headed IDP households are worse off than their male-headed counterparts with regards to the incidence of poverty by about 29.2 percentage points, although weakly significant. The corresponding difference in incidence between the two groups is 15.1 percentage points among non-IDP households. In Somalia, we find significant differences in MPI and incidence of poverty between female- and male-headed households among both IDPs and non-IDPs. The differences observed are in favor of female-headed households. Looking at the incidence of poverty, there is a 17.2 percentage points difference among IDPs with 70.7% of those in maleheaded households and 53.6% of those in female-headed households being MPI poor. Similarly, there is a 19.9 percentage points difference among non-IDPs in Somalia, with 52.8% and 32.9% of those in male- and female-headed households live in multidimensional poverty, respectively.

In Sudan, considering the whole population, the results indicate the presence of a statistically significant difference by gender of the head in incidence of multidimensional poverty (10.3 percentage point) and MPI (0.063). However, disaggregating the results by displacement status reveals no significant difference between male- and female-headed households among both IDPs and non-IDPs. Finally, individuals in Nigeria have no significant difference in their poverty incidence, intensity, or MPI based on the gender of the household head. Although the difference is insignificant, we can see that people living in female-headed IDP households have a higher MPI (0.171) compared to their male-headed IDP counterparts (0.138), while the opposite is true for non-IDPs in Nigeria, where female-headed households have a lower MPI (0.080) than male-headed households (0.144).

The finding that individuals living in female-headed displaced households are more likely to be multidimensionally poor raises questions related to the gender composition of the household. The sex ratio<sup>21</sup> of female-headed households is lower than that of male-headed households among refugees in Ethiopia and IDPs in South Sudan, suggesting a higher proportion of females are residing in female-headed displaced households in the two countries. This further suggests that a higher share of women and girls are identified as poor in households headed by females.

_Table 5: Multidimensional Poverty outcomes by gender of the household head and displacement status_

||Ref|ugees/ID|Ps|Hos|ts/Non-I|DPs||All||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||HH hea<br>|ded by<br>||HH hea<br>|ded by<br>||HH hea<br>|ded by<br>||
||Female|Male|Diff.|Female|Male|Diff.|Female|Male|Diff.|
|**MPI**||||||||||
|Ethiopia|0.355|0.111|**0.244*****|0.073|0.058|0.014|0.341|0.099|0.242*******|
|N.E Nigeria|0.171|0.138|0.033|0.080|0.144|-0.065|0.107|0.143|-0.035|
||||**-**|||**-**|||**-**|
|Somalia|0.335|0.443|**0.108*****|0.206|0.34|**0.134*****|0.254|0.375|**0.121*****|
|South Sudan|0.298|0.119|**0.179***|0.183|0.084|**0.099*****|0.201|0.088|**0.113*****|
|Sudan|0.262|0.230|0.033|0.080|0.046|0.034|0.158|0.095|**0.063*****|
|**H (%)**||||||||||
|Ethiopia|58.1|19.1|**39.1*****|12.7|10.0|2.7|55.9|17.0|**38.9*****|

21 The sex ratio is obtained by dividing the number of males by the number of females in the household.

18