rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
- 48 -

unlikely that the appropriate level of<sup>resources is being provided for this</sup> activity. Moreover, while at first<sup>glance PROEXPO appears to be an attempt</sup> to offset the bias against exports inherent<sup>in the protection given to</sup> import substituting activities, it is not evident<sup>that this is so. The</sup> subsidies to exports in PROEXPO loans<sup>are made possible by taxes on imports</sup> which in themselves would discourage<sup>exports.41</sup> At best then, PROEXPO loans and their financing would encourage<sup>the production of traded goods at</sup> the expense of non-traded goods. But,<sup>since not all of PROEXPO's loans are</sup> directly related to exports and since<sup>the subsidies to export vary sharply</sup> across sectors,<sup>42</sup> the offset to greater protection is incomplete<sup>and</sup> introduces distortions into economic<sup>activities. The financing of PROEXPO</sup> with earmarked taxes should, therefore,<sup>be ended and the question of</sup> subsidizing credit for exports--regardless<sup>of source of finance--should be</sup> re-examined.

# C. Departmental Earmarking

51. The principal sources of departmental income<sup>are from earmarked</sup> revenues. Three of the major revenue<sup>earners aze earmarked for health:</sup> beer for the Sectional Health Services,<sup>SSS (with a minor part for the</sup>

- 41/ There are two arguments why the<sup>financing of PROEXPO may not be biased</sup> against exports. The first is that quantitative<sup>restrictions, not</sup> tariffs, are the binding constraint and<sup>hence raising tariffs enables</sup> the government to share in rents without<sup>raising the level of</sup> protection. This argument's validity<sup>is dissipating, however,as</sup> Colombia dismantles its QR system, relying<sup>more heavily on tariffs for</sup> protection. The second argument<sup>is that the tariff rate has been set</sup> independently of PROEXPO's requirements<sup>and the government is merely</sup> allowing PROEXPO to share in this revenue.<sup>This reasoning is</sup> questionable since it strengthens the<sup>suspicion that the funding of</sup> PROEXPO is arbitrary and unrelated to legitimate<sup>needs for export</sup> financing and since the government<sup>always has the option of lowering</sup> the tariff if it did not want these funds<sup>to go to PROEXPO.</sup>

42/ See IBRD, Colombia - Trade Policy Survey,<sup>op. cit., p. 44.</sup>
knowledge of the impacts of various forms of intellectual property rights on economic development, even less about different degrees of any form.

With regard to bringing developing countries' IPR regulations to the standards of the WTO agreement, the World Bank and UNCTAD case studies that we reviewed found considerable differences from country to country in the degree and the nature of needed reform. Our review of World Bank and UNCTAD case studies in support of IPR reform in developing countries likewise provided us with little insight into how to calibrate the appropriate balance. While the UNCTAD studies are prospective cost estimates, the World Bank examples are actual projects, in each of which the government had decided that the money spent to augment intellectual property rights systems would be money well spent. We might thus conclude that the optimal level of IPR protection in these countries is above the initial level, though perhaps less than what would be delivered by an unquestioning imitation of systems in place in industrial countries.

Our review of case studies in support of IPR again shows a considerable range of needed reforms; drafting new legislation, (e.g., to extend IPR protection to plant varieties), augmenting administrative structures (e.g., capacity to review applications, including computerized information systems and extensive training for staff) and buttressing enforcement. The technical complexity and specificity of many IPR issues means that judges, customs officials and others involved in enforcing IPRs may require additional training.

**World Bank Projects**

|**Country**|**Project description**|**Cost**|
|---|---|---|
|Brazil, 1997-2002|Train staff administering IPR laws -<br>component of Science and Technology<br>Reform project|$4.0 million|
|Indonesia, 1997-2003|Improve IPR regulatory framework -<br>component of Information Infrastructure<br>Development project|$14.7 million|
|Mexico, 1992-1996|Established agency to implement<br>industrial property laws - component of<br>Science and Technology Infrastructure<br>project|$32.1 million|

> 25 Abbott (p. 501) in his introduction and summing-up to an issue of the Journal of International Economic Law devoted to TRIPs, notes this lack of understanding of the impact of IPR on economic development.

20
(d) _Telecommunications:_ The proportion of firms reporting that telecommunications is a major or severe constraint, derived from the question: “How much of an obstacle is telecommunication”?

(e) _The Internet_ : Firm response to the question: “Do you have high-speed broadband internet?” We then calculate the regional, sectoral, and firm-size averages for each variable.

**The model is estimated using the principal component analysis.** Results are presented in the table 5 below. We highlight two main findings.

• First, access to good infrastructure such as telecommunications, transportation, broad band services, and water supply are important drivers of productivity in the manufacturing sector. Conversely, an increase in the **proportion of firms with difficulty in accessing infrastructure services is significantly correlated with lower productivity** .

• Second, **water supply deficiencies exert the largest negative impact on firm productivity** . This is not a variable that is often associated with firm productivity in middle-income countries where basic water supply issues are resolved although it has come up in a recent analysis of South Africa and SACU countres (Bogetic and Fedderke 2006); nor has it been highlighted in recent analyses for Russia. But, interestingly, this finding is consistent with an independent result in an ongoing analysis of the Human Opportunity Index (HOI) for Russia, which identifies water supply as one of the infrastructure sectors where, despite broad coverage, there remain problems of quality and equity of access across Russia’s vast territory and income groups.

19
Policy Research Working Paper 8065

# **Abstract**

Occupational sector selection is an important determinant of returns for female entrepreneurs. If sectors that are traditionally male owned could provide an opportunity to earn higher returns, then what factors could encourage women to cross over into these sectors or prevent them from doing so? To examine this question, this paper uses data from Ethiopia to compare the firm performance and characteristics of women in male-dominated sectors (crossovers) with women who are in female-concentrated sectors (noncrossovers). The findings show that female-owned enterprises in male-dominated sectors perform better on average than those in female-concentrated sectors, with firms achieving higher profits and having more employees. The descriptive results show that crossovers do not necessarily have more education or greater skills than noncrossovers. Rather, women’s relationships and networks, especially those provided through male relatives, and being opportunity-driven entrepreneurs appear to influence the likelihood of entering a more-profitable, male-dominated sector. The study explores the implications and challenges of encouraging female entrepreneurs to enter male-dominated sectors, in an effort to provide new insight into how the earning gap between male and female entrepreneurs can be closed.

This paper is a jont product of the Africa Region, the Gender Cross Cutting Solution Area, and the Finance and Markets Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at spapineni@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
14 <!-- Start of picture text --> ([Yt - t0 y t+ I (I + (1-,rt+ 1) it+ 1 )] Bt p k<br>cz4{(Yt Yt (1-tt) Pk Kt pt}<br>where:<br>oc, .o2= a3 C,;a4<br>b(s-1); b(s 1)' 2b(- 1)' b(s-1)<br><!-- End of picture text --> The importance and the type of capital market imperfections is reflected in the significance and signs of the coefficients in front of the leverage terms in equation (17). If a3 >0 and a4 <0, then this can be taken as evidence that the firm faces an increasing premium for external finance, and that it has also hit the ceiling constraint for leverage. Note also that the model implies that -o4 = al = E/[b(e-1)]. If we impose this restriction, the model becomes just identified and we can recover the structural parameters. If a3 <0 and a4 is not different than zero, then we return to the model of equation (14), in which the interest rate increases with the debt to capital ratio, but the ceiling is not binding. Finally, if a3 =0 and c4=0, then we are back to a model in which both types of financial constraints are absent.

# **111-** CAPITAL MARKET IMPERFECTIONS AND FIRMS' **HETEROGENEITY:** ECONOMETRIC RES ULTS

In the specification and estimation of the various models, the error term is modeled as the sum of a firm specific effect, a time effect common to all firms, and an a idiosyncratic shock. To eliminate the firm specific effect all the equations are estimated in first differences. To allow for the potential endogeneity of the regressors, we use the Generalized Method of Moments (See Hansen (1982), and Arellano and Bond (1991)). As a test of specification we also provide the Sargan-Hansen test of over-identifying restrictions. l The model summarized in equation (17) has been estimated on a balanced panel of 420 firms in the manufacturing sector, covering the period 1983-1988. The panel is based on data collected by the Superintendencia de Compahiias, and consist of balance sheets and profit and loss statements.'<sup>2</sup> In order to estimate (17), we must I I We have used the DPD program for estimation. See Arellano and Bond (1988).

12 See the Data Appendix for a more detailed description.
<mark>The main results of model from equation (3) are reported in Table 5. The findings reveal that gender has a statistically significant effect on candidates’ chances of being invited for an interview in both female- and male-dominated jobs in Uzbekistan. Male applicants were about half as likely as female applicants to receive a positive employer response in female-dominated occupations. Similarly, with all other factors constant, female applicants receive fewer invitations from hiring firms in male dominated occupations.</mark>

**Table 5 OLS and probit outputs for female dominated jobs**

||OLS|Probit|
|---|---|---|
||Callback|Callback|
|Female|-0.114**|-0.421**|
||(-2.99)|(-2.97)|
|Fem_dom_jobs|0.0209|0.0640|
||(0.46)|(0.46)|
|Female#Fem_dom_jobs|0.608***|1.755***|
||(10.06)|(8.59)|
|Constant|0.252***|-0.667***|
||(8.40)|(-7.10)|
|Observations|771|771|
|R-squared|0.2465||
|Pseudo R-squared||0.1906|

**Note:** t statistics in parentheses: + p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

# IV. Conclusion

To our knowledge, this is the first study to use an experimental design to document the existence and extent of gender discrimination in hiring practices in Central Asia. We conducted a correspondence test, sending applications with randomly assigned applicant gender (either male or female) to the most popular job boards in Uzbekistan. We find evidence of substantial gender discrimination. Men were discriminated against in female-dominated occupations (such as office manager and call-center operator), while women were discriminated against in male-dominated occupations. A likely explanation for this pattern of bias is gender-stereotyping. If certain jobs are perceived as more appropriate for women, male applicants may be (implicitly or explicitly) evaluated less favorably because they do not fit society’s perceptions about what is suitable for men or women, and vice-versa.

The results suggest that employers in Uzbekistan often have gender preferences for certain types of jobs, which can negatively impact employment prospects for both men and women. Gender segregation often pushes women into lower-paying occupations and depresses female wages (McGrew, 2016). Gender stereotyping in Uzbekistan likely perpetuates occupational segregation and can contribute to women clustering in low-paying careers including secretary or cosmetology, and men clustering in more remunerative occupations such as welding, automotive repair, and IT. Occupational segregation, beyond its effect on individual workers, limits optimal matching of workers with jobs where they can best leverage their skills and fulfill their ambitions. The comprehensive review from Blau and Kahn (2016) focusing on the trends in the gender wage gap since 1980 attributes half of the existing gap to women working in different industries and occupations than men. If men and women are pushed into careers based on societal definitions of “masculinity” and “femininity,” workers are less able to pursue labor market opportunities that best match their skills and ambitions.

12
7 evidence shows that financial development accelerates economic growth, intensifies competition, and boosts the demand for labor. Importantly, it usually brings relatively bigger benefits to those at the lower end of the income distribution (Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine 2007; Beck, Levine, and Levkov 2010). Hence, finance, with good policies, can be both pro-growth and propoverty reduction.<sup>4</sup> Figure 1. Financial Depth and Income Inequality <!-- Start of picture text --> Change in Gini<br>coefficient<br>0.03 UGA<br>0.02 NGA<br>ZMB<br>ROM GTM ECU<br>0.01 GHA NER LSO CHLPAN HKG<br>SLE ARG CIVURYNZL BRA USA<br>0 IND HUNLKAMDGPERDOMBELJAMIDNCRIEGYIRNMEXVENPHLSLVDNKCOLHNDTTOGBRBOLCANKORTUNTHAMYSSGP<br>NPL BGD CMRGRC AUS LUXJORESPPRT JPN<br>TZA ETH TUR PAK ITA NOR CHE<br>-0.01<br>IRL SWE<br>NLD<br>FIN FRA<br>SEN<br>MUS AUT<br>-0.02<br>-0.03<br>-3 -2 -1 0 1 2<br>Private credit to GDP<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Authors’ update of Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Levine (2007). Note: The Gini coefficient is on a scale from 0 (total equality) to 1 (maximum inequality). The chart is a partial scatter plot, visually representing the regression of changes in the Gini coefficient between 1960 and 2005 on the private sector credit–to-GDP ratio (logarithm, 1960–2005 average), controlling for the initial (1960) Gini coefficient. Variables on both axes are residuals. The abbreviations next to some of the observations are the threeletter country codes as defined by the International Organization for Standardization.

# **3. The 4x2 Framework for Financial System Benchmarking**

To capture the key features of financial systems, one would ideally like to have direct measures of how well financial institutions and financial markets (a) produce information ex ante about possible investments and allocate capital; (b) monitor investments and exert corporate governance after providing finance; (c) facilitate the trading, diversification, and management of risk; (d) mobilize and pool savings; and (e) ease the exchange of goods and services. So, if measurement was not an issue, one would like to be able to say that in terms of producing information about possible investments and allocate capital, the financial sector in Country A, for example, scores 60 on a scale from 0 to 100, while Country B‘s financial sector scores 75; in

> 4 For an discussion of the linkages between financial sector outcomes and the enabling environment, see for example Beck, Feyen, Ize, and Moizeszowicz (2006)
- 43 -

since investment is accompanied by short-run adjustment costs in terms of lost output.

**Table** 12 **(b)**

lmgact ofa 10% Reduction in **R&D Allow nce** on **R&D Investment By** Turkish Chemical and Petroleum Derivatives Industries and Government Revenues Reduction in R&D Investment = Turkish Lira 149,470 Gain in Tax Revenues = Turkish Lira 19,128,593 Ratio of R&D Investment Reduction to Gain in Tax Revenues = 0.008

# Source: Model-based calculations

Table 12(b) suggests that R&D tax allowances for Turkish industries proved to be a poor instrument for stimulating R&D investment. Revenue losses to the treasury from this instrument far exceeded the investment gains.

# 5. Summary **anG** policy implications

In this paper an intertemporal model of a firm optimizing its expected net present value was used to derive expressions for the rental prices of capital services which are consistent with rational expectations on the part of economic agents. Then it was demonstrated that if firms were successful in shifting the burden of the CIT completely on to consumers in the short run, the expressions for the rental prices of capital services would be free of the parameters of the CIT. The functional form of the variable cost function was specified, and the method of estimating the model was discussed. Non-nested hypothesis tests showed that for our samples the hypothesis of market power was able to reject that of perfect competition. However, even though the firms in the industries<sup>we studied</sup> had market power during the sample period, they were not able<sup>to shift the CIT</sup> forward completely in the short run. This result agrees with our prior expectation that while firms with unexerted market power are quite likely to make an attempt at passing the CIT on to their customers in the form of higher output prices, it is very urlikely that such attempts would be completely successful. Only in the case of complete short-run forward shifting of the CIT are the rental
# II – Data

The primary data used for this study come from the Listening to the Citizens of Uzbekistan survey conducted by the World Bank together with the Development Strategy Center of Uzbekistan and with guidance from the State Statistics Committee for Uzbekistan and other government partners. The study collected information in four distinct modes:

- A comprehensive national survey conducted in-person with a representative sample of 4,010 households. Recipients of social protection benefits were oversampled using registration data maintained at the mahalla level, and sampling weights were adjusted for the inclusion of these household in the baseline results. Full data on household consumption, expenditure, income, remittances, and information on any current migrants were collected. A full module on well-being and views on local economic conditions were also included.

- Administrative data collected from mahalla officials in each of the selected PSUs of the national household survey. This included comprehensive data on all officially registered migrants, the demographic profile of migrants, the registered destination countries, local labor market information, social protection beneficiaries, and related data.

- A nationally representative panel survey conducted monthly over the phone with a randomly selected subsample of 1,503 households that participated in the baseline. The survey also collected comprehensive information on potential/intending/current and returning migrants.

- Qualitative data collected in key informant interviews and focus groups. These data include discussions regarding hurdles to migration and the administrative procedures surrounding migration decisions.

The primary sampling units (PSU) for the L2CU baseline survey were _mahalla_ s, the lowest-level administrative unit in Uzbekistan. A total of 200 PSUs were randomly selected proportionate to size by World Bank staff using a full official list of mahallas provided by the Mahalla Foundation of Uzbekistan. Descriptive statistics of the sample frame, selected sample, and other details are included in Appendix E.

An “omniscient” adult household member was interviewed for each household, preferably the individual with the most information about the household budget, and multiple people could contribute if the primary respondent did not have responses for questions about other household members (for instance, regarding incomes or work arrangements). The design closely followed protocols applied to Living Standards Monitoring Surveys (LSMS) type surveys. The national sample was stratified by region and by rural/urban areas. These data were cross-validated with data on 8
WPS4043

# **LAND LEASING AND LAND SALE**

# **AS AN INFRASTRUCTURE-FINANCING OPTION**

## **George E. Peterson**<sup>**1**</sup>

### World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4043, November 2006

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> 1 Senior Fellow, Urban Institute

1