motivation should also collect additional contextual information on social norms. Measures of introjected motivation could then be compared to how observed behavior conforms to social norms, following the method laid out in Mackie et al. (2015). This analysis would shed light on how the RAI should be modified in order to more precisely capture to what extent an individual’s goals are based on prevalent norms or to what extent direct measurement of introjected motivation is possible, especially among low-literacy populations. Better measurement of this factor will enable us to understand through what mechanisms norms affect women’s agency, which is particularly important due to the proliferation of interventions that seek to transform gender norms through group-based discussions, community mobilization, or economic strategies (Abramsky et al. 2016; Ellsberg et al. 2015).

Second, future research should explore to what extent standardized goal-setting questionnaires used in psychology studies, which have been validated and shown to be strongly related to well-being outcomes, can be adapted to measure goal-setting capacity in developing countries. This process could not only deliver more standardized measurement tools, but also help inform the growing number of interventions that utilize goal-setting as a mechanism for better outcomes (e.g., IFAD’s household methodologies, which encourages households to set time-bound goals and create action plans) by better capturing their effects, how goalsetting relates to the outcomes, and what the underlying constraints to goal-setting capacity are. In this area, the priority will be to document the adaptation and validation processes to generate more streamlined versions of the goal-setting scales reviewed above.

Third, when testing measures to capture goal-setting ability, future research should make sure to capture the test-retest reliability of these measures (the degree to which responses are consistent over time). Although capturing test-retest reliability is an important component of validation for many indicators (Schweigert 2011) it may be particularly helpful for better understanding this particular dimension of agency. Theory indicates that goal-setting ability is affected by cognitive bandwidth, and is thus diminished in times of scarcity according to seasonal patterns. Preliminary evidence of this is illustrated in the case of farmers in India, who showed diminished cognitive performance before harvest as compared with after harvest (Mani et al. 2013).

Fourth, building on existing tools to measure goal-setting, more detailed questions to capture women’s overall goals regarding their input into activities or involvement in decision-making within the household and at the community-level should be piloted. In the empowerment literature, as reviewed in Section 5, measures of an individual’s ability to act have been mostly operationalized through questions on involvement in decision-making. Knowing whether involvement in making decisions at the household- or community-level is actually based on the individual’s own goals – and thus exhibits agency – will require incorporating women’s goals into standard decision-making questions. For example, the extent of women’s involvement in making decisions about the purchase or use of a household asset would be evaluated 15