24 45. Parallel to the rise of the afore-mentioned "systems analysis" schools of thinking in the early 1970's was an even more dramatic paradigm change. "Synthesizing" systems of planning and reflective action began to emerge, which eliminated the idea of "externalities" and simultaneously recognized the limitations of centralized planning.<sup>38</sup> There have been several variations, some more directly focussed on the integration of ecological and developmental goals than others. A basic commonality between them is the idea that planning ought to be embedded in the total environment of the systems being planned for, including all of the parties affected (stakeholders). In order to achieve improved conditions for both the system being directly planned for _and_ its environment, global systems awareness must be coupled with local responsibility for action. This direct involvement of all concerned parties in the setting of goals, planning of means, and sharing accountability and benefits, is why decentralization is required, and what makes the process of "planning" more effective.<sup>39</sup> Interdependent autonomy, which may seem like an oxymoron, is promoted.

46. An early attempt to apply a synthesizing systems type of planning for environmental management was the International Joint Commission (IJC) of the U.S. and Canada's '"cosystem Approach" to resolving environmental disputes along the 4000 mile border between those two nations. Though the "systemic design" aspect is sometimes limited by the dispute resolution character of the IJ_'s charter, the 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty,40 the UC now explicitly uses a stakeholder and positive-sum perspective in its approach. It is working on developing the ability to monitor and manage for ecosystem health, rather than for the doctoring of ecosystem dis-ease.<sup>41</sup> This relates to the concept of "removing the need to pay" for pollution, by removing the necessity to pollute.

- 38 See, for insane.

- Ozbekhan, Hasan, 1969. "Toward A Genera Theory of Planning", in Jantsch, Erich (ed.), _Perspecdves in Planning._ OECD, Paris.

Ackoff, Russell, and Fred Emery, 1972. _On Purposefid Systems._ Aldine-Atherton, Chicago/ New York Ackoff, Russell, 1974. _Redesigning the Future: A Systems Approach to Societal Problems._ Wileylnterscience, New Yogk.

Passmore, William A. and John J. Sherwood, 1978. _Sociotechnical Systems: A Sourcebook._ University Associates, San Diego, CA.

- Vergara, Elsa, Jamshid Gharajedaghi, & Russell Ackoff, 1980. "A Guide to Interactive Planning," _S-Cubed Papers, 804,_ 51pp., Social Systems Sciences Dept., The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

- 39 S4gasti, Francisco, 1978. _Science and technology for development: main comparative report of the Science and Technology Policy Instrunents Project._ Intemational Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, 112p., pp. 35-37.

- 40 Caldwell, Lynton K., 1988 (ed.). _Perspectives on Ecosystem Management for the Great Lakes._ State University of New York Press, Albany, NY.

- 41 Bandurslci, Bruce L., Peter T. Haug, & Andrew L. Hamilton (Eds.), 1986. _Toward a Transhoundary Monitoring Network: A Continuing Binational Exploration._ (2 Volumes) International Joint Commission, U.S. & Canada, Washington, DC.