Table 2: Treaties Ratified, by Country

||Bulgaria|Mexico|Morocco|Netherlands|Tanzania|Vietnam|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|International Convention on the<br>Elimination of All Forms of Racial<br>Discrimination(ICERD)|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|
|International Covenant on Civil<br>and Political Rights (ICCPR)|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|
|International Covenant on Eco-<br>nomic, Social and Cultural Rights<br>(ICERD)|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|
|Convention on Equal Remunera-<br>tion (ILO Convention 100)|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|
|Convention on Discrimination<br>(Employment and Occupation)<br>(ILO Convention 111)|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|ü|
|Indigenous and Tribal Peoples<br>Convention (ILO Convention 169)||ü||ü|||

_Source_ : World Bank Equality Project.

In the field of LGBTI rights, the United Nations has yet to adopt a convention against discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. In June 2016, however, the UN Human Rights Council passed a resolution to appoint an “independent expert” to investigate the causes of violence and discrimination against people because of their sexual orientation and gender identity and to discuss their protection with governments.<sup>31</sup> Although a resolution does not impose any legal obligation on the states, it represents a step forward toward the development of an international consensus on the need to protect sexual minorities from violence and discrimination.

At the regional level, both Bulgaria and the Netherlands are bound by the European Union Directives 2000/43 (Racial Equality Directive)<sup>32</sup> and 2000/78 (Employment Equality Directive),<sup>33</sup> which prohibit discrimination on grounds of ethnic origin, disability, age, and sexual orientation. Mexico ratified the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights<sup>34</sup> and the 1988 “Protocol of San Salvador,”<sup>35</sup> which recognizes the right to work, health, and education.<sup>36</sup> Tanzania is a party to the African Charter and ratified the 1980 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights,<sup>37</sup> which, in addition to protecting civil and political rights, recognizes the right to development (Art. 22), especially relevant for minorities. Vietnam signed the 2012 ASEAN Human Rights Declaration,<sup>38</sup> which incorporates the principle of nondiscrimination in General Principles 2 and 9. Finally, Morocco is a party of the League of Arab States and signed—but has not ratified—the Arab Charter on Human Rights, which calls on ratifying states to provide equality of opportunity without disPeoples, as a declaration, is not a formally binding treaty, it contains rights and freedoms, such as self-determination and nondiscrimination, set out in binding international human rights treaty law, of which some may be considered customary international law. 31 <u>http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=54385#.V9M540-V-Uk.</u>

> 32 <u>http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32000L0043&from=EN.</u>

> 33 <u>http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32000L0078&from=EN.</u>

> 34 <u>http://www.oas.org/dil/treaties_B-32_American_Convention_on_Human_Rights.htm.</u>

> 35 <u>http://oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-52.html.</u>

> 36 A recent effort that may potentially benefit minorities is the adoption of the Inter-American Convention Against All Forms of Discrimination and Intolerance (2013), which emphasizes that discrimination may be based on “sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, religion, and cultural identity.” The treaty has not entered into force, however, and Mexico has not ratified it.

> 37 <u>http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/.</u>

> 38 2012 ASEAN Human Rights Declaration, <u>http://www.iglhrc.org/sites/default/files/629-1.pdf.</u>

Anti-Discrimination Law and Shared Prosperity 14