rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
gender discrimination in inheritance law has been questioned by a large social movement in Tunisia since 2018 but the reform proposal has never reached a parliamentary vote.

This study asks whether gifting is a second-best private alternative to the reform of gender discriminatory inheritance law and whether its use can be encouraged by an informational intervention. To answer these research questions, I conducted a nationwide phone survey, reaching a sample of more than 1,500 Tunisian adults. The survey gathered extensive descriptive and correlational evidence on Tunisians’ attitudes regarding women’s right to inheritance, as well as their use of gifting. With an informational experiment which was embedded in the survey, I moreover tested whether gifting one’s daughter can be encouraged via an informational treatment.

Tunisia, probably the country with the strongest feminist tradition in North Africa, represents an ideal case study for this research. The legal status quo in Tunisia remains unchanged: a son receives twice the share of a daughter, as foreseen by the Qur’an. My study shows that the persistence of Islamic inheritance law in Tunisia is consistent with the preferences of the majority of citizens. The descriptive data I collect shows that only about one in three Tunisian adults favors the introduction of a gender equal inheritance law regime. However, legal reform does not constitute the only way of increasing women’s share in the final wealth allocation. The Tunisian civil code allows parents to make gifts to their daughter during their lifetime. By doing so, they can attenuate the gender discrimination among their children in the final wealth allocation. I find that public opinion towards gifting daughters is much more favorable than towards legal reform: two in three Tunisians state that they would be willing to use gifting to achieve a more gender equal inheritance allocation. The descriptive evidence offered by this study thus confirms that gifting is a widespread and socially accepted practice in Tunisia.

Does gifting one’s daughter represent a private alternative to the nationwide introduction of secular inheritance law? To some extent, yes. I conclude that gifting represents a way of attenuating the gender discrimination imposed by Islamic inheritance law but only families who are relatively well-off are fully able to exploit it. This is intuitive since gifting requires the existence of assets, such as property or land that can be written over to a child, and comes at a cost in terms of notary fees, but also in terms of effort, time and planning. The final decision regarding the within-family wealth allocation is likely to remain in the hands of the head of the household; in practice women are significantly less likely to make gifts than men. An informational intervention aiming to encourage gifting one’s daughters 39
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# **_4.1. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK_**

Several recent contributions to the literature focusing on earnings have attempted to evaluate whether immigrants’ wages converge over time. Duleep and Regets (1997) detected significant negative correlation between the initial earnings and earnings’ growth when controlling for the education level of migrants. Conditional on similar initial human capital endowments, Borjas (2000) finds similar results, although not robust to simple attempts to control for the measurement error bias. Inversely, when human capital variables are not accounted for, Borjas obtains a positive, but weak correlation between wages and their growth. Like Duleep and Regets (1997), Hu (2000) provides evidence of significant conditional convergence. He also finds that convergence is present even when not controlling for education and other human capital indicators, but that, as Borjas (2000) showed, it is weaker than the conditional convergence.

This section tests for convergence in the patterns of occupational placement among countries, provided that immigrants’ individual characteristics, such as age, education, and period of arrival are kept constant.<sup>37</sup> The analysis relies on the predicted performance indicators inferred using the methodology of sub-section 3.1 for the two sets of hypothetical individuals described in Table 1. I evaluate the strength of the relationship between the rate of growth in occupational placement and the initial occupational placement by estimating the models in equation 2 for the 1985 arrival, and 3, 4 and 5, for the 1975 arrival. In accordance with the predictions of classical β-convergence models<sup>38</sup> the _θ_ coefficients conditional on human capital endowments are expected to be negative and significant.

where _τ_ stands for country.

> 37 Application of convergence techniques to discrete variables may be of concern.  However, this concern is diminished by the fact that the three discrete indicators used to measure occupational placement are characterized by large variation.  Each of them includes at least 250 values to account for more than 350 occupations reported by the US Census.

> 38 Barro (1991), Barro (1997)

23
or provision of income (Baranov et al., 2021; Kerr-Wilson et al., 2020). Our effects are over six times lower-cost relative to cash transfer programs among husbands and wives in Kenya (Haushofer et al., 2019) and about three times lower-cost than a monthly transfer program in Ecuador (Hidrobo, Peterman and Heise, 2016), both of which have also quantified causal decreases in IPV. In terms of other educational and attitudes-shifting programs for adolescents, _Dating Matters_ in the United States costs over three times more per student on average than our interventions, for relatively smaller decreases in violence (Luo, DeGue and Le, 2020).

# **2 Background and Study Design**

# **2.1 Setting and Sample**

This study was implemented in three regions of Tanzania—Dodoma, Iringa, and Mbeya— in partnership with BRAC Maendeleo. BRAC opened a network of 150 adolescent female clubs (Empowerment and Livelihoods for Adolescents ( _ELA_ ) clubs) in the second half of 2009 across these regions. Mbeya is the largest of the three regions in terms of population at 2.7 million people as of the 2012 census, with Dodoma having a population of 2.2 million and Iringa just under 1 million people (National Bureau of Statistics et al., 2012). The average population size of study communities is about 3,000, and these are rural areas.

ELA clubs served as the basis for identifying the female study population. ELA is an education-based intervention designed to empower adolescent females by providing a safe social space, life-skills training, and support in adolescent development. Female adolescents and youth are invited to participate in ELA. Participation is voluntary but members are expected to attend five days per week from 3-6PM. Each club averages 20 members and has a mentor who runs the programs. This program was started by BRAC in Bangladesh and is also implemented in Uganda, Sierra Leone, South Sudan and Liberia. While the evidence on ELA from Uganda and Sierra Leone is mostly positive in terms of decreasing unintended teen pregnancy and early entry into marriage or cohabitation (Bandiera et al., 2020, 2019), Buehren et al. (2017) find no positive impacts of ELA in 7
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trend was quickly reversed by the massive shock brought about by Covid-19 and the policy response (credit incentives) to mitigate the effects of the pandemic. All in all, the inflation rate has remained in double-digit territory since 2017.

# **4. Data and Methodology**

## **_Data_**

The analysis relies on two main sources of data to construct the expenditure-decile adjusted inflation rates. The first source is the Turkish Household Budget Survey (HBS), a nationally representative household survey administered by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK) on a yearly basis. The second source is the Survey on Income and Living Conditions (SILC), also collected annually, which is used specifically to examine the evolution of real income and real minimum wages using the inflation experience of each decile.<sup>6</sup> The HBS collects detailed information on household living conditions, expenditures and incomes. While the exact sample size varies from year to year, since 2009 TUIK has been surveying around 1,300 households monthly for a total of around 15,600 per year for each of the surveys. Households are asked to report their monthly expenditures corresponding to the month preceding the survey date. The expenditure data is grouped into 12 main categories according the Classification of Individual Consumption According to Purpose (COICOP)<sup>7</sup> as follows: 1) food and non-alcoholic beverages, 2) alcoholic beverages and tobacco, 3) clothing and footwear, 4) housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels, 5) furnishings, household equipment and routine maintenance of the dwelling, 6) health, 7) transport, 8) communications, 9) recreation and culture, 10) education, 11) hotels, cafes and restaurants and 12) miscellaneous goods and services. Further disaggregation is also available under each COICOP category. For example, transport includes subcategories such as new motor cars, bicycles, diesel, domestic and international flights, driving lessons, among others. In total, there are 303 expenditure items in the HBS 2019 data, the latest of the survey waves available at the time of undertaking this analysis.

> 6 For this part of the analysis, income deciles are created in the SILC data. They are only slightly different from the consumption deciles generated using the HBS data due to a strong correlation between income data in the SILC and consumption data in the HBS.

> 7 COICOP is a reference classification published by the United Nations Statistics Division.

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Policy Research Working Paper 7763

# **Abstract**

This study combines high-resolution, geo-spatial data and household data from the Vietnam Living Standard Measurement Surveys in 2010, 2012, and 2014 to investigate the relationship between environmental risks and poverty. Using recently developed data on air pollution, tree cover loss, land degradation, slope, rainfall and temperature variability, and flood and drought hazards, the study shows: (i) at the district level, there are hotspots of high poverty and environmental risks; (ii) ethnic minorities and poor households are much more exposed to multiple environmental risks than other groups, and also within rural and urban areas poorer households live in communes exposed to higher environmental risks; and (iii) environmental risks relate to lower consumption levels, but less so to lower consumption growth over time. Altogether these findings suggest that Vietnam’s poor are disproportionally exposed to environmental risks, which can result in livelihood impacts that in many ways go beyond consumption. In light of growing pressures due to population growth, economic development and climate change, green growth actions, ecosystem-based adaptation, and land-use planning could be important strategies to reduce the environmental burden on poor people.

This paper is a product of the World Bank Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice Group and the Climate Change Cross-Cutting Solutions Area and is a background paper for the World Bank work on “Climate Change and Poverty in Vietnam.” It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http:// econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at unarloch@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
severely tightened. This is also likely to be counterproductive in facilitating a general economic recovery.

A challenge remains in practice to construct the unconditional loss distribution in such a way that it covers the tail of the unobserved conditional loss distribution in a Stress scenario. In this context, we find the guidelines in Basel II (2006) in terms of the suggested calibration of the correlations and maturity adjustments not very instructive, as the suggested calibration of the risk-parameters proved to severely underestimate those observed in reality during the global financial crisis. Rather than following this framework, we calibrate the asset performance correlations in the tail of the loss distribution based on the lending concentration of each individual bank in each asset class and the respective stress PDs. We also set the maturity adjustment penalty based on the actual average time to maturity for each asset class of the individual banks.

More specifically, we calculate Expected Losses ( _EL_<sup>S</sup> _i_ , _j_<sup>) for asset class</sup><sup>_i_and bank</sup><sup>_j_under</sup> scenario S = _{TTC_ , _PIT_ , _Stress}_ as: Expected losses for the TTC scenario thus correspond to the product of the individualized PDs and LGDs. Expected losses for the PIT and Stress scenario relate to the predicted losses conditional on the realization of the considered macroeconomic scenario. Net losses ( _NetLoss_<sup>S</sup> _j_<sup>)foreachbankarecomputedasexpectedprofitsplusloanlossreservesless</sup> expected losses on the entire credit portfolio, that is: 42
variable, are presented in the first two columns. The other columns present results for different definitions of access to credit that have been used in the literature. All these alternative definitions provide similar result. Firms that have higher labor productivity are more likely to have access to credit, and also to have a loan or line of credit, checking or savings account, or use external financing.

While the Enterprise Survey finance module is comprehensive with almost forty finance related variables, there is still potential to ask additional information to yield a clearer picture of a firm’s financial inclusion. For example, for firms identified as being partially credit constrained, it is not clear if these firms received the level of credit that they originally requested. Another new variable that was recently added<sup>4</sup> to the survey was whether or not a request for a loan or line of credit was rejected. These new information will help identify a firm’s need of financial services separately from the general availability of financial services in a country.

# **6. Conclusion**

The importance of access to credit for firms, in particular for SMEs, has being the focus of a vast literature. We add to that body of knowledge by creating a firm level measure of the credit constrained status based on hard data and describing what type of firms are more likely to be credit constrained and which ones are not. As commonly found in the literature, SMEs are more likely to be credit constrained than large firms. They are also more likely to use trade credit and informal sources of finance as funds for investment and working capital than large firms.

> 4 The Iraq 2011 survey was the first to include this variable.

19
**Table A11:** Average Gains and Losses by Presence of Children

||(1)<br>Household<br>with children|(2)<br>Household<br>without children|P-value<br>(1) = (2)|
|---|---|---|---|
|_Satisfed with overall house qua_|_lity (1=Yes)_|||
|Permanent Gains (PG)|1.895|1.589|0.233|
||(2.213)|(1.195)||
|Transitory Gains (TG)|3.385|2.912*|0.169|
||(2.796)|(1.629)||
|Delay Losses (DL)|0.209**|0.267**|0.834|
||(0.088)|(0.117)||
|Total Gains (PG+TG-DL)|5.071***|4.234***|0.972|
||(1.356)|(1.245)||
|_Satisfed with quality of family l_|_ife (1=Yes)_|||
|Permanent Gains (PG)|-3.889**|0.149|0.279|
||(1.500)|(0.801)||
|Transitory Gains (TG)|9.153***|3.534***|0.885|
||(2.149)|(1.228)||
|Delay Losses (DL)|0.170***|0.069*|0.471|
||(0.054)|(0.0415)||
|Total Gains (PG+TG-DL)|5.094***<br>(1.262)|3.575***<br>(1.008)|0.408|

Notes: Of the total of 1,658 panel observations, 614 correspond to households with children up to age 10. Gains and losses are computed using the NL estimated coefficients in Table A10 and evaluated at the mean of ∆ _T_ of 6.8 months. Standard errors in parentheses are computed using the Delta Method. Following Galiani et al. (2018) the gross discount factor _R_ is the sum of the average mortality rate (by age and gender) in 2018 in the Dominican Republic reported by World Health Organization plus an interest rate of 5%. Coefficients with *, ** and *** indicate that they are statistically significant at the 10, 5 and 1%, respectively.

32
<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 8. Summary of regression model (eq. 11) estimates: coefficient for<br>being ina vocational programme by country<br>40%<br>@ statistically significant (10% level)<br>c 20% r not statistically significant<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 8<br>z 0% ee eeeee<br>=ix] 2 bs ¢ o ° o* %<br>ZS -20% A<br>8<br>“ v<br>S -40%<br>° %<br>Ss<br>€ -60% =<br>it)<br>13)<br>é -B0% Upper middle soa<br>income + High income<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: authors’ calculations using PISA2015 data
We provide evidence on the eects of a dramatic expansion of public primary schools in Indonesia in the 1970s on the inheritance of educational inequality across generations.<sup>5</sup> The Sekolah Dasar (SD) Inpres program under the second ve year plan constructed more than 61,000 new primary schools and doubled the number of primary schools in ve years.<sup>6</sup> Our analysis focuses on two issues: (i) heterogeneity in the eects across the distribution with special reference to the most disadvantaged children (parents with no schooling), and (ii) gender dierences in the incidence of the eects. Becker et al. (2015) develop a model where the intergenerational educational mobility equation can be concave or convex implying heterogeneous relative mobility at dierent levels of a father's education.<sup>7</sup> A concave mobility curve implies that the children of uneducated parents face the lowest relative mobility and raises the possibility of a low education trap. The expansion of primary schools can aect the shape of nonlinearity, implying substantially dierent eects on the relative mobility of children from dierent family backgrounds.<sup>8</sup> The eects of school expansion may dier across gender because of social norms such as son preference in a patrilineal society, and dierences in the costs of accessing a distant school (World Bank (2018), Tilak (1993), Scott (1985)). Distance hinders the girls more as parents are unwilling to send them to far away schools because of gender norms and safety concerns.<sup>9</sup> If distance to school is a binding constraint on girls' schooling, then we would expect a bigger impact of the Inpres schools on educational opportunities of daughters. When primary school expansion is not backed by similar expansions at the secondary and higher levels, this may create an unintended bottleneck as a large number of primary graduates compete for limited slots at the secondary level. In the face of such a bottleneck, relatively weaker subgroups in a society (e.g., ethnic minorities, immigrants) may be crowded out. In a patrilineal society,

> 5The Indonesian government invested US $500 million in school construction in 1973 (Duo (2001)).

> 6The Inpres school construction has been the focus of a series of interesting studies, see, for example, Pitt et al. (1993), Duo (2001), Ashraf et al. (2020), Mazumder et al. (2019), Bazzi et al. (2020), Bau et al. (2020).

> 7The concavity arises naturally from diminishing returns to nancial investments, and convexity may arise from a variety of sources generating complementarity such as role model and peer eects, and more ecient educational investments by the educated parents.

> 8Taking stock of the economic literature on intergenerational mobility, Cholli and Durlauf (2022) suggest that the next generation studies on intergenerational mobility need to go beyond the workhorse linear model and explore the implications of the nonlinearity implied by theory.

> 9Even when the school in the neighboring village is within commuting distance, fear of harassment on the way to school can be an important hurdle for girls.

2
although this question merits exploration on a more granular level, as Congolese provinces are the size of small European countries.

Second, investment in international donors’ financed projects, which constitute the overwhelming amount of road investment in the DRC, is typically spread out over several years following the original approval of the project (Kraay 2012). This means that fluctuations in project spending in a given year are largely determined by fluctuations in project approval decisions made in previous years and are unlikely to be correlated with unanticipated conflict outbreaks in the current year.

Figure 5: Roads and Violence at the Province Level <!-- Start of picture text --> Nord-Kivu<br>Ituri<br>Sud-Kivu<br>Bas-Uele Tanganyika<br>Kasaï-Ce~l<br>Kasaï<br>Equateur Maniema Tshopo<br>Tshuapa Kasaï-Or~l<br>Haut-Kat~a<br>Kinshasa Kongo-Ce~l<br>Mongala Haut-Lom~i Sud-Ubangi Lomami<br>Mai-NdombeNord-Uba~i<br>Sankuru<br>Lualaba Kwango<br>Kwilu<br>1 2 3 4 5<br>road km completed (in logs)<br>6<br>4<br>2<br>total UCDP events per million population (in logs)<br>0<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Notes** : Figure shows the log of armed conflict event totals per million inhabitants together with the log of completed road projects at the province level.

Finally, we provide evidence that the completion of projects is not directly affected by the level or the intensity of conflicts. Section B.5 in Appendix B reports extracts of Implementation Completion Reports (ICR), a World Bank document that lists the reasons for delays once World Bank projects are completed. For each of the listed projects, delays were mostly due to the slow implementation of initial administrative tasks connected to weak institutional capacity, the slow resettlement process, the slow adoption of laws to facilitate the project, and the limited capacity of the responsible investment party. A main road rehabilitation project was delayed between 2017 and 2018 due to repeated cases of genderbased violence, ranging from sexual harassment to sexual exploitation and abuse, and rape linked to the implementation of the project and the influx of workers on the project site.<sup>4</sup> We check whether an increase in gender-based violence, classified as violence against civilians in ACLED data, during the project implementation only could drive our results by

> 4 `https://www.inspectionpanel.org/panel-cases/high-priority-roads-reopening-and-maint enance-2nd-additional-financing-p153836`

12