rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
**Table 3. Vulnerability Lines and given Vulnerability Indexes for Colombia (2008-2010)**

|**No**|**Vulnerability**<br>**index (%)**<sup>**a**</sup>|**Vulnerability**<br>**line ($ real**<br>**COP, Bogota**<br>**2008)**<sup>**b**</sup>|**Vulnerability**<br>**line ($PPP**<br>**2011)**<sup>**c** </sup>|**Increase**<br>**with**<br>**comparison**<br>**to poverty**<br>**line (%)**<sup>**d**</sup>|**Pop. share with**<br>**consumption**<br>**above poverty line**<br>**but less than V-**<br>**line (%)**<sup>**e**</sup>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**(1)**|**(2)**|**(3)**|**(4)**|**(5)**|**(6)**|
|1|35|238603|7.11|22|7|
|2|34|230803|6.88|18|6|
|3|33|226903|6.76|16|5|
|4|32|371203|11.06|90|19|
|5|31|425803|12.68|118|23|
|6|30|488203|14.54|149|27|
|7|29|558403|16.63|185|30|
|8|28|648103|19.31|231|34|
|9|27|757303|22.56|287|37|
|10|26|897703|26.74|359|40|
|11|25|1084903|32.32|454|44|
|12|24|1338403|39.87|584|47|
|13|23|1769603|52.72|804|50|
|14|22|2583003|76.95|1220|53|

> **a** The vulnerability index is the share of the vulnerable population in the first period that becomes poor in the second period. The vulnerable population is understood here as those people with income per-capita above the poverty line, but below the corresponding vulnerability line.

> **b** The vulnerability line corresponds to the monetary-value per person, below such value and above the poverty line, for which the probability of falling into poverty in the second period is the associated vulnerability index.

> **d** Since vulnerability line is above the poverty line, this column reflects the relative increases of the vulnerability line from the poverty line (of $195703 at real COP, Bogota 2008). The incremental value for iteration is 2 percent of the poverty line (that is $3915 real COP, Bogota 2008).

> **e** The population share in this case refers to the percentage of people with consumption below the vulnerability line and above the poverty line in both periods. **Source:** Own estimations based on GEIH from 2008 to 2016.

22
10 An additional factor contributes to depress even further the tax base of the pension system. There is increasing evidence that, even in the formal sector, a substantial amount of underreporting of productive activities and sales takes place. A March 1996 survey indicates that 39 percent of sales of all enterprises (48 percent for private enterprises) remain hidden in Ukraine (see Kaufman, 1996). This phenomenon is neither new nor specific to Ukraine. Personal informal incomes and outlays were extremely widespread in the FSU: 75 percent or more of households derived over 5 percent of their income from informal sources and 40 percent derived over one fourth in the late 1970s in Ukraine ( see Grossman, 1989). The phenomenon is also observed in many transition economies (see for example, Arvay and Vertes 1995 for the case of Hungary). Its relative importance however, may have increased over recent years.

Overall, the decline in real wages, the fall in formal employment and underreporting of productive activities in the formal sector have contributed to a decline in the reported wage bill and thus, to an erosion of the tax base for the social security system. By 1993, the share of wages (net of taxes) in GDP had fallen to 23 percent, down from about 45 percent in 1991 (see **Table 4)** As a result, while until 1993 payroll contributions were sufficient to cover the expenditures of the Pension Fund, spending climbed much faster than contributions in 1993 leading to a transfer from the central budget equal to about 2.6 percent of GDP to cover the deficit (see **Table 5).**

# 3.3 The Government's Response

Faced with resource limitations, the Government was unable to maintain a significant budget transfer to the Fund after 1993. Thus it opted for _shrinking benefits while attempting to preserve a minimum standard of living for low-income pensioners._ This was achieved by narrowing the range of payments and reducing the overall benefit level. As the majority of pensions (standard old-age pensions) are subject to a cap, the Government controlled the level of the maximum pension and let it drift relative to the average wage. While in 1991 the maximum pension was 7 percent above the average wage, it fell to less than half the average wage by 1993 and declined even further since then (see **Table 4).** As a consequence, an increasing number of pensioners received the maximum pension. This also applied to new pensioners who reached retirement with high wages (as a result of inflation and growing wage inequality). In contrast, to protect low-income pensioners the level of the minimum pension was increased relative to the average wage thus leading to a sharp compression of pension levels.

As a result, the effective replacement rate fell to approximately 1/3 of the average wage and on the expenditure side, the system moved closer to a social assistance program providing benefits loosely connected to the level of previous wages and years of contribution. On the revenue side, the system maintained its social insurance feature by taxing - heavily - reported wages of workers in the formal sector, that is, currently only about 60 percent of the labor force.
# **_IV.1 Complementary Inputs – Cross Sectional Results_**

The results in Table 2 suggest that firms employing a relatively larger share of professionals (i.e., engineers, accountants, scientists) are significantly more likely to be ISO-certified in 2002 and to use the web both in 2002 and 2005. The coefficients in column (3) for the BEEPS 2002 sample imply that an increase in a firm’s share of professionals by one standard deviation (22.1%) would be (ceteris paribus) associated with a 1.4% increase in the likelihood of adopting ISO certification and with an 8.3% increase in the likelihood of web-use. Managerial education is also strongly positively associated with ISO-certification and web-use. Specifically, in 2002 firms that are run by managers with a college or post-graduate degree are 6.5% and 37.7% more likely to, respectively, be ISO-certified and be webusers, with all else constant. While ISO-certified firms are more likely to be run by old managers, web-use is more frequent in firms run by younger managers.

Firms with a higher R&D intensity are significantly more likely to be ISO-certified and especially to use the web. An increase in the firm’s R&D intensity by one standard deviation (5.6%) is associated with a 2.4% increase in the likelihood of web-use, all else constant.

Our findings provide indirect evidence of skill-biased technological change by showing the importance of complementary investments in skills and R&D for technology adoption in the ECA region. Our findings are also consistent with the absorptive capacity arguments of Cohen and Levinthal (1989, p. 593) whereby firms invest in R&D not only to pursue innovation directly but also to “develop and maintain their broader capabilities to assimilate and exploit externally available information”. R&D activities are likely to have spillover effects onto managerial activities, as firms learn more about their technological bottlenecks and possible solutions through R&D activities and managers become informed through their interaction with researchers and engineers. In sum, firms with higher shares of professionals and higher R&D intensity have better capacity to process information, i.e., to identify technological problems and solutions. Finally, we should note that for the vast majority of firms in the ECA region which do not employ cutting-edge technology, R&D activities are likely to be focused on adopting and adapting technology to local conditions as pointed out by Cohen and Levinthal (1989): e.g., in-house technology adoption and adaptation by firms’ engineers or contracting of technological services to local research institutes and individual scientists.

Access to finance is positively and strongly associated with ISO-certification and web-use. Based on the BEEPS 2005 sample, a firm with access to a bank loan is 4.5% more likely to be ISOcertified and 15% more likely to use the web, ceteris paribus. Access to finance may be crucial not

- 10 -
28 Herzegovina exports to Croatia and FYR Macedonia<sup>andiron andsteelaccountfor a significant</sup> portion of FYR Macedonia's<sup>exports.</sup>

**_Table_** _8:_ **_Composition_** _of_ **_trade_** _among_ **_SEE-5 countries_**<sup>**_(excludingFRY)in 1999 (SITC. Rev.2)_**</sup>

|**ALBANIA**|Croatia|1999Import<br>Bosnia<br>and<br>Herzegovina|sfrom:<br>FYR<br>Macedonia|EU<br>|Croatia|1999Exp<br>Bosniaand<br>Herzegovina|ortsto:<br>FYR<br>Macedonia|EU|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Foodproducts(0+I+22+4)|10%|100%|42%|21%|0%|0%|33%|5%|
|<br>AgriculturalMaterials(2-22-27-28)|6%|0%|1%|1%|12%|0%<br>|10%<br>|7%<br>|
|Textilesfibres(26)|6%|0%|0%|0%|0%|0%|2%|0%|
|<br>Ores,minerals&metals(27+28+|0%|0%|0%|1%|84%|0%|7%|2%|
|68)|||||||||
|Energy(3)|6%|0%|0%|_5%_|0%|0%|32%|2%|
|<br>Manufacturing(5to8-68),|72%|0%|56%|72%|4%|0%|16%|84%|
|<br>**BOSNIAand**||1999Imports|from:|||1999Expo|rtsto:||
|**HERZEGOVINA**|Albania|<br>Croatia|<br>FYR<br>Macedonia|EU<br>'|Albania|Croatia|FYR<br>Macedonia|EU|
|Foodproducts(0+I+22+4)|Noimp.|30%|32%|18%|100%|15%|41%|2%|
|<br>AgriculturalMaterials(2-22-27-28)|Noimp|0%|4%|1%|0%|15%|13%|19%|
|Textilesfibres (26)|Noimp|0%|3%|1%|0%|0%|0%|0%|
|<br>Ores,minerals&metals(27+28+|<br>Noimp|1%|3%|1%|0%|30%|6%|17%|
|68)|||||||||
|Energy(3)|Noimp|15%|0%|1%|0%|10%|0%|0%|
|Manufacturing(5to8-68)|Noimp|53%|58%|78%|0%|31%|39%|62%|
|||1999Imports|from:|||1999Exp|ortsto:||
|**CROATIA**|Albania|Bosniaand<br>Herzegovina|FYR<br>Macedonia|EU<br>|Albania|Bosniaand<br>Herzegovina|FYR<br>Macedonia|EU|
|Foodproducts(0+1+22+4)|0%|15%|18%|7%|17%|30%|28%|3%|
|Agricultural Materials(2-22-27-28)|12%|15%|1%|2%|6%|1%|1%|8%|
|<br>Textiles fibres (26)|0%|0%|0%|0%|6%|0%|0%|0%|
|Ores,minerals&metals(27+28+|84%|30%|5%|2%|0%|1%|2%|5%|
|<br>68)|||||||||
|Energy(3)|0%|10%|0%|2%|6%|15%|23%|4%|
|Manufacturing(5to8- 68)|4%|31%|75%|86%|72%|53%|47%|80%|
|||1999Import|sfrom:|||1999Exp|ortsto:||
|**FYRMACEDONIA**|Albania|Bosniaand<br>Herzegovina|Croatia|EU|Albania|Bosniaand<br>Herzegovina|Croatia|EU|
|Foodproducts(0+1+22+4)|33%|41%|28%|12%|42%|36%|18%|9%|
|<br>AgriculturalMaterials(2-22-27-28)|11%|13%|1%|2%|1%|4%|1%|2%|
|<br>Textilesand fibres(26)|3%|0%|0%|1%|0%|3%|0%|0%|
|<br>Ores,minerals&metals(27+28+|<br>7%|6%|2%|1%|0%|3%|5%|9%|
|<br>68)|||||||||
|Energy(3)|33%|0%|23%|19%|0%|0%|0%|0%|
|<br>Manufacturing(5to8-68),|12%|39%|46%|66%|56%|52%|75%|80%|

Source: UN COMTRADE database.

In all, intra-SEE-5 trade remains mainly of<sup>inter-industrytypewithlimitedexchanges</sup> occurring within the same sectors. Table<sup>9tabulatestheshareofintra-industrytrade,i.e.,two-</sup> way trade in similar products in trade with other<sup>SEE-5countries,asmeasured bytheG-L</sup> (Grubbel-Lloyd) index (values of G-L indices<sup>areabovethediagonal). 3 7</sup> Because of large

**37** The Grubbel-Lloyd index is the difference<sup>betweenunity andthequotientof theabsolute difference</sup> between exports and imports of a given<sup>sector and thetotalofimportsandexportsforthis sector.</sup> Calculations here are based on 2-digit SITC,<sup>Rev.3. data.The indexassumesthevalueof100percentin</sup>
To our knowledge this is the first paper that investigates the relationship between informal policies and measures of business success.

## • **Adoption of informal employee benefits**

**Small and medium enterprises in Myanmar provide their employees with ‘informal’ employee benefits.** The literature suggests that there are several different drivers at both the country and firm levels pushing businesses to adopt family-friendly policies. In a study set in India, Budhwar (2000), found evidence that age, size, ownership, type of industry, and union membership, are all positively related to the adoption of HRM policies. Other studies focus on either country level or firm-level characteristics. A country’s regulation and a firm’s compliance (UNICEF, 2019), the size of the firm, and the percentage of female employees (Poelmans, Chincilla and Cardona, 2003 and Ozturkler and Ozutku, 2009), are all positively related factors to the likelihood of a firm having family-friendly policies in place. Overall, a country’s legislation, the dynamics of the business environment, and the overall national culture, play an important role. At the firm level, the sector in which the business operates, the size of the firm, and the ratio of female employees, seem conducive to the adoption of better HRM practices. Evidence suggests that large organizations are better able to provide a broad base of work-family benefits and tend to adopt more policies pertaining to individual support and dependent-care benefits than smaller organizations (Bardoel, Tharenou and Moss, 2013). This is interesting because in our data gathered from micro and SMEs, we find that the majority of these enterprises are offering what we refer to as ‘informal HRM practices’, including provisions for food, housing, sick leave and maternity leave, among other things. We proceed to test whether the main characteristics, recognized by the literature to be conducive to the adoption of these practices, are also significant in the adoption of familyfriendly policies in the private sector in Myanmar.

# Data and Summary Statistics

## • **Research methodology**

The data used for this section come from the MGES 2019. The survey was conducted to collect data to understand how policy changes, and formal and informal support programs, can achieve greater impact for female entrepreneurs (description of variables used in the analysis in Appendix A). The focus is on how gender can impact specific entrepreneurs in the non-farming agriculture, light-manufacturing, hospitality and tourism, and trade and logistic sectors. Data was collected with the aim to inform the WBG/IFC operations on private sector development and dialogue with government counterparts on promoting more inclusive enterprise development in Myanmar.<sup>18</sup> Particularly the survey aims to shed light on the following:

- How cultural norms and decision making in the household interact with decision making within an enterprise;

> 18 Myanmar Gender Entrepreneurship Survey Report, Myanmar Survey Research, 2019.

10
and infrastructure sectors, with an adverse impact not only on financing flows but also on competition, innovation, knowledge transfer and financial stability.

Foreign banks may also respond to greater “localization” measures by EMDEs, including where EMDEs require foreign banks to operate through subsidiaries (rather than branches) and to hold additional local capital, internal and external loss absorbing capacity, and liquidity. The effectiveness of home/host cooperation in both supervisory and resolution (crisis management group) colleges is likely to be an important factor in determining the extent to which a host EMDE country feels able to rely on a parent foreign bank and on its home country regulator(s) to look after the interests of the foreign bank’s presence in an EMDE, both in normal times and when recovery and resolution plans are implemented.

Equally, there may be some offset here through a range of “second round effects” as EMDE banks and financial markets adjust to the actions of foreign banks. There has already been a degree of substitution in some EMDEs as local or regionally-based players take up at least some of the business previously undertaken by foreign banks.

The extent to which EMDE countries themselves implement at least some of the G20 regulatory reforms may reinforce the overall impact of regulatory reform through the application of tougher requirements on local banks’ lending and trading activities.

# **4. Key Findings from the Surveys**

## **Caveats**

Overall, the findings from the surveys should be interpreted with caution and regarded as preliminary. First, the findings are based on a diverse, but small country sample. Second, in interpreting the results, it is important to note that it is difficult to: (i) separate the unintended and intended consequences of G20 regulatory reforms; (ii) disentangle the impact of regulatory reform from other factors (for example economic conditions and global liquidity and financial market conditions); (iii) distinguish between short-term adjustment costs and longer-term stability benefits; and (iv) interpret some variation in how far respondents confined themselves to the impact of spillover effects rather than the impact of the local implementation of (some 18
# **Table 1**

# **Composition of State Budget Expenditures by Functional Classification, 2006**

# **Budget**

||Percent of<br>State Budget|Percent of<br>GDP|
|---|---|---|
|State Budget Expenditures|100.0%|18.4%|
|Public admin bodies & foreign econ relations|12.0%|2.2%|
|Law enforcement structures<br>|15.5%|2.8%|
|Social Sphere|49.5%|9.1%|
|education|21.8%|4.0%|
|health|6.9%|1.3%|
|social protection|12.4%|2.3%|
|compensations|2.4%|0.4%|
|culture and sports|3.7%|0.7%|
|other social services|2.2%|0.4%|
|Economic services|15.2%|2.8%|
|agriculture and agro-indistrial complex|3.2%|0.6%|
|transport and communications|4.9%|0.9%|
|mining and construction|0.7%|0.1%|
|fuel and energy|1.7%|0.3%|
|utilities|4.4%|0.8%|
|other economic services|0.3%|0.1%|
|Other expenses|4.6%|0.8%|
|Interest payments|3.3%|0.6%|
|external|2.3%|0.4%|
|domestic|1.0%|0.2%|
|PIP spending from external sources||4.0%|
|Total expenditures includingexternal PIP||22.4%|

Source: Ministry of Finance _The level of government expenditure_ The overall level of government expenditures is still relatively moderate, at 22% of GDP, so an expansion of the budget need not necessarily be sub-optimal in terms of efficient resource allocation provided that additional budgetary resources can be mobilized to fund it. However, a note of caution is warranted. The findings of the World Bank’s ECA Regional Fiscal Study have important implications for the level of 14
16

**<u>Table 3. Effects of Changes in expenditures and Changes in revenue 1995-2011</u>**

||1<br>Fixed Effects|2<br>Fixed Effects|3<br>System GMM|4<br>System GMM|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||Gini|Gini|Gini|Gini|
|Lagged Dependent Variable|0.422***|0.423***|0.670***|0.774***|
||[0.086]|[0.087]|[0.110]|[0.097]|
|∆(Primary Revenues)t-1|-0.159**||-0.164||
||[0.058]||[0.213]||
|∆(Primary Expenditure)t-1|0.151**||0.382***||
||[0.065]||[0.132]||
|∆(Tax Revenue)t-1||-0.037||-0.262|
|||[0.225]||[0.268]|
|∆(Revenue Transfers)t-1||-0.293***||-0.314|
|||[0.096]||[0.223]|
|∆(Other Revenue)t-1||0.049||0.101|
|||[0.106]||[0.258]|
|∆(Current Expenditure)t-1||0.078||0.407*|
|||[0.107]||[0.232]|
|∆(Investment Expenditure)t-1||0.215***||0.263**|
|||[0.053]||[0.117]|
|∆(Other Expenditure)t-1||0.197||0.194|
|||[0.147]||[0.365]|
|(GDP Growth per capita)t-1|0.054|0.049|-0.001|-0.039|
||[0.066]|[0.070]|[0.093]|[0.095]|
|(Employment rate)t-1|-0.307**|-0.311***|-0.169*|-0.103|
||[0.112]|[0.104]|[0.088]|[0.086]|
|(Inflation)t-1|0.075***|0.064**|0.032|0.065|
||[0.024]|[0.029]|[0.063]|[0.066]|
|(Sub-national Social Expenditure)t-1|0.348***|0.346***|0.247|0.133|
||[0.073]|[0.076]|[0.164]|[0.136]|
|(Federal Social Transfers/GDP)t-1|-1.078***|-1.091***|-0.483|-0.104|
||[0.332]|[0.330]|[0.330]|[0.273]|
|Constant|0.000|0.000|7.569|7.317|
||[0.000]|[0.000]|[17.012]|[16.464]|
|Time Trend|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Time Dummies|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Pesaran (2004) cross-sectional<br>|-2.28***|-2.26***|-2.07***|-1.84*|
|dependence test|||||
|Sargan test|||206.6***|293.0***|
|Hansen test|||2.769|8.002|
|Arellano-Bond AR(2) test|||0.783|0.792|
|Observations|405|405|405|405|
|Number of groups|27|27|27|27|
|R-squared|0.621|0.626|||

HAC robust (GMM regressions) or Driscoll-Kraay (F.E. regressions) standard errors in brackets. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. Null hypothesis of Pesaran (2004) test for regression residuals is cross-sectional independece. Null of Arellano-Bond test is that first-differenced errors exhibit no 2nd order serial correlation. Sargan and Hansen tests of tests of the validity of overidentifying restrictions.
-8-

total sugarcane throughput than would be the case for a stand-alone mill-especially given the advantages afforded by its flexibility-there may be economies of scale in crushing and cooking.

# _Brml is an efficient sugar producer and could easily expand_

Brazil has a vast supply of arable flat land in the Center South which give the region the flexibility to increase and decrease sugarcane and sugar production with changes in prices over the medium to long-term--see box 1. The Center-South has a number of advantages over the North/Northeast. The World Bank (1989) attributes the advantages of the Center-South over the North/Northeas **t** o superior climate, topography and technology.:

-;Bx i ThDneepc elastidty of s'

Ah Wtcurrent govermentcontrol over productioi and pnce, dlthe:iiian -iiiitii sipppIy;in r.respoje21 t%eT.worrld cice is' estimated- hyWoig,SbrSii,Sd. Bo,.8 ,Uat0.1. 'Typcall medinm to locg term elasticities osupply for.agdculwugduiSi ^gmneraly:ini the anug&2.0 _to5.0,_ to virhere industres witli.a high roportioni of >purchased.inpbtsareeimost eastic. )n the cas of. sugar, cesbmttof .uipply clantic tue. _@rtSii_ hnehiA":are less constrained-by. poiacnactorsthanni, quch **nq** Žli%iQeU tiaiaeelasticitdes of- arouidK.l elvaif 4:.Elaud in Irli2:1 for ;I~4Xtwii sti fasitathe. high prop6rtic. of. in ue dcJ le. .u. u &vlruiiust;hpotdati e elaicri6i:ofsjuypbc'in tle Center South could ex:eed **ttE tofdu** ¶in ohim .aitv of 2.0 wouid irIy,thuat the. intedr-Sbuth.was a4ghlyelasbc :sugarYsupplierhy:fvorld standard's. In ldie :l =j~~&j~j~ &r i;ei ii y rn he brIow L or other .n.r

# _And Brazil's sugar producing potential could influence world pnce_

Although most of Brazil's sugar is absorbed domestically, it is the world market price of sugar that sets the opportunity cost of that output to the Brazilian economy. And among commodity markets, the world sugar market is the most volatile. It is destablished by the protectionist sugar policies of many other countries.

The average world price of sugar since 1951, in 1990 values, is US$18.4cIlb. The average price for the decade 1981-90 is US$11.6cllb. This is about double the Brazilian domestic producer price.

Despitre changes occurring in the market, intermittent peaks and large troughs are likely to cuntinue, although extreme highs and lows are less likely (Borrell and Duncan 1990). Any trade negotiation which made OECD sugar producers and consumers more responsive to the world price would help stabilize **the** market (Bale and Lutz). However, there is little optimism that trade liberalization will occur quickly. So Brazil's producers and consumers must be flexible in order to cope with the risks arising from