which are any data and information produced or commissioned by public bodies; and (ii) Open Data, which are data that can be freely used, re-used and distributed by anyone, only subject to (at the most) the requirement that users attribute the data and that they make their work available to be shared”.<sup>11</sup> Common types of OGD include, but are not limited to, data on maps, land ownership, census, government budget, government spending, company registration, legislation, public transport, international trade, health, education, crime statistics, environment statistics, election results, and contracts.

While there is considerable conjecture about the precise nature and categorization of public sector benefits that can be derived from these types of data, OGD has been tied to a number of positive public externalities. For its part, the World Bank has cited a number of benefit streams, including: (i) fostering economic growth and job creation; (ii) improving the efficiency, effectiveness, and coverage of public services; (iii) increasing government transparency, accountability, and citizen participation; and (iv) facilitating better information sharing within government itself.<sup>12</sup> Likewise, the OECD describes similar benefits, which include: (i) improving government accountability, transparency, responsiveness and democratic control; (ii) promoting citizens’ self-empowerment, social participation and engagement; (iii) building the next generation of empowered civil servants; and (iv) creating value for the wider economy.<sup>1314</sup> Recognizing this potential, dozens of governments have created OGD platforms to support the proactive release of high-value data sets that can be used to improve government transparency, accountability, and performance. Notable examples include the United States and the United Kingdom, who pioneered the release of government data sets in an effort to make government more transparent through platforms such as _data.gov_ and _data.gov.uk_ . Since then, numerous countries have created similar OGD portals to provide a plethora of government information.<sup>1516</sup> At a global level, international institutions and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have begun providing technical assistance and capacity building for Open Data initiatives around the world.<sup>17</sup> In particular, the drive toward greater government transparency has been supported by the Open Government Partnership (OGP), which was formed in 2011 to function as “an international platform for domestic reformers committed to making their governments more open, accountable, and responsive to citizens.”<sup>18</sup> Likewise, in order to deepen commitments to government transparency, an Open Data Charter was signed in 2013 by the G-8 countries, setting out the principle of “open by default,” which has subsequently prompted calls for a “data revolution” to take center stage in the post-2015 development agenda, including the dialogue on the Sustainable Development Goals.<sup>19</sup> Other notable initiatives include the Open Data for Development Partnership (OD4D), comprising 65 bi-laterals, multilaterals, foundations, and NGOs; the Open Data Working Group of the OGP; the Open Contracting Data Partnership; and the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data; as well as tools such as the Open Data Barometer, which provides information on data availability in more than 90 countries.

> 11 Ubaldi, B. (2013), "Open Government Data: Towards Empirical Analysis of Open Government Data Initiatives", OECD Working Papers on Public Governance, No. 22, OECD Publishing, Paris.

> 12 World Bank, “OGD for Sustainable Development,” Transport and ICT Global Practice Policy Note 1 (2015).

> 13 Ubaldi, B. (2013), "Open Government Data: Towards Empirical Analysis of Open Government Data Initiatives".

> 14 Another useful organization of Open Data's Impacts is provided by Verhulst and Young (2016) who organize case studies into four main themes: (i) Improving Government; (ii) Empowering Citizens; (iii) Creating Opportunity; and (iv) Solving Public Problems (see: http://odimpact.org/).

> 15 Hania Farhan, Debra D’Agostino, and Henry Worthington, _Web Index 2012_ , World Wide Web Foundation.

> 16 To date, 59 countries have included commitments to Open Data in their National Action plans. See Open Government Partnership Website at http://www.opengovpartnership.org/ . Accessed on May 3, 2015.

> 17 A growing number of organizations have become involved in the current dialogue on OGD, including international organizations such as the World Bank, the African Development Bank (AfDB), the European Union (EU), and United Nations, as well as a large number of think tanks, universities, and CSOs.

> 18 See https://www.opengovpartnership.org/

> 19 Open Data Institute, “Supporting Sustainable Development with OGD” (2015).

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