value of consumption flow of durable goods.<sup>22</sup> While monetary poverty can measure temporal resource holdings, multidimensional poverty, as a more comprehensive measure, includes chronic and exacerbating sources of poverty. This difference explains the existence of mismatches between individuals identified as monetary versus MPI poor, which are often more prominent in poorer countries (Evans et al 2020). This section examines these differences in the contexts of displacement.

_Table 9. Percentage of the sample in each poverty category: Rows sum to 100%_

||Non-poor by both<br>measures|Only<br>Monetary Poor|Only<br>Multidimensional<br>Poor|Monetary and<br>multidimensional<br>poor|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Ethiopia|38%|23%|12%|27%|
|N.E Nigeria|13%|69%|4%|15%|
|Somalia|20%|32%|14%|34%|
|Sudan|33%|47%|4%|17%|

Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the High Frequency Surveys of Ethiopia (2017), Nigeria (2018), Somalia (2017), South Sudan (2017) and Sudan (2017). This table presents the distribution of households in each of the categories in the columns. Thus, each row adds up to 100%. South Sudan is excluded from this analysis as monetary data is not available for the country.

Given that monetary and multidimensional poverty identify different populations, a household can be classified as: non-poor according to both measures; poor only by the monetary measure; poor only by the multidimensional measure; or poor by both measures (see Table 9). The results confirm the expectation that monetary and multidimensional poverty measures do not always capture the same people. Ethiopia has the largest overlap between the two measures, with 65% of individuals receiving the same classification (38% are non-poor, and 27% are poor according to both measures). This considerable overlap could be explained by Ethiopia having the most prolonged conflict and largest number of fatalities among the countries, leading to a loss in assets and livelihoods, which in turn affected long-term welfare and decrease employment and economic opportunities, that impact available short-term resources. Thus, the overlap may reflect the long-lasting as well as the short-term effects of conflict and economic hardships.

On the other hand, Nigeria is the country with the smallest overlap, where only 15% of the sample is classified as poor by both measures and 13% as non-poor. The majority, 69% of people, are only monetary poor, and 4% are multidimensionally poor only. The lack of overlap might be explained by the relatively recent start of the displacement situation in 2014, when Boko Haram appeared in the north-eastern part of the country. Pape et al (2018) identify two groups of IDPs in this situation: one group representing 74% of the IDP population that was more engaged in wages and non-farm business before displacement, and another group representing about 26% of the population, that had significantly more unemployed women. Most of the displaced populations from the first group live in host communities with good access to basic services such as sanitation and water, and safety nets. However, they are disproportionally more likely to be female-headed households and lack access to education, health services, and may face more stringent labor-market barriers. In other words, this group has relatively better housing conditions, but may lack short-term resources that reduce their consumption expenditure.

> 22 In summary, expenditure in these three categories is computed based on the quantities and prices of a selected list of items in each category. See more details about the computation of the consumption aggregate in Appendix A of the Somali Poverty Profile (Pape et al, 2017). A similar procedure was followed in the other countries of analysis.

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