rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Nudging in the Time of the
            Coronavirus : Evidence from an Experimental Tax Trial in
            Albania at the Onset of a Global Pandemic
Policy Research Working Paper 9961 Nudging in the Time of the Coronavirus Evidence from an Experimental Tax Trial in Albania at the Onset of a Global Pandemic _Jonathan Karver Hilda Shijaku Christoph Ungerer_ Macroeconomics, Trade and Investment Global Practice & Poverty and Equity Global Practice March 2022
Beyond Money : Does Migration
            Experience Transfer Gender Norms Empirical Evidence from
            Kerala, India
This paper examines the impact of return
            migration from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf on the transfer of
            gender norms to the Indian state of Kerala. Migration to
            countries in the Middle East has led to significant
            remittance flows and economic prosperity, although the
            effects on social norms and attitudes remain largely
            unexplored. The paper finds that returning migrants from
            Saudi Arabia tend to exhibit conservative values regarding
            gender-based violence and extreme attitudes pertaining to
            the perpetration of physical violence against women.
            Compared with those who have no migration experience, the
            attitudes of returning migrants from Saudi Arabia toward
            gender-based violence were more conservative by three
            standard deviations, while the attitudes of those returning
            from the Gulf were less conservative by 0.5 standard
            deviation. Similarly, compared with those with no migration
            experience, returning migrants from Saudi Arabia were more
            conservative by 2.6 standard deviations regarding extreme
            attitudes related to gender norms, such as sexual assault,
            while those returning from the Gulf were less conservative
            by 0.7 standard deviation. These results show that migration
            experience can have a substantial impact on the gender
            attitudes of returning migrants, with potential implications
            for migration and gender policies in Kerala and for
            countries that send a large share of temporary migrants
            overseas for work.
Globalization and Factor Income Taxation
How has globalization affected the
            relative taxation of labor and capital, and why? To address
            this question, this paper builds and analyzes a new database
            of effective macroeconomic tax rates covering 150 countries
            since 1965, constructed by combining national accounts data
            with government revenue statistics. Four main findings are
            obtained. (1) The effective tax rates on labor and capital
            have converged globally since the 1960s, due to a 10
            percentage-point increase in labor taxation and a 5
            percentage-point decline in capital taxation. (2) The
            decline in capital taxation is concentrated in high-income
            countries. By contrast, capital taxation has increased in
            developing countries since the 1990s, albeit from a low
            base. (3) Consistently across a variety of research designs,
            the findings show that the rise in capital taxation in
            developing countries can be explained by a tax capacity
            effect of international trade: trade openness leads to a
            concentration of economic activity in formal corporate
            structures, where capital taxes are easier to impose. (4) At
            the same time, international economic integration reduces
            statutory tax rates, due to increased tax competition. In
            high-income countries, this negative tax competition effect
            of trade has dominated, while in developing countries, the
            positive tax-capacity effect of international trade appears
            to have prevailed.
Effectiveness of Government Support
            for the Private Sector during the COVID-19 Crisis : Evidence
            from El Salvador and Georgia
This paper estimates the effectiveness
            of government support to the private sector during the
            COVID-19 pandemic in El Salvador and Georgia using
            firm-level data collected before and during the pandemic.
            The two countries are selected because eligibility criteria
            for support involved pre-pandemic features of firms, as
            opposed to more prevalent criteria directly linked to firms’
            experiences during the pandemic and that greatly exacerbate
            concerns about selection bias in estimation. Four outcome
            variables are studied relating to firms’ workforce, hours of
            operations, and expectations. Matching and panel estimation
            techniques are used on full and restricted samples, with the
            latter aimed at reducing selection bias. Government support
            appears to have helped firms avoid a reduction in operations
            in El Salvador, mainly through cash transfers, which also
            helped in terms of permanent workers, with the latter effect
            counteracted by wage subsidies. Smaller firms in Georgia
            appear to have benefited more from government support,
            mostly through fiscal relief, which was partially
            counteracted by wage subsidies that benefited larger firms
            more. The finding that smaller firms have benefited more
            helps raise confidence in the analysis as strong negative
            selection bias is expected in this context. Manufacturers of
            textiles and garments in El Salvador and hotels and
            restaurants in Georgia appear to have benefited from
            government support, but the patterns in other sectors are
            mixed and country-specific, highlighting potential
            complexities of attempting to target sectors.
How Technology Adoption and Trade
            Are Shaping Indonesian Labor Markets
This paper analyzes the simultaneous
            impacts and interplay of exports and technology adoption on
            the demand for different types of skills and aggregate labor
            market indicators in Indonesia over a period characterized
            by a commodity boom (2005-10) and a period of declining
            exports (2011-15). The results for the 2005-10 sub-period
            are in line with the evidence available for developed
            countries, that is, technology is complementary to
            analytical and soft skills and is labor-saving, while
            exports are labor increasing. In 2011-15, the relationship
            between technology and skills, and between technology and
            labor demand, differs from the evidence available for the
            developed world. That is, technology increases the demand
            for analytical and interpersonal skills in high-exporting
            industries only, and technology and exports are labor
            increasing for some population subgroups. The findings for
            the more recent period confirm that differences in economic
            structures matter for understanding the impacts of
            technological advances and globalization.
Trade and Female Labor Participation
            : Stylized Facts Using a Global Dataset
Using a cross-section of more than
            29,000 manufacturing firms in 64 developing and emerging
            countries from the World Bank's Enterprise Surveys,
            this paper assesses whether trading firms have a female
            labor share premium relative to non-trading firms. It
            focuses on four types of trading firms: exporters,
            importers, global value chain participants, and foreign
            firms. The study finds a female labor share premium for all
            four trading types, controlling for firm output, capital
            intensity, total factor productivity, and fixed effects. The
            findings also hold after controlling for differences in
            relative wages between men and women and excluding
            traditional export sectors (apparel and electronics) from
            the sample. The female labor share premium is much higher
            for production workers compared with non-production workers,
            implying that women specialize in low-skill production. In
            line with these findings, the study finds that the female
            labor share premium for exporters and global value chain
            participants is highest in low-tech sectors. And female
            ownership and management expand the female labor share
            premium for trading firms. Finally, the results suggest that
            although average wage rates are lower for firms with higher
            female labor shares, this negative correlation is smaller
            for trading firms.
Free Primary Education, Fertility,
            and Women's Access to the Labor Market : Evidence from Ethiopia
This article investigates the causal
            relationship between women's schooling and fertility by
            exploiting variation generated by the removal of school fees
            in Ethiopia. The increase in schooling caused by the reform
            is identified using both geographic variation in the
            intensity of its impact and temporal variation generated by
            the timing of the implementation. The model finds that the
            removal of school fees led to an increase in schooling for
            Ethiopian women and that each additional year of schooling
            led to a reduction in fertility. An investigation of the
            underlying mechanisms linking schooling and fertility finds
            that the decline in fertility is associated with an increase
            in labor market opportunity and a reduction in women's
            ideal number of children.
Free Movement and Affordable Housing
            : Public Preferences for Reform in Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan has one of the lowest rates
            of internal migration in the world, leading to persistent
            economic imbalances. Drawing from a unique monthly panel
            survey called Listening to the Citizens of Uzbekistan and a
            survey experiment, this paper focuses on two factors that
            prevent domestic mobility: (i) restrictive propiska
            registration policies, and (ii) the exceptionally high cost
            of urban housing. Registration rules prohibit migration to
            urban centers, and urban housing costs push up the cost of
            living to as much as 550 percent of the national average,
            levels severely unaffordable for almost all rural residents.
            But the proposed government reforms in 2019 to address these
            challenges are very popular. The results show that about 90
            percent of people support lifting all registration
            restrictions and over 80 percent favor increasing urban
            housing construction. The results of the experiment show
            that reform popularity increases when propiska rules and
            housing costs are referenced in randomly assigned vignettes.
            However, views may also be sensitive to perceptions of
            fairness. Recent high-profile involuntary demolitions
            coincided with a doubling of the share responding that
            policies are unfair. The increase was further associated
            with declining optimism and lower support for the wider
            government national development program, beyond urbanization issues.
Inequality, Poverty and the
            Intra-Household Allocation of Consumption in Senegal
Intra-household inequalities have long
            been a source of concern for policy design, but there is
            very little evidence. The current practice of ignoring
            inequality within households could lead to an
            underestimation of both overall inequality and poverty
            levels, as well as to the misclassification of some
            individuals as regards to their poverty status. Using a
            novel survey for Senegal in which consumption data were
            collected at a disaggregated level, this paper quantifies
            these various effects. In total, two opposing effects, one
            on mean and one on inequality, compensate each other in
            terms of the overall poverty rate, but individual poverty
            statuses are affected. Intra-household consumption
            inequalities accounts for 14 percent of inequality in
            Senegal. The authors uncover the fact that household
            structure and organization are key correlates of
            intra-household inequality and individual risk of poverty.
Trade Integration, Export Patterns,
            and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa
This paper examines systematically the
            growth effects of trade integration in Sub-Saharan Africa.
            It complements and improves upon the empirical literature in
            two aspects: first, it jointly estimates the impact of
            different dimensions of trade integration, namely, trade
            volumes, export/trade patterns by product (primary and
            manufacturing goods), and by destination (inter- and
            intra-regional). Second, it estimates the impact of trade
            integration on economic growth and its sources, that is,
            capital accumulation and total factor productivity growth.
            The analysis finds causal evidence that trade integration
            fosters growth. Additionally, manufacturing trade boosts
            growth and trade in primary goods hampers growth. Doubling
            the manufacturing trade share in Sub-Saharan Africa's
            gross domestic product would increase growth by 1.9
            percentage points per year, while increases in primary trade
            reduce growth by 1 percentage point. This impact is mainly
            transmitted through lower capital accumulation. Finally,
            inter- and intra-regional trade have a positive impact on
            growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Doubling inter-regional trade
            will increase growth by 1.9 percentage points, and the same
            increase for intra-regional trade enhances growth by 0.6
            percentage points. The effects of inter-regional trade are
            transmitted primarily through capital accumulation, while
            those of intra-regional trade are channeled through enhanced
            total factor productivity growth.
Bank Capital and Risk in Europe and
            Central Asia Ten Years After the Crisis
This paper examines changes in bank
            capital and capital regulations since the global financial
            crisis, in the Europe and Central Asia region. It shows that
            banks in Europe and Central Asia are better capitalized, as
            measured by regulatory capital ratios, than they were prior
            to the crisis. However, the increase in simple equity ratios
            for the same banks has been smaller over the past 10 years.
            The increases in regulatory capital ratios have coincided
            with a reduction in the stringency of the definition of Tier
            1 capital and reduction in risk-weights. Further analyses
            show that bank risk in Europe and Central Asia is more
            sensitive to changes in simple leverage ratios than in
            regulatory capital ratios, consistent with the notion that
            equity ratios only include high-quality capital and do not
            rely on internal risk models to compute risk-weights.
            Although there has been some effort to increase capital and
            liquidity requirements for institutions deemed systemically
            important, the region has been lagging in addressing the
            resolution of these institutions.
Global Corporate Debt during Crises
            : Implications of Switching Borrowing across Markets
This paper studies how crises prompted
            firms to switch borrowing across markets, impacting the
            amount borrowed, maturity, and currency denomination at the
            firm and aggregate levels. Using data on worldwide debt
            issuance from advanced and emerging economies, the paper
            shows that firms shifted their issuances between domestic
            and international syndicated loans and corporate bonds
            during financial crises. Firms reduced their borrowing in
            shock-hit markets but increased it in other debt markets.
            Firms also moved toward longer-term markets, maintaining (or
            even increasing) their borrowing maturity. As they moved
            toward domestic markets during international crises, firms
            reduced the share of foreign currency debt. The opposite
            occurred during domestic crises. Large firms were the ones
            that switched between international and domestic markets,
            affecting aggregate capital raising activity. The analysis
            of four distinct markets generates patterns consistent with
            credit supply shocks that are different from those obtained
            when studying the dynamics of individual markets.
The Nitrogen Legacy : The Long-Term
            Effects of Water Pollution on Human Capital
The fallout of nitrogen pollution is
            considered one of the largest global externalities facing
            the world, impacting air, water, soil, and human health.
            This paper combines data from the Demographic and Health
            Survey data set across India, Vietnam, and 33 African
            countries to analyze the causal links between pollution
            exposure experienced during the very earliest stages of life
            and later-life health. The results show that pollution
            exposure experienced in the critical years of
            development—from birth until age three—is associated with
            decreased height as an adult, a well-known indicator of
            overall health and productivity, and is robust to several
            statistical checks. Because adult height is related to
            education, labor productivity, and income, this also implies
            a loss of earning potential. The analysis begins within an
            assessment in India, where the data are more available, and
            is then extended to geographic settings including Vietnam
            and 33 countries in Africa. The results are consistent and
            show that early-life exposure to nitrogen pollution in water
            can lower height-for-age scores during childhood in Vietnam
            and during infancy in Africa. These findings add to the
            evidence on the enduring consequences of water pollution and
            identify a critical area for policy intervention.
Analyzing Female Employment Trends
            in South Asia
This paper studies employment patterns
            and trends in South Asia to shed light on determinants of
            extremely low female employment rates in the region. After a
            comprehensive literature review, the authors use employment
            data from about one hundred censuses and surveys from
            Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and
            Sri Lanka to compare employment trends across countries over
            time. They work through data inconsistencies to standardize
            definitions of variables to compare demographic and labor
            market determinants: age, sector, contract type, location,
            and education. The paper finds that (i) overall since 2001,
            women's employment participation across South Asian
            countries has been low and broadly unchanged; (ii) the
            gender employment gap emerges more clearly in middle age
            brackets; (iii) rural female employment is higher than
            urban; (iv) agriculture is the economic sector accounting
            for the greatest share of female employment, although this
            is slowly changing in some countries, and; (v) women with
            mid-level education tend to have lower employment rates than
            those with both lower and higher education.
Modeling Uncertainty in Large
            Natural Resource Allocation Problems
The productivity of the world's
            natural resources is critically dependent on a variety of
            highly uncertain factors, which obscure individual investors
            and governments that seek to make long-term, sometimes
            irreversible investments in their exploration and
            utilization. These dynamic considerations are poorly
            represented in disaggregated resource models, as
            incorporating uncertainty into large-dimensional problems
            presents a challenging computational task. This study
            introduces a novel numerical method to solve large-scale
            dynamic stochastic natural resource allocation problems that
            cannot be addressed by conventional methods. The method is
            illustrated with an application focusing on the allocation
            of global land resource use under stochastic crop yields due
            to adverse climate impacts and limits on further
            technological progress. For the same model parameters, the
            range of land conversion is considerably smaller for the
            dynamic stochastic model as compared to deterministic
            scenario analysis. The scenario analysis can thus
            significantly overstate the magnitude of expected land
            conversion under uncertain crop yields.
Learning from Power Sector Reform :
            The Case of the Arab Republic of Egypt
The challenge of power sector reform in
            the Arab Republic of Egypt has long been dominated by
            extremely high subsidies, with prices set well below the
            costs of supply. These subsidies have taken a variety of
            forms: explicit subsidies in the government budget, implicit
            subsidies in the underpricing of fuel supply (particularly
            natural gas) to the power sector, accumulation of arrears
            from the sector, poorly-maintained physical capital, and
            cross-subsidies across customer classes. Egypt's social
            contract was linked to expanding energy access with good
            quality supply based on public financing and huge subsidies.
            Egypt has been able to achieve universal access with more or
            less reliable power over the entire period, except when
            chronic underinvestment in the sector caused blackouts in
            2011–14 at time of severe political uncertainty. The social
            compact came under pressure in 2014 when energy subsidies
            reached 6.8 percent of gross domestic product. Since then,
            the reform process has been revived based on new
            electricity, gas, and renewable energy laws; price and
            subsidy adjustments; structural reforms with a deliberately
            long time frame; and greater emphasis on the role of the
            private sector.