rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
clusters (Cunningham and Maloney 2001).<sup>3</sup> The error sum of squares (ESS) is minimized under the assumption that there are _i_ =1,...,n observations with _j_ =1,..., _k_ variables for each _i_ , and that the number of clusters ranges from 1 (where all _i_ are assigned to the same cluster) to _n_ (where each _i_ has its own cluster): where _x_ ijm is the value of the _j_ th variable for the _i_ th of _n_ m observations in the _m_ th cluster and _~~x~~ jm_ is the mean of variable _j_ in the _m_ th cluster.

To determine the number of clusters, two indicators are examined. First the Duda and Hart Je(2)/Je(1) index is examined to see if the stopping rules are conclusive. Second, dendrograms, which show the similarity of different clusters, by considering different numbers of clusters, are examined.

The cluster analysis requires redefining the values of variables, selecting variables for the clustering process and categorizing variables in risk and protective factors and outcomes and behaviors. The values of variables have to be within the interval 0 and 1 for the cluster analysis. Binary variables tend to drive the clustering process, and therefore most variables have been redefined to a broader set of values inside the interval. Also to avoid certain variables driving the results, not all variables are included in the cluster process, but included in the later analysis of the clusters.<sup>4</sup> Further information on assigned values and selection and categorization of variables is given in Appendices A and B.

# **3. Youth Overview**

This section provides an overview of youth in Argentina and introduces different risk and protective factors. The main areas of factors discussed are family and health, education and income, substance abuse, and crime and violence. However, first demographics are examined.

## **3.1 Demographics**

Argentine youth are growing in numbers. The age distribution of the Argentine population is changing from a classic pyramid shape with large child cohorts, middle size youth cohorts, and relatively small adult and old cohorts into a silo shape with many youth and adults. Table 3.1 confirms for the sample of youth in four cities that younger cohorts of youth are the largest and almost half of youth are 18 years old or less.

> 3 Ward’s method is a hierarchical clustering approach where groups are joined to maximize an objective function.

> 4 The categorization and selection of variables for the clustering process applied here is based on the work and advice of Emily Bagby and Wendy Cunningham, who analyzed the cases of Chile and Mexico.

5
<!-- Start of picture text --> deworming, Kenya<br>conditional transfer, Malawi<br>ccts, Mexico<br>uniforms, Kenya<br>vit a and deworming, India<br>returns info, Dominican Republic<br>LAYS<br>menstrual cups, Nepal Years<br>Standard Deviations<br>0 .1 .2 .3<br>Estimates<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Notes: a subsample of interventions retrieved from J-PAL studies that focus on school access. Estimates are reported per year. Standardized effects are calculated as_ _<u>μi</u>_<sup>_whereμiistherawestimate,s.e.iisthestandarderror,and_</sup> _s.e.i_<sup>_~~√~~_</sup> _Ni_<sup>_,_</sup> _Ni is the number of observations in the raw estimate’s regression for each intervention i._ Figure 2: Comparing LAYS, Standardized Deviations, and Years of Schooling 13
# <u>Macro-to-Micro links</u>

(i) An obvious macro-to-micro link entails the prices of purchased inputs and outputs, which are determined at the macro level and taken as given by farmers. These prices are sensitive to government policies (taxes and subsidies) and affect the derived demand for irrigation water. (ii) Trade policies (tariffs and other trade barriers) affect prices of traded agricultural inputs (fertilizer, pesticide, seeds) and outputs.

(iii) An important macro-to-micro link involves national or regional water projects (e.g., construction of dams), which affect water supply constraints and the cost of water supplied.

# <u>Micro-to-Macro links</u>

These links include water allocation reforms at the micro level (perimeters, districts), such as changing water assignment rules, changing water pricing methods (e.g., from per area charges to volumetric pricing), or introducing institutions and mechanisms for trading water and water rights. Such reforms affect farmers‘ water (and other inputs) use and agricultural production. When applied in a number of regions these changes will affect input and output prices at the national level. The changing prices will then feedback, affecting the micro units (households, farms, perimeters). Figure 2 provides a schematic view of the micro-macro links.

Figure 2: Overview of micro-macro links <!-- Start of picture text --> Farm<br>(input/output allocation)<br>Perimeter<br>(water allocation)<br>District/region<br>(water allocation)<br>Country<br>(input/output prices)<br>Trade<br>(traded goods prices)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Adapted from Roe et al 2005a

# **The farm model**

Here only the micro (farm) level decision process is laid out and identifies the endogenous and exogenous variables.

There are a number of cultivable crops and farmers must decide the input allocation for each crop. These inputs include area planted, the monthly quantity of irrigation water, as well as fertilizer, machinery, pesticide, labor and other inputs. The input allocation implies output supply for each crop through a production technology that for each input bundle assigns a particular output level. In their input allocation decisions, farmers take as given the prices of purchased inputs (labor, machinery, fertilizer, pesticide) and output, the production technology, the quantity of irrigable land, and the supply of irrigation water according to the water authorities‘ assignment rules. If irrigation water is assigned by month and for each 13
**Policy, Research, and Fxternal Affairs**

# **Agricultural Policies**

# WPS 449

This paper - a product of the Agricultural Policics Division, Agriculture and Rural Development Department - is part of a larger clfon in PRE to understand thc dependencc of domestic agricultural markets on domestic macroecononmic policy anid the macrocconomic and trade policies of major trading partners. Copies are available free from the World Bank, 18 18 H Street NW, Washington **DC** 20433. Please contact Cicely Spooner, room N8-035, cxtension 30464 (34 pages with taibles).

T'he USAGMKTS model was developed to determine the cffects of potential changes in U.S. policy on the border prices of com, sorghum, and soybeans.

It is part of a set of intcrlinked macroeconomic and sectoral modcls that linik Mexico and the United States **('*** itli cnoug_ah specification for the rest ol thc world to close tlic system).

The results show that the effects of U.S. macrocconiomic policics on pricing and exports cani be substantial. Recent and pending macroeconomic policy adjustmcnts can change prices 15 pcrccnt or more. Moreover, the rcsponsc depcnds hcavily on current economic circumstances.

This model hielps countries that trade with thC United SItates to sort out the cffect of current cconlomliic circumrstance on U.S. policies.

The macroccoiionoic el-lects ol monclar\ and fiscal policy are estimated using thic FAIRNIODEL model ol thte '.S. nuiciroeconom y.

The PRE \Vorking Paper Serics du1i-mil.lt.> lh1z ,!:r'.> **A** .rk undcr **\Aa** in the Rank's Poolic\. Research, and Extemal Affairs Comrplex .An ohlective ol the eric' **i t** rCtC **lt 1i11e** ii(Tl1gK OUt (qUIk kl **CT\** e I rf)reieritations arc lcss than fully olished. The findings, interpretalions. and cotn l.ins r1 th.>e ;xrs do n1.1i1 re;ln eserlt official Ranlk po)licy.

P IRii.!:t.;S:
Policy Research Working Paper 6368

# **Abstract**

Efforts to make it easier for firms to register formally are the most common form of business regulatory reform over the past decade. While there is evidence that large reforms have resulted in some increases in registration rates, recent experimental evidence suggests very few informal firms choose to register when given information about how to do so. This raises the question of whether it is productive for governments to continue to extend simplification efforts to all firms, especially those in more remote areas where many of the benefits of registering may be reduced. This study uses administrative data to evaluate the impact of Minas Fácil Expresso, a program in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, which attempted to expand a business start-up simplification program to more remote municipalities. Using difference-indifferences with 56 months of registration data for 822 municipalities, the analysis finds introducing these units actually led to a reduction in registration rates, and no change in tax revenues. The paper uses this evaluation to illustrate the design choices and issues involved in using administrative data to evaluate reforms, with the goal of also providing a template that can be used for evaluating similar reforms elsewhere.

This paper is a product of the Finance and Private Sector Development Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at mbruhn@worldbank.org and dmckenzie@worldbank.org.

_The Impact Evaluation Series has been established in recognition of the importance of impact evaluation studies for World Bank operations and for development in general. The series serves as a vehicle for the dissemination of findings of those studies. Papers in this series are part of the Bank’s Policy Research Working Paper Series. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
- Davis, Lucas W. and Paul J. Gertler (2015). “Contribution of air conditioning adoption to future energy use under global warming”. _Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences_ 112, 5962–5967.

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- Downey, Mitch, Nelson Lind, and Jeffrey G. Shrader (2023). “Adjusting to Rain Before It Falls”. _Management Science_ .

- Duflo, Esther et al. (2013). “Truth-telling by Third-party Auditors and the Response of Polluting Firms: Experimental Evidence from India*”. _The Quarterly Journal of Economics_ 128, 1499–1545.

- Dunne, John P., Ronald J. Stouffer, and Jasmin G. John (2013). “Reductions in labour capacity from heat stress under climate warming”. _Nature Climate Change_ 3, 563–566.

41
This paper empirically examines the relationships between bank risk taking and corporate governance for an international sample of banks from 22 countries over the 2004-2008 period. Following Aggarwal et al. (2009), we use an overall index of the shareholder-friendliness of corporate governance, and subindices dealing with board composition, compensation, auditing and takeover-related issues, based on data from Institutional Shareholder Services.

We find that a bank’s insolvency risk, proxied by its Z-score or market-based distance to default, is positively associated with the overall index of the shareholderfriendliness of its corporate governance. The positive relationships between overall bank risk and different measures of corporate governance are robust to instrumental variables estimation, where, as instruments we use the annual country-mean values of the corporate governance variables over all banks after excluding the pertinent bank.

Furthermore, we find that bank insolvency risk is positively associated with the shareholder-friendliness of a bank’s corporate governance especially for large banks and for banks located in fiscally sound countries. These results are consistent with the view that shareholder-friendly corporate governance increases bank risk more if the additional bank risk significantly increases a bank’s contingent claim on the financial safety net.

Going beyond measures of insolvency risk, we also examine the ‘channels’ through which a bank takes on more risk, if it has more shareholder-friendly corporate governance. On the asset side, we find that asset volatility derived from Merton’s option pricing model, and the share of nonperforming loans in total loans, are positively related to ‘good’ corporate governance. On the liability side, we find a negative relationship between a bank’s tangible equity ratio and the corporate governance index.

3
Development Board (BWDB) in 2006 has been used to simulate the trans-boundary flows with estimates of runoffs generated from basins of three major rivers: Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna.<sup>16</sup> _Second,_ the National Flood Model of Bangladesh developed by the FFWC of BWDB has been used to generate flood levels, inundation extent and duration for the extreme flood events in Bangladesh during the monsoon period for each 300m x 300m grid.

The National Flood Model operates a real time numerical model based on one dimensional fully hydrodynamic model (MIKE 11 HD), and is linked to a rainfall-runoff model (MIKE 11 RR). The rainfall runoff model comprises 157 sub-catchments having a total area of 122,437 sq. km. Rainfall data from more than 200 rainfall stations and potential evapotranspiration data of around 30 evaporation stations have been used in the model. The hydrodynamic model, on the other hand, includes all important rivers and _khal_ s of Bangladesh (10,235 km), floodplain routing channels (1,147 km) and link channels. It is based on the existing national DEM for Bangladesh and model simulations included all existing flood protection measures like flood embankment and flood control and drainage infrastructure in Bangladesh.<sup>17</sup> _Third,_ the daily inundation depth results are synthesized to determine the highest inundation depth for each grid point during the monsoon period, and areas vulnerable to floods of a minimum duration of 24 hours are identified.

_Finally_ , for the subsequent economic analysis, risk exposure zones are formed by grouping grid points into the five flood risk zones.

> 16 For this research, the model was updated by the Institute of Water Modeling (IWM) with river alignments of GBM basins using available physical maps of India, Nepal, Tibet; and sub catchments of the GBM basins were redelineated using the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) based on SRTM-version 3. The model has been first calibrated using round the year hydrological feature of 2005 and validated for two subsequent years 2006 and 2007. Then the model was further updated using most recent data of last hydrological year 2009.

> 17 Bathymetries of the rivers have been updated incorporating the available latest cross-sections and bathymetries of floodplain routing channels are taken from national land terrain model developed in FAP (Flood Action Plan) 19.

9
Between 1996 and 1999, the program only incorporated 4 new schools, while the Ministry was working on a new pedagogical model for the full-time schools. From 1999 onwards, the National Public Education Administration (ANEP) implemented this new pedagogical plan and 48 more schools were converted to FTS.

The new pedagogical model came amid concern about the e¤ectiveness of public education. In 1996, ANEP applied the National Census of Student Learning, which showed a number of alarming trends. First, overall student achievement was low: 43 percent of sixth grade pupils did not reach the “su¢ cient”score in language, and 65 percent failed to do so in math. Second, pupil performance was highly unequal and strongly correlated with the socioeconomic characteristics of the parents and the school. This evidence, combined with qualitative indications that the existing full-time schools had performed better than schools with similar characteristics, prompted the government to turn to the FTS program for solutions to low achievement in disadvantaged schools. The plans for expansion resulted in a special and comprehensive pedagogical plan (Propuesta Pedagógica), which was implemented in both existing and new full-time schools starting in 1999, and was supported by the World Bank through MECAEP.

The FTS program as implemented starting in 1996 encompassed not only an expansion of the school day, but also a combination of other interventions targeting students and teachers, additional classrooms and equipment, and community participation. The program includes the following interventions:

1. Construction of new classrooms;

2. A reduction of the recommended number of pupils per classroom to 25 in grades 1-3, and 28 in grades 4 to 6.

3. Lengthening of class time from 3.5 to 7 hours per day, 5 days per week, and an additional of 3 hours per week of complementary attention to students with special needs and/or community service activities, and 2 hours of teacher meetings; 4. Introduction of collective, complementary and classroom activities; 5. Constitution of a teacher committee; 6. Provision of nutritional and health care support for students; 7. Increased participation of parents, accountability/ community involvement; 8. From 1999 onwards: Teacher training in the FTS pedagogical model (“Curso I”) and follow-on subject related courses (“Curso II”, math, Spanish, science); 9. Provision of a set of teaching materials, such as maps, books or dictionaries.

Even though a qualitative evaluation of program implementation in 2001 indicated that provision of the di¤erent sub-components was unequal across participating schools, the implementation 3
with urban centers throughout the country (Mathematica, 2015). There have been several ongoing projects since then: the Rural Roads Rehabilitation Project, which was started by the MCC and taken over and expanded by the World Bank as Lifeline Road Network Improvement Project (LRNIP), and two projects by the ADB: North-South Highway and Rural Roads Sector Project. The projects have been improving road quality and ruralurban connectivity. The Lifeline Road Improvement Project was financed by the World Bank and initiated in 2009. It involved the rehabilitation of 446 kilometers of lifeline roads, approximately 11 percent of the entire Lifeline Road Network of the country.

A large share of Armenians are employed in agriculture. Structural transformation has been slow: as of 2016, 33.6% of Armenians were working in agriculture, just 6.8 percentage points lower than in 1991.<sup>6</sup> Agriculture accounted for 16.4% of GDP in 2016.<sup>7</sup> Like in most low- and middle-income countries, the majority of people employed in agriculture in Armenia are rural individuals employed in self-subsistence or semi-self-subsistence farming. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the link between improved road quality and rural employment, and what role improved roads could play in structural transformation.

Finally, the historical setting and available information for Armenia makes it possible to employ instrumental variable strategy to study the causal impacts of road quality. In particular, the paper uses historical roads from the times of the Russian Empire as a conditionally exogenous source of variation in quality of transport infrastructure.

> 6Source: International Labor Organization (ILO), Key Indicators of the Labor Market `https://www. ilo.org/ilostat` . Accessed April 2019.

> 7Source: Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia, ArmStatBank `http://armstatbank.am/ pxweb/hy/ArmStatBank/?rxid=602c2fcf-531f-4ed9-b9ad-42a1c546a1b6` Accessed April 2019.

8
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quantified the effects of improving the quality of infrastructure services, possibly due to the difficulty in measuring them.

The paper recast light on this problem, using large firm-level data collected by the business environmental assessments in 26 European and Central Asian countries. By a conventional seemingly unrelated regression technique, the cost function is estimated with several dimensions of infrastructure quality included.

The results generally reveal the importance of quality or reliability in providing infrastructure services. The paper found that a one-hour reduction in electricity outages could provide firms savings on operating costs of 1.5 percent on average. If the existing water supply suspensions are shortened by one hour, firms could save 4.4 percent of their operating costs. If all current electricity and water suspensions are removed, the benefits for firms would be equivalent to approximately 4 percent and 7 percent of their operating costs.

As per these estimates, the benefits that could be received by the economy as a whole are considered sizable. The total cost savings from quality improvements in infrastructure services may normally range from 0.5 to 2 percent of GDP. But it could reach more than 5 percent of GDP, depending on the country conditions. This level of public investment in infrastructure quality is justifiable. Governments need to ensure the high quality of infrastructure services to increase firm-level competitiveness, whence accelerating growth.

The applicability of these estimates to other regions is evident. Especially in Africa, the quality of infrastructure measured in the same way is far below the ECA region analyzed in the paper. Frequent suspensions of electricity and water supply services have been observed in Africa. In some countries, the frequency of power outage reaches as many as 80 days per year. Greater efforts toward infrastructure quality improvements are called for in these countries.
# _Unthwi_ hi de A.b C_eiiu_

|_COUww_|_Univ*_<br>_& Locaion_|_Year_|_Lan8uag_|_Acad_<br>_Staff_|_Students_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Egypt|am Canal Univerity,<br>Al Lnaili|1976||**c**730|c. 7,900+<br>1,100 ExL|
||Tantauniveisity,<br>Tanta|1972|A, E|84-85<br>_578_F.T.<br>+II P.T.|84-85<br>33,795|
||Zapg<br>Univesity,<br>Zapiig|1974|A, E,<br>F|2,236|67,|
||Ameikn Unewsity<br>in Cairo, Cairo|1919|E|4-8<br>138 F.T.<br>85 P.T.|8<br>2,87|
|Iraq|Unimsity of<br>1Bghda<br>BNghftd|1958|A, E|c<br>1$990|c. 35,300|
||Univrsity of Brah<br>asmah|1964|A,E|8E8<br>697 F.T.|84-85<br>c. 11,000|
||Univeirt of MNsuI<br>Mosul|1967|A,E,<br>F|83-84<br>954|83-84<br>15,684|
||Al-Mwlanuirbyah<br>Univeity, Bagbdh d|1965/<br>1974|A, E|C 430|c. 11,000|

**a MOE-Mlalty of Bductlon; MOHESR-Mlnsty of Hge Bdution and Scienfic Reseach**

**b q_guAgrnm Ar-Aitce; A-Atts; C&-CmVut Sc.;** D-Detstimt **EdEmducaioW; E-Enine** Ft-Food **Tcd.; LA-L.npq Lulaw; M-Mtiidae; P-;ucmac R-Rdiow Studies; S-Sdences; T-Technoo8,** Vm-Vetednay Med.

_38_