rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
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PNAD - Síntese dos Indicadores 2007. Microdados. IBGE, Rio de Janeiro, 2008. Available at: <http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/trabalhoerendimento/pnad2007/sintesep nad2007.pdf>. Acess on Sep, 28th 2008.

PREFEITURA DE OSASCO. Sistemas de Bibliotecas. Roteiro para Áreas Públicas Ocupadas -- Programa de Regularização da Prefeitura de Osasco. Osasco: Ed. Municipal, 2006.

Property Rights: China's Next Revolution? In: _The Economist_ , Mar, 12th 2007.

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RAVALLION, Martin; WALLE, Dominique van de & GAURTAM, Madhur. Testing a Social Safety Net. Journal of Public Economics, vol. 57(2), pp. 175-199, 1995.

RAY1999 : RAY, Ranjan. Child Labor, Child Schooling and their Interaction with Adult Labor. _The World Bank Economic Review_ , vol. 14(2), pp. 347-367, 1999.

ROSENZWEIG, Mark. Household and Non-Household Activities of Youths: Issues of Modelling, Data and Estimation Strategies. In: RODGERS, Gerry; STANDING, Guy. (Ed.). _Child Work,Ppoverty and Underdevelopment_ . ILO, Genebra, 1981.

RUBIN, Donald &.Thomas, N. Combining Propensity Score Matching With Additional Adjustments for Prognostic Covariates. _Journal of the American Statistical Association_ , vol. 95, pp. 573-585, 2000.

TORSTENSSON, Johan. Property Rights and Economic Growth: An Empirical Study. _Kiklos_ , vol. 47, issue 2, pp. 231-247, 1994.

UNITED NATIONS REPORT, Habitat Report, 2005.

WAHBA, Jackline. _The Influence of Market Wages and Parental History on Child Labor and Schooling in Egypt_ . University of Southampton, Dep. of Economics. 2002. (Working Paper).

World Bank Development New Archives, Peru. _Urban Poor Gain Access to Property Market_ , February 2, 2000.

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Policy Research Working Paper 5782

# **Abstract**

During the late 1980s and the 1990s, most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa implemented agricultural policy reforms, along with national political and economic reforms. The agricultural reforms focused on opening up processing and marketing activities to increased competition and eliminating export taxes and restrictions to improve producer incentives. In eight of nine country/ commodity case studies analyzed in this paper, output responded positively in the short run to the reforms. In many cases, however, the initial supply response was not sustained in the face of subsequent shocks. The studies suggest that stakeholder consensus on the distribution of sector-specific rents is a key variable affecting the sustainability of supply responses. Agricultural sector reforms lead to large changes in income distribution. The greater the acceptance of the distribution of rents following the reforms, the better sectors are able to accommodate subsequent shocks. In cases where the initial consensus on the distribution of rents is weak, shocks lead to reform reversals in some cases or an inability to design necessary support institutions in others. The diversity in outcomes across similar products and countries suggests it is possible to achieve sector and local level results that differ from national ones.

This paper is a product of the International Trade Department. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank. org. The author may be contacted at Ataman.Aksoy@gmail.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
is, accessible) to some extent, there may be penalties involved for early cashing of benefits. This means that except in very limited circumstances, it is preferable not to plan to access the capital at any time prior to the end of the term. If the purchaser dies within the fixed period, the payments can continue to a beneficiary or to the persons estate, or a lump sum may be payable.

Table 6 provides a summary of the different types of income stream products and shows how their features vary.

**Table 6:  Comparison of different types of Income Stream products**

|**Features**|**Market**<br>**linked income**<br>**streams14**|**Allocated**<br>**Income**<br>**Streams**|**Lifetime income**<br>**streams15**|**Life**<br>**expectancy**<br>**income**<br>**streams16**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Account based|Yes|Yes|No|No|
|Annual income payment<br>guaranteed|No|No|Yes|Yes|
|Investment choice|Yes|Yes|No|No|
|Fixed term|Yes|No|No|Yes|
|Access to capital|No|Yes|No|No|
|Recipient can vary annual<br>incomereceived|No|Yes|No|No|
|ResidualCapitalValue allowed|No|n/a|No|No|
|Income tested|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Deathbenefits payable|Yes|Yes|Possible17|Yes|

**Source: Department of Families, Community Services, and Indigenous Affairs, “Understanding, Retirement Income Streams”.**

Australians are generally advised to give themselves some flexibility to meet unexpected lump sum expenses. In relation to lifetime annuities the Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs advises that “because of [the] restriction on accessing your money you should not, as a general rule, invest all of your money in them”. (FaCSIA 2007) In addition to the range of income stream products Australians also have access to some other specific retirement savings products and to a general range of other investment options.

A retirement savings account (RSA) is an account offered by banks, building societies, credit unions, life insurance companies and prescribed financial institutions (RSA providers). It is used for retirement savings and is similar to a superannuation fund. RSAs are capital guaranteed and providers undertake to ensure that fees and charges are kept at low levels. An RSA account is subject to the same taxation and superannuation rules as a superannuation fund account, for example it must be preserved until a condition of release has been met. However, because it is a low risk account it offers low returns and is considered suitable for small balances, and for people with broken and infrequent

> 14 Income stream must meet requirements in s.9BA of _Social Security Act 1991_ .

> 15 Income stream must meet requirements in s.9BA of _Social Security Act 1991_ .

> 16 Income stream must meet requirements in s.9BA of _Social Security Act 1991_ .

> 17 Death benefits are payable only when a guarantees period exists and all beneficiaries die within the guarantee period.

19
child growth. Mother’s move to the current city corporation, measured by different dimensions of the move decision, does not appear to have a negative effect on child growth.

The difference in mean growth between slum and nonslum children in 2013 is driven by differences in the mean levels of factors for slum and nonslum children, in particular, mother’s education attainment and household wealth. Similarly, the increase in mean growth between 2006 and 2013 for both slum and nonslum children is driven by increases in the mean levels of factors, in particular, mother’s education attainment and household wealth. These findings are consistent with those from studies for Bangladesh that empirically examine the factors associated with the increase in child growth (Nguyen et al. 2017; Headey, Hoddinott, and Park 2016; Headey et al. 2015), or the factors associated with the rural-urban difference in child growth (Srinivasan, Zanello, and Shankar 2013).

While we do not report the results, we repeat the full analysis by setting the outcome to be whether the child is stunted. The main results hold. Presumably, this is because the sample around mean HAZ scores is not that far apart from the sample around the threshold HAZ score for stunting.

Taken together, the results imply a need for sound policies, programs, and partnerships that aim to produce large, sustained gains in household economic status, gender equality, and formal education attainment. They also point to a need to enhance the health and nutrition payoffs of the use of maternal and child health services and community and home environmental health infrastructure for the urban poor in general and slum residents in particular. While nutrition-specific programs should not be neglected, the results suggest that a focus on the development and improvement of an array of nutrition-sensitive programs is appropriate.<sup>9</sup> The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides background information on Bangladesh’s urban areas, slum settlements, urban stunting in international and national perspectives, and urban primary health service. Section 3 presents the data, sample, and empirical strategies, and Section 4 presents the results. Section 5 summarizes the main results and discusses their implications for policy.

> 9 Nutrition-specific programs are those that target the immediate causes of undernutrition as identified in UNICEF’s (1998) conceptual framework, namely inadequate nutrient intake and poor health. Nutrition-sensitive programs are those that target the underlying and basic causes of undernutrition.

7
WPS4064

# **Public Infrastructure and Growth: New Channels and Policy Implications**

Pierre-Richard Agénor* and Blanca Moreno-Dodson**

## **Abstract**

This paper provides an overview of the various channels through which public infrastructure may affect growth. In addition to the conventional productivity, complementarity, and crowding-out effects typically emphasized in the literature, the impact of infrastructure on investment adjustment costs, the durability of private capital, and the production of health and education services are also highlighted. Effects on health and education are well documented in a number of microeconomic studies, but macroeconomists have only recently begun to study their implications for growth. Links between health, infrastructure, and growth are illustrated in an endogenous growth model with transitional dynamics, and the optimal allocation of public expenditure is discussed. The conluding section draws implications of the analysis for the design of strategies aimed at promoting growth and reducing poverty.

### World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4064, November 2006

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

### ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

*Hallsworth Professor of International Macroeconomics and Development Economics, University of Manchester, and co-Director, Centre for Growth and Business Cycle Research; **Senior Economist, PREM Vice Presidency, World Bank. A technical Appendix containing the solution of the model presented in Section IV is available upon request. We are grateful to Somik Lall, Eduardo Lora, Peter Montiel, Somik Lall, and Emmanuel Pinto-Moreira, for helpful comments on a previous draft, but we bear sole responsibility for the views expressed. The paper will be published in a volume entitled _Public Expenditure_ by Banca d’Italia.
productivity) for an average firm in Eastern Croatia by 7 percent. Likewise, similar changes in management scores are associated with a 14 percent higher probability for an average firm in Eastern Croatia to introduce new products or processes, register for patents and 17 percent greater likelihood for an average firm to adopt more sophisticated technology, (e.g. for quality control). The analogous associated increase in all other regions is 13 percent in profits, 5 percent in sales per employee, while the probability of innovating and adopting more sophisticated technology increases by 24 and 9 percent respectively.<sup>6</sup> _Figure 2: Management matters for firm performance outcomes_ <!-- Start of picture text --> Sales Per Employee Sales Per Employee<br>Croatian Manufacturing Firms, 2017 Croatian Services Firms, 2017<br>1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4<br>Quartiles Quartiles<br>All Regions, Except Slavonia Slavonia All Regions, Except Slavonia Slavonia<br>Wage Per Employee<br>Croatian Manufactuing Firms, 2017 Wage per Employee (Real)<br>Croatian Services Firms, 2017<br>1 2 3 4<br>Quartiles 1 2 3 4<br>All regions, Except Slavonia Slavonia All other regions except Slavonia Slavonia<br>Use of Sophisticated Technology for Quality Control Use of Sophisticated Technology for Quality Control<br>Proportion of Croatian Manufacturing Firms, 2017 Proportion of Croatian Services Firms, 2017<br>1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4<br>All Regions, Except Slavonia Slavonia All Regions, Except Slavonia Slavonia<br>4,000<br>6,000<br>3,000<br>4,000<br>2,000<br>Sales/Employees Sales/Employees<br>2,000<br>1,000<br>0 0<br>1,000<br>1,000<br>800<br>600<br>Wage/Employees 400 500<br>200<br>0<br>0<br>.6 .4<br>.3<br>.4<br>.2<br>.2<br>.1<br>0 0<br><!-- End of picture text -->

> 6 As illustrated in figure 2, in the absence of controls, the relationship between management and firm performance appears to be weaker for Slavonia than in the rest of the regions. However, regression estimates that control for firm characteristics and fixed effects show that the correlation of firm performance and management is higher for firms in Slavonia for many economic outcomes, such as sales per employee and technology adoption.

6
# **Simulating the Impact of the 2009 Financial Crisis on Welfare in Latvia**<sup>*****</sup>

Mohamed Ihsan Ajwad<sup>†</sup> Francisco Haimovich<sup>‡</sup> Mehtabul Azam<sup>§</sup>

**Abstract**

This note details simulations of the distributional impacts of the 2009 financial crisis on households in Latvia. It uses household survey data collected prior to the crisis and simulates the impact of the growth slowdown. The simulations show that Latvia experienced a sharp rise in poverty, widening of the poverty gap, and a rise in income inequality due to the economic contraction in 2009. The 18 percent contraction in gross domestic product (affecting mainly trade hotels and restaurants, construction, and manufacturing) likely led the poverty head count to increase from 14.4 percent in 2008 to 20.2 percent in 2009. The poverty gap, which measures the national poverty deficit, was simulated to increase from 5.9 percent in 2008 to 8.3 percent in 2009. The analysis finds that the results are robust to most assumptions except post-layoff incomes, which substantially mitigated household welfare. The authors also simulate the impact of Latvia’s Emergency Social Safety Net components and find that the Safety Net likely mitigated crisis impacts for many beneficiaries. The simulations measure only direct short-run impacts; hence, they do not take into account general equilibrium effects. Post-crisis income data from a different data source suggest that poverty rates increased by 8.0 percentage points between 2008 and 2009. As a result, the authors suggest that their ex-ante simulation performs reasonably well and is a useful tool to identify vulnerable groups during the early stages of a crisis.

## **JEL Classification:** I31, I38, C15, H23

**Keywords:** Simulation, poverty, crisis, social protection policies, Latvia **Sector Board:** Social Protection (SOCPT)

* This note was written in 2009 as a background piece for the poverty and social impact analysis for the World Bank’s Safety Net Reform Program Development Policy Loan. The views expressed in this note are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank or any other organization. This note has benefitted from inputs from the Ministry of Social Welfare, Ministry of Economics and the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia. In addition, comments on earlier versions of the note are gratefully acknowledged from Truman Packard, Gordon Betcherman, Jesko Hentschel, Mihails Hazans, Charles Griffin, Emily Sinnott, Sereen Juma and Salman Zaidi.

> † <u>majwad@worldbank.org, Human Development, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, The World Bank</u>

‡ Office of Evaluation and Oversight, Inter-American Development Bank

> § <u>mazam@worldank.org, Human Development, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, The World Bank</u>

1
**Policy Research**

***** I

i

**Agricultural Policies**

WPS 836 This par -a product of the Agricultural Policies Division, Agriculture and Rural Development Department --- is part of a largereffort in the Department to monitor the impact of agricultural policies on poverty. Copies of this paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433. Please contact Cicely Spooner, room N8-039, extension 30464 (34 pages). January 1992.

Using panel data from a three-year study of 727 households, Adams and Alderman identify the sources of income inequality in ruial Pakistan.

agricultural income. Income from returns to labor and crop profits contribute most to this area of inequality.

First, they decompose total rural income among five sources: agricultural, livestock, rental, nonfarm, and transfer income. T'his decomposition shows that agricultural income contributes most to inequality in total rural income.

Next, they decompose thc sources of inequality in agricultural income. This leads to the surprising finding that inequitable ownership of land Is _not_ the main source of inequality in One way to reduce rural income inequality might be to 1-ind rmiore ways to narrow the disparities between abilities, perhaps by teaching more managerial and technical skills to agriculturists.

According to Adams and Alderman, policy... akers concemed about inequality in rural Pakistan would also be well advised to pay more attention to livestock. Income from livestock apparently decreases the inequalities in income.

The Policy Rcscarch Working Paper SeTies disseminates the findings of w ork under way in **the** Bank. An objective of the series .' to get thcsc findings out quickly, even if presentations are less than fullv polished The findtngs, interpretations. and conclusions in thesc papers do not necessarily represent official Bank policy.

Produced by Lhe Policy Researcih Dissemination Cenicr
As Table 1.8 shows the share of the age group 14-19 is not particularly high and did cend to decline from about 18 percent in 1979 to 13 percent in 1986 when unemployment according to all indicators increased strongly. The age group 14-24 remained approximately constant during this period at 55 percent. For the United States corresponding percentages declined from 25.3 percent in 1979 to 17.6 percent in 1984 (age 16-19) and from 48.8 percent in 1979 to 39.1 percent in 1984 (age 16-24). Considering the fact that U.S.-youngsters to a much larger extent go to college and thus enter . the labor market several years later than their Turkish counterparts, it would appear that new entrants from the educational system play a less important role in Turkey than in the United States. This does not mean, of course, that it may not be an important factor in Turkey, it might be argued that school leavers may not register and search for jobs through the placement offices and thus do not appear in the statistics. Of 654,000 unemployed seeking employment in 1982, only 32 percent relied upon the placement offices (Statistical Yearbook of Turkey, 1985, Table 152) while for unemployed with completed primary school education this percent was 29 percent and for those with completed high school education it was 39 percent. Breakdowns of the LFSs for 1985 by age and education support the new entrants hypothesis.

In understanding, finally, the high measured rural unemployment rate in 1985 we have to point to the possibility

- 11 -
**Figure 3. Vulnerability lines in Colombian pesos for different base years (Periods 2008-10, 2010-12, 2012-14 and 2014-16)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 2500000<br>2000000<br>1500000<br>1000000<br>500000<br>0<br>22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35<br>VULNERABILITY INDEX (%)<br>2008‐2010 2010‐2012 2012‐2014 2014‐2016<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Source:** Own estimations based on GEIH from 2008 to 2016.

**Figure 4: Welfare mobility by gender, and Education levels for period 2008-10**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Female Male No education Primary Middle School Secondary Tertiary<br>Education Education Education<br>Upward Downward Immobility Upward Downward Immobility Upward Downward Immobility Upward Downward Immobility Upward Downward Immobility Upward Downward Immobility Upward Downward Immobility<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Note:** upward movers: proportion of poor or vulnerable population in 1<sup>st</sup> period that move up one or two income categories in 2<sup>nd</sup> period. Downward movers: proportion of vulnerable or middle-class population in 1<sup>st</sup> period that move down one or two income categories in 2<sup>nd</sup> period. Vulnerability line is set at US$13.2 dollar –a-day 2011 PPP. **Source:** Own estimations based on GEIH from 2008 to 2010.

26
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