survey questions for agriculture are therefore needed to distinguish respondents’ intended production for sale versus their own use. Box 2 presents boundary questions that have been used in recent rounds of the LSMS-ISA in Malawi, Nigeria, and Ethiopia (currently in the field); these were informed by a recent labor <u>force survey (LFS) pilot study across 10 countries in different global regions to better understand how the</u> 19th ICLS definitions should be implemented across different country contexts (Benes and Walsh, 2018a).

Box 2. Comparing survey questions across LSMS-ISA on main intended destination of agricultural products <u>Malawi (2016-17) (only for crops):</u> For each of the five most important crops you worked on in the last 7 days ( _question asked separately for each crop_ ):

- Was production from this crop (a) all intended for sale, (b) some are intended for sale and rest for consumption by family, or (c) all intended for family use/consumption?

- If some intended to be sold, was it (a) less than 1⁄4, (b) 1⁄4, (c) 1⁄2, (d) 3⁄4, or (e) more than 3⁄4 ?

- In the past, were these products mainly sold or mainly kept for consumption?

- - - <u>Nigeria (2015 16 post planting and post harvest rounds, and current round in the field); Ethiopia (current round in the field) (one question covering all agricultural activities):</u>

Over the last 7 days, are products obtained from [NAME’s] household agricultural production/family farming (one question pertaining to all crop/livestock/fishing activity):

- (a) only for sale/barter; (b) mainly for sale/barter but some for own/family use; (c) mainly for own/family use but some for sale/barter; or (d) only for own/family use?

There are variations in question design — the Malawi survey asks boundary questions for each of the five most important crops; the Nigeria, Ethiopia, and planned future LSMS-ISA surveys ask one question across all agricultural activities. The data across these surveys reflect similar trends, however. Table 1 shows that in both Malawi and Nigeria, own-use production activity in agriculture is high, and significantly higher for women than men (for Nigeria, in the post-harvest round). Under the 19th ICLS standards, these individuals would no longer be considered self-employed in agriculture — Desiere and Costa (2018) also find that reported employment in agriculture in the Nigeria survey falls considerably under the new standards because of high shares of work in own-use production. Including separate questions in surveys on ownuse production can ensure that the significant time women spend in this work, particularly in poorer agricultural contexts, is not missed in employment surveys.

Table 1. Malawi and Nigeria LSMS-ISA: intended destination of own-farm products in last 7 days, men and women aged 15+ (own-reporting sample)

||Poo|r househ|olds<sup>(b)</sup>|No|n-poor ho|useholds<sup>(b)</sup>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Men<br>(A)|Women<br>(B)|Gender gap<br>(A-B)<sup>(c)</sup>|Men<br>(A)|Women<br>(B)|Gender gap<br>(A-B)<sup>(c)</sup>|
|Malawi 2016-17:|||||||
|Share of individuals incrop agriculture:|||||||
|Any crop being mainly intended for sale<sup>(a)</sup>|0.40|0.34|0.06***|0.49|0.39|<br>0.10***|
||[0.49]|[0.47]||[0.50]|[0.49]||
|All crops for household use/ consumption|0.51|0.60|-0.09***|0.41|0.51|<br>-0.10***|
||[0.49]|[0.49]||[0.59]|[0.50]||
|Number of individuals in crop agriculture|1366|2191||1337|1737||

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