**-** **<u>Table 3: Bivariate probit regression results: potential sources of child labor and school participation for 7 14 year olds, 2005/06</u>**

||<br>(M<br>|Demand<br>odel 1)<br>|variables<br> _Full sample_<br>|Demand and s<br>(Model 2) <br>|upply var<br>_Full samp_<br>|iables<br>_le_<br>|Dema<br>_Chi_<br>|nd and<br>_ldren in_<br>|supply vari<br>_rural area_<br>|ables<br>_s only_<br>|Dem<br>_C_<br>|and and s<br>_hildren in_<br>_househ_<br>|upply var<br>_agricultu_<br>_olds only_ <br>|iables<br>_ral_<br> <br>|_descri-_<br>_ptive_<br>_data avg._<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Lab|or|School|Labor|Sch|ool|Lab|or|Sch|ool|La|bor|Sch|ool|_L 0.16_|
||partic|ipation|<br>participation|participation|partic|ipation|parti|cipation|<br>partic|ipation|part|icipation|<br>partic|ipation|<br>_S 0.86_|
|Independent variables|marginal<br>effect|<br>t-ratio|<br>marginal<br>effect<br>t-ratio|<br>marginal<br>effect<br>t-ratio|<br>margina<br>effect|l<br>t-ratio|<br>margina <br>effect|l<br>t-ratio|<br>marginal<br>effect|<br>t-ratio|<br>margin<br>effect|al<br> <br>t-ratio|<br>margina<br>effect|l<br>t-ratio||
|<br>Age|0.657|1.72|0.383<br>1.41|0.609<br>1.58|0.368|1.47|0.793|1.28|0.372|0.88|0.437|<br>0.86|0.792|1.94|<br>_10.5_|
|ild<br>its<br>Age<sup>2</sup>|-0.330|-1.23|-0.235<br>-1.22|-0.318<br>-1.18|-0.219|-1.22|-0.375|-0.86|<br>-0.166|-0.55|-0.169|<br>-0.47|-0.499|-1.72|<br>_--_|
|Ch<br>tra<br>Male (1 or 0) (reference group, female)|0.018|1.68|-0.015<br>-1.94|0.020<br>1.85|-0.012|-1.69|0.049|2.75|-0.031|-2.57|0.038|<br>2.56|-0.024|-2.07|<br>_0.52_|
|<br> <br>Own child(1 if relationshipto head is biological child,0 if not)|-0.031|-2.00|0.019<br>1.63|-0.025<br>-1.58|0.013|1.19|-0.048|-1.96|<br>0.013|0.75|-0.062|<br>-3.30|0.019|1.14|<br>_0.77_|
|l<br> <br>Mother lives in HH (1 or 0)|0.016|1.05|0.026<br>2.26|0.015<br>0.97|0.025|2.33|0.027|1.07|0.052|2.99|0.037|<br>1.82|0.035|2.25|<br>_0.77_|
|nta<br>its<br>Father’s education, primary (1 or 0) (ref. group, no edu.)|-0.035|-2.33|0.036<br>4.67|-0.042<br>-3.05|0.039|5.85|-0.083|-3.70|<br>0.064|6.17|-0.046|<br>-2.14|0.055|4.71|<br>_0.07_|
|are<br>tra<br>Father’s education, lower sec.|-0.055|-4.12|0.066<br>6.41|-0.054<br>-3.86|0.056|5.92|-0.092|-4.17|<br>0.076|5.21|-0.056|<br>-3.17|0.066|5.01|<br>_0.41_|
|P<br>Father’s education,upper sec. or higher|-0.054|-3.65|0.042<br>5.10|-0.049<br>-3.32|0.034|4.15|-0.086|-3.47|<br>0.056|4.46|-0.115|<br>-10.63|<br>0.077|8.25|<br>_0.11_|
|s<br>Wealth quintile 2 (1 or 0) (ref. group, quintile1)|-0.018|-1.21|0.009<br>0.96|-0.013<br>-0.89|0.006|0.65|0.007|0.29|0.005|0.35|0.001|<br>0.06|0.004|0.28|<br>_0.22_|
|on<br>Wealth quintile 3|-0.021|-1.30|0.020<br>1.96|-0.032<br>-2.08|0.019|2.05|-0.005|-0.16|<br>0.016|0.89|-0.008|<br>-0.35|0.022|1.35|<br>_0.20_|
|diti<br>Wealth quintile 4|-0.031|-1.98|0.026<br>2.61|-0.042<br>-2.85|0.025|2.64|-0.028|-0.91|<br>0.032|1.90|-0.033|<br>-1.48|0.026|1.57|<br>_0.17_|
|on<br>Wealth quintile 5|-0.074|-6.12|0.036<br>3.89|-0.069<br>-5.70|0.027|2.77|-0.107|-5.02|<br>0.062|5.54|-0.088|<br>-5.83|0.053|4.23|<br>_0.13_|
|d c<br>HH occupation in non-agriculture (ref. group, agriculture)|-0.027|-2.11|0.015<br>1.65|-0.024<br>-1.86|0.016|1.84|-0.027|-1.20|<br>0.016|1.09|||||_0.51_|
|hol<br>With each additional HH member aged 0-5|0.014|2.23|-0.007<br>-1.69|0.014<br>2.27|-0.007|-1.85|0.013|1.33|-0.009|-1.43|0.012|<br>1.42|-0.009|-1.36|<br>_1.0_|
|se<br>With each additional HH member aged 6-14|0.004|0.95|0.004<br>1.06|0.002<br>0.52|0.005|1.44|0.002|0.25|0.009|1.75|0.002|<br>0.32|0.007|1.46|<br>_2.7_|
|ou<br>With each additional HH member aged 15-59|-0.003|-1.05|0.005<br>2.25|-0.003<br>-1.00|0.006|2.37|0.000|0.07|0.005|1.37|-0.003|<br>-0.66|0.007|1.95|<br>_3.0_|
|H<br>With each additional HH member aged 60 or older|-0.012|-1.30|0.008<br>1.36|-0.008<br>-0.90|0.006|1.01|-0.016|-1.16|<br>0.010|1.07|-0.015|<br>-1.36|0.009|1.02|<br>_0.3_|
|Western region (1 or 0) (ref. group, Northern region)|-0.048|-3.03|0.037<br>4.49|-0.040<br>-2.30|0.028|3.03|-0.098|-4.65|<br>0.052|3.77|-0.071|<br>-4.14|0.055|4.69|<br>_0.09_|
|Central region|-0.065|-4.92|0.042<br>5.36|-0.074<br>-6.60|0.040|5.50|-0.135|-9.33|<br>0.062|5.07|-0.104|<br>-9.57|0.060|5.41|<br>_0.08_|
|r<br>Accra region|-0.044|-2.51|0.020<br>1.69|-0.043<br>-2.31|0.008|0.53|-0.079|-2.70|<br>0.007|0.26|-0.056|<br>-2.27|0.003|0.12|<br>_0.08_|
|uste<br>s<br>Volta region|-0.038|-2.18|0.033<br>3.79|-0.023<br>-1.11|0.032|4.14|-0.049|-1.53|<br>0.052|3.97|-0.025|<br>-0.89|0.043|3.17|<br>_0.10_|
|cl<br>stic<br>Eastern region|0.063|1.95|0.046<br>5.83|0.062<br>1.79|0.042|6.00|0.027|0.60|0.070|6.37|0.038|<br>0.94|0.063|6.34|<br>_0.11_|
|nd<br>eri<br>Ashanti region|-0.082|-5.90|0.054<br>5.89|-0.075<br>-5.10|0.044|4.84|-0.132|-6.24|<br>0.070|5.00|-0.085|<br>-4.65|0.064|4.81|<br>_0.18_|
|l a<br>act<br>Brong Ahafo region|-0.042|-2.51|0.045<br>6.32|-0.040<br>-2.46|0.039|5.67|-0.062|-2.23|<br>0.064|5.92|-0.056|<br>-2.75|0.061|5.59|<br>_0.08_|
|ona<br>har<br> <br>Upper East region|0.018|0.65|-0.033<br>-1.49|0.028<br>0.97|-0.027|-1.34|0.014|0.36|-0.034|-1.13|0.026|<br>0.77|-0.042|-1.41|<br>_0.08_|
|gi<br>c<br>Upper West region|0.138|3.18|-0.010<br>-0.59|0.136<br>3.13|-0.001|-0.04|0.174|2.99|0.003|0.14|0.145|<br>2.95|-0.008|-0.35|<br>_0.09_|
|Re<br><br>Total school expenditure, lowest tercile (ref. group, highest tercile)||||-0.012<br>-0.74|-0.014|-0.99|-0.053|-2.06|<br>-0.007|-0.33|-0.013|<br>-0.58|-0.018|-0.89|<br>_0.33_|
|<br>Total school expenditure middle tercile||||-0.022<br>-1.66|0.001|0.12|-0.051|-2.24|<br>0.023|1.33|-0.022|<br>-1.13|0.005|0.28|<br>_0.33_|
|,<br>Di hl029 if30 i||||<br> <br>0002<br>017|<br>0033|<br>263|<br>0012|<br>057|<br> <br>0034|<br>197|<br>0002|<br> <br> <br>010|<br>0049|<br>268|<br> <br> <br>_076_|
|stance to scoo,- mn.(re.group,or more mn.)||||-.<br>-.|.|.|.|.|.|.|-.|<br>-.|.|.|<br>_._|
|Constant|-2.69|-2.92|-1.48<br>-1.46|-2.51<br>-2.59|-1.88|-1.72|-2.28|-2.07|<br>-1.67|-1.35|-2.02|-1.82|-2.57|-2.14||
|Sample of children||2,|385|2,|214|||1,|389|||1,|406|||

_Source_ : Author’s regression results based on calculations of GLSS data. Note: T-ratio shows if a variable’s significance level is over 95% if >1.96 or <1.96. HH stands for household. The last column reflects basic descriptive statistics of the explanatory variables applied for the full sample; additional tables of summary statistics including values on minimum, maximum, and standard deviation are not included due to space limitations. Total school expenditure includes costs for school and registration fees; contributions to PTA; uniforms and sports clothes; books and school supplies; school transportation; food, board and lodging; expenses on extra classes; and in-kind expenses. Total school expenditure is divided into terciles, i.e. the lowest school expenditure tercile reflects clusters that spent on average GH¢0 - GH¢14.30 (new cedis), the middle school expenditure tercile spent GH¢14.31 - GH¢43.80 and the highest school expenditure tercile GH¢43.81 - GH¢700.00. Age<sup>2</sup> represents age squared and is included in order for the regression to allow for non-linearity in age. To capture a larger sample of children, mothers’ level of education has been withdrawn from the initial regression design, for which reported effects are similar to fathers’ level of education.

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