In the empirical analysis, we analyze survey data from 18,553 displaced and non-displaced individuals in the context of urban and peri-urban areas of El Fasher, a city in Darfur, which includes two IDP areas: Abu Shouk and El Salam ( **Figure 1** ).<sup>2</sup> The large majority of IDP households in both areas arrived many years ago ( **Figure A1** ).<sup>3</sup> We also match the survey data spatio-temporally with conflict event data from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), which provides detailed geo- and time-tagged information about conflict events of inter-group and one-sided violence in Sudan.

We find that displacement and gender strongly combine and interact in shaping livelihood outcomes in protracted crises settings, and that being a long-term displaced woman is particularly challenging. Being an IDP increases the likelihood of both being economically active and poor at the same time. Yet, the employment gap between IDPs and non-IDPs is entirely driven by women: women work more (including paid labor and on- and off-farm self-employment) than non-IDP women, but are poorer, on average. For men, there is no such difference in employment between IDPs and nonIDPs. These outcomes are the result of the ‘double burden of female displacement’ facing IDP women in protracted settings: barriers to (decent) employment based on norms and institutions both at their destination (due to being a displaced person) and their place of origin (due to their gender), where disparities in education are created. At the destination, IDPs are strongly and consistently disadvantaged in various institutional-level factors, such as by lacking access to markets and services and a sense of safety.

Among IDPs, we observe important heterogeneities due to an individual’s age at arrival in El Fasher. Comparing two IDPs of the same age, the one who was older when their household arrived is less likely to be employed, and, if both work, works fewer months on average and is more likely to work in the agriculture sector. Similarly, the gender gap in IDP employment increases with age at arrival (conditional on age today). Put differently: the more years an IDP child spends in the host community before becoming an adult (given that displacement took place), the smaller the gender gap in employment becomes between women and men IDPs.

In addition to our contribution to the cross-disciplinary literature on gendered forced displacement (as discussed above), our work is related to four literatures.

First, we contribute to the broader literature on the dynamics and impacts of violent conflict. Traditionally dominated by anthropological and macro-political perspectives, development researchers now also study the micro-level processes taking place during and after violent conflicts (Justino et al., 2013). More and better micro-level survey data from conflict-affected settings has become increasingly available (Brück et al., 2016) and has helped to better describe and understand people’s experiences, behaviors and outcomes during a conflict and beyond (Verwimp et al., 2019). Contexts and populations of situations of forced displacement have somewhat lagged behind in this regard. The data set we analyze has been part of a recent initiative to help to fill this critical gap (JIPS, 2019a; Pape and Scharma, 2019). We use this data set to produce novel and detailed insights into livelihood constraints and outcomes of individuals who flee violent conflicts, disentangling displacement experiences (such as leaving the place of origin or being exposed to violent or otherwise traumatic events) and displacement status (being an internally displaced person) and their (long-term) implications. In addition, we exploit that we can match the survey data with conflict event data to assess the role of exposure to collective violence.

Second, our study builds on and contributes to knowledge about female labor supply in developing

> 2 Map source: https://www.jips.org/news/durable-solutions-analysis-darfur-sudan-profling- results-methodology/ (accessed June 30, 2021).

> 3 Figure and table numbers preceded by an “A” denote that a figure or table is presented in an appendix, which is available upon request from the authors.

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