rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
SPLIT DECISIONS Table 10: **Compare barely-failing sampled households to whole country**

||Sample,_s <_0|Whole|country||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Outcome|Mean (_μ_1)|Mean (_μ_2)|s.d.|_p_(_μ_1 =_μ_2)|
|_Households_|||||
|No. members|5_._128|4_._952|[2_._238]|0_._0663|
|Member overseas?|0_._380|0_._0695|[0_._253]|_<_0_._001|
|Total income|23015_._9|17143_._8|[20601_._0]|0_._00425|
|Remittance income|5059_._9|1945_._9|[8073_._1]|_<_0_._001|
|Expenditures: total|17403_._9|14639_._0|[14789_._6]|_<_0_._001|
|_Food_|8980_._4|7083_._4|[4524_._4]|_<_0_._001|
|_Quality of life_|6603_._3|3112_._3|[4601_._0]|_<_0_._001|
|_Educ. & med._|1095_._2|1057_._6|[3002_._0]|0_._738|
|_Durables_|725_._0|717_._7|[3184_._6]|0_._945|
|Any savings? (fow)|0_._263|0_._496|[0_._498]|_<_0_._001|
|Savings (fow)|1088_._1|1811_._0|[8208_._3]|0_._00140|
|Business (agr.)?|0_._0870|0_._397|0_._487|_<_0_._001|
|_ln_(bus. income, agr.)|7_._305|7_._580|1_._199|0_._177|
|Business (non-agr.)?|0_._113|0_._395|0_._487|_<_0_._001|
|_ln_(bus. income, non-agr.)|6_._972|7_._926|1_._376|_<_0_._001|
|Own residence?|0_._796|0_._705|0_._454|_<_0_._001|
|Strong wall material|0_._822|0_._598|0_._488|_<_0_._001|
|Region: NCR|0_._265|0_._131|[0_._335]|_<_0_._001|
|Region: Luzon (not NCR)|0_._654|0_._220|[0_._412]|_<_0_._001|
|Region: Visayas|0_._0543|0_._419|[0_._491]|_<_0_._001|
|Region: Mindanao|0_._0261|0_._231|[0_._420]|_<_0_._001|
|_Head of household_|||||
|Age|40_._84|47_._34|[13_._91]|_<_0_._001|
|Female?|0_._184|0_._174|[0_._377]|0_._560|
|Years education|11_._42|7_._864|[3_._774]|_<_0_._001|
|Married?|0_._779|0_._814|[0_._387]|0_._0699|
|_Children (6_⩽_age < 18)_|||||
|In school?|0_._968|0_._842|[0_._363]|_<_0_._001|

Sample households restricted to those whose applicant barely failed exam. “Agr.” = agriculture. Money in 2010 PHP/mo. Nationally representative data from 2006, inflated with CPI. Households: _N_ samp _,s<_ 0 = 460, _N_ ctry = 38 _,_ 453. Children: _N_ samp _,s<_ 0 = 433, _N_ ctry = 55 _,_ 642. Nationwide data weighted with frequency weights. Expenditures defined in Table 4b.

47
Macroprudential stress testing of
            credit risk : a practical approach for policy makers
Drawing on the lessons from the global
            financial crisis and especially from its impact on the
            banking systems of Eastern Europe, the paper proposes a new
            practical approach to macroprudential stress testing. The
            proposed approach incorporates: (i) macroeconomic stress
            scenarios generated from both a country specific statistical
            model and historical cross-country crises experience; (ii)
            indirect credit risk due to foreign currency exposures of
            unhedged borrowers; (iii) varying underwriting practices
            across banks and their asset classes based on their relative
            aggressiveness of lending; (iv) higher correlations between
            the probability of default and the loss given default during
            stress periods; (v) a negative effect of lending
            concentration and residual loan maturity on unexpected
            losses; and (vi) the use of an economic risk weighted
            capital adequacy ratio as the relevant outcome indicator to
            measure the resilience of banks to materializing credit
            risk. The authors apply the proposed approach to a set of
            Eastern European banks and discuss the results.
Life satisfaction, social capital
            and the bonding-bridging nexus
The paper investigates the relation
            between social capital and life satisfaction focusing on the
            distinction between bonding and bridging. Using the latest
            version of the combined World and European Values Surveys,
            the authors first address the question of measurement of
            social capital by means of a multi-step factor analysis.
            Through this procedure, they nd that proxies typically used
            for social capital tend to polarize around two dimensions
            interpreted as bonding and bridging. These two dimensions
            are in fact associated with a single latent variable with
            opposite signs suggesting that they describe two sides of
            the same latent variable rather than two independent latent
            variables. The authors call this latent variable the locus
            of socializing and use it to explore the relation between
            social capital and life satisfaction across world citizens
            and across groups of similar countries. The results indicate
            that people with extreme bonding or bridging attitudes are
            less happy than people with more balanced attitudes. Unlike
            the literature on social capital and economic growth that
            finds bridging attitudes more desirable than bonding
            attitudes, they nd that bonding attitudes are at least as
            important as bridging attitudes for life satisfaction. This
            suggests that the social capital dimensions important for
            economic growth may not necessarily coincide with the social
            capital dimensions important for life satisfaction.
Identification of sources of
            variation in poverty outcomes
The international community has declared
            poverty reduction one of the fundamental objectives of
            development, and therefore a metric for assessing the
            effectiveness of development interventions. This creates the
            need for a sound understanding of the fundamental factors
            that account for observed variations in poverty outcomes
            either over time or across space. Consistent with the view
            that such an understanding entails deeper micro empirical
            work on growth and distributional change, this paper reviews
            existing decomposition methods that can be used to identify
            sources of variation in poverty. The maintained hypothesis
            is that the living standard of an individual is a pay-off
            from her participation in the life of society. In that
            sense, individual outcomes depend on endowments, behavior
            and the circumstances that determine the returns to those
            endowments in any social transaction. To identify the
            contribution of each of these factors to changes in poverty,
            the statistical and structural methods reviewed in this
            paper all rely on the notion of ceteris paribus variation.
            This entails the comparison of an observed outcome
            distribution to a counterfactual obtained by changing one
            factor at a time while holding all the other factors constant.
Global survey of development banks
Historically, development banks have
            been an important instrument of governments to promote
            economic growth by providing credit and a wide range of
            advisory and capacity building programs to households, small
            and medium enterprises, and even large private corporations,
            whose financial needs are not sufficiently served by private
            commercial banks or local capital markets. During the
            current financial crisis, most development banks in Latin
            America, followed by Asia, Africa, and Europe, have assumed
            a countercyclical role by scaling up their lending
            operations exactly when private banks experienced temporary
            difficulties in granting credit to the private sector.
            Despite the importance of development banks during crisis
            and non-crisis periods, little is known about them. This
            survey examines how development banks operate, what their
            policy mandates are, what financial services they offer,
            which type of clients they target, how they are regulated
            and supervised, what business models they have adopted, what
            governance framework they have, and what challenges they
            face. It also examines the countercyclical role played by
            development banks during the recent financial crisis. This
            survey is based on new data that have been collected from 90
            national development banks in 61 countries.
Food standards and exports :
            evidence from China
Using a new database on Chinese food
            standards, this paper estimates the impact of volunta-ry and
            mandatory standards on its agricultural and food exports.
            The dataset covers seven Chinese products from 1992 to 2008.
            The findings here indicate that standards have a posi-tive
            effect on China's export performance. Standards signal
            to customers that products meet certain quality measures and
            promote information exchange. The benefits of increased
            ex-ports outweigh compliance costs. Our results also show
            that theses positive effects are larger when the standards
            are consistent with international norms.
Improving farmers' access to
            agricultural insurance in India
India's crop insurance program is
            the world's largest with 25 million farmers insured.
            However, issues in design, particularly related to delays in
            claims settlement, have led to 95 million farmer households
            not being covered, despite significant government subsidy.
            To address this and other problems, the Government of India
            is piloting a modified National Agricultural Insurance
            Scheme, a market-based scheme with involvement from the
            private sector. Compared with the existing scheme, the new
            program has a design that can offer more timely, claim
            settlement, less distortion in the allocation of government
            subsidies and cross-subsidies between farmer groups, and
            reduced basis risk. Implementation and technical challenges
            lie ahead which can be addressed but will require a
            comprehensive strategy, innovative solutions, and timely
            roll out. This paper describes and analyzes both programs,
            and discusses lessons learned in developing and implementing
            the new program.
Why do some countries default more
            often than others the role of institutions
This paper examines how a country's
            weak institutions and polarized government can affect the
            likelihood of its default on sovereign debt. Using a data
            set of 90 countries, it shows that strong institutions are
            associated with fewer sovereign default crises. In addition,
            when institutions are weak, a more polarized government
            tends to default more often. To explain these findings, the
            author develops a model showing the dynamics between the
            quality of institutions, the level of government
            polarization and sovereign default risk. Countries default
            more often when they lack rules and strong institutions to
            curb the influence of powerful groups on government
            policies. That is because in a polarized government, each
            powerful group makes decisions without considering the
            impact on other groups. Simulations of the model show that
            more than half the cross-country variation in sovereign
            default frequencies can be explained by institutional
            quality and the degree of government polarization observed
            in the data.
Leading Dragons phenomenon : new
            opportunities for catch-up in low-income countries
Modern economic development is
            accompanied by the structural transformation from an
            agrarian to an industrial economy and occurs through a
            process of continuous industrial and technological
            upgrading. Since the 18th century, all countries that
            industrialized successfully in Europe, North America and
            East Asia followed their comparative advantage and leveraged
            the late-comer advantage to emulate the leader-follower
            flying geese pattern of industrial upgrading. The large
            dynamic emerging market countries such as China, India and
            Brazil are also engaged in industrial upgrading but with a
            critical difference. In particular, because of its sheer
            size, China has absorbed nearly all labor-intensive jobs and
            become the worlds largest exporter of labor-intensive
            products. The current view is that Chinas dominance hinders
            poor countries from developing similar industries. The
            authors argue that industrial upgrading has increased wages
            and is causing China to graduate from labor-intensive to
            more capital- and technology-intensive industries. These
            industries will shed labor and create a huge opportunity for
            lower wage countries to start a phase of labor-intensive
            industrialization. This process, called the Leading Dragon
            Phenomenon, offers an unprecedented opportunity to
            low-income Sub-Saharan Africa where the industrial sector is
            underdeveloped and investment capital and entrepreneurial
            skills are leading constraints to manufacturing. It can
            seize the opportunity and resolve the constraints by
            attracting some of the OFDI flowing currently from China,
            India and Brazil into the manufacturing sectors of other
            developing countries. All low-income countries will compete
            but to catch the jobs spillover from China, the winner must
            implement credible economic development strategies that are
            consistent with its comparative advantage.
Household coping and response to
            government stimulus in an economic crisis : evidence from Thailand
The crash of global financial markets in
            2008 caused a ripple effect on economic demand and growth
            worldwide. Export-oriented economies were hit particularly
            hard, and many governments stepped in quickly with
            broad-ranging stimulus programs to lessen the effects on
            households of rising unemployment and falling income. To
            better understand the role that stimulus policy might play
            in softening the effects of these shocks, this paper
            examines recent nationally-representative data from
            Thailand, an export-dependent economy where a large-scale
            stimulus program was introduced in 2009. Using monthly data
            spanning 2006-2010, the paper uses sub-province-level
            community panel data to examine the effects of major
            components of the stimulus on household consumption, income,
            borrowing, and debt repaid. To address simultaneity of
            changes in government spending and household outcomes, the
            analysis estimates a dynamic panel regression, instrumenting
            the stimulus effect with second-order lagged outcome
            variables, and estimating the model using the Generalized
            Method of Moments. The results suggest that household
            participation in these programs helped smooth consumption.
            This increase in monthly consumption was not supported from
            household receipts from the government stimulus, but more
            likely through a reallocation of consumption and savings
            that included greater debt repayment. The paper typically
            finds stronger effects in urban compared with rural areas.
How vulnerable are Arab countries to
            global food price shocks
This paper presents new estimates of
            pass-through coefficients from international to domestic
            food prices by country in the Middle East and North Africa.
            The estimates indicate that, despite the use of food price
            subsidies and other government interventions, a rise in
            global food prices is transmitted to a significant degree
            into domestic food prices in many countries in the Middle
            East and North Africa, although cross-country variation is
            significant. In nearly all countries, domestic food prices
            are highly downwardly rigid. The finding of asymmetric price
            transmission suggests that not only international food price
            levels matter, but also food price volatility. High food
            pass-through tends to increase inflation pressures, where
            food consumption shares are high. Domestic factors, often
            linked to storage, logistics, and procurement, have also
            played a major role in explaining high food inflation in the
            majority of countries in the region.
Biotechnology innovation for
            inclusive growth : a study of Indian policies to foster
            accelerated technology adaptation for affordable development
This paper describes and analyzes a
            series of complementary policy initiatives in India to adapt
            and commercialize existing global biotechnologies to meet
            local needs in healthcare, agriculture, industry and the
            environment in a more affordable manner. This evolving
            approach has been implemented through six complementary
            elements, namely (1) translational research; (2) technology
            access through global consortia; (3) commercialization
            supported by public-private partnerships, broadly
            interpreted; (4) skills development; (5) regulation; and (6)
            institutional governance, including special purpose
            vehicles, for effective project management. The paper
            focuses on two public-private partnership initiatives, the
            Small Business Innovation Research Initiative and the
            Biotechnology Industry Partnership Program, which together
            have allocated more than US$70 million in public funding to
            almost 150 projects, contributing to a total public-private
            investment of more than $170 million over the past five
            years. The authors' key recommendation, to ensure
            effective resource use and better policy impact, is for
            these innovation-support initiatives to adopt more
            continuous monitoring with quicker feedback from learning to
            implementation, and more rigorous impact evaluation
            including approaches that allow the results of firms
            benefiting from support to be compared with an appropriate
            group of firms not benefiting from support.
Adapting road procurement to climate conditions
The world's climate is changing. It
            is well recognized that technical standards and project
            specifications of public infrastructure have to be adjusted,
            depending on the climate. However, it is less recognized
            that the public infrastructure procurement also needs to be
            adjusted. This paper examines a particular case of rural
            road procurement in Nepal. Severe weather conditions, such
            as heavy rains and storms, are likely to interrupt civil
            works and wash away unpaved or gravel roads. It is found
            that heavy precipitation causes delays, but not cost
            overruns. The paper also shows that budgetary efficiency and
            credibility could be improved by taking climate conditions
            into account. If future precipitation were anticipated by
            backward-looking expectations, many large project delays
            could be avoided. If the autoregressive precipitation model
            were used, the vast majority of the observed delays could be eliminated.
Land fragmentation, cropland
            abandonment, and land market operation in Albania
Albania's radical farmland
            distribution is credited with averting an economic crisis
            and social unrest during the transition. But many believe it
            led to a holding structure too fragmented to be efficient,
            and that public efforts to consolidate plots are needed to
            lay the foundation for greater rural productivity. This
            paper uses farm-level data from the 2005 Albania Living
            Standards Measurement Survey to explore this quantitatively.
            The analysis finds no support for the argument that
            fragmentation reduces productivity. However, producers fail
            to utilize about 10 percent of the country's productive
            land, and, in the majority of cases, this land has been idle
            for at least five years. Farmers quote inefficiently-small
            plots as the reason for this in few cases, casting doubt on
            the scope for land consolidation to solve this issue.
            Instead, the data are consistent with the notion of land
            market imperfections, which can be traced to gaps in the
            legal and policy framework, as well as inefficiencies in
            registry operations, leading to land abandonment on a large
            scale. To maintain the productive potential of
            Albania's rural economy and, if and when needed, the
            ability to conduct consolidation in a cost-effective and
            sustainable manner, it will be critical to complement the
            emphasis on consolidation with an effort to address those
            gaps and inefficiencies on a priority basis.
Do migrants really foster trade the
            trade-migration nexus, a panel approach 1960-2000
Despite the burgeoning empirical
            literature providing evidence of a strong and robust
            positive correlation between trade and migration, doubts
            persist as to unobserved factors which may be driving this
            relationship. This paper re-examines the trade-migration
            nexus using a panel spanning several decades, which
            comprises the majority of world trade and migration in every
            decade. First the findings common to the literature are
            reproduced. Country-pair fixed effects are then used to
            account for unobserved bilateral factors, the implementation
            of which removes all of the positive impact of migration on
            trade. In other words the unobserved factors, a leading
            candidate for which it is argued is international bilateral
            ties, are on average strongly and positively correlated with
            migrant networks. Dividing the world into the relatively
            affluent North and poorer South, the results show that
            migrants from either region only affect Northern exports to
            the South. This is intuitive since in general countries of
            the North export more differentiated products and
            information barriers between these regions are greatest. A
            country-level analysis further shows that migrants may both
            create and divert trade. Taken as a whole, the results
            demonstrate the large biases inherent in cross-sectional
            studies investigating the trade-migration nexus and
            highlight the extent to which previous results have been overstated.