government and citizens. Such “CivicTech”<sup>6</sup> tools are based on the use of digital technology to improve governance and the interactions between government and citizens (World Bank, 2022). Importantly, evidence shows that such technologies can promote citizens’ trust and help governments achieve improved development results (World Bank, 2022; Waddington et al., 2019; Bae et al., 2019; Diergarten and Krieger, 2015; Lindstedt and Naurin, 2010; Aidt, 2009; Shim and Eom, 2008).

However, while the existing studies have demonstrated linkages between digital tools and citizen engagement, there has been no empirical assessment of the link between these variables using econometric modeling at a cross-country level. **_In this lacuna, the present research paper seeks to estimate the extent to which and under which conditions GovTech platforms support improvements to citizen engagement._** In doing so, this study attempts to fill a gap in the literature by using original data for a large sample of 176 countries (for which data are available) in order to analyze the importance of GovTech platforms in improving citizen engagement. As such, this is a cross-sectional study using primarily: (i) the World Bank’s 2020 GovTech Maturity Index data (extracted from the 2022 GTMI version) and (ii) the 2021 Varieties of Democracy (V-dem) citizen engagement data to assess the impact of the implementation of national platforms that allow citizens to participate in policy decision-making as well as to provide feedback on service delivery. A time lag has been introduced to allow for consideration of the uptake and diffusion, as the effect of introducing digital platforms to support citizen engagement may take sufficient time to appear. Importantly, this research considers the effects of contextual and demographic factors on this relationship, including, _inter alia_ : political regime type; level of development; perceptions of public sector corruption; coverage of broadband subscriptions; distribution of political power among social groups; population distribution between 15 and 44; human capital development; measures of government effectiveness; and indices of conflict and fragility.

This analysis utilizes entropy balancing as the primary estimation strategy. In recent years, this method has been used for impact analyses on cross-sectional or panel data in various fields (Kinda and Thiombiano, 2024; Balima and Sy, 2021; Sawadogo, 2020; Gottschalk et al., 2020; Baborska, 2020; Pek et al., 2019). Importantly, this method has several advantages compared to the other matching methods and avoids multicollinearity issues. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regressions on the matching sample are used as alternative strategies. Additional robustness checks were performed using alternative GTMI data (GTMI 2022) and by considering the possibility of a slower diffusion of the technology. In addition, a sensitivity analysis considering the role of governance as well as political and institutional factors in the success of GovTech initiatives in boosting citizen participation is performed. Also, an Africa-focused analysis was conducted to test whether the adoption of digital platforms in an African context has an impact on citizen engagement.

This study finds a significant and positive impact of the implementation of GovTech platforms allowing citizens to participate in policy decision-making and provide feedback on public service delivery. These results are robust with respect to the use of alternative data and identification strategies and the rate of diffusion of technology. In addition, the findings show that democracy and the equal distribution of political power have strong and positive effects on citizen engagement. Likewise, public sector corruption has a negative and significant impact on citizen engagement. The analysis also provides evidence that

> for example. (World Bank, 2023. Amplifying People’s Voices - Opportunities for Mainstreaming Citizen Engagement Through Digital Technologies (English). Washington, D.C.)

> 6 CivicTech refers to any innovation in the use of digital technology to improve governance and the interactions between government and citizens. Depending on the nature and engagement between government and citizens, CivicTech activities can be categorized into three levels: (1) openness and transparency; (2) participation and engagement; and (3) collaboration, codesign, co-creation, and co-production (World Bank, 2022). This study concerns the second and third levels of CivicTech activities.

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