metadata: authors: 0: author: Selvaratnam, Viswanathan
1: author: Regel, Omporn L.
count: Yemen, Republic of
docna: 0: docna: Higher education in the Republic of Yemen :
            the University of Sana'a
docty: Policy Research Working Paper
subtopic: Pharmaceuticals Industry,Pharmaceuticals & Pharmacoeconomics,Secondary Education,Tertiary Education,Educational Sciences,Food Security
teratopic: Gender
abstracts: cdata!: Enrollment in the University of
            Sana'a grew gradually from fewer than 100 students in
            1970, shortly after it opened, to about 4,500 in 1979.
            Government policy at first tried to balance the university
            enrollment with the capacity of the marketplace to absorb
            university graduates. University enrollment began to
            increase at an outstanding rate after 1985, following the
            heavy expansion of secondary education in the country in the
            late 1970s. From 1987 to 1991, total enrollment expanded
            from about 17,000 to 44,000 students. If the present rate of
            intake continues, total enrollment is projected to reach
            79,000 students by the year 2000. This explosive growth has
            created numerous problems, including overcrowded classrooms,
            insufficient staff resources, deteriorating physical plant
            and equipment, inadequate educational materials and
            equipment, and a low level of absorption of graduates into
            the labor force. These developments threaten the quality of
            degree programs in several disciplines. The government
            should act immediately to develop a strategy to protect its
            investment in higher education. The policy should consider
            the country's medium and long-term needs, the
            constraints on its resources, and the growing social
            aspirations of its people. The goal of this assessment
            should be to design a strategy that will make higher
            education a more effective investment to serve the needs of
            the country and to protect its resources.
geo_reg_key: 119229,517191
repnme: repnme: Higher education in the Republic of Yemen :
            the University of Sana'a
display_title: Higher education in the Republic of
            Yemen : the University of Sana'a
listing_relative_url: /research/1991/05/437265/higher-education-republic-yemen-university-sanaa
topicv3: Agriculture and Food Security m1326205 435,Tertiary Education m1326349 482,Education m1327048 470,Secondary Education m1327058 481,Pharmaceuticals m1327740 1350
publishtoextweb_dt: 2010-07-01T00:00:00Z
historic_topic: Gender
origu: Policy, Research & Ect Affairs
no_of_pages: 56
model_extractions: <!-- Start of picture text --> Policy, Ro -arch, alhd Extern I Affairs<br>Edcation and Employment<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> WPS 676<br><!-- End of picture text --> This paper-a product of the Education and Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department-is part of a largereffort in PRE to strengthen the abililyofthe Bankand borrowers to address the challenges in higher education. Copies are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Cynthia Cristobal, room S6-035, extension 33640 (48 pages, with graphs and tables).

Enrollment in the University of Sana'a grew gradually from fewer than 100 students in 1970, shortly after it opened, to about 4,500 in 1979. Government policy at f : tried to balance the university enrollment with the capacity of the marketplace to absorb university graduates.

University enrollment began to increase at an outstanding rate after 1985, following the heavy expansion of secondary education in the country in the late 1970s. From 1987 to 1991, total enrollment expanded from about 17,000 to 44,000 students. If the present rate of intake continues, total enrollment is projected to reach 79,000 students by the year 2000.

This explosive growth has created numerous problems, including overcrowded classrooms, insufficient staff resources, deteriorating physical plant and equipment, inadequate educational materials and equipment, and a low level of absorption of graduates into the labor force.

These developments threaten the quality of degree programs in several disciplines. The government shculd act immediately to develop a strategy to protect its investment in higher education. The policy should consider the country's medium- and long-term needs, the constraints on its resources, and the growing social aspirations of its people. The goal of this assessment should be to design a strategy that will make higher education a more effective investment to serve the needs of **the** country and to protect its resources.

The PRE Working Paper Scrics disseminates Lhc findings of work undcr way in the Bank's Policy, Rescarcii, and Exttcrn! AffairsComplcx. An objective of thc scrics is to get thesc findings out quickly, cvcn if prcsentations arc Icss than fully pol ished. The findings, interprctaLions, and conclusions in thcsc papers do not necessarily represent official Bank policy.

Produced by **the** PRE Dissemination Ccntcr
# TABLE OF CONTENTS

|T.|Introduction ..........**.**.........................|.. 1|
|---|---|---|
||Background<br>.<br>.|1|
||(a) Overseas Study.|2|
||(b) Rationale for a University.|2|
|II.|<br>Higher Education: The University.|3|
|III.|<br>Structure and Organization.|4|
||(a) Goveruance.|4|
||(b) Departments.|5|
||(c) Academic Units.|5<br>|
||(d) Admission Policy.|6|
||(e) Organization of Undergraduate Curriculum .|7|
|IV.|<br>Development.|8|
||(a) Student Enrollment.|8|
||(b) Resources .11||
||(c) Staff .13||
||(d) Research and Postgraduate Programs|15|
||(e) PhyLical, Social and Welfare Facilities|15|
||(f) Library Facilities<br>.16||
||(g) Placement of Graduates<br>.16||
|V.|Issues<br>.<br>.17||
||1. Low Internal Efficiency and Quality .17||
||(a) Excessive Expansion<br>.17||
||(b) Low Female Enrollment<br>.18||
||(c) High Student:Staff Ratio .21||
||(d) Inadequate Resources and Facilities|21|
||(e) Administration<br>.23||
||(f) Student Flows .23||
||(g) Quality .24||
||2. External Efficiency<br>.24||
||Employment: Surpluses and Shortages....|24|
|VI.|Policy and Institutional<br>Measures .26||
|VII.|Goals and Strategies<br>.26||
||1. Performance and Quality ................|26|
||(a) Diversify Structures<br>.26||
||(b) Adjust Labor Market Policies .26||
||(c) Improve Teaching and Research .27||
2. Efficiency ...................................... 28 (a) Revise Admission Policies .... ............ 28 (b) Strengthen Management ..... .............. 28 (c) Ensure Adequate Physical and Material Facilities and Support Services ....... 28 3. Equity ......................................... 29 Increase Female Participation .... ...... 29 4. Resources ...................................... 30 Diversify Funding Sources .... ......... 30 VIII. Conclusion .......... .................................... 30 References .............. ....................................... 32

# TEXT TABLES AND GRAPHS

# TABLE

Table 1: University of Sana'a Annual Budget Expenditures 12 Table 2: University of Sana'a Annual Internal Revenue .12 Table 3: Annual Internal Revenue as Percentage of Total Expenditure .13 Table 4: Number of Instructional Staff in Selected Faculty 14 Table 5: Enrollment and Percent of Female Students in Universities and Equivale.at Institutions in Selected Arab Countries .19 Table 6: Percentage of Female Enrollment by Faculty .20

# GRAPH

Graph I: Total Student Enrollment. 9 Graph II: Education Faculty Enrollment ....................... 10 Graph III. Total Graduate Output, 1974-1989 .20
# AN<sup>1</sup> EX

|Annex 1:|Tentative Policy Matrix ............................|34|
|---|---|---|
|Annex 2:|The Organizational Structure<sup>of the University of</sup>||
||Sana'a ....................................|35|
|ijnnex 3:|The Stracture Organization of<sup>the Faculty of Education</sup>||
||at<br>the University of Sana'a ....<br>.............|.<br>36|

# APPENDIX

|Graph I:|Total Graduate Output from 1974-1989<sup>....</sup><br>...........|38|
|---|---|---|
|Graph II:<br>Graph III:|Female Composition of Student Output<sup>.39</sup><br>Student Admissions<sup>to Sana'a University by Secondary</sup><br>School Graduation Grades 1989/90<sup>.40</sup>||
|Table 1:|The Number of Students at Sana'a<sup>University, 1988/89</sup><br>|41<br>|
|Table 2:|College of Education- Student<sup>Enrollments, 1989-90</sup><br>|42<br>|
|Table 3:|Faculty Position in Faculty<sup>of Education, July 1990</sup><br>|43<br>|
|Table 4:|Member of Faculty of Education<sup>on Fellowships Abroad</sup><br>|43|
|Table 5:|Number of Academic Staff, 1988/89<sup>.44</sup><br>||
|Table 6:|Staff on Overseas Higher Degree<sup>Training, 1988</sup><br>|45|
|Table 7:|Postgraduate Profile According<sup>to Their Major, Sex and</sup><br>||
||Nationality, 1988/89 .46<br>||
|Table 8:|The Output from Different Kinds<sup>of Education, 1979/80-</sup><br>1988/89 ...............<br>.<br>.<br>......................<br>|47<br>|
|Table 9:|Graduate Output from 1973/74<sup>to 1988/89 ....</sup><br>........|48|

# Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge with<sup>thanks the valuable comments of Dr.</sup> Abubakar Qirby, Douglas Albrecht,<sup>Tom Eisenmon, Birger Fredriksen, John</sup> Middleton, S. Rangachar, Ralph Romain,<sup>Djamalddine Rouag, Jamil Salmi,</sup> Yogendra Saran, Antoine Schwartz, Adriaan<sup>Verspoor, and George Za'rour.</sup>
# List of Acronyms

|CPO|Central Planning Office|
|---|---|
|FOE|Faculty of Education|
|MOCSAR|Hinibtry of Civil Service and Administrative Reform|
|MOE|Ministry of Education|
|PDRY|People's Democratic Republic of Yemen|
|ROY|Republic of Yemen|
|UNDP|United Nations Development Program|
|UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural<br>Organization|
|USAID|United States Agency for International Development|
|YAR|Yemen Arab Republic|
|YR1|Yemen Rials|
# Higher Education in The Regublic of Yemen: The University of Sana'a

# Critical Issues and Policy Options

# I. Introduction

1. This study aims at assessing the development and performance of higher education in the former Yemen Arab Republic. It traces the background of the University of Sana'a and its objectives and policies, resource base, staff development, curricula, organizational structure, physical facilities and job placement. The study highlights the critical policy and institution. factors that constrain the overall efficient performance and inhibit the future development of the UniNdrsity. It also addresses measures that might alleviate some of these cornstraints.

# Background

2. Yemen is a low-middle income country with an average per capita income of $590 in 1987 and is dependent largely on agriculture and migrant earnings from petroleum-rich neighboring Arab countries. It came into being following the September 1962 Revolution which ended the feudal role and the isolationist policy of the Hamid al-Din Dynasty (1890-1962). Except for a few exclusively male and urban elementary and secondary schools providing an Islamic education with some m3dern refinements, education in the modern sense was practically non-existent. Thus, few Yemenis had educational qualifications. Therefore, the country had an acute shortage of the middle and high-level manpower to lay the foundations of a modern state and accelerate economic growth. In particular, to develop its modest oil and gas 1 This study was undertaken before the unification of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR or the North) and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY of the South) on May 22, 1990 to form the Republic of Yemen (ROY). The two governmental administration have thus far joined forces at the cabinet level and are now in the process of aligning forces at the lower ministerial levels. 1991 will continue to be a transition period during which some separate institutions, policies and practices will coexist at the subsectoral level. The Government proposes to introduce the first budget for the newly formed Republic of Yemen in 1991 and development plan in 1992. This study is focussed on the University of Sana'a, the sole university in the Yemen Arab Republic before the unification.

2 Migrant to petroleum-rich neighboring Arab countries has become a dominant faccor in the culture, social and economic life of the country.

3 Peter Clark. 1985. Aspects of Education in Yemen Arab Republic in B.R. Pridham (ed.) Economy. Society and Culture in Contemporary Yemen, London: Groom Helm P.172.
res.ources, good tourism potential and a dynamic market systems as well as to promote its socially-signlfi'ant sectors like health, education and training, the country needed physicians, dentists, pharmacists, medical assistants, engineers, economists, teaciers, technicians, medical assistants, extension workers, etc. However, a irotracted Civil War (1962-68) and the lack of a requisite pool of secondary school graduates, i ustrated attempts to establish a modern tertiary institution to train high-lesel manpower needed for Yemen's development strategy.

# (a) Overseas Study

3. Yemen's immediate response to overcome its enormous gap between its available middle and high-level manpower and its immediate and growing need was to send qualified young Yemenis abroad, for degree and related programs In diverse fields. The organizations responsible for overseas study were (i) the Ministry of Education (MOE), (ii) the Central Planning Office (CPO) and (iii) from 1970, the University of Sana'a fellowship program for staff development. Thougn until recently, much of overseas higher education was financed through donor assistance, still the cost to Yemen continues to Le considerable.

4. Prior to 1962, the only option for aspiring Yemeni students with appropriate qualifications was to travel to neighboring Arab and other countries for study in universities and higher institutions. Most went to Egypt, the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and China. Tn 1960/61 around 1,030 Yemeni students were attending postsecondary institutions in about twelve countries. Most of them were in medicine, engineering, agriculture and science. Others were in programs for higher degrees (Masters or Ph.D) or postgraduate diplomas in specialized fields. These students were either privately financed or supported by the host countries.

5. Overseas study both at the undergraduate and postgraduate level still plays an important role in Yemen's high-level manpiwer training. Until 1987, the Yemen government sponsored at the undergraduate level only courses that were relevant to national development and not r -ilable at the University of Sana'a. Since 1987, due to severe financial con. _.ints, the government has suspended sponsorship of undergraduate study oversojas. Currently, all overseas undergraduate study is sponsored either by host countries or donor agencies, while the University of Sana'a has about 50% of its Yemini academic staff abroad on higher degree courses.

# (b) Rationale for a University

6. The main arguments advanced by the Government in favor of establishing a national university were to:

- (a) accelerate the process of Yemenization, replace expatriates and conserve foreign exchange;

- (b) provide higher education opportunities to qualified female students, since overseas study presented a cultural barrier to them;

- (c) redress a decline of the knowledge in the Sharia (Islamic Law) -

- a concern voiced by the articulate religious leadership;

- 2 -
(d) respond to the demand from the educdted public for a national university system.

# II. Higher Education. The Universit_X

7. In November 1970, the Government established the University of Sana'a by "upgrading" a teacher training institute. I. was initially modelled on the Ain Shams University in Cairo. This publicly financed University was under the authority of the MOE, with Arabic as the main medium of instruction and English as a language of instruction in science, engineering and medicine.

8. According to the current "Law No.89 for the year 1977" the main goals of the University 4 are: (a) to develop and provide a higher education system which will be responsive to the needs of the nation and its citi.zens; (b) to conduct and encourage scientific research that will serve the comprehensive development, and create scientific and cultural links with other Arab and foreign universities and scientific institutions; and (c) to preserve, transmit and enhance the accomplishment of national goals with special attention to Arabic-Islamic values and traditions.

9. Other specialized institutions but not necessarily high level include the National Institute for Public Administration, the Telecommunications Institute, the Health Manpower Training Institute, the Police College, Center for Educational Research and Yemeni R3search Center.

10. Since its establishment, the University has expanded its facilities significantly. It now has two campuses in Sana'a and four satellite Faculties of education in Hodeida, Taiz, Ibb and Hajjah. The original Sana'a campus -- the 'physical nucleus' of the University -- is located near the center of the city of Sana'a and houses the Faculties of Arts, Science, the Language Center and the Rector's Office with separate Arts and Science libraries and other support facilities. The new 217 hectare campus, established in the early 1980s is approximately three kilometers northwest of the center of the city and houses the main administration, the Faculties of Agriculture, Commerce, Education, Engineering, Law and Sharia, Medicine and Health, and Sciences (except the satellite Faculties of Education), the Central Library, lecture theatres, sports facilities and staff and student housing. Public transport is available between the two campuses.

4 Sana'a University Phase I: The Master Plan and Mahamed Mohamed A1Moltahar 1986. Evaluating the Consequences of an Academic Innovation: The Case of the Calendar Curriculum Change at Sana'a University in the Yemen Arab Republic. Ph.D. (Education dissertation). The University of Michigan, p.4.

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# III, Structure and Organization

# (a) Governance

11. In 1974 the Government established an autonomous<sup>Governing Council</sup> presided over by the Minister of Education to control<sup>and administer the</sup> University. Although the University enjoys<sup>considerable autoi.omy</sup> in its actual delivery of academic teaching .nd research,<sup>staff appointments and</sup> administrative management, its overall policy,<sup>planning and finance is under</sup> the Government's direction. The University is<sup>administered byaRector,</sup> nominated by the Chairman of the Governing Council<sup>of the University and</sup> appointed by Presidential decree. In 1988, the<sup>organizational structure of</sup> the University was reconstituted (see Annex<sup>II) to have a (i) Higher Council</sup> of the University; (ii) The University Council;<sup>(iii) The Rector of the</sup> University; (iv) Faculty Council and (v)<sup>Department Council. This</sup> organizational struct':re is highly hierarchical and centralized, with clearly delineated responsibilities at each level.

12. (i) The Higher Council establishes and implements<sup>policy for the</sup> University, ensuring its consistency within the overall<sup>framework of the</sup> government's higher education policy and oversees<sup>its implementation. It also</sup> attempts to link graduate and research outputs<sup>with the manpower and</sup> development needs of the country and approves the<sup>annual recurrent and capital</sup> budgets. The Higher Council is now headed by<sup>the Deputy Prime Minister, who</sup> represents the University in the Cabinet.<sup>Other members of the Council</sup> include: (a) Minister of Education; (b) Minister<sup>of Public Service; (c)</sup> Minister of Justice; (d) Minister of Finail ,; (e) Minister of Labor and Social Services, and (f) Assistant Minister of Planning<sup>in the CPO.</sup> 13. Through the Chairmanship of the Deputy Prime Minister<sup>and membership</sup> of the various Ministers in the Higher Council,<sup>the Government maintains close</sup> control over the University. In particular,<sup>the Council through its dominant</sup> role in policy formulation, planning and finance<sup>determines the directicn of</sup> the development of the University.

14. (ii) Tne University Council is composed of senior<sup>academics and</sup> administrators and comes under the direction<sup>of the Higher Council. It</sup> prepares the rules, regulations and statutes<sup>for implementation in areas such</sup> as zurricula, examinations, the l':.`.versity's annual recurrent and capital budget, student admission criter/ta, research projects and university exchange. It acts as the main link between the University's<sup>policy and planning</sup> decisions by the Higher Council and its implementation at the faculty and departmental level as well as decides on what<sup>programs to collaborate with</sup> other universities and external donor agencies.

15. (iii) The Rector is appointed with the rank<sup>of a cahi.net</sup> minister, by presidential decree based on the recommendation of the Chairman of the Higher Council. As executive head of the<sup>University, he controls all</sup> academic, administrative and financial matters as well as executing<sup>the</sup> University's laws and regulations.<sup>He is assisted by the Vice-Rector who is</sup> also appointed by presidential decree.<sup>Responsible to the Rector via the</sup> Vice-Rector are the various academic faculties<sup>and centers, the</sup>

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administrative, financial and service<sup>directorates--the various functional</sup> units of the University, the heads<sup>of all these units--tie Deans and</sup> Director-Generals. Although policy-making<sup>powers are concentrated in both the</sup> Higher Council and the University Council,<sup>the Rector and the Vice-Rector, in</sup> consultation with the relevant Deans,<sup>playacentral role in initiating and</sup> participating in the formulation of<sup>academic policy including admission</sup> policies. The content of the various<sup>courses of study is determined in</sup> consultation with the Deans and Heads<sup>of Departments. There is a high degree</sup> of centralization of power in the hands<sup>of the Rector, particularly in the</sup> areas of academic and administrative<sup>appointments and provision of finance to</sup> the various faculties, departments and<sup>administrative units. The Rector, for</sup> example, has the sole prerogative in<sup>the appointment of Deans, Deputy-Deans</sup> and Chairmen of Departments.

16. (iv) The-Facglties. Each of the 12<sup>Faculties are headed by a Dean</sup> and assisted by Vice-Deans. The Faculties<sup>are governed in academic matters by</sup> a Council, chaired by the Dean and composed<sup>of the Vice-Dea.s, Department</sup> Chairmen, and professors selectea from<sup>each c` the departments on the basis of</sup> seniority, and two annually elected<sup>members, from the rank of assistant</sup> professors and lecturers. The Faculty<sup>Council sets the curr4.cula and program</sup> of instruction, coordinates the activities<sup>across the departments, specifies</sup> the examination system and presents<sup>to the University Council the Faculty's</sup> planned changes in curricula, examination<sup>system, graduation requirements,</sup> etc.

17. The Dean is responsible for the execution<sup>of the University's laws</sup> and regulations, as well as carrying<sup>out the decisions of the University's</sup> Council. In this task he is assisted<sup>by the Vice-Deans. The Dean, 'Vice-Deans</sup> and the Chairmen of Departments<sup>are appointed by the Rector from the rank of</sup> professors, with the exceptions<sup>provided by the law for Yemeni faculty</sup> members.

# (b) Departments

18. The Chairman is the head of<sup>the Department and he presides over a</sup> Departmental Council. The<sup>Council is made up of all the professors and</sup> assistant professors plus<sup>two of the lecturers in the Department who are</sup> elected to serve the council<sup>according to their seniority. The Departmental</sup> Council is responsiole for all<sup>matters pertaining to instructional,</sup> scientific and social activities of the Department.

# (c) Academic Units

19. The University began its oper<sup>.on with 64 students and 9 teaching</sup> staff in 2 faculties -- the<sup>Faculty of Sharia (Islamic Law) and Law and the</sup> Faculty of Education, with<sup>Arts (Liberal Arts) and Science Departr-nts. In</sup> 1973, Arts and Science Departments were<sup>split into two independent faculties</sup> (see Annex III) and a third Faculty<sup>of Commerce and Economics was added. The</sup> Faculties of Medicine and Health Sciences,<sup>and Engineering and the Language</sup> Center were established in 1983,<sup>while the Faculties of Agriculture and</sup> Postgraduate Studies and Scientific Research<sup>in 1984. A satellite Faculty of</sup> Education of the University was established in<sup>the Governorate of Taiz in 1984</sup>

-5
to help meet the accelerating demand for school teachers for the rapid:y expatnding post-primary schools (elementary grades 7-9 and secondary grades 1012), to reduce over-dependence on a costly cadre of foreign teachers and to attract more female students from the Governorates bv providing training nearer their home. Since then, three more Faculties of Education have been established in the Governorates -- in Hodeida (1987), Ibb (1988) and Hajjah (1989). Thus the UDtversity has a total of twelve fae'Xties.

# (d) Admission Policy

20. In Yemen, all students with a secondary school graduation are entitled to enroll in the University, this Includes qualifications obtained ir post-primary institutions which are deemed to be equivalent to secondaLy school graduation such as the religious institutions (see Appendix, Table 8) 5 . The student intake is at the beginning of the academic year. Though admission into the University is automatic, students are not guaranteed their field of choice. Placement is determined by the student's secondary school stream, the choice the student makes, and the scores at graduation. Admission standards vary among faculties. Because of the high compe~.,ion for admission and the limited facilities, the Faculties of Medicine and Engineering demand higher secondary school graduation scores. Admission scores on secondary school final examinations for the faculties vary between a minimum of 55 to a maxirunu of 95. To further screen the candidates, the Faculties of Engineering, Medicine and Education (cn-ly for English) administer an entrance examination. However, the examination process has now been discarded by the Faculties of Engineering and Medicine and selection through an interview has been substituted.

21. Students with the lowest scores and who therefore do not qualify t. enter the faculty of their choice are 'dumped' into the Faculty of Arts as a 'last resort.' They end up doing a course in the Departments of Arabic Literature or Islamic Studies. Both these departments have the largest student enrollment in the Faculty of Arts. With the exception of the Medical, Engineering and Education Faculties, students with minimum entry qualifications are admitted without any further review of their ability to benefit from a university education.

22. The Universitg does not charge tuition and provides a partial subsidy for textbooks. Studer.ts pay two fees each year: a registration fee and a student activities fee both totalling YR1 215 about (US$18.00 at the March 1990 exchange rate). In order to encourage students to take up teaching 5 In the PDRY, students are admitted on the basis of the performance at the school-leaving examinations, and on interview for available slots in each of the 'Jniversity's faculties. The number of slo-s are determined through manpower planning. See Bikas Sanyal and L. Yaici. 1985. Higher Education ard Emglovment in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen Paris. UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning.

6 A discount of 25% for Arts, Sharia and Law books (discontinued from 1990) and 50% for scientific books and manuals.

6-
as a career, the University<sup>exempts Faculty of Education students from the</sup> student activities fee as<sup>well as gives them a stipend. The University has a</sup> program which enables qualified<sup>lower income students to work and study part-</sup> time. This facility also<sup>provides a second chance to the lower echelon</sup> r.embers of the e vil service to pursue<sup>tertiary education and, upon</sup> graduation, they can be<sup>upgraded within the public service.</sup>

# (e) Orlanization of Undergraduate<sup>Curriculum</sup>

23. The initial academic year<sup>and curriculum of the University was</sup> structured along the lines<sup>of that of Ain Shams University in Cairo, a</sup> continuous nine-months' calendar<sup>(September-May)</sup> with Arabic as the main medium of instruction. In<sup>1980, the University adopted a two semester and</sup> credit-hour system. The<sup>curriculum is divided into four (4) semesters of</sup> general education and four<sup>(4) semesters of professional education structured</sup> around the American system<sup>of flexible semester credit-hours. The academic</sup> year lasts from September<sup>to July, having two semesters of 18 weeks each</sup> (called a "two-term system").<sup>This system was preferred as it facilitated the</sup> particular needs of each<sup>individual student and enabled development of part-</sup> time programs for working students.<sup>It also helped to reduce the repeater and</sup> dropout rates, while the earlier<sup>continuous nine-month calendar year system</sup> accompanied by a rigid examination<sup>system at the end, produced a high</sup> attrition rate and consequently<sup>a low graduation rate.</sup> 24. At the end of each semester,<sup>examinations are held. Students in</sup> some faculties, in addition<sup>to passing their end of semester examinations,</sup> must have satisfactory course<sup>grades and credit hours of attendance in order</sup> to proceed to the next academic<sup>year. A limit is placed on repetition--only</sup> one for each year of studies<sup>and a maximum of four during the four-year cycle.</sup> However, if they fail they<sup>are allowed to resit during the academic year. The</sup> credit hours required for<sup>graduation vary from faculty to faculty--from 132</sup> credit hours for Arts graduates<sup>to 171 credit hours for Engineering graduates</sup> including lengthy laboratory<sup>training. The normal duration of study for</sup> students doing a first degree<sup>is four years, while agriculture and engineering</sup> studerts take five years and<sup>medical students six years.</sup> 25. A University-wide core curriculum<sup>(15 credit hours) consisting of</sup> Islamic culture, Arabic<sup>and English Language, was adopted in 1980 and had to</sup> be followed by all incoming<sup>students for the first two academic years. This</sup> was further reinforced by<sup>a FaculWy-wide</sup> requirement (15-30 credit<sup>hours).</sup> The objective of these two<sup>requirements in the first two academic years was to</sup> provide all students with<sup>knowledge beyond the required chosen major and</sup> minor course of specialization.<sup>Department requirements</sup> were between 45 and 70 credit hours and they were<sup>for major and minor specializations. Finally,</sup> students were allowed to<sup>do elective course work (15 credit hours) which could</sup> be counted towards their<sup>major and/or minor. It is expected that through an</sup> exposure to the University<sup>and college-wide core curriculum, students would be</sup> better equipped in intellectual<sup>skills such as creative thinking and problem-</sup> solving, while their major<sup>and minor courses would enhance their academic</sup> knowledge and professional<sup>skills.</sup>

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26. Course offerings are made across faculties to avoid duplication of classes and teaching facilities. The English course requirements for all students are taught by the Language Center, while the Faculty of Science teaches all the basic science courses for students from the Faculties of Agriculture, Education, Engineering and Medicine. Similarly, the Faculty of Arts teaches the basic academic courses to Education students. This system of course coordination between faculties and sharing of facilities among faculties, apart from being cost-effective, provides for cross-fertilization of both students and staff from different faculties.

27. Teaching in the science and technology-based faculties, such as Medicine and Engineering, is done mainly in English. However, the lack of an adequate general and technical vocabulary and communication skills in English among majority of the students have put them at a disadvantage, particularly in comprehending textbooks and references, which are largely in English. From the very outset, Arabic and Islamic cultures were made the University-wide core courses, thus protecting the cultural and religious heritage and satisfying the demands of the religious leadership as well as counterbalancing the potentially overwhelming influence of the western-oriented curriculum.

# IV. Development

28. Within a span of less than two decades, the University of Sana'a has evolved into a full-fledged modern multi-faculty, multi-campus and largely a non-residential "mass-university"7 system with an undergraduate training focus and a student population of about 36,700 in 1989/90. It continues to expand rapidly' in terms of student enrollments. However, the expansion of University's resources, its staff members, and facilities have far from kept pace with the dramatic increase in student enrollments. All the University's graduates have thus far been employed, because of the government's guaranteed employment policy.

## (a) Student Enrollment

29. The Government policy from the outset in 1970 was for the University to "balance the University enrollment to the capacity of the market place to absorb highly educated individuals."8 Thus during the first decade, student enrollments grew and broadened from 64 in 1970 to 4,500 in 1979 with an overall student:staff ratio of 23:1 . This gradual enrollment trend developed despite the provision of free higher education, a job guarantee with high remuneration and a social prestige of a university degree. The growth kept up with the manpower needs of Yemen. However, this low growth was not because of a deliberate manpower planning policy, but rather due to the limited pool 7 A "mass-university" is a university with more than 20,000 students. See Edward Shils 1983 The Academic Ethic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p.12.

## 8 Sana'a University, Phase I: The Master Plan, p.V.

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of secondary school<sup>graduates who were qualified to enter the University.</sup> 30. In 1981 student<sup>enrollment gradually reached 6,634. However, from</sup> 1985, this trend<sup>accelerated. Student enrollment experienced an explosive</sup> growth owing<sup>to the high priority given to the expansion of secondary</sup> education in the<sup>late 1970s. In the 1985/86 session 2,163 new students were</sup> enrolled, and<sup>this made the total student population 12,881. Graph I below</sup> shows that especially<sup>in 1988/89 and 1989/90 academic sessions there was an</sup> 'enrollment explosion'<sup>in all the 12 faculties and the Language Center. The</sup> intake was 5,800<sup>in 1988/89 and about 13,253 students in 1989/90, the latter</sup> intake far outstripping<sup>the Third Five Year Plan projected intake of 3,680</sup> students in that<sup>year.</sup> <!-- Start of picture text --> Graph I<br>Total Student Enrollment, 1970-2000<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Thousands<br>80<br>80<br>60 z<br>40<br>30 a~~ctual prolected-<br>30<br>1970 1975 1980 1986 1990 1996 2000<br>'ear<br>Sour:,, Univer.igy of eCan.<br>Prolotlon b"Aol 00 WOtrd Brnt<br>Mssilon Od1<br><!-- End of picture text --> 31. Within a three-year<sup>period, total student enrollments more than</sup> increased, from<sup>17,000 in 1987/88 to 23,447 in 1988/89 and 36,700 in 1989/909</sup> (about 9,000 to<sup>10,000 of these being enrolled in the four satellite Faculties</sup> of Educationi).<sup>There were 715 non-Yemeni students in 1988/89 (largely from</sup> Palestine) (See<sup>Appendix, Table 1). As a result, a high proportion of the</sup> student enrollment<sup>(about 40%) were first year students. Further growth of</sup> 9 A small number<sup>of students included in this are part-time students --</sup> some of them are<sup>not actively pursuing their studies.</sup>

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enrollment is expected for the remainder of this decade. In the 1990/91 session, student enrollment reached 44,000 and by the year 2000 it is projected by the Bank mission that at the present rate of intake it will reach 79,000. In spite of the fact that the University of Sana'a is a "massuniversity", the higher education enrollment ratio is less than 1% of the age cohort, one of the lowest in the Arab world. Female participation in the University's student composition remains low at 14.5% (see Table 5). However, due to an absence of data, it is difficult to ascertain the equity aspects of this enrollment explosion, particularly in terms of socio-economic background and rural-urban origin.

32. Of the 1989/90 intake of 13,253 students, just over 7,300 students were enrolled in the five Faculties of Education -- the Sana'a Faculty alone enrolling about half this number -- making the Faculties of Education the fastest growing element of the University. This rapid growth of the Education Faculty is a marked reversal of past trends. Since 1973/74, the percentage of students enrolling in the Faculty of Education as a proportiyn of all students was decreasing, from 19.7% in 1973/74 to 3.4% in 1981-82. ° <!-- Start of picture text --> Graph 11<br>Education Faculty Enrollment 1970-2000<br>Thousands<br>30<br>20 /<br>actual pjeatud-<br>10/<br>0 .<br>1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br>%tar<br>?0urces Uaifi5sity o0 8 n5&<br>* PtoJi@0lon b4aed as Wofnd Snas<br>M1211oa Data<br><!-- End of picture text --> 10 Mohamed A. Alkhader. 1985. Low Enroliment of Students at the Faculty of Education and its Effects on the Second Five Year Plan in B.R. Pridham (ed.) Economy. Society and Culture in Contemgorary Yemen. London: Croom Helm. p.190-99 10

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This was due to two major factors: low social status and low wages. However, in order to attract students into the teaching profession, the Teachers Act of 1983 provided a far better wage and service incentives. A stipend of YR1 9501,100 per month for five years, free accommodation where dormitories existed during training (or 200 YR1 extra if they provided their own housing), and for male students, a release from military service with five years guaranteed teaching contract after graduation and finally an assignment near a teacher's preferred location.

# (b) Resources

33. From the beginning, the financing of the University depended substantially on donor assistance, mainly from the neighboring high-income oil-exporting Arab country of Kuwait with some assistance from UNESCO and western countries mainly in the form of fellowships. UNESCO assisted in the establishment of the Faculty of Education. Funding for the Engineering Faculty was partially provided by the Federal Republic of Germany and the World Bank, while the development of the Agriculture Faculty was financed by the Islamic Development Bank and the Saudi Fund for Development.

34. The University grew rapidly despite the relatively small initial Government contribution (less than 8% of the total operating cost). Kuwait made major contributions towards the physical facilities at the new campus and the payment of competitive salaries for the non-Yemeni staff. However, declining oil revenues have caused a gradual reduction in donor assistance and a significant increase in the Government's share. The Government's share of the University operating cost rose from 50% in 1985/86 to 60% in 1989/90; and to 65% for 1990/91.

35. Table 1 shows the University of Sana'a's budgetary expenditure over the period 1987-90. The data reveals that total real expenditures have been growing at an average annual rate of 31.2%, although this rate slowed considerably in 1990 to 4.5%. Growth has varied according to expenditure categories. Capital expenditures, for instance, have been the most rapidly expanding item at an average annual rate of 46.9%. Expenditures on Goods and Services and Salaries have grown annually by 31.0% and 23.3% respectively, while subsidy expenditures have consistently fallen by an average of 11.6%.

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Table 1: University of Sana's Annual Budget Expenditure (YRIs Thousands: 1987 Constant PrIces) *

|ITEM|1987|<br>1988|<br>1989|<br>1990|Averag<br>Rate of|e<br>X Annual<br>Increase|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Salaries|63,123|70,492<br>(11.7)|98,078<br>(39.1)|118,381<br>(20.7)||23.3|
|Goods and Services|42,934|59,<br>162<br>(37.8)|84,097<br>(42.1)|96,549<br>(14.8)||31.0|
|Capital<br>Expenditure|28,299|42.939<br>(51.7)|109,245<br>(154.4)|89,789<br>(-17.8)||46.9|
|Subsidy Expenditure|895|789<br>(-11.8)|683<br>(-13.4)|618<br>(-9.5)||-11.6|
|Totat|135.251|173,383<br>(28.2)|292.102<br>(68.5)|305.337<br>(4.5)||31.2|

Source: University of Sanala Figures in Parentheses are percentage increase on previous year

* Source of GOP Deflators Is World Bank Memorandum (1989) Note: 1989 and 90 figures are estimated using average deflator figures for the past 7 years

Table 2: University of Sanala Annual Internal Revenue (YRIs Thousands: 1987 Constant Prices) *

|ITEM|1987|<br>1988|<br>1989|1990|AverageXAnnuaL<br>rate of increase|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Service<br>Revenues|7,294|6,679<br>(-8.4)|11,657<br>(74.5)|11,304<br>(-3.0)|15.7|
|Special<br>Revenues|110|<br>71<br>(-35.5)|<br>416<br>(487.7)|<br>754<br>(81.3)|<br>89.8|
|Total|7,404|6,750<br>(-8.8)|12,073<br>(78.9)|12,057<br> (-0.1)|<br>17.6|

Source: University of Sanala Figures in Parentheses are percentage increase on previous year

* Source of GDP Deflators is World Bank Memorandum (1989) Note: 1989 and 90 figur s are estimated using average deflator figures for the past 7 years

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36. The University has generated a limited amount of internal revenue to -- assist its financing. In real absolute terms, the revenues have increased solely due to an increase in 1989 -- at an average annual rate of 17.6% between 1987-90, with special revenues growing much faster than those for service. However, Table 3 shows that when the internal revenue is compared to the rapidly increasing overall budgetary expenditure, the proportion has been declining by an average rate of 10.8%. Internal revenue currently accounts for only 3.9% of the total University expenditure, leaving the University almost totally dependent on Government and donor assistance for finance.

Table 3: University of Sana'a Annual Internal Revenue as Percentage of Total Expenditure (YRls Thousands: 1987 Constant Prices) *

||||||Average|% Annual|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|ITEM|1987|1988|1989|1990|rate of|change|
|Internal Revenue as %|5.5|3.9|4.1|3.9|||
|of total Expenditure||(-28.9)|(6.2)|(-4.5)||-10.8|

Source: University of Sana'a Figures in parentheses are percentage change on previous year

# (c) Staff

37. The University appoints members of its academic and administrative staff either on tenure or contract. All Yemenis are appointed to tenure positions, while non-Yemenis are on contract. The shortage of middle and high-level manpower forced the University to employ expatriate teaching and non-teaching (technician and administrative) staff from neighboring Arab country universities -- predominantly from Egypt, and to a lesser extent from Syria, Iraq, Sudan, Jordan and Morocco. For foreign language teaching, and in those fields where English is the medium of instruction (Medicine and Engineering), non-Arab expatriates are recruited. The University has not faced any difficulty in recruiting them, for two reasons. First, the relatively attractive salaries and fringe benefits of the expatriate staff are largely covered by funding from Kuwait. Second, the working conditions are reasonable. Teaching loads are determined by rank. Professors are expected to teach between 8-10 hours a week, while the norm for assistant professors, lecturers and assistant lecturers is between 10-12, 12-14 and 14-16 hours respectively. However, student "contact-hours" has not been stipulated as obligatory.

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38. The national development plans as well as the University's<sup>Higher</sup> Council policies have consistently emphasized the Yemenization<sup>of the academic</sup> staff. Therefore, since the University's inception a number<sup>of qualified</sup> Yemenis graduating both from the University of Sana'a and<sup>from overseas</sup> institutions, have been included for overseas fellowships under the<sup>University</sup> staff development program for masters and doctoral degrees<sup>(see Appendix,</sup> Table 5) to upgrade teaching and administrative capability. In 1988, there were 223 Yemeni staff training for higher degrees<sup>in various foreign countries</sup> such as Egypt (109), the United States of America (63)<sup>and the United Kingdom</sup> (30) (see Appendix, Table 6). However, few women are in this<sup>program because</sup> Yemeni tradition prevents them from studying overseas,<sup>unless accompanied by a</sup> male member of the family. Like in many other Arab countries,<sup>this custom of</sup> severely limiting women's access to overseas higher education<sup>is creating a</sup> two-tier staff composition. The majority of staff are men overseas<sup>trained,</sup> while the handful of women staff are largely trained<sup>at the University of</sup> Sana'a. Until a change in this tradition occurs, the staff<sup>will continue to</sup> be predominantly male and overseas trained. Many of the<sup>overseas training</sup> fellowships have been provided by donor agencies and by joint<sup>donor and</sup> university contributions. On completion of the program, university<sup>sponsored</sup> fellowship holders must serve the University a minimum of twice<sup>the supported</sup> years.

39. In spite of competition from neighboring oil-rich<sup>Arab countries for</sup> professionals since 1976, the Universities has successfully<sup>recruited faculty</sup> members, through which it has attracted qualified Yemenis<sup>from overseas to</sup> take up academic and administrative positions. In the 1988/89 academic session, out of a total staff of 470, 273 or 58% were Yemenis,<sup>and over 90% of</sup> whom were men. In June 1989, of the 111 academic staff members<sup>in the then</sup> only four Faculties of Education, nine were women (8%).

Table 4: Number of Instructional Staff in Selected<sup>Faculties</sup>

||Ye|meni|Non-|Yemeni|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Faculty|1982/83|1988/89|1982/83|1988/89|
|Law<br>Arts|5<br>22|20<br>52|13<br>46|8<br>39|
|Science|13|40|72|62|
|Commerce&Economics|26|39|18|14|
|Education|11|50|5|21|
|Total|77|201|154|144|

Source: University of Sana'a

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# (d) Research and Postgraduate Programs

40. Though the primary emphasis of the Uni- -'rsity is teaching, achievements in research and publications are cri .,ria for staff promotion. However, very little research is being conducted in the University due to lack of funding. The Faculty of Post-Graduate Studies and Scientific Research seeks to encourage all research to be oriented toward the needs of Yemen. In particular, through its newly established Center for Science and Technology, the faculty hopes to conduct applied research in the field of industry, energy, agriculture and irrigation, and health and environment. Funds were being solicited for research activities from USAID, the Italian Government, UNESCO and UNDP.

41. In 1983, the University was granted the licence to confer postgraduate degrees. Because of a demand for postgraduate studies, the University began offering postgraduate studies in the 1984/85 academic session at the Faculty of Postgraduate Studies and Scientific Research. The objective is also to encourage Yemeni graduates to obtain higher degrees in order to replace non-Yemeni staff. Total postgraduate enrollment has increased from 234 in 1988 to 341 in November 1989. The prcgram, because of a lack of human and material resources, offers a limited variety of postgraduate studies largely at the diploma level (1 year) and in education, commerce and Sharia and Law, a few students at masters level program (2-3 years) in the Faculties of Arts and Science and a single Ph.D. candidate in sociology (see Appendix, Table 7). A joint Ph.D. program has been instituted with the Universities of Al Azhar and Cairo in Egypt. Discussions are also in progress with other Arab universities for similar joint programs. The University so far has produced one Ph.D. candidate in Chemistry in 1987. Diploma programs have also been instituted in International Politics, Accounting, Development Economics and Planning.

42. Since 1983/84 the Faculty of Education has offered a general diploma (three semesters) -- a pedagogically oriented program for graduates of Arts, Science and other Faculties who want to be secondary school teachers, and a special diploma program -- a three-semester advanced study for Faculty of Education graduates and educational practitioners in the fields of educational administration and supervision and curriculum development and teaching methodology. Both these programs can be accommodated as partial requirements towards an MA program in education in universities in Cairo or Jordan. Only students who had a 'good' rating in their undergraduate program can gain entry to the special diploma program. Currently, approximately 20 Ministry of Education employees are pursuing diploma program, while a single candidate is pursuing a masters degree in education.

# (e) Physical. Social and Welfare Facilities

43. The University's two campuses house all the eight faculties located in Sana'a. Each of the Faculties is housed in separate buildings. Support facilities exist such as a Central Library, lecture theatre complex, staff and student housing and sports grounds. The Faculties of Agriculture, Engineering and Medicine have new buildings. In the Medical Faculty building, donated by Kuwait at a cost of US$35 million, the present enrollment has not reached full

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capacity as it is projected to enroll as many as 2,000 students when fully functional. Student health service and sports facilities are provided. There is also scope for social and cultural activities through student clubs. Because of large student numbers and meager resources, these facilities are overstretched -- they are currently serving in some cases about five times the number of students they were intended to serve.

# (f) Library Facilities

44. The University has a Central Library and satellite libraries at each of the faculties. The Central Library holds around 140,000 items, 60% of which are in Arabic, 39% in English and the rest in other languages. Many of the holdings in English were either inappropriate or outdated editions. Current periodicals acquisition is limited to about 765 -- 535 in English and the rest in Arabic. The .- mbined libraries have 13 professionals and 65 nonprofessional staff. Seven of the 13 professional were non-Yemeni. Two of the senior Yemeni professional librarians are involved in full-time administration. Only three Yemeni staff are on overseas training and there appears to be a reluctance on the part of Yemenis to take up library science courses because of poor career prospects.

# (g) Placement of Graduates.

45. The Government of Yemen adopted a policy of guaranteed employment in the public sector to all Yemeni graduates, both from the University of Sana'a and from overseas universities. They are obliged to work for at least<sup>two</sup> years in the public sector before they can move into the private sector. Employment in the private sector are more attractive as wage levels in the private sector are double to triple those in the public sector, however, graduate employment opportunities in the private sector are very limited. This limited graduate employment demand is confined to fields such as accounting, engineering and computer sciences.

46. Until 1988, the process of Yemenization in the public sector has enabled Ministry of Civil Service and Administrative Reform (MOCSAR) -- the agency responsible for graduate placement -- to place all graduates, mainly from the Faculties of Arts, Sharia and Law and Commerce and Economics, in spite of the rise in their numbers from 417 in 1981 to 1,588 in 1986 (see Appendix, Graph I and Table 7). However, the situation is changing, especially the supply of humanities and social science graduates, with a number of graduates returning from Saudi Arabia, is fast outstripping the demand for them in the public sector. In 1989, MOCSAR had 4,000 graduates for placement. The bulk of them are with qualification in the humanities and MOCSAR is facing increasing difficulties in placing them within the public sector in line with the Government's guaranteed employment policy.

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V. The Issues

# 1. Low Internal Efficiency and Quality

# (a) Excessive Expansion

47. Due to political pressure, the university system continues to grow at an explosive rate compared to its steady growth of the 1970s and early 1980s. In spite of serious financial and manpower constraints the Faculty of Education at Taiz is earmarked for an autonomous university status in 1992. The expansion into a "mass-university" tas occurred on an ad hoc basis, with student enrollment far outstripping the projection of the University's initial Phase I of the Master Plan -- approximately 5000 students by 1990. The dramatic growth of student numbers in the University of Sana'a has severely affected the institution's overall quality. It has strained both the university administration and academic provision -- the fundamental issue being the choice between quantity and quality within a growing resource, placement and management constraint.

48. Due to a 'revolution of rising expectations' large sections of Yemeni youths and their parents realize that in order to reap the benefits of modernization and 'get ahead in life' they must have higher educational credentials. This is fuzther reinforced by the Government's policy of a reward system based on credautials between graduates and non-graditates which constitutes substantial wage differential and guaranteed employment to graduates. The higher the educational credentials, the better are the chances of upward social and economic mobility. The near full subsidization of education at all levels for every Yemeni citizen lhas kept the private costs low, while the private return on university education is much higher than on pre-university education because of high wage differentials. Therefore, a high expected future benefits, together with low private cost and high unemployment among secondary school leavers have created widespread Parental pressure on children, especially sons, to take up higher education. The expansion of education and the rapid growth and diversificEtion of secondary education have facilitated greater participation and success rates in secondary education. Furthermore, socio-political pressures to improve opportunities obliged the University to enroll any candidate who satisfies its minimum entry requirements. As a result, more and more students from the diverse educational routes want to pursue higher education. This has affected quality because: firstly, many of them do not possess the prerequisite educational background to benefit from higher education; secondly, the system which subsidized higher education entirely on need -- with no focus on merit and cost recovery serves as a disincentive for greater striving on the part of the student; lastly, the University of Sana'a does not have the resource, physical and management capacity to cope with even 50% of the current of enrollment.

11 Mohamed A. Ackhader. 1985. Low Enrollments of Students at the Faculty of Education and Its Effects on Second Five-Year Plan in B.R. Pridham (ed.) Economy. Society and Culture in Contemporary Yemen. London: Croom Helm. p191.

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49. Without significant policy changes, demand will continue Lo grow rapidly. This is because as the population is growing at a rate of 3.3% annually, 46% of its present estimated population is under 15 years of age and the Government has a strong commitment to education as a basic human right of every Yemeni citizen. Since 1970, educational expansion and the provision of (almost free) education at all levels have characterized national policy. As a result primary school enrollments grew from 24% of the school-age population in 1975 to 79% in 1988. The number of secondary school graduates eligible for university admission from secondary education alone increased from 2,181 in 1979/80 to 13,211 in 1988/89 (see Appendix, Table 8). If to this number are added the students who have graduated from other institutions and who are eligible for admission to the University, the increase in overall numbers was from 2,728 in 1979/80 to 16,112 in 1988/89, an increase of 591% or a sixfold increase within less than a decade. This increase will continue at an accelerated rate henceforth, as the enrollments are projected to rise in the lower (grades 7-9) and upper (grades 10-12) secondary education from 238,000 and 81,000 in 1988 to 474,000 and 289,000 respectively by the year 2000. A growth in the corresponding school age population from 30% to 37% in lower secondary and from 14% to 27% in upper secondary. This will result in a burgeoning social demand, an expanding higher education system and an impossible budgetary burden if no disincentives to this pattern emerge.

# (b) Low Female Enrollment

50. In the Arab world, in defiance of entrenched traditional practice, many Governments including Yemen have promoted female participation in higher education, This is reflected by a tenfold increase in the enrollment of female tertiary-level students in Arab countries from 1965 to 1985. 2 In percentage terms, there was an overall increase of women in tertiary education (which included universities and other post-secondary institutions) from 24% in 1965 to 33% in 1985.

12 S.A. Jarrar and B. Massialas. 1983. Education in the Arab World. New York: Praeger.

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Table 5: Enrollment and Percent of Female Students in Universities and Equivalent Institutions in Selected Arab Countries

||196|5|197|5|1980|'s||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Country|||||||Year|
||Total|aFem|<br>Total|%Fem|Total|%Fem||
|Algeria|8,177|20.1|41,847|-|108,181|-|1984|
|Egypt|64,506|19.9|411,097|30.1|613,570|33.6|1983a|
|Jordan|1,169|40.2|4,805b|29.2|25,929|38.8|1984|
|Morocco|<br>7,979|11.3|35,081|19.2|126,481|32.5|1984|
|Syria|32,653|16.8|65,348|22.4|123,735|29.7|1983|
|Tunisia|<br>5,629|18.1|20,505|25.7|38,829|36.0|1984c|
|Yemen, A.|R.<br>-|-|2,408|10.2|3,403d|14.5|1988/89|
|Yemen, P.|D.R.<br>-|-|934b|18.2|3,645|52.3|1983c|

a 1983 excluding Al-Azhar UJniversity b Figures for 1974 c Third set of figures for all levels of higher education Source: George I. Za'rour I Universities in Arab Countries n PPR Working Paper No.62 51. However, in spite of the Yemen Government's promotion of female participation in higher education and the country's development, in 1988/89 female students comprised only 14.5% of the total student population of 23,447 -- by comparison with 52% share of female students in the former Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen's tertiary institutions as a whole as early as 1983. In certain faculties, Arts, Medicine, Education and Science, female student enrollment was much larger than the University-wide average, namely 44.6%, 44.3%, 23.3% and 27.2% respectively. The Law Faculty had the lowest female enrollment, 1.9%. Because of the low enrollment of female students, the female graduate output over the years has continued to be small vis a vis male graduate output (see Graph III). It was not possible to ascertain from which socioeconomic background the majority of the female students and graditates came from.

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Table 6: Percentage of Female Enrollment by Faculty

|Faculty|1973/74|1982/83|1988/89|
|---|---|---|---|
|Arts|15.2|23.2|44.6|
|Law|0.5|2.4|1.9|
|Science|14.8|28.5|27.2|
|Commerce|6.7|9.7|9.5|
|Medicine|-|^|44.3|
|Engineering<br>|||9.1|
|Agriculture|-|-|4.5|
|Education|10.6|17.8|23.3|
|Total|10.1|11.7|14.5|

Source: University of Sana'a 52. The establishment of Faculties of Education in the Governorates of Taiz, Hodeida, Ibb and Hajjah, has made higher education accessible at the local level to female students and increased their participation rate. For example, the female share of student enrollments to males in Taiz, Hodeida and Ibb in 1988/89 has improved -- they were 27.8%, 21.3% and 31% respectively (see Appendix, Table 1). As an incentive to join the teaching service, female students from the Faculty of Education are provided free accommodation, while those in the other faculties enjoy a subsidized rent which amounts to YRI 150 (US$15) a month.

<!-- Start of picture text --> Graph Ilk Total Graduate Output,<br>1974-1989<br>Male-Femaj Compoaltion<br>No. of Graduates (Thousanda)<br>4-<br>2i<br>1 _<br>0<br>74-77 78-81 82-86 88e9<br>War<br>Male Femals<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Source:** Univrelty **of Sang's**

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53. This low enrollment of females, especially in the more professionally oriented faculties (except medicine and education) needs concerted action. There are several sociological obstacles to wider female participation in higher education. Apart from the low female school attendance rate at post-primary level, early marriage, the dominant view that a woman's role is essentially a housewife, and the deep rooted Yemeni societal and family traditions discourage their female children from travelling **awaiy** from hlome to attend tertiary education. Also the lack of proper and adtmquate female student accommodation within the University campus is a major deterrent to the enrollment of female students from the governorates outside Sania'a. However, a female student dormitory is nlow under construction. Until then, fem-iale students are accomnodated in limited rented premises.

# (c) High Student:Staff Ratio

54. The University gives priority to undergraduate teaching. However, the explosion in student numbers has far outstripped academic staff recruitment. As a result the overall student:staff ratio has risen from a satisfactory 23:1 in 1978/79 to an alarming 80:1 in 1989/90 and varied enormously from faculty to faculty. The most drastic increase was in the Faculty of Arts -- the faculty of 'last resort' -- which has a student:staff ratio of 500:1 **in** 1989/90 compared to a ratio of 19:1 in 1982/83. The Facul ty of Commerce and Economics has a student:staff ratio of 230:1 compared to '1:1 in 1982/83. Though the growth of teaclhing staff has been significant, _from0_ 9 in 1970 to 550 in 1989, it has not kept up with the phenomenal growth in student numbers.

55. Measures to reduce the work load of the full-time staff by appointing part-time lecturers did not materialize. This was largely becaussuitably qualified part-time staff were not available. Therefore, tl-ie drastic rise in the student:staff ratio led to heavier teaching and grading load to full-time staff and less time for continuous assessment research, curriculum and teaching improvement. The heavier grading loaul4has resulted in long delays in announcing examination results. It virtually precludes any instructional mode other than mass lettures. This also cor-ributed to an overall lack of research, seminars and guidance of students. For example, in the Faculty of Education there are too many students for staff to spend as much time as necessary in supervising the teaching practice course. The use of part-time staff has brought about a lack of academic cohesion, advice and coordination of academic activities in the various subject departments.

# (d) Inadequate Resources and Facilities

56. (i) Financial. The University lacks an annual budgetary fr-meworl outlininig its income, allocation of its resources to the various units, **yld** their expenditures in a systenatic and predictable fashion. In additioi, **ih-** inability of the government to provide adequaLe resources tllrouglh a standardized budgetary framework severely curtails the University from

**1 3 1ln** some courses there were as Many as 2,000 scripts uo be oradwd by staff members.

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planning and providing an effective and efficient<sup>delivery system. The</sup> University is increasingly dependent upon the<sup>Government for funding and has</sup> no recourse to alternative funds. Currently the<sup>University's recurrent</sup> expenditure is negotiated with the government<sup>on an ad hoc basis-</sup> as and when more funds are needed. However, there has been<sup>a rapid deterioration of the</sup> country's macro-financial position between 1987-<sup>90. In 1988, the</sup> Government's fiscal deficit reached 14% of the GDP.<sup>In 1989, worker</sup> remittances plummeted to US$505 million fiom<sup>a record of nearly US$1.7 billion</sup> in 1983. 14 Donor assistance too declined. The debt service<sup>has increased</sup> sharply from 7% of foreign exchange earnings<sup>in 1985 to 23% in 1989. In spite</sup> of the resource constraints, the Government's<sup>expenditure on education</sup> increased from 11.2% in 1978 to 20.3% in 1989<sup>of its total expenditure. The</sup> increase only just kept pace with enrollment growth,<sup>in current terms, which</sup> implies a substantial decline in real per capita<sup>resources. This growth of</sup> education expenditure has been at the expense<sup>of other sectors of social</sup> welfare requiring public financing. Therefore,<sup>the increasing Government</sup> commitment to education in spite of a growing overall<sup>financial constraint</sup> suggests the need for the creation of an<sup>effective budgetary and management</sup> system accompanied by policies that would promote greater<sup>internal efficiency,</sup> ensure optimal performance in planning, programming<sup>and the diversification of</sup> sources of funding.

57. (ii) Physical facilities. The physical facilities,<sup>particularly</sup> lecture theatres and laboratory space (except for the<sup>new buildings at the</sup> Medical and Engineering Faculties), and support services<sup>are inadequate for</sup> the expanded curriculum and student body. The overcrowding<sup>of classrooms,</sup> laboratories, lecture theatres and cafeterias is<sup>common place. In some of the</sup> overcrowded lecture theatres students were sitting outside<sup>the doors trying to</sup> comprehend what was going on inside. The lecture theatres<sup>and other</sup> facilities, in particular in the Faculties of Arts,<sup>Sharia and Law, Commerce</sup> and Economics, Science and the Language Center are the<sup>most seriously</sup> overcrowded. For example, in the Faculty of Arts a lecture<sup>theatre which has</sup> a 200 seat capacity is being used to lecture to 500<sup>students. The Science</sup> Faculty has a severe shortage of laboratory space, materials<sup>and equipment.</sup> It also does not have the resources to maintain its existing<sup>equipment. In</sup> addition, the system lacks adequate language laboratories<sup>and computers,</sup> cafeteria and sports facilities.

58. Academic staff members (except Deans, Vice-Deans and<sup>Heads of</sup> Departments) are not provided with separate offices.<sup>For example, in the</sup> Language Center about 20 staff members were cramped into<sup>a room and this was</sup> characteristic of most Departments. On the whole, the maintenance<sup>of existing</sup> buildings and equipment was poor. This crisis will worsen<sup>with increased</sup> student enrollments. The absence of adequate physical<sup>facilities, lack of</sup> properly equipped laboratories, libraries and up-to-date<sup>equipment for a</sup> University, affects enormously the efficiency, quality and<sup>implementation of</sup> its curricula and its instructional capacity.

1 4 In 1985, the Ministry of Finance estimated that worker remittances fell by 50% of the level of the remittances ten years<sup>earlier.</sup>

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59. (iii) Library Facilities. The lack of an adequate<sup>library</sup> collection is a major constraint upon the<sup>functioning of both students and</sup> staff. In particular, teaching and research<sup>warrant the availability and</sup> familiarity with the latest scientific and<sup>scholarly publications. Neglect of</sup> this will result in an intellectual poverty<sup>of the curriculum andof</sup> the quality and quantity of research output.<sup>The collections both in the main and</sup> satellite are inadequate, mostly out-of-date textbooks,<sup>inappropriate books</sup> and journals. They are not conmputerized.<sup>The library is experiencing a</sup> critical shortage of funds to acquire current<sup>titles of textbooks, either</sup> appropriate scholarly books and periodicals;<sup>of the 1988/89 allocation of YRl</sup> 10 million to the library, some 66% went<sup>to subsidizing student</sup> textbooks.Because of an acute shortage of library<sup>staff, the satellite</sup> libraries in the Faculties of Commerce,<sup>Education and Medicine are kept</sup> closed. Students solely depend on textbooks and lecture<sup>notes offered for</sup> sale by their course professors or lecturers.

# (e) Administration

60. University administration is highly centralized<sup>and under direct</sup> government control, particularly in the<sup>areas of authority, administration and</sup> finance. This limits the University autonomy,<sup>thus the flexibility and</sup> initiative of the various faculties and directorates<sup>is curtailed. As a</sup> result, the University does not possess<sup>the in-built administrative mechanisms</sup> as well as adequate independent contingency<sup>resources needed to handle demands</sup> of the magnitude it faces now because of<sup>high student and staff numbers.</sup> 61. The majority of the Yemeni academic staff are<sup>relatively young with</sup> little experience or adequate training in<sup>teaching, research and</sup> administration. There are hardly any mentors<sup>to guide them. Apart from the</sup> evidence of educational and professional<sup>qualifications, promotion within the</sup> University is based on research and publications,<sup>length of service and</sup> experience. The current emphasis on rapid<sup>Yeminization has resulted in senior</sup> faculty administrative positions being occupied<sup>by inexperienced and</sup> unqualified administrators. A similar situation<sup>prevails in the various non-</sup> academic support services of the University. Early<sup>diversion into</sup> administration, hampers Yemen academic staff's development<sup>as teachers and</sup> researchers. Therefore, unless present policies<sup>are reviewed there is every</sup> possibility of further deterioration of the overall<sup>academic quality and</sup> management efficiency that was apparent in the<sup>University.</sup> In particular, the University's reco-ds including enrollment data<sup>and student records are kept</sup> manually. They are in a dismal state.

# (f) Student Flows

62. There is a high percentage of dropouts and repeaters,<sup>particularly</sup> in the first and second years of study. The<sup>overall success rate, measured by</sup> the number of students enrolled in the first year<sup>in 1980/81 to the number</sup> graduated after four years in 1983/84 shows a low<sup>efficiency rate of 20.5%.</sup> This is attributed to a variety of factors: (i)<sup>the lack of sufficient</sup> preparation at the primary and post-p.!mary<sup>schools, (ii) automatic admissions</sup> to all secondary school graduates, irrespective<sup>of their ability to benefit</sup> from a higher education, (iii) the poor quality<sup>of instruction, (iv) students</sup>

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who perform poorly lose their motivation and drop out, and (v) the poor support services provided at the University. Other factors such as part-time employment, family comnitments, early marriage, the easy access and the virtually free education creates an excess demand evern among those witlh little chance to benefit.15 Data on repetition and dropout rates at different faculties (subject area) ancl the University as a whole, and duration of study before yraduation, are not easily obtainab]e from the records. However, **d!.i-** from the Faculty of Education indicate a hi_gh failure rate, especially _at_ tlhC end of the first year of study, is 50%. Overall failure rates at the undorgraduate program are ajround 20-30% and it is highest at the first year. It is estimated that dropou; rates vary between the faculties from 15- 50% and the majority of the students, particularly Che part-time students, take very much longer than the stipulated time to complete their credit hours. The large intake and the eventual low graduate rate, seems to contribute to a high wastage of expensive physical facilities and other inputs.

# (g) Quality

63. The overall quality of graduates' output is low. However, because of the larger nlumber of students a proper evaluation of the quiality is not possible. The low quality is mainly due **tc)** the following factors: (a) weak plannineg and poor management, support. .) te t,hing and research departments; (b) the use of Arabic as the . main languago of instruction combined with the poor working knowledge of Englisll has isolated the majority of the students from tle updated scientific and technology textbooks and reference literature; (c) inadequate and poor laboratory and workshop facilities and equipment; (d) lo. postgraduate qualifications of the teaching staff, particularly the part-time staff; (e) a small full-time teaching and research personnel; (f) shortage of textbooks, poor library holdings and limited access to them; (g) heavy dependence on lecture notes; (h) inadequately prepared secondary school graduates: (i) inadequate budgetary provision for operation and maintenance; and (j) the lack of minimum physical and support facilities for individual academic staff and students.

# 2. External Efficiency

# Employment: Surpluses and Shorta.es

64. In the past, because of overall shortages of graduate manpower, no effective mechanism existed to plan the dew-nd and supply of graduates needed and their specialties. The graduate manpower needs of the country are under-going a rapid change. The match between supply of graduates and the demand for their services does not corresponid. From 1988 the supply of humarities, social scicnces and Sharia and law graduates has exc:eeded the absorptive capacity of the main employer -- the public sector. The tightening fiscal sittuat-on (omlrniKed with an enrtollmen., explosion at the University and increasing gradual e output, inakes tlhe job nrospects poor for future graduates 15 IEES (Improving the Efficiency of Education System). 1986. Yemen _Ari-ch_ Rptibl **Ic :** PFdtntwa **j(n annd** hllumin Re\-(,ur( : Sect:or Assessment. Tal laha5.se: Florida State University. pp.8-20.

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in the humanities, social sciences and Sharia and law. However, the Government's job guarantee to graduates had thus far avoided the open unemployment of graduates.

65. The guaranteed employment of all graduates irrespective of their speciality or Government needs is becoming unsustainable. Therefore, the Government is trying to divert the surplus graduates, particularly from the sciences, humanities and social sciences, to teaching. This is to avert the continual employment of expatriate Arab secondary school teachers who account for 70% of the teaching force and are paid a higher average salary (YRl 82,000 per year) as compared to a Yemeni teacher (YRl 53,548). They annually cost an estimated US$80 million equivalent in foreign exchange cost. Till the Gulf crisis, their salaries were subsidized by the oil-rich states, particularly, Kuwait.

66. If measures are not taken promptly to channel graduates into teaching, the private sector and self-employment, graduate unemployment will have serious effects in the 1990s on public sector finance and create considerable distortions in the labor market. However, the Government from 1990 has plans to introduce a competitive examination for public sector jobs. The candidates who do not succeed in this selection process will be asked to seek employment in the open labor market. The chances of humanities and social science graduates to be employed in the private sector are less likely than graduates with technology and applied science training.

67. At the same time there is a major shortage of Yemenis with the requisite professional, applied scientific and technical training and experience, in areas such as Agriculture, Engineering, Medicine and Accounting, including well-qualified secondary science school teac 'ng. The country continues to employ a large number of expatriate professio- ls and technicians to staff in all sectors, including education, mainly at secondary and higher levels. For example, in 1986 there were over 6,000 expatriate engineers and engineering technicians and over 8,000 non-Yemenis teaching at the post-primary levels. Forty-two percent of the University staff are nonYemeni. Most of the expatriates are paid relatively higher wages than Yemenis and in valuable foreign exchange.

68. University facilities for producing science oriented secondary school teachers and students trained in science and engineering are quite limited. Furthermore, both the supply and quality of secondary school leavers with science and mathematics qualifications seeking to pursue science and science based fields like engineering and computer science at university level, are still inadequate. This situation seriously affects the possibility of a good supply of competent science teachers, engineers, doctors and other science-based professionals in a rapidly developing technologically oriented, global economic system. However, given the imperfect nature of manpower planning, shortages in key areas will always exist unless there is an overall surplus of graduate output.

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# VI. Policy and Institutional Measures.

69. Political expediency and lack of autonomy is pushing the University of Sana'a's to expand in an uncoordinated and unplanned direction. This expansion cannot be sustained given the nature of Yemen's economy. It is characterized by serious macro-imbalances and micro-distortions. The Yemeni economy is plagued with a rapid decline in foreign remittances and growing foreign debt. These have seriously impeded the demand for labor at all levels. Therefore, there is an urgent need for Yemen to achieve a balance between a mass access higher education system and a selective access which maintains a minimal quality within a stable financial framework if the country wants its investment in higher education to be maximized. However, the rapid expansion of the sub-sector calls for an urgent need for rational planning and investment in higher education in order to meet the emerging national needs and priorities. An adequate supply of relevant and well-trained middle and high-level manpower is of paramount importance for Yemen's development. In order to achieve maximum benefits from its higher education investment, Yemen should adopt specific goals and strategies in the areas of: (i) performance and quality, (ii) greater efficiency, (iii) gender equity, and (iv) its resource base.

# VII. Goals and Strategies

# (1) Performance and Ouality

# (a) Diversify Structures

70. In order to protect the general quality and effectiveness of the University, special policy and institutional measures will need to be taken to cope with the rapid increase in enrollment, the problem of absorption of graduates and the declining resource base. In this strategy, a priority should be given to broaden range of options to secondary school graduates to other forms of high quality and employment-responsive post-secondary programs. For example, institutions that could accommodate some of the new demands for specialized technical occupations that are currently filled by expatriates. Given the limited resources and the other pressing resource needs of the country, donor assistance is crucial for Yemen's development plans in this subsector. The University's function should be limited to (i) teaching students for high level managerial/professional careers, (ii) applied research in a few high priority areas, and (iii) analytical support for design and evaluation of development policies.

# (b) Adjust Labor Market Policies

71. There is a high priority need for the major agencies MOE, MOCSAR and Ministry of Labor to collaborate and systematically address at regular intervals the relationship between the size of student intake and their distribution among the different faculties of the University in relation to labor market needs. In this evaluation placement of graduates should be emphasized, showing trends in numbers going on to employment, higher training, unemployment, etc., by type, subject area, level, expected income and gender. Otherwise there will rapidly emerge a serious structural imbalance. This will 26 -

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be due to an increasing mismatch between job expectations generated by the University education and the job opportunities in Yemen, in particular for women as the majority of them concentrate on the humanities and "soft" sciences. To minimize this mismatch, tracer studies and labor market surveys have to be carried out. These studies will provide valuable information on the relationship between high-level manpower training, skill requirements and the lebor market adjustments that are necessary in a economy. Against the background of these studies, the University has to take action to review its admission policy, course offerings and curriculum. In particular, the University's course offerings and curriculum should be in line with the technological development of the country. It should boost enrollments in targeted fields of study, particularly in the applied sciences, engineering and information technologies, to meet the requirements of the society. Priority recommendation: Government should no longer guarantee employment to graduates. Instead, graduates should be encouraged to take their chances in the open labor market. The University curriculum should prepare them for this likelihood.

# (c) Improve Teaching and Research

72. Academic staff development programmes at the postgraduate and postdoctoral level should be formulated to continuously enhance the University's staff quality through exposure and training in current teaching methodology, research techniques and in-house management training. This should be accompanied by periodic appraisal of the effectiveness of this training and lifelong learning. In particular, upgrading of teaching methodology, research techniques, regular evaluation of quality and lifelong learning will help in enhancing teaching/learning process and the development of an indigenous research and evaluation capacities within the University and the country as a whole. The desirability of research has been in principle accepted by the University. However, it should make relevant research as an important inbuilt feature. Some of this could be done through enhancing the present exchange, training, visiting and fellowship schemes. A set of transparent criteria to measure staff performance must be instituted. For example, staff should be periodically subjected to peer review and evaluation of their teaching by students. This should be accompanied by built-in incentives for staff who perform well in teaching, research, consultancy services and contract research. Greater effort should be taken by the University to encourage more women to take up both academic and administrative positions. All these measures should not jeopardize the performance of the University's - primary goals high quality teaching and research.

73. The majority of the Yemeni staff on the different faculties, both currently teaching and on training, seem to be relatively young and more or less of the same age cluster. However, in the long-term interest it may be beneficial for the University to pursue the policy of recruiting and training of the academic and administrative staff for the University as a whole and for each of the departments to be spread over a long-term plan. There is an urgent need to quantify the work load of academic staff in terms of the proportion of time spent on teaching, research, student supervision, consultancy, administrationi and service.

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# (2) Efficiengy

# (a) Revise Admission Policies

74. The existing facilities in the University of Sana'a cannot accommodate all students who seek admission to it. Therefore priority should be given to stabilizing and limiting enrollments at a level commensurate with the University's current resources and to quality improvement. In order to do this, it is necessary to reconsider the current policy of enrolling all secondary schools graduates. The Government should resist the pressure to expand university enrollment beyond the capacity of the university. University education should be made available for only those who have an ability to benefit from it. This should include the talented but poor. It is recommended that the Government should consider University enrollment through selective admission. This will help to minimize the current dropout rates, achieve a higher academic standard, provide efficiency within the University, and also assist in more efficient match with labor market. The excess demand should be channelled to alternative short-cycle or sub-professional tertiary training programs with an emphasis on applied science and technology which are employment-responsive and deemed necessary for the country. In addition, secondary school graduates should be encouraged to enter the labor market and pursue further education and training on a part-time and/or on-the-job basis. The University of Sana'a has provisions in some of its faculties for part-time study and this provision could be expanded with growing demand.

# (b) Strenethen Management

75. At the institutional level, it is necessary to strengthen university management and productivity, to improve planning of university development, finance system and operation and monitor its efficiency through proper data management and dissemination. A major review of the current management staff configuration for appropriateness of job descriptions, levels of responsibility, and their requisite qualifications has to be undertaken. In particular, the University's Technical Office, which is responsible for planning, research and data management, should be reviewed and strengthened and computerized in order to maintain a good data base on student admissions, flows and staff. The University's central administration should identify the activities that require central control and decentralize the other activities from the central administration. In order for this to be effective and sustained there should be improvements in the effectiveness and efficiency of all the staff, whether academic, administrative or support staff, involved in management and support services. They should be put through sustained and systematic short and long-term management development programs to prevent obsolescence. In these staff development programs the training should in particular focus on the various key figures in the University -- the Deans, Heads of Directorates and the Deputies -- to assume greater responsibilities. All this training should be well conceived and planned.

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# (c) Ensure Adequate Physical and Material Facilities<sup>and SuRport Services</sup>

76. There is an urgent need for the University to protect and improve the physical facilities. If the value of the University's capital investments are not protected then the University has to spend in the long-term a high cost to rehabilitate or replace its buildings. However, because of the neglect, buildings and equipment need to be urgently rehabilitated<sup>and</sup> additional buildings and equipment have to be provided. In<sup>particular, the</sup> Central Library and the Faculty libraries, the science laboratories<sup>and</sup> language laboratories need upgrading. The libraries must<sup>be provided with a</sup> higher standard of professional and semi-professional manpower and their journal and academic book collections must be replenished. In addition multiple copies of basic textbooks which are essential recommended reading should be acquired by the libraries. Multiple copies of textbooks could help to do away with book subsidies as well as encourage students to use the library facilities more frequently.

77. The Faculty of Science needs more laboratory space and equipment with consumables and materials needed for equipment maintenance and repair, while the Language Center too needs more space and language laboratories. Adequate student health services, cafeteria and sports facilities have to be urgently provided. It is recommended that the University review its support services and physical and material facilities and their utilization. A proper utilization of support services and physical and material facilities can minimize output of expenditure per student as well as better accommodate the student flow. In particular, support services can improve both the participation and retention rates of economically disadvantaged students.

# (3) Eguity

# Increase Female Participation

78. Medium and long-term strategies should be devised to attract, encourage and retain female students and correct the big gender gap that exists now. In particular, efforts should be made to increase the participation rates of female students at all levels. Positive measures should be taken to increase their access and retention in post-primary education in both urban and rural areas as well as people of different<sup>income</sup> groups in order to increase the pool of secondary school graduates. This could be done by continuously sensitizing parents and society in general of the benefits of female education and thus gradually<sup>change their deep-rooted</sup> social custom of women's social and economic position in society and the family. In addition, a scholarship policy targeted specifically<sup>to encourage</sup> female students from rural and lower socioeconomic background should be instituted. Particular emphasis should be made to establish post-graduate training at the masters and PhD levels to train women locally, in order to narrow the gap between male and female faculty.

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# (4) ReQurces

# Diversify Eguning Sources

79. The University of Sana'a is overly dependent on the Government and donor assistance as the primary provider of financial resources. There is an urgent need to evaluate the long and short-term recurrent and capital cost of the University and its implications in terms of domestic and donor resources. This evaluation should also include unit cost per student and unit cost per graduate of the different Faculties (subject area) and the University as a whole and cost of user services, grants to students and other subsidies.

80. However, decreasing donor assistance, accompanied by financial constraints of the country and escalating budgetary demands of the University, warrant additional sources of financing. Therefore, there is an urgent need to decide on the merits of alternative financing approaches. Fees are low and many students receive varying amounts of subsidy to help them in their subsistence cost. Increase in student fees (the principle of r.i;ing those who can afford to share the cost burden), other user charges and/or ex post cost recovery from graduates should be considered. It is only through these diverse strategies of resource support that the University can raise funds which can help to close the gap between resources and costs and thus maintain existing equipment and replenish the increasingly expensive ones. Greater financial independence will strengthen the University's autonomy and thus encourage greater initiative and innovation. However, if students are required to pay a substantial share of the cost of their education, a large number of the talented but poor students might be excluded from benefiting from a higher education because of their inability to pay. Therefore, financial support should be targeted with the aim of promoting the enrollment of the talented-but-poor to benefit from a higher education.

# VII. Conclusion

81. The unprecedented burgeoning of student enrollment into the University of Sana'a is a clear departure from the initial Government policy to rationalize student admission by linking the University output to the absorptive capacity of the labor market. It has created problems of overcrowded classes, insufficient staff resources, and overstretched amenities, deterioration in physical plant and equipment and inadequate provision of educational materials and equipment and absorption of the output. All of this threatens a major decline in the quality and size of output in several degree programs. The Government should immediately take appropriate steps to develop a medium and long-term policy and strategy for its higher education investment which takes into consideration the country's medium and long-term needs, resource constraints and the growing social aspirations of the people.

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82. Yemen's higher education has reached a stage that necessitate **s** ome reflection on the course of its development over the next decade and possibly beyond. This will help the country to initiate medium and long-term policies and strategies that will help to make higher education a more efficient and effective investment and consistent with the needs and resources of the country.

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