3 deaths. Under-age-five mortality exceeds 100 (per 1000) in all countries. In Zambia, almost one in five children fail to survive to their fifth birthday. Too many children are dying needlessly.

**Table 1: Evolving living standards selected African countries in the 1990s**

||_Real pr_<br>_consum_<br>_(consta_|_ivate_<br>_ptionpe_<br>_nt1995 _|_rcapita_<br>_US$)()_|_NetPri_<br>_Enrolm_|_marySc_<br>_entRates_|_hool_<br>_( _<sup>_2_</sup>_)_|_ChildM _|_alnutri_|_tion_**_(3)_**|_Child _|_Mortalit_|_y_**_(4)_**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||_Year_<br>_one_|_Year_<br>_two_|_Annual_<br>_growth_<br>_rate_<br>_(%)_|_Year_<br>_one_<br>_(%l)_|_Year_<br>_two_<br>_(%lo)_|_Change_<br>**_(/o_**<br>_points)_|_Year_<br>_one_<br>_(%)_|_Year_<br>_two_<br>_(%6)_|_Change_<br>_(%_<br>_points)_|_Year_<br>_one_<br>_(per_<br>1000)|_Year_<br>_two_<br>_(per_<br>1000)|_Change_<br>_(per_<br>_1000)_|
|**_Positive_**<br>**_growth:_**<br>Ethiopia<br>1994-1997|80|87|3.3|19|25|+6|66|55|-1].|190|175|-15|
|Ghana<br>1992-98|293|324|1.6|70|82|+12|26|26|0|119|104|_-15_|
|Mauritania<br>1987-95|296|353|3.3|28|41|+13|48|23|-25|-|149|-|
|Uganda<br>1992-97|211|259|4.8|68|86|+18|43|39|-4|165|162|-3|
|**_Stagnation_**<br>**_ordecline:_**|||||||||||||
|Madagascar<br>1993-1999|223|219|-0.2|48|64|+16|50|49|-1|170|149|-21|
|Zambia<br>1993-98|345|266|_-5.4_|73|66|-7|40|43|+3|194|189|_-5_|
|Nigeria<br>1992-96<br>Zimbabwe<br>1991-96|206<br>626|210<br>461|0.4<br>-6.2|94<br>83|98<br>86|+4<br>+3|38<br>30|-<br>23|-<br>-7|136<br>77|147<br>108|11<br>31|

Growth rates calculated based on least squared method, which is less sensitive to choice of base and terminal period.

**(2)** Net enrolment rates = percentage of children of school age enrolled in primary school as a fraction of the total number of children in that age group. Figures obtained from the surveys analyzed in the Poverty Dynamics studies. First year figure for Ethiopia refers to

1996. Figures for Nigeria reflect gross enrollment rates in 1994 and 1996 and are obtained from World Development Indicators.

**(3)** Child malnutrition defined as the percentage of children stunted, i.e. z-score of height for age which is less than -2; the reference periods for these figures approximate to those in column 1;

**_(4)_** Child mortality under 5 (per 1000 live births); the reference periods approximate to those in columnn 1.

_Source:_ World Bank data and country studies under _Dynamics of Poverty_ study.

Second, there are differences in the _changes_ in these indicators over time. In four countries economic living standards appear to have improved. But in Madagascar, average real consumption remained more or less unchanged, while it fell sharply in Zambia and Zimbabwe. Similarly, improvements in primary school enrollment in Ethiopia, Ghana, Mauritania and Uganda contrast with unsatisfactory outcomes in Zambia. Ethiopia and Mauritania experienced sharp reductions in long-term malnutrition, but there was little progress elsewhere. In all countries except Zimbabwe, the long term downward trend in child mortality appears to have continued through the decade. But child deaths have risen sharply in Zimbabwe, a result probably related to the AIDS epidemic (among other factors).

_Dynamics_ studies are given in the bibliography.