**Similarly, studies on internal migration in Mexico have mainly focused on rural-urban mobility.** Considering land ownership as a push factor that affects interstate migration in Mexico, King (1978) evaluates migration flows for men and women. Furthermore, Van Wey (2005) studies the effect of land ownership on internal and international out-migration in Mexico following a discrete-time event history analysis. The author finds heterogeneity in the effects of landholding in rural areas, with a negative impact on out-migration for smaller landholders and a positive impact for large landholders.

**Varela Llamas, Ocegueda Hernandez, and Castillo Ponce (2017) analyze the determinants of interstate migration in Mexico from a micro-perspective.** Using data from the National Labor Force Survey (ENOE), the authors find that the probability of migrating for labor-related reasons increases with the education level of the migrant. This study contributes to the literature of interstate migration in Mexico by analyzing a broader set of both macroeconomic and individual factors affecting the propensity to migrate and where to migrate.

**The studies focused on gender differences in migration patterns in developing countries are limited.** Chort, De Vreyer, and Zuber (2018) find evidence of significant gender differences in internal migration patterns in Senegal, with women being more likely to migrate than men. This pattern may be associated with poorer economies' specific characteristics, which also make women more likely to migrate to rural areas, depending on their education. Recent studies on internal migration in Mexico find the opposite pattern, with men being more likely to migrate internally than women (Varela Llamas et al., 2017). Donato and Kanaiaupini (2000) show that women’s labor force participation and migration are linked to regional employment opportunities for women and family wealth conditions. Moreover, King (2011) shows that marital status is an important factor determining gender differences in internal migration in Mexico (contrary to the trend of labor mobility reason among men).

**Last, this study also relates to the literature on returns to migration** . Most of the literature on the consequences of migration focuses on the effects of migration from developing countries on wages in developed countries (for instance, Card, 1990, 2001; Card and DiNardo, 2000; Kritz and Gurak, 2001) and the impact of immigration flows on local labor markets (Borjas, 2006).<sup>6</sup> Little is known about the impact on migrants' labor income. Some studies provide evidence of migrants’ income gains from international migration.

**Estimating returns to migration is complex since the estimates may be affected by selection bias, with differences in earnings for migrants and non-migrants reflecting unobserved differences in ability, skills, and motivation rather than the act of moving itself.** Using experimental impact evaluation techniques to isolate the causal effect of migration on salaries, McKenzie et al. (2010) compare the earnings of Togans' winners and losers from a visa lottery to migrate to New Zealand, finding a high average income gain. Clemens et al. (2008) combine Mexico-US household data to control for self-selection, obtaining evidence of wage gains for urban Mexican males in the US.

**The evidence of the effects of internal migration on income is even scarcer.** In developed countries, Korpi and Clark (2017) show the variability in income gains from internal migration in Sweden through a multinomial logit that accounts for different income growth categories. The authors find that the higher educated and those moving to metropolitan areas have the highest probability of obtaining positive income returns. For Mexico, Cazzuffi (2016) evaluates the relationship between adult earnings of internal

> 6 See Dustmann, Schonberg, and Stunhñer (2016) for a literature review on the immigration impacts on local economies.

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