rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
the comprehensive wealth accounts published in World Bank (2011) – land values as a share of total wealth.

The physical indicators are clearly not the explanatory variables we are seeking – protected area per capita in developing countries is about 2/3 of the value in OECD countries, while there is little variation in the protected area share of total land area across the different income classes. The third indicator tells the story. Land values (excluding urban land) make up only 1.4% of the total wealth of OECD countries, while it is 10 to 20 times higher as a proportion of wealth in middle and low income countries. Since the opportunity cost of creating a protected area is based on the rents from agricultural land, this will necessarily be a much larger share of GDP in developing countries compared with OECD countries.

**Table 2.  Protected area extent and land values by income class, 2005**

||Low income|Middle income|OECD|
|---|---|---|---|
|Protected area per capita, ha.|0.22|0.21|0.34|
|Protected area as a percent<br>of total land area|10.8%|10.6%|11.8%|
|Land value (cropland,<br>pastureland, forested land,<br>protected areas) as a percent<br>oftotal wealth|29.5%|12.8%|1.4%|

Source: derived from World Bank (2011) and _World Development Indicators_ _Policy implications, and some caveats_ Protected areas and the biodiversity they harbor provide both local and global benefits. The institution that finances environmental global public goods is the Global Environment Facility (GEF), and it is worth assessing the level of finance that it disburses for biodiversity protection.

According to the GEF’s _Annual Report 2010_ , the total finance it provided for biodiversity conservation from 1991 to 2010 amounted to $3.1 bn, while this amount leveraged a further $8.4 bn in co-finance from development partners. In total, therefore, GEF finance and co-finance averaged $575 mn per year for biodiversity conservation over these two decades. This finance is provided to both low and middle income countries, but the bulk of it is allocated to the megadiverse middle income giants: Brazil, China and Indonesia.

We can put this figure in context by measuring the PA rents for _low income_ countries as a whole in 2005 – this is the total annual opportunity cost of conservation in these countries. This 14
19 the model refers to period 2. Bounded rationality makes hlim consider only cuLxent price information in assessing the period 1 supply response, so he will still observe what looks to the econometrician as positive variance, as inventory fluctuations trigger prediction errors in his static producer model. To assess how hoarding in period 1 **12/** affects the probability of collapse of the program of price decontrol, we need to focus on how the updating process will affect f(am). After all, while voters do not know each other's individual preferences, they do know from each other that each voter updates using equ. (26). With Bayesian updating, updating will shift f(am) such that f contracts towards the voter who has a prior mean equal to the elasticity actually observed in period 1. But the voter with zero prior mean is more relevant, since 0 is the cut-off point for the voting procedure.

Equ. (26) shows that the voter at 0 will shift up, down or stay where he is depending on whether the observed supply elasticity in period 1 is positive, negative or zero. All voters whose prior mean exceeds the supply elasticity observed with hoarding rev,-o their estimata of the supply elasticity downward. Thus if enough hoarding takes place to make the net supply response negative, f shifts to the left (i.e. its mean falls) and more weight is concentrated in the part of f defined over (-, 0). The probability of collapse therefore increases if there is enough hoarding to actually cause a net negative supply response: A positive supply response leads to an upwards revision of aprior by at

> **12** Hore accurately, anticipated hoarding in period 1. Note that all agents form rational expectations about all aggregate variables in the economy.
47

# **Table 6 Measures of Financial Infrastructure, MENA and other Regions**

|**Region**|**Legal Rights**<br>**Index**|**Coverage**<br>**Public Credit**<br>**Registry**|**Coverage**<br>**Private Credit**<br>**Bureau**|**Credit**<br>**Information**<br>**Index**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Middle East & North Africa|3.5|3.5|2.6|2.6|
|GCC|3.8|4.2|6.4|2.9|
|Non-GCC|3.2|3.7|0.0|2.5|
|East Asia|5.3|8.9|14.6|3.7|
|Eastern Europe|6.8|2.4|14.1|3.5|
|Former Soviet Union|5.7|0.5|1.1|1.7|
|High income: Non-OECD|6.5|0.0|46.3|4.5|
|High income: OECD|6.8|8.1|58.1|4.9|
|Latin America|4.4|10.6|36.2|4.6|
|South Asia|5.7|0.5|2.0|2.9|
|Sub-Saharan Africa|5.2|1.0|6.9|1.5|

Source: The Doing Business Database

**Table 7**

**Outstanding Guarantees as a % of GDP**

|**Country**|**2007**|**2008**|**2009**|
|---|---|---|---|
|Egypt|0.08%|0.08%|0.09%|
|Jordan|0.07%|0.07%|0.07%|
|Lebanon|0.85%|0.84%|0.87%|
|Morocco|0.33%|0.35%|0.41%|
|Palestine|0.05%|0.16%|0.27%|
|Saudi Arabia|0.01%|0.01%|0.02%|
|Tunisia|0.34%|0.39%|0.50%|

Source: Saadani, Arvai, and Rocha (2010)
|**Table 12a. Tariff Rates, Export Tax Rate**|**s, Market Acce**<br>_ad-valorem equiv_|**ss and Ad Valo**<br>_alent, %_|**rem Equivalenc**<br>Ch i Wld|**e of Barriers t**|**o FDI**<br>PtWTO|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Tariff rates|Export tax rates|ange n or<br>Price|Base Year|os-<br>Accession|
|Railway transportation||||33.0||
|Truck transportation||||33.0||
|Pipelines transportation||||33.0||
|Maritime transportation||||95.0|80.0|
|Air transportation||||90.0|75.0|
|Other transportation||||33.0||
|Telecommunications||||33.0||
|Science & science servicing||0.1||33.0||
|Financial services||||36.0||
|Ferrous metallurgy|5.9|2.6|0.5|||
|Non-ferrous metallurgy|8.5|5.1|0.5|||
|Chemical & oil-chemical industry|7.5|3.6|0.5|||
|Mechanical engineering & metal-working|10.7|2.4||||
|Timber & woodworking & pulp & paper industry|13.5|11.0||||
|Construction materials industry|12.0|6.3||||
|Food industry|14.1|2.9|0.5|||
|Other industries|14.6|1.1|0.5|||
|Public services, culture and arts||0.1||||
|Agriculture & forestry|8.4|2.3||||
|Coalmining|2.2|2.1||||
|Housing and communal services||||||
|Construction||0.3||||
|Electric industry|2.6|6.2||||
|Gas|5.0|38.7||||
|Crude oil extraction||21.2||||
|Oil refining and processing|4.5|28.6||||
|Other goods-producing sectors|14.6|1.1|0.5|||
|Post||||||
|Wholesale and retail trade||0.7||||
|Textiles and apparel<br>Source: Tarr, Shepotylo and Koudoyarov (2005) for ta<br>estimates for change in world market prices.|16.8<br>riff rates; Kimura e|3.7<br>t al. (2004a,b,c) for|barriers to FDI; Rosk|omstat for export|tax rates; authors'|

46
firewood use greatly exceeds the value of NTFPs in nearly all areas of their occurrence, which partially explains their replacement by other land uses. Since these uses generally result in the permanent removal of the forest, the potential for NTFP to revert deforestation patterns is restricted. Tallis and Polasky (2009) report on the application of their integrated valuation tool, InVEST, tool to assess damages due to Amazon forest losses, and find substantial losses in the values of local forest products under a “business-as-usual” alternative up to 2020, most along current and proposed roadways and population centers.

According to Peres (2000) as many as 25 million game vertebrates, constituting 89,000 tons of biomass, are consumed annually by local Amazon populations in the form of bush meat, valued at replacement cost at $197 million. Fish are a basic staple to Amazon residents, so it is no surprise that their production is also considerable in the region. Studies showed that commercial fisheries on the main tributaries of the Amazon river attained an annual catch valued at $ 389 million/yr. (Almeida et al., 2003).

# **2.4  Eco-Tourism**

According to Kirkby et al. (2011) eco-tourism should be defined as "travel to natural areas to admire, study, or enjoy natural landscapes and wildlife in a way that contributes to conservation and the welfare of local peoples". The same source puts global net rents from eco-tourism in the range of US$ 28.8 billion yr<sup>-1</sup> (a bit over 4% of the global tourism market of nearly $1 trillion). A key question here is how much of this currently consists of Amazon ecotourism, and how significant such activity could become.

A range of estimates for the value of eco-tourism as a means to justify standing forests have been generated. These include Andersen (1995), whose evaluation implied that the number of tourists visiting the Amazon region could be easily multiplied several fold, with expenditures on the order of $1,699 per visit, of which 50% could be captured for local benefit. Studies have looked at the potential eco-tourism revenues in eastern Ecuador (Drumm, 1991), with results similar to those obtained by Andersen on a per-hectare basis. Of particular importance, the Madre de Dios region of the Peruvian Amazon is one of few currently extremely attractive regions in the Amazon for ecotourism, given in particular its close proximity to Cuzco (Kirkby et al., 2010). In other words, ecotourism is (at least, currently) economically important at a regional level only where integrated to a wider network of tourist attractions, such as the ones of the Cuzco region, which attracts tourists from all over the world.

Therefore, it is clearly not meaningful to provide average figures on this component for the entire Amazon biome, as tourism destinations are highly dependent on the presence of distinct landscape features or species, organized entrepreneurs and – most of all – ease of access, comfort and security. There is clearly a growing demand for such activity, but there are important caveats to the valuation: 1) “eco” tourism may not overall be very environmentally friendly: the more 15 | P a g e
||Q)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Caste Not<br>Revealed|Revealed<br>Mixed|Revealed<br>Segregated|Caste Not<br>Revealed|Revealed<br>Mixed|Revealed<br>Segregated|
|Number of<br>participants|156|120|60|60|120|66|
|Number of<br>sessions|26|20|10|10|20|ll|
|Composition of<br>session|HLHLHL|HLHLHL|HHHHHH<br>or<br>LLLLLL|HLHLHL|HLHLHL|HHHHHH<br>or<br>LEEEEG|
further indicate that dispersion of CO is rapid when wind is strong. In particular, our estimates indicate that use of improved wood stoves reduces concentration of CO by 69.1% and use of ethanol reduces it by 90.0%. An increase in the size of a kitchen by one sq. ft. lowers concentration of CO in the kitchen by 2.7%. Finally, a reduction of CO by 28.8% has been recorded when wind was strong.

The finding that improved wood stoves reduce concentrations of CO but not PM2.5 is not necessarily surprising. Other work has found that the ratio of CO to PM varies over the burn cycle of a fire<sup>31</sup> , and that while PM and CO emission factors may be reasonably correlated in laboratory tests, this is less valid for in-use stoves where fuel type and combustion conditions vary widely from user to user.<sup>32</sup> It should be noted that the elasticity estimates presented in this section are conservative as most households where air monitoring took place were using ethanol, wood and charcoal in the same kitchen as opposed to using one fuel exclusively. In round 2, 74% of the improved wood stove users were using wood, 82% of the improved charcoal stove users were using charcoal and 22% of the ethanol users were using ethanol exclusively. In round 3, these shares were 66%, 78% and 19%, respectively. Furthermore, households using ethanol and improved biomass stoves were also located in close proximity to households using traditional stoves and biomass fuels in neighborhoods where the spread of smoke among households and the potential for crosscontamination cannot be ruled out.

# **7. Summary and Conclusion**

The Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 found that HAP is the second leading risk factor in the burden of disease for Madagascar, accounting for some 6.7% of the national burden of disease. Charcoal and wood are the main cooking fuels of Malagasy households and use of improved cooking stoves is atypical. Monitoring of household air is almost non-existent in Madagascar. This paper summarizes an initiative to monitor HAP in the kitchens of two towns of Madagascar: Ambositra and Vatomandry; and summarizes the findings on the effectiveness of various HAP mitigation measures.

> 31Northcross et al, 2010

> 32Roden et al., 2009

16
17 FIGURE 1B <!-- Start of picture text --> BRAZIL PROJECTED POP. PROFILE 2030<br>~~~~~(Nt- I B I B 201 0)<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 10.0% ~~~~~(Nt- I B I B 201 0)<br>9.a( -<br>&ox -<br>9L .0%<br>0.03<br>7.03<br>6.03<br>2.0%<br>20-24 40-44 6-64<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# NIGERIA PROJECTED POP. PROFILE 2055

<!-- Start of picture text --> 9.ox<br>0.ox -<br>z<br>7.o0<br>8.03t<br>4.0% 4<br>1.03<br>20-24 40-4 aD-S<br><!-- End of picture text -->
also notes that there have been examples of where the indicators have helped governments identify and implement best practices. For this reason, the Panel supports continuing the tax indicator in a modified form, either in the context of the present framework but with a different approach, or in the context of a new framework” (Independent Panel Report, 2013 page 40).

The panel did raise questions about the methodology for all the 10 indicators used in the Doing Business report, including Paying Taxes. Specifically, on the Paying Taxes, they have criticized most the Total Tax Rate (TTR) indicator, saying it is not indicative of the ease of doing business at all. We agree with this view and in this paper we do not use the TTR measure for tax simplicity.

Even though the independent panel report criticizes Time to Comply (TAXTIME) due to its subjectivity, they agree (as does the ITD) that this indicator is a good, useful measure of the compliance burden of a tax system.

On the third sub-indicator, the Panel has recommended that the Number of Payments (TAXPAY) measure be dropped or modified, as the number of times a firm needs to make payments may not represent simplicity or lower compliance burdens, in their view. They also question the validity of assuming one payment in case electronic filing and payment systems are being used. On this, our view is a bit different. As discussed above, we believe that the indicator is a useful measure of simplicity. Moreover, it gives a higher weight to electronic filing and payments systems, which help reduce opportunities for tax corruption. On both these counts, we see this indicator to be useful for this paper.

# **_2.2 Measuring Tax Corruption_**

The World Bank’s Enterprise Surveys (www.enterprisesurveys.org) offers an expansive array of economic data on 130,000 firms in 138 countries. An Enterprise Survey is a firm-level survey of a representative sample of an economy's private sector. The surveys cover a broad range of business environment topics including access to finance, corruption, infrastructure, crime, competition, and performance measures.

8
Panels C and D, respectively. Detailed results for schooling and skills in each panel are presented in Table A2 in the Appendix.

**Table 8. Mean Decomposition Estimates with Selection Correction –- Excluding Occupation Controls**

<u>Panel A: Controls and schooling</u>

||Total<br>Difference|Difference in<br>endowments|Difference in<br>coefficients|
|---|---|---|---|
|Bolivia|0.688|0.094|0.594|
||_0.162_|_0.047_|_0.153_|
|Colombia|-0.106|0.017|-0.123|
||_0.187_|_0.033_|_0.184_|
|Armenia|0.181|0.002|0.179|
||_0.190_|_0.020_|_0.190_|
|Georgia|0.996|-0.027|1.023|
||_0.354_|_0.035_|_0.352_|
|Ukraine|0.444|-0.034|0.478|
||_0.052_|_0.022_|_0.176_|
|Vietnam|0.077|0.054|0.023|
||_0.180_|_0.024_|_0.109_|
|Kenya|-0.294|0.179|-0.474|
||_0.174_|_0.043_|_0.168_|
|Panel B: Addi|ng noncogniti<br>|ve skills<br>||
||Total<br>|Difference in<br>|Difference in<br>|
||Difference|endowments|coefficients|
|Bolivia|0.745|0.126|0.619|
||_0.208_|_0.049_|_0.194_|
|Colombia|-0.092|0.032|-0.124|
||_0.173_|_0.040_|_0.164_|
|Armenia|0.219|0.013|0.205|
||_0.276_|_0.024_|_0.275_|
|Georgia|1.074|-0.028|1.102|
||_0.291_|_0.038_|_0.286_|
|Ukraine|0.116|0.015|0.101|
||_0.126_|_0.031_|_0.117_|
|Vietnam|0.066|0.115|-0.049|
||_0.097_|_0.027_|_0.098_|
|Kenya|-0.217|0.178|-0.394|
||_0.308_|_0.044_|_0.304_|

21
# **<u>Annex 1:</u>** <u>Main Conclusions from McGee book, The Overseers</u>

The Study Group identified three main priorities for action:

1. **Capacity building.** A constant theme is the need to improve institutional capability, that is, the ability of Parliaments, PACs and Auditors General’s offices to carry out their functions by being provided with sufficient resources and having adequate training and access to expertise that they require.

2. **Independence.** Particularly for Auditors General it is essential that they be free from political or legal constraints that could inhibit them carrying out their duties diligently and impartially.

3. **Information exchange.** PACs in particular need to have the means to exchange information and ideas so as to keep them up-to-date with important developments, changing standards and best-practices as they emerge.

The following are the main individual conclusions and recommendations of the Study Group:

# _The International Dimension:_

- There should be greater direct contact between Parliaments, especially PACs, and international financial institutions.

- The CPA include good government as a subject of the theme or sub-theme of its conferences

# _Auditors General:_

- The Auditor General should be an Officer of Parliament independent of the Executive

- The appointment process for an Auditor General should involve consultation with a wide range of stakeholders

- An Auditor General should only be removed from office on limited grounds that are specified in advance by law

- Auditors General should actively participate in international Auditors General associations

- Auditors General should actively introduce themselves and their services to all parliamentary committees, not just PACs

- Auditors General have a role in approving internal audit standards

- Central banks should be subject to the Auditor General’s audit mandate in the same way as other public sector agencies

- The Auditor General should take account of the views of PACs in framing their work programs

- Parliaments should be involved at the pre-Budget stage in determining the resources to be allocated to the Auditor General

- Auditors General and their staff must have appropriate legal protections conferred on them to enable them to carry out their duties

- PACs should keep under review any proposals to change the Auditor General’s audit mandate

- Any company receiving public funding to deliver public services should be subject to the Auditor General’s audit mandate in respect of those services

26
_fears could not be dismissed as imaginary.”_ Although the civil war ended 45 years prior, there are persistent ethnic tensions in Nigeria that occasionally escalate to localized violence. With limited exposure and information about other regions, it is easy for individuals’ perceptions of other ethnic regions to be defined by these events. Even when the specific “other” region is not violence-prone, individuals may feel it is unsafe. For example, an interview respondent described how he always felt scared of going to “the North” while growing up in Yorubaland. It was only after NYSC exposure that he was able to overcome his fear of all northern states.

Although an analysis of economic impact is beyond the scope of this paper, the evidence suggests that reducing these mental barriers to migration could have potentially significant economic growth effects for the country by increasing efficient allocation of labor. Bryan and Morten (2015) develop a structural model, which they estimate with data from the US and Indonesia, to show how lower physical and cultural migration costs are associated with higher productivity by facilitating the movement of labor to where it is most productive. In this paper, I provide evidence on a policy that potentially reduces these cultural costs.

# **6.3 National and Ethnic Identity**

A core aspect of national integration is for individuals to develop a sense of national identity, besides their ethnic identity. I ask participants about their sense of national pride, as well as ethnic pride: “ _Using a scale of 1-7 where 1 means “Not proud at all” and 7 means “Extremely proud”, how proud do you feel to be a Nigerian (Yoruba)?_ ”. I also ask about which of the two identities they identify more with: “ _If you had to choose between being a Nigerian and being a Yoruba, which of these two groups do you feel more attached to?_ ” where possible responses are Feel only Yoruba (0), Feel more Yoruba than Nigerian (1), Feel more Nigerian than Yoruba (2), and Feel only Nigerian (3).

28
from the constant and the error terms from this regression. This procedure purges any possible endogeneity that would arise from the OECD’s use of TAB data as inputs.<sup>19</sup> While the OECD has scored most policies for most countries, they do not report a score in those country-indicator pairs where the available information is not adequate to produce a score. The incompleteness of the policy data represents a significant challenge for our analysis. It is common practice in econometric work to exclude observations with missing data, but this practice would be highly problematic in our case. The missing policy data are idiosyncratically, but not randomly, missing from country policy scores. Panel A of Table 1 offers a short summary of the quality of the indicator data. The policy data are particularly lacking in the areas of _border agency cooperation (external)_ and _consularization_ , but other policies also have missing data. Discarding countries with incomplete policy data from the sample would mean discarding a substantial amount of useful policy data, as many countries have some policy data even though the policy data is not complete. Moreover, discarding countries with incomplete data would bias the sample towards countries with more transparent (and, usually, better) policy. This situation motivates our use of multiple imputation techniques, which we describe later in the paper.

# **3.3 Other determinants of border performance**

In order to isolate the effect of policy on the performance of customs we must also include other control variables that could affect customs performance. In particular we wish to include variables that are exogenous to customs and other border agencies, but still plausibly predictive of the border outcomes we study. We consider three sets of control variables: a set of broad controls that control for countries’ level of development, size and geography; a second set of variables that summarize the quality of national governance; a third set of variables that control for the quality of trade-related infrastructure.

## **3.3.1 Basic control variables**

The first set of control variables includes levels of development, geographical indicators, and membership in relevant international economic organizations. These variables might be expected to affect both the level of international trade and the performance of border agencies. One key determinant of the performance of border agencies is likely to be the country’s level of economic development, which

> 19By construction, the correlation between the new variable and the TAB data is 0.00. The correlation of our purged Documents variable with the initial Documents variable reported by the OECD is 0.779.

10