Most of the data analyzed for this study confirm a female advantage in education, but this does not directly translate into the labor market, where females remain at a distinct disadvantage in most sectors. While females may achieve higher levels of education and obtain better results on assessments, female labor force participation is low compared with males’, wage disparity in many sectors of employment (main industries) is high, and in the civil service women are less likely to be promoted or to hold senior positions. While policies may be gender-sensitive and promote inclusivity, in reality, women and children with disabilities and special needs face disadvantages that will be insurmountable without adequate attention, resourcing and planning. A meaningful examination of how to raise the status of women in society is required for Indonesia to reap the full economic and development benefits from its population. The formation of gender norms starts with formal and non-formal education, both from how girls and boys are taught, and what messages they receive at school and at home, as well as the gender composition of leadership positions and the roles that women and men fill. While Indonesia should be applauded for the progress it has made, there are several areas that require greater attention:

1. **Analyzing data to identify gender imbalances at subnational levels and possible solutions to narrow the gaps:** Provinces and districts should analyze their own enrollment and learning data at the local level from a gender perspective to identify schools and sub-regions that have large gender imbalances. In those schools and sub-regions that have large differences in learning and enrollment, provinces and districts should support communities to identify the source(s) of the problem and possible ways of addressing it. Understanding the local factors driving gender inequality in the area is crucial in helping to identify possible solutions to narrow the gaps in favor of both boys and girls. Continuous monitoring should show improvements over time, otherwise further actions and support will be needed. In addition, a national program to support local research, policy and innovation would help subnational governments to identify these imbalances and address them.

2. **Gender-sensitive pre-service and in-service teacher training:** Teachers and officials interviewed for this study at all levels were unaware of gender-sensitive teacher training programs. From discussions with teachers and principals, girls are often thought to be better students due to their perceived higher levels of maturity and diligence. Including gender sensitivity and awareness in pre-service and in-service teacher training could help to reduce biases held by teachers and provide guidance to teachers on approaches to consider when teaching boys and girls, both to encourage equal participation, performance and skills development, as well as to reduce gender stereotyping and biases, and to minimize reinforcing bias through teaching practices. School management and supervisors (pengawas) should also receive training to ensure a sensitized and conducive learning environment.

3. **Promotion of female teachers to leadership positions:** There are several drivers contributing to the low number of females in leadership and management positions in the education sector, including the availability of equal opportunities for training, the multiple demands on women’s time, and views held by women and men of women’s leadership capabilities. To bring greater awareness of the lack of women in leadership positions, reports on the number of promotions and positions awarded should be publicized more broadly at the district and provincial levels, as well as the percentages of females and males in civil servant positions. Direct measures to address this imbalance should include mandating targets for school director, Pengawas, Dinas and ministry positions. Indirect measures can also be pursued, such as including information during pre-service training about requirements for hiring for leadership positions and the fact that these positions are open to women. As part of a long-term approach, stories about successful female 25