A two-stage stratified approach for sampling was used. At the first stage, Enumeration Areas (EAs) were drawn from each of the sub-groups with Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) while at the second stage, households, being the ultimate sampling units, were drawn using Systematic Random Sampling (SRS). A total of 1,651 EAs were covered, with a total of 16,510 households expected to be covered. Of these households, 13,732 were interviewed giving a national response rate of 83 percent (UBOS, 2021).

UNHS 2019/20 is representative at the national level, for rural and urban areas, at the regional level, including Central, Eastern, Western and Northern regions, and at the sub-regional area, including the 15 sub-regions of Acholi, Ankole, Bukedi, Bugisu, Bunyoro, Busoga, Kampala, Karamoja, Kigezi, Lango, North Buganda, South Buganda, Tooro, Teso, and West Nile.

UNHS collects detailed expenditure data on an item-by-item basis, according to a 30-day recall period. Expenditures are then aggregated at the household level to produce the welfare aggregate. Food produced and consumed at home is valued using market prices and added to this aggregate. The welfare aggregate is further adjusted to account for inter-temporal and spatial price variation. Finally, the aggregate is adjusted to take into account household composition in terms of sex and age. A detailed explanation of the poverty methodology can be found in Appleton & Ssewanyana (2003). In this study, the updated poverty line, revised in 2021, is used.

In addition to the household questionnaire, UNHS administers the Community module, which collects information about the general characteristics of the community, availability and access to community facilities and services, client satisfaction with education and health services; water and sanitation in the community, economic activities, agricultural extension services; and changes in the community and community groups.

# _Descriptive statistics_

A number of household and community characteristics are included as explanatory variables in the twolevel consumption estimation. The household variables include household size and dependency ratio, as well as a range of different assets owned by households such as fridge, television, radio, motorcycle and bicycle. Household housing conditions are captured by the number of rooms per capita, and the main source of energy used for cooking. Head of household’s age, education, and employment status are included, as well as the ownership of nonfarm business, possession of at least two sets of clothes and a pair of shoes among each member of the household.

Community level variables were presented by four dummy variables. The first measure indicates that agriculture is the main economic activity in the community. The second one indicates whether or not the community is connected to the national grid. The third variable indicates during the last three years, if there was migration in the community (people were either coming or leaving the community). The last community variable measures if, during last three years, the community benefited from a new road.

Table 1 shows the mean values for each household and community level variable at the national, urban and rural levels and across consumption per adult equivalent quintiles. As one would expect, households in rural areas are characterized by a larger household size, lower employment rates and education levels of the heads of households, and lower ownership of assets. The same variables also have a strong income gradient varying across consumption quintiles.

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