Table 4 _Environmental risks as determinants of consumption changes over time of ‘Panel’ households_

||||Dependent v|ariable: Chang|e in per‐capita expen|diture||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||All|Poor|B40|Rural|Rural 2012‐14|Urban|Urban 2012‐14|
|Air pollution|**‐12.37***|6.040|‐0.0273|‐4.189|‐3.224|‐34.10|‐41.43|
||(‐1.91)|(1.52)|(‐0.01)|(‐0.86)|(‐0.42)|(‐1.58)|(‐1.61)|
|Tree cover loss|‐4.166|‐1.376|‐5.865|‐4.605|**‐13.16***|‐0.818|‐5.808|
||(‐0.73)|(‐0.40)|(‐1.63)|(‐0.83)|(‐1.92)|(‐0.03)|(‐0.11)|
|Land degradation|0.262|0.554|0.0442|**1.555****|0.542|‐2.124|‐2.237|
||(0.33)|(0.96)|(0.09)|(2.13)|(0.47)|(‐1.15)|(‐0.72)|
|Slope|8.262|‐17.99|4.052|‐2.692|‐1.030|38.90|67.10|
||(0.43)|(‐0.93)|(0.30)|(‐0.16)|(‐0.04)|(0.73)|(0.91)|
|Rainfall variability|‐0.162|**‐3.139***|0.445|‐0.349|‐0.132|‐0.250|**‐15.18***|
||(‐0.08)|(‐1.71)|(0.32)|(‐0.17)|(‐0.04)|(‐0.04)|(‐1.72)|
|Temperature variability|**974.5***|193.5|182.0|377.8|403.0|2582.1|**6247.0****|
||(1.74)|(0.61)|(0.67)|(0.88)|(0.63)|(1.42)|(2.40)|
|Flood hazard|‐0.390|0.110|**1.533****|‐0.0430|‐0.602|‐4.244|‐3.479|
||(‐0.38)|(0.10)|(2.33)|(‐0.05)|(‐0.45)|(‐1.30)|(‐0.99)|
|Drought hazard|‐2.442|**‐121.1****|‐64.84|‐35.65|53.63|137.7|58.11|
||(‐0.05)|(‐2.06)|(‐1.55)|(‐0.72)|(0.67)|(0.89)|(0.23)|
|Control variables||||||||
|Current rainfall|1.259|0.656|‐0.458|1.625|0.635|‐0.560|2.514|
||(1.09)|(0.89)|(‐0.66)|(1.59)|(0.40)|(‐0.16)|(0.50)|
|Current temperature|‐190.0**|‐37.60|‐48.73|‐103.5|‐40.98|‐406.5*|‐239.6|
||(‐2.20)|(‐0.57)|(‐0.90)|(‐1.32)|(‐0.22)|(‐1.69)|(‐0.46)|
|Long‐term rainfall|1.080|5.660***|1.731|‐0.469|0.421|6.838|24.23*|
||(0.41)|(2.69)|(1.03)|(‐0.20)|(0.10)|(0.85)|(1.89)|
|Long‐term temperature|54.08**|‐44.43***|9.712|25.99|59.33*|109.1**|226.8***|
||(2.48)|(‐2.74)|(0.74)|(1.20)|(1.93)|(2.04)|(2.85)|
|Distance city|2.372**|0.965|1.647**|1.450|1.915|3.100|0.678|
||(2.24)|(1.33)|(2.27)|(1.61)|(1.28)|(1.20)|(0.17)|
|Distance road|5.620|3.284|5.966**|2.183|17.50***|15.10|13.03|
||(1.15)|(1.13)|(1.97)|(0.49)|(2.64)|(0.65)|(0.47)|
|Area agriculture|13.91***|8.732**|14.39|12.56***|8.157**|19.83|39.26*|
||(2.59)|(2.17)|(1.64)|(2.62)|(2.24)|(1.09)|(1.93)|
|Area forest|0.336|0.146|0.155|0.315|0.209|22.92|35.49|
||(0.28)|(0.09)|(0.17)|(0.28)|(0.13)|(0.63)|(0.72)|
|Area water surface|25.81**|24.64|11.20|33.36***|36.21***|‐54.07|‐130.1|
||(2.01)|(0.89)|(1.47)|(3.80)|(4.73)|(‐1.18)|(‐1.53)|
|Workforce|190.6***|166.7***|89.93**|208.4***|228.1***|127.9|‐489.4|
||(2.63)|(2.82)|(2.17)|(3.42)|(2.72)|(0.44)|(‐1.08)|
|Education|117.4***|40.56|67.02***|73.88***|88.50***|235.3***|203.1***|
||(5.75)|(1.40)|(5.05)|(4.26)|(3.77)|(4.02)|(3.35)|
|Age head|‐2.285|‐3.548***|‐2.276**|‐1.553|‐4.078*|‐4.467|‐5.595|
||(‐1.60)|(‐3.09)|(‐2.53)|(‐1.14)|(‐1.94)|(‐1.18)|(‐0.95)|
|Female head|85.89|28.10|30.55|49.79|26.04|193.3|385.3*|
||(1.52)|(0.64)|(0.91)|(1.03)|(0.33)|(1.44)|(1.94)|
|Minority|‐152.8***|175.7***|234.9***|‐149.6**|‐204.7**|‐179.1|‐702.7**|
||(‐2.63)|(3.27)|(5.47)|(‐2.56)|(‐2.09)|(‐0.80)|(‐2.09)|
|Year 2012‐14|<br>139.8|<br>‐101.7|<br>‐128.8**|<br>96.08||<br>202.4||
||(1.35)|(‐1.46)|(‐2.24)|(1.04)||(0.71)||
|_cons|‐1943.4**|188.1|‐784.5*|‐542.3|‐1461.6|‐5280.7**|‐12451.3***|
||(‐2.25)|(0.39)|(‐1.70)|(‐0.73)|(‐1.38)|(‐2.17)|(‐3.05)|
|N|7957|952|3250|5804|2792|2153|1109|
|R‐sq|0.017|0.171|0.076|0.020|0.035|0.029|0.050|

Notes: Table indicates coefficients estimated from ‘Panel’ model using Ordinary Least Squares and differences over time for time‐ variant variables. * 0.10 ** 0.05 *** 0.01 significance level. Values in parentheses indicate standard errors corrected for cluster correlation at commune‐level.

_Source: Authors’ calculation based on data from Brauer et al, 2015, Hansen et al., 2013, Vu et al., 2014b, Harmonized World Soil Database, Climate Research Unit, Bangalore et al., 2016, Winsemius et al., 2015, and VHLSS 2010, 2012 and 2014._ 17