application _Rosyama_ (rosyama.ru) as a means to address the problem of potholes in the city and the mechanism of keeping the local government accountable.<sup>6</sup> This mobile application allows its users to geolocate a road problem (besides potholes, it included broken rails, snow accumulation, open manholes, and persistent puddles), take a picture, and place it on the map. The application then generates a text complaint forwarded to the local Road Inspectorate (Ermoshina 2014). Ermoshina (2014) observes that between May 2011 and May 2014, 56,919 potholes were reported using _Rosyama_ digital application, and 15,966 of those were repaired. Researchers referred to _Rosyama_ and other related web applications, as ‘civic applications’ and as instruments of citizens’ legal empowerment. They were conceived as instruments for keeping the local administrators accountable for their responsibilities. Navalny’s team intended these applications as a means for generating collective action in a wider fight against corruption in Russia. Not all of these opposition plans achieved their desired ends. Some of these initiatives in the digital sphere were ‘highjacked’ by the city government.

The Russian government invested heavily in digital tools of government since Dmitry Medvedev’s presidency, during 2008-2012. The Moscow city authorities also actively developed digital instruments of governance and have invested massive resources into promoting a ‘smart city’ agenda. Its most recent strategy document, “the Smart City – 2030,” outlined the main goals and objectives of a continuing urban transformation (City of Moscow 2018). The 2018 United Nations e-government survey of 40 cities across the world ranked Moscow as a leading city (along with Cape Town and Tallinn) in using information and communication technologies to deliver public services (United Nations 2018). The major city redevelopment plans included a new system of feedback from the city residents – “Active Citizen” – an electronic voting platform deploying blockchain technology to ensure transparency and non-interference with the results.<sup>7</sup> Additionally, Sergei Sobyanin invested in the new online portal _Nash Gorod_ (gorod.mos.ru), translated as “Moscow – Our City”. The portal was introduced in 2011 and aimed at getting feedback on infrastructural issues in the city, including roads, housing, courtyards as well as other city-related concerns.

The application to report potholes in the city was introduced in 2012 and merged with _Nash Gorod_ later in 2013. To activate these services, Moscow residents have to download the mobile

> 6 _Rosyama_ was not the only mobile app created by the Foundation Against Corruption. Other applications included RosZKH, helping residents write petitions to the Housing Inspection Committees on problems of housing infrastructure services.

> 7 While promoted by some as an example of ‘blockchain democracy,’ this system was critiqued as an example of a technology that promotes a false sense of empowerment (Zionts 2018). The numerous referenda organized on this platform address trivial questions such as the names for the subway stations but do not deal with more meaningful issues such as hospital closures (Ibid).

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