impact comes from comparing children born before and after the shock occurred and from comparing regions impacted by the shock to the rest of Rwanda.<sup>11</sup> In Table 4, we present results from estimating variations of equation 1. All regressions include province and birth cohort (month and year of birth) controls. Column 1 uses a shock variable that measures a child’s exposure to the civil war (similar to Table 2). Children born after the civil war affected their region have 0.676 standard deviations lower height for age z- scores, a reduction that is statistically significant at the one percent level. Column 2 shows that both boys and girls born after the civil war impacted their region are worse off, with girls having an additional 0.718 standard deviations lower height for age z-scores. In columns 3 and 4, results indicate that only the health status of girls is negatively affected by the crop failure consistent with the Table 3 findings.<sup>12</sup> In columns 5 and 6, we combine the two types of shocks into a single variable, indicating children born in periods after a shock occurred in those regions that experienced either a crop failure (southern region) or a civil conflict (northern region).<sup>13</sup> Results show that girls impacted by the shock have 0.440 standard deviations lower height for age z- scores and the result is significant at the one percent level.<sup>14</sup>

> 11 Correlation among the error terms of children in a given province experiencing the same shocks might bias the OLS standard errors downward, so in all regressions we cluster the standard errors by birth province (Moulton, 1986; Bertrand, Duflo, and Mullainathan, 2004).

> 12 These reported effects are likely to be lower bounds of the total impact of the shocks since we do not have data on children in these households who died prior to the 1992 UNICEF survey (Rose, 1999).  Our results should be interpreted as, conditional on a child surviving until the survey, civil wars negatively impact boys and girls height for age z-scores while crop failures negatively impact only girls.

13 As an additional robustness check, we estimated a more refined regression that used year of birth interacted with the shock region (either civil war or crop failure), instead of using born after the shock interacted with the shock region. Results (not shown) are consistent with the Table 4 outcomes, with children born in the year following the shock experiencing the brunt of the impact.

14 The onset of the civil war in October 1990 in the northern regions of Rwanda was sudden and unexpected, which could explain why boys and girls were both negatively impacted by the conflict. Parents could not protect the health status of any of their children from this type of event. In contrast, the crop failure results indicate households were able to shield boys from experiencing the negative impacts of the shock. Due to survey limitations, we do not have household production data covering the civil war time period, so we are unable to compare the magnitudes of these different shocks. Therefore, we cannot rule out that the civil war shock was larger in magnitude and this explains why boys were negatively impacted in those regions, while a potentially smaller crop failure shock did not impact them, although the coefficient estimates for girls in the two shock regressions (column 2 and 4) are similar. Future 14