Finally, the study does not cover customary or religious law because of their often-uncodified status and the resulting difficulties in defining their rules.

The survey data are current as of December 31, 2015. If a law was enacted but did not come into force before that date, the law was not included in the country data. Nonetheless, it was mentioned in the paper.

# V. Findings and Analysis

The main goal of this paper is twofold: (a) to test six new indicators and the methodology for the collection of crosscountry comparable data on discriminatory legal frameworks related to ethnic, religious, and sexual minorities; and (b) to present some findings from the data collection in six economies, highlighting some good and bad practices in the legal frameworks as they relate to equality of opportunities for minorities and their access to institutions, education, property, the labor force, social services, and protection from hate speech and hate crimes (the indicators). In doing so, the study aims to fill a gap in the existing literature related to poverty and development, which seldom looks at the issue of discrimination against those minorities through the prism of the effect that such exclusion might have on their economic potential and the overall cost for the country.

Following is an overview of the data collected (a) in the six pilot countries through the three surveys distributed to local experts and (b) from international legal databases and human rights organizations. The results are divided by indicators. Details of the specific variables examined and the answers to the surveys may be found in appendix C.

# _1. Access to Institutions_

The access to institutions indicator explores the ability of individuals within a minority group to interact and influence the decision-making process of public authorities in the same way as people belonging to the majority or ruling minority. The indicator also covers certain fundamental political rights, such as the freedom of expression and freedom of religion. Participation of minorities in all three branches of government—legislative, executive, and judiciary—is a fundamental component of economic empowerment. If a group is unable to gain equal access to instituParliaments as institutions can do more to extend some procedural accommodation for the participation of minorities and indigenous groups in legislative process.

(Inter-Parliamentary Union and the United Nations Development Programme 2010) tions that determine the allocation of national resources (both monetary and nonmonetary), the allocation will likely be skewed in favor of the ruling group. Participation and representation of minorities in parliaments and local governments can affect government spending priorities toward more inclusive and equitable economic reforms. Similarly, representation of minorities in the judiciary can encourage respect for antidiscrimination laws and implementation of policies promoting the fair allocation of resources. As stated by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, “The parliamentary representation of minorities and indigenous peoples is essential for ensuring these groups’ effective participation in public affairs” (Protsyk 2010). Such disaggregated data in national parliaments are scarce, however, forcing the Leadership Council of the United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network (2015, 149) to call for action and urge states to collect such data as a necessary step toward the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals.

Of the six pilot economies analyzed, none has a formal legal quota system for the minimum participation of ethnic, religious, or sexual minorities in parliament. Vietnam, however, has a mechanism that allows for representation in Parliament of the 54 ethnic minority groups registered in the country. The Council of Ethnic Minorities is a body consisting of 40 deputies, and its main duties are to contribute to, investigate, and oversee legal documents (laws, acts, ordinances) and legal procedures regarding ethnic affairs. As a consequence, the Vietnamese parliament has passed various pieces of legislation that target the interests of ethnic minorities (Palmieri 2010, 11). Examples include (a) Decision 1592 related to land cultivation, housing, and water required to support ethnic minority households; (b) a provision that gives priority to ethnic minorities in accessing educational facilities, and (c) a law providing for interpreters for minorities using the courts.

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