project implementing partners for international aid organizations (Bhargava, 2007).<sup>10</sup> These efforts gained recognition as the pace of economic and social development in Rajasthan intensified. Between 1991 and 2001 literacy rates for females doubled from 20% in 1991 to 44%, and literacy rates for scheduled castes doubled from 26% to 52% (Census of India, 1991 and 2001). These achievements were met with national as well as international acclaim and insights from several Rajasthani programs shaped national policies such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan at the national level.

Over time, some NGOs expanded the scope of their activities even further to include political mobilization of the rural poor (Bhargava, 2007).<sup>11</sup> A particularly notable NGO in this regard is the Social Work and Research Center (SWRC) in Tilonia, Rajasthan (John, 2003).<sup>12</sup> Offshoots of this organization eventually spread all over the state of Rajasthan. PRADAN (Professional Assistance for Development Action) was established in Alvar in 1987, and also noteworthy was PEDO (People’s Education and Development Organization). A distinctive feature of PEDO and its offshoots is the focus on promoting _sangathan_ (organization), _sangharsh_ (agitation) and _samrachna_ (constructive work) across the state (Rajvansi, 2007: 326). While the SWRC has retained a broad focus on economic self-reliance and environmental issues at the local level, some of the offshoots have addressed other issues. Both PRADAN and PEDO for example, have focused on women. They favored the creation of new institutions and platforms such as women’s self-help groups, cooperatives and collectives.<sup>13</sup> The efforts of these groups have been successful enough to influence national legislation. The National Right to Information Act, passed in in 2005, makes it mandatory for the government to share information with any citizen of India who requests it. The law was largely shaped by citizens’ movements, particularly under the leadership of Aruna Roy’s Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS), a spinoff of the SWRC in Southern Rajasthan. Similarly, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) was also significantly influenced by citizens’ movements in Rajasthan, as well as NGOs that had considerable experience with drought-relief programs in the state (Menon, 2008).

The NRLM in Rajasthan The NRLM operates in 17 of the poorest districts of Rajasthan and is locally known as the Rajasthan Rural Livelihoods Project or RRLP. The program began in 2011. By 2013, delays in

> 10 The Shiksha Karmi program for example, featured the recruitment and training of local teachers by NGOs. The Lok Jambish program scaled up community involvement in education through the process of mapping and microplanning at the village-level and was again led by NGOs.

> 11 Some prominent examples are the Jangle Jamin Jan Andolan led by Astha; Movement for Water Conservation by Tarun Bharat Sangh; and Right to Food by Akal Sangharsh Samiti.

> 12 Headed by Bunker Roy, the SWRC was established in Rajasthan in 1972. It began with a focus on water and irrigation but soon its mission expanded to empowerment and sustainability. It rose to prominence in the 1990s. Roy has been named one of the 50 environmentalists who could save the planet by the Guardian and one of the 100 most influential people in the world by TIME magazine.

> 13 As of March 2013, Pradan worked with 18,736 SHGs across 7 states, representing a total membership of 252,070 rural poor women. These SHGs have mobilized a total savings of 1230 million rupees.

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