rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
of the trans-African network generates trade flows that are far greater than the associated upgrade costs. We should stress that our benefit estimates are extremely conservative, since they do not include any inter-city trade expansion within countries (Nigeria alone has 18 cities in the network) or increased trade between Sub-Saharan countries and other parts of the world. Nor do they account for any induced growth from the expansion of inter-country trade. We conclude that the basic economics look very promising. In the next two sections, we turn our attention to the environmental and institutional implications of network upgrading.

# **6.  Potential Environmental Impacts**

Our results suggest that network upgrading would generate a very large increase in trade and, by implication, traffic volume on many of Africa’s primary roads. Since Africa is also a repository for much of the world’s biological diversity, we cannot ignore the potential implications of road upgrading for conservation. Figure 6 provides evidence on the conservation sensitivity of each link in the trans-African network. The underlying biodiversity information has been drawn from an extensive spatial database compiled by the Global Environment Facility and the World Bank’s Development Research Group in collaboration with the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Pandey, et al. (2006) provide a complete description of the database, which contains the most recent information about the habitat ranges and conservation status of 5,327 amphibians, 4,612 mammals and 1,098 endangered birds. To index the differential conservation sensitivity of network components, we overlay the species range maps with 50-km corridors around network links and compute total amphibians, mammals and endangered birds within each corridor. Figure 6 depicts the results in five categories, by species count. While the 35
commitments made in the negotiation process of Vietnam’s accession to the WTO played a catalytic role in accelerating Vietnam’s legal, regulatory and administrative reforms contributing to an improvement of Vietnam’s investment climate (Parker _et al_ ., 2007).

Table 1 and Figure 1.A-C compare the structure of formal “enterprise”<sup>10</sup> employment by ownership and by gender for the period 2000-2007. The percentages of female workers included in grid section in Table 1 are reported in parentheses. Since the implementation of the Enterprise Law (2000),<sup>11</sup> the number of workers employed by “enterprises” expanded substantially—from 3.5 million in 2000 to 7.4 million in 2007. The domestic private sector has become the largest source of enterprise employment with its employment rising from 1.0 million in 2000 to 3.9 million in 2007. Job creation in the foreign sector has been also strong, rising from 0.4 million in 2000 to 1.7 million in 2007. The pattern of foreign employment is characterized by its high female intensity and faster employment growth for female workers relative to male workers: the female intensity in foreign firm employment increased from 60.4 percent in 2000 to 67.5 percent in 2007. Perhaps reflecting trends of privatization and rationalization, the number of workers employed by SOEs, which was the largest source of enterprise employment up to the early 2000s, has declined in recent years.

> 9 The BTA provisions included requirements to encourage U.S. investment in Vietnam including: providing MFN or National Treatment (NT)-whichever was better for U.S. investors; improving investment licensing procedures and corporate governance regulations; non-discriminatory pricing; a series of safeguards for foreign investors including protection against expropriation and nationalization processes and the right to repatriate earnings; allowing access to international arbitration to resolve disputes and the elimination over time of trade-related investment measures (TRIMs) involving trade balancing, local content, and foreign exchange requirements, and market access provisions in key service sectors such as financial services, trading and distribution, telecommunications, and legal, consulting and engineering services (Parker et al., 2007).

> 10 The term “enterprise” is defined as “an economic unit that independently keeps business account and acquires its own legal status...” (GSO). The “enterprises” do not include _household_ enterprises.

> 11 The implementation of the Enterprise Law (2000) was a major step toward reducing numerous barriers to private business and has greatly encouraged the establishment of new enterprises (Ramstetter and Ngoc, 2007b). Since the Enterprise Law came into effect, the number of firms has increased from 42,288 in 2000 to 155,771 in 2007 (the _Enterprise Survey_ data).

6
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* Percent of governing body that belongs to: government @<br>* Percent of governing body that belongs to: private sector @<br>Update / review admin data more than once per year @<br>General or specific knowledge test is an admission requirement @<br>Interview is an admission requirement r )<br>* Percent of faculty with BA degree<br>* Percent of faculty with graduate degree<br>Evaluate faculty more than once per year<br>Industry helps with student evaluation or curriculum design @<br>Collect data on employment or employers' satisfaction more than once per year @<br>HEI trains students for job interviews @<br>HEI provides job market information @<br>HEI has received funding from government @<br>Loans by banks are used by some students @<br>Collect student satisfaction data more than once per year @<br>Teaches numerical competencies e<br>Analyze student performance to solve problems more than once per year @<br>Test required for graduation @<br>>30% classes can be taken online<br>-10 -5 0 5 10<br>Percentage points<br>Infraestructure @ Training and curriculum @ Costs<br>@ Link with productive sector Faculty @ Other Practices<br><!-- End of picture text -->

<!-- Start of picture text --> Interview is an admission requirement s<br>Update / review admin data more than once per year &<br>Class planning is very important in faculty evaluation<br>Students and peers’ informal comments are very important in faculty evaluation<br>* Percent of faculty that are women<br>* Percent of faculty with graduate degree<br>Classroom observation is very important in faculty evaluation<br>Peer evaluation is very important in the faculty evaluation<br>Evaluate faculty more than once per year<br>HEI trains students for job interviews @<br>Collect data on employment or employers' satisfaction more than once per year s<br>HEI provides job market information s<br>Loans by banks are used by some students @<br>Offers remediation classes during the program @<br>Test required for graduation @<br>Student feedback is very important to update program @<br>Analyze student performance to solve problems more than once per year .<br>Teaches numerical competencies @<br>-50 -25 0 25 50 75<br>Percent<br>Infraestructure @ Training and curriculum @ Costs<br>@ Link with productive sector Faculty @ Other Practices<br><!-- End of picture text -->
where, as before, the relative change in welfare is represented by a change in consumption (the last term in the left hand side of the equation), by a change in explicit wage earnings and by profit generated via the activity run by the household (the term in squared brackets). This is estimated as the difference between sales (holding constant the quantity shares of the different goods sold _θjO_ ) and input costs (again without changing the structure of input quantities _θjI_ ).

Finally, it should be noted that the consumption of home production (autoconsumption hereafter) has been explicitly excluded from the computations in both equations (1) and (2) given that price changes – in the short run, and those of the order of magnitude considered here – do not affect it. In terms of equation (2), this means that not only does final consumption need to exclude auto-consumption, but also that input costs have to be netted of the costs related to production for auto-consumption.

# **_<u>Household survey data preparation and brief description of the pre-liberalization income distribution</u>_**

The household survey used for the computations is the LSMS 2001 for Nicaragua. At the individual level, the active employed population aged more than 12 years are classified into skilled and unskilled according to their education level. The employed population is also classified into wage-workers and self-employed. For wageworkers, the entire factor-related income is either unskilled or skilled labor income.

In the first stage, we assume that income reported by the self-employed is assumed to have both a labor and a capital component. To separate these two components, a wage for the self-employed is imputed based on a wage equation that is estimated for the wage-workers separately for rural and urban areas. The wage equation is a simple Mincerian wage equation with log wage earnings as the dependent variable and education, education squared, age, age squared, and additional regional and sectoral dummies as explanatory variables. The coefficients of these wage equations are then used to impute a wage for the self-employed. The difference between the reported income from self-employment and the imputed wage is assumed to represent the capital 10
24 Table 6: Contributions to Welfare Reduction Index for covered products by different policy instruments, by region, 1972 to 1976 (percent)

# (a) Production side of economy

|||**High-inc**|**ome cou**|**ntries**|||**Deve**|**loping c**|**ountries**||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**1972**|**1973**|**1974**|**1975**|**1976**|**1972**|**1973**|**1974**|**1975**|**1976**|
|**All measures**|46|34|31|41|60|42|47|55|53|38|
|**Border measures**|46|32|31|41|58|38|44|44|43|35|
|Export tax|0|1|1|0|0|16|31|34|28|18|
|Export subsidy|6|3|1|3|3|3|1|0|1|1|
|Import tax|39|25|24|37|53|15|4|3|11|13|
|Import subsidy|1|3|5|1|2|4|8|7|3|2|
|**Domestic taxes & subsidies**|0|2|0|0|2|4|3|11|10|3|
|Production tax on output|0|0|0|0|0|2|1|10|8|1|
|Production subsidy on output|0|2|0|0|2|0|0|0|0|0|
|Farm input net subsidies|0|0|0|0|0|2|1|1|1|1|

# (b) Consumption side of economy

||**H**|**igh-inco**|**me coun**|**tries**|||**Develop**|**ing coun**|**tries**||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**1972**|**1973**|**1974**|**1975**|**1976**|**1972**|**1973**|**1974**|**1975**|**1976**|
|**All measures**|**51**|**37**|**34**|**47**|**67**|**39**|**52**|**45**|**45**|**35**|
|**Border measures**|**51**|**37**|**34**|**47**|**67**|**39**|**51**|**44**|**43**|**35**|
|Export tax|0|1|0|0|0|11|37|30|24|15|
|Export subsidy|5|2|1|2|3|3|1|0|1|1|
|Import tax|44|30|27|43|63|21|4|3|14|16|
|Import subsidy|2|4|6|1|2|5|9|10|4|3|
|**Domestic taxes & subsidies**|**0**|**0**|**0**|**0**|**0**|**1**|**1**|**1**|**1**|**0**|
|Consumption tax|0|0|0|0|0|1|1|1|1|0|
|Consumptionsubsidy|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|

Source: Authors’ compilation based on data in Anderson and Valenzuela (2008) and Anderson and Croser (2009).
exporters) are both positive and strongly significant. The magnitude is higher for the importing than for the exporting country and is rather small (0.004 vs 0.002). Column (2) is a robustness check on the inclusion of real GDP per capita for importers and exporters. The significance level of our variables of interest changes only slightly, the magnitude of the import coefficient is a bit lower, but the sum of the coefficient estimates is about the same.

There are several additional ways to cut the data to determine to what extent aid for trade facilitation (A4TF) might affect trade. Column (3) narrows the sample to just recipients of A4TF and investigates whether the relationship between A4TF and trade is more apparent. In this select sample of countries, receiving A4TF is more strongly and significantly associated with exports, but not with imports from other A4TF countries. Column (4) continues to consider only the aid recipients, but broadens the possible trading partners to all partners. The export coefficient is smaller than for the select country group, but bigger than the baseline specification of countries, and it appears that A4TF facilitates imports from countries that are not A4TF recipients with a higher elasticity than in the baseline specification of countries.

On balance, the significance of the A4TF coefficients are relatively robust across these various permutations of which countries receive aid and trade with each other. Based on the column (1) estimate (which is the relatively more conservative coefficient estimate), a 1 % increase in aid for trade facilitatio <mark>n (about US$ 88 million in 2005) would yield an increase of global trade of about US$ 415 million.</mark> _Table 1: Baseline Estimation Results (Bilateral 5-Years Fixed Effects and Year Fixed Effects Included)_

||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|(7)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Baseline<br>– all<br>positive<br>trade|Baseline<br>with per<br>capita<br>GDP|Only<br>countries<br>receiving<br>A4TF|Recipients<br>only;<br>trade with<br>recipients<br>& ROW|Recipients<br>with<br>developing<br>world only|Recipients<br>with<br>developing<br>& bilateral<br>donor; no<br>intra-<br>donor<br>trade|Base-line<br>(2) with<br>lags|
|ln_tariff|-0.199***|-0.199***|-0.247**|-0.218***|-0.214***|-0.200***|-0.210***|
||[0.035]|[0.035]|[0.105]|[0.048]|[0.043]|[0.036]|[0.075]|
|ln_rep_gdp|0.709***|1.561***|-4.599***|0.722|1.482***|1.506***|3.744***|
||[0.045]|[0.323]|[1.289]|[0.486]|[0.466]|[0.327]|[1.022]|
|ln_part_gdp|0.255***|-0.704***|-7.281***|-2.380***|-1.496***|-0.760***|-0.084|
||[0.036]|[0.271]|[1.746]|[0.497]|[0.413]|[0.275]|[0.614]|
|ln_itfa|**0.004*****|**0.003****|**0.029**|**0.006****|**0.003***|**0.003****|**0.002**|
||[0.001]|[0.001]|[0.041]|[0.002]|[0.002]|[0.001]|[0.003]|
|ln_etfa|**0.002***|**0.002****|**0.088****|**0.005***|**0.000**|**0.002****|**0.002**|
||[0.001]|[0.001]|[0.036]|[0.003]|[0.002]|[0.001]|[0.002]|
|ln_rep_gdp_cap||-0.853***|5.202***|-0.042|-0.671|-0.797**|-3.348***|
|||[0.320]|[1.273]|[0.477]|[0.452]|[0.324]|[1.032]|

11
39 12 Ideally, we would like to model both the household decision of sending migrants and the household decision to receive remittances. However, as explained in the data section, this cannot be done because of the limited number of households (n=184) producing international migrants.

13 Eleven religious groups are listed in the 2005/06 Ghana GLSS 5 Survey (sub-sample). The largest of these groups is Catholic, accounting for 15.9 percent of all households. Other large religious groups include: “other Christian” (15.5 percent), Pentecostal (13.3 percent), Presbyterian (11.3 percent), Muslim (11.8 percent) and Methodist (9.8 percent).

14 Over thirty ethnic groups are listed in the 2005/06 Ghana GLSS 5 Survey (sub-sample). The largest of these ethnic groups is the Asante group, accounting for 17.4 percent of all households. Other large ethnic groups in the survey include: “other Akan” (12.6 percent), Fanti (11.2 percent), Ewe (11.4 percent), and Ga-adangbe (8.4 percent) 15 While early work on the human capital model found that education had a positive impact on migration (Schultz, 1982; Todaro, 1976), more recent empirical work in Egypt (Adams, 1991and 1993) and Mexico (Mora and Taylor, 2005; Taylor, 1987) has found that migrants are not necessarily positively selected with respect to education.

16 Other variables measured at the level of the ethno-religious group were also tested as potential controls, but they turned out to be irrelevant. Similarly, other variables were also tested as potential instruments but they did not pass the over-identification test (Hansen J-test). We also performed a Hausman test that shows that coefficients from the IV estimation do not differ systematically from the coefficients from an OLS estimation. We chose to follow the IV estimation because of the strength of our instruments, which suggests that instruments are needed to reduce any possibility of endogeneity bias in our estimation.

17 The 1998/99 poverty line is of 684,401 cedis/person/year, which is equivalent to the poverty headcount index of 39.5 percent that is cited as the 1998/99 poverty line for Ghana (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000: Table 2).This poverty line is defined as the level of per capita expenditures needed to meet the costs of meeting basic food and non-food requirements in Ghana. For more details on this expenditure-based poverty line, see Ghana Statistical Service (2000).

18 This characteristic is called the weak transfers principle. The square poverty gap does not posses a third characteristic that is also desired in poverty measures. That characteristic is called the principle of transfer sensitivity, which establishes that a given regressive transfer between two poor people must increase the poverty index more when the persons involved are poorer (Ray, 1998).
# **1 Introduction**

Despite impressive improvements in child and maternal health over the last decade, child mortality continues to be unacceptably high in many parts of the world. In Mali, and West Africa as a whole, under five mortality remained above 90 per 1000 in 2020, with even higher rates for the poorest households.<sup>1</sup> Many of these deaths are preventable. For example, 12.2% of under-five deaths in Mali in 2019 were due to diarrhea. A majority of these infections are caused by unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation, and only a small share receive the recommended treatment (Unicef [2021]).

In the effort to improve health outcomes for children and mothers and achieve universal health care (UHC), the global health community has focused on two key strategies: free or heavily subsidized basic health care, and home visits by community health workers who help bridge access barriers. While user fees for basic health services were considered a tool to maintain sustainability and quality of care in the 1990s (e.g. Akin et al. [1987]), there is now broad consensus that African countries should work towards eliminating user fees, at a minimum for mothers and young children (e.g. McPake et al. [2008], UK Secretary of State for International Development [2009], Jamison et al. [2013]). At the same time, international aid organizations and advocacy groups, like UNAIDS and the “One Million Community Health Workers” campaign, are pushing for various measures to strengthen the role of CHW in the last-mile delivery of health care, such as expanded numbers of CHW, acknowledgement of their role in national health systems and planning, and standardized training (Singh and Sachs [2013]).

These policies are central to proposed health reforms in Mali and across Africa. In 2019, Mali’s Ministry of Health announced that the country intended to provide free children’s and mothers’ health care within three years, although there were still gaps in raising the

> 1Under five mortality in 2020 in West and Central Africa was 91.4 and in Mali 91.0; for the lowest wealth quintile in Mali it was 117.1 (2019 data); Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole had an under five mortality of 73.3 out of 1,000 live births. Source: IGME [2021].

2
**Figure 9: Job creation and destruction by Entry, Exit and Survival**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 100,000<br>80,000<br>60,000<br>40,000<br>20,000<br>0<br>2001 2 00 2 2 00 3 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br>‐20,000<br>‐40,000<br>‐60,000<br>‐80,000<br>Job Creation (by Incumbents) Job Creation (by New Entrants)<br>Job destruction (by Incumbents) Job destruction (by Firm Exits)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: LMMIS, CSA

**What firms are creating and destroying jobs?** Figure 10 shows the breakdown of firms by size over time, and by the contribution of each category to net job creation over the last 10 years.

**Figure 10: Net Job Creation (by Firm Size)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 80,000<br>70,000<br>60,000<br>50,000<br>40,000<br>30,000<br>20,000<br>10,000<br>0<br>Employees 11‐25 Employees 26‐50 Employees 51‐ Employees 101‐ Employees > 201<br>100 200<br>2000 2002 2004 2007 2009 2011 2001 2003 2006 2008 2010 2000 2002 2004 2007 2009 2011 2001 2003 2006 2008 2010 2000 2002 2004 2007 2009 2011<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: LMMIS, CSA 11
National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda. 2016. _Poverty Trend Analysis Report 2010/11-2013-14_ .

Office for National Statistics. 2018. “Relative Regional Consumer Price Levels of Goods and Services, UK: 2016.”

- Rao, P. 2004. _The Country-Product-Dummy Method: A Stochastic Approach to the Computation of Purchasing Power Parities in the ICP._ University of Queensland, Australia.

- ———. 2005. “On the Equivalence of Weighted Country-Product Dummy (CPD) Method and the Rao-System for Multilateral Price Comparisons.” _Review of Income and Wealth_ 51 (4): 571– 580.

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- Ravallion, M., and S. Chen. 2015. “Rising Food Prices in Poor Countries: A New Clue to Those Puzzling PPP Revisions.” Center for Global Development Blog. Retrieved on October 15, 2019 from https://www.cgdev.org/blog/rising-food-prices-poor-countries-new-clue-those- <u>puzzling-ppp-revisions.</u>

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- Summers, R. 1973. “International Price Comparisons Based upon Incomplete Data.” _Review of Income and Wealth_ 19 (1): 1–16.

- United Nations Statistics Division. 2005. _Handbook on Poverty Statistics: Concepts, Methods and Policy Use_ .

- Weinand, S., and L. von Auer. 2019. “Anatomy of Regional Price Differentials: Evidence from Micro Price Data.” Universität Trier Research Papers in Economics No. 3/19.

- World Bank. 2015a. _Purchasing Power Parities and the Real Size of World Economies: A Comprehensive Report of the 2011 International Comparison Program._ Washington, DC: World Bank.

- ———. 2015b. _Operational Guidelines and Procedures for Measuring the Real Size of the World Economy: 2011 International Comparison Program (ICP)._ Washington, DC: World Bank.

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