The first column in each groups presents the results for a parsimonious specification that includes only a binary variable for the geographical area (other urban and rural), age, the Sisben score, and gender as control variables. These are included because they have a direct effect on Sisben eligibility and therefore act as omitted variables. The next column includes a full set of control variables. A comparison of the first two columns gives, above all, an idea of the extent to which the additional controls act as omitted variables in the first specification. This can be seen as an (imperfect) exogeneity test on the treatment variable.

**Table 14: Results for Labor Force Participation, Entire Sample**

||_(1)_|_(2)_|_(3)_|_(4)_|_(5)_|_(6)_|_(7)_|_(8)_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Variable_|_OLS_<br>_All_|_OLS_<br>_All_|_OLS_<br>_Males_|_OLS_<br>_Females_|_IV_<br>_All_|_IV_<br>_All_|_IV_<br>_Males_|_IV_<br>_Females_|
|Colombia Mayor|−0.018***<br>(0.006)|−0.007<br>(0.006)|0.004<br>(0.010)|−0.003<br>(0.008)|0.069***<br>(0.017)|0.090***<br>(0.017)|0.116***<br>(0.027)|0.076***<br>(0.028)|
|Dependent variable by year|0.629***<br>(0.033)|0.571***<br>(0.031)|0.469***<br>(0.052)|0.636***<br>(0.045)|0.625***<br>(0.035)|0.565***<br>(0.033)|0.472***<br>(0.053)|0.627***<br>(0.047)|
|Dd ibl b|0.730***|0.679***|0.598***|0.668***|0.739***|0.691***|0.614***|0.669***|
|epenent varae y area|(0.024)|(0.025)|(0.045)|(0.050)|(0.024)|(0.025)|(0.047)|(0.051)|
|Observations|22,546|22,484|9,472|13,007|22,358|22,297|9,298|12,892|
|R-squared|0.259|0.327|0.415|0.163|0.253|0.321|0.407|0.157|
|Municipalities, number|296|296|293|294|286|286|273|283|
|F|915.7|453.7|547.7|120.3|865.8|408.4|512.5|114.1|
|Partial R-squared|||||0.0886|0.0957|0.102|0.0951|
|Kleinbergen-Paap statistic|||||2,679|2,495|1,346|1,650|
|OIR test|||||0.358|0.358|0.786|0.0929|
|Endogeneity test|||||0.000|0.000|0.000|0.00470|
|_First stage_|||||||||
|Dd ibl b|||||0.002|−0.000|0.006|−0.002|
|epenent varae y year|||||(0.028)|(0.030)|(0.044)|(0.041)|
|Deendent variable b area|||||−0.000|−0.001|−0.001|−0.004|
|p y|||||(0.021)|(0.023)|(0.040)|(0.035)|
|I f bi|||||0.977***|0.993***|0.989***|0.993***|
|nstrument rom prot|||||(0.019)|(0.020)|(0.027)|(0.024)|

_Note:_ The table illustrates a linear probability model on dependent variables indicating participation in the labor force. The IV specification relies on a three-stage procedure for binary treatment variables. Only the OIR test is derived from a two-step procedure. Columns (1) and (5) do not include additional control variables. Standard errors are shown in parenthesis.

The bottom of this table and of the following tables includes a number of additional statistics. While those shown only under the OLS specification (number of observations, R<sup>2</sup> , number of municipalities, and the F-test statistic for joint significance) should be self-explanatory, the statistics in the IV specifications warrant additional explanation. The first two—partial R<sup>2</sup> (Shea 1997) and the Kleinbergen-Paap statistics (Stock, Wright, and Yogo 2002)—are weak instrument tests. Simply put, in the case of a single endogenous regressor and no control variables, the partial R<sup>2</sup> is reduced to the standard R<sup>2</sup> , and the Kleinbergen-Paap is reduced to the F-test in the first-stage regression. They thus provide measures of the magnitude and statistical significance, respectively, of the effect of the 29