rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
-7-

Unit costs for land are calculated through an analysis of recent sales.V1 Data on recent sales are provided to the assessor by the registrar of deeds.

2.06 Brazilian municipalities use a similar depreciated replacement cost method to calculate the unit cost of structures. Construction cost data is provided by local contractors or is extrapolated from Brazilian construction industry publications. They have more difficulty estimating the unit cost of land. In principle, information on the price of land transactions would be available from two sources: (i) the registrars of deeds--termed _cartorios--who_ record deeds of conveyance, and (ii) the state finance department, which--until the tax was reassigned to the municipal level- -administered a tax on the transfer of real property. The prices reported to these official sources are, however, grossly understated in order to minimize property transfer taxes. To address this problem, municipalities generally rely on specially appointed valuation commissions to prepare unit cost tables for land. These commissions are comprised of major landowners and real estate brokers, who are presumed to have access to accurate market information. No specific methodology governs their deliberations, and their results are conceded to be inaccurate, if not deliberately distorted in favor of particular constituencies.

# C. Procedures for Updating Assessment Rolls

2.07 The need to discover and incorporate changes in the tax base is particularly acute in Brazil. Due to the country's rapid urban growth rate, the tax base is rapidly changing: new land parcels are created through subdivision and expansion of the "urban zone;" new buildings are constructed and existing ones improved; and changes in ownership occur.

2.08 To discover and incorporate changes in property characteristics, Brazilian municipalities do not rely on regularly scheduled general revaluations. Several parallel strategies are instead used to discover and incorporate the various types of change in the tax base.

# Cross-referencing

2.09 As in many industrial countries, Brazilian municipal ordinances call for a system of cross-referencing between agencies of government to assist the assessor in discovering changes in property characteristics. In theory, the public sector, in carrying out its regulatory and judicial functions, is involved in most significant changes in the property tax base. Subdivision proposals must be approved by the municipal public works or planning department. Major construction requires a building permit _ex ante_ and an occupancy permit _ex post._ Changes in ownership must be registered by _cartorios._ Cross-referencing should be an effective device for transferring this information to the assessor.

_I/ Because sales of vacant land are rare In mature neighborhoods, land prices are often extrapolated from sales of built-upon properties. The value of land in such cases Is determined by calculating the cost of the structure (on the basis of depreciated replacement cost) and subtracting it from the gross sales price of the property._
<!-- Start of picture text --> IDN: Labor productivity and Backward participation in GVCs<br>a. IDN: across sectors and years b. IDN: within sectors, across years<br>S oh<br>in] “ A = z “4 y<br>Ly attwaeoe 5oy * ey Kt? , AShS a (E.eadf<br>€ ee 3 : 88 A AE<br>38 oersAas Ate fe}bsa F004eS“1534 a6, AESbf 307°10 oa 210 sate“oad.<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 9 7. -<br>oO<br>°'Foreign4value5added embodied6in gross7exports (log)8<br>5 0 5 40 15 — 3-food,bev.&tobacco — 4+textiles<br>Foreign value added embodied in gross exports (log) 7 ole ~ ‘Grnober/pastcs<br>all countries fitted line (all countries) -— 13-machinery11-non-metallic minerals —~ ‘12-basic&fabr.14-elec.&optical metalequip.<br>* IDN — — fitted line (IDN) 15-transport 16-furniture&other<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> MYS: Labor productivity and Backward participation in GVCs<br>a. MYS: across sectors and years b. MYS: within sectors, across years<br>Oo to «<br>XY ” : ee: Z<br>= 4 ie Ss “le . /<br>fo.) ” ae ‘pe F — “le . 115,<br>Ly whe Set a 5 3 a = a4: 4<br>fo) = hate ‘de he<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> fe) a aay .<br>3 A of eee<br>4 “lv as a7 aaa ith<br>0 “Tas .<br>Y AR<br>iS} 4 6 8 10 12<br>' Foreign value added embodied in gross exports (log)<br>“Foreign value added embodied in gross exports (log) —~— 3-food,bev.&tobacco 6-wood 9-chemicals — 4-+textilespaper10-rubber/plastics<br>all countries fitted line (all countries) -— 11-non-metallic 13-machinery minerals _— 12-basic&fabr. 14-elec.&opticalmetalequip.<br>« MYS — — fitted line (MYS) — 15-transport 16-furniture&other<br><!-- End of picture text -->
Foley-Fisher, N., and B. Guimaraes. 2013. “U.S. Real Interest Rates and Default Risk in Emerging Economies.” _Journal of Money, Credit and Banking_ 45:967–975.

- Fouquau, J., C. Hurlin, and I. Rabaud. 2008. “The Feldstein-Horioka puzzle: A panel smooth transition regression approach.” _Economic Modelling_ 25:284–299.

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- Gros, D. 2013. “Foreign debt versus domestic debt in the euro area.” _Oxford Review of Economic Policy_ 29:502– 517.

23
**Panel B. Policy Measures to Curb Foreign Currency Lending**

||ALB<br>ARM<br>BIH<br>BUL|HRV|CZE<br>EST|GEO|HUN|LTV|LIT<br>MDE|MDO|POL|ROM RUS|SRB<br>SVK<br>SVN<br>TUR<br>UKR|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Higher risk<br>weights,<br>provisioning or||||||||||||
|reserve<br>requirements<br>|X|X||||X||||X|X|
|depending on<br>banks' fx<br>exposure||||||||||||
|National Bank<br>||||||||||||
|requires<br>reserves for fx<br>deposits to be<br>held in fx||||||||X||||
|Narrowing of<br>interest<br>differentials|||||||||X|||
|Increasing<br>flexibility of<br>exchange rate|||||||||X|X||
|Cross-border<br>supervisory<br>intervention|||X|||X|X|||||
|Monitoring fx<br>risk||X|X||X|X||||X||
|Disclosing fx<br>risks to|||||X||||X|||
|customers||||||||||||
|Tightening of<br>eligibility<br>criteria for fx<br>borrowing||||||X|||X|X||

Source: Hilbers et al. (2005), Enoch and Oetker (2007).

42
- How household responsibilities and childcare arrangements interact with entrepreneurial activity;

- How men and women may experience barriers to growth differently;

- How gender differences manifest in accessing and using business development tools, for example access to finance, and the use of good managerial practices;

- How gender differences manifest in sector activities; and

- How these issues and challenges may differ in areas that have been, or are affected, by conflict.

The survey was carried out between the end of 2018 and the beginning of 2019, and targeted micro firms (1-5 employees), small firms (6-10 employees), and medium sized firms (>10 employees). Data were collected from 513 male and female owned businesses in the following sectors:

- _Non-farming agriculture –_ Milling and processing, agriculture wholesaling, beverage and food processing

- _Light manufacturing –_ Garments, textiles, leather; handicrafts and furniture; fabric metals, machinery and electronics; publishing, printing, media; rubber and plastics

- _Tourism and hospitality –_ Hotels and guesthouses, cafes and restaurants, tour operators

- _Trade and logistics –_ Retailing and wholesaling, freight forwarders, customs agents, warehousing, courier services; freight transport operators.

The research was conducted in the urban areas of five states/regions of Myanmar. The townships selected for the study were selected using a purposive sampling approach, with priority given to townships where the required sectors could be found. Both conflict and non-conflict affected townships were selected. The conflict townships were selected where no clashes had taken place in the past 6 months, in order to ensure the team’s safety. In Table 2 we can see the townships and the number of firms selected per area.

**Table 2. Geographic and Sectoral Dimension**<sup>**19**</sup>

|**Township**|**Conflict/Non-**<br>**conflict**|**Non-Farming**<br>**Agriculture**|**Light**<br>**Manufacturing**|**Hospitality &**<br>**Tourism**|**Trade &**<br>**Logistics**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Khi**<br>Moegaung|Conflict|10|10|10|10|
|**acn**<br>Myitkyina|Non-conflict|10|10|10|13|
|**Ki**<br>Myawaddy|Conflict|10|10|10|10|
|**ayn**<br>Hpa-an|Non-conflict|10|10|10|10|
|**Sh**<br>Lashio|Conflict|10|10|10|11|
|**an**<br>Taunggyi|Non-conflict|11|11|10|11|
|**Mandalay**<br>Chanmyatharzen|Non-conflict|11|12|10|11|
|<br>Maharaungmyay||9|11|11|14|
|Tamwe||10|14|9|14|
|**Yangon**<br>Dagon Myothit|Non-conflict|10|12|11|17|
|South Okkalapa||10|10|10|10|

19 Myanmar Gender Entrepreneurship Survey Report, Myanmar Survey Research, 2019.

11
_Intertemporal Adjustment and Fiscal Policy in a Fixed Exchange Rate Regime_ Turning to fiscal policy, immediately following the adoption of the currency board the fiscal deficit fell to zero from an average of 5 percent of GDP during the 1980s. By 1994, the current account had moved into surplus thanks to past growth achievements and better fiscal policies. That year ended in deficit, however, and the deficit worsened throughout the remainder of the currency board period, reaching around 3.5 percent of GDP by 2001 (figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7 Ratio of fiscal deficit to GDP in Argentina, 1991–2001 <!-- Start of picture text --> 0.02<br>0.01<br>0.00<br>-0.01<br>-0.02<br>-0.03<br>-0.04<br>-0.05<br>1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Centro de Economía Internacional.

The procyclical reaction of revenues to GDP, combined with less downward flexibility of fiscal expenditures, contributed to this result. In general, however, both public expenditures and government revenues were sensitive to business cycles, causing the fiscal balance to fluctuate widely during the entire period.

The country’s deficits were financed by capital inflows stimulated by a policy of capital liberalization. The inflows led, however, to higher external indebtedness, which seems to have been the only feasible adjustment mechanism, given the existence of the currency board.

When the currency board was adopted, Argentina’s total public debt was $87 billion, or 40 percent of GDP. By 2001, it had reached $145 billion (53 percent of GDP)—a 67 percent increase.

8
For simplicity, I do not take into account any demand- or supply-side price adjustments as a consequence of pricing carbon. Instead I only consider the static reduction in net unit revenue for the different types of technologies in different jurisdictions. The point is not to provide a prediction of the resulting market impacts of the scenarios _per se_ but rather a sense of the variation of the effects across steel production types.<sup>17</sup> I also refer to the “U.S.” and “Brazil” but the reported data are in fact those for “North America” and “South America” in OECD (2002).

# **Baseline Scenario:  No Border Adjustment**

Under the baseline scenario, the U.S. imposes a carbon tax based on the carbon footprint on all three types of U.S. firms but leaves foreign firms untouched. This leads to sharply reduced domestic net unit revenue, though with variable effects on the different U.S. steel types while foreigners continue to receive $540 per tonne of steel. U.S. BOF firms receive $490 per tonne while minimills using scrap as an input receive $525 per tonne of steel.<sup>18</sup>

||**Table**<br>|**4: Satisfying**<br>|**Policy Constra**<br>|**ints**<br>||<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Constraint|Baseline<br>Scenario|Scenario 1:<br>Firm-<br>specific tax|Scenario 2:<br>Average<br>foreign<br>emissions|Scenario 3:<br>Average<br>domestic<br>emissions|Scenario 4:<br>"Best<br>available"<br>U.S.<br>technology|<br>Scenario 5:<br>"Worst<br>available"<br>U.S.<br>technology<br>with foreign<br>firm<br>submissions|
|1.a Domestic firm buy-in|N|Y|?|N|N|?|
|1.b Foreign firm buy-in|Y|N|N|N|Y|?|
|2. Incentives for foreign firm<br>CO2 reduction|N|Y|N|N|N|Y|
|3. Adherence to WTO rules|Y|Y|N|N|N|Y|
|4. Administrative tractability|Y|N|N|Y|Y|Y|

Notes: Y=Plausibly does satisfy constraint; N=Does not plausibly satisfy constraints; ?=unclear Source: Author’s compilation.

How does this scenario fit into the constraints discussed above? The policy is administratively tractable in the domestic economy so meets Constraint 2, at least to the extent that the domestic government can reliably audit domestic steel carbon emissions.<sup>19</sup> The policy provides no additional incentives for foreign firms to adopt carbon emission reducing technology 17 Note as well that the carbon footprint of HRC is higher than the crude steel emission numbers in Table 4, which are based on crude steel production. However, the greatest variation in carbon footprint occurs at the crude steel production stage since modern rolling operations are relatively similar across jurisdictions and processes.

> 18 Note that there could be significant variability even within U.S. steel types.  For example, an EAF using nuclear generated electricity would have a substantially lower carbon footprint than one using coal generated power.  This would be reflected in the carbon tax (or emission permits) burden on individual domestic firms.  I ignore this complication in the analysis.

> 19 I will assume that such ability exists though it would not be administratively trivial.  The current EU Emissions Trading System is a current example.

13
Brown C., M. Ravallion and D. van de Walle (Forthcoming), “Most of Africa’s NutritionallyDeprived Women and Children are Not Found in Poor Households”, _The Review of Economics and Statistics_ , https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00800 Case A., C. Paxson and J. Ableidinger (2004), “Orphans in Africa: Parental death, poverty, and school enrollment", _Demography_ 41.3, pp. 483-508.

Chesher A. and C. Schluter (2002), “Welfare Measurement and Measurement Error”, _Review of Economic Studies,_ vol. 69, April 2002, pp 357-378 Chiappori, P.-A., (1988). "Rational Household Labor Supply," _Econometrica_ , Econometric Society, vol. 56(1), 63-90, January Cogneau D. _et al._ (2006), « Inégalités et équité en Afrique », DIAL WP 2006-11.

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Deaton, A., (1997), _The analysis of household surveys : a microeconometric approach to development policy_ . Washington, D.C. : The World Bank.

Deaton, A. (2005). "Measuring Poverty in a Growing World (or Measuring Growth in a Poor <u>World),"</u> _The Review of Economics and Statistics_ , MIT Press, vol. 87(1), pages 1-19, 04 Deaton, A. and M. Grosh (2000), “Consumption”, in _Designing Household Survey Questionnaires for Developing Countries: Lessons from 15 Years of the Living Standards Measurement Study_ , edited by Grosh, M. and P. Glewwe, World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Dercon, S., and P. Krishnan (2000), "In Sickness and in Health: Risk Sharing within Households in Rural Ethiopia." _Journal of Political Economy_ 108, no. 4 (2000): 688-727.

De Vreyer, P. _et al._ (2008), _“_ Pauvreté et Structure Familiale. Pourquoi une nouvelle enquête ? _”, Statéco_ , n°102, pp. 5-20.

De Vreyer, P. and B. Nilsson (2019), “When Solidarity Fails: Heterogeneous Effects on Children from Adult Deaths in Senegalese Households”, _World Development_ , vol.114, pp.73-94 <u>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.09.018</u> DiNardo, J., N. M. Fortin and T. Lemieux (1996), “Labor Market Institutions and the Distribution of Wages, 1973-1992: A Semiparametric Approach”, _Econometrica_ , vol. 64(5), pp. 1001-1044.

Dunbar, G. R., A. Lewbel and K. Pendakur. (2013),. "Children's Resources in Collective Households: Identification, Estimation, and an Application to Child Poverty in Malawi." _American Economic Review,_ 103(1): 438-71.

D’Souza, A. and S. Tandon (2019). “Intra-household Nutritional Inequalities in Rural Bangladesh.” _Economic Development and Cultural Change_ , 67, no. 3, pp. 625-657 Green, W. H. (2000), _Econometric Analysis_ , fourth edition, Prentice Hall.

33
# **3. The Peak in Youth Population**

According to the population projections of the United Nations Population Division, the number of young people in the world is close to reaching its historical peak, a peak that will arguably be the largest number of young people the world will ever see. Figure 1 shows the number of 12-24 year-olds in the world and in three major developing regions – Asia, Africa, and Latin America – according to the U.N. medium variant projections. The population numbers have been normalized to an index where 1950=100 for all regions in order to simplify comparisons across regions. Although projections as far out as 2050 must be viewed with caution, projections over the next two decades are relatively straightforward. The projections to 2050 are shown because they give a picture of at least one reasonable scenario for the trends that will be experienced in the coming decades. As suggested by Figure 1, there is little question that current youth cohorts are the largest that the world has ever seen, and that a period of rapid growth in the size of these cohorts is coming to an end. While the world population aged 12-24 more than doubled in the 35 years between 1950 and 1985, a historically unprecedented rate of growth, the world’s youth population is projected to decline in the 35 years after 2010.

As shown in Figure 1, the pattern for the world as a whole reflects wide diversity across regions. With Asia accounting for almost two-thirds of the world population, the pattern for Asia is very similar to the pattern for the world as a whole. The rapid approach of the peak in the youth population is more clearly evident in Asia, however, with a projected peak around 2010. Latin America and the Caribbean are also approaching a peak, with a broad leveling off that begins around 2010. Figure 1 shows that the pattern for Africa is substantially different, however. The youth population in Africa, which is already more than four times its 1950 level, is

> <sup>3</sup>
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Policy Research Working Paper 7441

# **Abstract**

The rapid growth of trust funds at multilateral development organizations has been widely neglected in the academic literature so far. Using a simple illustrative model, this paper examines the choice by sovereign donors among various trust fund options. The authors contend that the choice among the different trust funds involves a fundamental trade-off: larger funds provide donors with the benefit of burden sharing. Conversely, each donor can better assert its individual preferences in a fund with fewer other donors. The theoretical considerations yield testable implications on a range of factors affecting this fundamental tradeoff, most notably the area of intervention of the trust fund and competing domestic interests of donor countries. Using a sample of World Bank trust funds, the paper examines the participation decisions of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/Development Assistance Committee donors over the past decade. In line with the theoretical argument, preference homogeneity among donors as well as indicators for global activities and fragile states assistance are robust determinants of participation in (large) multi-donor funds. In contrast, donors tend to prefer single-donor trust funds in areas in which their national interests dominate. Although they could use bilateral aid for the same purpose, they often prefer to channel their contributions through trust funds at multilateral agencies. Donors thereby reduce their own administrative costs, while benefiting from the expertise of the multilateral agency. These findings confirm prior qualitative case studies and evidence from donor reports, suggesting that reduced reliance on single-donor trust funds—a costly instrument from the perspective of multilateral agencies—can improve the development effectiveness of aid.

This paper is a product of the Human Development and Public Services Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at sknack@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team