rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
United Nations Capital Development Fund. 2017. PoWER Women and girls’ financial inclusion country assessment, Myanmar. Dalberg Global Development Advisors.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 2001. Improving the competitiveness of SMEs in developing countries. The role of finance to enhance enterprise development. United Nations.

World Bank. 2020. Women’s agency in Mon and Kayin States. World Bank.

Yordanova, Desislava Ivanova. 2011. The effects of gender on entrepreneurship in Bulgaria: an empirical study. International Journal of Management (28): 289-305.

# Appendix A – Descriptive statistics table

||Family<br>responsibility <br>**Table 3b. W**<br>**percep**|Gender<br>**eighted avera**<br>**tion(whole sa**|Conflict<br>**ge of barrier**<br>**mple)**|
|---|---|---|---|
|Male weighted<br>average|0.19|0.08|0.31|
|Female weighted<br>average|0.44|0.29|0.38|
|Note:The question<br>all, 5 being biggest<br>business growth.|asked to report<br>barrier) how m.|out 5 (0 being<br>uch these affec|no barrier at<br>ted their|
|In the sample:||||
|24.5% of women an<br>responsibilities as a|d 10.5% of me<br>barrier|n reported fam|ily|
|18.2% of women an<br>10% of women and|d 4.5% of men<br>13.5% of men|reported gend<br>reported confl|er as a barrier<br>ict as a barrier|

# Appendix B – Variable description

## **HRM policies**

**HRM policies:** gender equality policy, maternity and/or paternity leave, subsidized childcare, paid annual and/or sick leave, and housing subsidy are all binary variables that take value 1 if the firm provides each or the combination of the policies, as in the case of maternity and/or paternity leave.

**Gender equality policies index:** this index is out of 4 points, it was created with the summative approach (as all indices in this paper) and it is composed by gender equality, maternity and paternity leave, and subsidized childcare. **Social policies index:** this index is out of 6 points and it is composed by all variables comprising the gender equality index, plus whether the firm provides sick and/or annual leave.

**Subsidy policy index:** this index is out of 3 points and it is composed by the variables asking whether the firm provides housing, food and transport subsidy.

## **Access to finance**

**Firm has bank account and documents to request loan:** binary variables taking value 1 if the firm has a bank account and if they have the necessary documents in place to request a loan.

39
# **5. Labor Markets**

The main resource with which the poor are endowed is their own labor. Whether they are self-employed farmers, providers of services, or wage earners, their income is closely tied to conditions in the labor market. This point surfaces clearly in the Brazil and China studies discussed above, both of which emphasize the importance of labor markets as a mechanism for transmitting favorable developments in the world marketplace, as well as elsewhere in the domestic economy, to impoverished households. We now turn to studies which focus primarily on the labor markets in Brazil and China, as well as one focusing on a third country – Indonesia. The first of these is Maurizio Bussolo, Johan Lay and Dominique van der Mensbrugghe (2005) on Brazil. Their focus is specifically on the link between the farm and non-farm labor forces. They model the decision to move out of agriculture based on an econometric model that predicts the likelihood of a given individual changing sectors, based on the historical evidence in Brazil. The other important feature of this paper is that they set their analysis in the context of a 2001-2015 baseline for the Brazilian economy. This permits us to view the impacts of trade reform in the context of ongoing changes in the economy, labor markets and poverty.

In their baseline projection, Bussolo, Lay and van der Mensbrugghe find that the poverty headcount falls by almost 14%. The majority of this decline is due to poverty reduction in agriculture -- a sector which grows considerably faster than the non-farm economy under their business as usual (BaU) forecast. The majority of this poverty reduction is due to factor price changes (e.g., higher wages), but a significant portion is due to the exit of labor from the relatively low wage agricultural sector to higher wage, 20
industry-level data set, and the standard deviation equaled the standard deviation of literacy skills in the country’s original PIAAC data set. Second, PISA provides a household wealth index based on students’ assets at home. This wealth index was treated as the log of the individual endowment, α ; however, the mean and standard deviation of the wealth index was rescaled such that (1) the mean of was equal to the average capital stock per worker for the country, calculated from (kk) the industry-level data set, and (2) the mean-median difference matched the mean-median kk difference in the OECD’s Wealth Inequality Dataset (2021). Three countries did not have data in the OECD’s Wealth Inequality Dataset and as a result, the mean median wealth difference was imputed based on the relationship between this and the variance in the PISA wealth index for countries with data.

Two skills cost functions were estimated. The baseline skills cost function for 2012 was estimated as described using PISA 2012 data. A counterfactual skills cost function was also estimated for 2000 using the PISA 2000 data which was the earliest round of PISA. For this counterfactual skills cost function, the plausible values of reading skills were scaled using the same factors as used for the PISA 2012 data set; this results in a different mean and standard deviation which is used below to compare how the marginal effects of a carbon price increase differ between the two skills cost functions implied by the 2000 and 2012 PISA.

# **MODEL PREDICTIONS: MITGATING EFFECTS OF EDUCATION QUALITY**

With the above estimates, we use the model to predicts the marginal effects of an increase in the price of carbon on the endogenous variables, the total stock of skills, , output, , emissions, , and wage rate for skills, h as well as wage inequity. Wage inequity was defined as the difference HH YY EE in wages that children from wealthy and poorer households earn when they reach adulthood. In ww our model, the randomly distributed endowment, _k_ , defines whether the individual comes from a poor or wealthy household. Wage inequity is therefore defined as the log difference in the average steady state wages between an individual from a wealthy household, defined as having endowment, _k_ , at the 75<sup>th</sup> percentile and from a poor household, defined as having an endowment at the 25<sup>th</sup> percentile. There is variation in future wages for individuals with the 25<sup>th</sup> and 75<sup>th</sup> percentiles of endowment due to variation in exogenous ability, ; hence, the expected value of θθ 22
inundation due to climate change; and nearly all of the tracks that are at additional risk from climate change are meter gauge tracks.<sup>28</sup> (See Table 7.) Raising rail tracks entails six tasks: (i) the removal and replacement of the ballast, (ii) the removal and replacement of rail and other heavy iron works, (iii) the dismantlement of and replacement of tracks, (iv) the earth work with sand, (v) the procurement of 15% ballast & spreading, and (vi) the mechanical temping at four stages. The cost per kilometer for raising railway tracks 0-0.5 meter for different gauges of tracks are shown in table 8. The cost for broad gauge and double gauge are US$ 38,886 per km while the cost for meter gauge is to some extent lower at US$ 29,212 per km. (See Table 8.) The cost of earthwork generally increases when rail tracks are to be raised more than 0.5 m. The cost of earthwork per km of rail track are US$ 20,539 and US$ 16,821 respectively for Broad or double Gauge, and Meter gauge if tracks are to be raised by 0.5- 1m. Taking all these itemized cost into account, the estimated total Cost of raising railway track to offset additional risk due to climate change is US$ 27 million. Cost of raising Broad gauge tracks, Meter gauge tracks and double gauge tracks are US$ 10 million, US$ 6 million and US$ 11 million respectively.

# <u>River Embankments</u>

Structural measures such as embankments and water regulating structures have dominated water and flood management practices in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) currently maintains a total of 9,943 km of embankments, 5,111 km of drainage canals and 13,949 flood control/regulating structures (BWDB, 2006). Embankments are used to protect agricultural land, major cities and small towns from the 10-year, 15-year, 50-year return period floods respectively. Discussions with the BWDB officials point out that the length of embankments is not expected to expand beyond what currently exists through 2050.

GIS overlays of the maps of additional inundation risk zones and existing embankments indicates a total of 5,421 km of embankments will be subject to various degrees of additional

> 28 In Bangladesh, railway tracks are classified into two categories: broad gauge and meter gauge. There are a few tracks which can be used for either broad gauge or meter gauge trains.

15
<!-- Start of picture text --> 80<br>67.2<br>61.8<br>60 55.0 53.2<br>% 40<br>27.7<br>212 23.6 24.1<br>20 18.6 -<br>9 %.0 1.92 1.86: 8.1<br>0<br>1995 2000 2005 2010 2015<br>HE East Asia & Pacific ME Europe & Central/<br>MEE Middle East & North Africa [ME South Asia<br>ME non-B&R<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 50 45.0 48.7 47.1 49.7 49.7<br>41.8<br>40<br>33.7<br>31.1 296<br>30<br>%<br>20<br>1.0 2.3 1.4<br>10 ;6 5.<br>0<br>1995 2000 2005 2010 2015<br>HE East Asia & Pacific ME Europe & Central/<br>MEE Middle East & North Africa [ME South Asia<br>ME non-B&R<br><!-- End of picture text -->
_Table 10. Estimation results for “firms” with no employees_

||||ln(C|<br>A)|||||ln(rev|<br>enue)|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||OLS||Rand|om eff|ects||OLS||Ran|dom eff|ects|
||Coef.|SE|P>|z||Coef.|SE|P>|z||Coef.|SE|P>|z||Coef.|SE|P>|z||
|woman|0.50|0.75|0.50|0.43|0.97|0.66|0.09|0.40|0.82|0.07|0.44|0.88|
|can read|4.30|1.24|0.00|4.24|1.67|0.01|-1.06|0.62|0.09|-1.03|0.72|0.15|
|education>2|5.09|1.37|0.00|5.00|1.82|0.01|-1.16|0.68|0.09|-1.10|0.79|0.17|
|age 30-39|-0.10|0.47|0.84|-0.14|0.63|0.82|-0.68|0.24|0.01|-0.67|0.28|0.02|
|age 40-49|0.66|0.77|0.39|0.58|1.00|0.56|-0.33|0.40|0.41|-0.28|0.46|0.54|
|age>49|5.38|1.70|0.00|5.29|2.30|0.02|-1.36|0.84|0.11|-1.29|0.99|0.19|
|age unknown|0.13|0.63|0.84|0.13|0.83|0.88|-0.30|0.33|0.37|-0.36|0.38|0.35|
|exp. 5-10|-0.32|0.85|0.71|-0.39|1.10|0.72|-0.05|0.42|0.91|-0.05|0.48|0.92|
|exp.>10|0.16|0.97|0.87|0.03|1.24|0.98|0.39|0.48|0.42|0.39|0.55|0.48|
|couture|-2.17|2.20|0.33|-2.19|2.95|0.46|2.79|1.10|0.01|2.69|1.27|0.03|
|electronics|-2.06|2.31|0.37|-2.07|3.08|0.50|2.18|1.16|0.06|2.12|1.34|0.11|
|Abidjan|0.02|0.83|0.98|-0.08|1.09|0.95|0.37|0.41|0.37|0.35|0.47|0.46|
|PB|0.53|0.56|0.35|0.64|0.56|0.25|-0.11|0.29|0.71|-0.11|0.30|0.72|
|PA|0.59|0.55|0.29|0.62|0.56|0.27|0.12|0.29|0.68|0.09|0.29|0.77|
|NPB|-0.45|0.43|0.29|-0.35|0.19|0.06|-0.43|0.22|0.05|-0.41|0.18|0.03|
|constant|8.31|2.08|0.00|8.49|2.75|0.00|9.59|1.03|0.00|9.63|1.19|0.00|
|PB-NPB=0|3.05||0.08|3.11||0.08|1.22||0.27|1.03||0.31|
|PA-PB=0|0.01||0.92|0.01||0.94|0.45||0.50|0.45||0.50|
|PA-PB=-NPB|0.26||0.61|1.25||0.26|0.27||0.61|0.39||0.53|
|B&P LM-test||||49.29||0.00||||2.25||0.13|
|Hausman-test||||1.47||0.48||||0.00||1.00|
|N|175|||175|||175|||175|||

In table 10 we see the findings of the estimations for single-individual firms. For the models of ln(CA) we observe that the random effects model is appropriate. Individuals having higher levels of education and are older than 49 years have a significantly higher level of CA than those who do not. Concerning PAFPA, it is seen that the CA of the nonparticipants have increased significantly during PAFPA period and that the level of CA has been unchanged for the participants. However, there does not appear to be any significant difference in the change of CA between the two groups, i.e. no effect of PAFPA is detected. For the model having ln(revenue) as a dependent variable, the random effects model is rejected, i.e. the OLS model is to be used when interpreting the results. Again there are significant effects from education and age variables and here also the sector indicators come out significantly. The revenue of the nonparticipants has also risen during the period, but again we see no effects from the program participation.

22
- 16 -

"A special dumping duty will be applied upon a finding that a U.S. industry is being or is likely to be injured, or is prevented from being established, due to the importation of a class or kind of foreign merchandise that is being sold or is likely to be sold in the U.S. or elsewhere at less than its fair value." 65 The U. S. law was amended<sup>66</sup> to reflect the changes brought about by the Tokyo Round Antidumping Code.<sup>67</sup> The law has further been amended in the light of the URAA.<sup>6 8</sup>

# VI. ANTIDUMPING ON THE INTERNATIONAL PLANE AND VOICES **OF** CRITICISM

Antidumping was not regulated under international law until the adoption of GATT 1947, although the League of Nations undertook a study of dumping as early as 1922.69 Article VI of GATT "condemned" dumping but did not outlaw it.

During the 1950's GATT faced only one challenge to antidumping. This was a complaint by Italy against Sweden's antidumping finding against Italian nylon stockings.<sup>7 0</sup> Various aspects of antidumping, however, continued to engage the attention of GATT which had its groups of experts study them.<sup>71</sup> It was, however, not until the Kennedy Round (1963) that the regulation of antidumping actions was taken up in earnest. At that time, considerable concern was expressed about the U.S. antidumping law and the manner of its application.

Despite some opposition an international code (GATT AD Code of 1968) on antidumping procedures was adopted<sup>72</sup> but opposition thereto intensified in the U.S. Congress. The Code did, however, lead to major revisions of AD law of Canada and of the EU regulations. By the time of the Tokyo Round (1973), a number of issues in

> **65** Antidumping Act of 1921, Ch. 14 .§ 201-12, Pub. L. No 67-10, 42 Stat. 9, 11-15.

> 66 Anti-Dumping Act of 1921, as amended, 19 U.S.C. § 160 et seq.

> 67 See Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade. GATT, The Texts of the Tokyo Round Agreements, at 127 et seq (Geneva, 1986).

> 68 Uruguay Round Agreements Act, Public Law 103-465 [H.R. 51101; December 8, 1994. 108 STAT 4809. See also, Joint Report of the Committee on Finance, Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry and Committee on Governmental Affairs of the United States Senate to Accompany S. 2467 103D Congress, 2d Session, Report 103-412, November 22, 1994.

> 69 This endeavor resulted in Jacob Viner's study: Memorandum on Dumping. 3-19, L.N. Doc. C.E.C.P. 36(1), Sales No. 1926. II. 63 (1926).

> 70 See Swedish Anti-dumping Duties: Report Adopted on 26 February, 1955, BISD 35/81 in Prescatore, P., William J. Davey and Andreas F. Lowenfeld, Handbook of GATT Dispute Settlement, Release No. 4 Case 14 at [51] (New York, 1944).

> 71 See, GATT, Anti-dumping and Countervailing Duties, GATT Sales No. GATT/1958-2 11 (July 1958); Report adopted on 13 May 1959 (L/978), GATT, BISD 8 S/145 (1960); GATT, BISD 95/194 (1961).

> 72 The Agreement was named "Agreement on the Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade." It entered into force on July 1, 1968. For the text see, GATT, BISD 245/24 (1968).
do selected volunteers increase their teamwork/leadership and their communication skills? Do they increase their self-esteem/self-satisfaction?

iii) As a result of their assignment to NVSP volunteering experience, are selected youth more likely to find a job than non-selected ones?

# (a) IMPACTS ON SOCIAL COHESION VALUES

The two main indicators that measure improvements in social cohesion values are tolerance and a sense of belonging to the Lebanese community. Measuring social cohesion values in large-scale surveys is challenging. We are unable to use extensive measures, but rely instead on brief measures adapted from Harb (2010). The tolerance measure relies on a series of 12 questions, each of which is ranked on a four-point scale, which makes the total possible score range between 12 and 48 points. The sense of belonging to the Lebanese community measure consists of 18 questions, each of which is ranked on a seven-point scale, which makes the total possible score range between 18 and 126. Thus, higher scale values indicate higher tolerance values and a stronger sense of belonging to the Lebanese community. Both values are internally standardized so that they have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation (S.D.) of 1 in the comparison group at baseline. Therefore, all coefficients can be interpreted in terms of standard deviations from the average ‘level’ in the comparison group at baseline. Both measures have been piloted ahead of data collection to test their validity and reliability.

The main findings on impact on social cohesion values are reported in **table 3** . Results from specifications 1 and 2 indicate that offering inter-community volunteering opportunities to Lebanese youth is statistically significantly associated with a 0.3 – 0.4 S.D. increase in perceptions of belonging to the Lebanese community (see the δ estimate for column 2). The impact holds and is robust across both specifications.<sup>14</sup> The positive impact is explained by the worsening of those perceptions one year later for non-selected youth (by almost 0.8 S.D.) at a much higher magnitude than for selected youth (by 0.4 S.D.) (see the β estimate and the β� δ estimate for column 2). This is interesting given that at baseline, non-selected youth had a stronger sense of belonging than

> 14 Fixed effects estimates do not vary that much from OLS estimates (specifications 1 and 2), as the number of observable characteristics in Table 2 for which there are statistical differences between the treatment and comparison groups in terms of probability of dropping out of the sample is limited to three. The rest of baseline covariates, while some have large magnitudes, are found to be statistically not significant.

14
The analysis could be improved in several ways. It would be useful to update and expand the sample: international food price indexes with weights corresponding to Ethiopia’s consumer basket could be used instead of standard indexes. Moreover, wholesale prices or rainfall data could be used as alternative measures, or as complements, to the agricultural output gap. In addition, a small system of equations could help to capture interrelationships of the key explanatory variables, such as foreign reserves. Thus, our analysis should not be viewed as a “final product” but part of what Hendry (1995) calls a “progressive strategy” where new models improve and encompass old ones. Nevertheless, we believe that the findings of this paper do provide some interesting insights.

44
village level that six behavioral treatments were randomly assigned (6 villages per treatment). These treatments are discussed in subsection 3.2.

Sample households within each site were chosen using systematic random sampling. A total of 504 households were selected (14 households from each site), with 360 households (10 households from each site) receiving the improved Mirt stove and the rest identified as control households who did not receive the Mirt stove. As three CCTs were conducted on both Mirt and three-stone stoves on the same days by each household that received a Mirt stove and we measure Mirt stove use frequency and duration, in this paper, the control households are not relevant. We therefore only examine per-minute fuelwood consumption and measured use duration and frequency for households who received the Mirt stove.

Five supervisors with significant field experience were deployed in each round of field work (each covering 7 – 8 sites). Five enumerators worked under each supervisor. These 30 individuals implemented the research in all four stove use monitoring rounds and three CCT rounds of the study. After identifying sample households, respondents were told by fieldworkers that they were chosen randomly to receive a stove under the same terms as others in their village and they were informed of the terms (i.e. the behavioral treatment). Fieldworkers also gave respondents full information on the stove features. Figures 1 and 2 show the Mirt cookstove.

Figure 1 Figure 2 MIRT Stove with _Injera_ Cooking Cook Pouring _Injera_ Batter on MIRT Stove Source:ethiopiaethos.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/comp5.jpg Source: energypedia.info/wiki/Baking_with_Improved_Ovens Stove use frequency is measured using electronic stove use monitors (SUM). The SUM measures stove temperature and as shown in Figure 3 are approximately the size of a watch battery.

**10 |** P a g e
# **Figure 10. Tariff rates considerably decreased**

**Figure 11. Trade openness also decreased** Total trade as percentage of GDP

Tariff rate of all products in percentage <!-- Start of picture text --> 20 160<br>140<br>15<br>120<br>10<br>100<br>5<br>80<br>0 60<br>Source: Authors’ elaboration using data from Our Source: Authors’ elaboration using data from Our<br>World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/) World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/)<br>2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020<br><!-- End of picture text --> Unlike other developing economies that promoted trade liberalization, Jordan’s export sector did not grow as expected. Total exports as a percentage of GDP dropped from 41.8 percent in 2000 to 36.7 percent in 2019 after peaking at 56 percent in 2008 (Figure 12). At the same time, imports have increased more than exports and the total trade balance has become even more negative (Figure 13).

**Figure 12. Exports decreased after 2008** Exports as percentage of GDP

**Figure 13. Trade balance has remained negative**

Total balance, billions US$ <!-- Start of picture text --> 60 JC<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>Source: Authors’ elaboration using data from the World<br>Integrated Trade Solutions<br>(https://wits.worldbank.org/).<br>Black dotted line in the year of implementation of the<br>JC.<br>2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 0 JC<br>-4<br>-8<br>-12<br>-16<br>-20<br>Source: Authors’ elaboration using data from the World<br>Integrated Trade Solutions<br>(https://wits.worldbank.org/). Black dotted line in the<br>year of implementation of the JC.<br>2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020<br><!-- End of picture text --> Export patterns remained relatively stable in terms of products exported as a share of total exports. Even though the export of chemicals (fertilizers and pharmaceutical) has held the largest share of exports for most of the time, in the period 2004-2006 textiles and clothing became the largest and then experienced a decline and slow recovery from 2008. Surprisingly, the number of products exported by Jordan has decreased nearly 22 percent, from 2,606 products in 2000 to 2,021 products in 2021. Within manufacturing, the main winner was the labor-intensive clothing sector, which increased from 6 percent of total exports in 2000 to 25 in 2007 and 9 percent in 13 | P a g e