socioemotional skills (OECD 2019). Furthermore, workers in more digitally intensive sectors in those same countries earn higher wages when they have higher numeracy and self-organization skills (both cognitive skills) (Grundke et al. 2018). A similar result is found in the United States: using online job postings for professional occupations, Deming and Kahn (2018) find positive pairwise correlations of 0.5 between posted requirements for basic digital skills (computer literacy and office programs) and skills categories related to cognitive and socioemotional skills, as well as positive correlations of around 0.2 between advanced digital skills (programming and specialized software) and cognitive and socioemotional skills categories.<sup>1</sup> In this paper, we investigate the extent to which digital and non-digital (cognitive and socioemotional) skills are complements in digital and non-digital occupations and how these skills are distributed across the labor market in four Southeast Asian countries. Since detailed data on the skills requirements of occupations is not available for the study countries, we build a data set of skills requirements by occupation using data from more than half a million online job advertisements posted in Malaysia between 2016 and 2018. We classify the skills as digital, cognitive, socioemotional, and others. We use the resulting data set to create skills profiles at the occupation level, which we then match to employment data from nationally representative surveys in Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. We define four levels of the digitalization of an occupation (very-low, low, medium, and high) based on the share of basic, intermediate, and advanced digital skills in each occupational profile. This allows us to answer two questions. First, we explore how digital, cognitive, and socioemotional skills correlate with each other within occupations, focusing on Malaysia where the primary source of data was collected. Second, we estimate the extent to which digital and nondigital skills are used in each country, given the occupational structure of the individual labor markets.

In addition to providing the answers to these questions, the data and methodology add value in two ways. First, this is the first paper to use data from a Southeast Asian country to construct occupational skills profiles that include cognitive, socioemotional, and digital skills. Most studies use the occupational skills profiles reported in the U.S. Occupational Information Network (O*NET).<sup>2</sup> However, O*NET tends to misrepresent the occupational skills in low- and middle-income countries due to differences in job tasks, skills, and production technologies across countries (Caunedo, Keller, and Shin 2021; Lewandowski et al. 2021; Lo Bello, Sanchez-Puerta, and Winkler 2019). The Malaysia

> 1 Deming and Kahn (2018) also find that people management (linked to supervision, leadership, non-project management, mentoring, staff), which can be classified as a socioemotional skill, has a much lower correlation with their measures of basic and advanced digital skills: 0.24 and -0.06, respectively (p. 351).

> 2 See for example Acemoglu and Autor (2011) for the U.S.; Goos, Manning, and Salomons (2009) for Western Europe; and Apella and Zunino (2018) for Latin American and Eastern and Central Europe countries.

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