rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
**Table 6: Types of Wage Employment GHS 1999 - 2006 (in percent, weighted)**

||**1999**|**2004**|**2006**|
|---|---|---|---|
|Other|22.8|25.2|29.6|
|Parastatals and Ministries|48.6|42.2|45.6|
|Private companies|17.0|20.5|18.0|
|Public companies|11.6|12.0|6.9|

_Source: Francis Teal / Luke Haywood NLSS 2003-2004 and GHS 1999-2004_ 19. The decline of wage employment reflects three developments: (i) the retrenchment of civil servants and the privatization of many parastatals led to a sharp decline in public service employment, which has long dominated employment in the formal sector and continues to represent the largest share of wage employment; (ii) many private industries with large wage employment, notably the textile industry, have been in decline for a number of years and have shed a considerable part of their work force; and (iii) sectors of the economy that have grown quickly, such as wholesale/retail, construction and agriculture, have been, to a significant extent, in the informal sector, while those in the formal sector, e.g., the financial services and hospitality industries, are either not very employment intensive or added labor from a very low base, failing to make a significant difference in the growth of wage employment.

Two features stand out:

- Among the young, the share of family agriculture almost doubled from 1999-2006.

- By 2006, the share of young people outside the labor force in the urban areas had appreciably increased. A more detailed review of the share of the people outside the labor force suggests that most of them consist of women engaged in household work and men who have never had any employment experience.

20. This picture generally supports the conclusion that youth unemployment has been on the rise since 1999, an alarming trend in view of the strong growth performance in recent years.

21. The pattern of growth in Nigeria and its relation to the evolution of Nigeria’s labor market can be described as follows: 11
years (2001), share of females (2000), geographical area (2000), transportation costs to the nearest capital city (1995), number of train stations in the city (1995) and homicide rate per 100000 inhabitants (2002) is collected by the Instituto de Pesquisa Economica Aplicada (IPEA). These variables are all observed at the city level. To obtain the corresponding variables at the subregion level, we aggregate the variables from city to the subregion level using information provided by the Ministry of Labor on all the cities that belong to each subdelegacia.

# 8. Appendix B - Lower and Upper Bounds for β

Consider the following model: where Y is the outcome variable, E is the measure of enforcement and X is a set of endogenous controls, such as employment, capital intensity or human capital of the workers correlated with fi rms productivity (see the last three columns of the table). Assume that: (1) β < 0 and γ > 0; (2) COV (E, ε) = 0 and COV (E, X) < 0 , since our results suggest that more productive fi rms are less targeted by fi nes; (3) X is endogenous with COV (X, ε) > 0. We have to decide whether to include X or not in the regression.

Excluding X of the regression: (where plim indicates probability limit) since (by assumption) γ > 0 and COV (E, X) < 0. Including X in the regression: since (by assumption) COV (E, X) < 0, COV (X, ε) > 0 and V (E) V (X)−COV (E, X)<sup>2</sup> > 0. Therefore: 29
- Fehr, Ernst, Michael Naef, and Klaus M. Schmidt (2006). “Inequality aversion, efficiency, and maximin preferences in simple distribution experiments: Comment,” _American Economic Review_ , 96(5): 1912–1917.

- Gauri, Varun and Jorn Sonderholm (2012). “Global poverty: Four normative positions,” _Journal Of Global Ethics_ , 8: 193–213.

- Hassoun, Nicole (2012). _Globalization andG Global Justice: Shrinking Distance, Expanding Obligations_ , Cambridge University Press.

- Henrich, Joseph Patrick (2004). _Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies_ , Oxford University Press.

- Konow, James (1996). “A positive theory of economic fairness,” _Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization_ , 31(1): 13–35.

- Konow, James (2000). “Fair Shares: Accountability and Cognitive Dissonance in Allocation Decisions,” _American Economic Review_ , 90(4): 1072–1091.

- Malmendier, Ulrike and Klaus M. Schmidt (2017). “You owe me,” _American Economic Review_ , 107(2): 493–526.

- Melis, Alicia P., Anna-Claire Schneider, and Michael Tomasello (2011). “Chimpanzees, pan troglodytes, share food in the same way after collaborative and individual food acquisitionchimpanzees,,” _Animal_ , 82(3): 485–493.

- Rabbie, Jacob M and Murray Horwitz (1969). “Arousal of ingroup-outgroup bias by a chance win or loss,” _Journal of personality and social psychology_ , 13(3): 269–277.

- Rawls, John (1971). _A Theory of Justice_ , Harvard University Press.

- Rawls, John (2001). _The Law of Peoples_ , Harvard University Press.

- Risse, Mathias (2012). _On Global Justice_ , NJ: Princeton University Press.

- Sen, Amartya (2009). _The Idea of Justice_ , Harvard University Press.

- Sherif, Muzafer (1967). _Group Conflict and Co-operation: Their Social Psychology_ , Routledge & K. Paul.

- Singer, Peter (2011). _The Expanding Circle: Ethics, Evolution, and Moral Progress_ , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

- Smeets, Paul, Rob Bauer, and Uri Gneezy (2015). “Giving behavior of millionaires,” _Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences_ , 112(34): 10641–10644.

- Starmans, Christina, Mark Sheskin, and Paul Bloom (2017). “Why people prefer unequal societies,” _Nature Human Behaviour_ , 1(82): 1–7.

- Tajfel, Henri (1970). “Experiments in intergroup discrimination,” _Scientific American_ , 223(5): 96– 102.

- Tajfel, Henri, Michael G Billig, Robert P Bundy, and Claude Flament (1971). “Social categorization and intergroup behaviour,” _European Journal of Social Psychology_ , 1(2): 149–178.

- Tajfel, John, Henry & Turner (1979). “An integrative theory of intergroup conflict,” in Stephen Austin, William G. & Worchel (ed.), “The social psychology of intergroup relations,” chapter 3, Brooks/Cole Pub. Co.

7
or Learning Leaning: Persistent and Transitory Spillovers from FDI Ronald B. Davies,<sup>_§_</sup> Michael J. Lamla,<sup>_†_</sup> and Marc Schiffbauer<sup>_‡_</sup>

**Keywords** : FDI; Spillovers.

**JEL classification** : F23; F16.

> _§_ University College Dublin. Email: ronbdavies@gmail.com

> _†_ University of Essex and ETH Zurich, KOF Swiss Economic Institute. Email: mlamla@essex.ac.uk

> _‡_ The World Bank. Email: mschiffbauer@worldbank.org We thank Beata Javorcik for very helpful comments and the Jordan Department of Statistics as well as the Jordan Ministry of Planning and International Organization for their generous support, providing access to the data and valuable feedback.
upgrading and maintenance. To provide the best feasible estimate of network improvement costs by area, we need to tailor our unit cost estimates to local conditions as closely as possible. We focus at the country level in this paper, since the ROCKS data and information on road cost determinants are currently available at that level.

**Table 8: Unit Cost Statistics, World Bank Road Projects in Sub-Saharan Africa ($’000/km)**

|Work Te|Class|#|||Percentile|s||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|yp|||10|25|50|75|90|
|Grading|Maintenance|3|0.2|0.2|0.5|0.9|0.9|
|Routine Maintenance|Maintenance|22|0.6|1.7|2.0|3.0|3.5|
|Unsealed Preventive Maintenance|Maintenance|98|2.8|3.3|4.3|5.1|5.7|
|Bituminous Pavement Preventive Treatment|Maintenance|39|2.3|3.3|5.0|7.7|18.8|
|Gravel Resurfacing|Maintenance|112|3.9|7.1|10.1|17.4|37.9|
|Surface Treatment Resurfacing|Maintenance|26|13.0|18.4|20.3|32.2|38.5|
|Asphalt Mix Resurfacing|Upgrading|27|22.7|39.2|54.7|70.4|95.1|
|Reconstruction|Upgrading|88|22.8|78.6|128.9|218.1|333.8|
|Strengthening|Upgrading|14|80.8|103.0|130.3|162.1|203.7|
|Partial Widening|Upgrading|1|136.0|136.0|136.0|136.0|136.0|
|Upgrading|Upgrading|35|53.0|109.1|262.5|331.1|473.3|
|New Two-Lane Highway|Upgrading|2|660.2|660.2|1,023.4|1,386.5|1,386.5|
|Wideningand Reconstruction|Upgrading|3|989.1|989.1|1,331.1|1,568.4|1,568.4|
|Total||470||||||

**Table 9: Unit Cost Statistics by Activity Class ($’000/km)**

|Activity Class|#||<br>|Percentiles<br>|<br>||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||10|25|50|75|90|
|Maintenance|300|2.3|3.6|5.6|12.7|24.7|
|Upgrading|170|24.0|57.7|127.8|243.8|391.6|

27
3

# II. The Methodological Approach

In this study **a** World Bank classification scheme was used to identify different **levels of** fabrication for 48 commodities exported in primary and processed form by developed and developing countries. At a minimum, the scheme distinguishes between a primary and processed stage product (i.e., the primary stage of the coffee chain consists of green and roasted beans (SITC 071.1) while the processed stage consists of coffee extracts (SITC 071.2)). In other instances, a semifabricated stage or stages is identified (i.e., the cocoa chain consists of cocoa beans (primary stage), cocoa powder and bvctar (intermediate stages), with chocolate being the final stage item). The appendix provides a description of the processing chain components and also gives their corresponding Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) Revision 1 number.<sup>3</sup> Statistics on developed country imports of each processing chain's components were drawn directly from United Nations Series D trade tapes for 1965,

> 3 1t should be noted that "leakages" may ozcur as one goes up the processing chains in that some products may be employed as inputs for other production processes and be lost from the chain. For example, cotton fiber may be used for the manufacture of rubber tires and not appear ini the textile stages of the cotton chain. Such leakages may cause the magnitude of the shift to processed commodity exports to be understated and may also affect the accuracy of the estimated indices of price stability. If prices for the product where leakages occur are relatively more stable than for goods in the main part of the chain the indices in this study will understate the true degree of stability gained by further processing. Balassa (1968) first developed commodity processing chain concept within the SITC system for analysis of trade and tariff data.
Table 4: Family state-probabilities corresponding to premature adult mortality rates (30 _q_ 20).

|Year|π(|1)|π(|2)|π(|3)|π(|4)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||20<sup>_q_</sup>20|30<sup>_q_</sup>20|20<sup>_q_</sup>20|30<sup>_q_</sup>20|20<sup>_q_</sup>20|30<sup>_q_</sup>20|20<sup>_q_</sup>20|30<sup>_q_</sup>20|
|1990(D=0)|0.855|0.739|0.101|0.164|0.039|0.080|0.005|0.018|
|2010(D=0)|0.294|0.112|0.165|0.180|0.347|0.272|0.194|0.436|

The appalling dimensions – social, economic and psychological – of the epidemic in its mature phase are plain to envisage. In its absence, it is safe to assert on the basis of 30 _q_ 20 that at least three-quarters of all children would grow up enjoying the care, company and support of both natural parents, and fewer than two per cent would suffer the misfortune of becoming full orphans. If the epidemic is left to run unchecked, then on the basis of 20 _q_ 20, it will leave about 20 per cent of the generation born from 2010 onwards full orphans, about one-half will lose one parent in childhood, and a mere 30 per cent or so will reach adulthood without experiencing the death of one or both parents. The proportions are even more dramatic if, instead, one takes 30 _q_ 20 as the basis. The epidemic will also reverse the usual pattern of excess mortality among fathers – from about twice as high as among mothers to about onethird to a half lower. Given the importance of the mother’s special role in securing the young child’s healthy development, it can be argued that this reversal imparts additional force to the shock.

With the reference cases thus and numerically estimated, it remains to establish the relationship between the state-probabilities and spending on combating the disease. In keeping with the above procedure, this is accomplished by choosing a functional form for the relationship between the probability of premature death among adults and the level of aggregate expenditures on combating the disease, and then making the assumption that the incidence of the disease is i.i.d. For simplicity, and erring on the side of optimism, we also assume that such aggregate expenditures produce a pure public good, so that 70
|PPR<br>Title|Working Paper Series<br>Author|Date|Contact|
|---|---|---|---|
|WPS172The Effects of Peru's Push to<br>Improve Education|Elizabeth M. King<br>Rosemary T. Bellow|March1989|C.Cristobal<br>33640|
|WPS173Staffing and Training Aspects of<br>Hospital Management: Some Issues<br>for Research|Julio Frenk<br>Enrique Ruelas|||
|WPS174Trade Restrictions<br>with Imported<br>Intermediate<br>Inputs: When Does<br>the Trade Balance Improve?|Ramon E. Lopez<br>Dani Rodrik|March1989|M. Ameal<br>61466|
|WPS175An Integrated<br>Model of Perennlal<br>and Annual Crop Production for<br>Sub-Saharan<br>Countries|Robert D. Weaver|||
|WPS176Credit Rationing,<br>Tenancy,<br>Productivity,<br>and the Dynamics<br>of Inequality|Avishay Braverman<br>Joseph E. Stigiltz|||
|WPS177Cash-Flow or Income? The Choice of<br>Base for Company Taxation|Jack M. Mintz<br>Jesus Seade|April1989|A. Bhalla<br>60359|
|WPS178Tax Holidays and Investment|Jack M. Mintz|April1989|A. BhalIa<br>60359|
|WPS179Public Sector Pricing In a Fiscal<br>Context|Christopher<br>Heady|April1989|A. Bhalla<br>60359|
|WPS180Structural<br>Changes In Metals<br>Consumption: Evidence from<br>U.S. Data|Boum-Jong Choe|April1989|S.Lipscomnb<br>33718|
|WPS181Public Finance, Trade and Development:<br>What Have We Learned?|<br>JohannesF.Linn<br>Deborah L. Wetzel|April1989|M.Colinet<br>33490|
|WPS182The Experience<br>of Latin America<br>With Export Subsidies|Julio Nogues|April 1989|S. Torrivos<br>33709|
|WPS183Private Investment<br>In Mexico:<br>An Empirical Analysis|Alberto R. Musaloem|April1989|L. Spear<br>30081|
IV. Market Liberalization **and** Private Sector Response (1991- Present) As part of a Structural Adjustment Programme begun in 1983, the Tanzanian government began to liberalize the domestic marketing of grains and other food crops, moving away from the official single channel systems put in place in the mid-1960s. Private traders, which in any case had been active in parallel market trading, were first permitted to condluct trade across regional boundaries. Quantity restrictions were later relaxed and removed altogether. By 1988/89, private traders were allowed to purchase crops from primary societies and by 1990 all restrictions were lifted.

In the southern regions where cashews are the major cash crop, private traders successfully competed with cooperatives in the procurement of the liberalized crops. In general, private traders paid higher prices and paid cash, so farmers did not experience the same payment delays as with the cooperatives.32 Private merchants were particulasly active in the trades in sesame and cassava roots, for which sizable export markets have been developed. An illustration of the emerging major role of private traders in southern zone food marketing is provided in Table 8 which provides survey data from the East Makonde area concerning farmer market outlets for different crops. As the Table indicates, during the 1990/91 season only for cashew nuts did the cooperative societies continue to play a major role.

Table 8: Proportion of Sales Transactions by Buyer and Crop in E. Makonde Plateau (Percentage; 1990/91 Season)

|Crop|Primary Society|Private Trader|Consumer|
|---|---|---|---|
|Cashew|100|0|0|
|Cassava|_25_|48|27|
|Sesame|25|75|0|
|Groundnuts|0|31|69|
|Pulses|10|31|59|
|Cereals|7|43|50|

Source: ODA Cashew Research Project. Household Agricultural Marketing Survey.

While domestic markets were liberalized, the marketing of traditional export crops remained confined to one channel, multi-tiered systems. Initial proposals to liberalize the cashew nut trading system were put forward in the late 1980s under the CPIPP. However, it was not until the 1990 Tanzania Agricultural Adjustment Programme that the government announced its intention to implement major policy and institutional changes in export crop marketing. This commitment was put in concrete form in Tanzania's Policy Framework Paper, presented by the government in April 1991.

The cashew nut industry would play the lead role in export crop market liberalization, beginning with the 1991/92 season. This industry was chosen, in part due to the relative weak-ness of its cooperative unions (compared with those in the cotton and coffee industries), but also because the industry was in the

> 32 ODA Cashew Research Project, Household Agricultural Marketing Survey, op cit.

22
30 Table 1. Total cost by commodity of Egypt's food subsidy system, 1970 to 1996-97

|Br<br>Year<br>w|ead and<br>heat flour M|<br>aize<br>o|Edible<br>ils<br>|Oth<br>Sugar co|er<br>mmodities|Total Food<br>Tot<br>* subsidies**<br>su|al food<br>bsidies*-*|Food s<br>perce<br>govt. e|ubsidies<br>as<br>ntage<br>oftotal<br>xpendibtre|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||||LE Mil|lion||LE|Million|Perce|ntage|
||||(Nomina<br>T|l<br>erms)||(R|eal Terms)|||
|1970/71|20.9|0.8|10.4|8.0|1.7|<br>41.8|||0.2|
|1972|15.1|0.4|15.8|6.0|4.6|<br>41.9|||0.7|
|1973|79.0|4.4|16.8|19.0|17.0|<br>136.2|||5.5|
|1974|216.0|16.5|55.3|68.9|36.5|<br>393.2|||16.5|
|1975|260.9|31.1|72.2|20.8|38.7|<br>423.7|||16.9|
|1976|171.6|23.1|43.2|6.1|37.4|<br>281.4|||9.8|
|1977|149.1|406.0|54.6|n.a.|n.a.|<br>343.2|||10.9|
|1978|222.8|53.8|137.4|n.a.|n.a.|<br>452.4|||11.9|
|1979|588.3|38.5|200.2|n.a.|n.a.|<br>996.8|||16.2|
|1980-81|511.0|63.7|125.4|97.8|296.4|<br>1094.3|2918.1||16.9|
|1981-82|807.1|160.1|259.7|169.3|431.8|<br>1828.0|4415.5||19.5|
|1982-83|758.0|199.1|201.5|133.7|414.7|<br>1707.0|3586.1||14.3|
|1983-84|861.5|294.1|337.5|119.5|396.4|<br>2009.0|3639.5||16.8|
|1984-85|614.7|264.0|395.3|134.3|1037.7|<br>2446.0|3786.4||18.4|
|1985-86|448.7|310.3|331.5|195.7|695.8|<br>1982.0|2707.7||12.3|
|1986-87|289.8|136.1|263.6|258.5|723.0|<br>1671.0|1671.|0|10.6|
|1987-88|235.6|8.7|204.5|341.8|550.4|<br>1341.0|1248.|6|6.8|
|1988-89|543.3|-|243.5|470.4|737.8|<br>1995.0|1578.|3|9.2|
|1989-90|615.4|-|245.2|643.8|242.6|<br>1747.0|1139.|6|7.1|
|1990-91|1255.0|-|368.0|600.0|177.0|<br>2400.0|1162.|0|7.4|
|1991-92|1057.0|-|629.0|698.0|98.0|<br>2482.0|1158.|2|5.0|
|1992-93|1308.0|-|542.3|600.4|(-0.7)|<br>2450.0|1040.|8|5.5|
|1993-94|1424.0|-|424.9|579.7|57.4|<br>2486.0|918.7||5.3|
|1994-95|1486.0|-|433.0|573.0|-|2492.0|865.6||5.4|
|1995-96|1848.1||625.0|624.9||3098.0|1059.|0|6.0|
|1996-97|2273.0||606.2|788.8||3668.0|1244.|0|6.5|

*Other commodities include rice, lentils, chicken, frozen fish and frozen meat.

**Total food subsidies include financial losses of food marketing companies.

***Total food subsidies in real terms calculated by deflating nominal costs by CAPMAS Consumer Price Index for urban areas (1 986-87 = 100).

n.a. = Not available.

Sources: Food subsidy data: 1970-71 to 1980-81 from Harold Alderman, Joachim von Braun and Sakr A. Sakr, Egypt's Food Subsidy and Rationing System: A Description, Research Report 34 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1982), Table 2.

1981-82 to 1996-97 from unpublished data, Ministry of Planning, and Ministry of Trade and Supply.

# Total government expenditure data:

1970-71 to 1979 from Alderman, von Braun and Sakr, op. cit.

1980-81 to 1991-92 from unpublished data, Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics. 1992-93 to 1996-97 from unpublished data, Ministry of Trade and Supply.
- 45 -

# **Table_A:** Activity Breakdown of Rural Manufacturing Employment (percent)

|Item|Burkina<br>Faso *J<br>1980|Zambia_bl_<br>1986|Kenyacl<br>1977|<br>NigerLa<br>_dl_<br>1972/73|Sierra<br>Leone*1<br>1976|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Food/Agricultura<br>Processing|l<br>55|55|22|2|5_f/_|
|Clothing Products|<br>25|6|22|56|53|
|Wood Products|1|32|43|11|19|
|Metal Products|8|4|6|4|19|
|Other|21|3|7|27|4|

A/ Eastern ORD, 1980. Six Rural Provinces, 1986. WJ Central Province Village Centers, 1977. s/ Four States, 1972/73; enterprise, not employment percentages. / All Rural, 1976. f/ Includes only bakeries.

Source: Burkina Faso: Wilcock and Chuta (1982); firms below 50 persons. Kenya: Norcliffe, Freeman, and Miles (1984), cited in Liedholm and Mead (1986); firms below 50 persons.

Nigeria: Aluko et al. (1972 and 1973); firms below 50 persons. enterprise, not employment percentages.

Sierra Leone: Liedholm and Chuta (1976); firms below 50 persons. Zambia: Milimo and Fisseha (1986).
# **6. Conclusions**

One-stop shops and making it easy for individuals to formally register firms have been mainstays of the policy recommendations pushed by Hernando de Soto and the Doing Business reports, and have been widely implemented. However, recent evidence has called into question the view that most informal firms would like to formalize, noting that there are often few benefits to them of doing so. This is particularly likely to be the case once one goes outside the main centers to more isolated municipalities.

We use government administrative data to evaluate the impact of a reform – the opening of Minas Fácil Expresso offices to ease registration in more remote municipalities in the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil. We find that opening these offices actually led to a small reduction in the number of firms registering in the month of implementation and following month, and zero increase or perhaps small decreases in registration rates over subsequent months. There was also no significant change in tax revenue. This reform therefore does not appear to have succeeded in its goal of increasing formality in these municipalities, suggesting the need for policymakers to consider further what the other constraints to firms formalizing are – and in particular, whether it is worth it on a cost-benefit basis to try and draw more of them into the formal sector.

More generally, this paper illustrates how the rich administrative data collected by a state in Brazil allow for rigorous evaluation of municipal level business reforms. Typically when reforms are not randomly introduced, one is concerned about the plausibility of non-experimental approaches to evaluate these reforms. However, in cases like this one, where a large time series of data are available pre-reform, one can test and have more confidence in the assumptions required for difference-in-differences to hold than is the case in evaluations with only one or two periods of pre-treatment data. Given that data of this sort should be collected as part of normal government functioning in most countries, the evaluation was very cheap (requiring only researcher and government time costs), and so this sort of analysis of many other government municipal-level programs should be possible.

# **References**

Andrade, Gustavo, Miriam Bruhn and David McKenzie (2012) “A Helping Hand or the Long Arm of the Law? Experimental evidence on what governments can do to formalize firms”, Mimeo. World Bank.

Angrist, Joshua and Jörn-Steffen Pischke (2009) _Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion_ . Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

14