rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# **_3.2. Field Verification of PODES Conflict Reporting_**

As part of a study on conflict and community-driven development being undertaken by the World Bank (Barron _, et al._ 2004a), a team of researchers conducted an intensive mapping and evaluation exercise in four districts ( _kabupaten_ ) in East Java and NTT. The provinces were chosen to be different using both formal (PODES, SUSENAS) and informal (interviewing at the national and provincial levels) sources. Two districts were then purposively selected within each province as having either a high capacity to manage conflict (Ponorogo in East Java; Sikka in NTT) or a low capacity (Pamekasan in East Java; Manggarai in NTT). Within each district two ‘matching’ sub-districts ( _kecamatan_ ) were picked based on program evaluation considerations.<sup>8</sup> After a conflict mapping exercise at the district and sub-district levels, 25 ‘case’ villages were chosen purposively within the selected sub-districts on the basis of a number of criteria aimed at targeting the most interesting conflicts to track. Findings from this work provide some valuable insights into the reporting of conflict incidence from PODES, in particular definitions, categorizations, and incentives for reporting on the part of key respondents such as village heads. The qualitative fieldwork obtained detailed information on 25 and the conflicts within each. We cross-checked the groups of questions from PODES that considered conflict, its impacts and the way it is resolved (PODES questions 1703 – 1704).

> _8_ The KDP & Community Conflict Negotiation study is a large-scale mixed methods study of local level conflict and conflict resolution in Indonesia which aims to ascertain – systematically and empirically – the factors that affect local level conflict management capacity and that contribute to varying levels of violent conflict (Barron _, et al._ 2004a).  In addition to identifying the factors that impact on local capacity to manage conflict, the research also examines the extent to which the Kecamatan Development Program (KDP), the Bank’s primary community development program in Indonesia, impacts on communities’ conflict management ability.  Because the research is evaluating program impact, in each district a treatment (KDP) sub-district and control (non-KDP) sub-district were selected.  These sub-districts were matched, using propensity scoring techniques and qualitative verification.

16
Policy Research Working Paper 9157

# **Abstract**

This paper studies employment patterns and trends in South Asia to shed light on determinants of extremely low female employment rates in the region. After a comprehensive literature review, the authors use employment data from about one hundred censuses and surveys from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka to compare employment trends across countries over time. They work through data inconsistencies to standardize definitions of variables to compare demographic and labor market determinants: age, sector, contract type, location, and education. The paper finds that (i) overall since 2001, women’s employment participation across South Asian countries has been low and broadly unchanged; (ii) the gender employment gap emerges more clearly in middle age brackets; (iii) rural female employment is higher than urban; (iv) agriculture is the economic sector accounting for the greatest share of female employment, although this is slowly changing in some countries, and; (v) women with mid-level education tend to have lower employment rates than those with both lower and higher education.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at gacevedo@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
the project locations during the months of August and September. School closures due to these floods constituted the most serious implementation challenge given focus of the transfers on regular school attendance. These implementation challenges coupled with the fact that the impact evaluation only covers 13 months of cash transfers are likely to affect the impact of the intervention on some of the above indicators.

Ten Unions<sup>5</sup> from two rural Upazilas<sup>6</sup> (Jaldhaka and Hatibandha) located in the Rangpur Division, which is the poorest in Bangladesh, were chosen as the pilot locations. To test the pilot in an urban setting, the project was also located in the slums of Narayanganj City Corporation. The choice of Narayanganj was mainly driven by the practical consideration that the city offers large numbers of semi-public slums where the chances of “slum eviction” is likely to be minimal. A detailed list of the rural and urban locations is provided in Tables A1 and A2 in Annex I. Following a Public Information Campaign on the project objectives and duration, the targeting and enrollment processes were carried out. The Project used Proxy Means Test (PMT) scores to determine household eligibility.<sup>7</sup> To create the initial beneficiary roster, _Shombhob_ set up an open registration process where interested households with at least one child age 0-36 months<sup>8</sup> and/or at least one primary-school-aged child were invited to come and apply to be selected by the project. During registration, each household had to fill in a questionnaire which gathered all the information and variables needed to construct a PMT score based on the formula and weights developed for Bangladesh in Sharif (2009) (see Table B1 in Annex II for the list of variables included in the PMT formula).

> 5 Unions are the lowest administrative unit in the Upazila. There are generally about 10 Unions per Upazila. 6 Upazilas are the lowest administrative unit in the Districts. Districts are the composed of Divisions. There are 64 Districts and 7 Divisions in Bangladesh.

> 7 The PMT based methodology predicts household wealth using a set of observable and verifiable variables that are highly correlated with household consumption.

> 8 Even though initially the project design included children below the age of 24 months, during implementation the age limit was increased to 36 months. The delay in implementation by six months since the implementation of the baseline survey led to this change.

8
# **3. UNESCO – Indicators on Municipal Policies Aimed at Fighting Racism and Discrimination**

Ethnocultural diversity increasingly constitutes an important characteristic of major cities around the world. As the primary centres for national, ethnic and cultural intermixing, cities are laboratories for new ways of “living together” (UNESCO, 2004). However, when this diversity is accompanied by inequalities, racism and discrimination, it can increase the social divide.

As part of its activities to promote and reinforce municipal anti-discriminatory policies, UNESCO has supported the launching of a " _Coalition of Cities Against Racism_ " For that purpose, it developed a series of indicators for evaluating municipal policies to fight racism and discrimination. This work was carried out with the goal of assisting cities that want to adopt public policies of diversity management and wish to fight racism and discrimination, as well as to evaluate the impact of such policies. The goal was to equip cities with tools for evaluating in quantitative and/or qualitative terms whether their actions lead to less discrimination and racism.

|**Table 3– UNE**|**SCO List of Indicators of racism and ethnic discrimination**|
|---|---|
|**Sector**|**Indicator**|
|Residential<br>Segregation|Concentration of members of racial groups in certain neighbourhoods<br>(cross-tabulated withpovertyrates)|
||Modes of tenure (ownership,tenancy) byneighbourhood and by group|
||Mode of transportand commutetime, byneighbourhood and by group|
|Public Order|Numberandnature of hate crimes|
||Racist incidentsreported|
||Numberofdiscriminationcomplaintsmade andregistered|
||Offencerates byneighbourhood|
||Percentage ofpersonsindicted/triedforoffences|
|Education|Attainment levels|
||Competenceinofficial language|
||Successrate ofyoung peoplefrom racialgroups|
|City Administration|Representation rate of racialgroupsincity personnel|
||Representation rate of racialgroupsin managementpositions|
||Representation rate of racialgroupsinculturalbodies|
||Participation rateincity councilandits committees|

# **4. European Foundation - European Urban indicators**

Common Indicators – towards a local sustainability profile: In 2003 the Ambiente Italia Research Institute published the final report on the development, refinement, management and evaluation of European Common Indicators Project. The report explains that a prerequisite for sustainability is the need to measure impacts of urban activities and monitor its progress. A methodology to define the ten selected indicators is proposed, and applied to 80 local authorities from 22 European countries that signed the “Agreement on the adoption of a Sustainability Profile – European Common Indicators”.

In Europe, the magnitude and significance of sustainability indicators has received much attention in recent years, but their use is still at an initial stage. The European Foundation created a set of indicators to measure urban sustainability and since then has applied it to several European cities.

33
Table 1: Share of workers by demographic groups (% of employed population, age 15-64)

|||Full Sa|mple|||Sample in|this study||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Female|Low-skilled<br>workers|Informal<br>workers|Agriculture|Female|Low-skilled<br>workers|Informal<br>workers|Agriculture|
|2007|44.7|61.8|77.5|30.6|44.7|61.7|77.4|30.6|
|2008|45.3|60.8|79.0|29.0|45.2|60.9|79.0|28.9|
|2009|44.9|58.7|78.1|27.7|44.9|58.7|78.0|27.5|
|2011|44.2|56.9|77.6|28.0|44.2|56.9|77.6|28.0|
|2012|44.1|54.2|76.5|25.8|44.1|54.3|76.5|25.8|
|2013|44.3|48.8|72.4|25.9|44.2|48.9|72.5|25.9|
|2014|44.0|49.7|77.4|28.3|44.0|49.7|77.4|28.3|
|2015|41.5|46.3|77.0|25.0|41.6|46.3|77.1|25.2|
|2016|44.1|53.6|78.1|26.4|44.2|53.7|78.1|26.3|
|2017|43.1|50.9|78.0|24.6|43.0|51.1|78.2|24.8|
|2018|43.0|50.3|76.4|25.9|43.0|50.2|76.3|25.7|
|2019|44.2|48.3|76.5|25.6|44.2|48.4|76.6|25.6|
|2020|43.7|46.6|-|26.4|43.7|46.6|-|26.2|
|2021|42.5|44.7|-|22.4|42.5|44.7|-|22.4|

_Notes:_ Based on data from EH 2007-2021. We define low-skilled workers for people with incomplete secondary education or below and informality for employees with some kind of written contract and employers, self-employed with a Tax Identification Number (TIN).

Table 2 provides summary statistics that offer an overview of the labor market in Bolivia over the years. The first two rows indicate that the aggregate participation and employment rates have remained relatively stable over the past decade. However, Row (3) reveals a 10-percentage point increase in the share of the population aged 15 to 64 years old who were self-employed between 2007 and 2021. Moreover, the labor income of this population ceased to increase in 2014, following the national average trend. This slump in income disproportionately affected this type of workers as laborers and employees did not suffer a significant income contraction (Davalos et al. 2020). In this sense, it may be important to distinguish between entrepreneurs (growth-oriented business owners) and selfemployed individuals driven by necessity to characterize the dynamics of the Bolivian labor market fully.

8
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46
30 RENT CONTROL IN KUMASI, GHANA city wide; reflecting not only the controlled rents but also the prevalence of households occupying on y one room. As these represented the price equivalent of one yam or two loaves of bread, or about 70 cents (US), it will be seen that rental levels were very low. Means for just the low cost areas were even lower. Government built areas had a mean and median of only C11.5 and C9.5 despite the fact that many rooms were sublet privately. However, wages were also very low. Controlled rent for one 12' x 10' room in sandcrete with shared facilities (C20) took 5 days to earn at the minimum wage of C4 per day. The 1973 equivalent rent (C6.5) took 6.5 days to earn at the then Cl per day. While the minimum wage is at best a crude indicator of actual wages paid, in the early 80s it was the benchmark wage for many daily-paid workers.

Table 2.3: Controlled rents July 1979 (AFRCD **5,** 1979)

|Type of accommodation and site.|Location<br>(where specifie|Rent<br>d) Imonth|
|---|---|---|
|1. 1 room with shared amenitles (ie. under<br>multl-occupation) of size 12 ft x 10 ft.|Regional Cap-<br>itals and Tema|C20|
||Elsewhere|C16|
|**Where**size is not specified.|Regional Cap-<br>itals<br>and Tema|16p/sqft|
||Elsewhere|12p/sqft|
|2. 2 roomed self contained semi-detached<br>house, like SHC type SH(1).<br>-----------------------------------------------------------------||**C150**<br>or<br>27p/sqft<br>--|
|3. 3 roomed self contained semi-detached<br>house, like SHC type SH(2).||__<br>C175<br>or<br>30p/sqft|
|4. 3 roomed self contained detached||C200|
|house, like SHC type SH(3).||or<br>34p/sqft|
|-----------------------------------------------------------------||__--|
|**5.**Other self contained houses||By neg-|
|of more than 3 rooms.||otiation|

According to the above data on Kumasi, most accommodation with shared amenities was charged for at a level close to the controlled rents before PNDC Law 5 was promulgated. Over 90% of all households in the low income housing areas paid less than C25 per room.

When Flt-Lt. Rawlings resumed power in December 1981 his Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) Government started out with the intention of providing large quantities of "workers' housing" to solve the housing problem. It again tightened up rent control (Table 2.4). All rents were to be halved or reduced to C20 per month for single roomed accommodation and C50 per month for "chamber and hall" (i.e., a suite of two rooms). If rents were already lower than this they were to stay at their December 31st, 1981 level. Furthermore, no rents could be increased until March 6, 1983 (PNDC Law 5, 1982). These regulations did not apply to self-contained premises or where existing rents exceeded ClOOO per month. In the latter case, landlords had to pay fifty percent tax on the rent. Furthermore, any landlord who demanded higher than allowed
_51_

**_Estiation_** _and Results_

The results are reported in table 9. We find a statistically significant causal relationships between money growth and inflation that run in both directions. Thus, Money growth Granger-causes inflation and inflation Granger-causes money growth. This result needs no further explanations.We also find that output growth Granger-causes inflation and that inflation Granger-causes devaluations. No causality is detected between money growth and real output, money growth and devaluations, and output and devaluations.

# D. Real Exports Growth, Output Growth, and Real Devaluations: A Causality Test

The objective of this section is to examine the causal relationship between real exports and-real devaluations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Real devaluations are defined here as the percentage changes of the real exchange rate that are equal to or greater than 15 percent. This cutoff point was used by Edwards.44; We apply the Granger-Causality (1969) test to pooled time-series and cross-section data for 19 Sub-Saharan African countries45/ for the period 1971-1991. Among these countries, there are i3 that have gone through major devaluation episodes during the 1980s as defined above.46!

# **_44_** We have also tested the model without any cutoff point and found similar results.

_45/_ The countries are chosen because we have complete time-series for all variables. These countries are Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Gambia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Malawi, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Zaire, and Zambia.

**46/** Countries that implemented devaluation policies are Botswana, Ghana, Gambia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritania, Mauritius, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Zaire, and Zambia.
# Decentralization and Redistribution: Irrigation Reform in Pakistan’s Indus Basin<sup>_∗_</sup>

Hanan G. Jacoby<sup>_†_</sup> Ghazala Mansuri<sup>_‡_</sup> Freeha Fatima<sup>_§_</sup>

**Keywords:** Rent-seeking, bureaucracy, elite capture, landownership inequality

**JEL codes:** D73, P48, Q15, Q25

> _∗_ Funding for this project was provided by the World Bank’s Knowledge for Change Program, its Strategic Research Program, and its Research Support Budget. The project would not have been possible without the support of the Punjab Irrigation Department. The authors are particularly grateful to Mr. Habibullah Bodla at the PMIU for providing access to the discharge data and to Mr. Afzal Toor at PIDA for providing access to FO data. The team also thanks Mr. Saif Anjum (ex-Secretary Irrigation) for his consistent support. The views expressed herein are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the World Bank, its executive directors, or the countries they represent.

> _†_ World Bank, 1818 H St NW, Washington DC 20433; e-mail: hjacoby@worldbank.org.

> _‡_ World Bank; e-mail: gmansuri@worldbank.org.

> _§_ World Bank; e-mail: ffatima@worldbank.org.
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http://web.mit.edu/globalchange/www/MITJPSPGC_Rpt110.pdf Schellnhuber, H.J., W. Cramer, N. Nakicenovic, T. Wigley and G. Yohe, (Eds.) (2006), Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, London.

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The People’s Republic of China (2004), Initial National Communication on Climate Change, Beijing, http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/chnnc1e.pdf The White House (2002), “President Announces Clear Skies & Global Climate Change Initiatives”, Press Release, February 14, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/02/20020214-5.html United Nations (UN) (1992), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Climate Change Secretariat, Bonn, Germany.

-34-
The main source of information for this study is a survey conducted to monitor the overall effects of the campaign at the national level. This survey contains information from parents from 720 Primary and Junior Secondary schools nationwide, stratified at the province level to capture large and small provinces, in a total of 19 districts in 9 provinces.<sup>13</sup> The monitoring survey asks questions about all campaign interventions, including the TV, radio and print media advertisements. For the districts in the pilot, the survey was augmented to include questions about the school-level interventions, school-level knowledge, and participation in the school.

Even though two rounds of data were collected from each school (baseline and endline), the parents interviewed in each round were different so we do not have a panel of parents that we could follow over time. At baseline, one student from each grade (from second to sixth grade) was selected randomly, and the survey team visited the student’s home to interview his or her parents. If the parents were not home, the caretaker of the child was interviewed. For the endline survey, the number of parents in each school was increased, and varied by district in pilot schools. In Tulungagung (letter and pocket book) a total of 10 parents were interviewed in each school (2 from each grade, from second to sixth grade); in Malang (SMS), 20 parents in each school were interviewed. The parents were intended to come from all grades in school; and in Sumbawa 12 parents per school (two in each grade from grades one to six) were interviewed. The total sample in each treatment and control group is shown in Figure 1.

# **_2.5 Indicators_**

We measure knowledge and participation along three dimensions: (1) General knowledge about the BOS program, (2) knowledge about how the program operates in the school that parents belong to, and (3) participation in school management (Table 1). All individual variables are binary (yes/no) and, because of their large number, we create an index for each dimension by adding them up. The results section focuses on these indices, though we also subsequently present results on individual variables. In addition, the results section uses mainly the endline survey, because it includes more variables and a larger sample of parents. We use the baseline survey mainly to test for balance between treatment and control groups.

> 13 The survey was stratified to capture both large and small provinces, and both urban and rural districts. Importantly for our purposes, within districts, schools were selected randomly.

11