rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
market are limited; for the most part they are limited to the informal economy, mainly carrying out activities such as tailoring, cleaning houses, and cooking for neighbors and family (UN Women, 2018).

The limited availability of employment opportunities for women is strongly associated with social norms that bind women to specific roles in society (Kelberer, 2017; Felicio et al., 2018). Data from the World Development Indicators (WDI) show that in 2019 only about 13 percent of women over 15 participate in the labor market. Changing gender roles in the labor market can cause tensions and have been linked to increased rates of domestic violence in refugee households in Jordan (HagenZanker et al. 2017; Culcasi 2019).

The most common reason for low levels of female labor force participation is family responsibilities such as childcare and housework, reported by 44 percent of Syrian refugee women and Jordanian women of working age (Stave, Kebede, & Kattaa, 2021). This is tied to deeply engrained norms surrounding gender roles. A recent analysis of gender norms in Jordan found that women and girls hold more equitable gender role attitudes than their male counterparts and that there are no significant differences between Syrians and Jordanians (Krafft, Assaad, & Pastoor, 2021). Restrictive norms perpetuated by men continue to severely restrict women’s access to the formal labor market. Fortunately, the Jordanian government has worked in recent years to address this problem. For example, in the amendment made to the Jordanian labor law in 2019, the provision of childcare services was made mandatory in every business that has 15 or more employees, male or female, with children under 5 (World Bank, 2019). However, implementation is not consistent and low-income households report less access to childcare services (Weldali, 2022). Home-based businesses can also provide important access to economic opportunities for women, albeit within a limited number of sectors and the Government of Jordan’s 2017 amendments of the regulations governing the licensing of home-based businesses is particularly important for female entrepreneurs in both host and refugee communities (Slimane et al, 2020; Turner, 2019).

# **3. Data and descriptive statistics**

We use two rounds of household-level data collected by UNHCR in 2013-14 and 2017-18.<sup>6</sup> These data come from two sources, namely, the Profile Global Registration System (ProGres) and Jordan Home

> 6 For simplicity, from here on we refer to the first wave as the 2013 wave, and to the second wave as the 2018 wave.

8
Table 7: LONG-RUN EFFECTS ON MATCHING IN TRANSFERS

||Whether gave<br>transfers to any<br>ultra-poor<br>household|Fraction of<br>ultra-poor<br>households who<br>weregiven transfers|
|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|
|Treatment|-0.004|-0.057|
||(0.005)|(0.130)|
|Treatment_×_other poor|0.017*|0.322|
||(0.010)|(0.240)|
|Treatment_×_middle class|0.019***|0.566**|
||(0.007)|(0.230)|
|Treatment_×_upper class|0.034***|1.206**|
||(0.011)|(0.532)|
|Treatment effect for other poor|0.013|0.265|
||(0.006)|(0.163)|
|Treatment effect for middle class|0.015|0.509|
||(0.004)|(0.176)|
|Treatment effect for upper class|0.030|1.149|
||(0.009)|(0.494)|
|Control mean|0.012|0.441|
|... for ultra poor|0.008|0.280|
|... for other poor|0.007|0.313|
|<br>... for middle class|0.012|0.510|
|... for upper class|0.034|1.066|
|Observations|21547|21547|

**Source:** Author’s analysis based on original survey data. **Notes:** The table reports ITT estimates based on specification (1) estimated with OLS. The sample includes observations from the long-run followup survey (2014). All specifications control for subdistrict (strata) fixed effects, and the pre-treatment level of the outcome as reported (retrospectively) in the 2014 survey. Standard errors are clustered at the BRAC branch office level (unit of randomization). *** (**) (*) indicates significance at the 1% (5%) (10%) level. The dependent variable in column 1 is a dummy variable equal to 1 if the respondent’s household gave any transfers or loans to any ultra-poor household in her village. The dependent variable in column 2 is the fraction of ultra-poor households living in the respondent’s village who received transfers or loans from the respondent’s household, multiplied by 100 (so that the effects correspond to percentage points).

42
Administration Act makes it illegal for federal agencies to hold property that is not used for public service or planned for future service use.

**Land Inventory and Surplus Designation.** Under the Canadian system, federal agencies are required to compile records of their landholdings in a common format.  These records then are combined in the _Directory of Federal Real Estate_ .  All federally owned property is listed there. The Directory is available for public inspection and use.

Agencies are required by law to identify their surplus properties. Departments’ lists of surplus properties go to the Treasury Board Secretariat and Treasury’s Steering Committee on Real Property. Property is classified as “strategic” or “routine.” “Strategic” refers to property in urban locations that has significant development and financial impact. Surplus strategic property is transferred to CLC for management and disposition. “Routine” property—typically, low-valued rural property—is sold directly by the department that owns it.

In addition to department-initiated designations of surplus property, the system uses external prompts to identify surplus land. The Treasury Board issues instructions to departments regarding criteria that should be met for retaining land. Canada Lands Company also takes a proactive role in identifying surplus properties. It inspects various federally owned parcels that appear to be unused or under-utilized. It meets with department and Treasury Board officials to make the case that some of these parcels could be released to the market through CLC.

**Mode of Operation.** CLC deals only with properties identified by government as surplus and strategic.  A unique aspect of CLC’s operation is that it is mandated to buy properties from the federal government at market value.    It negotiates sale terms with the department owner and Treasury Board.  The government commissions independent land appraisals prior to sale.  CLC does its own market analysis.

Given that CLC is the only authorized buyer of federal strategic properties, sale prices in principle could be distorted by the lack of market competition. However, audit results confirm that sale prices approximate those that would be reached in competitive, arm’s length transactions— with the exception of the financing arrangements described below.

When CLC buys a property from government, it issues a non-interest bearing promissory note to Treasury in return for the property. The promissory note is paid off as CLC realizes income from sale of the property to the private sector. In addition, CLC pays a profits dividend to the government consolidated fund. CLC has consistently generated profits and paid dividends to government.

CLC views its principal role as a value-creator for the property it receives from government and sells to private parties. Much of this value added derives from master planning of property development, coupled with negotiations with local government to obtain planning approvals and density permits. Planning sovereignty rests with local authorities. They retain the right to approve 30
# pREFAC

PFPs have become important documents because they provide a framework for the economic policies that a borrowing country will pursue and for donor assistance. The projections included in these documents reflect the policy targets and expected outcomes of policy reforms. The quplity and relevance of these projections are the subject matter of this paper, which compares actual outcomes with the projected or targeted outcomes for selected variables. It is hoped that such a retrospective survey would help us to improve the projections in the PFPs.

This paper is intended to be a usefil reference for the Regional staff working with PFP projections.

An earEer version of the paper was discussed with some staff members and this version takes into account the comments and suggestions received on the earlier version.

R. Faruqee
* Special curriculum for non Japanese-speaking students

# **(iii) Measures taken by the local governments (especially of clustered cities)**

* Leaflets and newsletters in foreign language (Portuguese, Spanish, English etc.) on the life in Japan

- Counseling centers in various foreign languages

- Free medical examinations for foreign residents

- Special personnel to assist students from foreign countries

- Japanese language education

# **(5) Remittances**

In many developing countries, e.g. the Philippines, remittances are a very important source of income. This is also the case in Brazil. According to Beltrão and Sonoe (2006), remittances by _Nikkeijin_ workers in Japan are estimated to be US$2 billion annually, almost equal to the annual exports from Brazil to Japan.

There are a few studies on the amount of remittances to Brazil from each _Nikkeijin_ worker. Nihon Rodo Kenkyu Kikou (Japan Institute of Labour) conducted interviews in 1993 and 1998 among _Nikkeijin_ in Brazil who had working experience in Japan.<sup>5</sup> According to the survey, average monthly remittances from each _dekasegi_ worker were US$1,664 and US$1848 in 1993 and 1998 respectively. In 1993 the average amount of monthly remittance (US$1,664) was almost three times higher than the average monthly income in Brazil (US$623). Also in 1998, the amount of monthly remittances (US$1,848) was a little higher than monthly income in Brazil (US$1,806).

Commissioned by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Microfinance International Corporation (2005) did a similar study on remittances of Latin Americans working in Japan.<sup>6</sup> This study reports that seventy percent of Latin Americans working in Japan remit regularly. According to the study, these migrants remit 14.5 times a year, and the average amount of remittance each time is US$600. This implies that they remit US$8,700 annually, and that the average amount of monthly remittance is US$725, which is far less than the amount based on the study by the Japan Institute of Labor.

While the amount of total remittances by _Nikkeijin_ workers in Japan is enormous at present, the current level of remittance flows from Japan to Brazil may not last in the future. As discussed above, an increasing number of _Nikkeijin_ workers are changing status from temporary _dekasegi_ workers to settlers in Japan. In 2004 the number of permanent residents from Brazil exceeded 50,000, and the number has been increasing rapidly in recent years. The longer they stay, the less they might remit. The history of Turkish guest workers in Germany has shown the decline in the amount of remittances sent back to Turkey as the guest workers settled in the host country.

> 5 See Appendix II for the methodology used for these surveys.

> 6 See Appendix II for the methodology used for this survey.

21
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- Bagwell, K. and R. W. Staiger (2018). Multilateral trade bargaining and dominant strategies. _International Economic Review 59_ (4), 1785–1824.

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41
Table 1: UMSP OF ADNINISTERED *ROIECTION CASKS, 1980-86

|||||||||1980-|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||1980|1981|t982|1963|1984|1985|1986|1986|
|Safeguards|||||||||
|Unitad<br>States|2|6|4|2|6|3|**5**|28|
|Australia|1|0|1|2|0|0|0|4|
|Canada|0|1|2|0|0|1|0|4|
|EC|3|1|1|1|1|0|2|9|
|Countervailing<br>actions|||||||||
|United States|8|10|123|21|51|39|30|282|
|Australia|0|0|2|7|S|3|3|21|
|Canada|3|0|1|3|2|3|4|16|
|EC|0|1|3|2|1|0|0|7|
|Antidumping<br>actions|||||||||
|UnltadSt_tea|22|14|61|47|71|65|71|351|
|at r<br>i a.....||_C__<br>C-s|7<br>?a|I7|--<br>|n<br>R||4C6|
|Canada|25|19|72|36|31|36|74|293|
|EC|25|47|55|36|49|42|40|294|
|Other unfair trade<br>practices- US|28|19|73|39|33|39|28|259|
|All Categories|||||||||
|Un..ed States|60|49|261|109|161|146|13'.|<br>920|
|Australia|63|50|81|96|62|63|66|481|
|Canada|28|2G|75|39|33|_4.0_|78|313|
|EC|28|49|59|39|51|42|42|310|
|Total|179|168|476|283|307|291|320|2024|

Sources: United States data, US International Trade Comission, ]LLAD-C.SIS Database; Other Countries, Finger and Olechowiski (1987) - Tables A8.1, A8.3, for numbers of antidumping and countervailing duty cases; CATT Secretariat, for numbers of safeguards cases.
# **X. Concluding Remarks**

In this paper we take advantage of a new standardized micro data base to describe the time use pattern of youth in the labor market in a large set of countries. The transition of youth to work is complex and requires the use of multiple indicators to better understand how well youth are fairing and what influences most their transition to work.

In almost all countries, youth face some difficulties in transitioning to work. This is reflected in their relatively higher unemployment rates, higher incidence of low paying or unpaid work, and large shares who are neither working nor in school as compared to adult populations. For youth in low income countries unemployment is more concentrated in urban areas and among those who are more educated and come from higher income households. In lot of countries a large share of young girls are found outside the labor market, some engaged in home production. Among the employed, youth are disproportionately found in unpaid work particularly in poor households.

Cross country estimates show that changes in the youth relative cohort size is unlikely to have a large effect on how youth are faring in the labor market. The richness of the data allows for different desegregations, yet estimates are not measured very precisely. Controlling for country specific effect further reduce the estimates precisions. In general, changes in the demand conditions, as measured by the adult unemployment rate, have a strong effect on youth unemployment and employment rates. The most affected are the low skilled and low income youth. More empirical research is needed to shed further lights on the determinants of youth transition and to help guide policies to facilitate youth transition to work.

23
The 1985-1994 Global Real Estate Cycle. Page 3 banking" what are the lasting analytical, institutional and regulatory lessons which can we can draw? What would individual countries need to do reduce the volatility of their real estate sector under the conditions created by the new global financial markets? Can useful lessons be drawn for countries that are not yet fully integrated into the global capital markets such the semi-reformed socialist economies, and developing countries.

We begin with the analysis of the international factors at work and review the evidence on Japanese net capital outflows after 1985 as the major reason behind all these synchronous national cycles. Then we consider the domestic factors that have encouraged real estate volatility such as capital market liberalization, financial deregulation, pre-existing tax structures, distorting fiscal policies, as policy errors. The differentiated impact of the real estate crash, the various ways- different countries chose to handle it, and some the innovations that are emerging from the rubble complete this survey.

The work is based on a data collection covering Japan, the US, the UK, the Nordic countries, France, Gentany, Spain, as well as selected middle-income countries of East Asia, South-East Asia, and Latin America. Only selective evidence is presented in this paper.

# II. INTERNATIONAL FACTORS IN THE 1985-1994 CYCLE

## 2.1 A Dominant Global Factor: Japanese Foreign Investment

- The coincident real estate cycles encountered in most but not all -OECD countries and many middle-income developing countries during the period 1986-to 1993 were responses to a combination of external and domestic causes. In the past, surges of capital inflows into different parts of the real estate sector of these countries have differed in terms of timing, persistence, and intensity. The major fiancial deregulation and decontrol of capital flows that took place during the 1980's have certainly made the global real estate cycle possible. However, they do not explain its origin. A central feature behind the - - global cycle i.e. so many synchronous national cycles has been the massive Japanese dominance of world financial markets during the period. To quote one of the best analyses of the powerful Japanese asset price cycle and the associated net long-term capital outflows:

"Japan's share of net long-term capital outflows among the G-7 countries plus traditional capital exporters Denmark, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Saudi Arabia rose from a quarter in 1982 to nearly 90% in 1987. In 1989, more than half of all foreign direct investment in these countries came from Japan. By that time, Japan had become the biggest net creditor nation on record, easily surpassing previous US or OPEC surpluses at their peak. I...] This historical expansion of Japanese capital exports was, however, followed by an historical collapse: virtually within the short period of one quarter, Japan became a sizable net importer of long-term capital in 1991." (Richard A. Wemer. [1994]).
- 94 -

Parks Canada 1978 Parks Canada policy: draft for discussion Parks Can. 118p Parks Canada 1979 Parks Canada Policy Parks Can 69p Polunin, Nicholas V C 1985 Traditional marine practices in Indonesia and their bearing on conservation 155-180 (in) Mcneely and Pitt 1985

# Poole, Peter 1968

Wild animal cropping in East Africa: present problems and future prospects Thesis, Columbia University, New York

# Poole, Peter 1981

Conservation and Inuit hunting: conflict or compatibility? Thesis, Mcgill University, Montreal Poole, Peter 1982 Report: a feasibility study to establish an environmental training centre in the Baffin region Baffin Island Inuit Assoc. Iqaluit, 3 vols

# Posey, Darrell Addison 1987

Continuation of the Kayapo Project Int. Rep. University, Maranhao, Brazil 29p Prescott-Allen, Robert and Christine 1983 Genes from the wild: using wild genetic resources for food and raw materials Earthscan Paperbacks, London/Washington, lOlp

- Prescott-Allen, Robert and Christine 1986 Towards an Inuit regional conservation strategy Inuit Circumpolar Conference Environmental Comm. Kuujjuac, Unpubl.

Rearden, J 1978 Subsistence, a troublesome issue Alaska 44 (7) 4-7 Schwarz, 0 Douglas Changing perspectives and a modest proposa' Environmental Ethics 9 291-302 Seed, John 1986 Lcgging disrupts Solomon Islanders' customary way of life Cult. Surv. Quart. 10 (1) 51-53
low and high productivity firms. Looking at their averages, internet users are 3.7 more productive than nonusers in terms of labor productivity and 34.7%, in terms of TFP.

_Figure 1 Computer Users versus Non-Computer Users_ <!-- Start of picture text --> Relative Sales per Worker distribution by quintiles<br>Relative TFP by Sector distribution by quintiles<br>0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1<br>Non-Computer User Non-Computer User<br>Source: Author’s own elaboration from enterprise surveys<br>Figure 2: Internet Users versus Non-Internet Users<br>Relative Sales per Worker distribution by quintiles<br>Relative TFP by Sector distribution by quintiles<br>0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1<br>Non-Internet User Non-Internet User<br>1<br>1<br>.8<br>.8<br>.6 .6<br>.4 .4<br>Computer User Computer User<br>.2 .2<br>0 0<br>1<br>1<br>.8<br>.8<br>.6 .6<br>Internet User .4 Internet User .4<br>.2 .2<br>0 0<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Author’s own elaboration from enterprise surveys Source: Author’s own elaboration from enterprise surveys Therefore, the graphs above suggest that while ICT adopters tend to be more productive than non-adopters, there is no statistical dominance, at least for TFP. This implies that although it is likely that there is some self-selection of more productive firms into ICT adoption, there could also be some impact of ICT on productivity. This issue is explored in detail in the next section.

# **6.2 ICT as an innovation enabler**

In this section we implement the methodology developed in section 4. As described earlier our main hypothesis is that ICT acts as an enabler to innovation, which in turns affects productivity. As a result, we adopt the CDM framework and integrate an ICT adoption equation in the model and also use ICT as an additional input for innovation.

21