of the average log productivity. The use of firms’ own roads is a factor that increases productivity (figure 6.12).

**Burkina Faso (BFA).** Burkina Faso ranks 16th and 12th in terms of per capita GDP and demeaned aggregate TFP, respectively. The main infrastructure problems are clearing customs while importing, the average duration of power and water outages, shipment losses, and time waiting to obtain a phone connection. These results are common to Mauritania, Cameroon, and Niger since these countries are pooled for estimation. In particular, for Burkina Faso, all of these factors reduce productivity at the firm level (see figure 6.4) and can contribute to 35 percent of average log TFP.

**Niger (NER).** Niger is one of the poorest countries in our sample: it ranks 19th based on per capita income, and managers’ perceptions show a great concern regarding quality of current infrastructure (20th in the rank). The absolute contribution of infrastructure to average log productivity is 34.7 percent, with 20.7 percent due to problems  clearing customs while importing, 9.4 percent due to the average time wasted in obtaining a phone connection, and 4.5 percent due to the cumulated negative effect of the low-quality provision of electricity and water and the poor transport system (see figure 6.17).

_Low-growth countries in central-east Africa_

**Kenya (KEN).** Kenya ranked 13th in per capita GDP, 6th in terms of DBR (2007), and 8th in terms of demeaned aggregate productivity. The results of the productivity equation in Kenya show multiple interrelationships between productivity at the firm level, on one hand, and infrastructure, on the other. Factors such as the use of generators, the cost of electricity from the public grid, water outages, sales lost due to power outages, and so on, reduce productivity at the firm level (see figure 6.9). Although the contribution to the average log productivity of any of these factors is over 6 percent, infrastructure as a whole accounts for 30 percent of average log productivity, and for 19.9 percent of allocative efficiency (which illustrates the major influence infrastructure has on Kenyan firms’ productivity).

**Uganda (UGA).** Uganda is ranked 15th in per capita GDP and 17th in demeaned aggregate productivity. Uganda’s average log productivity is strongly influenced by infrastructure conditions, representing 58.4 percent. The two main factors affecting average productivity are the time to clear customs and the provision of electricity (figure 6.22, panel D).

**Zambia (ZMB).** Zambia ranks 17th in terms of per capita GDP, 14th in terms of firm perceptions, and 18th in terms of the ACR (2007) .The contribution of the cost of electricity from the public grid to average log productivity in Zambia is 32.5 percent. The contribution of the average duration of power outages to average log TFP is 9.1 percent (see figure 6.23). The total contribution of infrastructure to average TFP is 50.6 percent.

**Tanzania (TZA).** Tanzania is 18th based on per capita GDP, 14th in terms of DBR (2007), and 15th in terms of firm perceptions. The absolute contribution of infrastructure to average log productivity in Tanzania is 34.1 percent. Out of this, 14.8 percent is due to time wasted waiting for water supply and 5.5 percent is due to the number of transport outages (figure 6.21).

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