rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Improved cooking stoves (ICS) that use less biomass have therefore received significant attention as important intermediate technologies (Jeuland and Pattanayak, 2012), most of which use fuelwood, which is the most important biomass fuel. ICS have important advantages, because they typically do not involve sophisticated technologies and may require only minor changes in household cooking habits. These important features can make them very attractive if households really are able to cook meals with less wood, ICS are adopted and are regularly used by households. Because of the potential medium-run advantages, Ethiopia has made a particularly important commitment to ICS by including them in official strategy documents. The Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy (FDRE, 2011), for example, commits to promoting ICS that will be used by about 20 million households and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by almost 35 Mt CO2e by 2030. “Reducing the demand for biomass by increasing fuel efficiency” is indeed currently seen as one of the few strategic priorities in the Ethiopian energy sector” (FDRE 2014).

The Ethiopian government is actively promoting the use of ICS and has announced its intention to distribute 9.4 million improved cookstoves by mid-decade. Most of these are Mirt stoves (which means ‘best’ in Amharic language). The Mirt stove is used primarily to bake _injera,_ which is the main staple bread in Ethiopia and the heart of the national cuisine. Cooking _injera_ uses an estimated 50% - 60% of household cooking fuel (Practical Action Ethiopia; Bizzarri, 2010). As about 90% of Ethiopia’s total energy demand is from the household sector, baking _injera_ consumes roughly half the nation’s energy.

Our paper is perhaps the first to use a randomized design with real-time stove monitoring data matched with _in situ_ measurement of fuelwood savings per-meal and per-minute of cooking time to identify the fuelwood savings of an ICS intervention. We use controlled cooking tests (CCTs) implemented by cooks in their own homes over three periods to actually measure the pertime-period fuelwood savings from the Mirt stove. To reduce total fuelwood demand, households must not only save wood when the technology is used, but households must actually substitute ICS for less-efficient traditional technologies. We measure the frequency with which Mirt stoves are used with real time electronic stove use monitors that measure the temperatures of our randomly distributed Mirt stoves every 10 minutes during four 37 to 56-day periods over more than one year. In the paper we convert the fuelwood savings to CO2 emissions reductions using emissions factors and protocols from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

**3 |** P a g e
Olken, Ben (2007) “Monitoring Corruption: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Indonesia” _Journal of Political Economy_ 115(2): 200-249 Patton, Michael Quinn (2008) _Utilization-Focused Evaluation_ (Fourth Edition) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Pritchett, Lant (2002) “It Pays to be Ignorant: A Simple Political Economy of Rigorous Program Evaluation” _Policy Reform_ 5(4): 251-269 Rao, Vijayendra (2000) “Price Heterogeneity and Real Inequality: A Case-Study of Poverty and Prices in Rural South India” _Review of Income and Wealth_ 46(2): 201–12 Rao, Vijayendra (2001) “Celebrations as Social Investments: Festival Expenditures, Unit Price Variation and Social Status in Rural India” _Journal of Development Studies_ 37(1): 71–97 Rao, Vijayendra, Indrani Gupta, Michael Lokshin, and Smarajit Jana (2003) “Sex Workers and the Cost of Safe Sex: The Compensating Differential for Condom Use in Calcutta” _Journal of Development Economics_ 71(2): 585-603 Rao, Vijayendra and Michael Woolcock (2003) “Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches in Program Evaluation”, in Francois J. Bourguignon and Luiz Pereira da Silva (eds.) _The Impact of Economic Policies on Poverty and Income Distribution: Evaluation Techniques and Tools_ New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 165-90 Ravallion, Martin, (2008) “Evaluating Anti-Poverty Programs,” in Paul Schultz and John Strauss (eds.) _Handbook of Development Economics_ Volume 4, Amsterdam: North-Holland Vijayendra Rao and Paromita Sanyal (2009) “Dignity through Discourse: Poverty and the Culture of Deliberation in Indian Village Democracies” Policy Research Working Paper No. 4924, Washington, DC: World Bank Woolcock, Michael (2009) ‘Toward a Plurality of Methods in Project Evaluation: A Contextualized Approach to Understanding Impact Trajectories and Efficacy’ _Journal of Development Effectiveness_ 1(1): 1-14 28
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up calls were made to determine the square footage of the properties advertised. Properties in low-come areas are generally not advertised in newspapers. In these areas, price and floor area information was obtained through interviews with the patrons of local bars and bakeries. Individual Vu's were then calculated for each sampled property.

3.18 The weights assigned to the adjustment factors were determined arbitrarily, although they can dramatically affect assessments. A building's position at the back of its lot can reduce its assessment by 50 percent; location in a desirable part of the neighborhood can double an assessment. No effort was made to determine the market's assessment of the contribution of these factors to property values.

# C. Impact arnd Cost Effectiveness,

3.19 IPLAN expects che impact of the reform to begin to appear in the property tax receipts of 1988. Two of the components of the resurvey will be incorporated in the 1988 billings: changes in use and revisions to the dimensions of buildings already on the tax rolls. Newly discovered buildings will not be billed in 1988. As noted earlier, property records for these buildings are not yet complete.

3.20 Revised unit costs will not be introduced until 1989. For 1988, the municipality has announced that annual adjustment on existing valuation will range from 220 percent to 348 percent for residential property and from 220 percent to 444 percent for commercial property.1°1 Nominal tax rates are to be consolidated to a single rate (on improved property) of 0.8 percent.

3.21 The resurvey component of the program has to date cost the equivalent of US$670,000, an average of 95 cents per property. Total program costs were equivalent to 1 percent of property tax revenues in the year preceding the program. Viewing the program as a financial investment, IPLAN regards the program as highly cost-effective. IPLAN reports that one component alone-revisions to the records of buildings already on the tax rolls--increased total billings by about US$15 million, an amount equal to 22 times the program's cost.

3.22 This apparently high degree of cost effectiveness is attributable in part to the programs's narrow scope. In excluding low-income areas, it avoided properties where the ratio of administrative costs to yields would be relatively high. In making no attempt to discover changes in parcel dimensions, it eliminated any need to contact owners or investigate subdivision records or deeds registrations.

3.23 Costs were also reduced by the program's minimal reliance on original field data gathering. By avoiding any effort to verify ownership, measure building dimensions or note construction details, the field survey phase of the program was able to average 55 buildings per field staff per day.

_IQ/ Inflation adjustments will continue to be differentiated by neighborhood._
14 attribution analysis. Furthermore, these M&E units were structured to be under the authority of extension management, so their independence was compromised. As a result, the inability to attribute the extension system’s impact convincingly at the aggregate level, and thereby to gain the support of policymakers, was still a problem under the T&V design.

The pre-designed interaction with research, and the structured positions for subjectmatter specialists, whose mandate required regular contact with research, were to overcome the weakness in this field. But the incentives for research scientists to invest heavily in interaction with extension have generally been slow to change if at all, so there were limits to the progress that could be achieved in this respect.

The large clientele was to be served by a larger field-level cadre than before. This, as well as many other features of the design (multi-level hierarchy with more mid-level managers and technical experts, better mobility through vehicles and motorcycles, more local-level offices) implied not only a higher investment cost, but also a much higher recurrent cost compared to the pre-T&V situation. This is reflected in the fact that 90 percent of completed T&V extension projects reviewed in Purcell and Anderson (1997) encountered serious recurrent cost funding shortages, some even while the project was still under implementation. In our judgment this is the most crucial aspect responsible for the ultimate fall of the T&V extension model within a 25year period from its inception in 1974, rather than the fact that the design contained features that limited the improvement in effectiveness. The promoters of T&V, while being aware of the cost, did not appreciate the political ramifications of high recurrent costs. Thus, Development Communication Report (1978, p. 9) cited a key leader of the T&V concept in response to a
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over 1 million BDT from commercial bank or a leasing company, renewal of membership with chamber of commerce or business associations, getting utility connection to business premises, etc.) for which a TIN is legally required and the significant penalty (BDT 20,000) involved in using a fake TIN or somebody else’s TIN. The letter is signed and stamped by the NBR, and we had the letter hand delivered by agents who acted upon the approval of the tax authority and identified themselves as tax authority envoys. To make the 30 day notice period credible to the recipients, the delivery date of each of the letters is clearly marked and the tax office agents obtained a confirmation signature and date of the receipt of the letter by the firms as a part of the hand delivery process. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first stick intervention to address informality vis-a-vis tax registration in Bangladesh and, for that matter, in developing countries.<sup>3</sup> If firms perceive such visits as credible threats, thus increasing the expected size of the penalty for informality, they would respond by registering. We note as well that our stick intervention is orthogonal to recent reforms of the tax authority that have made the registration process easy and costless. NBR eliminated the registration fee associated with obtaining a TIN (previously BDT 1000) in 2012 and launched the online registration process — eTIN— in 2013, which has eliminated any potential transaction and opportunity costs associated with a business owner’s physical visit and interaction with the local tax officials. The business owner can now readily and easily obtain the TIN certificate for free through the online registration system at any time without needing to travel to their local tax office. As such, the effect of these carrots in terms of reducing the direct costs of obtaining a TIN affect both our treatment and control group in the same way.

# **4 Research Design**

We implement our intervention at the market level in Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, which has the country’s largest concentration of economic activities and businesses. Our sample comes from a nationally representative business listing of about 56,000 firms in 19 major districts of Bangladesh conducted in 2010 and a nationally representative survey of informal firms conducted in 2011 by the World Bank Group. Based on these two sources, we constructed 3A recent paper by Khan, Khwaja, and Olken (2014) provides monetary incentives, in the form of performance pay, to tax collectors in Pakistan and finds substantial improvements in tax revenues.

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mostly foreign owned firms were 28 percent more productive, and they paid 13 percent more than the mostly domestic-owned firms. Furthermore, from 1993 to 1999 the positive correlation of foreign ownership with wages in small, medium, and large firms increased substantially. The hypothesis test indicates that the productivity gap is larger than the wage gap meaning that firms benefit the most from foreign ownership.

Table 19: Foreign capital

|Variable||19|93|||19|99||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Fc|Wage|P>Izl<br>P|roductivity|**P>Izl**|Wage|P>Izl<br>|Productivity|**P>Izl**|
|ooled|0.07|0.00|0.54|0.00|0.13|0.00|0.28|0.00|
|icro|-0.04|0.88|0.07|0.88|||||
|Small|0.18|0.05|1.17|0.00|0.38|0.00|-0.98|0.00|
|Medium|0.07|0.09|0.41|0.00|0.13|0.00|0.61|0.00|
||0.07|0.02|0.56|0.00|0.10|0.00|0.35|0.00|

_Source._ Author's calculations based on ENTRAM-ENESTYC.

Surprisingly; the size of export share is associated with lower wages and productivity in 1993 and with lower productivity in 1999 (see Table 20). Productivity in 1993 was shown to be negatively correlated with export orientation in all sizes of firms except micro. In 1999 productivity was still negatively correlated with export orientation, although to a lesser degree.

**Table 20:** Export Share

|Variable||**19**|**93**||||**19**|**99**||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Exp**|Wage|P>Izl<br>|Pro|ductivity|**P>fzl**|Wage|P>Izl<br>|Productivity|P>jzl|
|ooled|-0.13|0.00||-1.09|0.00|-0.01|0.62|-0.25|0.00|
|Micro|0.01|0.98||1.21|0.00|_-0.05_|0.73|1.90|0.00|
|Small|0.10|0.32||-0.74|0.00|-0.10|0.08|-0.10|0.48|
|Medium|0.03|0.54||-1.37|0.00|-0.13|0.00|-0.34|0.00|
|Large|-0.23|0.00||-1.27|0.00|0.05|0.11|-0.42|0.00|

_Source-_ Author's calculations based on ENTRAM-ENESTYC.

# **iii. Quality Control**

Empirical evidence suggests that a finn's introduction of quality control measures enhances its productivity and exports (see World Bank, 2001). Quality control only had a 21
in the literature, income has been widely used in practice in the region since consumption is rarely collected by the national statistical offices (NSOs) in LAC.

Due to the time required for household data collection and processing, household surveys are usually available only with a two or more years lag. This makes it extremely challenging to provide real-time poverty analysis. Although LAC is the region with most frequent household surveys, the region is not an exception; the latest data available are from 2014 in most of the countries in the region. To address this knowledge gap, this paper provides validations of three alternative methods widely applied to nowcast poverty estimates both at the country as well as at the regional level and provides up-to-date poverty estimates in the region.

Despite being outdated, poverty data in LAC are more up-to-date than most of other regions in the world. In addition, the quality of the data is usually superior in many dimension. For instance, surveys have in general more coverage –i.e., over 90 percent of LAC’s population is covered by poverty data since the 1990s -- data are more frequent –i.e., about 60 percent of the countries in LAC have more than three data points (Serajuddin et al. 2015)-, and surveys are available for many years and usually comparable over time in most of the LAC countries. Having several years of data offers at least two advantages. First, the years considered (2003-14) coincide with a period of large poverty drops as well as poverty stagnation, which allows us to validate methods under different scenarios of poverty changes. Second, having several years allows us to test the robustness of some methods to the use of different past information. For all these reasons, this paper focuses in the LAC region to validate existing poverty nowcasting methods.

# _3.2 Methods used for poverty nowcasting_

This section presents the data environment and the three methods used to nowcast poverty estimates. The analysis is performed in three periods of time: periods –2, –1, and 0; the first two periods refer to the past when household surveys and national accounts information are available, while period 0 refers to the present when _only_ national accounts information is available. Notice that the sequence in the nomenclature of the periods (i.e., –2, –1, and 0) does not imply that they are adjacent or subsequent to each other; rather that the sequence is in a chronological order where each period could be several years apart from the other. For the sake of simplicity we neglected population growth in our estimations, as nowcasting generally implies very short periods of time in which data availability is missing and for which population growth is usually negligible.

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probability that a link in the overlapping network connects two individuals in the same cluster (the unit of the non-overlapping network) to measure the correlation between networks.<sup>31</sup> As can be seen in Figure 3, the _blocked_ design produces little overall variation in treatment saturations; the saturations are centered around 50%, independent of the correlation. The _clustered_ design suffers from the opposite problem: because treatment has taken place at the cluster level, it is dominated by nodes that have either high or low treatment saturations when there is correlation between networks. Finally, the RS design produces a more even distribution of saturations when there is correlation between networks. In the limit, when there is no correlation between networks, the three designs produce the same saturation distributions (left panel of Figure 3).

# **3 Empirical Application**

The Schooling, Income, and Health Risk (SIHR) is a randomized saturation study designed to understand the role that Conditional and Unconditional Cash Transfers (CCTs and UCTs) play in improving schooling outcomes and reducing early marriage and pregnancy among unmarried, school-age females. We now present an analysis of all of the estimands developed in this paper using the RS design to understand how these programs altered outcomes for the within-cluster controls as well as for the treated. The study took place in the Zomba district of Malawi. Before the start of the intervention, 176 EAs were selected from urban (Zomba city, 29 EAs) and rural (147 EAs) strata for inclusion in the study.<sup>32</sup> In the 176 study EAs, each dwelling was visited to take a census of all never-married females aged 13-22 years. Within this eligible population we defined two cohorts: those enrolled in school at baseline (baseline schoolgirls), and those not enrolled in school at baseline (baseline dropouts). All baseline dropouts were selected for inclusion in the study due to the small size of this cohort (approximately five per EA, accounting for about 15% of the target population), while we sampled within the larger cohort of baseline schoolgirls. The percentage of this cohort randomly selected for inclusion in the study was just above 60% and varied by geographical stratum and age group.<sup>33</sup> This sampling procedure yielded 3,796 individuals, who were enrolled in the study and completed baseline interviews at the end of 2007. Of these study participants, 889 were baseline dropouts and 2,907 were the baseline schoolgirls who we analyze here.

Out of the 176 EAs, 88 EAs were assigned to pure control and 88 to treatment. All

> 31The specific structure of the network is irrelevant. Any network with the same number of links and correlation measure will acheive the same saturation distribution.

> 32Each EA contains an average of 250 households spanning several villages.

> 33The sampling rate varied from 14% to 45% in urban EAs and 70% to 100% in rural ones.

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# **_3) Growth decomposition by factors of production_**

This section decomposes growth into factor accumulation and productivity change, based on similar exercises done previously for Egypt by Loayza and Honorati (2007) and Favaro, Garrido and Stucka (2009). The rate of change of physical capital is estimated based on historical investment figures with a constant depreciation rate. The rate of change in human capital is estimated as in Ghosh and Kray (2000) and applied to Egypt by Favaro et al. (2009), but we modify it along three lines: first, we consider the share of labor income to be 40 percent, rather than the 60 percent used in the previous application to Egypt.<sup>4</sup> Previous growth decompositions exercises for Egypt considered a higher share of labor, believing that the share of labor income could be underestimated because the income of self-employed is imputed as capital income (Gollin, 2002 and Bernanke and Gurkaynak 2001).

While such an adjustment could have produced significant changes in estimating the labor share in national income in the past, presently its effect might not be as large given the decline in selfemployment in Egypt, from 25 percent in 1986 (El Ehwany and El Laithy, 2001) to about 11 percent at present (Assaad, 2009).<sup>5</sup> Annex 2 describes our calculation of the share of labor in national income, which oscillates between 32 and 36 percent. In order to avoid overstating this point, we arbitrarily raise the share to 40 percent, still significantly lower than the 60 percent used in traditional growth decomposition exercises. The capital intensive nature of the Egyptian economy is an important feature for at least two reasons: first, there will be low elasticity of employment with respect to output; and second, the higher the share of capital the larger will be the impact on GDP of any shock to investment. Both implications of the capital-intensive feature of the Egyptian economy have important consequences for the analysis of the impact of the crisis on Egypt as will be seen in the next two sections.

Two other differences with previous growth decomposition studies are the use of a variable rate of return to education through time, as well as a changing participation rate in the last years (Said, 2009). The rising rate of return to education in the decade between 1998 and 2006, as well as the increasing rate of labor participation imply higher rates of human capital accumulation.

> **4** Using social accounting matrices, several studies found that the share of capital in output increased from 68 percent in 1988, to 69 percent in 2001, and to 73 percent in 2007 (Eckaus et al., 1981; Akhter et al, 2001; and Kantor Management, 2009). Yet, the share of labor income might be underestimated because the income of self-employed is imputed as capital income (Gollin, 2002 and Bernanke and Gurkaymak 2001).

> **5** Note that the first study is based on Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES) while the second one is based on Labor Market Surveys.

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