**Data Collection Timeline and Sample** : Figure 1 shows the timeline for data collection. Between January and September 2015, we located 1,104 facilities in the three counties and completed the baseline in 1,027 for a response rate of 93%. Following a delay of 15 months between the completion of the baseline and the start of the intervention we updated the census between October and November 2016, increasing the number of facilities to 1,258. For this update we collected basic characteristics such as ownership, level and location, but did not complete a full baseline survey. These are the facilities we used for the randomization.

The intervention then took place between November 2016 and December 2017 and the endline was completed between March and August 2018. The average time elapsed between the last inspection or closure visit, and the endline for all facilities was 7 months, although this varied from 4 to 18 months, a variation that we exploit when we examine the impact of program duration on impact.

During the endline survey we counted 1,322 facilities and completed the endline in 1,285 facilities for a 97% response rate.<sup>17</sup> Of these, 173 were new facilities which we allocated to existing markets using a nearest-neighbor algorithm and 90 were facilities that had been missed previously, with 4.5% market share at endline.<sup>18</sup> For the treatment impacts, we always use the 1,285 facilities surveyed at endline. When we examine impacts on facilities that were open at the baseline, we use the 1,258 facilities we located at baseline or during the pre-randomization update plus the 90 missed facilities, for a total of 1,348 facilities. When we estimate impacts on exit/entry, we use all facilities operational at randomization (1,348) and/or endline (1,319) regardless of whether they have a completed survey.

# **III.3 Data Sources and Description of Main Outcomes**

Our primary data sources are surveys of health facilities and their staff, exit surveys of patients, and direct clinical observations. At endline (baseline) we surveyed 1,285 (1,027) health facilities, 11,098 (8,577) patients, 2,098 (1,625) healthcare workers, and observed 19,178 (18,758) clinical interactions. We augment these survey data with additional administrative information on licensing status. Section 6 in the Supplemental Material lists the outcome variables and key covariates, along with details on how they were constructed.

In our study counties, 70% of facilities were private and 30% public, although higher patient

> 17At endline all facilities in 5 markets had closed, reducing the total number of markets to 268. We also exclude 3 of 1,322 facilities that were more than 4km from our existing markets, which results in a total of 1,319 facilities at endline.

> 18A difficulty with undertaking a census of this magnitude is that many of the facilities were small, one-roomed clinics and not included in administrative databases. In addition, 23 of the 90 facilities that we had “missed” were closed during the initial surveys, but during the endline survey, the facility in-charge gave us a facility opening date prior to the randomization. If we exclude these facilities, the market share of facilities that were missed is 2.7%. We assign these 90 facilities to a market using a closest-neighbor algorithm preserving the 4km clustering rule. Therefore, in total, there were 1,348 facilities in the 273 markets at randomization.

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