rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
would contribute to creating a repository of psychosocial support curricula and approaches that practitioners could consider adapting to entrepreneurs.

The next section summarizes a range of CBT‐based psychosocial support training curricula that are aimed at reducing psychological distress, including Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT), Mindfulness‐based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), and Problem Management+ (PM+). Other curricula not based on CBT are also summarized. Each of these curricula has been tried across various contexts with distinct target groups. They have shown varying degrees of success in reducing psychological distress. (See Table 3 for a summary of relevant themes, structure, and delivery of each curricula.)

# 4.1 Psychosocial Curricula

## 4.1.1 Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)

CBT is both an approach and a curriculum type. Several others have emerged with CBT as a basis that will be covered later. As an approach, CBT focuses on developing a set of strategies that individuals can use to cope with problematic situations, including changing different patterns of thinking (for example, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes), behaviors, and emotional regulation (Field and others 2015). The simple idea behind CBT is that an individual’s unique patterns of thinking (cognition) are significant factors in how they experience their surroundings (emotions and feelings) and the type of actions they take (behavior). As these patterns of thinking have an impact on behavior, it follows that addressing them — where they have become maladaptive — can change one’s experience and hence, performance (Martin 2016).

At a behavioral level, CBT interventions help people slow their automatic thinking processes that rely on heuristic shortcuts. Instead, they are taught to engage in slower, more deliberative thinking that can potentially lead to better decision‐making (and pro‐social behavior). As such, CBT can promote greater situational awareness, better recognition of high‐stakes situations where automatic thinking could lead to bad decisions, and more reflective thinking in such situations (CBT 2.0 User’s Manual, ideas 42 and UChicago Crime Lab).

Almost all CBT curricula are delivered through repeated, longer‐term sessions, often utilizing feedback and “homework” to help participants understand their progress and/or learn from their mistakes. It can be administered individually or in group sessions. Studies show the latter approach tends to be both cost effective and therapeutically equivalent to the former in terms of impact (Oei and Dingle 2008; Tucker and Oei 2007). CBT has also been administered through pre‐recorded videos, phone calls, and therapist‐delivered internet sessions to make them easier to administer, access, and scale up.

Traditionally, CBT has been used in the context of mental health, for example, to reduce depression, anxiety, and so on in various populations (Kessler and others 2009; Mataix and others 2015; Mohr and others 2005; and Spector and others 2014). However, its application in non‐ mental health areas and situations is growing. One example of this is the “Becoming a Man” 24
expectations around education, marriage, employment, and occupation. Moreover, when it comes to actively participating in community-level decision making, women enjoy very limited agency and they are also less likely to hold positions of leadership. This can be mainly connected to the widespread belief that men’s opinions matter more than women’s, the overwhelming weight of household work and family duties, the strength of the status quo and the fear of transgressing gender norms. In addition, there is evidence that elected women officials continue to face discrimination in access to training, information, day-to-day interactions and how they are treated by male colleagues (World Bank, 2020).

**Ensuring that women entrepreneurs and employees gain from the opportunities presented by economic development must be a priority.** Development of gender-related support interventions necessitates an understanding of the differences between male and female entrepreneurs. This should include the sectors in which they operate, location, the experience of social and physical barriers, flexible workplace policies, and whether performance gaps exist between male and female entrepreneurial firms, including the drivers behind these gaps.

The aim of the note is to gain a better understanding of the barriers to gender-inclusive Private Sector Development (PSD) in Myanmar, explore the differential experience female-owned enterprises have in comparison to their maleowned counterparts, and finally, to provide recommendations for inclusive PSD based on the findings. To achieve this, the note uses data from the 2019 Myanmar Gender and Entrepreneurship Survey (MGES) to explore the differential experiences of female-owned micro, small and medium sized enterprises in comparison to their male counterparts.

Taking the above into account, this note covers and highlights the following issues:

- Characteristics of female and male owned enterprises

- Barriers faced by women entrepreneurs

- Determinants of Human Resource Management (HRM) policies

- Impact of HRM policies on business development

- Impact of HRM policies on workplace attitude/employee satisfaction and other areas.

The survey data were analyzed from a gender perspective to create an overview of the SME environment in Myanmar, assess the barriers and challenges faced by entrepreneurs and their businesses, and identify firm-level characteristics leading to the use of good business practices. The analysis also investigates the adoption of gender and family-friendly policies both as an outcome and as a determinant of business success. This document brings together the analysis of the MGES with other contextual information about the gender dimensions of PSD in Myanmar.

6
WHEN IS THE GOVERNMENT _TRANSFER_ MULTIPLIER LARGE?

35 <!-- Start of picture text --> Full model (2yr ZLB): dY/dTr>dY/dG (White region) Full model (2yr ZLB): dY/dTr>1 (White region)<br>1 1<br>0.9 0.9<br>0.8 0.8<br>0.7 0.7<br>0.6 0.6<br>α 0.5 α 0.5<br>0.4 0.4<br>0.3 0.3<br>0.2 0.2<br>0.1 0.1<br>0 0<br>0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1<br>ρ ρ<br><!-- End of picture text --> Figure 4.3. Regions where the targeted transfer multiplier is larger with 2yrs ZLB. **Panel A** (LHS): transfer multiplier > purchases multiplier. **Panel B** (RHS): transfer multiplier >1.

To see this, note that the rest of the transfer (a fraction 1 _− χ_<sup>_HtM_</sup> _Tr_ ) flows from the Ricardian household to itself and hence has no effect on the economy.

This can be incorporated in the analytical model by replacing Equation A3 with (1 _−_ ˆ _α_ )ˆ _c_ 2 _,t_ = _χ_<sup>_HtM_</sup> _Tr Trt_ + (1 _− α_ )( ˆ _w_ 2 _,t_ + _L_<sup>ˆ</sup> 2 _,t_ ) (scaling down the transfer by a factor _χ_<sup>_HtM_</sup> _Tr_ ). The expression for the multiplier becomes Equation 5.1, where Γ is defined as in Equation 3.9 and 0 _≤ χ_<sup>_HtM_</sup> _Tr ≤_ 1 (and _χ_<sup>_HtM_</sup> _Tax_ = 0 for now). A stronger DI effect/weaker TP effect Γ _< −_ (1 _− χ_<sup>_HtM_</sup> _Tr_ )(1 _− βρ_ ) _/κ ≤_ 0 is required for the transfer multiplier to be greater than the purchases multiplier.

An alternative assumption — which could be considered a lower bound — is that transfers are completely untargeted where 1 _− χ_<sup>_HtM_</sup> _Tr_ = 1 _− α_ = 0 _._ 7 (with our default calibration). In the full model, Table 2 Column C shows that the untargeted transfer multiplier is around 0.25 for once-off transfers and 0.1 for persistent transfers if monetary policy follows a Taylor rule, and is usually around 0.5 for persistent transfers when the ZLB binds for an extended period.

The size of the _untargeted_ transfer multiplier is much more sensitive to the fraction of HtM HHs than the targeted transfer multiplier (as it increases both the size of the targeted
5 This alternative method for redistributing toward the poor old has been adopted in some countries. Australia has an old age, invalidity and surviror pension program that is entirley financed through general revenue, while its benefits are income tested<sup>4</sup> . According to the £LO (1986), Australian social insurance programs are quite generous, as they cost 7.3 % of GDP in lb66<sup>5</sup> . Costa Rica, Chile, Hong-Kong and South Africa have similar programs, although they are much less generous.

There is a second group of countries that has chosen a non social-security type of financing for social-security type benefits. Denmark, New Zealand, Mauritius and Ireland have old age pensions benefits that are flat and universal, with very few means-tests, but they are financed through general revenue which includes a progressive income tax. The social-security approach is to finance those benefits through taxes on labor earnings alone using a flat rate.

A third combination is offered by the U.K, which uses part of the revenue from a progressive tax on labor eamings to finance a flat and universal basic pensiorL This program is not generous.

Some of these countries are dissatisfied with their current program. These programs are found wanting because they fail to meet an additional objective, which is to assure adequate pensions for the middle dass. However, everybody agrees that their current programs have been successful in providing substantial assistance to the poor old.

This section does not intend to provide a full review of the venerable debate regarding the use of earnings-related pensions to redistribute icome. However, we spell out the specific features of the debate for the case of oldage pensions.

# 2.Ll Arguments against social security.

The three main arguments against using axes and transfers of the 'social security' type for redistribution within a given generation are the following: (1) Covge of taxes. The point here is whedter general tax revenue can be collected in a more egalitarian way than contributions paid by salaried labor with a constant tax rate, as in conventional PAYG social security.

In most countries, and specially in developing countries, the tax system has wider coverage tian the social security system. General taxes apply to a broader tax base that includes independent workers like professionals, shop owners, farmers, who pay either indirect or income taxes or both.

4 See Social Security Programs Throughout the World, 1985, page 10. There it is stated that means-testing of benefits was introduced as of March 21,1985. However, we have been informed that the threshold is generous, so over 70% of old Australians pass the income test. 5 This estimate arises from the figure given by ILO, Table 3, for receipts for all social security programs, and then downsized by the ratio between the money receipts informed in Table 9 and in Table 8.
# Equilibrium Fictions:  A Cognitive Approach to Societal Rigidity

Psychologists, sociologists, and anthropologists have emphasized that the cognitive frames within which people view the world are both collectively held and malleable over time. Category systems have cultural roots and influence what attributes people perceive (surveys are Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence 1999 and Bertrand, Chugh, and Mullainathan 2005). The cognitive frames operative in a culture unconsciously influence, as well, how people interpret whatever information they register (see, _e.g.,_ Mary Douglas 1987). Yet economists have generally neglected the role played by socially constructed cognitive frames. For instance, in rational expectations (hereafter, RE), each individual is assumed to use _all_ relevant information in an unbiased way.

However, two economists have called attention to social constructs in accounting for development. Gunnar Myrdal (1968) argued that “irrational beliefs” in South Asia bred social inertia. Douglass North (2005), drawing on cognitive science, argued that perception is always an interpretation that is shaped by the belief systems of the society. Drawing on economic history, he argued that those belief systems are a key determinant of economic development.

Recently, economic theorists have investigated the consequences of the endogeneity of cognitive frames (see, _e.g.,_ Roland Bénabou and JeanTirole 2006 and Bénabou 2008). They have modeled individuals as trading off the motivational or hedonic benefits of suppressing certain kinds of information, against the possible biases in action that that may cause. Recent discussions of macroeconomics have assigned a role to Keynesian “animal spirits”—emotions that influence confidence—giving almost unfettered scope to changes in beliefs.

In our approach, the infinite set of potentially observable data and the infinite ways in which that data could be processed are limited by the finite set of socially constructed categories that make up a part of what are called _ideologies._ These categories are a _state variable,_ which cannot be changed in the short run. These “lenses” even affect views about whether there is a 2
<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 2: Occupations, by industry<br>100%<br>90%<br>Agriculture, Fishing, Forestry<br>80%<br>70%<br>Mining and quarrying<br>60%<br>Manufacturing 50%<br>40%<br>Electricity, gas and water 30%<br>20%<br>Financing, insurance, real 10%<br>estate, business<br>0%<br>Community, social, and<br>personal services<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Source:** Authors’ elaboration using data from UNCOMTRADE and Jordan LFS 2017-2019.

Jordan experienced a transformation in the allocation of employment across sectors between 2017 and 2019. Among those workers exposed to international trade, the shares of workers in “ _Community, Social, and Personal Services_ ” increased year after year, reaching 76% in 2019, at the expense of employment in “ _Financing, Insurance, Real Estate, and Business Services_ ”, as well as in “m _anufacturing_ ” (see Figure 3).

<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 3: Employment Composition, by aggregate sector (2017-2019)<br>100%<br>90%<br>Community, social, and personal<br>services 80%<br>Financing, insurance, real estate, 70%<br>and business services 70%<br>60% 73% 76%<br>Electricity, gas, and water supply<br>50%<br>Manufacturing 40%<br>30%<br>Mining and quarrying 7%<br>5%<br>20% 5%<br>Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and 10% 16% 14% 12%<br>fishing<br>5% 5% 5%<br>0%<br>2017 2018 2019<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Source** : Authors’ calculations with data from Jordan LFS and UNCOMTRADE

6 | P a g e
|<br>|<br>|Tur<br>|key<br>||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|1.<br>Bilateral<br>liberalization<br>agricultural<br>with EU.|<br>trade<br>in<br>products|1. Changes in water pricing<br>methods and assignments of<br>water rights.<br>2.<br>Targeted<br>direct<br>income<br>support to farmers.|1. Help in settings the<br>priorities<br>of<br>public<br>investment and increase the<br>competitiveness<br>of<br>the<br>agricultural sector, and may<br>ease the transition towards<br>the EU membership.<br>2. The shift towards more<br>market oriented agricultural<br>policies<br>accompanied<br>by<br>decoupled<br>transfers<br>to<br>farmers represents a major<br>policy change in agriculture.<br>The effects of this change on<br>the<br>regional<br>(including<br>rainfed<br>and<br>irrigated)<br>production pattern may have<br>implications about the level<br>and distribution of income.|1. More effective use of<br>existing water resources.<br>2. Targeting of safety net<br>program will affect equity<br>distribution.|

46
Brown, Drusilla, Alan Deardorf, Alan Fox and Robert Stern (1996), ―Liberalization of Services Trade,‖ in W. Martin and L. A. Winters, eds., _The Uruguay Round and the Developing Countries_ , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

- Brown, Drusilla and Robert Stern (2001), ―Measurement and Modeling of the Economic Effects of Trade and Investment Barriers in Services,‖ _Review of International Economics_ , 9(2): 262-286 _._

- Central Bureau of Statistics (2007a), Economic Survey, 2006, Nairobi: Ministry of Planning and National Development, Republic of Kenya.

- Central Bureau of Statistics (2007b), Statistical Abstract, 2006, Nairobi: Ministry of Planning and National Development, Republic of Kenya.

- Chinitz, B. (1961), ―Contrast in agglomeration: New York and Pittsburgh,‖ _American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings_ , 51:279-89.

- Cox, David and Richard G. Harris (1986), ―A Quantitative Assessment of the Economic Impact on Canada of Sectoral Free Trade with the United States,‖ _The Canadian Journal of Economics,_ Vol. 19 (3), August, 377-394.

Daniels, P.W. (1985), _Service Industries: A Geographical Appraisal_ , New York: Methuen & Co.

- Dee, Philippa, Kevin Hanslow and Tien Phamduc (2003), ―Measuring the Costs of Barriers to Trade in Services,‖ in Takatoshi Ito and Anne Krueger (eds.), Trade in Services in the Asia-Pacific Region, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

- Dihel, Nora, Ana Margarida Fernandes, Aaditya Mattoo and Nicholas Strychacz (2010), ―Reform and Regional Integration of Professional Services in East Africa,‖ Economic Premise No. 32, September, The World Bank. Available at: www.worldbank.org/economicpremise.

- Dixit, A. and J. Stiglitz (1977), ―Monopolistic Competition and Optimum Product Diversity,‖ _American Economic Review,_ 76(1):297-308.

- Ethier, W.J. (1982), ―National and International Returns to Scale in the Modern Theory of International Trade,‖ _American Economic Review,_ 72(2):389-405.

- Fernandes, Ana M (2007), ―Structure and performance of the services sector in transition economies,‖ World Bank Policy and Research Working Paper Number 4357. Available at: http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK= 64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000158349_20070919101422

- Fernandes, Ana M and Caroline  Paunov (2008), ―Foreign direct investment in services and manufacturing productivity growth: evidence for Chile,‖ World Bank Policy and Research Working Paper Number 4730. Available at:

- http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK= 64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000158349_20080929085154.

- Francois, Joseph and Clint Shiells (eds., 1994), _Modeling Trade Policy: Applied General Equilibrium Assessments of North American Free Trade_ , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

37
# **4. Latin American ninis in global perspective**

How do the dimensions of Latin America’s nini problem compare to those of other regions? Using a collection of household surveys at the global level standardized by the World Bank’s Global Income Distribution Dynamics (GIDD) project,<sup>8</sup> we are able to quantify the total number of youth out of school and not working at the global level. To compute the total number of ninis at the global level, we rely on two main assumptions. First, we assume that the share of ninis in countries for which we did not have a reliable household survey close to 2010 is the same as the average for the region to which they belong. For instance, the share of ninis in Bolivia is assumed to be 19.3 percent, which is the average share for Latin America and the Caribbean. Second, we assume that the share of ninis remained constant between 2010—the last year for which a reliable household survey is available for a large number of countries—and 2015. Our calculations thus take into account the total global youth population of 1.19 billion in 2015 and assume that the share of ninis is the same as that observed circa 2010. In 2015 there were some 260 million youth ages 15 to 24 out of school and not working.<sup>9</sup> More than 35 percent of the world’s ninis live in South Asia, and more than one fifth of them in East Asia and the Pacific.

Figure 7 shows the share of youth aged 15 to 24 who are ninis in all countries in the world where household data is available (circa 2010). The countries with the highest incidence of ninis are Iraq (51 percent), Guyana (44 percent), Nigeria (43 percent), and Bangladesh (41 percent), each with shares of more than 40 percent. At the other end of the spectrum, Sweden (4.2 percent), Slovenia (4.7 percent) and Luxembourg (4.8 percent) have the lowest shares of ninis. The region with the highest share of ninis is Middle East and North Africa, where one in three youth are out of school and out of work, while the lowest share is in high-income countries (11 percent). The share of ninis in Latin America is close to the global average of 22.4 percent. The GIDD data also reveal that the gender breakdown of the nini problem varies greatly across country groups: in East Asia and the Pacific, in Europe and Central Asia, and in high-income countries, woman are no more likely to be ninis than are men. Meanwhile, in South Asia women account for 82 percent of total ninis, and in the Middle East and North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa the female share of ninis is similar to that of Latin America (two-thirds).

> 8 For details on the GIDD data and methods, see: <u>http://go.worldbank.org/YADEAFEJ30.</u>

> 9  Note that this global estimate is broadly consistent with the figure of 224 million calculated in a recent unpublished paper by Newhouse (2013).

12
xx **lmneLTWN**

# **_FlRup_** _4 Percemage Distrnbution of World Population by Major Region, 1985, 2000, and 2025_

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Table 3

# Regression Coefficients on the Detenninants of Corporate Investment in Productive Assets

(Dependent variable: ratio of investment in productive assets to the beginiing of year book value of assets)

|Independent variables|(1)|(2)|
|---|---|---|
|output|0.25<br>(2.52)|0.27<br>(2.49|
|capital stock|0.098<br>(2.87 )|0.097<br>( 2.80)|
|stock market<br>|0.243<br>||
|capitalization|(6.76)||
|profits|-|0.206<br>(2.81 )|
|constant|0.062<br>(2.63)|0.041<br>(1.62)|
|Year Dummies:|||
|1985|0.002|0.0002|
||(0.018)|(0.02)|
|1986|-0.011<br>( 1.01 )|-0.006<br>(_0.53_)|
|1987|-0.024<br>2.13|-0.0007<br>(0.06 )|
|1988|-0.017|0.006|
||(1.5)|(0.52)|
|R<sup>2</sup>|0.146|0.118|
|N|1199|1199|
|Dependent variable mean|0.056|0.056|

Note: 1) sample consists of 241 in 1984, 240 in 1985. 238 In 1986. 231 in 1987. and 241 in 1988, non-financial cosporetions Listed on the Korea stock exchange. covering 27 indusires.

2) 26 induutty dummies **were** included in the estimation but an not **tepode** in the table.

Absolute values of t-statietics are in parnthoes.