rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
BOTSWANA’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A CONTINENTAL PERSPECTIVE

# Information and communication technologies

Ampah, Mavis, Daniel Camos, Cecilia Briceño-Garmendia, Michael Minges, Maria Shkaratan, and Mark Williams. 2009. ―Information and Communications Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Sector Review.‖ AICD Background Paper 10, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

BTC (Botswana Telecommunications Corporation). 2009. _Annual Report_ . Gaborone CSO (Central Statistics Office). 2009. _Botswana Demographic Survey 2006_ . Gaborone.

- Gillwald, Alison, and Christoph Stork. 2008. ―Towards Evidence-based ICT Policy and Regulation: ICT Access and Usage in Africa.‖ researchICTafrica.net.

Kende, Michael, and James Gibb. 2009. _Market Study of the Telecoms and ICT Sector in Botswana_ .

Mayer, Rebecca, Ken Figueredo, Mike Jensen, Tim Kelly, Richard Green, and Alvaro Federico Barra. 2009. ―Connecting the Continent: Costing the Needs for Spending on ICT Infrastructure in Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 3, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Pheko, Thari. 2009. _Botswana Country Report to CRASA_ . www.crasa.org/countryreport09.htm.

- Williams, Mark; Mayer, Rebecca, and Minges, Michael (2011) ―Africa’s ICT Infrastructure: Building on the Mobile Revolution‖, The World Bank, available at: <u>http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INFORMATIONANDCOMMUNICATIONANDTECHNOL OGIES/Resources/AfricasICTInfrastructure_Building_on_MobileRevolution_2011.pdf.</u>

# Irrigation

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2004. ―Aquastata: Botswana Country Profile.‖ www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm.

- Svendsen, Mark, Mandy Ewing, and Siwa Msangi. 2008. ―Watermarks: Indicators of Irrigation Sector Performance in Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 4, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- You, L., C. Ringler, G. Nelson, U. Wood-Sichra, R. Robertson, S. Wood, G. Zhe, T. Zhu, and Y. Sun. 2009. ―Torrents and Trickles: Irrigation Spending Needs in Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 9, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC

# Power

- Eberhard, Anton, Vivien Foster, Cecilia Briceño-Garmendia, Fatimata Ouedraogo, Daniel Camos, and Maria Shkaratan. 2008. ―Underpowered: The State of the Power Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 6, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Foster, Vivien, and Jevgenijs Steinbuks. 2009. ―Paying the Price for Unreliable Power Supplies: In-House Generation of Electricity by Firms in Africa.‖ Policy Research Working Paper 4913, World Bank, Washington, DC.

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WPS3348

# **Standards and Agro-Food Exports from Developing Countries: Rebalancing the Debate**

**Steven Jaffee and Spencer Henson**<sup>**1**</sup>

## **Contacts:** **<u>sjaffee@worldbank.org shenson@uoguelph.ca</u>**

## **Abstract**

The proliferation and increased stringency of food safety and agricultural health standards is a source of concern among many developing countries. These standards are perceived as a barrier to the continued success of their exports of high-value agro-food products (including fish, horticultural, and other products), either because these countries lack the technical and administrative capacities needed for compliance or because these standards can be applied in a discriminatory or protectionist manner. This paper draws on available literature and work in progress to examine the underlying evidence related to the changing standards environment and its impact on existing and potential developing country exporters of high-value agricultural and food products. The evidence presented in this paper, although only partial, suggests that the picture for developing countries as a whole is not necessarily problematic and certainly is less pessimistic than the mainstream ‘standards-as-barriers’ perspective. Indeed, rising standards serve to accentuate underlying supply chain strengths and weaknesses and thus impact differently on the competitive position of individual countries and distinct market participants. Some countries and/or industries are even using high quality and safety standards to successfully (re-)position themselves in competitive global markets. This emphasizes the importance of considering the impacts of food safety and agricultural health measures within the context of wider capacity constraints and underlying supply chain trends and drivers. The key question for developing countries is how to exploit their strengths and overcome their weaknesses such that they are gainers rather than losers in the emerging commercial and regulatory context.

## **Keywords: SPS standards; capacity-building; compliance costs; high-value agro-food trade**

## World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3348, June 2004

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._ 1 Steve Jaffee is Senior Economist in the World Bank’s International Trade Department. Spencer Henson is Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Business, University of Guelph, Canada.
<!-- Start of picture text --> Ever had sex Ever had sex<br>.5.4 |_________________________p=.726 | |_________________________p=.803 | |_________________________p=.204 | .4.3 |_________________________p=.051 | |_________________________p=.315 |<br>.3<br>.2<br>.2<br>.1 .1<br>0 0<br>|_____________________________________________________|<br>p=.939 |__________________________________________________________| p=.165<br>|______________________________________________________________________________|<br>p=.600<br>control Supply Boys No Goal Goal<br>Not Attrited Attrited Not Attrited Attrited<br>Currently has partner Currently has partner<br>.5.4 |_________________________p=.434 | |_________________________p=.242 | |_________________________p=.398 | .4.3 |_________________________p=.022 | |_________________________p=.130 |<br>.3<br>.2<br>.2<br>.1 .1<br>0 0<br>|_____________________________________________________|<br>p=.732 |__________________________________________________________|<br>p=.213<br>|______________________________________________________________________________|<br>p=.948<br>control Supply Boys No Goal Goal<br>Not Attrited Attrited Not Attrited Attrited<br>Total sex partners ever Total sex partners ever<br>.7.6.5 |_________________________p=.340 | |_________________________p=.213 | |_________________________p=.644 | .7.6.5 |_________________________p=.151 | |_________________________p=.179 |<br>.4 .4<br>.3 .3<br>.2 .2<br>.1 .1<br>0 0<br>|_____________________________________________________|<br>|__________________________________________________________|<br>p=.894<br>|______________________________________________________________________________| p=.152<br>p=.612<br>Control Supply Boys No Goal Goal<br>Not Attrited Attrited Not Attrited Attrited<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Figure A3** Baseline outcomes by attrition status: Sexual activity _Notes._ See notes from Figure A2. _Source._ Female baseline data.

59
# **ADDITIONAL READING FOR PART III**

# **GENERAL**

Peterson, George E. and Olga Kaganova. 2010. _Aligning Regulation of Subnational Land Assets with Subnational Debt Regulation._ World Bank Working Paper.

Peterson, George E. 2009. _Unlocking Land Values to Finance Urban Infrastructure._ World Bank and PPIAF.

# **ROAD FUNDS**

Asian Development Bank. 2003. _Road Funds and Road Maintenance._ Manila. [Analyzes underfunding of maintenance and recommends institutionally separate, off-budget Road Funds] Congressional Budget Office. 2011. _The Budget and Economic Outlook: Fiscal Years 2011 to 2021._ Washington, DC. [Projects fuel tax receipts and under-funding of Highway Trust Fund] Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. 2011. _Guidelines for Investment in Road Sector._ Government of India. 2011 and 2010. _Economic Survey 2011-2012, Economic Survey 2010-2011._ [Chapter of ‘Energy, Infrastructure and Communications discusses road spending and revenue/spending from Central Road Fund.] Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Department of Economic Affairs. 2009. _Position Paper of Roads Sector in India._ [Financing strategies, role of PPPs.] Roth, Gabriel. 2010, _Federal Highway Funds._ Cato Institute. Washington, DC. [Criticizes nonhighway spending from Highway Trust Fund.] U.S. Highway Trust Fund. “Solvent through Sept. 2012.” 2011 (Jan.) Testimony of Secretary Ray Lahood before Congress.

World Bank. 2008 (Dec.) _Assessment of Road Funds in Southeast Asia Region._ Yamaguchi, Katsuhiro. 2008. _Funding System and Road Transport: International Comparative Analysis._ Discussion Paper E-08-003, Graduate School of Public Policy, University of Tokyo.

# **SOVEREIGN WEALTH FUNDS**

Government Pension Fund—Global, Annual Report 2010. 2011. Oslo.

52
Policy Research Working Paper 8684

# **Abstract**

Toilet ownership in India has grown in recent years, but open defecation can persist even when rural households own latrines. There are at least two pathways through which social norms inhibit the use of toilets in rural India: (i) beliefs/expectations that others do not use toilets or latrines or find open defecation unacceptable; and (ii) beliefs about ritual notions of purity that dissociate latrines from cleanliness. A survey in Uttar Pradesh, India, finds a positive correlation between latrine use and social norms at baseline. To confront these, an information campaign was piloted to test the effectiveness of rebranding latrine use and promoting positive social norms. The intervention, which made information about growing latrine use among latrine owners more salient, reduced open defecation practices across all treatment households, with average latrine use score in treatment villages increasing by up to 11 percent, relative to baseline. Large improvements were also observed in pro-latrine beliefs. This suggests that low-cost information campaigns can effectively improve pro-latrine beliefs and practices, as well as shift perceptions of why many people still find open defecation acceptable. Measuring social norms as described can help diagnose barriers to reducing open defecation, contribute to the quality of large-scale surveys, and make development interventions more sustainable.

This paper is a product of the Mind, Behavior, and Development (eMBeD) Unit, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/ research. The authors may be contacted at vgauri@worldbank.org, trahman4@worldbank.org, and isen@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
# Abstract

In this paper, we investigate individuals’ exposure to indoor air pollution (IAP). Using new survey data from Bangladesh, we analyze exposure at two levels: differences within households attributable to family roles, and differences across households attributable to income and education. Within households, we relate individuals’ exposure to pollution in different locations during their daily round of activity. We find high levels of exposure for children and adolescents of both sexes, with particularly serious exposure for children under 5. Among prime-age adults, we find that men have half the exposure of women (whose exposure is similar to that of children and adolescents). We also find that elderly men have significantly lower exposure than elderly women. Across households, we draw on results from our previous paper (Dasgupta, et al., 2004), which relate pollution variation across households to choices of cooking fuel, cooking locations, construction materials and ventilation practices. We find that these choices are significantly affected by family income and adult education levels (particularly for women). Overall, we find that the poorest, least-educated households have twice the pollution levels of relatively high-income households with highly-educated adults.

Overall, we find that young children and poorly-educated women in poor households face pollution exposures that are four times those for men in higher-income households organized by more highlyeducated women. In our previous paper, we recommended feasible changes in cooking locations, construction materials and ventilation practices that could greatly reduce average household pollution levels. In this paper, we consider measures for narrowing the exposure gap among individuals within households. We focus particularly on changes for infants and young children, since they suffer the worst mortality and morbidity from indoor air pollution, but our findings also apply to women and adolescents. Our recommendations for reducing their exposure are based on a few simple, robust findings: Hourly pollution levels in cooking and living areas are quite similar because cooking smoke diffuses rapidly and nearly-completely into living areas. However, outdoor pollution is far lower. At present, young children are only outside for an average of 3 hours per day. For children in a typical household, pollution exposure can be halved by adopting two simple measures: increasing their outdoor time from 3 to 5 or 6 hours per day, and concentrating outdoor time during peak cooking periods. We recognize that weather and other factors may intervene occasionally, and that child supervision outdoors may be difficult for some households. However, the potential benefits are so great that neighbors might well agree to pool outdoor supervision once they became aware of the implications for their children’s health.

2
services as reflected in household surveys (i.e., these outreach measures help predict the share of the population that uses banking services across countries for which household surveys on the use of banking services exist).

Since our objective is to examine changes in outreach, we focus exclusively on retail banks. We do not consider banks that only have a presence in Mexico City and are clearly either niche or investment banks. Hence, there are both domestic and foreign banks that are left out of the analysis for this reason. Table A.I lists the 14 banks included in our aggregate (countrylevel) analysis and, in parentheses, the banks that merged with any of these 14 banks during the sample period 1997 to 2005. The table also shows the initial (as of December 1997) size and outreach of each bank. It is important to note that we exclude Banco de Azteca, a domestic bank that entered the system in 2002 with a large branch network and high loan account penetration, because this bank operated as the consumer finance arm of a retail household item store (Electra) prior to 2002. Our findings are thus not driven by the conversion of Azteca into a bank.

In our bank-level analysis, we focus only on large retail banks. Specifically, we limit our sample to the five large banks that were acquired by foreigners and to Banorte, the only remaining large domestic bank. The reason for restricting the sample in this way is that, for the purpose of including a valid control group, Banorte is truly the only institution comparable in initial size and outreach to the foreign acquired banks (see Table A.I).

To measure foreign bank presence, we use information on the ownership type of specific banks as well as data on the overall market share of majority foreign-owned banks. In our aggregate analysis, we use balance sheet information across all Mexican banks to calculate the share of deposits (in terms of amounts) held by foreign-owned banks.<sup>12</sup> In our bank-level

> 12 Our results remain unchanged if we measure foreign bank presence by the share of loans granted by foreign banks.

12
_Notes_ : CK refers to clamp kiln, FC BTK refers to fixed chimney bull’s trench kiln, ZZK and VSBK are, respectively, improved zigzag kiln and vertical shaft brick kiln. HK and TK are Hoffman kiln and tunnel kiln, respectively.

# **5. Results from the Economic Analysis**

# 5.1 Private costs of brick production

The brick production process is both energy and labor- intensive, and so are their costs. In addition to these operating costs, the capital expenditure costs (overhead costs) also contribute to the total cost of brick production. We discuss three different scenarios for analyzing the private costs associated with kilns: kilns that operate on coal only, a combination of coal and biomass fuels, and electricity.

# _5.1.1 Coal-based brick kilns_

Most of the brick kilns in Nepal rely on imported low-quality coal, which is low in calorific value and high in ash content. The cost of imported coal accounts for a huge portion of the overall operating costs of brick production. equivalent to 30% to 40% of total brick production costs (SMSEE, 2017). The other most significant operating costs are labor costs. The manufacturing process also requires specialized chimneys and a large land area for raw materials, such as clay. The cost of chimneys and acquiring or leasing land adds significantly to the overhead costs of a brick factory. In addition to these three main cost components (coal, labor, and overhead), there are other less significant but important costs of brick production, including raw materials (water, sand), utilities, insurance premiums, maintenance expenses, transportation expenses, contingencies, and marketing and advertising expenses. Some of these additional costs, such as water as raw materials, utilities (electricity), insurance, and maintenance costs, are captured in overhead costs. The estimated total costs (energy, labor, and overhead costs) for producing clayfired bricks by kiln technology and province are summarized in Table 3.

**Table 3: Average total production cost per clay-fired brick by kiln technology and province (NRs/brick)**

|Kiln technology|Koshi|Madesh|Bagmati|Gandaki|Lumbini|Sudurpachim|Nepal|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|CK|30|27|28|24|25|24|27|
|FC BTK|18|17|20|15|17|16|18|
|ZZK|17|17|19|15|17|15|17|

12
economic value for education above primary level for children? To answer these questions more research is needed.

Table 7.2: School Attendance by Age 2001 (percent)

|Age|Artibo-<br>nite|Center|Grand-<br>Anse|North|North-<br>East|North-<br>west|West|South|South-<br>East|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|5|2.2|5.4|2.9|4.8|8.5|0.0|3.7|10.1|1.6|
|6-11|68.1|78.7|71.0|79.8|82.6|71.3|80.3|82.1|77.1|
|12-14|73.6|83.5|82.5|84.6|81.9|76.4|81.7|89.3|82.2|
|15-17|69.0|65.2|76.5|74.3|82.6|70.9|75.8|79.9|81.1|
|18-24|35.6|30.0|36.4|36.5|42.9|30.4|42.1|39.6|44.4|

_Source_ : Own calculations based on HLCS 2001.

The incidence of education is unequal across income quintiles. As Table 7.3 shows, the trend is rapidly increasing for successively higher income quintiles, indicating a regressive nature of benefit incidence in education. The poorest (first quintile) receive 74 percent of primary school services, while the richest (fifth quintiles) receive 87 percent. The question is whether the lower participation of the lowest quintile is supply or demand driven. If the problem is related to lack of demand a conditional cash tranfer program like Bolsa Familia in Brazil may increase school attendance of the poor.

Table 7.3: School Attendance of 7-14 years olds by Income Quintile (percent), 2001

|Quintile|Metropolitan|Urban|Rural|Total Haiti|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|1 (poorest)|73.7|78.5|71.2|73.6|
|2|80.8|89.0|73.8|77.1|
|3|90.9|84.6|78.1|78.6|
|4|88.7|90.7|77.4|82.7|
|5(richest)|86.1|89.8|85.2|87.2|

_Source:_ Own calculations based on HLCS 2001.

School attendance of indigent students still lags in Haiti. This is the case in all three locations, although rural children from indigent families (the two lowest quintiles) lack slightly less than indigents in other locations—urban quintile 2 is as high as 89 percent (Table 7.3). Research shows that in rural areas (as elsewhere) children from richer households have on average a higher school attendance, are less likely to repeat a school year, and have more completed years of schooling than children from poor or indigent households. Data reveal a negative correlation between poverty and educational attainment in Haiti. The level of education of the extremely poor is the lowest, and research from other countries in Latin America and the Caribbean show that it is also increasing more slowly than average.

Education seems to reduce the risk of falling into poverty in Haiti (see above Table 6.1). Large gaps exist in school attendance between the poor and nonpoor. Policies to improve access of the poor to primary and secondary education linked with improved quality of education and increased focus on technical skills should be the core of the government’s poverty reduction strategy.

Haiti under-invests in human capital. The quality of education in Haiti is alarmingly low (World Bank 1998). An indicator of poor quality is the low internal 39
infrastructure and improving the quality of the workforce—take years. To be most effective, policymakers must be able to prioritize and direct their efforts to where they will have the largest and quickest impact.

This paper directly links the investment climate to firm performance and identifies dimensions of the investment climate that account for cross-country differences in productivity. And it presents evidence that competitive pressure is the most important of these dimensions in determining productivity and thus the area where policymakers should first focus their reform efforts. In highly competitive and dynamic economies, inefficient firms are driven out and surviving businesses are forced to seek continuous improvement. This effect has been clearly illustrated in such countries as China and India, which have made enormous gains in productivity after liberalizing their markets and opening them to the world economy.

Many studies have linked institutions and growth at the macroeconomic level (see Hall and Jones 1999). These studies rely on cross-country samples and use proxies at the country level for such factors as government efficiency, policy uncertainty, and the security of property rights. The investment climate approach, a closely related concept, strengthens the institutional literature by providing microeconomic foundations. This paper follows the lead of Dollar, Hallward-Driemeier, and Mengistae (2003) in using data from recent World Bank Investment Climate Surveys (ICS) to directly link indicators of the investment climate to firm-level productivity. It uses data from a recently completed survey of five transition economies in Eastern Europe and Central Asia to estimate total 3