rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
- 27 -

last category were industrial labor force growth, high demand to sit for trades tests and requests for manpower from specific industries (Kenya V). Use of such indicators has increased, particularly in later sector work.

3.12 Benefit/cost ratios were calculated as part of the justifications for the technical colleges in Turkey II and the vocational training centers in Morocco VI.

3.13 The data available from project evaluations do not permit a comparison of the relative effectiveness of these various planning approaches. Few addressed the issue of actual manpower supply and demand, and the use of enterprise surveys and other shorter-term indicators of demand is too recent to have been evaluated. However, the SAR for Egypt IV noted that manpower planning is hampered by the rapidity of social and economic change, a general lack of useful data, a lack of coordination between ministries and agencies, and the effect of government recruitment and wage policies. Similarly, sector analyses in Jordan and Tanzania demonstrated the inaccuracy of longer-term manpower requirements forecasting. These dif'iculties have also been documented elsewhere in the literature (Dougherty, 1988 forthcoming).

3.14 Labor market factors received very little attention in the bulk of these investments. However, these became more important in later projects in middle income countries and sector-specific training operations. The occasional use of enterprise surveys is noted above (paragraph 3.11). The Sixth Morocco project was in part justified on analysis of occupational trends from census data showing increases in private sector employment of skilled workers and stagnation in government hiring. Census data on employment was also used in the Turkey II Industrial Training Project, which is also partially addressed to falling worker productivity, and includes both skill and management training. Free standing training projects designed to support one sector were justified on employment demand analyses for public and private enterprises (Sri Lanka I and II, Indonesia Public Works Manpower Development).

# Sector Work

3.15 Sector analysis has made important contributions to the development of national training systems across all regions. As shown in Table 12, prior sector work was an important basis for policy and institutional development investment in sixteen countries. 1/ 1/ A more detailed analysis of sector work may be found in Annex III. Sector studies analyzed are listed in the Bibliography.
Table 3, with a similar coefficient and percentage change with respect to the 2018 mean. For effective promotion, we find that trends were different before the pandemic, but they were moving in the opposite direction. That is, municipalities with higher COVID-19 exposure were slightly increasing their promotion rates between 0.5-0.6%. While not fully parallel, these differential trends are small and were reverted due to the pandemic as the interaction with 2020 shows.

For school switching, we also find statistically significant trends which are small in magnitude. While different from zero, the actual trends report changes close to zero with respect to the mean. While this placebo exercise does not completely rule out parallel trends in school switching outcomes, we believe that the pre-existing difference in trends is economically irrelevant, and we can be confident that our estimates are attributable mainly to the pandemic.

We conduct a second placebo experiment, whose results are shown in Appendix Table A.5. The exercise is similar in that it shifts when the pandemic began but changes the post-COVID-19 year we use from 2020 to 2021. That is, we first drop 2020 data from the estimation sample. Then, we assign the warning index values from 2020 to 2019 and the warning indices from 2021 remain the same, as if the pandemic began one year earlier. We then estimate differential effects of the warning index by year (for 2019 and 2021, respectively). The results are almost identical to those shown in Table 6, with dropout having parallel trends, effective promotion reverting those trends, and mixed results for school switching but still with effect magnitudes close to zero.

26
First, more understanding is needed of how statistical data are used. Some promising work has been done by PARIS21 on data use by the Executive Branch of Government and on data use by citizens but there is an important research agenda to be pursued. This research can lead to fruitful policy advice. For example, there is evidence that using volunteer data collected by citizens can encourage the public to participate more in environmental protection and enhance government ability to monitor and manage natural resources (Conrad and Hilchey, 2011). Statistics have no value unless they are used and it is only through an understanding of how they are used, the extent of that use and drivers for better use that statistical systems can be designed in a user-centered way. In this regard, we acknowledge that conceptually, while the new SPI is intended to provide the world with a new forward looking framework of how NSSs need to further evolve, the SPI scores are empirically based on the data currently available. As such, it must be further refined, based on collective investment in developing more relevant measurements and data sources.

Second, the United Nations Statistics Division global database for SDG indicators is not well populated, particularly for many high income countries.<sup>17</sup> A recent study suggests that data are available for just over half of all indicators and for just 19 percent of what is needed to comprehensively track progress across countries and over time (Dang and Serajuddin, 2020). In some cases it is likely that the data exists but has not found its way on to the database. This is a major problem for users and for those seeking to identify best country practice as a guide for their own statistical development. This issue is related to serious gaps in the data available on data sources. It would be important for the United Nations custodian bodies to work with countries to

> international organizations. While missing data pose no serious challenge, maintaining a database with more indicators and countries requires careful work. But this task can be improved with recent advances in computing and data storage power, see our discussion below.

> 17 Notably, high-income countries do not often collect data on certain indicators that are more relevant for poorer countries such as child stunting, so they do not report on these indicators to the SDGs.

17
more pronounced for exporting firms and firms under foreign ownership, while firms that only operate domestically and are under domestic ownership are more adversely affected by hikes in electricity prices. _Fourth_ , it presents explanatory evidence that is suggestive of a notable change in the relationship between competitiveness indicators and fossil fuel price changes conditional on the price level. We find that the positive correlation between fossil fuel price increases and capital upgrading is more pronounced when fuel prices are low. At higher fuel price levels, this effect becomes smaller and eventually insignificant. Similar non-linear effects cannot be observed for electricity prices.

The structure of this paper is as follows: section 2, provides an overview of the empirical firm-level literature on the energy prices-productivity nexus while section 3 sets a background of the institutional changes pertaining to energy prices for Chilean manufacturing firms. We then introduce the _Estructura de la industria manufacturera_ data (INE, 2015) in section 4, after which we turn to our empirical strategy and the results in sections 5 and 6, respectively, before concluding in section 7.

# **2 Literature**

The literature identifies four main transmission channels for how firms may respond to energy price interventions (Rentschler et al., 2017; Coste et al., 2018): One strategy, where firms _innovate_ by adopting more efficient technologies and reap economic benefit, is often referred to as the Porter Hypothesis.<sup>6</sup> Additionally, firms may pursue other coping strategies, such as cost _pass-on_ to customers and other firms, _absorption_ or adjusting production inputs, i.e., _substitution_ .

Evaluating these transmission channels, the empirical firm-level literature finds broad support for the Porter-type _innovation_ hypothesis, where policy-led price interventions lead to innovation and notable business upgrading. Brucal and Dechezleprˆetre (2021) show that large and energy-intensive sectors in Indonesian manufacturing tend to reduce energy consumption most significantly in response to an energy price hike. Plants react to higher energy prices by updating their capital stock and investing in new and presumably more energy-efficient technology. Using firm-level data of small and micro enterprises from Indonesia for 2013, Rentschler and Kornejew (2018) explore the impact of input price changes of electricity and

> 6The literature distinguishes between different forms of the Porter Hypothesis (Ambec et al., 2013): Under its _”weak”_ form, environmental regulations spur innovations, while under the _”strong”_ version, environmental regulations will lead to increases in firm competitiveness. The _”narrow”_ interpretation states that more flexible regulations may be better at providing the preferable incentive structures to firms than more prescriptive forms.

4
17 decade. In addition, the size<sup>of the central government and of public sector</sup> enterprises mushroomed during<sup>the decade. However, in contrast to the</sup> classical episodes, these countries<sup>were able to maintain limited control</sup> over inflation, it did not get out<sup>of hand.</sup> The links between saigniorage<sup>and inflation were not as sharp as ln the</sup> classlcal hyperlnflatlons. Flgure<sup>2 shows annual seLgniorage and lnflation</sup> for theme countries. The contrast<sup>wlth Germany and Bollvla is clear; there</sup> was no slx-fold increase in seigniorage<sup>in any of these countrles.</sup> Selgniorage in Argentina had been<sup>large at least since the early seventLes,</sup> but except for a few short episodes<sup>it never went out of control. The story</sup> in Brazil is even more puzzlLng,<sup>where seigniorage has been relatively</sup> moderate and stable mlnce the seventies.<sup>The increases in inflatLon in 1975,</sup> 1979 and 1982 were not assocLated<sup>wlth any noticeable increases in</sup> seigniorage (which in fact remained<sup>at around 2 percent of GDP). These</sup> increases ln lnflation lnstead resulted<sup>from devaluations that were</sup> accommodated through easy money<sup>and wage indexation. The Peruvlan</sup> experience, on the other hand, is much more simllar to the classLcal episodes, the rise in seigniorage<sup>leads the outbreak of hyperinflatlon.</sup> Their ability to avoid hyperinflation<sup>for such a long time was related</sup> to the development of mechanLims<sup>that allowed them to live with inflation.</sup> We already mentioned that ln the<sup>classical episodes government revenues</sup> collapsed, usually before the<sup>full hyperinflation set in (e.g. in Bolivia tax</sup> revenues more than halved as inflation reached three<sup>digit levels). On the</sup> other hand, Argentina and Brazll<sup>were able to maintain government revenues at</sup> stable levels in spite of the increases<sup>of inflation (see table 4). There is</sup> no notlceable loss of revenues in<sup>Brazil in spite of dramatic increases ln</sup> inflation sLnce 1986. Likewise,<sup>in Argentina, for which we have quarterly</sup>
_Ingo Borchert and Mattia Di Ubaldo_ The method that we develop for this paper is close to the second approach but, in addition, is guided by the characteristics of the data inasmuch as possible. In a nutshell, our approach follows these steps:

1. From the entirety of the 64 services provisions coded in individual variables, we select key measures that reflect the essence of the agreement’s services chapter and whose relevance for international trade in services (and services VA sourcing) can be compared. We group these variables<sup>20</sup> into seven **principal policy areas** .

- (a) The key **policy configurations** that represent the principal policy areas are documented in Table 1 below.

- (b) One criterion for selecting provisions into policy configurations is their assumed significance for services trade and services VA. Another criterion is a provision’s empirical frequency distribution across services PTAs. For instance, continuing the above example, the variable that codes “does the agreement contain provisions on mutual recognition (MR)?” exhibits a ‘yes’ response in 93% of observations, which does not provide the necessary variation to identify an effect. It is therefore better to combine it with information on the strength of MR; for instance, such provisions can represent (i) general obligation of mandatory nature (47%), (ii) obligation subject to limitations (5%), (iii) general obligation but best endeavour nature (36%), and (iv) voluntary obligation (5%). Thus together these two variables exhibit useful variation that can be exploited in estimation.

- (c) The frequency tabulations of variables referred to above take the actual sample size into account, i.e. are weighted by the number of country pairs to which they apply. This means that plurilateral agreements, which involve a large number of bilateral pairs, play a role when gauging the frequency of policies, which we consider as the right approach.

2. Within each policy area, we combine the selected variables. The resultant pattern has itself an empirical frequency distribution across the estimation sample. Some of these policy configurations are fairly highly concentrated, meaning that in practice a few patterns cover nearly all observable cases, whereas other policy configurations also have frequent patterns but in addition have a longer tail across a great many other combinations that occur. For instance, the four most frequent patterns in

> 20Some of these variables are constructed from a combination of variables as they are published in the WB-DTA 2.0 dataset. For instance, a binary variable indicating the presence of a mandatory provision with respect to mutual recognition, which represents a meaningful covariate for estimation, is constructed from two raw variables, one that indicates the existence of a mutual recognition provision and a second one that indicates its strength (mandatory, as opposed to best endeavour).

25
- 27 -

# 3.4. COMPETITION FROM SPORTSMEN: THE SUBSISTENCE ISSUE

The strategy that the sports hunting interest has put into effect in Alaska consists of a denial of rival claims to the animal on the basis of aboriginal hunting rights. Although the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) encouraged the idea of private property in its explicit promotion of private corporations, sportsmen have advanced the idea of common property resource ownership, as well as their violated civil rights, in pursuit of their interests. Thus, "urban sportsmen say the game belongs to everyone and :hat division along racial lines is unconstitutional" (Tundra Times, January 1978). A government planning commission commented that "a pure native culture probably does not exist in Alaska. Thus, we are not talking about perpetuation of a culture; we're talking about perpetuation of a life style." (in, Reardon 1978). The aim here is to enlarge non- native access to game animals by assigning priorities on the basis of "life style's thus State Senator Gavel: I think subsistence must be defined on the basis of economic dependence, place of residence, and traditional lifestyle of the user. I don't think definitions of preference based on race or ethnic origin are necessary.

# Tundra Times, January 1978

The subsistence issue has been accompanied by a subtle process of redefinition of the aboriginal hunting rights, once self-evident but later enshrined in Indian treaties as part of the compensation package. These rights are gradually becoming 'privileges" and their excercise contingent upon certain qualifications. This process is evident in the provisions for new national parks to be established under ANCSA: An important distinction is made by the Secretary between right and privilege based on the provision of ANCSA that all aboriginal claims of hunting and f'ahing rights are extinguished. Neither natives nor non-natives have a legal basis for claiming a right to pursue subsistence activities on parklands. However, qualified local residents will be given the privilege of pursuing established practices on new parklands created pursuant to ANCSA.

# Belous 1976

The subsistence issue is essentially about access to resources, rather than the impact of hunting. The effect is to reduce indigenous use by generalising access. The aim of some animal preservation campaigns, by contrast is to eliminate all use, even though the organisations conducting such campaigns may declare that "genuine subsistence" use is exempt from their intentions.
Figure 1 presents the scatter plot between each of a set of measures in the Database at the country level and the stage of development measured by GDP per capita along with the R- squared from the corresponding regression among the plotted pair of variables. Appendix 3 presents analogous scatter plots between each of a set of measures in the Database and either the economic size of the economy measured by GDP or the importance of the export sector measured by the ratio of exports to GDP. The Database measures as well as the GDP per capita, GDP, and the ratio of exports to GDP values are taken as averages over the period 2006-2008.<sup>37</sup>

**Figure 1: Correlations of Selected Database Measures with GDP per Capita (averages over 2006-2008)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Number of Exporters - GDPpc Mean Exports per Exporter - GDPpc<br>ESP<br>TUR BEL<br>MEX SWE<br>PAK IRNBGRZAFBRA PRT NZL BEL NOR BRAMEXCHL<br>TZABGD KEN EGY MARGTMJORSLVECUALBPERMKDDOMCOLCRIMUSBWALBN CHL EST KWT MLIKHM MAR PER ZAFCRIBWA ESP SWE<br>MWI NERUGABFAMLIKHMLAO SENNICYEMCMR MWI NERUGATZABFABGD KENLAOPAKSENNICYEMCMR EGY GTMJORSLVECUIRNMKDBGRDOMCOLMUS TUR ESTPRT NZL KWT NOR<br>LBN<br>R2=0.72 ALB R2=0.34<br>6 7 8 9 10 11 6 7 8 9 10 11<br>Ln GDPpc Ln GDPpc<br>Share of Top 5% Exporters - GDPpc Number of Products per Exporter - GDPpc<br>BWA<br>MWI NERUGATZABFAMLI KENLAOPAKSENYEMNICCMR EGY MARGTMSLVJORECUALBPERIRNMKDDOMBGRCOLZAFCRIMUSBRALBNTURMEXCHL ESTPRT NZLESPKWTBELSWE NOR MWI NERUGATZABFABGDMLIKHMKENPAKSENNICYEMCMR MARGTMSLVECUPERIRNMKDBGRDOMCOLZAFCRIMUSBWALBNTURMEXCHL ESTPRT NZLESPKWTBELSWE NOR<br>BGD ALB<br>KHM LAO JOR R2=0.40<br>6 7 8 9 10 11 6 7 8 9 10 11<br>Ln GDPpc Ln GDPpc<br>12 17<br>10 16<br>8 15<br>Ln Number of Exporters 6 14<br>Ln Mean Exports per Exporter<br>4 13<br>1 3<br>2.5<br>.8<br>2<br>.6 1.5<br>Share of Top 5% Exporters<br>Ln Number of Products per Exporter<br>1<br>.4<br><!-- End of picture text --> 37 GDP per capita, GDP, and total exports in current USD are taken from the World Development Indicators (WDI) of the World Bank.

23
# The Financial Premium and Real Cost of Bureaucrats in Businesses<sup>_⋆_</sup>

Ana P. Cusolito<sup>a</sup> , Roberto N. Fattal-Jaef<sup>a</sup> , Fausto Pati ̃no Pe ̃na<sup>a</sup> , Akshat V. Singh<sup>b</sup>

> _aWorld Bank, Washington, D.C., US_

> _bOxford University, Oxford, UK_

_JEL classification_ : O1, O43, G3.

_Keywords:_ SOEs, state-ownership distortions, productivity, finance misallocation.

> _⋆_ The authors would like to thank Brian Castro for excellent research assistance. We welcome comments by Aaditya Mattoo, Ayhan Kose, Daniel Lederman, Davide DeMare, Dorothe Singer, Ivailo V. Izvorski, Jean Pesme, Jesica Torres, Martha Martinez Licetti, Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Mona Haddad, Sebastian Eckardt, Sofia Bauducco, Ufuk Ackcigit, William F. Maloney, seminar participants at the Central Bank of Chile, the World Bank authors’ workshop, the MENA Chief Economist Office BBL, the EAP Chief Economist Office internal seminar and NASMES, WEAI, and EPSA conferences. The authors also thank the Bureau van Dijk data team for clarifying questions about Orbis raw financial and ownership vintage files. The opinions expressed in this paper do not represent the views of the World Bank Group, its Board of Directors, or the Governments they represent. All errors and omissions are the authors’ responsibility. All mistakes are our own.

> _⋆⋆_ acusolito@worldbank.org Corresponding author. rfattaljaef@worldbank.org fpatinopena@worldbank.org akshat.singh@economics.ox.ac.uk
<!-- Start of picture text --> INTnoUCTION XXIx<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Fgww** _9 Percentage Contrbuwon to World Popuatlon Growth from Bank Regions and Nonborrowers, 1985-210(_

<!-- Start of picture text --> so<br>40 . . A<br>20-<br>30 -<br>LAC<br>1985 2000 2015 2030 2045 2080 207S 2090<br><!-- End of picture text --> department, which will still experience annual growth rates above 3 percent in 2000 and above 2 perent by 2025.

Average annual population growth rates vaqr considerbly across Bank regions and country departments, as shown in Table 7. Growth ates are around 3 perent in all the Africa departments, and will remain generally around 3 untl after 2000. Growth rates in Asia depatments ar somewhat more variable. but generally around 2 percent, except for China with 1.4 percent. In the EMN departments, growth rates are around 3 percent exct for Europe, which has substantially lower growth and different growth prospects.

The differences between regions and simirties within them are mainly rooted in fertility pattems (Table 8). Total fertility is above _6.5_ in each Africa department; above _5.0_ for three of the four EMN depatments; between 3.4 and 3.9 in each LAC department; and more variable only in the Asia region, where it ranges from 2.4 to 5.0 across departments. Mortality patterns are also quite similar among departments in each region. InIfnt morlity per thousand is over 100 in each Africa department; between 72 _and_ 101 in three of the four EMN departments; between 50 and _65_ in each LAC department; and more variable again in the Asia region, where it ranges from 32 to 114. Projcted trends will introduce only slightly more heterogeneity within regions: the Sahelian department, for instance, is expected to lag behind other Africa departments in both mortality and fertility decline.

The long-run stationary population for each Africa department is at least five times and as much as seven times its curreat population (Table 9). The Middle East department comes close to the lower end of this range: its stationary population is 4.7 times its current population. In the log nnm, the population for the Turkey-Pakistan department is expocted to quadruple an the populaion for the North Africa department to triple. For most of the remaining departments, roughly a doubling of the population is projected.