rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
trader, was in support of Holt.<sup>3</sup> Coastal African merchants themselves saw an expanded potential for trade with the opening of the interior, and the colonial army that invaded Asante in 1896 to impose British rule included several coastal merchants from Accra with their armed retinues. Capitalist penetration and colonialism would impose new burdens on the domestic domain and women.

With the advent of colonial rule proper, African economies divided into three types: settler, concessionary, mining and peasant. Settler economies included colonies like Kenya, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), and South Africa. As Elkins and Pedersen point out in their introduction to an edited volume on settler colonialism in the 20<sup>th</sup> century, settler colonialism is different from imperial expansion undertaken with trade or military advantage in mind. Settlers seek to settle and make a foreign land their permanent home, while continuing to enjoy metropolitan living standards and political privileges (Elkins and Pedersen (2005)). Not only are settler economies characterized by land grab, settlers also see themselves as entitled to indigenous labor, a subsidy to their production efforts. Discriminatory regimes privilege settler production, such as indigenes cannot grow the same cash crops as the settlers. Settler colonies can graduate to become settler states, such as Southern Rhodesia from 1923 or the Union of South Africa from 1910. Concessionary states were more of a feature of central Africa, areas that had witnessed little European penetration until the eve of colonization. Uncertain about the natural and human resources of these colonies, European governments charted them out to concessionary companies to develop, or more properly to exploit. It was this outsourcing that led to the ―red rubber‖ scandal in the Belgian Congo (Hochschild (1999)). The British South African Company that administered Southern Rhodesia was a kind of concessionary company, and in 1895 it created the Northern Charterland Exploitation Company and granted it a 10,000 square miles concession in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). Meant to attract settlers, this unsuccessful company was acquired by Lonrho in 1941, which then sold much of the reserved land to what had become the colonial government of Northern Rhodesia (Vail (1977)). Some colonial economies revolved around mining. The Copperbelt in Northern Rhodesia is an important example, and the 1920s and 1930s would even witness attempts here at labor stabilization that included incentives to mineworkers such as family

> 3 National Archives of Britain (NAB), London, FO 84/1660. Note by Lister, December 3, 1884. Germany‘s sudden entry into Africa in the summer of 1884 was one of the developments that intensified the scramble for colonies. Lister commented: ―I can‘t help thinking if we had protested strongly against the unfair manner in which Germany had acted in the Cameroons we should at least have been spared these wolf like grievances.‖

21
# WPS3629

## **FISCAL SPACE FOR INVESTMENT IN INFRASTRUCTURE IN COLOMBIA**

Rodrigo Suescún<sup>♣</sup> The World Bank World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3629, June 2005 _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> ♣ E-mail: rsuescun@worldbank.org. I thank Vivien Foster, Santiago Herrera, Rafael Herz, Guillermo Perry and Luis Servén for helpful comments and suggestions. Useful comments and discussions with Gabriel Piraquive and Alvaro Concha are also gratefully acknowledged, as is Mariana Fajardo’s excellent research assistance.
greatest to the program participants when assignment to treatment is done in public. The column “done in public or private” therefore records whether the actual randomization was done publicly or privately. In between lies “semi-public”, where perhaps the NGO and/or Government officials witness the randomization draw, but not the recipients of the program. Only 2 out of the 18 papers reviewed note whether it was public or not – in both cases public lotteries (Field and Pande, 2008 and Bertrand et al. 2007). The majority of the other randomizations we believe are private or at most “semi-public”, but this is not stated explicitly in the papers. Thus, for the most part, the idea that random assignment to treatment provides a transparent way of allocating resources is not born out in the existing descriptions.

Next we examine which methods are being used to reduce the likelihood of imbalance on observable covariates. Thirteen studies use stratification, two use matched pairs, and only three appear to use pure randomization. Ashraf et al. (2007) is the only documented example we have found of one of the methods that the next section shows to be in common use in our survey of experts. They note “at the time of randomization, we verified that observable characteristics were balanced across treatments, and, in a few cases, re-randomized when this was not the case”. They do not explain the criteria used to decide whether or not the degree of imbalance was sufficient for re-randomization to take place.

Few papers provide the details of the method used, presumably because there has not been a discussion of the potential importance of these details in the economics literature. For example, stratification is common, but few studies actually give the number of strata used in the study.<sup>5</sup> As we will discuss, the choice of the number of strata to use involves a trade-off between reducing residual variation and losing degrees of freedom when estimating the standard error of the experimental estimator. Studies which do not report the number of strata therefore make it difficult to assess this trade-off. The number of strata can be substantial in some studies – for example, Olken (2007a) uses 156 subdistricts as strata for his 608 villages. In practice there appears to be

> 5 For example, Banerjee et al. (2007) write “assignment was stratified by language, pretest score, and gender”. In this case pre-test score is continuous, and it is not clear how it was discretized for stratification purposes. Likewise, Karlan and Valdivia (2006) note that “randomization was stratified by credit officer” without stating how many credit officers there were.

- 7 -
46 IXL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .........

.......................

# ISIT OF TABLES

|Table<br>1.|Economic Indicators<br>.7.............|7|
|---|---|---|
|2.|Size of Local Government Units in Albaia, July 1992<br>.....................|<br>11|
|3.|Urbanization and Number and Size of Local Government Units:<br>Albani and Other Central and Easten European Counties|.........<br>.-<br>52|
|4.|Government of Albania: 1993 Budget Spemding by<br>.......................<br>Miistries in Adminisatve Unbits ct Subuational Levels|53|
|_5._|Functions presently under Consideration for Transer to Local<br>Goverments in Albania and Efficient Fiancing of these Functions .<br>.....|........<br>54|
|6.|Goverment Revenue and Population by Major Districts, Albania .5..............|<br>.|
||LT<br>OF BOXES||
|Box<br>1.|Transfer of Power from Central Govemment Adminis<br>on .................. .|3|
|2.|Objectives of Local Government Fiancig Systems<br>........|13|
|3.|Who Does What Functions of Central and Load Governments ........|i8|
|4.|Financing Local Govemment ......................................|28|
|_5._|Fees as Own Source Revenue for Local Governments .......<br>.............|....<br>39|
Table 9: Effect on Knowledge and Perceptions

||N. Obs|Index of<br>knowledge<br>of current<br>events|Index of<br>opinion on<br>democracy|Woman<br>checked<br>voter list<br>after<br>intervention|Woman<br>believes<br>elections<br>were free and<br>fair|Woman<br>witnessed or<br>heard about<br>violence in<br>village|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|
|Treated clusters vs control clusters (TN-CN)|2637|0.005|0.066|0.051*|0.070**|-0.104**|
|||(0.072)|[0.041]|(0.030)|(0.034)|(0.044)|
|Treated households only vs control clusters (T-CN)|2304|0.012|0.069|0.053*|0.075**|-0.101**|
|||(0.070)|[0.042]|(0.031)|(0.033)|(0.042)|
|Control households in treated clusters vs|767|-0.025|0.046|0.048|0.060|-0.122**|
|households in control clusters (CTN-CN)||(0.094)|[0.052]|(0.035)|(0.037)|(0.049)|
|Mean dependent variable among CN||0.00|-0.03|0.61|0.88|0.27|

Note: The symbols *, **, *** represent significance at the 10, 5 and 1 % respectively. All specifications include village fixed effects and the following controls: number of registered female voters, whether woman has a NIC or CNIC, level of schooling, age, zaat status, TV access, number of children between 0-5, total land owned, index of mobility and whether woman seeks advise from "Pir". Standard errors are reported in parentheses below the coefficient and are clustered at the geographic cluster level. Variables are defined in Appendix Table A1.
business ownership for women. The extensive margin of entrants is at a very small scale—in 2005, perhaps a third of the size of the typical unorganized sector business—and so the trend by itself is not sufficient evidence for a positive outcome.

To evaluate this second piece, Table 7 presents the breakdown of employment shares and mean wages calculated using microdata from five rounds of the NSSO’s household-level Employment-Unemployment survey; the sampling frame comprises a representative sample of the Indian population and aggregate figures are calculated based on the sampling weights provided with the data. These figures tabulate the share of women engaged across labor force activity types (as wage worker or own-account enterprise workers) and sectors (agriculture/mining, manufacturing, services, and unpaid domestic duties). We note that the wage point for OAE work in manufacturing, which is the closest parallel for many women business owners, is at the low end of the scale compared to other major activity types throughout the period covered. Thus it appears likely the case that participation in unorganized manufactures is a stepping stone for women who would not otherwise work.

Our work and tabulations in this regard complement other micro-level studies of female entrepreneurs in the informal sector. Female informal sector workers cite several positive reasons for engaging in small-scale activity (e.g., social prestige and “white-collar” type jobs; flexibility, self-direction and the ability to work from home), and the opportunity to earn income without facing discrimination and harassment often found in the formal sector (Geetika et al. 2011, Williams and Gurtoo 2011). However, the many drawbacks to informal sector activity should not be overlooked: low wages and bargaining power, irregular work and few labor protections, and lack of credit and assets, among others (Mohapatra 2012). The conclusion from this work is that these female-owned businesses represent a solid opportunity for advancement but cannot serve as the ultimate goal for women’s role in the economy.

# **6. Conclusions**

To realize sustained development, many policy makers and business leaders want to encourage the informal-to-formal sector transition of workers (e.g., NCEUS 2009, Unni 2005). A number of studies focus on issues like property rights, business registration procedures, and financial access that are important for this transition, often with specific application to whether entrepreneurs 16
mortgages. Moreover, through the Bancassurance mechanism, insurers have also increased the distribution of insurance products with saving components. In 2005 insurers that belong to financial groups sold 31.9 premium of the premium of flexible insurance products; in 2011 their share reached 42.2 percent.

Almost half of the portfolio of insurers that belong to financial groups is concentrated in Life insurance; since 2005, this share has remained without significant change. The share of portfolios covering P&C insurance has increased from 17.3 percent to 26.1 percent, and that of Motor insurance decreased from 24 percent to 15.6 percent (table 4.2). Although Motor insurance decreased its market share, it had a 9.7 percent direct premium real annual growth in the 2005–2011 period. In the case of Life, A&H, and P&C insurance, real annual growth was 18.3 percent, 15 percent, and 26.2 percent, respectively. A significant part of this growth can be attributed to Bancassurance.

# **Table 4.2 Insurers That Are Part of Financial Groups: Market Share by Line of Business**

# **_percent_**

||2005|2011|
|---|---|---|
|Life insurance<sup>~~a~~</sup>|48.2|49.3|
|P&C insurance (without Motor )|17.3|26.1|
|Motor insurance|24.0|15.6|
|A&H insurance|10.5|9.0|
|Total|100|100|

_Source:_ CNSF.

a. Does not include Pension insurance derived from social security laws.

In 2005 flexible Life insurance products represented 8.4 percent of Life insurance sales in the Mexican market; in 2011 this type of insurance product reached 17.5 percent share of the market. The importance of flexible Life insurance products is shown by their growth during the last six years. Traditional Life insurance had an average real growth of 8.3 percent between 2005 and 2011; meanwhile the flexible Life insurance products’ average real growth was 22.4 percent.

An important advantage of using bank branches as a distribution channel for insurance products is the lower acquisition cost. Between 2005 and 2011, insurers that belong to financial groups faced considerably lower brokerage commissions—almost four times lower than those faced by the total market (table 4.3).

61
<!-- Start of picture text --> .55<br>.54<br>.52<br>.5<br>.5<br>.45<br>.48<br>.46 .4<br>18-39 years 40+ years Post-secondary school Secondary school or less<br>Share of respondents unwilling to get vaccinated Share of respondents unwilling to get vaccinated<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: This chart is based on answers to question 3 in Appendix B.

# **Figure A3 – Willingness to get vaccinated disaggregated by different demographic characteristics of respondents (Online experiment)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> a) Sex of respondents b) Location of respondents<br>.3 .3<br>.25<br>.25<br>.2<br>.2<br>.15<br>.15<br>.1<br>.1<br>.05<br>Female Male Highlands Islands Momase Southern<br>c) Age of respondents d) Education level of respondents<br>.25 .3<br>.25<br>.2<br>.2<br>.15<br>.15<br>.1<br>.1<br>18-39 years old 40 years old or more Tertiary education Secondary education or less<br>Share of respondents willing to get vaccinated Share of respondents willing to get vaccinated<br>Share of respondents willing to get vaccinated Share of respondents willing to get vaccinated<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: This chart is based on answers to question 34 (control group only) in Appendix B.

31
|Regional Sustainable EnergyIndustryDevelopment Project<br>Leopold Sedogo|
|---|
|Regional Sustainable EnergyIndustryDevelopment Project<br>Leopold Sedogo|
|Regional Sustainable EnergyIndustryDevelopment Project<br>Leopold Sedogo|
|Regional Sustainable EnergyIndustryDevelopment Project<br>Leopold Sedogo|
|IT Audit Development in the State Audit Office of Georgia<br>ZeynepLalik|
|IT Audit Development in the State Audit Office of Georgia<br>ZeynepLalik|
|IT Audit Development in the State Audit Office of Georgia<br>ZeynepLalik|
|IT Audit Development in the State Audit Office of Georgia<br>ZeynepLalik|
|Gambia ElectricitySupport Project<br>Christopher PhilipTrimble|
|Gambia ElectricitySupport Project<br>Christopher PhilipTrimble|
|Gambia ElectricitySupport Project<br>Christopher PhilipTrimble|
|Gambia ElectricitySupport Project<br>Christopher PhilipTrimble|
|Gambia ElectricitySupport Project<br>Christopher PhilipTrimble|
|Gambia ElectricitySupport Project<br>Christopher PhilipTrimble|
|Gambia ElectricitySupport Project<br>Christopher PhilipTrimble|
|Ghana Sankofa Gas Project<br>David Vilar Ferrenbach|
|Ghana Sankofa Gas Project<br>David Vilar Ferrenbach|
|Ghana Sankofa Gas Project<br>David Vilar Ferrenbach|
|Ghana Sankofa Gas Project<br>David Vilar Ferrenbach|
|Ghana Sankofa Gas Project<br>David Vilar Ferrenbach|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss<br>|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|Results-based ScalingUpRural Sanitation and Water SupplyProgramLilian Pena Pereira Weiss|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|National HydrologyProject<br>Anju Gaur|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
|DJ HRITF Health AF<br>Emre Ozaltin|
## **Isolating the trade dimension**

The Wilson, et all, study brings forward the point that it is impractical in designing reforms to separate trade facilitation from improvements in the domestic business environment. Their measure of use of information technology took into account the speed and cost of internet access and the extent of its use in the economy as a whole. Likewise, the OECD in its survey of content of traderelated assistance and capacity building. brings forward the following important points:<sup>30</sup>

- Much of the support is to build trade-related infrastructure, e.g., seaport and airport facilities, and it is mostly in middle-income countries.

- Much of the work is linked to improvements of enterprise capacities, including capacity to meet technical and SPS standards.

- The focus of projects is usually on economy-wide improvements, e.g., of transport and communications infrastructure.  In practice it is difficult to separate support that will facilitate trade from improvements in the overall efficiency of the infrastructure.

- Improvements in the areas of trade facilitation that the Doha Negotiations have taken up are usually a part – a small part – of larger projects.  The basis for inclusion of such reforms is their contribution to the effectiveness of the project; not – strictly speaking – to achieve GATT compliance.  They usually involve application principles such as transparency, consistency and simplification that are much in the spirit of the relevant GATT articles.

# **6. Conclusions and recommendations**

What has become of the implementation problem, of implementation-related issues and concerns?

The short answer: the international community has taken it on aggressively through the development banks, bilateral aid agencies and other specialized institutions; at the WTO it has been constructively subsumed into a broader issue, aid-for-trade.

At the WTO, the implementation issue is how to apply the WTO’s major instrument, multilaterally applicable legal obligation, to subjects where the development challenge is to build institutions rather than to remove restrictions. An important part of the issue is that WTO legal obligation applies to the **trade dimensions** of subjects that form the basic structure of the **entire economy** . Thus the development dimension is broader than the trade dimension. The experience of development banks and agencies indicate that on such matters what works at one place and time may not work in another. Legal obligation for development agencies is more than country-specific, it is project-specific; e.g., the content of customs reform projects will differ from country to country. In such situations, multilateral obligation has limited usefulness, for the WTO to

> 30 OECD (2005):

29
13

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