Some highlight the link between cultural exclusion<sup>20</sup> and exclusion in other domains as contributing to patterns of social exclusion. Discrimination against women in the labor market, for example, may result from values derived from religion, the political arena, culture, the structure of the economy, and other institutions in which these values are embedded. In some contexts, these values indicate that while men make better workers and should be the main bread-winners, women should be primarily responsible for child care. Race, ethnicity and sexual orientation are other examples of social groupings where members suffer disadvantage as a result of the external construction of the group, along with a cultural devaluation of traits associated with the group.

# **Social exclusion, conflict, and fragility**

A growing literature on fragile and conflict-effected environments highlights both the role of exclusion in fragility and conflict, and the importance of ensuring more inclusive political systems and addressing discrimination in post-conflict environments (OECD 2007, UNDP 2011).

Researchers emphasize horizontal inequalities (inequalities between social groups) as a key driver of violent conflict (Stewart 2008, 2010) and statistical research finds that levels of discrimination are higher in fragile states than in others. While any type of horizontal inequality— political, economic, social or cultural—can provide incentives for political mobilization and violent conflict, research has stressed the central role of cultural inequalities. Cultural differences – real or perceived – are sometimes exaggerated to bind together excluded groups. This may further increase perceptions of identity differences (Stewart 2010). Much contemporary violent conflict occurs when ethnic or religious differences between groups result in economic and political differences and create resentments that may lead to violent struggles (Stewart and Brown 2007). In some cases, a common identity strengthened through the experience of economic or political inequality is manipulated by elites to mobilize a group to legitimate the use of violence (Aspinall 2007, Croissant 2009).

Approaches that emphasize inclusion in political systems do not fully address the underlying causes of conflict. Researchers have found that inclusive political systems alone are not sufficient in tackling the kinds of exclusion that can result in violent conflict. Political inclusion must be accompanied by a social system which widely spreads the benefits of progress, providing socioeconomic growth among the different ethnic and religious groups (Ostby 2008). The specific form of the state structure, however, will not be able to fulfill this role if it is built upon a system that discriminates (Wimmer 2002).

Addressing the value-based discrimination that leads to cultural inequalities is the key to preventing violence in fragile and conflict-affected environments. Discrimination is seen as underlying violent conflict. Perceived or real injustices arise from peoples’ identity and the social groups to which they belong. What this tells us is that as well as tackling the outcomes, or manifestations of inequality, it is important to address the underlying values and processes that create discrimination.

> 20 Cultural exclusion entails the devaluing of entire- or parts of- cultures, associated traditions, beliefs and practices of the cultural group and often the lack of recognition of the existence and importance of such cultures in the formal institutions of the state.

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