rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
the last five months of 1999. Existing projects were completed, but the number of new projects approved (the best indicator available of new work opportunities on the program) shrank sharply in the early part of 2000, to bring down the center's outlays.'<sup>3</sup> This contraction also occurred in the study towns. The total number of Trabajar participants in Cutral Co and Plaza Huincul in the first five months of 2000 was only 56% of that for the last five months of 1999. There was also a reduction in the benefit level under Trabajar, from $200 to $160 per month. These observations will be important when we come to interpret the results of the experiment.

The rest of this paper focuses on the comparison of the results for the last wave (May 2000) with those of the baseline survey (December 1998). We repeated the analysis using the intermediate rounds, and we note any differences with the results for the period as a whole.

# IV. **Baseline characteristics and attrition**

Table 1 compares the randomized assignment with observed treatment status.<sup>14</sup> There is perfect take-up for the "voucher only" case. However, 30% of those offered "voucher and training" did not take up the training component and so were re-assigned to the voucher-only component. Our results for that group were robust to excluding these re-assigned workers. The fact that so many people did not take-up the training suggests that there may be a serious compliance problem, as discussed in section II in general terms. We return to address this problem in the next section.

13 The average number of new projects approved was 439 per month in the period February to June 2000, as compared to 872 per month in February-November 1999 (the peak summer months of December and January have unusually low project approval rates, so we dropped them from this calculation). _14_ We excluded five workers who were assigned to the control group but mistakenly ended up getting the treatment. We also excluded members of Fogoneros, a political activist group whose behavioral responses might be expected to be quite unusual, and those who dropped out between the baseline and wave four.

11
government and the extent to which taxpayers trust their government.<sup>1</sup> Ali et al. (2014) find that tax attitude is positively associated with the provision of public good in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and South Africa. This corroborates evidence from Smith and Stalans (1991). The latter highlight that positive actions of states tend to improve the attitudes and commitments of the taxpayer against the tax system. Also, actors such as a progressive tax system are likely to increase tax morale (Doerrenberg and Peichl, 2013), as is trust in the government (Slemrod, 2002), and trust in the tax authorities (Wahl et al., 2010; Kirchler et al., 2008).

This paper brings at least two contributions to the literature on the determinants of tax morale. First, it considers trust in public institutions and the neighborhood and examines their impact on tax morale. Although examining the role of trust in the neighborhood is a novelty, the impact of trust in public authorities on tax morale has been explored in studies such as Kirchler et al. (2008), Slemrod (2002), Scholz and Lubell (1998). However, compared to previous studies that focus mainly on the trust in the government and tax authorities, this paper considers five additional dimensions of trust in public authorities that are the trust in the parliament, legal system, civil service, education system, and police. Second, to the best of my knowledge, the paper is the first to employ the instrumental variable method to explore the determinants of tax morale across countries. Moreover, the paper adds to the limited literature on the determinants of attitude towards taxes in Africa using a cross-country analysis (Ali et al., 2014; Sacks, 2012; D’Arcy, 2011; Levi et al., 2009).

The next section presents the theoretical foundations. Section 3 presents empirical supporting evidence of the impact of trust in public institutions on tax morale consistent with testable predictions of the model. Section 4 checks the sensitivity of the findings. Section 5 provides some concluding remarks.

> 1See for instance Ali et al. (2014), Kirchler et al. (2008), and Moore (2004) for extensive discussion.

4
<!-- Start of picture text --> Large<br>arge 4=<br>Mecian °21.61% —_°0-26%<br>A 4 arge Large<br>P| ee<br>© 19.64% 4<br>li [Prem + 6.58% li<br><!-- End of picture text -->

<!-- Start of picture text --> rans. 4 edium © 1.51%<br>ma ° 3.34%<br>+ 16.24%<br><!-- End of picture text -->
our aggregates.<sup>22</sup> Irrigated villages from the census are matched to their corresponding canal _outlets_ using village-outlet lists supplied by the Punjab Irrigation Department. Following irrigation department designation, head villages are defined as those that match to outlets on the upper 40% by length of a given channel; tail villages as those that match to outlets on the lower 20%.

We compute land ownership statistics _Lij_ by position _j_ = _H, T_ on channel _i_ , such that where _Nij_ is the number of census households matched to position _j_ of channel _i_ (we drop channel-positions with _Nij <_ 20), the _Lkij_ are the unit record landownership data, the _ωkij_ are sample census population weights normalized to sum to one within a channel-position, and _G_ : _R_<sup>_Nij_</sup> _→R_<sup>1</sup> is a statistic. Since theory is silent on the form of _G_ , we experiment with several, varying the weight given to large landowners. Thus, while we use the (weighted) arithmetic mean ( _G_ is simply the summation operator in this case), we also try a version of the generalized mean _G_ ( _x_ 1 _, ..., xM_ ) = (<sup>�</sup> _x_<sup>_q_</sup> _m_<sup>)1</sup><sup>_/q,_whichputsgreaterweightonlargevalues</sup> of _xm_ insofar as _q >_ 1, as well as the 75th and 90th percentile operators.<sup>23</sup> Note that the Agricultural Census samples all types of households within each _mouza_ , whether cultivating or not and whether they own land or not. Arguably, the population of cultivators and/or landowners is most relevant for the political-economy of irrigation. Since non-cultivating households without land should have little, if any, influence with the FO, or with the irrigation department for that matter, this population might reasonably be excluded

> 22To the extent that land ownership data from the 1980s and 1990s are dated, they introduce measurement error biasing against finding (differential) treatment effects.

> 23The Agricultural Census does not provide household landownership broken down by irrigated and rainfed areas, even though it is the former type of land that is most germane to the lobbying effort along a channel. However, the Census does distinguish irrigated and rain-fed _cultivated_ area at the household level. Therefore, we deflate household landownership by the ratio of cultivated area under irrigation (summed across household in a _mouza_ ) to total cultivated area in the _mouza_ .

29
6 are highly correlated with inequality. Private consumption (SCONIY) and investment (SINVIY) measured for each country in the same year as the inequality measures are both insignificantly correlated with inequality.

Government consumption (SGOVIY) also measured for each country in the same year as inequality is negatively correlated with the Gini coefficient<sup>8</sup> . If slower growth in countries with greater inequality were caused "i greater government intervention in the economy, one may hope to find a significant relationship between greater inequality and large government.

A final aspect of the data regarding the level of development, not the growth rate, is whether the data appears to follow Kuznets' inverted U shape. Kuznets' inverted U hypothesis asserts inequality first increases, and then decreases, as per capita income increases. Various cross country studies have tested this hypothesis and have generally supported it.<sup>9</sup> It has been suggested that this result is driven by the high negative correlation between inequality and wealth among developed countries, and that the increase in inequality observed among the poorer of the less developed countries is largely illusionary."0 Even if one accepts the hypothesis, questions exist about its causes. The shape may be structural, perhaps caused by a shift from an agrarian base to an industrial base, or could be policy induced."1 The data used in this study appears to follow the inverted U shape, but the cause of this relationship is not clear. As is customary the hypothesis is tested using log values of GDP. In all four cases when Log GDP is regressed on the inequality measures its coefficient is negative. However, coefficients on two of these ' However this result is very weak since the correlation is only significant at a two tailed significance level of ten percent for two of the four measures, Thei and Giai. The other two measures are insignificantly correlated with soovIY instilling little confidence in this result. Additionally. this result appears to be driven by one country, Suriname. When this point is excluded from the sample the correlation becomes insignificant.

I See Lecallion et al. (1984), Chapter one, for a survey of some of these studies.However, as noted in Easterly, King, Levine and Rebelo (1991), results from intertemporal studies have not supported the hypothesis. Since the relationship, as it was formulated is intertemporal, these studies would seem a more appropriate way of testing the hypothesis.

'° LecaUion et al, p14-15.

"Adelman and Robinson (1989), p<sup>955</sup> -<sup>57</sup> argue that the initial increase in inequality is caused by a shift from agriculture to industry, but that the following decrease if it occurs is due to policy decisions.
***** Westfall, Matthew S. and de Villa, Victoria A., ed. (2001) Urban Indicators for Managing Cities; Asian Development Bank.

Whitehead, M. (2003) “Analyzing the Sustainable City: Nature, Urbanisation and the Regulation of Socioenvironmental Relations in the UK” Urban Studies; Vol. 40 No. 7, p. 1183.

Whittaker, S. (1995) An International Guide to Local Agenda 22. London: HMSO.

Wiek, A. and Binder, C. (2005) “Solution spaces for decision-making - a sustainability assessment tool for city-regions” Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp. 589-608.

Won Yoon, S. and Lee, D. K. (2003) “The development of the evaluation model of climate changes and air

- pollution for sustainability of cities in Korea” Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 63, No. 3, pp.145-160.

- Wong, S-W, Tang, B and van Horen, B. (2005) “Strategic urban management in China: A case study of Guangzhou Development” Habitat International, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available online.

- Wu, F. (1996) “A linguistic cellular automata simulation approach for sustainable land development in a fast growing region” Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp.367-387.

- Yanarella, E. J. and Levine, R. S. (1992) “Does sustainable development lead to sustainability?” Futures, Vol. 24, No. 8, pp. 759-774.

Yannask, S. (2001) “Toward more sustainable cities” Solar Energy, Vol. 70, No. 3, pp. 281-294.

- Yeung, Y.-M. (2001) “Coastal mega-cities in Asia: transformation, sustainability and manage-ment Ocean & Coastal” Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 44, No. 5-6, pp. 319-333.

- Young, W. and Bowyer, D. (1996) “Modeling the environmental impact of changes in urban structure” Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, Vol. 20, No. 4-5, pp. 313-326.

- Yu, J., Yao, S., Chen, R., Zhu, K. and Yu, L. (2005) “A quantitative integrated evaluation of sustainable development of mineral resources of a mining city: a case study of Huangshi, Eastern China” Resources Policy, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 7-19.

- Yuan, W., James, P., Hodgson, K., Hutchinson, S. M. and Shi, C. (2003) “Development of sustainability indicators by communities in China: a case study of Chongqing County, Shanghai” Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp.253-261.

- Yuan, W. and James, P. (2002) “Evolution of the Shanghai city region 1978–1998: an analysis of indicators” Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 299-309.

- Zhang, Y. and Guindon, B. (2005) “Using satellite remote sensing to survey transport-related urban sustainability: Part 1: Methodologies for indicator quantification” Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. In press.

Zielenbach, S. (2000). The art of revitalization: Improving conditions in distressed inner-city neighborhoods. New York.

29
**Annex 4: Draft Memorandum of Understanding Between Canada and the World Bank**

This Memorandum of Understanding made as of June 21, 2006

**BETWEEN: HER MAJESTY IN RIGHT OF CANADA** , (“Government of Canada”) represented by the Deputy Head of Infrastructure and Communities.

**AND: THE WORLD BANK** represented by the Vice President of Infrastructure.

# **Preamble**

The Government of Canada and the World Bank recognize that cities and communities around the world have a critical role to play in the long-term social and economic development of nations as well as the quality of life of their citizens.

The challenges and opportunities facing cities and communities are complex and are intricately entwined with social, economic, environmental, financial, technical and cultural issues.

Cities and communities are dynamic, evolving and at different stages of development, with challenges and opportunities that are different over time and by size and location.

The Government of Canada and the World Bank wish to enter into a Memorandum of Understanding to support sustainable development objectives and to make a transformative difference in the sustainability and future prosperity of cities and communities.

# **1. Purpose of Memorandum of Understanding**

The purpose of this Memorandum of Understanding is to outline an understanding between the Parties and their respective roles and future work to help foster vibrant, creative, prosperous and sustainable cities and communities, and to develop an integrated approach for cities and communities performance measurement.

The World Bank study to develop city performance indicators will take into consideration the need to:

- factor the dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social, cultural and environmental) into the development of city performance indicators;

- ensure a broad range of consultations with governments, municipal associations, academics, city staff and citizens;

- consider short, medium and long-term objectives and outcomes, risks and constraints and develop appropriate indicators against which progress can be measured;

- monitor and evaluate development interventions; and

- disseminate and share information and knowledge, including lessons from past experiences and best practices, both domestically and internationally.

48
ter symmetrically. The reported estimates censor the estimated distribution at 960 (equivalent to the 1% cutoff in 1983) and 4400 (the 99% cutoff in 2012), which lowers the estimated level of intake for some years due to the presence of large right tail outliers but has a minimal effect on the trends.

# **References**

- Ainsworth, B., W. Haskell, M. Whitt, M. Irwin, A. Swartz, S. Strath, W. O’Brien, D. B. Jr, K. Schmitz, P. Emplaincourt, D. J. Jr, and A. Leon. 2000. “Compendium of physical activities: an update of activity codes and met intensities.” _Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise_ .

- Barten, A. P. 1964. “Family composition, prices and expenditure patterns.” In _Econometric Analysis for National Economic Planning_ , edited by G. M. Hart, Peter E. and J. K. Whitaker. London: Butterworths.

- Basole, A., and D. Basu. 2015. “Fuelling calorie intake decline: Household level evidence from rural india.” _World Development_ 68: 82–95.

- Beegle, K., J. D. Weerdt, J. Friedman, and J. Gibson. 2012. “Methods of household consumption measurement through surveys: Experimental results from tanzania.” _Journal of Development Economics_ 98(1): 3–18.

- Borgonha, S., P. Shetty, and A. Kurpad. 2000. “Total energy expenditure and physical activity in chronically undernourished indian males measured by the doubly labeled water method.” _Indian Journal of Medical Research_ 111: 24–32.

- Brzozowski, M., T. F.Crossley, and J. K. Winter. 2017. “Does survey recall error explain the deaton and paxson puzzle?.” _Working Paper_ .

- Clark, G., M. Hubermand, and P. Lindert. 1995. “A british food puzzle.” _The Economic History Review_ 48(2): 215–237.

- Cutler, D. M., E. L. Glaeser, and J. M. Shapiro. 2003. “Why have americans become more obese?.” _Journal of Economic Perspectives_ 17: 93–118.

- Deaton, A., and J. Dr`eze. 2009. “Food and nutrition in india: Facts and interpretations.” _Economic and Political Weekly_ 44(7): 42–65.

24
Figure 2 shows the relative difference in the number of savings accounts in municipalities with Azteca, vs. municipalities without Azteca. Data on savings accounts comes from the Mexican bank supervisory body, the Comisión Nacional Bancaria y de Valores (CNBV). There is a clear rapid growth in savings accounts in municipalities with Azteca after December 2002<sup>8</sup> . These effects are also significant in a regression framework that controls for municipality-specific time trends<sup>9</sup> .

Thus, the opening of Banco Azteca had a non-trivial impact on availability of financial services in municipalities where the branches were present. More details on the bank opening are available in the Appendix.

# **II. Identification Strategy**

In order to identify the effect of Banco Azteca opening on economic activity, we exploit the cross-municipality and cross-time variation in Azteca branches. As discussed above, Banco Azteca opened in October 2002, only in the municipalities that had pre-exiting Grupo Elektra stores. This allows us to estimate the following difference-in-difference regression, which compares municipalities with and without Banco Azteca before and after Azteca opening: where _i_ denotes individuals, _c_ denotes municipalities, and _t_ denotes quarters. ß is a set of municipality fixed effects, γ is a set of quarter fixed effects and Z is a matrix of individual control variables. Our main variable of interest is the _Azteca_ dummy, which is the interaction between a post third quarter of 2002 dummy and a dummy that equals one for municipalities that had at least one Azteca branch in the fourth quarter of 2002 and that equals zero for all other municipalities in our sample. The coefficient δ is our estimate of the effect of Banco Azteca opening<sup>10</sup> . We cluster standard errors at the municipality level.

> 8 Unfortunately, we cannot perform the same regression analysis for loans since we do not have date on loans pre- and post-Azteca opening at the municipality level.

> 9 Available from the authors upon request.

> 10 An alternative strategy would be to interact the post-Azteca opening dummy with the number of Azteca branches (which is equivalent to Grupo Elektra stores) in each municipality in the fourth quarter of 2002. However, we do not have accurate data on the number of Azteca branches or Grupo Elektra stores for the fourth quarter of 2002.

7
**Table 9: Vegetation indices and cereals crop rotation in Ukraine, 2016-18 period**

||**E**|**VI**|**L**|**AI**|**FA**|**PAR**|**LS**|**WI**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**2017**|**2018**|**2017**|**2018**|**2017**|**2018**|**2017**|**2018**|
|After sunflower|-1.099***|-1.264***|-32.30***|-36.54***|-4.714***|-5.828***|-0.520***|-1.194***|
||(0.0312)|(0.0388)|(0.792)|(0.975)|(0.138)|(0.161)|(0.0413)|(0.0576)|
|After maize|-0.174***|-0.0497|-8.439***|-11.74***|-0.967***|-1.676***|-0.0535|-0.278***|
||(0.0545)|(0.0480)|(1.379)|(1.208)|(0.242)|(0.199)|(0.0723)|(0.0714)|
|After other|0.0147|0.274***|-10.93***|-6.083***|-0.193|-0.440**|0.598***|0.348***|
||(0.0394)|(0.0418)|(1.003)|(1.054)|(0.176)|(0.174)|(0.0527)|(0.0623)|
|Self twice|-0.231***||-12.15***||-1.088***||0.440***||
||(0.0392)||(0.992)||(0.174)||(0.0520)||
|Self twice only||-1.027***||-31.18***||-4.647***||-1.283***|
|||(0.0597)||(1.503)||(0.248)||(0.0889)|
|Self thrice||-0.796***||-32.52***||-4.253***||-2.539***|
|||(0.0834)||(2.105)||(0.347)||(0.124)|
|No. of VCs|6436|6531|6409|6486|6381|6486|6381|6487|
|R<sup>2</sup>|0.298|0.431|0.287|0.359|0.273|0.369|0.155|0.278|
|Mean dep.|3.504|3.482|53.92|52.63|18.49|17.30|0.319|1.401|
|SD dep..|0.535|0.599|13.45|14.17|2.322|2.352|0.644|0.789|
|Elast. twice|-0.0131||-0.0450||-0.0117||0.274||
|Elast. Twice||-0.0354||-0.0712||-0.0323||-0.110|
|Elast. Thrice||-0.0105||-0.0285||-0.0113||-0.0834|
|Elast. a sunflower|-0.109|-0.121|-0.207|-0.232|-0.0890|-0.113|-0.569|-0.285|
|F-test|||||||||
|Self 2x=self 3x||4.954**||0.261||0.838||65.83***|

_Note:_ Results are from regressions at village council level and the soybean-cereals (wheat and barley) rotation is the omitted category. A constant is included throughout but omitted. Standard errors in parentheses: * p<0.10, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.010.

23
POLICY RFs XR cii W()RKING PAPIt _s_ 1 /774

# Summary findings

Kev (related) factors in an alysis _of clebt_ sustaliabilitv should include:

* lhe demnand for base money (or hIglh-power-ed moneN )

* P rojected t:scal halance.

* The real interest _rate._

* The rate of inico-me growth.

Garcia mniphasizus _the_ denmand for base monley, a variable that has received scant attentioni in the iiterature of fiscal debt suIstainabilitv.

Given a constant base multiplier, the demand for real base tiunoe' goes hand-in-hand with the demand for motley. In fact, if we adjust tht stock of mnoney for changes in the base multiplier, shifts in the monetary base have to mirroi . hangus in the money stock; and anvthling that chianges the deliand for moniey will also change the demand tor base nioney.

Coilseotuc itly, _a_ eb _luge_ ri the expected cost of holding ionev, a chainge in plrmanriet inCmeTI, or a chalnge in regime-wvicli 'a ouldc no doubIt affect the dematid for real monev--would also affect the real stock of base moniey. Naturaliy, base miultipliers are not constant and more research on the relative stability of base money in debt ridden countries is warranted.

Real interest rates are also important. Many Latin American countries have issued domestic bonds to sterilize _thc_ effect of capital inflows on the real exchange rate and, consequently, have significanitly increased their real interest rate burden affecting their debt sustainabilitv.

Permanently increasing the fiscal surplus would improve debt sustainability if other variables remain unchanged. Furthermore, Garcia clainms that a permanent increase in the fiscal primary surplus through expenditure reduction would have an inportanit effect on debt susrainiabilitv because it would reduce real interest rates (less crowding out), increase income growth (allocation effect), and increase demand for monetary hase (reduce(d inflation expectations and higher expected income growth).

1 his paper a prodiuct of thu Fconomlic Adviser's lJnit, Latin America and the Caribbean, Office of the Regional Vice President -- is _par_ t of a lar ger effort in the region to address debt and fiscal issues. Copies of the paper are available free from _the_ World Baiik, I x 1] _H_ Street NW, Washinigton, DC 20433. Please contact Jorge Forgues, _roomI_ 18-449, telephone 202-47 _3-9774_ fax 202-676 9271, Internet address jforgues(o worldbarik.org. June 1997. (36 pages) r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _;,o/icy_ W _Researi I Working P'aoer SeŽos5 dissemiinates the findings ot uork_ **_in_** _progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about | devel'pmient issues.-An ohjective of the .cries is toget thefindings outquickly, even if th presentationsare lesstban fullypolished. The papers carry the aram,es of the authors and should he cited accrdingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. IThs ydo not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Fxecutive Directors, or the [coiJnr ies they repre ic___._

**Pr du c-ed hV** _thc_ Policrs Rescarch Dissemination (enter