rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
HNLSS consumption data was collected using a month-long diary. Also, while the GHSPanel was implemented over a 6 month period and consumption data was collected at two points in time – the post-planting and the post-harvest periods, in the HNLSS, consumption information was collected over a 12 month period using month long diaries. Both surveys were implemented by the National Bureau of Statistics.

Consumption figures in the GHS-Panel were averaged over the post-planting and post-harvest visits in order to proxy households’ annual consumption patterns irrespective of seasons. Consumption data are then deflated spatially using a zone level price deflator. To construct the deflators, zone level baskets were constructed from surveys and priced using item-level prices by state and month. To deflate by year the national consumer price index provided by the NBS were used. Real consumption figures are in 2010 prices. To compare results over time (the last decade) we used the HNLSS conducted in 2003/2004. The HNLSS is representative at state level and because it uses a month-long diary to collect consumption, it is not directly comparable to the GHS-Panel which uses a 7 day recall. As can be seen in the following paragraphs, we re-estimated 2003/2004 real consumption using a model based on the GHS-Panel.

A new poverty line based on the GHS-Panel was constructed. The new line is 180 Naira per capita per day in 2010 prices and yields 3000 calories as the official poverty line.<sup>6</sup> Converted in dollars PPP, the line becomes 1.4 dollars per capita per day, very close to the 1.25 dollars PPP line used by the World Bank for international comparisons. The main reason for using this line rather than the official is because the official poverty line was constructed using HNLSS data which is collected with a different methodology from the GHS-Panel making the two lines incompatible.<sup>7</sup>

# _Middle class definition_

Regarding the definition of middle class, we used the empirical framework proposed by LopezCalva and Ortiz-Juarez (2011) to define middle class in terms of households with a low level of vulnerability to poverty. The same methodology is used to define the vulnerable and the chronic poor: as those with an average and high likelihood to fall into poverty respectively. It is constructed in a transition matrix which tracks the same households in two periods and

> 6On annual basis the line is 65804 Naira per capita in 2010 prices

> 7Additionally, the HNLSS data from 2009/2010 used to construct the official line presented several problems in terms of unit values, quantities and expenditures levels. These issues are highlighted by the World Bank (2013).

10
**Figure 2: Simulated enrollment impact of reducing distance to schools**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Simulation: Simulation:<br>Distance to primary school reduced to zero Distance to primary and secondary schools reduced to zero<br>1.0 45 degree line 1.0 45 degree line<br>0.8 0.8 Cameroon<br>0.6 0.6<br>C.A.R<br>Benin<br>Chad<br>0.4 0.4<br>Chad<br>Mali<br>0.2 0.2<br>0.0 0.0<br>0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0<br>Actual enrollment Actual enrollment<br>Simulated enrollment Simulated enrollment<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Note_ : The vertical distance from the 45<sup>o</sup> line shows the change in proportion enrolled associated with reducing the distance to school to zero. Labeled countries are those for which the absolute value of the change is greater than .04 for the left panel, and 0.1 for the right panel.

_Source_ : Author’s calculations from DHS data.

More countries stand out with a substantive enrollment increase in the simulation of reducing the distance to both primary and secondary schools to zero. Cameroon, Chad and Benin stand out with an implied increment of more that 10 percentage points. The largest increment to enrollment is in Chad where the simulation implies a 16 percentage point increase in enrollment associated with a reduction of the distance of all primary and secondary schools to zero. Only 4 percent of children in Chad live in clusters with a secondary school so the 16 percentage point increment would come at the cost of a massive investment in school construction.

_Endogenous school placement_ Endogenous program placement is a problem that plagues this type of study. The problem arises if schools are placed where enrollment would be lowest in their absence. If this were true, and the availability of schools actually increased enrollment, then one could observe no difference according to distance but this would be an artifact of the selective nature of school placement, that is a bias towards finding a small association between distance and enrollment. However, alternative scenarios could lead to a bias in the opposite direction. For example, families who value schooling a great deal might move to live closer to schools. One could therefore observe a big fall in enrollment as distance increased, but this would be overstating the impact of availability. Similarly, policymakers might locate schools in locations where populations are more vocal, perhaps because they are more politically powerful or because they value education more. Again, in this case the cross-sectional analysis would overstate the impact of availability on enrollment.

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**Figure 7. Wheat Prices in South Asia (2002=100)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 350<br>300<br>250<br>200 India<br>Pakistan<br>150 Global<br>100<br>50<br>0<br>Period<br>2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008Jan 2008Mar2008May2008June 2008July2008Aug<br>Price Index<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source: Compiled from various data sources of concerned authorities_ especially in India (figure 8). Indeed, India managed to maintain a fairly stable wheat price that increased by only 33 percent between 2002 and 2008 March and by only 12 percent between 2006 and March 2008. Pakistan experienced sharper increases, but they happened in two phases. The first phase was between 2003 and 2005 and the second phase between March 2008 and August 2008. In total, the wheat price increased by 98 percent between 2002 and August 2008; it increased by 37 percent between 2006 and August 2008. Afghanistan on the other hand suffered much more. Although longer term trend data are not available, short term data shows that the wheat prices increased by 157 to 259 percent between May 2007 and 2008. (Table 6). These increases are even sharper than by global standards. The marked regional variation in price increases in Afghanistan suggests the low mobility of food grain within the country due to poor trade logistics and security problems.

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questions before including them in our aggregate indicators. So we are not of the view that the definitional distinctions across our data sources are in fact very large. Moreover, it turns out that even questions about ostensibly different forms of corruption tend to be very correlated with each other. In simple terms, it seems unlikely that there would be many countries with high judicial corruption but low administrative corruption, and vice versa. And this is what the data tells us. For example, for Control of Corruption in 2005, the median correlation of our 18 underlying data sources with the aggregate indicator is 0.85, and only two data sources are correlated at less than 0.5.<sup>7</sup> • Related to the previous point, in past work we have empirically documented the extent to which changes over time in our aggregate governance indicators for individual countries are influenced by the addition of data sources. In principle, of course, the addition of a new data source for a country that provides a very different assessment than other data sources can result in a large change in the aggregate indicator for that country. In practice, however, this effect does not appear to be very important, and accounts for just a small portion of the variation over time in country scores. In Kaufmann, Kraay, and Mastruzzi (2005) for example, we looked at all "large" -- in the sense of being statistically significant -- changes in each of our six governance indicators between 1996 and 2004. We first computed what the change in our estimate of governance would have been based on a common set of indicators, and then isolated the remaining component of the change which reflected the addition of data sources for each country. On average, we found that the addition of data sources accounted for only about 9 percent of the variation in changes in our aggregate indicators, for countries with large changes in governance.

> 7 These two are the Latinobarometro survey of countries in Latin America, and Freedom House's Countries and the Crossroads report.  One other source with a low correlation for corruption is the BEEPS survey (correlation with aggregate indicator of only 0.55.  Since one of the main interests of K is to account for differences between the BEEPS survey and other measures of trends in corruption in the ECA region, we are sympathetic with K's emphasis on the differences among data sources for this particular indicator and region.  However, we do not think the point is more generally true for the majority of our data sources, which tend to be very much in agreement with each other.

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**<mark>Figure 2: Maximum overall incentives towards performance as % of total annual income</mark>**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 7%<br>Peformance<br>6% Regime<br>Farebox<br>5%<br>4%<br>3%<br>2%<br>1%<br>0%<br>Cross Country TrainsGatwick Express Great Eastern Railway Chiltern Railway Anglian Railways West Anglia Great NorthernThames Trains Northern Spirit Connex South Central Scotrail Railways North Western Trains South West Trains Silverlink Train Services Central Trains Connex South Eastern Wales & West Thameslink Rail Cardiff Railway<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**_Source: Frontier Economics calculations based on SRA data_**

It is clear that the maximum incentive payments available represent a relatively small proportion of TOC total income (1% to 7% varying by company), especially if the assumed farebox effect of performance fails to materialize. On the other hand, the penalties levied on the company can, in principle be much greater. This may indicate that the positive benefits an operator achieves from perfect quality are relatively low performance payments and probably a rather weak farebox effect. In contrast, the penalties for performing moderately badly are a loss of reputation and, ultimately, the loss of the franchise. In other words, it is possible that operators are incentivised to avoid extremely bad performance rather than strive for excellent performance.

The regime applied to Railtrack was somewhat different. It was a regulated network monopoly business, whose incentives to invest could expect to be driven by the performance regime specific to Railtrack (which was similar in character to the one applied to the TOCs) and the regulatory treatment of investment at the price 9
When asked which group of citizens deserves most support from the government, respondents have a preference for the disabled and families with children (26 percent on average), followed by the elderly (19 percent), the working poor (12 percent), the unemployed (10 percent) and war veterans (5 percent) (table 3). There is wide variation across countries in the extent of support for various groups, although there is general agreement that the disabled deserve support.

Support for income redistribution towards specific groups also seems to translate into actual redistributive policies. Spending for social pensions (as a share of total government expenditure) tends to be higher in countries where there is wide agreement that the elderly deserve support from the government (Figure 4). Likewise, within the transition region, there is higher spending on family allowances where there is strong agreement that families with children deserve support from government (Figure 5).

**Figure 4: Belief that the elderly deserve Figure 5: Belief that families with children public support and spending on social deserve public support and spending on pensions social pensions**

<!-- Start of picture text --> UKR<br>HUN<br>FRA SWE<br>LVA ROM<br>TUR ROM BGR<br>MKD SRB BGR UKR LVA<br>EST ALB ARM MTG MDA GBR ITA SRB SVNLTUCZEBLR<br>BLR KAZ EST<br>BIH<br>AZE POL KAZ<br>KSV<br>POL FRAHUNITA SWESVNLTU TJKGBRCZE KGZ MTGTJKBIH TURAZEMKD ARM MDA<br>.6 .7 .8 .9 1 .4 .6 .8 1<br>percentage of people who support the Elderly in the country percentage of people who support the families with children in the country<br>Source: LITS II, WB ECA social protection database Source: LITS II, WB ECA social protection database<br>.06<br>.4<br>.3<br>.04<br>.2<br>.02<br>.1<br>Spending for social pensions as % of Budget<br>Spending for families allowances as % of Budget<br>0 0<br><!-- End of picture text --> However, average preferences and actual redistributive policies are not necessarily aligned. For example, budget spending on social assistance is not systematically higher where a greater proportion of people think that assisting the poor should be among the first two government priorities for spending (Figure 6).

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31 mechanisms, they are utilized especially by smaller pribumi firms, but even for this group their role has been rmodest.

* While the benefits of strengthening collective mechanisms for technological upgrading would be substantial, pervasive institutional weaknesses among potential providers make the task a difficult one.

# Technological Capability and Sunnort Systems in Rattan Furniture

When the rattan furniture export boom commenced in the late 1980s, Indonesiats industry lacked both an accumulated stock of experienced entrepreneurs and a workforce with skills comparable to those of its main international competitors. Nonetheless, considerable improvement has occurred in the quality of the Indonesian output over the last 5 years or so.

This progress was confirmed by the field surveys. Firms were asked to rank improvements on an increasing scale of "some", "significant" and "major". virtually all of the 33 firms surveyed had made at least some improvements in both design and in finishing, and about two thirds of the firms reported some improvement in workplace organization and equipment sophistication. In all four categories, at least B firms reported significant or major improvements. While the primary focus of this study is on sources of technological capability that are external to firms, external providers are not the only important source of capability. Indeed, as Table 13 shows, the surveyed firms rated on the job learning as the most important source of capability over the lifetime of the firm. Support from external providers does emerge as the most important source of capability for the initial period of direct entry into foreign markets, although (for reasons examined in more detail below) this is true more for non-pribumi than pribumi firms.
||**GNI per capita**<br>**used for 2020**<br>**income**<br>**classification**<br>**(2018, USD)**|**GNI per capita**<br>**used for 2001**<br>**income**<br>**classification**<br>**(1999, USD)**|**Share of**<br>**agriculture in**<br>**GDP**<br>**(percent)**|**Share of**<br>**primary**<br>**commodity**<br>**exports in GDP**<br>**(percent)**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Continued LICs**|||||
|Tanzania|1,020|240|...|0.7|
|Tajikistan|1,010|290|...|...|
|<br>Nepal|960|220|26.2|0.3|
|Yemen, Rep.*|960|350|6|...|
|Benin|870|380|23|4.3|
|Guinea|830|510|16.4|6.9|
|Mali*|830|240|38.3|1.1|
|Haiti*|800|460|17.6|...|
|Ethiopia|790|100|34|0|
|Rwanda|780|250|31|1.3|
|Guinea-Bissau*|750|160|49|0|
|Burkina Faso|700|240|28.7|5.4|
|Gambia, The*|700|340|23|0.5|
|Chad*|670|200|49.1|...|
|Togo*|650|320|41.8|3.9|
|<br>Uganda|620|320|24.6|0.8|
|Liberia*|600|...|37.1|...|
|Afghanistan*|550|...|20.5|...|
|Sierra Leone|500|130|60.3|0.7|
|Congo, Dem. Rep.*|490|110|19.9|...|
|<br>Central African Republic*|480|290|39.6|...|
|Madagascar|440|250|20|6|
|<br>Mozambique*|440|230|21.3|31.1|
|Niger|380|190|39.7|4.1|
|Malawi|360|190|26.1|0.9|
|Burundi*|280|120|...|0.3|
|Eritrea*|...|200|...|...|
|Korea, Dem. People’s Rep.|...|...|...|...|
|Somalia*|...|...|...|...|
|**New LICs**|||||
|Syrian Arab Republic *|...|970|...|...|

Source: World Bank World Development Indicators, World Integrated Trade Statistics. Notes: Asterisks indicate economies affected by fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV). Ellipses indicate data unavailability. GNI per capita according to the World Bank Atlas method. GNI per capita for 1999 was published in August 2000 and reflects the original data used for country income classification in the 2001 World Bank fiscal year, while GNI per capita for 2018 was published in July 2019 and reflects the data used for the 2020 World Bank fiscal year. The LIC threshold is $1025 for the 2020 fiscal year. South Sudan is also a new LIC, but not included in the table because it only gained independence in 2011; data not available.

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Tables 3 and 4, in more than 40 different instances over the period 1995-2011, one or more of ten G20 economies initiated antidumping investigations into either PVC or PET products. Some economies initiated multiple, sequential investigations and imposed new import restrictions against many foreign suppliers, including each other. However, it is also notable that, according to the data in Bown (2012a), the PVC and PET antidumping petitions described in these tables involve dozens of firms. Other things equal, participation of many more firms in the global market should make the formation and subsequent enforcement of a cartel in any of these sectors more difficult than it was in the 1980s and 1990s.

The examples shown in Tables 2 and 3 of multi-market contacts among multinational firms indicate the possibility of policies such as antidumping being used to segment markets in relatively concentrated industries. However, we have no direct evidence indicating collusive behavior of the firms involved in any of the cases listed in Tables 2 and 3, and there are other plausible explanations for the patterns displayed. For example, the same foreign firm could have been dumping simultaneously across multiple jurisdictions, thus triggering the related antidumping filings. More broadly, certain products or even industries may have characteristics inherent to their production process, such as high fixed costs, or a market structure that “fits” the evidentiary criteria required for a viable antidumping case. But even the potential for collusive action calls for research based on detailed information on multinational firm linkages across countries, and perhaps also careful monitoring by antidumping authorities to ensure that their actions do not inadvertently promote anticompetitive outcomes.

# **4.3 The rise of China and the increasing use of export restrictions**

The importance of China as a dominant trader gives rise to additional issues relating to antidumping and how its use may be evolving in response to larger changes in the global economy. The first is associated 25
Such upgrading could be linear or non-linear, depending on whether a country or firm must gain expertise in one segment of the value chain before moving to the next one. Figure 21 and Figure 22 provide examples of upgrading paths in the horticulture and offshore services sectors. Upgrading could also mean moving to the pre- and post-production stages, in particular by increasing the services content of the production package sold to lead firms. Therefore, a country needs to assess its capacities up- and downstream as well as its current position in the value chain, and facilitate the upgrading process through capacity building and workforce development.

**Figure 22. Upgrading stages in the fruit and vegetable value chain, Chile, Honduras, Jordan, Kenya and Morocco**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Chile<br>Kenya &<br>Morocco<br>Jordan &<br>Honduras<br>Production for Packing & Cold Distribution &<br>Inputs Processing<br>Export Storage Marketing<br>Source: Fernandez-Stark, Bamber, and Gereffi, 2011a<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# _(2) Task bundling_

As illustrated by the examples above and Figure 23, upgrading trajectories often consist in performing new tasks that supplement and build upon existing ones. Task bundling is necessary in a context of GVC consolidation, where lead firms reduce the number of intermediates and expect them to provide a more comprehensive package with a higher services-content (Gereffi and Frederick, 2010). Finally, task bundling might be necessary to attract the offshoring/outsourcing of some tasks that cannot be performed independently (Lanz, Miroudot and Nordås, 2012). For example, some tasks that can be digitized and easily outsourced offshore might be complementary to tasks that cannot, thus making the first set of tasks non-offshorable unless the country can also perform the second set of tasks.

**Figure 23. Mexico’s upgrading trajectory in the apparel sector**

|||**1993**|**1996**|**2000**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Retail**<br>**Marketing**||||
||**Distribution**|||√|
||**Laundry and finishing**||√|√|
||**Assembly**|√|√|√<br>|
||**Cutting**|||√|
||**Trims and labels**||√|√|
|**Upgrading**|**Textiles**||√|√|

Note: Tasks performed by Mexican apparel industries in the city of Torreon Source: Bair and Gereffi, 2001 Moving up the value chain is often about “creating the knowledge behind the product”. Per se, diversification in services tasks and the promotion of services exports is a largely untapped potential for many developing countries. It suggests that a country might not be able to move up the value chain due to barriers prevailing in other stages of the production. For example, moving out of production to include R&D, engineering or marketing services, requires a greater flexibility in trade in such services, including the temporary movement of services providers (which is classified as 31