As shown previously, even when laws are neutral, minorities tend to have less access to property because of de facto discrimination by property managers and owners. As a consequence, minorities tend to depend more on public housing. Survey results in Bulgaria reveal that the government has created a policy to address the issue. The National Roma Integration Strategy aims to improve the living conditions of neighborhoods with a high density of Roma people and other ethnic minorities. The strategy inLGBT individuals are at particular risk of targeted violence at the hands of private actors. Homophobic and transphobic violence has been recorded in all regions. Such violence may be physical (including murder, beatings, kidnappings, rape, and sexual assault) or psychological (including threats, coercion, and arbitrary deprivations of liberty). (UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2012) cludes building public housing and undertaking other measures to increase the ability of Roma populations and other ethnic minorities to acquire public services and social protection floors, such as preventive maternal and child care, health services, health awareness and information, and health insurance for long-term unemployed persons.

In Morocco, Article 3 of the Associations Act, as amended in 2002, imposes indirect restrictions on the access to services for people belonging to religious minorities. According to that article, “An association that is founded for illegal purpose or goal contrary to the public morals or that may aim at violating the Islamic religion or the unity of the national soil or the royal regime or may call on all forms of discrimination will be invalid.”<sup>75</sup> Although Article 3 can be justified by the government’s need to restrict the operations of extremist religious groups, it is debatable whether such wide government discretion on the formation of religious associations in general is conducive to equal opportunity and the protection of religious freedom in the country.<sup>76</sup> Finally, public services and social protection can be enhanced by the work of NGOs locally. Data collection from the six economies revealed that none of them impose direct funding limitations to the work of NGOs. In Morocco and Tanzania, however, where homosexuality is criminalized, the law applies only to the work of NGOs dealing with the interest of ethnic and religious minorities but not the interests of sexual minorities. This situation can have some serious consequences for the LGBTI community. Despite having the fourth-highest number of deaths from AIDS in the world, Tanzania does not provide specialized HIV services to LGBTI individuals (Human Rights Watch 2013).

This survey of the laws on provision of public services and social protection in the six economies has shown that most countries acknowledge the importance of providing citizens basic access to public services and social protection, with some countries addressing discrimination in some but not all of the public services and social protection floors covered by the study. A notable exception on this topic is Tanzania, where the law is much less developed. In Vietnam, nondiscrimination provisions in obtaining public services are present, but indirect discrimination occurs as a consequence of other national laws that limit access of ethnic minorities in the country to certain public services.<sup>77</sup>

# _6. Protection from Hate Crimes or Hate Speech_

The indicator for protection from hate crimes or hate speech examines the existence of laws and mechanisms that prosecute hate crimes and laws that prosecute hate speech and provide protection for individuals belonging to ethnic, religious, and sexual minorities (see box 5). In addition to being a violation of the fundamental rights of every human being

> 75 International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, Morocco Act on the Right of Association, http://www.icnl.org/research/library/files /Morocco/Act-2002-en.pdf.

> 76 For example, see UNCERD (2010).

> 77 Worth mentioning is that the government of Vietnam has recently taken the initial steps toward an alternative system that could ultimately supplant the household registration system. Under the Law on Civil status, which came into effect at the beginning of 2016, the government is establishing a national population database and a citizen identification card with a citizen identification number linked to the database. The national database will hold basic information on each individual, including gender, ethnicity, and marital status. It will also include place of permanent registration and current residence. Public officials have described a gradual expansion of the system, with citizen identification cards linked to the national database largely replacing other administrative papers, such as the _hộ khẩu_ booklet. See World Bank and Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences 2016, http://documents.worldbank .org/curated/en/158711468188364218/pdf/106381-PUB-P132640-ADD-ISBN-ON-BACK-COVER-PUBLIC.pdf; See also World Bank and Ministry of Planning and Investment of Vietnam 2016, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/23724 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.

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