Interestingly, the employment rates of immigrants from other origins seem to be substantially lower than for natives, although the difference is not statistically significant. It is also very clear that the quality of employment is much lower for Venezuelan workers than for natives. Their informality rate is 15 percentage points higher and they are 29 percentage-points more likely to have temporary contracts. Additionally, Venezuelan workers were 6 percentage-points more likely to be underpaid by their employers than the average native in their canton of residence.

Turning now to columns 10-12 of Table 3, we learn that Venezuelan migrants work 5.5 hours more than the average native worker. However, their monthly earnings are 45 log points lower. More specifically, the average monthly earnings for Ecuadorans in our sample is $476 but the average Venezuelan worker in the same canton earns 36% less. Obviously, the higher working hours and lower monthly earnings lead to a very large gap in terms of hourly wages. Whereas the average Ecuadoran worker earned $2.84, the average Venezuelan in the same canton earned 56% less, despite the fact that Venezuelan migrants have substantially higher educational attainment.

It will also be useful to compare the main labor market outcomes (employment, informality, temporality, work hours, earnings and hourly wages) between Venezuelan migrants and Ecuadoran workers with the same (nominal) education levels. This comparison also allows us to examine whether the outcomes of highly educated Venezuelans are relatively better or worse than the outcomes for the less educated ones.<sup>13</sup> Table 4 reports this information. As before, we restrict the sample to the workingage population (age 15-70). The first column summarizes the values for Ecuadoran natives, column 2 reports the data for the Venezuelan migrants, and column 3 presents the ratio of the value in column 2 relative to column 1. Several points are worth noting. As noted earlier, Venezuelan workers are much less likely to have low education levels (26 percentage points) and much more likely to have a college degree (25 percentage points) than the average native. In terms of employment rates, we observe that among

> 13 We have not succeeded in obtaining a systematic comparison of the quality of education in Venezuela and Ecuador. The best assessment is based on an analysis by Juan Maragall (Inter-American Development Bank) based on a 2009 PISA study conducted in the state of Miranda in Venezuela. The data show that students in Venezuela have lower reading and math levels than the average for Latin America. More specifically, the gap is estimated to be 13 percentage points for public schools and 6 percentage points for private schools. Given that Ecuador’s scores are in line with the average for Latin America, these data suggest that the quality of the Venezuelan education system is somewhat below the Ecuadoran counterpart. However, we also note that many Venezuelan migrants were schooled prior to the recent deterioration of educational institutions in Venezuela and that migrants are typically positively selected in regards to their origin populations. As a result, it seems reasonable to assume that the educational credentials of Venezuelans are comparable to those of Ecuadoran workers.

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