rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# **Table 1. Summary Statistics of Rainfall Insurance Payouts**

||average<br>payout|percent<br>positive<br>payouts|average<br>premium|mean<br>rainfall<br>index|Ave<br>trig<br>strike|rage<br>gers<br>exit|Number of<br>obs.<br>(phases)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Phase One|20.9|13.7|98.3|176.0|78|15|322|
|Phase Two|46.4|13.0|102.8|192.9|72|12|316|
|Phase Three|22.0|5.4|98.5|211.6|499|580|316|
|**All phases**|**29.7**|**10.7**|**99.9**|**193.4**|**n/a**|**n/a**|**954**|

Note: Table relates to rainfall insurance contracts written against 14 IMD rainfall stations in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 2006. Estimates of average payouts are based on historical IMD rainfall data from 1963-2000 and 2004-2006. Note that in all cases, insurance contracts pay out Rs. 10 per mm of rainfall deficiency relative to the ‘strike’, until the ‘exit’ is reached. Beyond the exit (i.e., below the exit in the case of Phases 1 and 2, and above the exit for Phase 3), the insurance pays out a fixed indemnity of Rs. 1000.

15
- 72 -

Since most of the case studies are still in the proposal or early implementation stage, fewer conclusions can be drawn about the four topics listed under operations. But it is clear from this limited experience that if indigenous peoples, as well as other interest groups, are to be continuously represented, then quite different methods of area management and operations will be requirel. The kind of conservation units implied by the initiatives of the Kuna, Awa and Ache are quite distinct from those reviewed in the previous chapter.

The ten topics to be dealt with below ares

# PROTECTION

1. Physical protection

2. Public education 3. Impact Management

# ECONOMIC

4. Resource utilization 5. Recreational Development 6. Operational costs

# OPERATIONS

7. Organization 8. Area research 9. Training 10. Planning and management

# 7.2 PHYSICAL PROTECTION

In none of the ease studies has the legal establitshment of indigenous or conservation reserves led to the provision of adequate protective services by government agencies, and only Costa Rica is in a position to argue that it lacks the military force to deploy for these purposes. Two Ecuadorean army generals present at the Quito conference on Yasuni National Park proposed a paramilitary force of "forest police' formed from conscripts in the Amazon region. This force would work "with" rather than ufor' the park warden service. But this proposition was linked with a second: that part of Yasuni park might be converted for use as an anti-guerrilla training school. As a result, the generals' offer was not taken seriously by the parks service.

In the absence of enforcement from state authorities, some communities living in reserved areas have assumed these responsibilities themselves. Lacking the authority to enforce protective legislation directly, such groups have been obliged to resort to measures ranging from mild intimidation to hopeful notices. Intimidation has worked in those limited cases where, for example, a single family of colonists has been threatened but it is doubtful whether this informal approach could work on such an enlarged scale that it would challenge the power of authorized forces, however neglectful they may be of their responsibilities.
2

# **I Introduction: Firm Perceptions of the Investment Climate**

In common with many other surveys, the Enterprise Surveys conducted by the World Bank collect both quantitative data on firm performance and perceptions-based data on the severity of a number of potential constraints facing the firm. Perceptions-based data are sometimes used in economic analysis, but there has been some debate on their value for assessing constraints. Firms’ benchmarks may differ by country—much as a poor family in a country belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development may feel “poorer” than a more deprived one in a low-income country, a firm in South Africa may see corruption as a more serious problem than a firm in, say, Nigeria even if corruption is more endemic in the latter country. Benchmarks may be influenced by waves of pessimism and euphoria reflecting adverse or favorable trends. Since firms and entrepreneurs enter and exit in response to opportunities and constraints, they are endogenous to the investment climate and their opinions may not accurately reflect the severity of constraints as perceived by potential or discouraged entrants.

How seriously a firm rates a particular “external” investment climate constraint could also be influenced by its severity relative to other constraints. Whether studies should rate or rank constraints is a live issue, particularly in the light of efforts to find the “binding constraint” to growth (Hausmann, Rodrik, and Velasco, 2005). Firms may not recognize the origin of their problems—for example, slow customs clearance could reflect an “external” difficulty (corruption, slow procedures) or factors internal to the firm (an inability to provide proper documentation).

Despite these shortcomings, views on the severity of investment climate constraints are widely used to frame priorities for reforms and investments. They are increasingly complemented by “Doing Business” indicators based on expert surveys ( _Doing Business_ , 2004-07). The latter provide a more comparable cross-country perspective across a detailed range of regulation, but not a firm-level view of the de facto severity of regulatory and infrastructural obstacles. In principle, such approaches are
were violated in the data, Hamilton and Flavin would conclude that the borrowing constraint need not be satisfied. By contrast, I regard the necessity of the presentvalue borrowing constraint in a dynamically efficient economy as established on theoretical grounds.. .This suggests a natural definition for the concept of sustainability: a sustainable fiscal policy is one that would be expected to generate a sequence of debt and deficits such that the present-value borrowing constraint would hold.... Moreover, an unsustainable policy would be expected to change...

If the present-value borrowing constraint does not hold, what will be the form of the violation?

Hakkio and Rush (1991, p.429) also interpret their PVC tests as tests of the sustainability of current fiscal policy: Is the [U.S.] budget deficit "too large?" Yes. Specifically, we find that recent spending and tax policies of the government -- if continued -- violate the government's intertemporal budget constraint. As a result government sending must be reduced and/or tax revenues must be increased.

The authors state explicitly that they are testing whether the NPG condition would be satisfied _if government revenue and expenditure continued to follow their past stochastic processes._ I conclude that the PVC tests are appropriately viewed as tests of the sustainability of the current fiscal policy stance, as reflected in the historical times series data on government spending, revenue, deficits, and/or debt, not as _solvency_ tests. An analysis of solvency would have to consider all conceivable government policies, and ask whether there is _any_ economically and politically feasible policy stance that would satisfy the PVC, given the value of current debt. If there is none, then the government is insolvent.

In the U.S. context, it is reasonable to assume that government expenditure or tax policies would ultimately have to change in order to bring the projected stream of discounted future primary surpluses into line with the PVC in situations where the current fiscal policy is unsustainable. In the LDC context, on the other hand, inflationary surprises to wipe out debt obligations and/or debt repudiation (or threatening debt repudiation in order to secure more favorable terms from creditors) may be entertained as policy options. Presumably this arises 10
<!-- Start of picture text --> 6.3 The Limitations of Infrastructure Projects for a Place-Sensitive Approach to<br>traditionally been the preferred form of development intervention by policy makers to revitalize local<br>economies. These projects have gained attention as tools to drive growth across a country. They are<br>distributed across regions, creating winners and losers. The returns on such projects can be highly<br>dependent on local endowments, such as variations in the quality of institutions. Weak institutional<br>contexts can lead to lower-than-expected returns (Crescenzi et al., 2016). The effectiveness of a<br>transport project is influenced by local institutions, especially the local government, and is<br>susceptible to political intervention.<br>infrastructure endowments (Rodriguez-Pose & Ketterer, 2020). Moreover, greater connectivity from<br>peripheral regions to urban areas may lead to the reallocation offirms and labor, negatively affecting<br>less developed territories. Therefore, complementary interventions, including institutional<br>investments into effective regional development projects.<br>This paper has aimed to offer a comprehensive overview of the theoretical and empirical<br>advancements in territorial development policies to overcome left-behindedness and improve<br>opportunities, and knowledge spillovers from core to peripheral regions. This increased attention has<br>been driven by a growing body of research stressing the existence of multiple barriers to regional<br>convergence and pointing at the importance of tackling regional inequalities for economic growth,<br>poverty reduction and inclusion, and long term stability (McCann & Rodriguez-Pose, 2011). Today,<br>accessibility, but also human capital, competitiveness and innovation, and, last but not least,<br>institutions. They also take into consideration other factors such as the presence of regional<br>development traps, the resilience of different places, agency, and sustainability transitions. In<br>particular, the significance of institutional quality and its direct and indirect impact on regional<br>economic growth has gained prominence, as has the recognition of the need for suitable<br>prerequisites to benefit from sustainability transitions. These theoretical and empirical developments<br>are leaving their mark on territorial policies worldwide, prompting a shift from spatially-blind<br>approaches to more place-based strategies and, more recently, place-sensitive approaches. However,<br>these new approaches are still very much works in progress in various geographic contexts, spanning<br>both developed and developing countries, with their effectiveness under ongoing evaluation.<br>traps and the new insights into the socio-economic costs of regional inequalities. Evidence from<br><!-- End of picture text -->
180. An average active jobseeker submitted around 10 applications per quarter (Figure 22). The next set of research questions focuses on the behavioral patterns of jobseekers and employers in application and selection.

**Figure 22. Number of applications per vacancy and jobseeker over time**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 200 14<br>12<br>150<br>10<br>100<br>8<br># applica�ons received per vacancy 50 # applica�ons submi�ed per job seeker 6<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : Authors’ calculation using the data from Rozee.pk. _Note_ : The activeness of jobseekers is defined as that they apply for at least one job in a given quarter.

# **_Q. How fast do job postings receive applications? What types of job postings receive more applications?_**

**_A. The online job market is fast_** . **_A job posting receives nearly 100 applications on average in two weeks. Jobs that require a higher level of education, do not indicate gender preference, and are in manufacturing sector receive a greater number of applications. Job postings advertising higher salaries receive a smaller number of applications._**

- _Finding 1: Many applications were received immediately after jobs were posted._ 80% of applications were received in 14 days, and 90% in 25 days. This means that out of 180 applications to an average vacancy, more than 150 applications were received within 25 days. This shows how fast the online job market is.

- _Finding 2: Job postings that do not indicate gender preference receive more applications_ . The average number of applications is 6% and 75% fewer for, respectively, male- and female-preferred jobs than gender-free jobs. This result shows the effectiveness of signaling gender preference, particularly preference for female workers.

- _Finding 3: Jobs that require higher education receive more applications._ Jobs requiring undergraduate and postgraduate degrees receive more than double the applications to the jobs requiring secondary or less education.

- _Finding 4: Manufacturing jobs receive the greatest number of applications. Jobs in finance and real estate and ICT receive the least._ The number of applications per job post

26
# **Table 11.  Sector Import Intensities by Regional Market: Regional Imports of the Sector as a Percent of Regional Consumption of the Product**

|Good|Central Fa|r East|North|Siberia|South|Urals|Moscow|St.<br>Petersb.|Tumen|North-<br>west|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|AGR|4|4|4|4|4|4|4|4|4|4|
|AIR|3|3|3|3|3|3|3|3|3|3|
|CHM|35|36|30|47|29|33|74|58|19|57|
|CNM|13|16|13|18|10|11|29|25|8|20|
|COL|7|7|7|7|7|7|7|7|7|7|
|CON|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|
|CRU|5|5|5|5|5|5|5|5|5|5|
|ELE|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|
|FIN|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|
|FME|32|17|19|14|36|17|38|37|25|75|
|FOO|25|23|13|15|20|15|31|94|10|50|
|GAS|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|
|HEA|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|
|HOU|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|
|MWO|36|37|24|15|27|26|98|100|16|53|
|NFM|16|40|41|96|35|23|39|41|23|25|
|OIL|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|
|OTH|19|19|19|19|19|19|19|19|19|19|
|OTI|7|6|6|6|6|6|7|7|6|6|
|PST|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|
|RLW|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|1|0|
|SCI|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|
|TMS|6|6|6|6|6|6|6|6|6|6|
|TPP|13|11|28|4|19|5|60|83|1|78|
|TRD|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|
|TRK|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|2|
|TRO|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|
|CLI|73|73|73|73|73|73|73|73|73|73|
|Total|142|52|35|142|140|268|528|140|81|41|

See Tables 1 and 2 for sector and region definitions.

Source: Roskomstat unpublished surveys and authors' calculations.

38
In addition to the fixed effects to control for multilateral resistances which now have a _t_ subscript, the term, τij, is a vector of bilateral _i_ and _j_ fixed effects. Four regressions are presented (see table 3). The first includes importer, exporter and year dummies and can be thought of as the simple model. The next implements importer/exporter-time-varying dummies, which as well as appropriately accounting for deflating current prices through the time dummies also control for multilateral resistances (Baldwin and Taglioni 2006). The last two specifications include both importer/exporter-time-varying and pair-wise dummies but differ in how the pair-wise dummies are constructed. The results in the third column, implement fixed effects (termed _pair_ ) on country-pairs, regardless of the direction of trade. The dummy for the Franco-Belgian bilateral tie for example therefore equals one whether France exports to Belgium or Belgium exports to France. In the last column, separate pair-wise dummies are used for each direction of bilateral trade flows (termed _pairid_ ). _Pair_ fixed effects are justified if trade costs really are symmetric. _Pairid_ fixed effects are analogous to the standard „within‟ panel estimator. All robust standard errors are clustered by country-pair.

The simple model yields results familiar from the literature and comparable to the cross-section results in table 1. The log of immigrants and emigrants are both highly significant and with the coefficient on emigrants larger than that of immigrants, which is expected due to the addition of preferences operating in the same direction as trade. The results in the second column, which additionally control for multilateral resistances, are similar to those in the first column, although the standard errors are marginally broader. In other words, - with the exception of the coefficient on the currency union variables - there seems to be little bias resulting from failing to account properly for multilateral resistance. That is not to detract from the results of Felbermayr, Jung and Toubal (2009) however, whom provide convincing evidence that a failure to include importer and exporter fixed effects in cross-section analyses leads to significant biases.

**<u>Table 3 Direct Link Pooled Regressions, 1960-2000</u>**

|**Dependent Var.: Log Exports**||**Migrant**|**Links**||
|---|---|---|---|---|
||**1**|**2**|**3**|**4**|
|**Log immigrants**|0.061***|0.055***|-0.023*|-0.023*|
||(0.009)|(0.010)|(0.012)|(0.013)|
|**Log emigrants**|0.073***|0.070***|-0.011|-0.009|
||(0.009)|(0.010)|(0.012)|(0.015)|
|**Log distance**|-0.929***|-0.938***|.|.|
||(0.043)|(0.045)|.|.|

19
|**Otin nm**|**ISCO**|**Share in**<br>**jb**||**Share in em**|**ployment**||**Digital**<br>**tin**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**ccupao ae**|**code**|**o**<br>**vacancies**|**Cambodia**|**Malaysia**|**Thailand**|**Vietnam**|**occupao**<br>**level**|
|Foodprocessingand related trades workers|751|0.1|1.2|1.2|1.7|1.3|Verylow|
|Nursingand midwifery professionals|222|0.4|0.2|0.2|0.4|0.1|Verylow|
|Veterinarians|225|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|0.0|Verylow|
|Other healthprofessionals|226|0.7|0.1|0.3|0.3|0.1|Verylow|
|Hotel and restaurant managers|141|0.3|0.2|0.5|0.3|0.0|Verylow|
|Otherpersonal services workers|516|0.1|0.1|0.1|0.1|0.4|Verylow|
|Retail and wholesale trade managers|142|0.4|0.0|0.5|0.5|0.1|Verylow|
|Mobileplant operators|834|0.0|0.5|0.8|0.5|0.3|Verylow|
|Other elementaryworkers|962|0.2|0.7|1.5|0.9|0.9|Verylow|
|Primaryschool and earlychildhood teachers|234|0.3|0.8|1.9|1.4|1.5|Verylow|
|Buildingand housekeepingsupervisors|515|0.1|0.0|0.2|0.7|0.5|Verylow|
|Domestic,hotel and office cleaners and helpers|911|0.1|0.6|2.1|1.4|0.7|Verylow|
|Secondaryeducation teachers|233|0.1|0.5|1.4|0.6|1.0|Verylow|
|Garment and related trades workers|753|0.0|9.3|1.1|0.6|2.1|Verylow|

_Source:_ Authors’ calculations based on SEAD data.

_Notes_ : The 27 occupations in bold are the ones whose skills profile is imputed from one or several similar occupations (see section 3).

59
(Varley 1996, Chant 1997a, 2008).

Several past studies have addressed whether and why the prevalence of female headship has altered globally over time and uncovered considerable variation across and within regions.<sup>3</sup> Using data from 43 DHS surveys conducted between 1990 and 1998, Bongaarts (2001) found that the proportion of households headed by women ranged from 13% in the Near East and North Africa to 24% in Latin America, with Asia (16%) and Africa (22%) in between. Large variation was also exposed within regions, especially in Africa, where the fraction of FHHs during 1990-96 was less than 10% in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger, and over 30% in Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, and Zimbabwe (Ayad et al., 1997). To our knowledge, there have been no updates since 2000.

In industrialized countries, significant increases in female headship from the 1970s have been associated with demographic and socio-economic changes among which the following figure prominently: the expansion of women’s rights, including legal rights to divorce, child custody and housing; increased women’s labor force participation; increases both in unmarried fertility and its social acceptability, higher female longevity and aging populations (see Chant 1997a, and Moghadam 2005). Similar factors have contributed to the upward trends in female headship in most regions–and further include erosion of the extended family system, increases in age at marriage and reductions in spousal age gaps.<sup>4</sup> In Africa, labor-related migration has been dominated by men seeking work in urban areas and leaving behind households headed by women (Buvinic and Gupta 1997). Additional explanations for the high incidence in Africa center on HIV infection and AIDS deaths (especially in Southern Africa); violent civil conflicts that have generated family dislocation and widows (Buvinic et al. 2013); a culture emphasizing lineage more than conjugal ties and descent systems evolved from matrilineal kinship; and changes in women’s legal access to property, land and labor markets.

The literature is infused by an assumption of increasing prevalence in FHHs across regions. Yet, there is relatively little empirical evidence on trends beyond the 1990s. Arias and Palloni (1999) even contest this view for Latin America over the 1970-1990 period. They find declining or stationary incidence in the majority of countries and argue that women’s propensity to head a household has not risen as much as has the incidence of surviving widows and

> 3 Kishor and Neitzel (1996) and Ayad et al. (1997) provide a descriptive analysis of the incidence of female headship internationally using the DHSs carried out during 1990-96.

> 4 See Jensen and Thornton (2003), and Mensch et al. (2005) for an overview of trends in age at first marriage in developing countries.

4
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