<u>Genetic endowments (E0):</u> We do not have direct observations on genetic endowments beyond the sex of individuals, for which we control in our estimates. However, we are not able to identify confidently the extent to which this control reflects genetic differences or cultural and marketdetermined gender differences.

<u>Observed individual characteristics (I0):</u> Apart from sex of the individual, we include year of birth.

## **<u>Observed Shocks and Events (ΔC):</u>**

<u>Natural, market or policy events (ΔC): We construct variables at the community level that relate as</u> closely as possible to the timing of key decisions in an individual’s development through early adolescence. For example, using information reported in earlier work about infrastructure, markets and services in the villages (Pivaral 1972; Bergeron 1992), complemented with a retrospective study in 2002 (Estudio 1360, 2002), we construct variables that include indicators or policies (e.g., the nature of the water supply when the individual was two and seven years old, the presence of a Ministry of Health post in the community when the individual was two and seven years old, the availability of a permanent structure primary school when the individual was seven and 15 years of age, student/teachers ratios when the individual was seven and 15 years of age, number of grades offered in local school when individual was seven years old) and local market conditions (e.g., yuquilla bust, vegetable boom, cement factory jobs, good road access all when the individual was 15 years of age). Thus, while reflecting community level characteristics, these variables vary by single-year age cohorts within each village, as well as across villages. Since these measures more closely relate the availability and longevity of water, health posts, schools, markets and transportation to the periods in an individual’s life when critical decisions (e.g., attending school, working in the labor market) were being made, it is an improvement over the more typical approach of including indicators about such factors in a given year for a population with different ages at that point.

<u>Experimental nutritional shocks (ΔC): The set of observed shocks that we consider relate to the</u> nutritional interventions underlying the original study (see Section 4.1). We construct two types of measures, based on the date of birth of each individual and the dates of operation of the intervention. For each individual, we calculate whether s/he was exposed to either intervention for the majority of days for 36 months subsequent to birth. We interpret these as a set of cohort controls. The potential exposure to the _Atole_ intervention is then calculated by multiplying the cohort measure by an indicator of whether or not the child lived in one of the two _Atole_ villages. We include these two measures separately.

# **5. Results**

We consider estimates of the impact of schooling attainment for each of the four groups of outcomes considered at the start of Section 4.2 and for which the sample characteristics are summarized in Table 1. For each outcome we consider estimates of the impact of schooling attainment (1) in a very simple specification (i.e., only including schooling attainment without treating it as behaviorally-determined), (2) with only schooling attainment but with schooling attainment treated as behaviorally-determined using IV estimates, (3) with both schooling attainment and height both treated as behaviorally-determined using IV estimates, and (4) with both schooling attainment and height both treated as behaviorally-determined using IV estimates plus 10