# 1. Introduction

Sexual violence is often used as a weapon of war, to control or exert power over a population. Gender-based violence (GBV) experienced in conflict affected areas varies across settings in terms of prevalence and perpetrator; women and girls bear the brunt of this violence (UN Women 2015). Rape in war and other forms of conflict-related GBV, including child sexual abuse, and sexual exploitation and their devastating consequences have been documented extensively (Vu et al. 2014; United Nations 2017; United Nations; World Bank 2018). High rates of intimate partner violence (IPV) have been recorded in several conflict settings (The Global Women’s Institute and the International Rescue Committee 2016) but data are limited, and few studies are able to isolate the association between conflict and IPV risk from other IPV risk factors. This study adds to the literature that examines the association between exposure to conflict and IPV controlling for other risk factors using data gathered in Nigeria at the time of the Boko Haram (BH) insurgency. It adds to a small but growing evidence base that underscores the need for interventions that respond to IPV and seek to transform the norms that legitimize interpersonal violence in conflict-affected settings.

The focus of this paper on IPV is important. IPV is the most common form of GBV<sup>1</sup> in both conflict and non-conflict settings (GIWPS and PRIO 2017). It is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as actions by an intimate partner or ex-partner that result in physical, sexual or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors (WHO 2014). Conflicts have been found to increase all forms of GBV (Clark et al. 2010), however IPV is under-reported and often receives less attention compared to sexual violence perpetrated by armed forces (Khawaja 2004; Mchale et al 2011; Pittaway 2005; Stark and Ager 2011; Vu et al 2014). Violence against women and girls is a violation of basic human rights that has adverse impacts on human development at the level of the individuals, family and society (Klugman et al 2014).

A body of evidence implies that IPV will hinder recovery from conflict and is a barrier to increasing gender equality and moving people out of poverty. IPV causes physical and emotional traumas which are strongly correlated to poorer physical, sexual, reproductive and mental health outcomes throughout women’s lives (Champion 1998; Golding 1999; Campbell 2002; WHO 2013; Falb et al. 2013; Falb et al. 2014; García-Moreno et al. 2014). It is associated with increased drug and alcohol use (Krug et al. 2002), loss of income (Crowne et al. 2011; Lindhorst et al. 2007; Reeves & O’Leary-Kelly 2007) and negatively impacts child development (Krug et al. 2002; Asling-Monemi et al. 2003; Holt et al. 2008; Silverman et al. 2009; Duvvury et al. 2012; Duvvury et al. 2013; Klugman et al. 2014; Raghavendra et al. 2017). IPV also feeds the intergenerational transmission of violence, as witnessing IPV as a child or experiencing violence may increase the likelihood of becoming an aggressor or a victim during adulthood (Roberts et al. 2010; Wilkins et al. 2014).

Between 2008 and 2013, rates of IPV in Nigeria decreased slightly from 18 to 16 percent. However, progress was uneven. Rates of IPV remained unchanged in urban areas, increased in the Southwest and Northeast regions of the country, and decreased in other regions (see <u>Table 1).</u>

> 1 The United Nations (UN) Inter Agency Standing Committee (IASC) defines Gender Based Violence as “an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed differences (i.e. gender) between males and females” (IASC 2015).  It includes physical, sexual or mental harm and encompasses Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) among others forms of violence.

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