is not the same. Information on self-employed workers is lacking on many indicators. For instance, the labor income of the self-employed is missing across most surveys, and it has not been possible to approximate labor income by using household income or consumption.

Although subsistence agriculture and self-employment are two of the largest sources of employment in low- and lower-middle-income countries and include the most vulnerable groups of workers, survey data on these labor market participants are extremely limited at best and unreliable at worst. Moreover, because self-employment and unpaid work are typically associated with low-quality jobs in developing countries, the proposed JQM can be considered a lower bound of job quality in each country, with an implicit value of zero for the quality of employment in categories other than wage employment. However, future research should expand the analysis to include nonwage workers.

Driven by the availability of data across countries, this analysis therefore focuses on four main dimensions of the quality of jobs and only one category of workers: wage workers. The four dimensions of job quality covered by the harmonization exercise are (1) sufficient income to move a family out of poverty and into the lower-middle class, (2) receiving benefits, (3) the stability of employment, and (4) adequate working conditions. This restriction to focus on a subset of dimensions because of data constraints is shared with the literature, while this paper expands the scope of countries to include all regions. Table 2 provides a summary of the four dimensions, the relevant indicators, and the definition of each indicator for the final set of survey indicators. The table shows there is a single indicator for the income dimension, six indicators for the benefits dimension, four indicators for the stability dimension, and three indicators for the working conditions dimension.

Table 2. Job Quality Dimensions and Indicators

|_Dimension_|_Indicator_|_Definition of quality_|
|---|---|---|
|Income|Out of poverty|Total wages exceed the international extreme poverty line<br>of US$1.90/day per capita (2011 PPP), multiplied by the<br>dependencyratio of(4.0/1.5)|
||Health insurance|Jobprovides health insurance|
||Unemployment insurance|Eligible for unemployment insurance|
|Benefits|Pension contributions|Job associated withpension benefits|
||Social security|Job associated with anytype of social security|
||Annualpaid leave|Job offerspaid holidayleave|
||Paid sick leave|Job offerspaid sick leave|
||Tenure|3+ years of tenure in job for workers ages 25–64, 1+ years<br>of tenure injob for workers ages 15–24|
|Stabilit|Written contract|Employment is bound bywritten contract|
|y|Permanent employment|Employment ispermanent,not temporary|
||Formal employment|Employer is formal company (registered with authorities, or<br>keeps written accounts orpublic employer)|
||Excessive workinghours|Individual does not exceed 48 weeklyhours|
|Working|Secondpaidjob|Individual does not work a secondpaidjob|
|conditions|Direct question:_would you_<br>_like to work more?_|Individual responds “no”|

_Note:_ The table shows the dimensions and indicators, including the definitions, that comprise the JQM.

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