rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
- Stolper, W. F. and Samuelson, P. A. (1941). Protection and real wages. _Review of Economic Studies_ , 9:58–73.

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- Syverson, C. (2010). What determines productivity? _NBER Working Paper_ , w15712.

- UNCTAD (2006). _Trade and development report: global partnerships and national policies for development_ . United Nations, New York and Geneva.

- Xu, X. and Sheng, Y. (2010). Productivity spillovers from foreign direct investment: Evidence from firm-level data in china. _Hong Kong Polytechnic University, mimeo_ .

- Young, A. (1991). Learning by doing and the dynamic effects of international trade. _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ , 106:369–405.

# **A Mathematical Appendix**

## **A.1 Equilibrium Conditions for Firms**

We express the first order conditions of tradable firms as functions of the product rent and the product wage, and similarly the first order conditions for non-tradable firms, Dividing the first order conditions on capital yields equilibrium condition (4) for the capital market; dividing the remaining two conditions yields the equilibrium condition (5) for the labor market.

The final goods sector’s first order conditions imply that the marginal product of each intermediate input has to equal its price, 37
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# **1. Introduction**

Unraveling the complex relationship between gender and migration is a primary focus of recent migration research (Kanaiaupuni 2000; Cerrutti and Massey 2001; Davis and Winters 2001). One central aspect of this puzzle relates to the shift and variation in the gender composition of international migration (Castles and Miller 2003; Pfeiffer, Richter et al. 2007). While women comprise roughly half of the world’s international migrant population (Zlotnik 1999), the proportion varies considerably by region, and there are countries, such as Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia, where the majority of emigrants are female (United Nations 2006; Martin 2007). Variation in the gender distribution of migration is at least partly understood by local culture, which plays a critical role in deciding whether married or unmarried women can migrate or not (Boyd and Grieco 2003). In patriarchal, traditional societies, men are generally the frontrunners of international migration and female migration in such settings is in the context of tied-migrants – either joining a spouse or other family members. At some later stage the cultural taboo against female migration appears to relax and women are gradually incorporated in the migration process. This appears to be the case for Mexico, where most migration research is focused, and where women may be increasingly independent agents of migration (Kanaiaupuni 2000; Cerrutti and Massey 2001). Unraveling the puzzle behind the shift in the gender composition of migration remains a critical challenge – one that is made more complicated by complex, circular causality linking gender, migration and development over time, both locally as well as in migrant destinations.

There are both descriptive and analytical components to our inquiry. The descriptive focuses on whether or not and at what rate are women incorporated into a migration stream which is initially dominated by males. There is little, if any, empirical evidence describing the evolution of the gender composition of migration for a nation over time, from an initial state of no migration to one where migration becomes a normative practice. The difficulty of migration data collection may partly explain this lacuna (Zlotnik 1990; Cerrutti and Massey 2001), as well as the fact that local data collection efforts rarely predate the onset of international migration movements. The second and analytical component of our study, aims to deconstruct the causal process driving changes in female participation in international migration. This requires an understanding of the 1
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Figure 2: Conceptual Modes of Skill Development and Employment Source: Middieton and Schwartz (1986)
the number of branches, loans, and deposit accounts. Contrary to the country-level regressions where identification is weak (particularly because omitted factors might be driving the link between outreach and foreign bank presence), in the bank-level regressions, we identify the effects of foreign acquisitions by comparing results for banks that were acquired at different points in time and by including as a control group a similarly large bank that remained domestic throughout the sample (Banorte). Finally, we conduct a more disaggregated examination using bank-municipality-level data.<sup>2</sup> In this context, we examine the extent to which changes in outreach within a municipality varied after bank acquisitions by foreigners depending on the initial level of GDP per capita and the degree of urbanization of the municipality (i.e., the share of rural population). As in the bank-level regressions, identification hinges on comparing acquisitions at different moments in time and benchmarking the effects to a bank that was never acquired.

An extensive literature has examined many of the consequences of financial liberalization, in general, and of foreign bank participation, more specifically, in developing countries.<sup>3</sup> In particular, the implications of foreign bank entry for bank efficiency, competition, stability, and access to credit have been investigated by cross-country and country-specific studies, using an array of different data sources.<sup>4</sup> Studies on the impact of foreign bank participation on competition and efficiency suggest that foreign bank entry can bring potential gains in this area except in environments that limit competitive forces, such as when bank concentration is high, bank activities are restricted, and bank entry and exit is difficult (see

> 2 What in Mexico are known as “municipios”, which we translate as municipalities, are similar to what in the US are referred to as counties.

> 3 For studies on the effect of capital account and equity markets liberalization, see among others, Henry (2003), Bekaert, Harvey, and Lundblad (2005) and Bekaert, Harvey, Lundblad, and Sigel (2007).

> 4 See Clarke, Cull, Martinez Peria, and Sanchez (2003) and Cull and Martinez Peria (2007) for a review of the literature.

2
affiliates to parents increase, and these increases are concentrated among affiliates of parents that intensively patent innovations in the U.S. prior to reforms. Analyzing patterns in affiliate R&D spending, which is a complement to the transfer of technology, indicates that at least some component of increased royalty payments reflects increases in the volume of technology transferred and not merely increases in the price of technology transferred. Affiliates increase their R&D expenditures at the time of reforms. These increases are also concentrated among affiliates of parents that use U.S. patents intensively, and they are of a similar magnitude to the changes in royalty payments. Additional evidence that the volume of technology transferred increases comes from patent data drawn from countries that undergo reforms. While the level of domestic patent applications is unaffected by reforms, foreign patent applications increase, in terms of both levels and growth rates.

These results are not, of course, sufficient to demonstrate that IPR reform is welfare enhancing for the reforming countries. The analysis does not consider the impact of reforms on locally owned firms that may be displaced after reforms nor does it examine the effects of the reforms on the pace of innovation in non-reforming countries. However, given the lack of evidence that IPR reform spurs domestic innovation, increases in technology transfer are likely to be a necessary condition for IPR reform to increase welfare in reforming countries. Our results suggest that this condition is met.

The findings in this paper could be extended in several ways. One promising direction would be to use patent data broken down by narrowly defined technology class and the nationality of the inventor. In the absence of strong IPR protection, multinationals may limit the deployment of certain critical technologies – typically, more 27
-4-

The Makivik Research Laboratory, an Inuit initiative that flowed from the James Bay Land Claims Settlement, has been uniquely successful in developing an Inuit capability to conduct e.avironmental and renewable resource studies which serve indigenous interests.

Studies from the Pacific region suggest that the model of convergence between conservation and indigenous peoples is complex and should be qualified in terms of the extent to which traditional resource management systems are compatible with western-style conservation. These studies suggest as much variation amongst traditional systems as amongst western conservationists. Reports from Papua New Guinea reveal how some conservation area categories match traditional systems of land tenure better than ochers. In Australia, an innovative arrangement has been operative in Kakadu and Coburg National Parks, but the aboriginal communities still have to contend with the prospect of massive tourist developments and conflicting expectations about the character of national parks.

CHAPTER FIVE looks at the recent history of conservation in Latin America in terms of two phases. (1) The national parks and Indian reservations in which conditions were imposed upon the methods by which resident indigenous communities exploited their resources. (2) Recent conservation projects which have adopted a significantly different approach, signified by deliberate attempts to involve local communities in the planning process.

This is followed by a review of examples of small-scale communitybased sustainable development in Latin America in terms of the extent to which they would be compatible with wildland conservation.

CHAPTER SIX presents nine case studies from Letin America where indigenous people have become involved in a conservation project. The two most successful cases resulted from initiatives by the Kuna in Panama and the Awa in Ecuador. The Mbaracayu case in Paraguay is still in the proposal stage but holds similar promise. Other cases, such as Cuyabeno and Yasuni, in Eastern Ecuador, are less successful in that both areas have been subjected to developmaent since receiving protected area status. Many of the areas have been designated, or have applied for status as biosphere reserves. Generally, the project proponents appear to consider the MAB biosphere reserve approach to be the conservation category which most closely matches their objectives.

CHAPTER SEVEN reviews the case studies and preceding examples in terms of ten areas of activity, seven of which are conventional conservation area planning topics and three are added for their relevance to World Bank project planning: organization, compatible resource development, impact management.
days with Tmax>90th percentile), warm nights (percentage days with Tmin>90th percentile), cold days (percentage days with Tmax<10th percentile), and cold nights (percentage days with Tmin<10th percentile).

A study of extreme temperatures (1971-2006) in Nepal revealed that both days and nights are becoming warmer and cold days and nights are becoming less frequent (Baidya et al. 2008). Dimri and Dash (2011) find similar trends in the western Indian Himalayas, where they report an increased number of warm days and decreased number of cold days during 1975-2006. Frequent occurrences of extreme warm years are noted in recent years (6 between 1995 and 2002) in the Brahmaputra River Basin (Immerzeel, 2008). Similarly, in southwest Xizang province of China, most stations showed increasing trends for twelve extreme temperature indices during 1961-2005 (You et al. 2008). Caesar et al., (2011) use daily data to compare trends in climatic extremes in Indo-Pacific regions including the Nepalese and Bhutanese Himalayas. This comparison both across the region and with global trends reveals that, although statistically insignificant, the combined Nepalese and Bhutanese Himalayas show high rates of increase in maximum Tmax (1.32 °C/decade against 0.29 °C/decade global average) and Tmin (0.93 °C/decade against 0.33 °C/decade global average). These trends imply that temperature of the hottest day is increasing at a very high rate over the decades.

Trends also exist in precipitation extremes. Baidya et al. (2008) observe an increase in the number of days with more than 50 mm rainfall in Nepal. Analysis of 1961-2006 daily precipitation data from 26 stations across Nepal reveals that precipitation extremes increase in both total precipitation and heavy precipitation events (≥ 50 mm) at 73% of the stations (Baidya et al., 2008). Based on daily data from 1910-2000, Sen Roy and Balling (2004) find an increase in frequency of extreme precipitation events (total precipitation; largest 1, 5, and 30 day totals, number of events with > 90<sup>th</sup> , 95<sup>th</sup> , and 97.45<sup>th</sup> percentiles of precipitation) northwestern Indian Himalaya, a finding that Sen Roy (2009) supports using hourly data from 1980-2002. Sen Roy (2009) reports that the northwestern Himalaya and northern parts of the Indo-Gangetic basin in the Himalayan foothills show increasing trends in precipitation extremes over all seasons (19802002). However, Dimri and Dash (2011) find an increasing trend only in maximum number of consecutive dry days (< 1mm water equivalent of snowfall) in winter (Dec-Feb) at eight stations across the western Indian Himalaya during 1975-2006. Decreasing trends maximum number of consecutive wet days (days with 90<sup>th</sup> percentile of events with >1 mm water equivalent of 4
technology and experience that should translate into increased efficiency in financial intermediation; and they can help exploit scale economies in small host countries. Nonetheless, especially in Africa, with its many small, risky, and informal enterprises, the dark side of foreign bank entry also can become obvious, even more so in countries in which foreign banks have captured an overwhelming majority share of the banking market. Specifically, the greater reliance by foreign banks on hard information about the creditworthiness of potential borrowers as opposed to soft information can have negative repercussions for riskier and more opaque borrowers if foreign banks crowd out domestic banks. The absence of a sound contractual and informational framework reduces the feasibility of small business lending further and thus the potential positive effects of foreign bank entry (Claessens and van Horen, 2014). Finally, the small size of many financial markets in Sub-Saharan Africa may make foreign banks reluctant to incur the fixed costs of introducing new products and technologies.

On a global level, World Bank (2018) shows that post-crisis entry by foreign bank subsidiaries was driven largely by banks headquartered in developing countries, and they tended to enter neighboring countries thus contributing to greater regionalism in international banking. This trend was especially pronounced in the African context. Claessens and van Horen (2014) find that the positive effect of cross-border banking on a host country’s aggregate financial development is declining in the distance to the parent banks’ headquarters. Further, Beck (2015) offers tentative evidence of a positive relationship between the share of foreign banks from the region or other emerging markets and firms’ access to finance and of a negative relationship between the share of foreign banks from Europe or the U.S. and entrepreneurial finance. Those sets of 16
deviation of payouts on an equally weighted basket of 11 different insurance policies is only half as large as the standard deviation of an average individual contract.

Third, we find some evidence that insurance payouts are negatively correlated with growth in India’s per capita GDP. This suggests that some component of rainfall risk is aggregate to the Indian economy as a whole, perhaps reflecting the size and importance of the Indian agricultural sector for employment and economic activity.

# **2. Background and Methodology**

We study a rainfall insurance product developed by the general insurer ICICI Lombard, which has been offered to rural Indian households since 2003. ICICI Lombard partners with local financial institutions to market the insurance to households. Giné, Townsend, and Vickery (2007) and Cole and Tufano (2007) provide detailed background about the insurance product. Giné, Townsend, and Vickery (2007) also study the determinants of household insurance purchase decisions, based on a 2004 household survey.

Our analysis focuses on calendar year 2006 insurance contracts linked to rainfall in the southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Below, we briefly summarize the design of these contracts. Policies cover rainfall during the Kharif (monsoon season), which is the prime cropping season running from approximately June to September. The contract divides the Kharif into three phases roughly corresponding to sowing, podding/flowering and harvest. The first two phases are 35 days in duration, while the third (harvest) phase is 40 days long. In 2006, farmers were allowed to purchase different numbers of contracts across each of the three phases.

4
weather that year.

In repeated studies, the land value per hectare of cropland has been found to be sensitive to seasonal precipitation and temperature (Mendelsohn et al. 1994; 2001; Kurukulasuriya et al. 2006). Further, because the response is nonlinear, a quadratic functional form has been used for climate. Our model is then, where the dependent variable is land value (or net revenue) per hectare, T and P represent temperature and precipitation variables, Dlarge is a dummy for commercial farms, and Z represents a set of relevant socio-economic variables. Although previous Ricardian studies in other regions have been able to discern four distinct seasons, the seasonal climate variables in this data set are highly correlated and therefore the seasonal coefficients were found to be insignificant. The model consequently relies on only winter and summer temperature and precipitation.

In Latin America, there is a large difference between small household farm and large commercial establishments. We wish to test whether the climate sensitivity of both types of farms are the same. The model (3) separates small farms from large farms by including climate variables multiplied by the dummy variable for the large farms.

5
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Stark, O., 1991, _The Migration of Labor_ (Oxford, Basil Blackwell).

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The World Bank, 2000, _Can Africa Claim the Twenty-First Century_ (Washington D.C.).

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