High-income countries are characterized by stronger linkages to supplying sectors in which jobs are created, such as in professional services (e.g., technicians or engineers to maintain machines or greenhouses), but also in research and development (e.g., to optimize the ripening process of fruits or to improve the quality of seeds). While mining exports create a much higher percentage of jobs in supplying sectors than agricultural exports, a similar explanation could hold. Additional analysis by broad sector and world region is shown in Appendix Figure 9.6.

Finally, focusing on detailed export sectors for emerging vs. high-income countries separately highlights stark differences, with high-income countries showing a larger direct contribution across most manufacturing and business services sectors. Figure 16 shows the decomposition of employment in exports into their direct, indirect and reimported shares for detailed industries, differentiating between the sample of high-income countries and that of emerging countries (using the 2018 income category).

**Figure 16: Direct and indirect employment in exports, detailed sector, 2018**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Middle-income countries High-income countries<br>Coke and refined petroleum...10.7% 88.7% Coke and refined petroleum...9.6% 89.2%<br>Food products, beverages and...14.3% 85.6% Water transport 28.6% 70.9%<br>Computer, electronic and... 19.0% 79.0% Mining and quarrying, energy... 28.8% 70.8%<br>Pharmaceuticals, medicinal... 20.3% 79.5% Chemical and chemical products 33.9% 65.3%<br>Chemical and chemical products 23.2% 76.4% Air transport 36.0% 63.7%<br>Basic metals 26.5% 73.1% Pharmaceuticals, medicinal... 36.2% 63.1%<br>Other transport equipment 27.7% 71.6% Food products, beverages and... 36.5% 63.1%<br>Mining support service activities 29.0% 70.6% Real estate activities 38.0% 61.9%<br>Electrical equipment 29.3% 70.0% Electricity, gas, steam and air... 38.4% 61.4%<br>Motor vehicles, trailers and... 29.8% 69.7% Motor vehicles, trailers and... 39.5% 59.0%<br>Rubber and plastics products 30.4% 69.2% Mining and quarrying, non-... 39.9% 60.0%<br>Telecommunications 31.4% 68.4% Basic metals 40.7% 58.4%<br>Air transport 31.5% 68.2% Telecommunications 43.3% 56.4%<br>Publishing, audiovisual and... 32.7% 67.2% Other transport equipment 43.7% 55.2%<br>Mining and quarrying, energy... 33.0% 66.8% Computer, electronic and... 46.4% 52.8%<br>Machinery and equipment, nec 34.7% 64.8% Paper products and printing 51.6% 48.0%<br>Water transport 38.8% 60.7% Electrical equipment 51.8% 47.4%<br>Paper products and printing 40.0% 59.8% Wood and products of wood... 52.4% 47.3%<br>Textiles, textile products,... 41.5% 58.2% Machinery and equipment, nec 53.1% 46.2%<br>Fabricated metal products 42.6% 57.0% Publishing, audiovisual and... 55.3% 44.5%<br>Mining and quarrying, non-... 42.8% 57.1% Rubber and plastics products 56.2% 43.2%<br>Other non-metallic mineral... 42.9% 56.8% Other non-metallic mineral... 56.7% 43.0%<br>Accommodation and food... 43.6% 56.4% Financial and insurance activities 57.9% 41.9%<br>IT and other information services 44.4% 55.5% Water supply; sewerage, waste... 60.6% 39.4%<br>Wood and products of wood... 44.4% 55.5% Warehousing and support... 60.8% 39.0%<br>Electricity, gas, steam and air... 44.5% 55.3% Manufacturing nec; repair and... 64.1% 35.5%<br>Real estate activities 45.7% 54.2% Textiles, textile products,... 65.4% 34.3%<br>Water supply; sewerage, waste... 53.4% 46.6% Fabricated metal products 66.7% 32.8%<br>Manufacturing nec; repair and... 54.4% 45.4% Construction 67.6% 32.3%<br>Financial and insurance activities 55.5% 44.4% Land transport and transport... 68.7% 31.1%<br>Construction 63.3% 36.7% IT and other information services 69.3% 30.5%<br>Land transport and transport via... 64.0% 35.9% Fishing and aquaculture 69.4% 30.5%<br>Warehousing and support... 66.6% 33.3% Mining support service activities 71.0% 29.0%<br>Public administration and... 70.3% 29.7% Public administration and... 72.7% 27.2%<br>Administrative and support... 71.6% 28.3% Agriculture, hunting, forestry 75.8% 24.0%<br>Professional, scientific and... 73.3% 26.6% Professional, scientific and... 76.1% 23.8%<br>Human health and social work... 77.5% 22.5% Accommodation and food... 77.3% 22.6%<br>Arts, entertainment and... 80.0% 20.0% Wholesale and retail trade;... 77.3% 22.5%<br>Fishing and aquaculture 80.4% 19.6% Arts, entertainment and... 77.4% 22.5%<br>Wholesale and retail trade;... 83.2% 16.7% Postal and courier activities 80.6% 19.3%<br>Postal and courier activities 83.6% 16.4% Administrative and support... 82.9% 17.0%<br>Education 89.5% 10.5% Other service activities 83.8% 16.2%<br>Other service activities 89.8% 10.2% Human health and social work... 84.6% 15.4%<br>Agriculture, hunting, forestry 91.4% 8.6% Education 88.6% 11.4%<br>0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%<br>direct indirect reimported direct indirect reimported<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Own computations. Data: OECD TiE. The country sample covers 38 OECD countries plus 13 non-OECD countries. Note: Employment in exports can be decomposed into its (1) direct contribution in the exporting sector, (2) indirect contribution in sectors supplying to the export sector, and (3) contribution of reimported inputs. Income category of 2018 used (see Appendix 8).

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