difference is unreliable because of measurement errors<sup>12</sup> ) and the Z-score for height-for-age was also imbalanced (-1.38 v. -1.81 for intervention and control). Given these baseline differences between groups in access to JMP-defined improved water sources, handwashing conditions, and Z-score for height-for-age , we included the baseline village-level averages of these variables as covariates in adjusted models.

The internal validity of a longitudinal or panel study relies on maintaining low attrition during the follow-up period. In our study 15% (299 of 1,954) of the baseline households were not located in the follow-up for reasons of permanent migration, seasonal migration, and inability to find a household after repeated visits. This 15% attrition rate was not large enough to affect the power of our estimates. Of 299 households, 154 were in the intervention group and 145 were in the control group. Temporary or seasonal migration accounted for 81 percent of the lost households, which indicates that lost households may be economically different than those that remained in the study. Table 3 compares characteristics between intervention and control groups for the household samples that is lost at follow-up and that remains intact during followup survey. The attrition was not differential by randomized treatment group based on observable characteristics (Table 3). Characteristics remained balanced between intervention and control groups in intact households similar to those noted in Table 2.

# **4.2 Implementation and Exposure to TSC Activities**

Implementation of TSC is carried out by local governments. Assessing and documenting TSC activities is challenging in the absence of a robust monitoring system for TSC. A comparison of official TSC data with recent figures from the Census suggests that official information consistently overestimates toilet construction coverage<sup>13</sup> . In India, toilet construction triggers the release of TSC funds for the subsidies that the government provides to below poverty line (BPL) households. The existing system tracks the funds released and utilized at different levels and toilet construction coverage as reported by the GP secretary. The monitoring system does not track project inputs in terms of behavior change or social mobilization efforts which are key components of TSC. Even the reported toilet construction levels are not objective and validated measurements.

We explored a variety of sources to assess the extent to which activities have been conducted and beneficiaries report being exposed to the TSC. First, we conducted a survey of TSC coordinators at the block level to assess TSC activities. The TSC coordinator is the official

> 12 In baseline anemia was tested with children under 2 years but ovr 6 month of age. Due to high heat during summer months the Hemocue machines malfunctioned.  We were able to collect data from only 27 out of 40 GPs and 329 children from the control group, and from 24 GPs out of 40 and 293 children from the intervention group. This high level of data loss and unreliability of hemocue measurements in high temperature reduces our confidence on the results presented, especially when the statistical significance level is a = 0.1.

> 13 In MP, 86.9% of rural households still lack s toilet; a negligible improvement from 91.1% households without toilet as per 2001 census. As per TSC M&E records; however, almost 82% of the target households who lacked toilet in 2003 baseline are now provided an individual household latrine (IHL).

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