rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Four, of specific interest to us is how these numbers would differ when splitting the sample of studies according to the level of development of countries. Again here, we find important heterogeneity. While effects appear larger in developed countries for digital and energy studies, cross-sectoral and transport studies based on developing countries produce larger elasticities. Notably, larger estimates are found when looking at specific outcomes in developing countries, such as the impact of digital investments on micro-level output, at 0.16, or of transport investments on labor market outcomes, at 0.18.

Finally, there is an important issue regarding how to interpret these elasticities for policy recommendations. Deciding on which policies or sectors to prioritize, and possibly on potential financing strategies, would require that we translate elasticities into specific rates of returns (see Gardner and Henry (2023)). This in turn implies the need for infrastructure capital stock figures. Using a basic Cobb-Douglas production function approach for illustration, the marginal rate of return for a specific type of infrastructure can be approximated by the following formula: _mrr_ = γ _In f_ . _In f_<sup>_<u>Y</u>_, where γ</sup><sup>_In f_is the elasticity,</sup><sup>_Y_is GDP,</sup> and _In f_ is the stock of infrastructure.

There are however several difficulties involved in finding suitable proxies for _Inf_ . Regarding public capital, different methods combine national account data, public budget data, and information from the Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI) database to estimate infrastructure investments, which can then be used through inventory methods to compute estimates of stocks. As discussed in Fay et al. (2019), each method generates both exclusion and inclusion errors. In addition, public budget data is the only source allowing for sectoral breakdown. This practically means that the only recent source available, namely IMF data on Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) would be of little use here, not even considering the fact that it misses most of the private investment that dominates for example the digital sector.

Alternatively, one could generate bottom-up estimates of the value of sectoral infrastructure capital stocks by taking physical data on infrastructure stocks at the country level and applying unit replacement cost values to convert these into replacement value capital stocks in monetary units, as was done in Canning and Bennathan (2000) for the 1980s and 22
In the website, Babajob used its own Figure1: Share of Ads by categorization of jobs, which has 27 categories. Occupation Based on that original categorization, we created Other, 2% occupation codes using the aggregated ISCO-1 Sales, 15% Professional, 17% classification, with separating ‘teaching’ and ‘Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)’ jobs out. Service, Clerical, 10% The broader occupation categories of job ads are 17% professional, service-oriented, elementary, BPO, 19% machine-related, clerical, sales-related, and Elementary, other.<sup>5</sup> About one-fifth of the ads were for BPO Machinist/driver/g. 10% jobs. Including BPO jobs, the service sector has worker, 10% the largest number of job postings, 245,031, about 30 percent of all ads. Clerical and professional are the other two occupational categories with another one-third of ads. One-tenth of the ads are for elementary jobs.

# **_Gender profiling of online job advertisements_**

There is high existence of gender-targeted ads and explicit gender bias is highly job-specific. In the portal, there is an option for the employer to identify the gender of a preferred candidate, which has been utilized by many employers. Gender was specified in about one-third of the job advertisements in our sample. Not surprisingly, the share of ads with gender specification favors men over women, 60 percent of all gender-targeted ads mentioned men as preferred candidates in contrast with Kuhn and Shen’s 2013 experience with China’s job portal data where the share of ads favoring men or women is roughly equal. We conducted text analysis of the job description of the gender-unspecified ads to identify the presence of any implicit gender-preference in the description despite the ad not being explicitly gender-biased. Out of all 529,547 genderunspecified ads, we found female-bias in 15,260 ads, which accounts for about 3 percent of all unspecified ads. Male-bias was present in 8,283 ads accounting for about 1.6 percent of those ads. We use explicit gender information for all our analysis and text-based implicit bias for robustness check of our main findings. Table 1 shows the share of ads by gender specification and ad characteristics.

> 5 Professional jobs include jobs in management, engineering, IT professionals, and finance; service-oriented jobs include beautician, cook, nanny, nursemaid, and steward; elementary jobs include maid, cook-maid, delivery collector, gardener, watchmen, laborer; machine-related jobs include machinist, driver, and garment worker; clerical jobs include office clerk, office helper, and receptionist; sales jobs include jobs related to sales, and retail clerk.

5
24 The remaining control variables include dummy variables on mother's education (no education, primary, secondary, and tertiary education), wealth quintile (calculated by the DHS and included in the dataset), area of residence (rural and urban area), and province (Kenya has 8 provinces).

# **Data quality considerations**

A number of data concerns can arise in child mortality data in the Demographic and Health Surveys. In the case the of Kenya surveys, these are discussed in the 2008 DHS report (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics and ICF Macro 2010). One possible issue is displacement of reported deaths, which occurs when an interviewer misreports a live birth within the last five years to a period outside that window, in order to avoid having to ask the long series of questions corresponding to births in the last five years. The DHS report finds some evidence that this took place in the 2008 DHS, but this does not affect results presented in this paper, which deal only with births in the one year prior to the survey.

Another potential data problem is omission of births of infants who did not survive. When this occurs, it is usually most pronounced for very young deaths, and thus a low proportion of very young deaths is taken as an indicator of such omission. In the 2008 DHS data, for the five years preceding the survey, the proportion of neonatal deaths occurring during the first week of life is high (82 percent) and the same as the proportion recorded in 2003, suggesting that early neonatal underreporting is minimal and unchanged over time. Similarly, for the five years previous to the survey, the proportion of infant deaths that occurred during the first month of life was high (61 percent), suggesting that underreporting of neonatal deaths was not a serious problem. This was a substantial increase from the 2003 and 1998, for which the corresponding proportions were 47 percent and 41 percent respectively. This increase is the consequence of the large decline in the number of postneonatal deaths (which is the core topic of this paper) rather than a change in the misreporting of neonatal deaths.

An additional possible issue is heaping of reported deaths at 12 months or at 1 month. The data does exhibit a small amount of heaping at age 12 months, but not sufficient to substantially affect the analysis; the deaths reported at age 12 months account for only 6 percent of all infant deaths in the overall sample. Reported deaths by age in death at days do not show any evidence of
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# money demand estimations<sup>1</sup> ?.

Recently,. Perron • (198.9)1 ·has ·suggested .that "dis'crete· b:["eaks." ;·in the .ec~n!'.>mic environment may induce unit ro_ots .in stationary series;~ Therefore, 'after filtering the. serie_s from ,:th~se large breaks'., the· resul,t1ng ·process ~may be stationary. Perron (1989) suggests that the crash of 1929 and the-.·c>.il .:shock of 1973 are e~~mp;J.es of such discr.ete .. breaks which. induce· GDP to "look-· Like" ·an I(l) process .. Fo,r a· similar, reason, .we· introduce·: dl.inimy variables· in Cfrile after 1984. III. and in Mexico:after 1987 .IV•• In both cases· casual evidence. suggests .a structural change.· Although the dummies appear;.to· .be' Significant.·· and· the absolutes values ,:of the: Dickey-Fuller•.and ·Augmented-'Dickey-Fuller tests· increase, they are sti).l below the. criti~·al value!! to :accept. coiritegratiori<sup>13</sup> • · The main conclusion from, these· results is that standa·rd money' "demand ~quations, no .matter whether consumption.or income is used as the: scale variable, do not provide, a· long-'-run relationship. ·. _·:_ .,. ·.·'· . r _.:.:: .._ , We int;erpret the failure of. the money qemand-equation to coiritegrate as· due to· the omission of an· important .unobservable ¢omponentwhich we call financial in:qovaticm. The next section shows_ the results '.of our -i>'roposed approach~

# 4. ESTIMATING FINANCIAL .INNOVATION

In this section we' describe the ass\.tmptions regarding financial innovation, the econometric technique to be used, and the motivations' .f<>r· thi·s choi'c:e;··

> 12 We also run the Stock and Watson (1989) regression to have non degenerated distributions for· the• standard errors, using four l'e.ads B,nd lag·s of the first differences of the RHS variables. The values of the scale variable elasticity raised even further .away from one·.

> 13 See Laban (1990) for a summary of the evidence in Chile and a discussi~n of cointegration when a dummy is incorporated. He does not reject cointegration when the dummy is added from 1984.III. His estimation is for a shorter period, output is the scale variable, and the data are not in per-capita terms.

\I I
and sustainability. From this we draw policy lessons on different modalities and the conditions under which they have been effective, as well as identifying outstanding research gaps.

# **Research methods**

This paper is compiled based on a literature review carried out in November-December 2010. Search terms included demand-side financing, or vouchers or cash transfers _and_ reproductive health or sexual health or maternal health or deliveries or obstetric care or family planning or neonatal care or antenatal care or postnatal care or sexually transmitted infections. In addition, we ran individual searches for programs by country or name of program (when known). Google Scholar, PubMed, SSRN, World Bank Imagebank and other library resources were searched.

The results reflect some of the better documented schemes – they are not definitive, and there are more recent programs which are either still in pilot phase or not well documented. Much of the existing literature is ‘grey’ – agency reports, which are not yet published in peer-reviewed journals. We have focused on recent interventions relating to sexual and reproductive health. There are a number of studies on vouchers for insecticide-treated bed nets, for example; however, as the main health benefits relate to children, these have not been reported here. Similarly, studies of conditional cash transfer (CCTs) which focus, say on education, but have side-effects in terms of sexual behavior are not included. Older schemes, such as the vouchers for family planning in Korea and Taiwan, China in the 1960-70s, are not described here but can be found in Bellows et al. 2010.

# **Results**

## **Modalities for DSF**

There are three main types of DSF (Walford, 2008):

1. Cash transfers paid when a service is taken up. For these schemes, such as the Safe Delivery Incentive Programme in Nepal (now named Aama), the cash tends to be more limited and is focused on covering service and/or access costs<sup>1</sup> .

2. Vouchers that can be used to cover all or part of the cost of specified health services, such as for Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) treatment in Uganda. These near-cash benefits have a similar objective to the first mechanism but can be marketed in different ways (including social marketing and subsidized sale). They often emphasize choice of provider more than direct cashfor-services.

3. Longer term income support linked to take-up of education and health services. These schemes, such as the conditional cash transfers (CCTs) in Latin America, function more as social protection mechanisms. Although there is conditionality linked to specific service uptake, they have a more significant impact on overall household incomes and a wider poverty-alleviation objective.

> 1 For the main references for the schemes which are analysed in depth, see Table 1. All schemes which have been documented in any detail are included in the tables.

3
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points to the importance of careful design of credit extension schemes; in facilitating sustainable access to credit, the devil is in the details.

# _Temporary payroll tax holidays and wage subsidies_

Subsidies have been widely applied during previous crises. The theoretical appeal of this intervention is indeed clear (see for example Pauw and Edwards 2006). They limit short-term labor retrenchment and can, in principle, be targeted to maximize protection for the most vulnerable groups, such as women and young workers.

However, the available evidence on their impact (summarized in Table 2) suggests that such schemes typically have high deadweight and substitution effects both during crises (in the order of magnitude of 20%) and during less volatile times. Their effectiveness also seems limited although it varies with sector and firm-size (Abrahart and others 2000). They have been found to be less effective in highly capital intensive sectors and more effective when targeted at small firms, perhaps because these firms pay lower wages (Kang and others 2001). Their impact may be (marginally) enhanced if they are combined with job search assistance (Betcherman and others 2004), underscoring the importance of implementing comprehensive policy responses. In the medium to long term, however, subsidies are unlikely to be economically or politically sustainable.

# _Temporary reduction in hours worked_

Another popular option to maintain viable employment is to facilitate reduced hours arrangements, such as publicly financed trainings, access to partial unemployment benefits, and paid holidays **.** For example, a recent ILO survey of 54 countries (10 LICs, 10 lower middle income, 17 upper middle income and 17 HICs) shows that reductions in hours worked have been implemented in a number countries including China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, Argentina, Columbia and Jordan (ILO, 2009).

# **3.2.2 Policies to Facilitate Transitions**

The same ILO survey shows that 63% of countries had introduced additional training measures in response to the recent financial crisis, 78% had implemented subsidies and tax reductions for SMEs, and nearly 50% had increased capacity for public employment services. All of these percentages are much higher if Sub-Saharan Africa is excluded from the sample.

Training, self-employment assistance and job-search assistance facilitate employment transitions. Evaluations of such programs during less volatile economic times suggest that their impacts are highly heterogeneous and strongly dependent on context and implementation (Auer 2008). In a meta-analysis of active labor market programs, Card and Weber (2009) demonstrate that many programs that exhibit insignificant or even negative impacts after only a year have significantly positive impacts after 2 or 3 years, indicating that the impacts may vary with time.

10