central states and has been a historical locus of herding activity, mostly in the first half of the year. This unwritten rule traditionally permitted nomadic herders the open use of lands during the dry season, as this is a low period of agricultural activity. Farmers often welcomed this use as the wandering cattle naturally fertilized the region’s agricultural plots. At the end of the dry season, herders historically vacated areas in and around the Middle Belt around May to return the following January. Extended dry seasons, however, and the Boko Haram conflict in the north have increasingly pushed herders south for longer periods of time. Simultaneously, farming communities have expanded their land use and extended their agricultural season through the adoption of dry farming techniques. As a result, the annual period preceding the planting season, which typically commences as rains arrive at the end of the dry season, became a time of spikes in violent events in the conflict, though these sharp increases have grown dramatically over recent years (Figure 2).

The outbreak of violence is often referred to as the herder-farmer conflict, however, these incidents are not exclusively between herding and farming communities. Herding communities have also engaged in agriculture in these areas. Likewise, reprisal attacks have been perpetuated against parties who were neither herders nor farmers: violent events include attacks on civilians, kidnappings, and the destruction of crops and property.<sup>10</sup> Armed militias (many identified with either herding tribes or agricultural communities) clashed occasionally, many times as reprisal for earlier violence. Whole communities protested and rioted following the movement of herders into an area—this unrest often simmered over into more violence, including attacks targeted at herding tribes themselves.

The raised profile of the conflict has also been entangled with political action, which may have increased tensions. In response to tensions and outbreaks of violence between herders and farming communities, in 2016 and 2017, three Nigerian states (Benue, Ekiti, and Taraba) passed bans on open grazing.<sup>11</sup> Each of these states, particularly Benue and Taraba, was a traditional location of herding and farming activity, particularly prior to the violent incidents. In 2016, Ekiti passed the first open-grazing prohibition, which banned grazing activities in some areas of the state following the killing of two residents. The law also forbade the carrying of firearms by herders; any herder found carrying a firearm could be declared a ‘terrorist’ under the statute.<sup>12</sup> Two other states, Benue and Taraba, followed suit in 2017, both passing stricter open grazing prohibitions.<sup>13</sup> The Open Grazing Prohibition & Ranches Establishment Law in Benue state banned open grazing outright—requiring the establishment of permitted ranches—and allowed for the confiscation of cattle by authorities and imposed a daily 2,000 naira fine for each cow held by authorities.<sup>14</sup> The Open Grazing Prohibition and Ranches Establishment Bill in Taraba instituted

> 10This observation is based on the authors’ reading of events recorded in ACLED.

> 11These laws were, Benue: Open Grazing Prohibition & Ranches Establishment Law in Benue state (enacted in November 2017). Taraba: Open Grazing Prohibition and Ranches Establishment Bill (enacted in January 2018). Ekiti: “Prohibition of Cattle and Other Ruminants Grazing” (enacted in September 2017). A fourth state, Edo, also passed a limited 90-day ban on night grazing, but not an outright ban and is not considered.

> 12The Punch. September 8, 2016. “Force and limits of Ekiti State’s anti-grazing law,” available here. Last accessed: March 31, 2020.

> 13Though passed in 2017, Taraba’s bill was enacted in January-February of 2018.

> 14Reuters. June 26, 2019. “Deadly clashes over cattle continue in Nigeria despite grazing ban,” available here. Last accessed: March 31, 2020.

6