in the empirical studies. The review by Cardona et al. (2013) adds that there are also differences in magnitudes of the effects, like for example, they register different results among the papers measuring the effects of ICT on aggregate productivity between the United States and Europe, although they did not find country-differences at the firm-level. The literature survey by Biagi (2013) cites that for the U.S. economy “the share attributable to ICT goes from 43% for the period 1971-1995 to 59% for the period 1995-2000, with an almost doubling of the contribution from capital deepening” and identifies ICT adoption as a catalyzer of productivity in the period 1996-2006, which could explain the productivity gap between the United States and the E.U. in the same period. Among the first attempts to divide the literature findings by development levels is that of Stanley et al. (2018) who through an analysis of 59 econometric studies find ambiguous effects of internet adoption, with insignificant overall effects for OECD countries and significantly positive effects for developing countries. Our literature review adds to these surveys a contrast of the effects among development levels, industry, and type of technology.

Bertschek et al. (2015) was among the first to categorize the literature by type of technology by differentiating between wireline and wireless items as well as broadband availability and adoption. The main insights of their survey confirm the positive growth effects of ICT adoption found in previous literature reviews and adds that ICT could also help create new jobs although with labor outcomes favoring skilled workers. Finally, Hjort and Tian (2021) add a review of empirical papers showing heterogenous internet effects on labor outcomes (e.g., wages) across demographic groups, mainly favorable for women and high skilled workers, and papers on firm-worker matching which they claim has been mainly present in rich countries. Our literature review builds on these surveys and adds papers suggesting that the effects on labor are seen from different perspectives such as the creation of employment opportunities, changes in the labor structure, and demand for labor. The studies reviewed suggest that the creation of jobs from ICT adoption is an effect mainly present in developing countries while labor displacement (higher demand for people with ICT training) is observed in the developed world (Eichhorst et al., 2016). However, there is no evidence of substitution effects in developing countries. Despite the findings, there is evidence that ICT have a positive impact on labor through increased productivity. This is supported by the work of Cusolito et al. (2020), which shows that overall, ICT enhance labor and, in some cases, even lead to higher wages for both skilled and unskilled workers.

# **2. Economic growth effects at the country level**

Various studies emphasize the link between ICT adoption and economic growth using data from multiple countries, periods of time, estimation techniques, and technologies (Choi and Yi, 2009; Niebel, 2018; Stanley et al., 2018). ICT have transformed production in many sectors of the economy; however, growth effects have been hard to identify in the macroeconomic data (Maurseth, 2018). This phenomenon has been popularized as the Solow-paradox after Robert Solow noted that “You can see the computer everywhere but in the productivity statistics” (Solow, 1987). A similar phenomenon is noted by more recent studies like Brynjolfsson et al. (2019) who claim that despite the big developments with AI, measured productivity has declined in the last decade. To analyze this 5