3 107.4<br>|105.3 107.6 101.7<br>||
|6 H Hungary||101.7 97.5<br>|98.7 96.4 98.5<br>||
|6 M Poland||104.9 101.3<br>|100.4 99.6 101.1<br>||
|6 M Romania||101.6 111.9<br>|107.2 101.6 98.0<br>||
|6 M Yugoslavia<br>..................................................|...............|105.9 105.7<br>..........|102.6 99.7 96.9||

Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low income;<sup>M-middle income;</sup> LW - low income weighted average; MW - middle income weighted average. Source: Lockheed, Verspoor and others. 1990.
83

# Education 3 : PRIMARY SCHOOL COMPLETION<sup>RATES</sup>

|1960|1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1<br>AFRICA<br>(W)||||||
|(U)<br>||50.2|64.3|67.5|67.2|
|(LW)<br>(NW)||||||
|1MAngola||||||
|1 L Benin||||||
|1 H Botswana||49.6<br>|81.8<br>|73.3<br>|89.3<br>|
|1 L Burkina Faso<br>||49<br>|61.7<br>|74.9<br>|73.8<br>|
|1 L Burundi||8.6|45.6|94.3|86.7|
|1 MCameroon||||||
|1 L Cape Verde||||||
|1 L Central African Rep.||29.7|54.3|52.6|16.9|
|1 L Chad||||||
|1 L Comoros||||||
|1 N Congo, P.R.<br>||73.4|70.5<br>|74.2<br>|70.7<br>|
|1N CBte dltvoire|||86.5|96.2|89.5|
|1 L Djibouti||||||
|1 L Equatorial Guinea||||||
|1 L Ethiopia<br>||||49.8|49.6|
|1XGabon||||||
|1 L Gambia, The||||||
|iL Ghana||71.6|76|81.5||
|1L Guinea||||||
|1 LGuinea-Bissau||||||
|1 L Kenya||||||
|1LLesotho||21.9|34.1|48.4|51.7|
|1 L Liberia||||||
|1 L Madagascar||||||
|1 LNalawi|||29.6<br>|34<br>|46.3<br>|
|1 L Mali<br>||44.2|57.8|36.4|3S.6|
|1 L Mauritatila||||||
|1MMauritius|||||95.9|
|1 L Nozambique||||||
|1 L Niger||||||
|1 L Nigeria||||||
|1 L Rwanda||30|48.3|62.8|61.7|
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe||||||
|I M Senegal||71.1||85.9|82.9|
|<br>1 L Sierra Leone||||||
|1 L Somalia||||||
|1 L Sudan||||||
|1 N SwazLland||||||
|1 L Tanzania||58.6|83.8<br>|81.8<br>|80.8<br>|
|1 L Togo||68.9|75.9|42.9|59.2|
84

|1960<br>1965<br>1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|
|. ..........................<br>.....<br>..........<br>.t................||.......|..........................<br>.......**..**.............**...**<br>_ .....|
|1 L Uganda|77.6|75.7||
|1 L Zaire<br> <br>||||
|ILZambia<br>75.5|80.3|83.5|80.1|
|1 H Zimbabwe<br> <br>||||
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (U)<br>|21.2<br>|20.4<br>||
|(U)|21.2|20.4||
|<br>WITHOUT INDIA (W)<br>|21.2|20.4||
|O**.**<br>...<br>..<br>.................<br>._........................................<br>|||..<br>_.. ..<br>__._....|
|2 L Bangladesh|21.2|20.4||
|2LBhutan||||
|2LIndia<br>||||
|2 L Myanmar||||
|2LNepal||||
|2 LPakistan||||
|2 L SriLanka||||
|<br> <br>.........<br>...........................|||............|
|.**...........**..........<br>....<br>..........<br> <br>3<br>EAST ASIA (W)||||
|(U)<br>94.5|76.8|89.6|99.0|
|(LW)||||
|(NW)||||
|WITHOUT CHINA (W)||||
|3 L China||||
|3 N Hong kong||97.7||
|3 L Indonesia||||
|3 L Kampuchea||||
|3 N Korea, Republic of<br>95.2|92.4|93.9|99|
|3 L Lao, PDR<br>||||
|3N Malaysia||||
|3 N Papua New Guinea<br>||||
|3N Philippines||||
|3 N Singapore<br>93.7|94.9|90||
|3 N Thailand|43|76.7||
|3 N Taiwan<br> <br> <br>,..........|...............|.............|.....**..**..............**.....**..|
|__..........<br>..............................<br> <br>4<br>EHENA<br>(W)||||
|(U)<br>7C.6|80.2|75.9|86.5|
|**...**....................................................................<br>...................................|..|||
|4 L Afghanistan<br>.<br>||||
|4 N Algeria<br>68.7|71.2|76.5|90.2|
|4 N Bahrain||||
|4 N Egypt,<br>Arab Rep. of<br>77.9|83.9|85.1|93.4|
|4 N Greece||||
|4 N I<br>Ili<br>R f||||
|ran,<br>samc<br>ep. o||||
|4 N Iraq||||
|4 N Israel||||
|4 N Jd<br>714|067|97||
|oran<br>.<br>..**.**....<br>....................<br>_..........<br>..............................|.||-.-......--<br>...<br>_,|
85

|1960<br>1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|4 N Kuwait|||||
|4 N Lebanon|||||
|4 N Libyan Arab Republic<br>|||||
|4 NMalta|||||
|4 NMorocco|67.3|79.4|79.9|68.9|
|4MOman|||||
|4 M Portugal|||||
|4 M Saudi Arabia|||||
|4MSpain|||||
|4MSyrian<br>Arab Republic|82.7|<br>79|86.5|<br>93.4|
|4MTunisia|55.5|80.7|78|77.1|
|4 N Turkey||||95.9|
|4MYemen Arab Republic|||28.4||
|4 L Yemen, PDR|||||
|.**.**....<br>___......_.._.........**....................**<br>...........<br>.....|............................|||....|
|5<br>LAC (W)|||||
|(U)|54.2|<br>60.5|59.3|<br>60.0|
|. .......<br>..<br>.....................................................||||...<br>.........................................<br>.........**....**|
|5MArgentina|63.7|<br>65.7|||
|5 M Bahamas|||||
|5 M Barbados|||||
|5 N Bolivia|||||
|5 N Brazil|||||
|5M Chile|77.3|<br>66.7|||
|5 N Colombia|||||
|5 N Costa Rica|70.8|<br>77.1|74.9|80.5|
|5 N Cuba|||||
|5 M Dominican Republic|||||
|S N Ecuador|46.2|57|65.1||
|3 M El Salvador|23.9|28.9|59.7||
|SMGuatemala|30.8|32.2|41.3|35.5|
|5 L Guyana|||||
|<br>5LHaiti|||31.2|32.1|
|5 M Honduras|||36.7||
|5 N Jamaica||74.5|||
|5M Mexico||64.8|65.6|71.4|
|5 tI Nicaragua|30|28.6|37.5|19.7|
|<br>5 M Panama|85.5|75.1|72.8|81.6|
|5 M Paraguay|||||
|<br>5 M Peru||65.8|70.2||
|5 N Suriname|||||
|5 N Trinidad and Tobago|||||
|5 M Uruguay||88.9|88.1|85.9|
|5 N Venezuela|595|612|685|731|
|<br>...................................................|.|.<br>*....|.<br>...............|.<br>....|
86 ._._. _.. ... _> __.................... _..........__.. ... .. _.............. 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 MRE 6 EASTERN EUROPE (W) (U) **...** _ __..............,_.... **.** ... __.... .......... __.____.. **.** . .......... .............................. _ 6 N Bulgaria 6 N Czechoslovakia 6 M GDR 6 X Hungary 6 N Poland 6 N Romania 6 N Yugoslavia

-... _--.... **-** .-.--------...--....-----..- **--** __ ..-..--.---.-.-... ._ .______

Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L<sup>-</sup> low income; N - middle income; LW - low incomd weighted average; NW - middle<sup>income weighted average.</sup> Source: Lockheed, Verspoor and others. 1990.
87

# Education 4 : PRINARY STUDENTS IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS

|1960<br>1965|<br>1970|<br>1975|<br>1980|<br>1985<br>MRE<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|1<br>AFRICA<br>(W)<br>26.8|<br>22.8|<br>20.6|<br>13.2|<br>11.8|
|(U)<br>31.5|<br>24.8|<br>24.1|<br>16.1|<br>10.7|
|(LW)<br>21.0|<br>17.4|<br>15.5|<br>7.8|<br>6.8|
|(MW)<br>45.0|<br>41.8|<br>37.8|<br>33.7|<br>32.7|
|1 M Angola<br> <br>|<br>|<br>|0.0<br> <br>|0.0<br>|
|_1_L Benin<br>42.2|<br>34.2|<br>6.4|<br>3.4|0.0|
|1 M Botswana<br>4.4|<br>5.2|<br>5.4|<br>4.7|2.8|
|1LBurkina Faso<br>34.6|<br>3.5|7.2|8.4|8.7|
|1 L Burundi<br>95.7|<br>93.9|<br>92.4|<br>4.3|1.2|
|1 4 Cameroon<br>61.0|<br>53.6|<br>42.9|<br>36.3|<br>33.8|
|1 L Cape Verde|||||
|1 L Central African Rep.<br>0.0|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|0.0|
|1 L Chad<br>12.4|<br>8.0|<br>9.7||5.5|
|1 L Comoros|||||
|1 N Congo, P.R.<br>0.0|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|0.0|
|1M C6te d'Ivoire<br>27.8|<br>21.8|<br>18.6|<br>14.0|<br>11.2|
|1 L Dilbouti|||||
|1L Equatorial Guinea|||||
|1 L Ethiopia<br>25.2|<br>28.1|<br>28.6|<br>15.6|<br>11.0|
|IM Gabon<br>52.8<br>|49.4|<br>45.1|<br>39.0|<br>33.4|
|1L Gambia, The|||||
|1L Ghana|2.1|||6.3|
|1 L Guinea<br>0.0|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|0.0|
|1 L Guinea-Bissau|||||
|1 L Kenya<br>4.1|<br>3.4|<br>0.0|||
|1 L Lesotho<br>95.8|100.0|100.0|100.0||
|1 L Liberia<br>25.1|<br>34.3|<br>34.6|<br>34.6|33.4|
|1L Madagascar<br>27.2|<br>24.4|<br>23.3|<br>12.7|13.2|
|1 L Malawi<br>76.9|<br>11.2|<br>10.2|<br>6.8|5.5|
|1 L Mali<br>7.4|<br>5.9|<br>6.0|<br>4.2|4.2|
|1L Mauritania<br>0.0|<br>0.0|||0.1|
|1 M Nauritius<br>33.6|<br>29.3|<br>27.8|<br>25.9|23.2|
|1 L Mozambique|||0.0|0.0|
|1 LNiger<br>6.0|<br>6.1|<br>4.6|<br>3.0|2.7|
|1 L Nigeria<br>76.2|<br>37.7||||
|1 L Rvanda||0.0||0.6|
|1 L Sao Tome andPrincipe|||||
|1HSenegal<br>13.1|<br>12.4|<br>12.3|<br>11.0|8.8|
|1 L Sierra Leone||78.2|||
|1L Somalia<br>19.4|<br>25.1|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|0.0|
|1 L Sudan<br>2.4|4.3|2.0|<br>2.5|2.3|
|1 N Swaziland|||||
|1 L Tanzania<br>7.8|3.3|<br>3.7|<br>0.2|0.3|
|1 L Togo<br>39.7|<br>33.9|<br>28.6|<br>23.3|23.4|
|<br>. .__ ................<br>_. .......<br>__..............___................._._.._..|.....||||
88

|1960<br>1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**...** **...**.**.**.............<br>...........................................|||................|.<br>.|
|1 L Uganda|||||
|1 L Zaire<br>90.7|||||
|1 L Zambia|27.4<br>|24.4<br>|0.6<br>|0.3<br>|
|1 N Zimbabwe|86.6|86.6|83.5|87.6|
|2 SOUTH ASIA (W)|||||
|(U)<br>6.1|5.8|2.1|5.3|3.4|
|WITHOUT INDIA (W)|||||
|. ........................................................................||||.......................**..**..............**....**.<br>|
|2 L Bangladesh<br>6.1|5.8|4.1|14.6|11.0|
|2 L Bhutan|||||
|2 L India|||||
|2 L Nyanmar|||||
|2L Nl||||1.2|
|epa|||||
|2 L Pakistan||0.0|0.0<br>|0.0<br>|
|2 L Sri Latzha<br>|.|............................|1.3<br>..........|1.4<br>...**.**|
|=. .............................................<br> <br>|<br>|<br>|<br>||
|3 EAST ASIlk<br>(W)<br>2.5<br>|4.9<br>|4.1<br>|3.3<br>|3.1<br>|
|(U)<br>24.5|25.9|22.2|16.5<br>|18.1<br>|
|(LW)<br>1.6<br>|4.2<br>|3.3<br> <br>|2.7<br>|2.3<br>|
|(MW)<br>10.7<br> <br>|11.1<br>|<br>9.6<br>|8.4<br>|8.8<br>|
|WITHOUT CHINA (W)<br>11.4|22.3|18.3|14.5|13.0|
|3 L China<br>0.0<br>|0.0<br>|0.0<br>|0.0<br>|0.0<br>|
|3 N Hong kong<br>92.4<br>|92.5<br>|93.4<br>|94.2<br>|93.2<br>|
|3 L Indonesia<br>12.0|33.2<br>||20.7|17.3|
|3 L Kampuchea<br>5.4|3.3<br>||||
|3 N Korea, Republic<br>of<br>0.5<br>|1.1<br>|1.2<br>|1.3<br>|1.5<br>|
|3 L Lan, PDR<br>10.6|11.3||0.0|0.0|
|3 N Malaysia<br>|||||
|3 N Papua New Guinea<br>66.3<br>|63.0<br>|<br>|2.0<br>||
|3 N Philippines<br>4.5<br>|4.9<br>|5.3|5.6|6.0|
|3 N Singapore<br>39.8<br>|35.7<br>||<br>||
|3 N Thailand<br>13.1|14.2|11.1|<br>8.4|9.0|
|3 K Taiwan<br>_...........................................................|||.......|<br>...............|
|<br> <br>||||66|
|4<br>EMENA(W)<br>9.1|9.0|9.0|7.1|.|
|<br> <br>(U)<br>10.9|10.1|<br>7.1|8.1|9.3<br>---|
|..............<br>..........................................<br> <br>|||...<br>.......<br>|<br>. ......<br>....... ...**...**.......<br>|
|4 L Afghanistan<br>0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|
|<br>4 N Algeria<br>1.9|1.9|0.8|0.0|0.0|
|<br>4 N Bahrain|||||
|4 M Egypt, Arab Rep. of<br>12.9|10.9|<br>4.8|5.0|4.8|
|<br>4 N Greece<br>6.4|7.1|7.8|6.4|5.8|
|4 N Iran, Islamic Rep. of<br>6.2<br>|7.2<br>|7.6<br>|0.0<br>|0.0<br>|
|4 N Iraq<br>2.2<br>|2.2|0.0|0.0|0.0|
|4 N Israel|||||
|<br>4N Jordan<br>28.4|30.6|29.8|6.3|7.8|

.. **.** ....... **.** .- ---....... **.** . **.** ...

.. ,................. .............. ...........................................
89

|1960 1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|.<br>_....<br>..........<br>. ....<br>.......<br>. ...............<br>|.....|..................|................||
|4_N_Kuwait<br>8.0|24.0|17.5|16.0|28.3|
|4 N Lebanon<br>61.3|61.9||61.1|68.5|
|4 M Libyan Arab Republic<br>2.8<br>|<br>0.5|<br>1.7|<br>0.0|<br>0.0|
|4MMalta|||||
|4 N Morocco<br>6.4|<br>4.5|<br>4.7|<br>3.0|<br>3.4|
|4 M Oman|0.0|<br>0.3|<br>0.3|<br>1.2|
|4 N Portugal<br>5.1|<br>5.3|<br>4.8|<br>7.0|<br>6.7|
|4 N Saudi Arabia<br>6.5|<br>2.1|<br>2.6|<br>2.8|<br>3.2|
|4 M Spain<br>24.3|27.9|37.1|35.5|34.2|
|4 M Syrian Arab Republic<br>10.2|<br>6.1|<br>5.2|<br>4.8|<br>4.5|
|4 MTunisia<br>2.3|<br>1.3|<br>1.3|<br>0.9|<br>0.4|
|4 M Turkey<br>0.7|<br>0.5|<br>0.4|<br>0.4|<br>0.4|
|4 M Yemen Arab Republic|4.7|<br>1.0|<br>4.8|<br>5|
|4 L Yemen, PDR<br>10.1<br> <br> <br>|<br>3.8<br>||||
|5<br>IAC (W)<br>12.7|11.1|12.5|12.5|12.8|
|(U)<br>13.9<br>. ...<br>...<br>...............<br>..........<br>. ....<br>....|13.6<br>. ...........|15.9<br>.|17.1<br>....|18.4<br>......|
|_<br>_<br>5 M Argentina<br>13.8|15.9|17.3|17.8|18.6|
|5 M Bahamas|||||
|5 M Barbados|||||
|5 M Bolivia<br>25.9|15.8|<br>8.8||7.7|
|5 M Brazil<br>11.0|<br>7.5|12.9|12.8|12.1|
|5 M Chile<br>27.4|22.8|18.3|20.2|31.8|
|5 M Colombia<br>14.0|13.4|15.2|14.5|13.5|
|5 M Costs Rica<br>3.8|<br>3.5|<br>3.7|<br>2.6|<br>3.5|
|5 N Cuba|||||
|5M Dominican<br>Republic<br>7.3|11.6|12.2|17.8|24.1|
|5M Ecuador<br>18.4|17.9|16.9|15.9||
|5NEl Salvador<br>4.1|<br>4.8|<br>6.6|<br>7.2|<br>8.1|
|5 M Guatemala<br>19.1|15.5|13.6|14.2|13.7|
|5 L Guyana|||||
|5 L Haiti<br>26.3|37.7|42.5|56.8|58.5|
|5 N Honduras<br>6.6|<br>5.9|<br>5.2|<br>5.3|<br>5.1|
|5 M Jamaica||5.1|<br>3.7||
|5 N Mexico<br>9.5|<br>7.8|<br>6.0|<br>4.9|5.0|
|5 M Nicaragua<br>15.7|15.1|13.3|11.8|13.3|
|<br>5 M Panama<br>5.1|5.4|<br>5.0|<br>6.3|7.5|
|5 M Paraguay<br>10.4|12.9|||13.7|
|<br>5MPeru<br>14.¶|14.5|12.9|13.1|14.4|
|5 M Suriname|||||
|5 M Trinidad<br>and Tobago||73.7|72.9|72.1|
|5 M Uruguay<br>18.1|18.5|17.2|16.4|15.4|
|<br>5 M Venezuela<br>13.0|11.7|11.1|11.1|11.5|
|<br> <br>.............<br>_..........................................|<br>...<br>..........|<br>. .. .......|<br>.............. ......|<br>.........................................**.**...................|
90

|1960|1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|......<br>...............<br>..<br>.............<br> <br>|_........<br>|...........<br>||...................<br>|...........................<br>|.......................<br>.|
|6<br>EASTERN EUROPE (W)|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0||
|(U)|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0||
|6NBulgaria|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0||
|6 4 Czechoslovakia|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|<br>0.0||
|6 M GDR|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|<br>0.0||
|6 N Hungary|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|<br>0.0||
|6N Poland|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|<br>0.0||
|6 M Romania|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|<br>0.0||
|6MYugoslavia<br>...<br>.....<br>_....<br>..........<br>...<br>......<br>,.|0.0<br>......<br>......|0.0<br>..............|0.0|0.0<br>_...|<br>0.0<br>......<br>....|....<br>...........................<br>_......_..........|

Note: U - unweighted; V - weighted; L - low income; M - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; KW - middle income weighted average. Source: Lockheed, Verspoor and others. 1990.
91

# Education 5 : STUDENT/SCHOOL RATXOS

|..<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>.<br>.<br>......<br>1960<br>.....<br>, ..............<br>................<br>.................................<br>1<br>AFRICA<br>|......................<br>1965<br>.................<br>|...<br>1970<br>|1975<br>|0.<br>1980<br>|.<br>..<br>.<br>..<br>.<br>1985<br>MRE<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|<br> <br>(W)<br>|190<br>|218<br> <br>|262<br> <br>|310<br>|305<br>|
|(U)<br>(LW)|187<br>188|<br>217<br>217|<br>40<br>263|264<br> <br>312|284<br>303|
|<br>(MW)|<br>212|<br>229|<br>|<br> <br> <br>||
|<br>|||257|<br>294|330|
|1 M Angola|84|99||213||
|<br>1 LBenin|<br>|<br>||||
|<br>|179<br>|173<br>|200<br>|165<br>|165|
|1 M Botswana<br>|331<br>|277<br>|388<br>|430<br>|447<br>|
|1 L Burkina Faso<br>|150|176<br>|202<br>|224<br>|195<br>|
|1 L Burundi<br>||182<br>|216<br>|251<br>|386<br>|
|1MCameroon<br>1 4|181|227|250|276|289|
|L Cpe Verde<br>1 L l||||||
|Centra African Rep.<br>1|183<br>|220<br>|316<br>|308|310<br>|
|L Chad<br>1 L|273|230|264||281|
|Comoros<br>1 M Cono PR||||||
|g, ..<br>1HC6te d'Ii|233<br>|268<br>|319<br>|301<br>|297<br>|
|vore<br>1Lii|197|219|232|213|197|
|Djbout<br>1 L Etil<br>||||||
|quaora<br>Guinea<br>1 ii||||||
|L Ethopa<br>1M b|237<br>|285<br>|293<br>|367<br>|310<br>|
|Gaon<br>1 i|132|144|184|172|204|
|L Gamba, The<br>1L||||||
|Ghana<br>1 L Gi|136<br>|131<br>|165<br>|177<br>|167<br>|
|unea<br>|107|96|95|99|120|
|1 L Guinea-Bissau<br>||||||
|1 L Kenya<br>|204|234<br>|351<br>|381<br>|365<br>|
|1 L Lesotho<br>1 L Libi||131<br>|202<br>|223<br>|270|
|era<br>1 d|105<br>|134<br>|136<br>|92<br>||
|L Maagascar<br>|178<br>|162<br>|151<br>|127<br>|116<br>|
|1 L MalaWi<br>1 i|135<br>|181<br>|306<br>|352<br>|377<br>|
|L Mal<br>|200|271|229|243<br>|225<br>|
|1 L Mauritania<br>1||||151<br>|157<br>|
|M Mauritius<br>|448<br>|501<br>||429<br>|469|
|1 L Mozambique<br>|122<br>|121<br>|216<br>|243<br>||
|1 L Niger<br>|124<br>|127<br>|119<br>|135|145|
|1 L Nigeria<br>|194|236<br>|291<br>|377|365|
|1 L RWanda<br>||210|236|441|523|
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe<br>||||||
|1SSenegal<br>|182<br>|||247|254|
|1 L Sierra *eone<br>|140|166|187|263||
|1 L Somalia<br>|96|163|282|194|162|
|1 L Sudan<br>|171|201|249|244|256|
|1 H Swaziland<br>||||||
|1 L Tanzania<br>1L|208<br>|204<br>|275<br>|344<br>|311<br>|
|Togo<br>...................................................................|195|254|259|230|201|
92

|~~~.<br>.<br>.....<br>4..............<br>..<br>..<br>1960<br>1965|..<br>.<br>..<br>1970|..<br>..<br>1975|..<br>.<br>..<br>1980|..<br>..<br>.<br>1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|................................................................<br> <br>|............<br>||||
|**_1_**L Uganda<br>219|257|278|301||
|<br>1 L Zaire<br>209|643||||
|1 L Zambia<br>205<br> <br>|267<br>|323<br>|372<br>|435<br>|
|1 N Zimbabwe<br>218|194|240|386|527|
|<br> <br>|...........<br>|..............<br>|..............<br>|....................................<br>'|
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)<br>129|140|147|151|.62|
|(U)<br>123|149|144|161|,17|
|WITHOUT INDIA(W)<br>130|141|155|146|154|
|...........................................................................|||||
|2 L Bangladesh<br>155|182|209|188|202|
|<br>2 L Bhutan||||454|
|2 L India<br>129|140|145|152|164|
|2 L Nyanmar<br>167|<br>183|<br>186|<br>189||
|2 LNepal<br>68||65|106|<br>153|
|2 L Pakistan<br>96|91|99|92|90|
|2 L Sri Lanka||161|237|241|
|..........................................................................<br>|||||
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)<br>124|158|181|<br>195|<br>191|
|(U)<br>298|376|358|<br>408|400|
|(LW)<br>77<br> <br>|116<br>|142<br>|<br>159<br>|<br>160<br>|
|(NW)<br>491|510|499|507|463|
|<br>WITHOUT<br>CHINA (W)<br>336|348|350|328|297|
|........................................................................<br> <br>|||||
|3L China<br>69|110|135|159|161|
|3 M Hong kong<br>351|493|384|675|670|
|3L Indonesia<br>227|232|244|198|177|
|3L Kampuchea<br>205|225||||
|3 N Korea, Republic<br>of<br>969|958|875|870|747|
|<br>3 L Lao, PDR<br>60|74|85|76|65|
|3 M Malaysia|263|296|314|328|
|3 M Papua New Guinea<br>42|119|132|143||
|3 N Philippines<br>166||247|263|270|
|<br>3 N Singapore<br>714|909|821|972|9l2|
|3MThailand<br>178||158||221|
|3 N Taiwan|||||
|..........................................................................<br> <br> <br>|||||
|4<br>EMENA (W)<br>257<br> <br>|267|271|281|305|
|(U)<br>254|278|275|313|330|
|.....<br>............<br>........<br>.......................<br> <br>|<br>|.....<br>..<br> <br>|..<br>....<br>...<br>|...<br>..<br>...<br>v.. .......<br>|
|4 L Afghanistan<br>188|180|231|294|726|
|<br> <br>4 N Algeria<br>309|<br>309|<br>341|<br>335|305|
|<br>4 M Bahrain|||||
|<br>4 M Egypt, Arab Rep. of<br>437|441|406|385|441|
|<br>4 M Greece<br>94|96|97|95|102|
|4 N Iran, Islamic Rep. of<br>112|132|122|122|135|
|<br>.t**_M_**Iraq<br>214|196|234|231|348|
|<br>4 M Israel<br>318|2)9|357|389|437|
|4**_M_**Jordan<br>246|<br>308|322|413|442|

**..** .......................................................................  ................. .....................
93

|,...................................<br>1960<br>|.........<br>1965<br>|...<br>1970<br>|........................<br>1975<br>|1980<br>|1985<br>MRE<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|4MKuwait|496|755|559|745|577|
|4MLebanon|142|242||185|157|
|4 N Libyan Arab Republic|329|<br>269|<br>278|<br>255||
|4 M Malta||||||
|4 N Morocco|797|<br>784|<br>815|<br>944|<br>633|
|4 M Oman|||273|<br>460|592|
|4 M Portugal|51|58|<br>92|99|97|
|4 M Saudi Arabia|197|<br>222|<br>194|<br>163|<br>172|
|4 M Spain|||120||184|
|4 M Syrian Arab Republic|153|<br>168|<br>182|<br>199|<br>226|
|4 N Tunisia|367|<br>425|406|390|<br>380|
|4 M Turkey|131|<br>131|<br>130|<br>124|<br>139|
|4 M Yemen Arab Republic|69|110|<br>121|141|<br>169|
|4 L Yemen, PDR<br> <br>|168<br>|<br>149<br> <br>|<br>229<br> <br>|297<br>|<br>|
|5<br>LAC (W)|124|<br>141|<br>150|154|<br>166|
|(U)|153|<br>175|<br>176|183|<br>178|
|......- -<br>.<br>---<br>--..<br>--<br>.<br>---<br>--<br>....|.-|_<br>o<br>.......|...|......<br>..|...<br>.............<br>...............**......**..|
|5 M Argentina|164|<br>171|<br>173|184|222|
|5N Bahamas||||||
|5 N Barbados||||||
|5N Bolivia|72|83|90||14'|
|5 N Brazil|80|88|104|112|132|
|5 M Chile|212|<br>276|<br>270|273|240|
|5 N Colombia|96|121|<br>118|124|119|
|N<br>M Costa Rica|132|<br>140|<br>129|120|117|
|5 M Cuba|87|101|<br>121|120|106|
|5 N Dominican<br>Republic||147|166|240|194|
|5 N Ecuador|119|<br>132|1-|133||
|SM El Salvador|141|<br>182|24-|261|34fl|
|5 M Guatemala|91|95|103|115|12,|
|5 L Guyana||||||
|5 L Haiti|149|<br>167|174|195|236|
|5 t: Honduras|75|93|100|109|117|
|5 N Jamaica|463|537|413|399||
|5 M Mexico|177|<br>201|206|192|197|
|5 M Nicaragua|98|136|148|107|140|
|<br>5 N Panama|127|<br>142|152|147|136|
|5 M Paraguay|132|<br>141|||146|
|<br>S M Peru|103|<br>127|144|152|153|
|5 N Suriname||||||
|5 N rinidad and Tobago|424|451|398|334|337|
|<br>5 N Uruguay|146|<br>154|140|144|148|
|5 M Venezuela|133|169|177|200|210|
|<br>.<br>**..**.<br>.<br>....<br>.........<br>..<br>. ...<br>...<br>..<br>. .....|<br>..........|<br>...|<br>..............|||
94

|.<br>,.....................<br>-.........|....................................<br>1960|....<br>1965|1970|1975|1980<br>|1985<br>|MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|6<br>EASTERN EUROPE (W)||201<br>|186<br>|217<br>|246<br>|248<br>||
|(U)||208|193|216|248|263||
|6 N Bulgaria||233<br>|269<br>|288<br>|311<br>|360<br>||
|6 M Czechoslovakia||197<br>|182<br>|202<br>|280<br>|329<br>||
|6 M GDR||281<br>|187<br>|189<br>|152<br>|154<br>||
|6 M Hungary||236<br>|203<br>|234<br>|323<br>|371<br>||
|6 M Poland||195<br>|201<br>|293<br>|331<br>|295<br>||
|6 M Romania||195<br>|193<br>|197<br>|225<br>|215<br>||
|6 M Yugoslavia||117|113|112|113|120||

. ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: U - unweighted; W weighted; L - low income; M - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; NW<sup>-middle income weighted average.</sup> Source: Lockheed, Verspoor and<sup>others. 1990.</sup>
95

# Education 6 : STUDENT TEACHER RATIOS

|.**...**........................................................................................................<br>1960|1965|1970|1975|1980<br>|1985|.......<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1<br>AFRICA (W)|42|43|43|45|43||
|(U)|45|45|46|45|43||
|(LW)|42|42|43|45|43||
|(KW)|45|45|44|44|42||
|...**..**.**...**<br>.....**...**........**......**..............<br>..<br>...<br>|_....................<br>|..........<br>|||.............<br>||
|1MAngola|45|44|41|40|39||
|1 L Benin|41|41|53|48|33||
|1MBotswana|40|36|33|32|32||
|1 L Burkina Faso|47|44|47|54|62||
|1 L Burundi|40|37|31|<br>35|56||
|1 M Cameroon|48|48|51|<br>52|51||
|1 L Cape Verde|||||||
|1 L Central African Rep.|54|<br>64|67|60|66||
|1 L Chad|83|<br>68|77|64|71||
|1 L Comoros|||||||
|1 M Congo, P.R.<br>|60|<br>62<br>|59<br>|54<br>|61||
|1 MC8te d'Ivoire|47|45|44|39|36||
|1L Djibouti<br> <br>|||||||
|1L Equatorial<br>Guinea|||||||
|1 L Ethiopia|41|48|44|64|48||
|1M Gabon|39|46|48|45|46||
|1 L Gambia, The|||||||
|1 L Ghana|32|30|30|29|23||
|1L Guinea|43|44|40|36|36||
|1L Guinea-Bissau|||||||
|1 L Kenya|34|34|33|38|34||
|1 L Lesotho|57|46|53|48|52||
|1L Liberia|32|36|38|41|29||
|1L Madagascar|71|65|60|44|38||
|1LMalawi|40|43|61|65|61||
|1 L Mali|46|40|41|42|34||
|1 L Mauritania|20|24|35|41|51||
|1 N Mauritius|34|32|26|20|22||
|1 L Mozambique|78|69|85|81|64||
|<br>1L Niger|42|39|39|41|37||
|<br>1 L Nigeria|33|34|35|37|44||
|<br>1 L Rwanda|67|60|50|59|56||
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe|||||||
|<br>1<br>S<br>Senegal|43|45|41|46|46||
|<br>1 L Sierra Leone|32|32|32|33|33||
|<br>1 L Somalia|<br>26|<br>33|<br>57|33|20||
|1 L Sudan|48|47|37|34|35||
|<br>} M Swaziland|||||||
|1 L Tanzania|52|47|54|41|34||
|1 L Togo|50|58|60|55|46||

............................................................................
96

|*w<br>..<br>.X ...<br>w<br>*<br>w<br>..<br>...<br>..<br>...<br>..........................................<br>1960<br>1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 L Uganda<br>35|34|34|34|31|
|1LZaire<br>37|43|42|42|41|
|1 L Zambia<br>51|47|48|49|49|
|1 M Zimbabwe<br>40|40|40|44|40|
|.........<br>.........................<br>_.......|....<br>......|<br>*......|..............|..<br>..... ...........**....**.........|
|2<br>SOUTH ASIA (W)<br>42|41|43|44|45|
|(U)<br>37|36|39|41|40|
|WIrTOUT INDIA (W)<br>43|42|44|45|43|
|2 L Bangladesh<br>45|46|51|54|47|
|<br>2 L Bhutan<br>22|22|26|31|37|
|2 L India<br>42|41|42|43|46|
|2 L Myanmar<br>53|47|52|52|45|
|2 L Nepal<br>25|22|29|38|35|
|2 L Pakistan<br>42|41|40|37|40|
|2L Sri Lanka<br>33|30|30|31|32|
|.**......**<br>**.......**.. ..........<br>..<br>...<br>. ....<br>....................<br>.|........|....................|...|....|
|3<br>EAST ASIA (W)<br>32|30|30|28|25|
|(U)<br>35|32|31|30|27|
|(LW)<br>32<br> <br>|29<br>|29<br>|28<br>|25<br>|
|(NW)<br>40|38|35|32|28|
|<br> <br>WITHOUT CHINA (W)<br>41|<br>33|<br>32|32|27|
|3L China<br>30|29|29|27|25|
|3N Hong kong<br>29|33|31|30|27|
|3 L Indonesia<br>41|29|29|32|25|
|3L Kampuchea<br>48|17|22|22|22|
|3N Korea, Republic<br>of<br>62|57|52|48|38|
|<br>3L Lao, PDR<br>37|36|27|30|25|
|<br>3N Malaysia<br>29|31|32|27|24|
|<br>3 N Papua New Guinea<br>19|30|32|31|31|
|<br>3 N Philippines<br>31|29|29|31|31|
|<br>3 N Singapore<br>29|30|30|31|27|
|<br>3T<br>Thailand<br>35|35|28|23|19|
|3 N Taiwan<br> <br> <br>|||||
|4<br>EMENA<br>(W)<br>38|35|32|29|2,|
|(U)<br>35|32|29|27|26|
|4 L Afghanistan<br>53|41|37|32|37|
|<br>4 N Algeria<br>43|40|41|35|28|
|<br>4 M Bahrain|||||
|4 N Egypt, Arab Rep. of<br>39|38|34|32|30|
|<br>4 M Greece<br>35|31|30|24|23|
|4 N Iran, Islamic Rep. of<br>32|32|29|27|22|
|<br>4 N Iraq<br>22|22|25|28|24|
|<br>4 M Israel<br>20|17|15|14|14|
|4 N Jordan<br>38<br>..................................................|39|35<br>...........|3?<br>.............|31|
97

|1960|1965|1970|1975|1980|1985<br>MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|....<br>,.......................................................................||||||
|4MKuwait|21|21|18|19|18|
|4 M Lebanon|23|23|17|18|18|
|4MLibyan Arab Republic|31|28|23|18|19|
|4 M Malta||||||
|4MMorocco|39|34|40|37|28|
|4 1 Oman|18|18|27|23|27|
|4 M Portugal|32|34|20|18|17|
|4MSaudi Arabia|22|24|20|18|16|
|4MSpain|34|34|29|28|25|
|4 M Syrian Arab Republic|36|37|34|28|26|
|4MTunisia|56|47|40|39|32|
|4 M Turkey|46|38|32|27|31|
|<br>4MYemen Arao Republic|56|51|37|39|50|
|<br>4 L Yemen, PDR|31|31|34|27|26|
|.........................................................................|..|||||
|5<br>LAC (W)|34|33|31|31|28|
|(U)|35|35|*33|<br>32|30|
|.........................................................................|..<br>|||||
|5MArgentina|20|19|18|20|20|
|<br>5 M Bahamas||||||
|5MBarbados||||||
|5MBolivia|28|27|22|20|25|
|5 MBrazil|28|25|22|26|24|
|5MUhile|37|39|35|34|33|
|5NColombia|36|38|32|31|30|
|5MCosta Rica|27|30|29|28|31|
|5 MCuba|29|27|23|17|14|
|5 M Dominican<br>Republic|53|55|51|50|44|
|<br>5MEcuador|36|37|38|36|33|
|5MEl Salvador|34|37|44|48|42|
|5MGuatemala|33|36|35|34|37|
|5LGuyana||||||
|5 L Haiti|46|47|41|44|38|
|5 M Honduras|29|35|35|37|38|
|5 M Jamaica|57|47|39|40|35|
|5 M Mexico|47|46|45|39|34|
|5 M Nicaragua|35|39|40|35|33|
|<br>5 M Panama|30|27|27|27|25|
|5 M Paraguay|30|32|29|27|25|
|<br>5 M Peru|36|35|39|37|35|
|5 4 Suriname||||||
|5 M Trinidad<br>and Tobago|38|35|31|24|22|
|<br>5 M Uruguay|31|29|24|22|25|
|<br>5MVenezuela|34|35|30|27|26|
|<br>.........................................................................|<br>..|||||
98 ,

|...<br>......................<br>6<br>ASTEVF EUROPE (W)|.......<br>.....<br>1960|................<br>.......................<br>1965<br>25|...................<br>................<br>1970<br>23|1975<br>21|1980<br>20|1985<br>19|MRE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|(U)||24|22|21|20|19||
|MBulgaria||23|22|20|19|18||
|6 M Czechoslovakia||23|<br>20|<br>20|21|<br>22||
|6 M GDR||20|<br>20|<br>20|16|<br>15||
|6 H Hungary||23|<br>18|<br>16|15|<br>15||
|6 M Poland||28|<br>25|<br>23|21|<br>16||
|6 M Romanla||23|<br>21|<br>20|21|<br>21||
|6 N Yugoslavia||31|<br>27|<br>25|24|<br>24||

. ..... .......... ......... .......................... ....................................................................

Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low income; X - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; NW - middle income weighted average. Source: Lockheed, Verspoor and others. 1990.
99

# Undernutrition 1: Index of Undernutrition

||1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|I AFRICA<br>(W)|10.13|9.15<br>|11.22<br>|7.54<br>|10.41<br>|
|(U)|9.75<br>|7.81<br>|8.91<br>|6.13<br>|6.21<br>|
|(LW)|10.44<br>|9.65<br>|11.86<br>|8.29<br>|11.29<br>|
|(MK)|7.71|5.22|6.24|1.93|3.88|
|1MAngola|19.27<br>|13.61<br>|18.94<br>|7.36<br>|16.38<br>|
|1L Benin|12.65|6.10<br>|13.09<br>|11.27<br>|4.66<br>|
|1NBotswana|12.97|8.82<br>|8.83<br>|7.23<br>|3.27<br>|
|1LBurkinaFaso|15.23|15.70<br>|15.92<br>|14.39<br>|12.02<br>|
|1L Burundi|-2.64<br>|-0.78<br>|-2.94<br>|1.11<br>|-0.44<br>|
|1 MCameroon<br>|10.37<br>|0.05<br>|-0.15<br>|8.21<br>|12.09<br>|
|1LCape Verde<br> <br> <br>|24.83<br>|20.06<br>|7.29<br>|-9.24<br>|-16.77<br>|
|1LCentral<br>African<br>Republic|5.52<br>|3.66<br>|0.28<br>|5.50<br>|14.74<br>|
|1 L Chad<br>|-0.81<br>|7.58<br>|23.65<br>|24.41<br>|26.91<br>|
|1L Comoros<br>|1.87<br>|5.24<br>|10.42<br>|11.39<br>|9.96<br>|
|1 N Congo,<br>P.R.<br>|-1.75<br>|3.02<br>|-4.79<br>|-11.33<br>|-17.54<br>|
|1NC6tedtIvoire|-2.14|-3.61|0.0|-10.22|.-<br>10.96|
|1L Djibouti||-|-|||
|1L Equatorial Guinea|-|-|-<br>|-<br>||
|1L Ethiopia|21.71|26.45|33.33|22.47<br>|31.16<br>|
|LN Gabon|19.62|18.10<br>|12.40<br>|2.81<br>|-7.19<br>|
|_L Gambia,<br>The|7.83<br>|2.83<br>|11.44<br>|9.49<br> <br>|1.12<br>|
|1L Ghana|15.24<br>|3.55<br>|6.00<br>|-<br>21.96<br>|25.77<br>|
|1 L Guinea|16.74<br>|13.30<br>|14.64<br>|21.83<br>|23.69<br>|
|1 LCuineaBissau|17.33<br>|14.04<br>|18.40<br>|17.47<br>|7.86<br>|
|1L Kenya|1.35|3.04|3.89<br>|4.10<br>|2.26<br>|
|1L Lesotho|9.42|11.72|10.34|-5.28<br>|-1.39<br>|
|1L Liberia|6.74<br>|4.36<br>|2.95<br>|-2.79<br>|-2.87<br>|
|1L Madagascar|-8.46|-8.37|-11.16<br>|-9.74<br>|-4.82<br>|
|1L Malawi|3.29<br>|-1.74<br>|-6.59<br>|-3.72<br>|-3.31<br>|
|1LMali|20.92|20.84|24.03<br>|26.80<br>|13.51<br>|
|1L Mauritania|10.67<br>|13.34<br>|21.42<br>|10.61<br>|1.40<br>|
|1KMauritius|-0.06<br>|-2.02<br>|-15.34<br>|-19.62<br>|.19.87<br>|
|1L Mozamblque|15.41<br>|11.80<br>|18.74<br>|22.63<br>|32.79<br>|
|1L Namibia|16.49|14.04|14.82|16.57<br>|19.84<br>|
|1LNIger|15.13|14.38|15.99|-0.54<br>|-0.57<br>|
|<br>1L Nigeria|7.43|9.34|12.07|4.47|9.20|
|<br>IL Rwanda|28.24|12.56|14.12|13.49|19.22|
|1L SaoTomeand Principe||-<br>|-<br>|-<br>|-<br>|
|IMSenegal|-4.17<br>|0.84<br>|4.75<br>|-0.88<br>|2.47<br>|
|1L Sierra<br>Leone<br>|20.14<br>|14.79<br>|15.77<br>|11.58<br>|17.66<br>|
|1L Somalia|6.18|3.73<br>|14.58<br>|9.12<br>|13.09<br>|
|1LSudan|17.55|5.83|11.08<br>.|-2.84|7.35|
100

||1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 N Swaziland|9.49|2.35|-6.98|-7.00|-8.23|
|1 L Tanzania|21.04|18.89|8.03|0.43|3.20|
|1 L Togo|-3.39|-2.66|9.44|5.30|3.27|
|1 L Uganda|-1.30|3.88|5.29|7.70|1.46|
|1L Zalre|1.50|-2.77|-3.07|4.36|2.58|
|1 L Zambia||-||||
|1IZimbabwe|11.92|8.21|14.26|10.57|9.28|
|2 South Asia<br>(U)|7.35|8.01|12.17|7.97|2.59|
|(U)|11.80|6.73|9.58|5.88|-0.80|
|Without<br>Indla (i)|16.30|9.11|12.08|8.73|4.09|
|2 L Bangladesh|14.65|11.31|20.d8|20.61|16.00|
|2L Bhutan|-|-|-|-|-|
|2 L India|4.48|7.65|12.20|7.71|2.07|
|2 L Nyanmar|11.27|4.57|2.26|-7.84|-20.84|
|2L Nepal|13.61|12.09|9.17|9.31|6.69|
|2L Pakistan|23.76|11.41|8.84|4.14|3.63|
|2L Sri Lanka|3.02|-6.66|4.11|1.38|-12.33|
|3 East Asia<br>(W)|16.74|12.79|9.28|-1.62|-11.50|
|(U)|7.96|0.60|1.28|-4.59|-9.87|
|<br>(LW)|18.00|14.49|11.12|-0.53|-11.62|
|(MW)|7.19|-0.16|-4.53|-9.39|-10.71|
|Without Mhina (U)|11.45|1.46|-1.50|-10.33|-11.50|
|3 L China|18.39|16.27|12.62|1.19|-11.50|
|3 N Hong Kong|-9.35|-16.69|-14.38|-18.18|-21.88|
|<br>3 L Indonesia|16.68|3.30|0.16|-12.88|-13.10|
|3 L Kampuchea|-2.51|-3.63|19.22|17.78|1.78|
|<br>3 M Korea,<br>Republic<br>of|4.01|-8.61|-18.68|-19.87|-21.11|
|<br> <br>3 L Lao. PDR|11.89|8.70|18.52|5.63|-3.82|
|3 M Malaysia|-0.32|-7.28|-12.72|-17.60|-22.91|
|<br>3 M Papua New Guinea|28.38|23.20|21.32|18.05|18.72|
|<br>3XPhllippines|14.88|8.93|7.68|-4.23|-3.36|
|3 N Singapore.|0.12|-18.97|-16.90|-15.96|-24.55|
|3MTaiwan|-||-|-|-|
|3 N Thailand|5.37|1.34|-2.73|-4.39|-6.82|
101

||1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|4m<br>iEEA(U)|2.19|-2.52|<br>-12.37|<br>-20.20|-26.67|
|(U)|5.03|-1.01|<br>-8.39|-17.82|-23.20|
|(LV)<br>(NW)|-7.28<br>-1.87|8.25<br>-3.20|7.91<br> <br>-13.67|5.78<br> <br>-21.87|5.58<br>-28.77|
|4 L Afghanistan|6.00|7.76|6.22|5.94|6.04|
|4 £ Algeria|29.97|24.28|8.50|-10.35|.2.04|
|4 N Bahrain|.|.|.|.||
|4MCyprus|-|-|-|-||
|4 M Egypt,<br>Arab Republic<br>of|4.39|1.56|-6.70|-20.29|.32.09|
|4MGreece|-21.96|-29.37|<br>-38.61|-41.47|.46.97|
|4 £ Iran, Islamic<br>Republic<br>of|8.56|5.64|-21.19|-23.30|-38.39|
|4 N Iraq<br>|10.79|6.37|2.S5|-12.91|-25.90|
|4MIsrael<br>|-8.33|-17.04|<br>-17.99|-15.09|-18.20|
|4 M Jordan|5.95|-8.48|6.40|-9.73|-21.84|
|4<br>Ma<br>Xuwsit<br>.<br>.<br>|.<br>.||||-|
|4 £Lebanon<br> <br>|-0.37|-1.69|.<br>-4.24|-<br>-21.73|-23.67|
|4£ LUbyan<br>Arab Republic|18.41|-6.25|-52.49|-54.25|-52.93|
|4£Halta<br>|-17.95|-20.73|-18.34|-20.15|-17.00|
|4 £ Morocco<br>|10.45|-0.82|-6-44|-14.11|-17.96|
|4£Oman|-|.<br>.||-||
|4 £ Portugal<br>|-2.73|-22.66|<br>-20.11|-23.92|-27.98|
|4N Saudi Arabia<br>|23.43|22.64|18.95|-15.99|-23.64|
|4£ Spain|-14.73|-17.29|-32.52|-36.00|-38.18|
|4£ Syrian<br>Arab Republic|11.51|5.85|-1.77|-18.46|-32.54|
|4 £ Tunisia<br>|7.89|4.38|-10.23|-14.98|-23.40|
|4M Turkey|-5.51|.-<br>13.31|-18.10|-22.96|-26.04|
|4'<br>MYemen Arab Republic<br>|17.95|26.57|16.07|8.87|6.99|
|4 L Yeen, PDR|17.76|12.30|22.30|4.42|1.74|
|S<br>LAC (U)|-2.74|-5.54|-7.71|-12.37|-13.88|
|(U)|1.31|-2.88|-3.74|-7.42|-9.62|
|(LW)|9.87|w1.38|13.10|13.71|12.95|
|(MU)|-2.98|-5.90|-8.09|-13.03|-14.33|
|5 £ Argentina|-21.14|-27.94|-24.06|-22.51|-20.58|
|<br>5 M Baha$as|-1.95|-7.87|<br>6.03|<br>-6.03|-12.68|
|5 £ Barbados|-7.03|-18.67|-21.94|-28.58|-30.67|
|SMBolivia|21.81|17.78|15.65|12.90|9.98|
|5 1 Brazil|-0.50|-2.63|-4.11|-10.19|-10.69|
|5 1 Chile|-6.23|-9.58|-3.71|-7.58|-4.68|
|S K Colombia|6.31|7.65|-0.22|-7.93|-10.06|
|5 M Costa Rica|-5.62|-7.19|-14.95|-16.81|-24.80|

.
102

||1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|SKCuba<br> <br>|-2.79<br>|-13.61<br>|-13.26|-23.34|-34.27|
|5 M Dominican<br>Republic<br>|17.19<br>|8.53|2.61|-3.77|-9.59|
|SMEcuador<br>|15.27|14.07|10.90|10.58|10.04|
|5 M E1 Salvador<br>|18.80<br>|19.86|9.82|4.89|6.17|
|5 M Guatemala<br>|7.43|3.72|0.47|-0.01|-5.19|
|5 L Guyana<br>|-0.28|-0.95|-1.22|-6.04|-7.32|
|5_L_Haiti<br>|11.49<br>|15.51<br>|15.21<br>|16.48|15.65|
|S K Honduras<br>|13.15<br>|4.01<br>|6.S7|3.74|8.03|
|5 MJamaica<br>|0.40<br>|*13.37<br>|-19.57<br>|-15.28<br>|-14.23|
|5 KMexico<br>|-13.46<br>|-16.34|-22.78|-31.21|-35.50|
|5 K Nicaragua<br> <br> <br>|-6.56|-7.95<br>|*5.50|-2.73|-10.77|
|S<br>5<br>Panaua<br>|2.39<br>|-0.40|0.02|-0.89|-4.86|
|S_M_Paraguay<br>|-13.71|-20.55<br>|-15.28|-19.75|*23.16|
|S M Peru<br>|1.07<br>|2.17<br>|3.35<br>|8.32|7.94|
|5 K Suriname<br> <br>|0.58|-3.39|-3.87|-14.77|^20.23|
|5MTrinidad<br>and Toba8o<br>|-3.20|-5.45|-8.17|.20.63|-25.76|
|5xUruguay<br>|-5.30|-14.56|-8.90|-4.26|-0.17|
|5 K Venezuela|6.05|2.39|-0.21|-7.50|-2.56|
|6Eastern<br>Europe<br>(W)|-24.80|-27.60|-32.72|-36.11|-33.86|
|(U)|-26.14|-28.93|-33.63|-37.04|-36.46|
|6 K Bulgaria<br>|-38.08|-39.13|-41.42|-44.87|-44.71|
|6 K Czechoslovakia<br>|-36.96|-37.34|-37.90|-37.41|-40.79|
|6 K German Democratic<br>Republic<br>|-22.28|-27.68|-31.50|-38.39|-45.54|
|6 K Hungary<br>|-20.55|-26.53|-31.69|-33.71|-35.05|
|6 K Poland<br>|-23.23<br>|-27.15|-31.91|-33.55|-24.84|
|6 H Romania|-12.38|-14.09|-23.16|-28.01|-26.19|
|6 N Yugoslavia|-29.47|-30.57|-37.86|-43.31|-38.12|

Note: U - unweighted; V - weighted; L - low Lncome; M - middle Income; LW - low income weighted average; MI - middle income weighted average.

Source: World Bank Economic and Social Database.
103

# Undwnuwtritin 2: incex of Undwrnutritimn Sumry Table

||Nuiber|1965|1970|197S|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|ALL DEVELOPINO<br>COIUTRIES<br>|III<br>|8.21<br>122|6.07<br>114|4.85<br>1159|-2.16<br>397|-7.55<br>-271|
|Low Intose<br>|45<br>|.9<br>|.<br>723|.<br>1214|.<br>-1748|.<br>-1959|
|fiddte Incone|66|-3.37|-.|-.|.<br>|.<br>|
|AfRICA<br>|41<br>|10.13<br>144|9.15<br>965|11.22<br>1186|7.54<br>829|10.41<br>1129|
|Low Inrce<br>|31<br>|0.<br>|.<br>|.<br>624|.<br>193|.<br>388|
|MiddleIncome|10|7.71|5.22|.|.<br>|.<br>|
|EAST ASIA<br>|11<br>|16.I4<br>|12.79<br>1449|9.28<br>1112|-1.62<br>-053|-11.50<br>-1162|
|Low income<br>|4<br>|18.00<br>|.<br>|.<br>1|.<br>1033|.<br>-1150|
|Low income Without Chine<br>|3<br>|11.45<br>|1.46<br>016|-.50<br>453|-.<br>-939|.<br>-1071|
|Middle Income|7|7.19|-.|-.|.|.|
|SOUTH<br>ASIA<br>|6<br>|7.35<br>|8.01<br>6Th|12,1r<br>958|7.97<br>588|2.59<br>-080|
|Low Itncoe<br>|6<br>|7.35<br>|.<br>911|.<br>1208|.<br>875|.<br>409|
|Los Income VithoutIrdie|5|16.30|.|.|.|.<br>|
|ENEMA<br>|20<br>|2.19<br>|-2.52<br>825|-12.37<br>791|-20.20<br>578|-26.67<br>558|
|Low Incme<br>|2<br>|-7.28<br>|.<br>|.<br>1|.<br>2187|.<br>-2877|
|Middle Income|18|-1.87|-3.20|-3.67|-.|.<br>|
|EASTERN<br>EURWPE<br>|7<br>|-24.80<br>|-27.60<br>2893|-32.72<br>3363|-36.11<br>-3704|-33.87<br>-3646|
|NiddteIncome|7|-26.14|-.|.|.|.<br>|
|LAC<br>|26<br>|-2.74<br>|-5.54<br>|-7.71<br>1310|-12.57<br>1371|-13.88<br>1295|
|Los Income<br>Niddle Intome|2<br>24|9.87<br>-2.98|13.38<br>-S.90|.<br>-8.09|.<br>-13.03|.<br>-14.33|

Note: Inctudes jt1 the coumtrSes<sup>with coWlete dbta fortheperiods in the table.</sup> Source: Previous table.
104 Cosumption 1: growth La _Per_ Capita Ptivate Consumption

||1960-65|1965.7|0 1970-7|5 1975-8|0 1980-85|1985-8|7 1985-88|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 AFRICA<br>(W)|3.3|<br>-2.3|<br>5.7|<br>1.3|<br>-7.9|<br>-2.8|<br>-3.3|
|(U)|-|.|.|.|.|||
|<br>(LV)<br>|1.8<br>|<br>-3.1<br> <br>|<br>6.7<br> <br>|<br>0.7<br> <br>|<br>-90<br> <br>|<br>-2.9<br> <br>|<br>-2.5<br> <br>|
|(MW)|15.1|<br>3.2|<br>-1.1|<br>5.2|<br>-0.03|<br>.2.4|<br>-9.8|
|1 M Angola|26.26|-2.13|-48.68|-10.18|<br>1.66|<br>-|-|
|1 L Benin|11.98|<br>0.89|-10.98|<br>3.69|<br>6.13|<br>-5.51|<br>-3.38|
|1 M Sotawana|2.49|46.26|<br>16.4O|37.51|<br>4.39|<br>|-|
|1 L Burklna<br>Paso||0.54|<br>-9.58|25.70|<br>-8.92|<br>3.04|<br>3.87|
|1 L Burundi|-3.62|26.10|<br>22.06|<br>7.83|<br>9.52|.17.32|-14.08|
|1 N Cameroon|0.59|-9.06|<br>3.97|<br>37.25|<br>4.42|<br>5.65|<br>-6.19|
|1 L Cape Verde|-|-|-|54.90|||-|
|<br>IL Central<br>AfrScan<br>Republic|-14.12|.24.83|<br>-0.75|18.02|-15.78|<br>6.95|<br>5.36|
|1L Chad|-|-|-|-|-|||
|1L Comoros|-|-|-||-|||
|1 N Congo P.R.|1.03|<br>3.72|-17.42|<br>4.14|<br>36.48|||
|1 N C6te dIvoire|17.00|19.32|<br>14.15|<br>-7.57|<br>6.80|<br>-8.06|-24.98|
|1L Djilbouti<br>|-|-|-|-|-||-|
|1L EquatorialGuinea|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|
|1L Ethiopia|11.35|<br>8.56|<br>-2.76|<br>3.71|-12.04|<br>-||
|1N Gabon|23.19|<br>7.74|<br>1.62|<br>23.38|-16.57|-20.58|-31.77|
|1L Gambia, The|22.39|<br>-0.31|<br>3.38|<br>-12.24||-|-|
|1L Ghana|-7.81|<br>2.47|-12.07|<br>0.56|-16.34|-1.43|<br>3.44|
|1L Guinea||-|-||-|||
|1L GuineaBissau|-|-|-W.92|<br>-37.85|<br>39.53|<br>0.14|<br>1.66|
|1 L Kenya|7.96|-18.78|44.49|<br>0.46|<br>12.13|<br>15.36|<br>16.11|
|<br>1L Lesotho|30.25|<br>14.58|63.52|<br>10.17||-|-|
|1L Uberva|-6.S4|-22.86|<br>16.39|<br>-6.06|-13.02|<br>-|-|
|1L Madagascar|-12.68|10.40|-11.20|-9.92|-16.39|-1.03|<br>-8.24|
|1 L Malawi|4.08|<br>-3.78|<br>17.32|<br>1.03|<br>-4.24|<br>-5.45|<br>7.30|
|1 L Malt|-2.62|<br>6.92|<br>17.14|<br>15.23|<br>6.44|<br>0.26|<br>-2.40|
|1 L Mauritania|11.14|10.16|<br>-8.36|<br>-6.48|<br>17.52|<br>-2.62|<br>1.59|
|1 N Mauritius|16.42|-10.75|<br>57.67|10.14|<br>2.66|<br>19.34|<br>29.89|
|1LMozambique|_-_|_-_|_-_|_-_|-22.55|<br>7.26|<br>4.40|
|<br>1L Namibia|.|.|.|.||||
|1 L Niger|25.90|-17.82|-27.20|26.68|-19.46|-8.10|<br>-6.30|
|<br>1 L Nigeria|-7.14|-5.45|<br>7.G7|<br>1.57|<br>-3.65|-14.14|-12.58|
|1 L RwanAa|-22.87|?5.25|-18.10|29.34|<br>-7.92|<br>-3.32|<br>-7.50|
|**_1_**L Sao Tomeand Juiripe|**_-_**|**_._**|_._|_._|_._|||
|<br>1 N Sl|2135|-995|<br>-517|-180|<br>286|<br>-311|<br>-259|
|enega|.|.|<br>.|.|<br>.|<br>.|<br>.|
|1 LSierra<br>Leone|-|-|-||-14.23|<br>-1.47|<br>-|
|1 L Somalia|-20.72|<br>7.21|<br>-7.92|21.00|<br>-2.47|<br>-1.46|<br>-8.39|
|_1_L Sudan|-2.47|-33.10|<br>28.96|-<br>7.93|<br>14.47|<br>2.63|<br>-5.27|
105

|||1960-65|1965-70|1970-75|197S-80|1980-85|<sup>1983-87</sup>|<sup>1985-88</sup>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 1 Swaziland||51.55|65.67|<br>-3.46|24.20|<br>|-<br> <br>||
|1LTanzania<br>||-<br>|-<br>|-<br>|-<br>|-21.26<br> <br>|<br>6.08<br> <br>|1.93<br> <br>|
|1 L Togo||13.65|31.77|-47.84|44.28|<br>10.50|<br>2.f0|<br>1.61|
|1L Uganda||.|.|.<br>|||<br>|<br>|
|1 L Zaire||27.02|-12.29<br>|<br>12.28<br>|-34.37<br>|-29.05<br>|<br>2.94<br> <br>|<br>5.18<br> <br>|
|1 L Zambia||9.34|<br>4.51<br>|-1.86<br>|-19.96<br> <br>|-6.31<br>|<br>11.52<br>|<br>28.75<br> <br>|
|1 M Zimbabwe||-|9.31|23.21|<br>-5.55|-24.77|-5.33|<br>-3.14|
|2 South Asia|(CO<br>|3.3|<br>8.0|1.8|<br>11.2|<br>9.3|<br>3.9|<br>1S.8|
||(U)||||||||
|Vithout India|(W)|7,7|<br>15.5|-7.4|<br>13.5|<br>8.4|<br>-3.3|<br>0.9|
|2 L Bangladesh||10.11|<br>3.03|-12.67|10.37|<br>-1.39|<br>-1.39|<br>-1.10|
|2L Bhutan|||-|-<br>|-<br>|-<br> <br>|-<br> <br>|<br>|
|2 L India||1.9i.<br>|5.72<br> <br>|.s.08<br>|10.46<br>|<br>9.56<br> <br>|<br>6.34<br> <br>|<br>19.74|
|2 L Nyanmr<br>||7.t9|<br>1.53|*9.9E|12.07|<br>19.07|<br>-7.91||
|2LNepal||.|.|.<br>|.<br>|.<br> <br>|<br>|<br>|
|2 L Pakistan||8.18|35.39|<br>-3.29|19.24|<br>10.85|<br>-4.11|<br>2.85|
|2 L Sri Lanka||-7.37|15.36|<br>7.03|<br>2.77|<br>30.44|<br>-0.10|<br>-|
|3 East Asia|(5)<br>|5.4|<br>23.9|13.2|<br>21.1|<br>30.3|<br>8.0|<br>17.0|
||(U)||||||||
||(LV)|4.2|24.5|12.4|20.5|33.2<br>|8.1<br> <br>|17.2<br> <br>|
||(MN)|13.5|<br>20.5|18.4<br>|<br>24.6<br> <br>|<br>12.3<br> <br>|<br>7.1<br> <br>|<br>15.1<br> <br>|
|Without China|(V)|9.3|<br>19.6|19.6|<br>26.2|<br>21.3|<br>6.7|<br>12.1|
|3 L China||4.15|25.32|11.11|<br>19.37|<br>33.43|<br>8.4|<br>18.6<br>|
|3 1 Hong Kong||16.31<br>|46.66<br>|25.40<br>|60.37<br>|<br>24.65<br> <br>|<br>16.98<br> <br>|<br>26.0<br> <br>|
|3 L Indonesia||4.55|18.49|21.06|28.04|<br>32.02|<br>6.23|<br>8.61|
|3LKampuchee|||-|-|-||-<br>|-<br> <br>|
|<br>3 M Kora, Republ|ic<br>of|11.62|35.70|28.76|<br>27.39|<br>30.15|<br>14.71|<br>24.57|
|3LLao,<br>PD||-|a|||-|--||
|3 1 Malaysia||9.43|<br>2.59|16.60|42.81|<br>5.20<br>|.-<br>12.85<br> <br>|<br>-1.47<br> <br>|
|3 1 Papua Nev Oul|nea|-|23.10|-7.43|<br>12.88|<br>-4.99|<br>-0.45|<br>-1.57<br>|
|31 Philippines||10.33|<br>4.44|9.20|11.60<br>|-1.83<br> <br>|1.84<br> <br>|S.S2<br> <br>|
|3 1 Singapore||2.66<br>|42.28<br>|36.14<br>|<br>24.92<br> <br>|<br>11.90<br> <br>|<br>11.84<br> <br>|<br>25.24<br> <br>|
|3 1 Taivan||30.49|28.15|37.35|<br>34.47<br>|<br>25.31<br> <br>|<br>16.14<br> <br>|<br>29.8<br>|
|3 M ThaLland||13.20|21.73|24.00|<br>10.61|<br>8.92|<br>17.67|<br>-|
106

||1960-65|1965-70|1970-75|1975-80|<sup>1980-85</sup>|<sup>1985-87</sup>|<sup>1985-88</sup>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|4 NEMA_(W)_<br>(U)|21.7|25.4|30.3|14.9|<br>6.2|2.1|2.8|
|4 L Afghanistan||-<br>.|.<br>|.<br>|.<br> <br>|<br>|<br>|
|4K Algeria|0.71|-9.19|50.37|24.39|<br>15.3<br>|<br>-19.25<br> <br>|<br>-22.00<br> <br>|
|4_M_Bahrain|-|-|-||-21.5<br> <br>|<br>-3.7<br> <br>|<br>5.85<br> <br>|
|4 M Cyprus|-|-|-|65.89<br>|<br>27.15<br>|<br>5.08<br> <br>|<br>-15.27<br> <br>|
|4 MEgypt,<br>Arab Republic of||-|*|47.93|10.25<br>|<br>-2.44<br>|<br>-3.44<br> <br>|
|4 M Greece|39.92<br>|<br>36.15<br> <br>|25.42<br>|11.40<br>|<br>9.87<br> <br>|-0.06<br>|<br>1.71|
|4_M_Iran, Islamic Republfc of'|<br>22.95|<br>47.87|24.49|-4.38|<br>12.74|<br>-||
|4_M_Iraq|.|_|,<br>|.<br>|.<br>|<br>|<br>|
|4 M Israel|30.89|<br>13.79|16.80|5.27|10.84<br>|<br>19.44<br> <br>|<br>21.75<br> <br>|
|4XJordan||-|-5.95|41.32|16.35|<br>-6.45|<br>-11.d4|
|4KKuwait||-|2.64|55.23|<br>-27.79|||
|4 M Lebanont||-|-<br>||<br>|-<br>|-|
|4_M_Llbyan Arab Republic||-|193.51|148.22<br>|<br>28.30<br>|<br>-<br> <br>|-<br>|
|4_M_Malta|19.71<br>|<br>67.83<br>|17.77<br>|31.85<br>|24.48<br>|<br>3.45<br> <br>|13.79<br>|
|4MMorocco<br>|0.43|14.99|5.76|20.13|-6.76|<br>2.46|6.58|
|4KOma||'|'|'|'|'<br>|<br>|
|4nPortugal|26.87|45.10|42.05|-1.12|<br>-2.92|<br>13.44|<br>20.34|
|4KSaudi Arabia|.|.||||<br>||
|4K Spain|42.47|26.93<br>|24.70<br>|4.63<br>|-1.05<br>|<br>8.34<br> <br>|12.74<br>|
|4 MSyrian Arab Republic|-|-1.52|85.87|14.18|-3.69<br>|<br>-16.86<br> <br>|-14.70<br> <br>|
|4_M_Tunisia|_._|12.08|44.54|25.96<br>|10.26<br>|<br>-2.55<br>|<br>-3.63<br> <br>|
|4M Turkey|9.40|13.83|21.61|0.41|6.20<br>|11.85<br>|<br>11.82<br>|
|4M Yemen Arab Republic|-|-|61.17|30.74|6.88|9.28|-0.7'|
|4LYemwn, PDR|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|
|5LAC<br>(W)|10.7|21.2|21.1|18.3|-9.6|<br>3.5|2.6|
|(U)||-|-|.|.|||
|(LV)|-12.5|<br>-7.9<br>|3.1<br>|18.3<br>|-14.4<br>|<br>4.5<br> <br>|3.0<br>|
|(MK)|11.2|21.8|21.4|18.3|-9.4|<br>3.4|2.5|
|5 M Argentina|20.30|8.47|10.15|5.35|-19.25|<br>5.81|0.58|
|5NBahamas|-|-|-||21.79|2.37|-|
|5KBarbados|||-|-||-<br>|-<br> <br>|
|5 K Bolivia|11.51|3.96|7.51<br>|8.51<br>|-20.35<br>|<br>-2.52<br> <br>|<br>-8.04<br>|
|5MBrazil|5.89|31.68|40.26|26.26|-9.53|<br>R.39|8.12|
|5 K Chile|1.08|12.84|-24.30|32.03|-13.47|<br>6.22|14.46|

. _ _~~~~~~~~~~~
107

||1960-65|1965-70|1970-75|1975-80|1980-85|1985-8|7 198S-88|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|5 H Colombia<br>|11.77<br>|19.00<br>|<br>14.88<br> <br>|<br>17.16<br>|<br>.1.00|<br>2.99|<br>2.52|
|S M Costa Rica<br>|9.74|13.03|<br>4.24|<br>14.42|-12.95|<br>5.19|<br>4.59|
|5M Cuba||-|-|-||-|-|
|5 K DominLcan<br>Repulklic|4.02|48.53|<br>25.28|<br>14.43|<br>-9.34|<br>-0.09|<br>-4.23|
|5 M Ecuador|-|8.98|<br>22.23|<br>22.81|<br>-3.41|<br>-1.31|<br>-1.39|
|5 M El Salvador|16.13|<br>2.98|<br>8.00|<br>.3.75|-14.40|-3.02|<br>-3.50|
|5 M Guatemala|10.40|10.28|<br>10.67|<br>13.57|-15.13|-1.52|<br>-0.38|
|5 L Guyana<br>|-15.21|32.37|<br>13.45|<br>-6.07|<br>2.88|<br>3.35|*10.43|
|5 L Haiti|-12.02|-13.94|<br>1.54|<br>21.74|-16.74|<br>4.59|<br>2.09|
|S K Honduras<br>|8.59|<br>3.40|<br>-0.84|<br>20.66|-14.46|<br>0.60|<br>12.62|
|SJJamaica<br>|6.38|10.44|<br>12.59|-27.34|<br>3.84|<br>4.96||
|5 N Mexico<br>|13.83|16.32|<br>13.48<br>|<br>18.74<br>|<br>-4.97<br>|-6.26<br>|<br>-6.33|
|SM Nicaragua|36.86|<br>0.73|<br>6.94|-18.7|1-50.27|<br>-|-|
|5M Panama|24.84|11.98|<br>3.75|<br>16.11|<br>12.75|<br>,|<br>-|
|5XParaguay|18.17|<br>8.87|<br>19.35|46.00|<br>-5.67|<br>0.65|<br>0.07|
|5 M Peru<br>|29.45|30.23|<br>7.70|-11.28|-10;00|20.36|<br>3.93|
|5N Suriname|-|-|-|.|.|.||
|5 K Trinidad<br>and Tobago|27.60|<br>9.61|<br>18.45|<br>55.29|-13.92|-33.48|-45.12|
|5 M Uruguay|-16.34|33.76|<br>2.81|<br>11.90|-23.32|21.41|<br>18.97|
|5M Venezuela|-|-|-|19.32|-12.92|-5.15|<br>-|
|6Eastern<br>Europe<br>(W)<br>(U)|24.3|<br>66.9|<br>29.7|<br>18.8|<br>-4.7|<br>5.5|<br>3.6|
|6MBulgaria|-|'||-||||
|6KCzechoslovakia|-||-|-|-|-|-|
|6KGerman Democratic<br>Republi|c<br>-|-|-|-|*|||
|<br>6KHungary|<br>-|-|24.23|<br>11.86|<br>9.58|<br>5.25|<br>0.02|
|6N Polend<br>|-|-|-|-|-7.24|<br>5.94|<br>8.44|
|6M Romania|-|-||-|-|||
|6 M Yugoslavia|24.34|66.93|<br>32.45|<br>22.12|<br>-7.18|<br>4.79|<br>-2.61|

Note: U - unweighted; U - weighted; L - low income; X - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; NW - middle income weighted average. Source: World Bank Economic and Social Database
108

# Cmiamp~tio 2: Grom In Per Cqwfta Private CaomptIm Ssmy Toiea

||Number<br>1960-65|1965-70|"970I15|197-80|1980-5|1925-|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|ALLOEWElOPIG<br>COUtRIBS<br>Los Incomo<br>Niddlenoem|60<br>6.0<br>24<br>3.4<br>36<br>14.6|17.0<br>1S.4<br>22.2|10.I<br>6.7<br>21.7|1S.6<br>U.9<br>17.9|14.6<br>19.2<br>-0.4|12.4<br>4.4<br>6.0|
|AfRtCA<br>Lowtawin<br>NiddteInce|22<br>1.1<br>17<br>-0.1<br>5<br>11.9|-4.7<br>-5.2<br>0.1|8.4<br>6.6<br>7.4|0.7<br>-0.5<br>11.6|-5.6<br>-6.7<br>4.1|-4.4<br>-3.5<br>-11.6|
|EASAStA<br>LoIncom<br>LowIn or- WithostChina<br>Iiddte<br>ncome|9<br>5.4<br>2<br>4.2<br>1<br>4.6<br>7<br>13.5|24.0<br>24.5<br>18.5<br>20.4|13.2<br>12.4<br>21.1<br>18.9|21.1<br>20.5<br>28.0<br>2.9|30.4<br>33.2<br>32.0<br>12.6|17.0<br>17.2<br>6.6<br>15.4|
|S<br>ITASIA<br>Lou Iasm<br>Lou I co<br>VWtbouS<br>India|3<br>3.3<br>3<br>3.3<br>2.<br>9.2|8.1<br>8.1<br>18.4|-I.?<br>-1.7<br>-8.2|11.3<br>11.3<br>14.7|.S<br>8.S<br>4.5|1S.5<br>15.6<br>0.9|
|vElN<br>Kiddie mnom|a<br>21.5<br>8<br>21.5|19.2<br>19.2|25.4<br>25.|.1<br>8.1|3.7<br>3.7|6.6<br>6.6|
|_E-S_<br>ElPE<br>Kiddie Incme|1<br>24.3<br>1<br>24.3|66.9<br>66.9|32.5<br>32.5|22.1<br>22.1|-7.2<br>-7.2|-2.6<br>-2.6|
|LosIncm<br>Niddietmm|tJJC<br>17<br>10.4<br>2<br>-12.5<br>1s<br>10.9|21.8<br>-7.9<br>22.4|**21.3**<br>3.1<br>21.?|16.8<br>16.3<br>W8.8|-9.5<br>-14A<br>-9.4|2.7<br>3.0<br>2.7|

mea: Includes gf tb eomutrlo aith alete dat for tde predod s tne t le. _San_ Preiou tK* .
109

# Consumption 3: _Iadex_ of Per Capita ftivate Cousinption (1980-100)

||1960|1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|LAfrica<br>(W)|101|102|99|101|100|92|89|
|(LW)<br>_(MW)_|101<br>_101_|101<br>_111_|97<br>_111_|102<br>_98_|100<br>100|91<br> <br>100|89<br>88|
|IXAngola|176|222|217|111|100|101|**-**|
|1 L Bonin|96|107|.108|97|100|106|103|
|1 N Botswana|42|43|62|73|100|104|**-**|
|1 L Burkina Faso|**a**|88|88|80|100|91|95|
|IL Burundi|63|60|76|93|100|110|94|
|1 N Cameroon|77|77|70|73|100|104|98|
|1L CapeVerde|**-**|-|-|75<br>|100|**-**||
|ILCentral<br>African<br>Republic|80|68|85|_8S_|100|84|89|
|1L Chad||,|,|||||
|ILComoros|-|-|.|.||||
|1N Congo, P.R.|111|112|116|100|136|||
|1 M Cote d'Ivoire|68|79|95|108|100|107|80|
|iLDjibouti|.|.|.|.|.|.||
|1L EquatorialGuinea|-||**a**.|.||**-**.||
|1 L Ethiopia|82|91|99|96|100|88||
|IM Gabon|60|74|80|81|100|83|57|
|1LGambia,<br>The|90|111|111|114|100|**-**|**-**|
|<br>L<br>L Ghana|120|110|113|99|100|84|87|
|1LGuinea|-|**-**|-|.||**a**||
|1L Guinea-Bissau|-||181|161|100|140|142|
|1L Kenya|79|85|69|100|100|88|102|
|_ L Lesotho|37|48|56|91|100|**-**||
|1LLiberia|127|119|92|106|100|87|**-**|
|1 L Madagascar|130|113|125|111|100|84|77|
|<br>1L Malawi|84|88|84|99|100|96|103|
|1 L Nali|71|69|74|87|100|106|104|
|1 L Mauritania|95|106|117|107|100|118|119|
|1 N Mauritius|55|65|58|91|100|103|133|
|1 L Mozambique|**-**|**-**|**a**||100|77|81|
|<br>1L Namibia|.|.|.||**a**|**a**||
|1 L Niger|105|132|108|79|100|81|75|
|<br>1 L Nigeria|104|97|91|99|100|95|84.|
|<br>1 L Rwanda|91|70|94|77|100|92|85|
|1L Sao Tome and Principe|-|||**a**|**a**<br>.|**a**||
|<br>1 M Senegal|98|119|107|102|lO0|103|100|
|<br>IL Sierra Leone|-||**a**|-|100|86|85*|
|1L Somalia|106|84|90|8|100|98|90|
|_1_L Sudav|110|107|72|93|100|115|108|
110

||1960|1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1M Swaziland<br>|33|50|83|100|**-**|**-**||
|1LTanzania|**-**||**-**|**-**|100|79|80|
|1 L Togo<br>|87|101|133|69|100|111|112|
|_1L_Uganda||**-**|**-**|**_-_**|**_-_**||_-_|
|1 L Zaire|122|155|136|152|100|71|75|
|1 LZambia|11i|122|127|125|100|94|121|
|1 M Zimbabwe||79|86|106|100|75|73|
|2 SouthAsia<br>(W)<br>|83|86|92|90|100|109|126|
|(U)||||||||
|Without India<br>(W)|79|85|96|68|100|108|106|
|2 L Bangladesh|91|101|104|91|100|99|98|
|2L Bhutan||**-**||**-**.||||
|2 L India|84|86|91|91|100|110|131|
|2 L Kyanmar|91|98|99|89|100|119|110*|
|2L Nepal|**-**|'|'|||||
|2 L Pakistan|S9|64|88|84|100|1l1|114|
|2L Sri Lanka|85|79|91|97|100|130|180*|
|3<br>East Asia<br>(W)<br>|46|59|73|83|100|130|153|
|(U)||||||||
|(LW)|57|59|74|83|100|133|156|
|(MU)|52|58|69|81|100|112|130|
|Without China<br>(W)|52|57|67|80|100|121|136|
|3 L China|58|60|75|84|100|133|158|
|3<br>H<br>Nong Kong|29|34|S0|62|100|125|158|
|3 L Indonesia|52|54|65|78|100|132|143|
|3L Kampuchea|**-**|.|.|.|.|||
|3 M Korea, Republic of|40|45|61|79|100|130|162|
|<br>3L Lao, PDR|-|-|**-**|**-**|**-**|-|-|
|<br>3 M Halaysia|54|59|60|70|100|105|104|
|<br>3 M Papua New Guinea|-|78|96|89|100|95|94|
|<br>3 M Philippines|71|79|82|90|100|98|104.|
|3 M Singapore|40|41|59|80|100|112|140|
|3 1 Taiwan|32|42|54|74|100|125|163|
|3 H Thailand|52|59|72|81|100|117|130|
III

||1960|1965|<br>1970|<br>1975|<br>1980|1985|<br>1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|4<br>EMENA(W)<br>(U)|52|61|74|89|100|106|108|
|4LAfghanistan|,||,|,|**-**|,||
|4 N Algeria|59|59|54|s0|100|115|90|
|4 M Bahrain||**-**|**-**|**-**|100|79|83|
|4HCyprus|**-**|**-**|**-**|60.28|100|127|147|
|<br>4HEgypt,ArabRepublic of|**-**||**a**|68|100|110|106|
|<br>4 H Greece|38|53|72|90|100|110|112|
|4MIran,<br>Islamic<br>RepubLcof|46|57|84|105|100|113||
|<br>4 M Iraq||**-**|**-**||**-**|**-**|**-**|
|<br>4 H Israel|55|71|81|95|100|111|135|
|4HJordan||**-**|75|71|100|116|103|
|4HKuwait|-|-|63|64|100|72|**-**|
|4HLebanon||-|**-**|||||
|4 M LibyanArab Republic|**-**|11|31|78|100|**-**|**-**|
|<br>4H Halta|32|38|64|76|100|125|141<br>|
|4HMorocco|68|69|79|83|100|93|99|
|4_M_Oan|**-**|**-**|||**-**|||
|4N Portugal|39|49|71|101|100|97|117|
|4HSaudL Arabia||**-**|**-**|-|**-**|-|**a**|
|4 MSpain|.|||||||
|<br>4MSyrian Arab Republic|**-**|48|47|88|100|96|82|
|<br>4 MTunisia|**-**|49|55|79|100<br>|110<br>|106<br>|
|4 M Turkey|66|72|82|100|100|106|119|
|<br>4 MYemenArab Republic|**-**|**-**|47|76|100|107|106|
|<br>4 LYemen, P.D.R.||**-**|**-**|**-**||**-**||
|5 LAC<br>(U)|56|61|73|86|100|90|93|
|(U)||||||||
|(LW)|104|91|83|85|100|86|88<br>|
|<br>(MW)|54|61|72|86|100|91|93|
|5 H Argentina|66|79|86|94|100|80|81|
|<br>5KBahamaS||**-**|-|-|100|122|125*|
|5MBarbados||||||||
|<br>5 M Bolivia|73|83|86|92|100|80|73|
|<br>5 M Brazil|41|43|57|79|100|91|98|
|<br>5 MChile|88|89|100|76|100|87|99|
|<br>5_M_Colombia|56|62|74|85|100|99|102|
|SM CostaRica|68|74|84|87|100|87|91|
|5 M Cuba|**-**||-|,||||
112

||1960|1965|1970|1975|1980|1985|1988|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|5MDominIcan Republic<br>|45|47<br>|70<br>|87<br>|100<br>|91|87|
|5 K Ecuador<br>|-<br>|61<br>|67<br>|81|100|97|95|
|SMEl Salvador<br>|80<br>|93<br>|96|104|100|86|S3|
|5NGuatemala<br>|65<br>|72<br>|80|88|100|85|8S|
|5 L Guyana<br>|83<br>|71<br>|94<br>|107|100|103|114|
|S LHaltl<br>|107<br>|94<br>|81|82|100|83|85|
|5HHondturas<br>|74<br>|80<br>|84|83|100|86|96|
|5 K Jamaica<br>|104<br>|111<br>|122<br>|138|100|104|109|
|5xKexico<br>|56<br>|64<br>|74<br>|84|100|95|89|
|5 K Nicaragua<br>|83<br>|114<br>|115<br>|123|100|S0||
|5HPanama<br>|59<br>|74<br>|83|86|100|113|-|
|S K Paraguay<br>|45<br>|53<br>|57<br>|69|100|94|94|
|5 MPeru<br>|62|80|105|113|100|90|94|
|SKSuriname<br>|-<br>|-<br>|-<br>|-||||
|SKTrinidad and Tobago<br>|39<br>|50<br>|54|64|100|86|47|
|5MUruguay<br>|78|65|87|l00|77|91||
|5 KVenezuela||-||84|100|87|83*|
|6<br>Eastern Europe<br>(W)<br>(U)|30|37|65|84|100|95|99|
|6KBulgaria<br>|*|.|.|||||
|6KCzechoslovakia<br>||-||-<br>*|*|||
|6KGerman Democratic Republic|-|-||-.||||
|6 K Hungary<br>|-|-|72|89|100|110|110|
|6KPoland<br>|||-|-|100|93|101|
|6KRomania<br>|||-|-|-|-|-|
|6 K Yugoslavia|30|37|62|82|100|93|90|

> Note: U - unweighted; W - weighted; L - low licome; K - middle income; LW - low income weighted average; _NW_ - middle Lncome weighted average.

*1987 data

Source: World Bank Economic and Social Database
113 Comwtimn 4: luSd _of Pe_ Caita Private Camiptian Sm.y Tabt.

||m96er<br>1960|1965|17|97|1960|1985|1|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|ALL 0EW<br>tIES COtlUEn<br>LowI1<br>Klid<br>ee Ie|60<br>67<br>24<br>71<br>36<br>S3|70<br>73<br>60|80<br>83<br>_n_|87<br>88<br>86|100<br>100<br>100|lt5<br>119<br>100|130<br>13<br>107|
|AFRICA<br>Low tr1_m<br>NidS Inaom|22<br>101<br>1<br>104<br>5<br>78|102<br>104<br>8?|96<br>97<br>86|102<br>104<br>92|100<br>100<br>100|9<br>93<br>104|90<br>90<br>92|
|EASIASA<br>Lownmm<br>Lo ming<br>withot chle<br>Mfdmtsm|9<br>56<br>2<br>S<br>1<br>52<br>7<br>52|59<br>59<br>54<br>Se|73<br>74<br>6S<br>68|83<br>83<br>78<br>81|100<br>100<br>100<br>100|130<br>133<br>132<br>113|153<br>156<br>143<br>131|
|S<br>ASIA<br>Llaon<br>tI<br>VmWthIutIndl|3<br>63<br>3<br>83<br>2<br>76|85<br>85<br>83|92<br>92<br>96|_90_<br>l<br>or|100<br>QO100<br>100|109<br>109<br>105|126<br>126<br>107|
|Eam<br>Mild&teI|8<br>53<br>8<br>53|63<br>63|75<br>75|93<br>93|100<br>100|104<br>104|11<br>110|
|EAS_E<br>1<br>olSe<br>Iurem|1<br>30<br>1<br>30|37<br>37|62<br>62|82<br>82|100<br>100|93<br>93|90<br>90|
|LAC|17<br>55|60|72|85|100|91|9f|
|Lo maem|2<br>104|91|83|85|100|86|s0|
|NidMlenIam|IS<br>S4|60|_n_|85|100|91|93|

_sletsdes gt_ the I oes with c1Iet dete for the periah In th t10. Sesa Urei t*Ie.
114

# Expenditure 1: Education Expenditure as Percent of Total Government Expenditure

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|1 AFRICA|15.25|16.00|14.01|
|(L)|15.16|14.69|12.54|
|(M)|15.72|18.80|17.53|
|1 M Angola|-|-||
|1 L Benin||||
|1 M Botswana|16.22|22.18|17.69|
|1 L Burkina Faso|17.12|15.48|19.05|
|1 L Burundi|14.29|-||
|1 M Cameroon||12.37|14.35|
|1 L Cape Verde|.|||
|1 L Central African Republic||-||
|1L Chad|14.44|-||
|1L Comoros||-|-|
|1M Congo, P.R.||||
|1HC6te d'Ivoire|-|16.34||
|1L Djibouti||||
|1LEquatorial Guinea|-|-||
|1 L Ethiopia|15.61|9.28|9.82|
|1M Gabon||||
|1L Gambia, The|9.21|12.30||
|1L Ghana|20.59|21.98|18.00|
|1L Guinea||||
|1L Guinea-Bissau|-|-|10.16|
|1 L Kenya|24.00|19.60|19.75|
|1L Lesotho|27.51|-||
|1L Liberia|12.76|11.92||
|1 L Madagascar||||
|i L Malawi|9.36|8.98|11.03|
|1L Mali|-|15.67|9.05|
|1 L Mauritania|-|-||
|1 M Hauritius|11.67|17.63|14.31|
|1 L Mozambique|-|||
|1 L Namibia||||
|1L Niger|-|18.02||
|1L Nigeria|15.49|-|8.62|
|tL Rwanda|21.85|18.83|-|
|1L Sao Tome and Principe|-|.||
|<br>1 M Senegal|18.94|23.03||
|1 L Sierra Leone|12.61|-||
|1 L Somalia|12.03|-||
|1 L Sudan|4.92|9.82||
|1 H Swaziland|16.04|24.57|20.30|
115

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|1 L Tanzania|12.46|13.33|8.28|
|1 LTogo<br>||-|11.69|
|1 L Uganda|14.42|14.93|12.74|
|1 L Zaire|15.53|18.88|-|
|1 L Zambia<br>|13.86|11.37<br>|12.29<br>|
|1MZimbabwe|**-**|15.51|21.02|
|2 South Asia<br>|8.29<br>|7.21<br>|7.94<br>|
|(L)|8.29|7.21|7.94|
|2L Bangladesh|11.91|11.49|10.59|
|2 L Bhutan||||
|2 LIndia<br>|2.27|1.92|1.87|
|2L Myanmar|13.55|10.56|11.74|
|2 L Nepal|10.36|9.90|12.07|
|2 L Pakistan|1.11|2.69|3.16|
|2 L Sri Lanka|10.54|6.71|8.22|
|3 East Asia|16.23|15.39|17.85|
|(L)|8.87|8.31|10.42|
|(M)|17.45|16.57|19.34|
|3LChina||**-**|**-**|
|3NHong Kong|-|**-**|**-**|
|3 L Indonesia|8.87|8.31|10.42|
|3 L Kampuchea||||
|3MKorea, Republic<br>of|13.99|17.11|18.44|
|3 LLao, PDR|-|||
|<br>3 M Malaysia|22.'7|18.34|**-**|
|3 N Papua Now Guinea|15.39|16.53|17.01|
|<br>3 N Philippines|12.18|12.97|20.12|
|3 N Singapore|20.24|14.62|21.59|
|3 M Taiwan||**-**|-|
|3 M Thailand|20.13|19.84|19.53|
116

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|4 ENEMA<br>_(M)_|10.22<br>10.22|11.38<br>11.38|11.43<br>11.43|
|4 L Afghanistan<br>|-|-||
|4MAlgeria||-||
|4MBahrain|8.99|10.75|10.19|
|4 1 Cyprus|11.27|10.85|10.98|
|4 M Egypt, Arab Republic of|9.00|-|11.28|
|4 M Greece|8.39|9.97|-|
|4 M Iran, Islamic kwpublic of<br>|7.81|21.33|16.90|
|4MIraq|-|||
|4 M Israel|7.55|9.85|6.97|
|4HJordan<br>|9.10|4|12.23|
|41Kuwait|-|9.22|11.60|
|4 M Lebanon||||
|4MLibyan Arab Republic|-|||
|4 M Malta<br>|8.53|8.12|7.79|
|4 M Morocco<br>|14.90<br>|17.30|16.65|
|4XOman<br>|2.02|4.76|7.68|
|4I Portugal<br>|10.69|11.16|8.56|
|4_M_Saudi Arabia|_-_|||
|4 4 Spain|7.83|8.03|5.58|
|4HSyrian Arab Republic|7.79|5.50|-|
|4M Tunisia<br>|12.11|17.05|14.34|
|4 MTurkey|23.12|14.20|9.95|
|41 Yemen Ara' Republic<br>|5.42|12.61|20.81|
|4L Yemen, PI.|-|||
|5 LAC|17.40|14.97|14.41|
|(L)|9.83|10.51|-|
|(14)|17.82|15.23|14.41|
|SM Argentina|-|0.00*|6.04|
|<br>5 M Bahamas|24.58|21.26|19.05|
|5 1 Barbados|25.21|19.78|18.67|
|514Bolivia||-|-|
|5 M Brazil|0.00*|0.00*|2.96|
|5 1 Chile|12.09|14.51|13.18|
|5MColombia|-|-||
|5 M Costa Rica|28.78|24.58|18.75|
|5 MCuba||||
|5 1 Dominican Republic|10.34|12.58|-|
|5 M Ecuador|27.06|34.71|24.45|
117

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|51El Salvador|,|.||
|5XGuatemala|--|||
|5 L Guyana|9.83|10.51||
|5 LHaiti||_||
|5 1 Honduras|21.33|||
|5NJamaica|19.33|-|-|
|5MMexico|18.52|18.00|11.55|
|5 M Nicaragua|14.72|11.59|-|
|5MPanama|16.88|13.37|15.95|
|5 M Paraguay|13.34|12.88|-|
|5 N Peru|20.56|15.59|16.16|
|5 M Suriname|16.29|||
|5 M Trinidad and Tobago|-|11.58|-|
|5 1 Uruguay|11.45|8.83|6.42|
|5 M Venezuela|16.49|19.92|19.70|
|6 Eastern Europe|1.11|1.50|1.13|
|(14)|1.11|1.50|1.13|
|6 1 Bulgaria|-|||
|6 M Czechoslovakia||||
|6NGerman Democratic Republic||||
|6MHungary||-|1.60|
|6 N Poland||-||
|6 M Romania|2.21|3.01|1.80|
|6 M Yugoslavia|0.00*|0.00*|0.00*|

Note: The Regional averages are only for the group of countries that have data for that year; L - low income; M - middle income.

Source: INF Government Financial Statistics; Consolidated Central Government Expenditure.
'is

# Expenditure 2: Education Expenditure as Percent of Total goverrment Expenditure Suzmary Table

||Number|1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|ALL DEVELOPING<br>COUNTRIES|49|13.65<br>|13.70<br>|13.01<br>|
|Low Income|15|12.40<br>|11.10<br>|11.27<br>|
|Middle Income|34|14.20|14.85|13.78|
|AFRICA|11<br>|15.58<br>|16.30<br>|14.84<br>|
|Low Income|8<br>|15.93<br>|14.37<br>|13.87<br>|
|atiddle<br>Income|3|14.64|21.46|17.43|
|EAST ASIA|6|15.14|14.90|17.85|
|Low Income|1|8.87|8.31|10.42<br>|
|Middle Income|5|16.39|16.21|19.34|
|SOUTH ASIA|6<br>|8.29<br>|7.21<br>|7.94<br>|
|Low Income|6|8.29|7.21|7.94|
|EMEMA|12<br>|10.77|12.17<br>|11.37<br>|
|Middle<br>Income|12|10.77|12.17|11.37|
|EASTERN EUROPE|2|1.11<br>|1.50<br>|0.90<br>|
|Middle Income|2|1.11|1.50|0.90|
|_LAC_|12|18.78|17.53|15.11|
|Middle Income|12|18.78|17.53|15.11|

Note: Includes 2n1Z the countries with complete data for the periods in the table.

Source: IMfF Govertment Financial Statistics: Consolidated Central Government Expenditure.
119

# Expenditure 3: Health Expenditure as Percent of Total Government Expenditure

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|1 AFRICA|5.60|4.99|5.00|
|(L)|5.60|4.99|5.00|
|(M)|6.72|5.60|6.35|
|1MAngola<br>||||
|1L Benin<br>||-<br>|-<br>|
|1MBotswana|6.34|5.38|4.97|
|1 L Burkina Faso<br>|6.56<br>|5.82|6.21|
|1 LBurundi|7.18|-||
|1 M Cameroon|-|5.11|5.11|
|1 L Cape Verde<br>||||
|1 L Central African Republic||||
|1L Chad<br>|3.75|-||
|1 L Comoros<br>||||
|1M Congo, P.R.|||-|
|1 M Cote d'Ivolre<br>|-|3.95|-|
|1L DjiboutL|.|||
|1 L Equatorial Guinea||-||
|1 L Ethiopia|4.70|3.45|3.09|
|1MGabon||||
|1 L Gambla,The|8.23|7.38|-|
|1 LGhana<br>|8.29|6.96|9.80|
|1 L Guinea<br>||||
|1LGulnea-Blssau|||5.19|
|1 L Kenya|8.01|7.83|6.43|
|1 L Lesotho|5.46|-||
|1 L Liberia|9.26|5.20|-|
|1 L Madagascar||-||
|1 L Malawi|5.80|5.53|6.87|
|1 L Mali<br>|-|3.13|1.69|
|1 L Mauritania|-|||
|1MMauritius<br>|8.15|7.48|7.71|
|1 L Mozambique||||
|1 L Namibia||||
|1 L Niger|.|4.05|-|
|1 L Nigeria|2.25|-|2.16|
|1L Rwanda|6.55|4.55|-|
|1 L Sao Tome and Principe|-|||
|1MSenegal|5.95|4.69||
|1L SierraLeone|4.59|-|-|
|1 L Somalia<br>|5.90<br>|.<br>||
|1 L Sudan|1.56|1.40||
|1 K Swaziland|6.43|7.15|7.50|
120

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|1 L Tanzania<br>|7.01|5.96|5.66<br>|
|1 L Togo||**-**|3.61|
|1 L Uganda|4.03|5.09|3.46|
|1 L Zaire|1.51|2.47|**-**|
|1 L Zambia<br>|5.79|6.05<br>|5.84|
|1 M Zimbabwe||5.41|6.47|
|2 South Asia<br>|4.65<br>|3.91<br>|4.10<br>|
|(L)|4.65|3.91|4.10|
|2 L Bargladesh<br>|5.37|6.37|4.97|
|2 L Bhutan||||
|2 L India<br>|2.42|1.56<br>|2.11|
|2 L Myanmar|6.62|5.28|7.71|
|2 L Nepal|5.91|3.89|4.97|
|2 L Pakistan|1.48|1.47|1.00|
|2 LSriLanka|6.12|4.88|3.86|
|3 East Asia|4.64|4.72|5.28|
|(L)|2.05|2.48|2.50|
|(X)|5.07|5.10|5.84|
|3 L China||**-**|**-**|
|3KHong Kong|.|,||
|3 L Indonesia|2.04|2.48|2.50|
|3 L Kampuchea|-||**-**|
|<br>3NKorea,<br>Republic<br>of|1.00|1.22|1.44|
|3 L Lao, PDR||**-**|-|
|3KMalaysia|6.88|5.12|-|
|3KPapua New Guinea|6.25|8.65|9.62|
|3KPhilippines|4.12|4.54|5.95|
|3KSingapore<br>|8.50|6.96|6.47|
|3KTaiwan|.|||
|3KThailand|3.66|4.09|5.69|
121

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|4 DIENA|4.35<br>|5.47<br>|5.75<br>|
|(K)<br>(LW)<br>(NK)|4.35|5.47|5.75|
|4 L Afghanistan<br>|-|||
|4KAlgeria|-<br>|||
|4 K Bahrain<br>|8.28<br>|7.72<br>|6.71<br>|
|4 M Cypruw<br>|6.07<br>|6.04|6.13<br>|
|4 M Egypt, Arab Republic of|2.68<br>|-<br>|2.60|
|4MGreece<br>|7.92<br>|10.34<br>|**-**<br>|
|4 N Iran, Islamic Republic of|3.17|6.39|8.12|
|4<br>**I**raq||||
|4N Israel|3.77|3.57|3.43<br>|
|4N Jordan|4.10|-<br>|3.82<br>|
|4KKuwait<br>|**-**|5.12|6.50|
|4N Lebanon<br>|.|||
|4KLibyan Arab Republic|**-**|**-**<br>|**-**<br>|
|4 K Malta|8.67<br>|10.04<br>|8.90<br>|
|4 K Morocco<br> <br>|3.61<br>|3.38<br>|2.78<br>|
|4<br>**O**man|3.15|2.92<br>|4.23<br>|
|4K Portugal|4.45|10.30|8.16|
|4KSaudiArabia||-<br>|-<br>|
|4 M Spain|0.92<br>|0.68<br>|12.78|
|4N Syrian Arab Republic|0.82<br>|0.82<br>|**-**<br>|
|4 K Tunisia<br>|6.23<br>|7.20<br>|6.07<br>|
|4 K Turkey|3.01<br>|3.58<br>|1.81<br>|
|4 K Yemen Arab Republic|2.75|3.99|4.26|
|4 L Yemen, PDR|**-**|_||
|5 LAC|7.47|8.89<br>|8.63|
|(L)<br>|4.75<br>|5.62<br>|**-**<br>|
|(N)|7.62|9.07|8.63|
|5 K Argentina|-|0.00*|1.28<br>|
|5 M Bahamas|13.51|14.48|14.53|
|5 K Barbados|11.60|11.19|11.53|
|5<br>Bolivia|.<br>|_<br>||
|S K Brazil|0.00*|8.00|6.40<br>|
|5 K Chile|6.99|7.37|6.07|
|5KColombia|**-**<br>|**-**<br>||
|5 K Costa Rica|4.50|28.74|22.93|
|5MCuba|,|_||
122

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|5 N Dominican<br>Republic|6.78|9.30|-|
|5nEcuador|7.29|7.84|7.31|
|5MEl Salvador|8.17|8.97|5.87|
|5xGuateuala||.||
|5 L Guyana||||
|5 L Haiti||||
|53Honduras|12.79|-|-|
|5M Jamaica|9.26|-|-|
|5 N Mexico|4.32|2.40|1.38|
|5 M Nicaragua|8.46|14.38|-|
|S N Panama|14.49|12.71|15.77|
|5 M Paraguay|2.77|3.59|-|
|5 M Peru|4.67|5.60|6.01|
|5xSurineme|8.65|-|-|
|5nTrinidad<br>and Tobago||5.78|-|
|5 M Uruguay|3.94|4.89|4.05|
|5NVenezuela|9.06|8.82|9.00|
|6 Eastern Europe|12.50|0.32|1.44|
|(U)|12.50|0.32|1.44|
|6M Bulgaria||-|-|
|6M Czechoslovakia|.|.||
|6 3GermanDemocratic<br>Republic||-|-|
|<br>6XHungary|-|-|3.56|
|6 N Poland||||
|6KRomania|0.35|0.63|0.76|
|6 M Yugoslavia|24.65|0.00*|0.00*|

Note: The Regional averages are only for the group of countries that have data for that year; L - low income; 3 - middle income.

*Indicates a number less than 0.005.

Source: IMY Government Financial Statistics: Consolidated Central Government Expenditure.
123

# Expenditure 4: Health gxpendlture as Percent of Total Govezament Expenditure Suamary Table

||Number|<br>1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|ALL DEVELOPING<br>COUNTRIES<br>|49<br>|6.03<br>|6.23<br>|6.30<br>|
|LowIncome<br>|15<br>|5.34<br>|4.84|5.10|
|Middle Income|34|6.33|6.83|6.83|
|AFRICA<br>|11<br>|6.47<br>|6.06|6.14|
|LowIncome<br>|8<br>|6.27<br>|5.84|5.92|
|Middle Income|3|6.97|6.67|6.73|
|EAST ASIA<br>|6<br>|4.26|4.66|5.28|
|Low Income<br>|1|2.05|2.48|4.50|
|Middle Income|5|4.71|5.09|5.83|
|SOUTH ASIA<br>|6<br>|4.65<br>|3.91<br>|4.10|
|Low Income|6|4.65|3.91|4.10|
|EKENA<br>|12|4.51|5.48|6.11|
|Middle Income|12|4.51|5.48|6.11|
|EASTERN EUROPE|2|12.50|0.32|0.38|
|Middle Income|2|12.50|0.32|0.38|
|_LAC_|12|7.38|10.08|9.24|
|Middle Income|12|7.38|10.08|9.24|

Note: The summary table includes gonl the countries with complete data for the periods in the table.

Source: IMF Government Financial Statistics: Consolidated Central Government Expenditure.
124

# Expenditure 5: Other Welfare Expenditure as Percent of Total Governnt Expenditure

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|1 AFRICA,|7.88|7.70|7.70|
|(L)<br>(M)|5.92<br>17.14|5.48<br>10.81|6.37<br>10.90|
|1XAngola<br>|.|||
|1L Benin||-||
|1 M Botswana|13.22|9.26|e.66|
|1 L Burkina Faso|1.93|9.90|9.98|
|1 L Burundi|6.47|-|-|
|1 N Cameroon<br>|-|11.22|15.20|
|1 L Cape Verde<br>||-|-|
|iL Central African Republic<br>|--<br>||-|
|1LChad|3.29|-|-|
|1LComoros<br>||-|-|
|1 1Congo, P.R.||-|-|
|1H C6te d'Ivoire|-|5.69|-|
|1L Djibouti<br> <br>||-|-|
|1L Equatorial<br>Gulnea<br>||-|-|
|1L Ethiopia|6.43|6.24|9.62|
|1 1 Gabon||||
|1L Gambia, The|6.37|3.62|-|
|<br>i L Ghana|14.92|9.43|8.54|
|1L Guinea|_|||
|1L Guinea-Bissau||-|8.51|
|1L Kenya|5.21|7.59|6.60|
|1L Lesotho|10.72|-||
|1L Liberia|3.09|6.69|-|
|1LMadagascar||-||
|1 L Malawi|5.12|4.36|2.43|
|1L Mali<br>|-|3.95|7.06|
|1L Mauritania|-|.||
|1MMauritius|33.85|22.17|19.75|
|1LMozambique||.||
|1L Namibia|_|||
|1L Niger|-|5.98||
|1L Nigeria|6.18|-|0.51|
|1 L Rwanda|2.80|4.99|-|
|1LSao Tomeand Principe|-|-||
|<br>1MSenegal|9.39|11.67|-|
|1 L Sierra Leone|3.57||-|
|1 L Somalia|5.63|||
|IL Sudan|11.24|0.95||
125

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|1 N Swaziland<br>|12.11<br>|7.43<br>|5.51<br>|
|1 L Tanzania<br>|4.11|4.83|4.19<br>|
|1 L Togo<br>||-<br>|10.50<br>|
|1 L Uganda<br>|6.70<br>|6.20|5.12|
|1 L Zaire<br>|4.79<br>|2.31|-|
|I L Zaabia<br>|3.97|5.15<br>|3.35<br>|
|1 M Zimbabwe|-|8.21|5.40|
|2 South Asia<br>|9.04<br>|6.26<br>|9.11<br>|
|(L)|9.04|6.26|9.11|
|2 L Bangladesh<br>|7.22|0.30|9.84|
|2L Bhutan<br>|.|||
|2L India<br>|3.08|4.26|5.01|
|2 L Myanmar<br>|9.13<br>|11.37|9.87|
|2L Nepal<br>|3.14<br>|2.31|7.34|
|2 L Pakistan<br>|5.95|5.96|12.22|
|2L Sri Lanka|25.72|13.37|10.35|
|3 East Asia|6.47|6.51|5.19|
|(L)<br>|1.93|2.82|2.78|
|(M)|7.23|7.13|5.67|
|3L China<br>||-|-|
|3_M_Hong Kong<br>||||
|3 L Indonesia<br>|1.93|2.82|2.78|
|3 L Kampuchea||||
|3 N Korea, Republic<br>of<br>|7.25|8.24|7.78|
|3 L Lao. PDR||||
|3 M Malaysia|5.36|7.60|-|
|3_M_Papua New Guinea|7.61|5.03|4.32|
|3 K Philippines<br>|4.25|7.39|4.95|
|3 M Singapore<br>|10.79|9.03|6.37|
|3 M Taiwan||||
|3 M Thailand|8.10|5.48|4.92|
126

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|4 EMEMA|18.59|19.67|17.64|
|(M)|18.59|19.67|17.64|
|4LAfghanistan||||
|4 M Algeria||-|-|
|4MBahrain|11.67|21.53|10.48|
|4_M_Cyprus|27.38|26.18|24.55|
|4 M Egypt, Arab Republic<br>of|14.94|-|22.64|
|4 M Greece|29.61|33.15|-|
|4 4 Iran, Islamic Republic<br>of|8.51|9.79|15.04|
|4 M Iraq||||
|4 M Israel|16.98|15.02|16.58|
|4 M Jordan|12.77|-|11.00|
|4 M Kuwait|-|13.93|19.63|
|4 M Lebanon||-||
|4M Libyan Arab Republic||||
|4M Malta|40.05|37.13|39.68|
|4 MMorocco|6.60|7.67|7.15|
|4M Oman|2.12|2.70|3.17|
|4MPortugal|31.01|27.59|25.23|
|4 M Saudi Arabia|-|-|-|
|4M Spain|54.38|61.31|41.42|
|4M Syrian Arab Republic|9.68|12.89|-|
|<br>4M Tunisia|26.21|16.57|22.11|
|4M Turkey|3.81|6.18|3.71|
|<br>4M Yemen Arab Republic|1.74|3.42|2.17|
|4L Yemen, PDR|.||-|
|S LAC|18.74|17.88|20.92|
|(L)|19.39|18.80|20.92|
|(M)|6.95|3.16|-|
|5M Argentina|-|28.57|33.45|
|<br>5_M_Bahamas|6.90|6.70|11.88|
|5 M Barbados|18.02|22.92|24.73|
|5MBolivia||.||
|5 M Brazil|50.00|32.00|23.83|
|5MChile|30.10|37.95|44.46|
|5 M Colombia|-|||
|5 M Costa Rica|30.17|11.36|18.75|
|SMCuba|||-|
|5 M Dominican<br>Republic|18.71|14.69||
|<br>5 M Ecuador|1.04|1.27|0.91|
127

||1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|
|5 M E1 Salvador<br>|8.50|7.33|3.77|
|5M Guatemala||-||
|5 L Guyana<br>|6.95|3.16|-|
|SLHaiti|||-|
|5 X Honduras|15.82<br>|-|-|
|5 M Jamaica<br>|10.80<br>|-<br>||
|5MNexico<br>|24.69|19.33|11.83|
|5MNicaragua|27.97|7.36|-|
|5M Panama|12.39|14.29|17.38|
|5 M Paraguay<br>|20.68|19.59|-|
|5MPeru||||
|5 M Suriname|16.26|--||
|5MTrinidadandTobago|-|17.29|-|
|5MUruguay|45.82|49.24|49.51|
|5 M Venezuela|8.35|10.97|10.46|
|6 Eastern Europe|23.20|11.75|19.02|
|(M)|23.20|11.75|19.02|
|6M Bulgaria|-|-|-|
|6MCzechoslovakia|-|||
|6nGerman Democratic Republic||-|-|
|6 XHungary||-|27.94|
|6M Poland||||
|6MRomania<br>|12.61|15.45|22.13|
|6M Yugoslavia|33.78|8.05|6.99|

Note: The Regional averages are only for the group of countries that have data for that year; L - low income; M - middle income.

Other welfare includes social security and welfare, housing and community development, and recreational, cultural and religious affairs and services as classified by the IMF Government Financial Statistics Yearbook. Source: INF Government Financial Statistics: Consolidated Central Government Expenditure.
128

# Expenditure 6: Other Welfare Expenditure as Percent of Total Government Expenditure Sumary Table

||Nunber|1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|ALL DEVELOPING COUNTRIES|48|14.89<br>|13.33<br>|13.08<br>|
|Low Income|15|6.97|6.27|7.15|
|Middle Income|33|18.48|16.54|15.77|
|AFRICA|11|9.78|8.41|7.62|
|Low Income|8|6.05|6.71|6.23|
|Middle Income|3|19.73|12.95|11.31|
|EAST ASIA|6|6.66|6.33|5.19|
|Low Income|1|1.93|2.82|2.78|
|Niddle Income|5|7.60|7.04|5.67|
|SOUTH ASIA|6|9.04|6.26|9.11|
|Low Income|6|9.04|6.26|9.11|
|EMENA|12|19.20|19.59|17.61<br>|
|Middle Income|12|19.20|19.59|17.61|
|EASTERN EUROPE|2|23.20|11.75|14.56|
|Middle Income|2|23.20|11.75|14.56|
|_LAC_|11|21.45|19.39|19.78|
|Middle Income|11|21.45|19.39|19.78|

Note: The summary table includes only the countries<sup>with complete data for the</sup> periods in the table.

Other welfare includes social security and welfare,<sup>housing and community</sup> development, and recreational, cultural and religious<sup>affairs and services as</sup> classified by the IMF Government Financial Statistics.

Source: IMF Government Financial Statistics: Consolidated<sup>Central Government</sup> Expenditure.
129 Expenditure 7: Interest Payments as Percent of Total Government Expenditure Summary Table

||Number|1975|1980|1985|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|ALL DEVELOPING COUNTRIES|44|4.70|6.85<br>|12.06<br>|
|Low Income|10|6.06|8.70|12.49|
|Middle Income|34|4.30|6.40|11.95|
|AFRICA|9|4.48|7.40|11.24|
|Low Income|6|4.95|8.45|11.66|
|Middle Income|3|3.57|5.30|10.42|
|EAST ASIA|6|5.27|7.40|12.16|
|Low Income|1|1.51|3.70|7.79|
|Middle Income|5|6.02|8.14|13.03|
|SOUTH ASIA|3|9.78|10.88|15.73|
|Low Income|3|9.78|10.88|15.73|
|EMENA|14|2.64|4.14|8.44|
|Middle Income|14|2.64|4.14|8.44|
|EASTERN<br>EUROPE|0|-|-||
|Middle Income|0|-|-||
|LAC|12|5.71|8.24|15.93|
|Middle Income|12|5.71|8.24|15.93|

Note: The summary table includes gnly the countries with complete data for the periods in the table.

Source: IMF Government Financial Statistics: Consolidated Central Government Expenditure.
# PRE Working Pager Series

||Aubth<br>o||Contact<br>for par|
|---|---|---|---|
|WPS633 The Macroeconomics<br>of the Public<br>Sector Deficit: The Case of Thailand|Virabongse<br>Ramangkura<br>Bhanupongse<br>Nidhiprabh|March 1991<br>a|R. Luz<br>34303|
|WPS634 Trends in Developing<br>Country<br>Exports, 1963-88|Bela Balassa|March 1991|WDR Office<br>31393|
|WPS635 Exchange<br>Rates and Foreign Trade<br>in Korea|Bela Balassa|March 1991|C. Cuskelly-Young<br>39413|
|WPS636 Economic Integration<br>In Eastem<br>Europe|Bela Balassa|March 1991|C. Cuskelly-Young<br>39413|
|WPS637 Poverty in Poland, 1978-88|Branko Milanovic|March 1991|WDR Office<br>31393|
|WPS638 Researching<br>the Trade-Productivit<br>Link: New Directions|y James Tybout|March 1991|D. Ballantyne<br>37947|
|WPS639 The High Cost of Protecting<br>Uruguay's Automotive<br>Industry|Wendy E. Takacs|March 1991|D. Ballantyne<br>37947|
|WJPS640 The Impact of Policy in African<br>Agriculture: An Empirical Investigat|William Jaeger<br>ion|March 1991|A. Yideru<br>34663|
|WPS641 Intertemporal<br>Substitution<br>in<br>Consumption:<br>Evidence<br>for Some<br>High- and Middle-Income<br>Countries|Karsten N. Pedersen|April 1991|M. Hileman<br>31284|
|WPS642 How a Change in Brazil's Sugar<br>Policies Would Affec**t**he World<br>Sugar Market|Brent Borrell|April 1991|A. Kitson-Walters<br>33712|
|WPS643 Regional Integration<br>among<br>Developing<br>Countries,<br>Revisited|Andras Inotai|April 1991|D. Ballantyne<br>37947|
|WPS644 Trade and Payments<br>Arrangements<br>in Post-CMEA<br>Eastem and Central<br>Europe|Constantine<br>Michalopoul<br>David Tarr|os<br>April 1991|M. Colinet<br>34698|
|WPS645 Poverty, Policy, and Industrializa-<br>tion: Lessons<br>from the Distant Past|Ben Polak<br>Jeffrey G. Williamson|April 1991|WDR Office<br>31393|
|WPS646 The Developmental<br>Effectiveness<br>of Aid to Af rica|Tony Killick|April 1991|S. King-Watson<br>33730|
|WPS647 Growth Rates and Aggregate<br>Welfare: An International<br>Compariso|Nanak Kakwani<br>n|April 1991|B. Rosa<br>33751|
|WPS648 Who Paid the Bill? Adjustment<br>and<br>Poverty in Brazil, 1980-95|M. Louise Fox<br>Samuel A. Morley|April 1991|WDR Office<br>31393|
# PRE Working PaBer Series

|||Authob|D,|Contact<br>for Qr|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|WPS649|An Observation on the Bias in<br>Clinic-based Estimates of<br>Malnutrition Rates|Margaret E. Grosh<br>Kristin Fox<br>Maria Jackson|April 1991|B. Diallo<br>30997|
|WPS650|Administrative Valuation of Soviet<br>Agricultural Land: Results Using<br>Lithuanian Production Data|Karen Brooks|April 1991|C. Spooner<br>30464|
|WPS651|Taxation of Financial Assets in<br>Developing Countries|Christophe Chamley|April 1991|A. Bhalia<br>37699|
|WPS652|Demographic Response to Economic<br>Shock|Kenneth Hill|April 1991|WDR Office<br>31393|
|WPS653|The Effects of Option-Hedging on the<br>Costs of Domestic Price Stabilization<br>Schemes|Donald F. Larson<br>Jonatinan Coleman|April 1991|D. Gustafson<br>33714|
|'NPS654|Reflections on Credit Policy in<br>Developing Countries: Its Effect on<br>Private Investment|Mansoor Dailami<br>Marcelo Giugale|April 1991|M. Raggambi<br>37657|
|WPS655|Interest Rate Policy in Egypt: Its<br>Role in Stabilization and Adjustment|Mansoor Dailami<br>Hinh T. D.nh|April 1991|M. Raggambi<br>37657|
|WPS656|Relative Deprivation and Migration:<br>Theory, Evidence, and Policy<br>Implications|Oded Stark<br>J. Edward Taylor|April 1991|M. Felix<br>33724|
|WPS657|Distributional Aspects of Debt<br>Adjustment|Ishac Diwan<br>Thierry Verdier|April 1991|S. King-Watson<br>33730|
|WPS658|Fiscal Policy with Fixed Nominal<br>Exchange Rates: C6te d'lvoire|Christophe Chamley<br>Hafez Ghanem|April 1991|Raquel Luz<br>34303|
|WPS659|Inflation and Growth in the Transition<br>from Socialism: The Case of Bulgaria|Andres Solimano<br>|April 1991|E. Khine<br>37471|
|WPS660|The Development of the Colombian<br>Cut Flower Industry|Jose A. Mendez|May 1991|N. Artis<br>37947|
|WPS661|The Bretton Woods Agencies and<br>Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s:<br>Facing the Tough Questions|Richard E. Feinberg|May 1991|S. King-Watson<br>33730|
|WPS662|Trends in Social Indicators and<br>Social Sector Financing|Jacques van der Gaag<br>Elene Makonnen<br>Pierre Englebert|May 1991|B. Rosa<br>33751|