resulted in differences in access to calories, proteins and other nutrients. In addressing this question, we can exploit the intensive nature of the survey and observational work associated with the intervention. Averaging over all children in the _Atole_ villages (i.e., both those that consumed any supplement and those who never consumed any), children 0-12 months consumed approximately 40-60 kcal per day, children 12-24 months consumed 60-100 kcal daily and children 24-36 months consumed 100-120 kcal per day as supplement (Schroeder, Kaplowitz and Martorell, 1992, Figure 4). Children in the _Fresco_ villages, in contrast, consumed virtually no _Fresco_ between the ages of 0-24 months (averaging at most 20kcal per day) with this figure rising to approximately 30 kcal daily by age 36 months (Schroeder, Kaplowitz and Martorell, 1992, Figure 4).<sup>9</sup> Micronutrient intakes from the supplements were also larger for _Atole_ than _Fresco_ villages; also, the _Atole_ contributed significant amounts of high-quality protein, while the _Fresco_ contributed none.

A program of primary medical care was provided free of charge throughout the period of data collection. Periodic preventive health services, such as immunization and deworming campaigns, were conducted in all villages. This population has been studied intensively in the years since the original data collection, with particular emphasis on the impact of the nutritional intervention (Martorell _et al._ 2005 gives references to many of these studies).

A multidisciplinary team of investigators, including the authors of this paper, undertook follow-up data collection in 2002-4 on all participants in the 1969-77 data collection (i.e., subjects born between 1962 and 1977). In 2002-4, sample members ranged from 25 to 42 years of age. Figure 1 (based on Grajeda _et al._ 2005, Figure 1) shows what happened to the 2393 individuals 0-15 years old in the original 1969-77 data collection by the time of our 2002-4 data collection: 1856 (77%) were alive and known to be living in Guatemala (11% had died, 8% had migrated abroad, 4% were not traceable). Of these 1856, 1113 lived in the original villages, 154 lived in nearby villages, 419 lived in or near to Guatemala City, and 170 lived elsewhere in Guatemala. For the 1856 traceable sample members living in Guatemala, 1054 (58%) finished the complete battery of applicable interviews and measurements and 1570 (85%) completed at least one interview during the 2002-4 data collection. For two-thirds of the 286 (15%) who completed no interviews, while we learned they were alive and living in Guatemala, we were unable to obtain current addresses and therefore could not make contact. The refusal rates for at least partial participation among those whom we were able to contact were low, around 5%. (For further details, see Grajeda _et al._ 2005.)

[Figure 1 about here]

# **Section 4.2 Central Variables for the Analysis**

Table 1 presents means, standard deviations (SD) and sample sizes (n) by gender for the central variables that appear in relation (1).

[Table 1 about here]

**<u>Dependent Variables  -- Union-Formation and Parenting-Related Outcomes (Y):</u>** We consider four groups of outcomes in our estimates in Section 5.

_1) Ever in a union and whether young (under 18y) at initiation of first union and first parenting:_ Most women (88%) and almost as high a proportion of men (83%) have had at least one

> 9 In contrast, their mothers consumed considerable quantities.

8