**Box 2.2** Technical Standards for Spectrum Management

- Radio equipment standards establish the minimum acceptable technical specifications and performance characteristics of radio equipment. National spectrum authorities may adopt radio equipment standards developed in other countries or by international standards organizations.

- Spectrum use standards state the minimum technical requirements for efficient use of specified frequency bands. They are utilized in the design, specification, and evaluation of technical applications for new radio facilities or modification to existing radio systems.

- Radiation standards address concerns that radio transmissions may be harmful to health or a concern of public safety.

- Other standards relating to the environment, construction, and land use may apply to spectrum management

_Source:_ infoDev 2006 costs can be attributed directly to individual users, and recovered from them, while other costs (often a large part) are shared among groups of users or are overheads.<sup>35</sup> Allocating such shared and common costs can be difficult and largely arbitrary, and arguably they are attributable to a government function rather than to individual spectrum users and should therefore be recovered from general government revenue. Ways to deal with cost allocation vary from the use of detailed costing models to simple rules of thumb.

<u>Authorization. Authorization is the process by which users gain access to the spectrum. This</u> mainly involves assigning frequencies to individual users and approving radio equipment:

- Frequencies are assigned to individual users for exclusive or shared use. When enough spectrum is available to meet demand, assignment is conducted on a first-come, firstserved basis. When demand exceeds supply, the trend is to use auctions to assign scarce frequencies among competing users.<sup>36</sup>

- Radio equipment is tested and certified for compliance with technical standards or manufacturers’ specifications. This ensures compatibility with other equipment, consistency with provisions to contain interference, and consumer protection. Testing and certification is performed by the spectrum authorities themselves or, increasingly, by recognized private facilities. Self-certification by manufacturers may also be accepted in well-disciplined markets. Bilateral or regional mutual recognition agreements reduce the need for national testing and certification, facilitate equipment trade among countries, and reduce the cost of equipment supply.

> 35Directly attributable costs include, for example, the expenses incurred in issuing and maintaining individual radio licenses, testing specific equipment for approval, and enforcing violations.

> 36The most common modality is to award the frequencies to the bidder offering the highest price, which can be specified in the bidding documents as payable in full up front, through revenue or profit sharing (e.g., royalties), or a combination of both. Alternatively, the frequencies can be awarded by some other quantifiable metric, such as population coverage, roll-out time, or end user charges (for example, of mobile phone service). Not all countries use auctions.

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