exports in our sample of high-income countries (as per their 1995 income category) grew from almost 60 million to around 90 million over the period 1995-2018 (Figure 10, upper left panel). Looking at the composition of employment in exports by broad sector highlights the importance of manufacturing and business services. However, while the share of manufacturing in total employment in exports of highincome countries contracted from roughly 55 to 44 percent over this period, the percentage of business services expanded from 39 to 48 percent. By contrast, other services, mining and agriculture only made up 6 to 7 percent of jobs in exports throughout the period.

Country experiences varied, with jobs in manufacturing exports falling rather in industrialized countries, while jobs sustained by business services exports expanded throughout the sample. Across the sample only roughly a quarter of the 51 countries have faced job losses in manufacturing exports since 1995, especially in industrialized Western European countries, most notably Cyprus, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and Romania, as well as the United States (Figure 11). At the same time, the number of jobs in business services exports grew strongly across all countries, in particular Ireland, South Africa, Iceland, Luxembourg, and Poland, reflecting the structural transformation in industrialized and emerging countries away from manufacturing and towards services. A few emerging countries showed higher growth of manufacturing-linked jobs than business services-linked jobs in exports, including Türkiye, Mexico, Chile, Czechia, Indonesia, Slovak Republic, and China, while Saudi Arabia’s job growth in exports stood out in both sectors.

**Figure 11: Export-driven employment growth, manufacturing vs. business services, 1995-2018**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 7<br>IRL SAU<br>6 ZAF<br>5 ISL LUX POL<br>4 PRTISRBRACRI INDGRCJPN ESPDEU COL ARG<br>321 CYP GBRRUSROU CANESTDNKUSANORSWEFINBELMLTAUSBGRSVNLTUFRANLD NZLITALVACHEHRVAUTKORSVKIDN HUN MEXTUR<br>CHL CZE<br>0<br>CHN<br>-1<br>-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7<br>Manufacturing, 1995-2018 (CAGR)<br>EAP ECA LAC MENA NA<br>SA SSA All y=x Linear (y=x)<br>Business services, 1995-2018 (CAGR)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Own computations. Data: OECD TiE data. Note: The country sample covers 38 OECD countries plus 13 non-OECD countries. The orange line indicates the y=x line. CAGR = Compound annualized growth rate.

This trend is also visible at the detailed sector level, with emerging countries expanding more jobs sustained by manufacturing exports and high-income countries creating more jobs linked to business services exports. The top 15 expanding sectors between 1995 and 2018 in terms of jobs in exports (in % change) for low- and middle- versus high-income countries (as per their 1995 income categories) reflects the stronger role of manufacturing for the first group and the stronger role of business services for the latter group (Figure 12). In emerging countries, most jobs sustained by manufacturing exports were created in computer and electronics, whole and retail trade, machinery and equipment, electrical equipment and motor vehicles (left panel). In high-income countries, job creation was strongest in exports of administrative, professional, IT and financial and insurance services (right panel).

The highest job losses in high-income countries are related to manufacturing exports, while emerging markets experienced their largest declines in labor-intensive jobs linked to services, manufacturing and 15