for the U.S. and 7 cents/mile for the U.K. From Carisma and Lowder(2008) we take values of deadweight loss European countries based on an INFRAS/IWW 2000 study. Transforming the 0.68% deadweight loss value for U.K. into 7 cents/mile, we compute the values in cents/mile for these other countries. From Carisma and Lowder(2008) we also obtain results for most of the other countries which the authors compile from separate studies. The Korea Transport Institute’s latest estimate of congestion costs is of 2.97% of GDP in 2004 while the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport in Japan estimated congestion costs for this country at around 2% of GDP in 2000. For Sao Paulo, a cost of 2.4% of GDP was estimated by Willoughby (2000); for Mexico City, a cost of 2.65% of GDP by Ochoa and Radian (1997). We use the results for these cities for Brazil and Mexico. For India, we assume the numbers to be similar to those in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur, 2.1 and 1.8% of GDP respectively according to a study on sustainable infrastructure in Asia completed by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2007). Creutzig and He (2009) estimate the congestion cost for China is 3.35% of GDP and the Russian government has estimated that congestion costs for Russia are about 3% of GDP.<sup>7</sup> We set the value of congestion cost at 2.15% of GDP. Finally, from Carisma and Lowder(2008) we obtain the cost of congestion for U.K. as a percent of GDP to be 3% from which we then transform the other figures into cents/miles. For the rest of the European countries for which we do not have data available (Hungary, Iceland, Slovak Republic, Turkey and Czech Republic), we use the median for all European countries, which is 2.4 cents/mile. For Canada and Australia, we use the median for the whole sample, which is 3.1 cents/mile.

- _E_<sup>_A_</sup> : **External accident costs:** P-S take 3.0 and 2.4 cents/mile as the central estimates for the U.S. and U.K., respectively. The difference, according to the authors is mainly based on the fact that the U.K. has about two-thirds as high a willingness to pay for reduction in injury and death, and a lower fatality rate in the U.K. For European countries we rely only on average accident costs in ~~C~~ /1,000 passenger per km estimated by INFRAS/IWW (2004). Accident costs for China are estimated to be 1.5 % of GDP.<sup>8</sup> For Russia the Government has estimated traffic accident costs to represent 2.55% of GDP.<sup>9</sup> for South Africa, the estimate is of 1% of GDP,<sup>10</sup> and for Australia, 2.3% of GDP. Mendoza _et al._ (1998). estimate that external accident costs for Mexico represent 0.35% of GDP. Mohan (2002) provides estimates of external crash cost for Brazil, Korea and India.

- _qF_ : **Producer price (ex-tax) and initial gasoline tax rates (** _t_<sup>0</sup> _F_<sup>**):**Mostoftheex-</sup> tax prices and taxes data are taken from the March 2009 issue of Energy D ́etente. For Brazil, India, Russia, South Africa and Norway we use ex-tax prices and taxes

> 7 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-russia-roads15-2009jul15,0,6188164.story

> 8 http://www.car-accidents.com/country-car-accidents/china-car-accidents-crash.html

- 9 http://www.kommersant.com/p-13563/r ~~5~~ 00/Traffic ~~a~~ ccident/

- 10 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi ~~q~~ a5327/is ~~2~~ 91/ai ~~n~~ 29030852/

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