increasing incomes, reducing poverty and improving women’s participation in household decisions and civic engagement (Aiyar et al, 2007), and there is some evidence to show that it has been effective to some extent in achieving these goals (Deininger and Liu, 2009).<sup>6</sup> SERP is now a formal partner of the Government of India in implementing the NRLM program in numerous states of India. SERP community coordinators travel to states all across the country and mobilize women into SHGs.

# Politics and Civil Society in Rajasthan

Implementation of large-scale poverty alleviation programs in the state of Rajasthan is affected by the state’s distinctive and cohesive sub-national identity (Singh 2016). The landlocked, arid and sparsely populated state has a long history of feudal rule, with rulers well-known for their rivalry and competition.<sup>7</sup> As a result, the state has remained quite isolated from the political, economic and social forces at work in the rest of the country; it was a late democratizer and its pace of development lagged behind other states for the first three decades of independence (Tudor and Zeigfeld, 2014; Singh 2016). Rajasthan’s politics and culture coalesced during the National Emergency of 1975-77 when the pre-colonial political structures were effectively harnessed by local elites to generate new forms of political competition (Tudor and Zeigfeld, 2014). A new generation of citizens emerged and local parties were strengthened (Singh 2016).<sup>8</sup> This contributed to the development of distinctive Rajasthani politics, civil society and cultural identity.

One of the manifestations of this was the rise of new NGOs which emerged particularly in rural areas. Sewa Mandir in Udaipur, Urmul in Bikaner, the Social Work Research Center in Ajmer, and the Gramin Vigyan Vikas Samiti in Jodhpur are the most well-known examples. Most of these NGOs were initially set up to complement the state in the delivery of public services (Singh 2016).<sup>9</sup> In subsequent years, however, they broadened their focus and became important 6 Deininger and Liu (2009) use data from household surveys from 2004 and 2006 to document three main impacts: increases in social capital and economic empowerment, nutritional improvement (despite persistent drought at the time), and an increase in consumption for participants of new groups. The findings did not find increases in income or assets. There was however, evidence of spillovers within the communities in which SHGs were formed. 7 Under British rule, the region was indirectly governed through the Rajputana Agency, a collection of 18 princely states and 2 chiefdoms (Gupta and Bakshi 2008).

> 8 Singh (2016:104) describes many strategies used by the BJP government to promote the development of a panRajasthani identity throughout the 1990s. She notes that the speeches of leaders were replete with references to heroes of the past, highlighting the culture of valor and independence. The government also promoted tourism, supported cultural fairs and events, and demanded constitutional recognition of the Rajasthani language.

> 9 Under the fifth five year plan (1980-85), the government provided Rs. 500 million to support NGOs. In 1980, an important amendment to the Income Tax Act allowed corporations to deduct donations to NGOs from their taxable income (Kudva, 2005).

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