communities and their host neighbors warrants a multidimensional lens on the experience of poverty, as a complement to a monetary poverty analysis.

While most studies note the varied socio-economic issues facing displaced populations, they still tend to discuss poverty largely in monetary terms (Chaaban et al 2013, Oruc 2015, Verwimp 2012, Zetter and Ruaudel 2014) or in terms of single or specific dimensions of nonmonetary well-being. However, a small number of recent studies have attempted an analysis of multidimensional poverty in these communities. For instance, Temgoua et al. (2020) analyze the relationship between internal displacement and poverty status according to the global MPI for Iraq. Loaiza Quintero et al. (2018) develop an MPI for Antioquia in Colombia to study the situation of internally displaced persons due to armed conflict. This paper builds on those studies by taking a cross-country MPI approach to explore patterns of multidimensional poverty among IDPs and refugees in five African countries.

# **2.2 The role of gender in poverty and forced displacement**

Gender plays a prominent role in contexts of forced displacement. Although men typically suffer higher mortality rates due to conflict, the demographics of internal displacement still reflect overall gender parity, with the global male-female ratio of IDPs remaining largely halfand-half over the last decade (UNHCR 2020). Moreover, this increased mortality of men and displacement of women can lead to a higher percentage of female-headed households among forcibly displaced populations (Buvinic et al 2013), and these households may be particularly vulnerable, especially in terms of income and social networks (Brück and Schindler 2009, Hanmer et al 2020). That women constitute half the IDP population but are nonetheless exposed to increased vulnerabilities and deprivations deserves serious attention.

Forcibly displaced and refugee women may suffer greater impacts on health and more instances of gender-based violence than their male counterparts (Kelly 2021, Kelly et al. 2021). Gendered challenges with food insecurity, lack of livelihood opportunities, and inaccessibility to land ownership, public services, and community structures also characterize poverty and forced displacement. Gender-specific challenges to obtaining livelihoods in protracted displacement settings – due to norm discrimination in the labor market, risk of sexual or physical violence, educational disparities, _inter alia_ – provide a double burden for women hoping to integrate into their host community and lift themselves and their families out of poverty (Brück & Stojetz 2021). Exclusion from the formal labor market paired with the need for economic security may also lead to displaced women and girls engaging in sex work and transactional relationships that come with additional risks, such as violence, prejudice (against any form of commercial sex), and exposure to HIV/AIDS and other health concerns (ODI 2019b).

The disadvantages faced by women in developing countries are well-established, with women typically having fewer opportunities in the labor market (World Bank 2011) and being less likely than men to own land (World Bank 2011) or to have access to formal credit markets (King 2009). In addition to the disadvantages faced by women in general, female-headed households may be particularly disadvantaged (Klassen 2013), as female heads may carry a double burden of domestic work and income-generating activities (World Bank 2011). Empirical evidence on the relationship between poverty and female headship is ambiguous. Many studies find that female-headed households are poorer than male-headed ones (Buvinic and Gupta, 1997; Lampietti and Stalker, 2000), others find no evidence that female-headed households are disproportionate among the poor, and in many cases results are mixed (Quisumbing et al 2001, Munoz-Boudet et al. 2018, Brown & van de Walle 2020). When 3