In the realm of enforcement mechanisms, a good example comes from Vietnam, where the Education Act of 2005 prescribes nomination quotas<sup>53</sup> for admission to secondary education and university for children belonging to ethnic minorities.<sup>54</sup> Also, article 61 of the same law calls on the government to establish and give priority in the budget allocation to boarding schools and pre-university schools for ethnic minority children.<sup>55</sup> That law has guaranteed access to education and skills development for many traditionally marginalized children and has increased their chances of being competitive in the labor market. In Bulgaria, the Action Plan for the Implementation of the National Roma Integration Strategy sets out a detailed program to promote the right to equal access to quality education and integration of Roma children and students in kindergartens and schools.<sup>56</sup> Also, in Bulgaria and Mexico, the laws require the reform of outdated curricula that include prejudicial language against minorities and the training of primary and secondary education teachers on nondiscrimination.<sup>57</sup> To evaluate the efforts of the pilot economies in sensitizing students to the principles of equality, the surveys also included a question on the teaching of cultural sensitivity courses in primary, secondary, and tertiary schools. Although the approaches vary, Bulgaria, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Vietnam have policies that attempt to educate students about human rights and nondiscrimination. No similar provisions could be identified in Morocco and Tanzania.

As revealed by the results of the surveys, all of the pilot economies have taken some positive steps to improve access to education for minorities; however, gaps remain. Especially in the realm of LGBTI rights, lack of protective legislation for sexual minorities may be a factor contributing to the widely reported discrimination against LGBTI individuals in schools.<sup>58</sup> In a recent assessment of the protection of LBGTI individuals in Vietnam, the U.S. Agency for International Development reports: “In summary, education institutions are not safe for LGBT students due to the lack of antibullying and non-discrimination policies. Furthermore, education on sex and on sexual orientation and gender identification (SOGI) is still limited in Vietnam and are considered sensitive topics that teachers usually avoid. There are also no government initiatives to teach diversity and tolerance, or interpersonal skills.” (UNDP and USAID 2014, 28).

# _3. Access to the Labor Market_

Access to the labor market is the most intuitive of the indicators. When individuals are prevented from obtaining and keeping a job because of a cultural prejudice against their ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, or gender identity—not because of their skills or performance—human capital is wasted, resources are not efficiently allocated, and the economy as a whole suffers. Also, if people are discriminated against in the workplace, their productivity decreases, and unemployment grows as people are discouraged from applying for a job because of fear of discrimination and distrust in the labor market. Employment discrimination also burdens the employer who, by giving up productive minority employees, must bear higher average labor costs and lose profit opportunities (Hanouz 2015). That situation causes higher levels of unemployment and consequential costs for the economy. Nonetheless, discrimination against minorities in the workplace is widely acknowledged and documented.<sup>59</sup>

> 53Article 1.1 of Decree 49/2015/ND-CP defines _nomination_ as follows: “Nomination means the enrollment of students into professional secondary education, college, and university without taking enrollment examination in order to train public officials according to the tasks, job positions, and payroll norms; to train public employees according to working demand, job positions, professional title standards, and salary fund of public administration units for areas meeting with extraordinary socio-economic difficulties and ethnic minorities with no or few officials of college, university, or professional secondary education degrees.” Given the above definition, “nomination quotas” in the context of Article 90.2 of Law on Education 2005 means the maximum number of students who may be enrolled into professional secondary education, college and university without taking an enrollment examination, which the State sets aside for an ethnic minority.

54 Education Law (2005), art. 90 para 1.

55 Education Law (2005), art. 61.

56 “Action Plan for Implementation of the National Roma Integration Strategy of the Republic of Bulgaria (2012–2020) and the Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005–2015,” http://www.romadecade.org/cms/upload/file/9305_file2_bg-action-plan-updated.pdf.

57 See art. 35, para. 1 and 3, Protection Against Discrimination Act, Bulgaria; and art. 8 and art. 12, para. 3, General Education Law, Mexico.

58 Bulgaria recently enacted the new Primary and Secondary Education Act. The law entered into force on August 1, 2016, and includes provisions for the protection of LGBTI individuals in education.

59 See the International Labour Organization NATLEX database, which contains national laws regarding equal opportunity in employment and occupation, including specific laws on ethnic minorities or indigenous peoples, at http://www.ilo.org/natlex. See also OECD (2008) and ILO (2015).

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