rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# List of Tables and Figures

|Table<br>|1:<br>|TheCILSS Questionnaire**...............................**<br> <br>|5|
|---|---|---|---|
|Table|2 :|Mscroeconomic<br>and Human Resourece<br>Indicators for||
|||C8ted'Ivoire, 1984*.--<br>**..-..--.....-.-**<br>**.-...--.-.**|9|
|Table|3 :|<br>Gross Enrollment Ratios|10|
|T&.-1|ie<br>4:|Literacy and Numeracy Rates|12|
|Table|5 :|Distribution<br>of People by Highest Diploma||
|||Obtained and Sex|13|
|Table|6 :|Incidence and Duration of V"E<br>**.**|20|
|Table|7 :|Highest Grade Completed by VTEGraduates|21|
|Table|8 :|Relation Between Work Status andVTE|23|
|Table|9 :|Incidence andDurationof Apprenticeships|25|
|Table|10:|Highest Grade Completed by People with||
|||Apprenticeship Training**.............................**|27|
|Table|11:|Relation Between Work Status and Apprenticeship||
|||Training|28|
|Table|12:|Bank Education Loans to C8te d'Ivoire**.....**<br>**e........**|31|
|Table|13:|IBRD/IDA Lending for Training in C8te d'Ivoire||
|||(1982 -<br>1986)**....................**|**33**|
|Table|14:|Monthly Earnings by Employment Status|38|
|Table|15:|Monthly Earnings (W2) of Workers, According to||
|||Educational<br>Background**...... ......... ...............**|40|
|Table|16:|Means and Standard Deviations of Earnings Function<br>||
|||Variables**........................................**|**.**43|
|Table|17:|Earnings Function (lnWI)- All Employees|46|
|Table|18:|Earnings Function (lnW2)-<br>All Employees|49|
|Table|19:|<br>Earnings Function (lnW2)- AllEmployees<br>-<br>||
|||Corrected for Selection Bias|51|
|Table|20:|<br>Choice of Employment Status-<br>Probit Results|58|
|Table|21:|Annual Private Costs of VTE (Per Student)**.............**|62|
|Table|22:|Annual Institutional Costs of VTE**.....................**|66|
|Table|23:|Composition of Teaching Staff in VTE Institutes**.......**|68|
|Table|24:|Benefit andCostStreams for VTE Graduates**............**|71|
|Table|25:|Internal Rates of Return for VTE**.o...................**|74|
|Table|26:|Earnings Function for the Self-Employed|78|
|Table|27:|Means and Standard Deviations of Regional Earnings||
|||Function Variables**................ ***<br>**.**<br>**.**|84|
|Table|28:|Earnings Functions, by Location|85|
|Table|29:|Choice of Employment Status- Probit Results,||
|||by Location|88|
|Table|30:|Annual Private Costs of VTE (per Student),||
|||by Location**c...........**<br>**....**<br>**......**|91|
|Table|31:|Benefit and Cost Streams for VTE Graduates,||
|||by Location|92|
|Table|32:|<br>Internal Rates of Return for VTE, by Location|94|
|<br>Table|<br> Z3:|<br> Earnings Functions (lnW2) by Type of Employee|99|
|Table|34:|<br>Access Functions (Probit Results)**.e....,cc..c..cc,c100**||
|Table|<br>35:|<br>Earnings Functions (lnW2) for Government and||
|||<br>Private Sector Employees, by Location|105|
|Table|36:|<br>Earnings Functions (lnW2) for Private Formal||
|||Sector Employees, by Location**ccecececccececceeoccccc**|106|
|Table|37:|<br>Earnings Function by Years of General Education|111|
the Malawian curricula for these subjects for Standards 5-8 and Forms 1-2. In addition, to measure cognitive skills, we utilized a version of Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices that was used in the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS-2).<sup>27</sup> The mathematics and English tests were piloted for a small, randomly selected sub-sample of the study participants in the control group before being finalized for administration during Round 3 data collection. These tests were administered by trained proctors at the residences of the study participants and were never administered on the same day as the household survey. The order of the math and English tests were randomized at the individual level and the Raven’s test was always administered last.

Finally, _structured in-depth interviews_ were conducted with a small sample of study participants, their parents or guardians, community leaders, program managers, and schools. The sample was selected randomly using block stratification based on treatment status at baseline, as well as schooling and marital status at Round 3. The total number of core respondents sampled was eighty, with 25 parents and forty others added to the sample for a total of 145 individuals. The main aim of these structured interviews was to gauge the “understanding of the cash transfer intervention” by study participants. In addition, topics of discussion included schooling decisions, dating, fertility, and marriage, as well as empowerment and future aspirations. The interviews usually lasted sixty to ninety minutes and were conducted by trained enumerators, many of whom had previous experience in qualitative field work. The conversations were taped and transcribed in English immediately after the interviews.

# **2.4.2. Outcomes**

_Schooling_ We measure enrollment and attendance using three different data sources. The first indicator we present is constructed using self-reported data from the household survey on whether the core

> 27 These three tests are available from the authors upon request.

14
**Table 2. Available global healthy diet metrics over the lifecycle**

|**Level of diet**<br>**quality**|**Children 6-23 months**|**Adolescents (10-19 years)**|**Women of reproductive age**<br>**(15-49 years)**|**Adults (>15 years)**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Energy<br>(in)sufficiency<br>|Per capita calorie supply (compared t<br>|o age/sex specific requirements)<br>|||
|Micronutrient<br>(in)adequacy|**MDD**(minimum diet diversity,<br>previous day)<br>**EFF**(egg and/or flesh food<br>consumption, previous day)|NO VALIDATED INDICATOR<br>**MDD-W/Food Group**<br>**Diversity Score for girls/boys**<br>**15-19 years**<sup>**4**</sup><br>Prevalence of less than daily...<br>- fruit consumption<br>-vegetable consumption|**MDD-W**(minimum diet<br>diversity – women, previous<br>day)|**Food Group Diversity Score**<br>(previous day)|
|(Un)Healthy<br>diets|**ZVF**(zero vegetable or fruit<br>consumption, previous day)<br>**SwB**(sweet beverage<br>consumption, previous day)<br>**Unhealthy food consumption**<br>(sentinel unhealthy foods, previous<br>day)|NO VALIDATED METRIC<br>Average number of times per<br>day adolescents reported<br>consuming...<br>- carbonated soft drinks<br>- fruit<br>- vegetables<br>- fast food<br>Prevalence of at least weekly<br>fast food consumption|**Global Dietary Recommendat**<br>combined with MDD (for nutrie<br>2020<br>-<br>NCD-Protect score<br>-<br>NCD-Risk score<br>**Global Diet Quality Score (GD**<br>-<br>GDQS+<br>-<br>GDQS-<br>**Sentinel food group consumpt**<br>meat, processed meat, sweet foo<br>**-Sugar-sweetened drink consu**<br>**-Zero vegetable or fruit consu**|**ions Score (GDRS)**to be used<br>nt adequacy) per Herforth et al.<br>**QS)**<br>**ion**- whole grains, unprocessed red<br>ds<br>**mption**<br>**mption**|

**Key:** light blue shading indicates measures particularly relevant for energy-(in)sufficiency; no shading indicates measures particularly relevant for micronutrient (in)adequacy; and orange shading indicates measures particularly relevant for (un)healthy diets

**Note:** there are key gaps in measures for children 24-59 months and children in primary school grades (ages 5-9), as well as for older adults (age 50+ years) in LMIC. For children under the age of 6 months, the recommendation is that they should be exclusively breastfed. Data are available on prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding, some breastfeeding and no breastfeeding, but are not listed in the table.

> 4 These metrics have not been validated specifically for this age group but they are captured as part of the survey sample. Sample sizes may not be sufficient for disaggregation of results for this age range (WHO and UNICEF 2021).

28
Cameron, Rondo, 1997, _A Concise Economic History of the World_ , Oxford University Press.

Cardoso, Fernando Henrique and Enzo Faletto, 1967, _Dependência e Desenvolvimento na América Latina,_ Rio de Janeiro: Zahar.

- Chang, H. J. and P. Noland, 1995,  ̳Europe versus Asia: Contrasting Path to the Reform of Centrally Planned Systems of Political Economy‘. In H. J. Chang and P. Nolan (eds), _The Transformation of the Communist Economies_ , London: Macmillan Press, 3–45.

- Chenery, Hollis B., 1975, ―The Structuralist Approach to Development Policy,‖ _American Economic Review_ , Vol. 65(2), pp. 310-316.

- -----------, 1961, ―Comparative Advantage and Development Policy,‖ _American Economic Review_ , Vol. 51, pp. 18-51.

- Chenery, Hollis B., Montek S. Ahluwalia, C. L. Bell, John Duloy, Richard Jolly, 1974, _Redistribution with Growth:  Policies to Improve Income Distribution in Developing Countries in the Context of Economic Growth_ , Oxford University Press: London.

- Chenery, Hollis B. and Alan M. Strout, 1966, ―Foreign Assistance and Economic Development,‖ _American Economic Review_ , Vol. 61(4), pp. 679-733.

- Chenery, Hollis B. and Nicholas G. Carter, 1973, ―Foreign Assistance and Development Performance, 1960-1970,‖ American Economic Review, Vol. 63(2), pp. 459-468.

- Cohen, Don and Bruno Laporte, 2004, ―The Evolution of the Knowledge Bank,‖ article in KM Magazine, March 2004.

- Das, Jishnu, Quy-Toan Do, Karen Shaines and Sowmya Srinivasan, 2009, ―U.S. and Them:  The Geography of Academic Research,‖  World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Number 5152.

- Demirgüç-Kunt, Asli and Enrica Detragiache, 1998, ―Financial Liberalization and Financial Fragility,‖ Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics, World Bank: Washington D.C.

- Demirgüç-Kunt, Asli and Ross Levine, 2001, editors, _Financial structure and economic growth: A crosscountry comparison of banks, markets, and development_ , MIT Press: Cambridge and London.

- Denizer, Cevdet, Daniel Kaufmann and Aart Kraay, 2011, ―Good Countries or Good Projects: Macro and Micro Correlates of World Bank Project Performance,‖ World Bank Policy Research Working Paper WPS 5646.

- Dethier, Jean-Jacques, 2009, ―World Bank Policy Research:  A Historical Overview,‖ World Bank Policy Research Working Paper WPS 5000.

- Easterly, William, 2001, ―The Lost Decades: Explaining Developing Countries‘ Stagnation in Spite of Policy Reform 1980–1998.‖ _Journal of Economic Growth_ 6 (2): 135–57.

- ———. 2005. ―What Did Structural Adjustment Adjust? The Association of Policies and Growth with Repeated IMF and World Bank Adjustment Loans.‖ _Journal of Development Economics_ 76 (February): 1–22.

48
all four quarters in one year to obtain the yearly estimates and provide them in a graphical illustration in Figure 2. The decreasing trend in poverty is steady, even though is less steep during the years 2010-2013 compared to the previous period 2008-2010, perhaps due to the various events taking place in the economy during this time period as discussed earlier.<sup>27</sup> Notably, estimated poverty rates based on the non-standardized variables (not shown) provide a qualitatively similar decreasing trend over time.

The estimated poverty rates at the national level are encouraging. To further investigate whether this result holds at more disaggregated levels, we estimate poverty rates broken down by urban and rural areas. Estimation results (not shown) are rather encouraging for urban areas with estimated poverty rates falling within the 95 percent confidence interval of the true rates in both years. The same is true for estimates for rural areas for 2008 but not in 2010. One possible reason for this is that the Jordanian population is predominantly urban (83 percent, Table 6), thus it can be harder to predict poverty rates in rural areas which account for a smaller share of the population.<sup>28</sup>

# **V. Conclusion**

In this paper we develop a formal and generalized framework for survey-to-survey poverty imputation, which has been typically handled on an _ad hoc_ basis in the existing literature. We offer less restrictive assumptions and formal tests for these assumptions where data are available, provide more insights into the selection of control variables for model building, and offer simpler variance formulae. Our framework can be generally applied to imputation either from one survey

> 27 We also experimented with imputation from the HEIS into the DHS. However, one major issue is the latter survey’s most recent two rounds are in 2009 and 2012, which do not overlap with the HEIS, thus making it difficult to benchmark the DHS. We tried benchmarking both rounds of the DHS using the HEIS in 2010, and found a qualitatively similar decreasing trend in poverty across these two survey rounds.

> 28 It is also more demanding to make the distributions of the explanatory variables comparable for smaller population groups (e.g., as disaggregated by regional characteristics or other distributional characteristics such as quintiles) in surveys of different designs. We leave this extension for further research.

33
Ghana provides an interesting context for this study. According to the Ghana 2022 Annual Household and Income and Expenditure Survey (AHIES, 2022), eight of every ten individuals 15 years and older are employed in the informal sector, with females having relatively higher proportions (about 88%) compared to males (about 80%). In addition, Ghana records one of the highest rates of female entrepreneurship in the world, with over 70% of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) owned and operated by women. According to Amu (2006), women manage over 80% of all small informal businesses in Ghana.

Despite the influences of Western cultures, higher education and international exposure, Ghana is still predominantly patriarchal and there are distinct roles for men and women, with women expected to marry, bear children, keep the home tidy, care for young children and the elderly; men are chiefly expected to work, earn, and provide for family needs (IDS, 2016; Amoakohene, 2004; Sikweyiya et al., 2020). Studies show that although Ghanaian women are impressively engaged in this small business space, they often have worse entrepreneurial outcomes than their male counterparts (Fafchamps et al., 2011), a characteristics common in other LICs (Aterido and Hallward-Driemeier, 2011; Bardasi et al., 2011). Reasons for this unequal performance typically include women’s low level of human capital, low capital stock, higher concentration in low-performing activities, and limited ability to access financial services (Aterido et al., 2011; Mead and Liedholm, 1998; Bardasi et al., 2011).

The paper uses a mix of descriptive and econometric analyses. Empirical analyses involve the use of ordinary least squares regression models to determine the associations between gender role attitudes and personality traits on men and women’s businesses in Ghana. We find that while personality traits are significantly and positively associated with business performance, the additional effect of being traditional serves to negate or reverse these findings among both men and women. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: In Section 4
Firms' Responses to Relative Price Changes In CMte d'Ivoire: The Implications for Export Subsidies and Devaluations

# **by**

John L. Newman. Victor Lavy. Raoul Salomon, and Philippe de Vreyer

||Table of Contents||
|---|---|---|
|1.|Introduction|1|
|2.|Empirical<br>Specification|4|
||2.A. The Supply Side<br>2.B. The Demand Side|6<br>12|
|3.|The Data|13|
|4.|Estimation and Results|14|
|5.|The Program and Its Stylized Facts|26|
||**5.A.**The Export Subsidy cum Import Tax Scheme<br>5.B. The Experience with the Program: 1986-87|27<br>28|
|**6.**|Conclusions|29|
|Data|Appendix|31|
||I.<br>The Flrm Data<br>II.<br>The Price Data|31<br>32|
|Refer|ences|35|

Presented at the Africa Economic Issues Conference, Nairobi, Kenya, June 1990. We would like to thank Mr. Koffi Vit of the Banque des Donnees Financieres for making the data available and Hafez Ghanem for his assistance in this project. We would also like to thank the World Bank Research Committee for financial support.
reference food bundle (which may itself vary according to differences in relative prices or other factors). Depending on the properties of the food Engel curves (notably how much they shift with factors that are not deemed relevant to absolute welfare comparisons), this may introduce some degree of relativism, or just plain noise, into the urban-rural poverty comparisons.

We used the ratio of the urban poverty line to the rural line from the PA (generally the one closest to 1993 if there is more than one) to obtain an urban poverty line for each country corresponding to its PPP-adjusted “$1 a day” rural line. On average, the urban poverty line is about 30% higher than the rural line, although there are marked differences between countries, with a tendency for the differential to be higher in poorer countries (Ravallion et al., 2007), which is consistent with one’s expectation that transport costs and other impediments to internal market integration are higher in poor countries.

The urban population data are from the latest available issue of _World Urbanization Prospects_ (United Nations, 2005). There are undoubtedly differences in the definitions used between countries, which we can do little about here (for further discussion see Cohen, 2004, and Ravallion et al., 2007). The WUP estimates are based on actual enumerations whenever they are available. The WUP web site provides details on data sources and how specific cases were handled; see http://esa.un.org/unup/.

Naturally the surveys are scattered over time. We estimate the poverty measures for nine “reference years”, 1981, 1984, 1987, 1993, 1996, 1999, 2002 and 2004 (adding 2004 to the years reported in Chen and Ravallion, 2004, though revising all past estimates). Our estimates for the urban-rural breakdown are for 1993, 1996, 1999 and 2002. To estimate poverty at a given reference year we “line up” the surveys in time using the same method described in Chen and Ravallion (2004), which also describes our interpolation method when the reference date is between two surveys.

8
# **(v) Other Subjective Indicators**

As noted above, numerous subjective indicators of corruption are now being developed. However, focusing on the three aggregate indicators identified above is probably a more viable strategy than using any additional indicators. This is primarily because individual indicators may be more prone to being unrepresentative and/or measure corruption in a narrow manner. While the focus on composite indicators is justified in terms of validity and reliability, it is useful to briefly consider one narrow indicator, which may serve as a useful robustness check of the findings of any of the composite indicators.

The indicator in question is Transparency International’s Global Corruption Barometer, which, since 2003, has accompanied the publication of the CPI. The logic behind the GCB is that it provides information on perceptions of corruption by the general public, whereas the CPI is almost exclusively focused on perceptions by elites (business people and experts).

Since 2003, Transparency International has, in collaboration with Gallup International, commissioned annual questions on different elements of corruption (Transparency International, 2011). The aim of the Global Corruption Barometer is to provide perceptions of corruption by the general public rather than by experts (the focus of the CPI). The questions are part of Gallup’s Voice of the People survey (Transparency international, 2011). The number of countries the survey covers has varied over time (47-86), and in some countries the authorities have barred politically sensitive questions.<sup>10</sup> As Table 4 shows, the sample survey is national in scope, although in some developing countries it is confined to major urban areas and conducted via mostly face-to-face or telephone interviews. The sample framework is either random or quota (varying by country) but is representative and large (40,838 respondents in 2003), although in every case the final results are weighted by demographic characteristics (age, groups, and sex) in order to make the results as representative of the general population as possible. The summary statistics of a typical GCB are shown in Table 4.

> 10 For example, in the 2004 survey only one of the 13 questions was allowed in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

18
any other income category.<sup>13</sup> The question of technical skills will be further investigated in the discussion of Questions 7 and 8, where the strengths and weaknesses of locally educated MBAs are evaluated.

The previous work done on rating the technical skills of MBAs is limited in both quantity and scope. The only well-known examples are the CFO survey (1997) and the Neelankavil survey (1994), and both looked primarily at graduates from U.S. business schools. The CFO survey found that 60% of the finance executives surveyed said that newly minted MBAs were well acquainted with finance theory. Neelankavil found that most of the executives he surveyed found that MBA programs focus on technical skills and that overall, the MBAs coming into the market were technically well prepared.<sup>14</sup> These results imply that both U.S. MBA programs and international MBA programs place heavy emphasis on imparting technical skills to their graduates. An interesting question is whether the developing and transition countries have simply followed the lead of U.S. business programs, or whether MBA programs are responding to a perceived demand for strong technical skills.

> 13 Countries in Category I have a per capita income of $746 or less.

> 14 Neelankavil, J., “Corporate America’s Quest for an Ideal MBA,” _Journal of Management Development_ , Volume 13 No. 5, 1994.  See page 40.  Note that Neelankavil does not present any specific statistics about this conclusion.

13
supply (mode 1), consumption abroad (mode 2), commercial presence (mode 3), and the presence of natural persons (mode 4). Thus GATS extends traditional trade law to include both foreign direct investment (mode 3) and movements of labor (mode 4).

Unfortunately, these legal definitions do not accord well with present international balance of payments accounting practices, as discussed in detail by Karsenty (2000), making difficult the measurement of services trade and its components. Equally problematic is the measurement of impediments to services trade. Warren and Findlay (2000) and Hoekman (2000) provide excellent surveys of these measurement issues. For example, Hoekman (1995) developed a frequency indicator as an initial attempt to quantify the presence of barriers based on the GATS schedule of commitments by country. While this provides some indication of the extent of commitments, the index is not designed to measure the level of barriers present. Francois (1999) estimates a gravity model of services trade, adopting Singapore and Hong Kong as free-trade benchmarks. In his approach, discrepancies in predicted trade patterns are used to indicate the severity of policy barriers. Warren and Findlay (2000) describe an ongoing Australian services research project that is attempting to measure the wedge between price and marginal cost in service sectors in order to get an indication of the impact that impediments might have on prices. The project also seeks to develop quantity impact measures by comparing domestic output to international standards. Unfortunately, the study is incomplete and ultimately may not provide information that could be applied to developing economies.

Given severe data limitations, there are very few econometric studies on services trade and their barriers. One advantage of a CGE model is that it can provide quantifiable insights with relatively sparse datasets. Several studies of services barriers exist using the GTAP multi-country database.<sup>2</sup> An early model by Brown, et al (1996) converts Hoekman’s frequency indices into an approximation of cross-border barriers to services trade and simulates liberalization in the multiin only three: financial services, tourism, and telecommunications. These commitments reflect little more than a codification of Tunisia’s present legal system.

5