rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Improving women's access to
            higher education : a review of World Bank project experience
World Bank project experience on what
            works to improve women's access to tertiary education
            is so limited that it may be premature to draw firm
            conclusions. Many of the projects with interesting multiple
            interventions are ongoing. But two conclusions emerge.
            First, the most essential factor for successful intervention
            seems to be a strong demand for educated women in the labor
            market combined with a high private demand for higher
            education by women (and their parents). How well a project
            succeeds depends on the extent to which project components
            are sensitive to the local situation in terms of these
            factors. Projects with often only a single intervention were
            successful in societies where the formal labor market is
            growing and there are few social constraints or
            qualifications to inhibit women's participation.
            Projects with single interventions are unlikely to succeed
            with such pervasive social factors as low secondary
            enrollment rates for women, high direct costs for female
            education, and heavy cultural restrictions in the labor
            market. Second, the link between programs offered and labor
            market demands is critical. High secondary enrollment rates,
            heavy private demand for women's education, and the
            availability of student places do not necessarily guarantee
            an increase in women's participation in higher
            education - unless the programs are dovetailed to meet the
            specific demands of the labor market. It is not enough to
            overcome social barriers through policy interventions.
            Projects must take an integrated view of social and labor
            market constraints. The Bank seems to be moving in a
            positive direction as more projects are addressing and
            taking action against gender inequities today than they did
            in the 1970s. Of the projects introducing gender-specific
            interventions, 62 percent were developed in the past five
            years (1987-92). Some recent Bank projects have multiple,
            interrelated interventions. Initial project results indicate
            that this combined (package) approach, made
            country-specific, could well increase female participation
            in higher education.
Government's role in Pakistan
            agriculture : major reforms are needed
Government involvement in
            Pakistan's agriculture sector has benefited farmers
            little, contends the author. He recommends reform of
            agricultural policies and institutions. For one thing,
            government policy has severely distorted agricultural
            incentives -- directly, through agricultural pricing policy,
            and indirectly until recently, through exchange rate policy.
            Although negative effects of the government's exchange
            rate policy have been eliminated, the indirect effects from
            giving certain industries heavier trade protection linger.
            Input markets have been distorted by subsidies. Those
            distortions dissipate most of the benefits directed at
            farmers. The government's role as an
            institution-builder also needs reform. Public institutions
            have proliferated in almost every area of agriculture, with
            little benefit to the sector. The institutions in research
            and extension are particularly weak. In addition, public
            enterprises have dominated marketing and distribution --
            crowding out private sector efforts -- although the
            rationale for a government presence there is not clear.
            Moreover, the underpricing of electricity and water has
            entailed hidden expenditures that make the continued
            provision of those essential inputs financially
            unsustainable. Basic reform is essential, says the author.
            The proper role of Pakistan's government should be to
            encourage the development of a smoothly functioning market,
            through institutional and regulatory reform that facilitates
            market efficiency and private sector activities. Where
            market failure is not an issue and government inefficiency
            is evident, government's role should be drastically
            reduced. Government spending should focus on public goods
            and market failures, not on activities better suited to the
            private sector. However, the government should continue to
            play an active role in reducing poverty and protecting the environment.
Decentralization : the way forward
            for rural development
Special strategies are needed to address
            the widespread incidence of rural poverty in developing
            countries, but initiatives aimed at improving the rural
            standard of living have not consistently reduced poverty.
            The author examines the rationale for a specific rural focus
            in poverty reduction programs and reviews recent attempts to
            encourage rural development. He discusses the role
            decentralization could play in rural development programs
            and analyzes recent efforts to implement decentralized rural
            development programs. The author concludes that although
            decentralization initiatives have a long history, much more
            needs to be understood about various components of
            decentralization before sound advice can be given to
            policymakers. He suggests a conceptual model - based on a
            "souffle" theory of decentralization - that
            incorporates the essential elements of political, fiscal,
            and institutional decentralization as they related to rural
            development outcomes. Like a souffle that requires just the
            right combination of milk, eggs, and heat to rise, a
            successful program of decentralization must include just the
            right combination of political, fiscal, and institutional
            elements to improve rural development outcomes.
Trade unions and collective bargaining
The authors assert that changing world
            markets and new technologies are driving industrial
            restructuring. The ability of developing countries and the
            new transitional economies to compete in the global
            marketplace will depend on their ability to transform
            industrial relations policies involving trade unions and
            collective bargaining so that they promote flexibility in
            the workplace and encourage the formation and effective use
            of human resources. History has shown, they say, that there
            are certain key moments of transition in industrial
            relations systems. After that time, systems get set and are
            hard to modify. Often these key moments are the result of
            legislative changes (such as the National Labor Relations
            Act and the emergence of public sector unions after the
            burgeoning of public sector legislation in the United
            States). Sometimes they are the result of key historical or
            economic junctures (such as the postwar reconstruction in
            Japan and Germany, and independence movements in the
            developing world). Recent pressures for structural change in
            the developing world present an opportunity for major
            transitions in industrial relations. Drawing on the Japanese
            and German experiences, as well as experiences in the
            developing world, the authors focus on lessons that can be
            applied in guiding this transformation. Workers
            participation in decisionmaking, they contend, is critical
            for bringing about the essential popular acceptance of
            changes that will come with industrial restructuring. It is
            also important to coordinate and integrate industrial
            relations policy with other social, legal, economic, and
            educational policies. The education system, for example,
            should not be overproducing college graduates when there is
            an undersupply of unskilled and skilled workers.
Pollution control in a decentralized
            economy : which level of government should subsidize what in Brazil
Subsidies in Brazil essentially serve
            three purposes: (i) if assigned to the right level of
            government, they could reinforce the effectiveness of
            pollution taxes in reducing pollution; (ii) they offer an
            opportunity for additional combinations of instruments and
            hence more flexibility in dealing with specific
            institutional characteristics of every state; and (iii) they
            can serve a purely "public relations" affect by
            showing that the federal government does not always rely on
            "sticks" but can also provide "carrots."
            The authors have four main messages of relevance to the
            Brazilian economy. First, carrots will not work without a
            stick. Subsidies of any type will not work without a
            coexisting pollution tax. Second, some carrots are better
            than others at achieving the government's objectives.
            In general, a state abatement subsidy is the more effective
            instrument to combine with a pollution tax. But when federal
            or state inspection capabilities are limited, monitoring
            subsidies may be an effective substitute. Third, increasing
            abatement subsidy rates can be counterproductive - tending
            to increase firm investment more than necessary and hence
            reduce the pollution tax base, while increasing subsidy
            costs. This can worsen the monitoring and inspection efforts
            and fiscal revenue. Finally, it is more effective to keep
            subsidy rates low if they are to be effective and
            sustainable and at the same time get the endorsement needed
            from state and federal fiscal administrations.
Road infrastructure and economic
            development : some diagnostic indicators
The authors investigate the association
            between per capita income and the magnitude and quality of
            road infrastructure. They adopt an empirical approach,
            directly comparing or correlating a countries income with
            selected variables associated with existing road networks.
            Cross-section analysis of data from 98 countries, and time
            series analysis of U.S. data since 1950, show consistent and
            significant associations between economic development (per
            capita GNP) and road infrastructure (per capita length of
            paved network). The data shows that the per capita stock of
            road infrastructure in high income economies is dramatically
            greater than in middle- and low-income economies. For
            instance, the average density of paved roads (km/million
            inhabitants) varies from 170 in low-income economies to
            1,660 in middle-income and 10,110 in high-income economies.
            That is, the average density of paved roads in high-income
            economies is 59 times that in the low-income group. Road
            conditions also seem to be associated with economic
            development: the density of paved roads in good condition
            varies from 40 km/million inhabitants in low-income
            economies to 470 middle-income and 8,550 in high-income
            economies. The empirical information presented can be used
            as indicators of areas of weakness or strength in a
            country's stock of road infrastructure.
Primary school achievement in
            English and mathematics in Zimbabwe : a multi-level analysis
Using a multilevel modeling procedure,
            the authors explore: the percentage of variance in primary
            school achievement in Zimbabwe that could be attributed to
            the types of schools and classes attended; the differences
            between schools in student achievement in mathematics and
            English; and the reasons for these differences. They compare
            five types of schools. Students in Former A (European)
            schools and high-fee schools outperform those in Former B
            (African) schools, low-fee schools, and district council
            schools in both subjects. In English, school-type
            differences persist after controlling for student intake
            variables. For mathematics, they disappear. School and class
            variables related to higher math achievement include the
            amount of teacher training and instructional time, and
            pupil-teacher ratio. Higher achievement in English is
            related to the pupil-teacher and textbook-to-pupil ratios,
            and to the amount of teacher training.
How prices and macroeconomic
            policies affect agricultural supply and the environment
The author studies the literature on how
            agricultural prices and macroeconomic policies affect
            agricultural supply and how that supply affects the
            environment.  He addresses the question of how effective
            agricultural incentives are in boosting the agricultural
            supply, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.  The literature
            generalizes that farmers are rational.  They increase their
            output in response to an increase in real output prices.
            The agricultural supply response is inelastic in the short
            run, but elasticities for individual crops are generally
            higher that those for aggregate output.  Elasticities are
            higher in the long run that in the short.  In theory, if
            farmers are rational, if output responds to price increases,
            measures should be taken to eliminate price distortion.
            There are four potential sources of bias in the estimates:
            a) disregard for the simultaneity of variables; b) the
            ommission of key variables; c) improper pooling of data from
            different countries; and d) in most time series studies, the
            aggregate supply response is treated as reversible, but,
            according to fixed assets theory, the supply response is
            irreversible.  There is clearly a link between agricultural
            incentives and the environment.  But quantitative data on
            relative aspects of the subject are very inadequate.
The investment decision : a
            re-examination of competing theories using panel data
In the United States, gross business
            fixed investments constitute about 10 percent of the Gross
            National Product (GNP).  Such investments may represent
            GNP's most important component because: a) plant and
            equipment have a long-term effect on the economy's
            productive capacity, b) changes in investment spending
            directly affect employment levels and workers' incomes
            in durable goods industries, and c) supply and demand are
            sensitive to investment changes.  Economists have long been
            concerned about what determines capital spending
            investments.  Using data for US manufacturing firms for
            1972-90, the author compares five investment theories:
            accelerator theory, cash flow theory, neoclassical theory,
            modified neoclassical theory and Q theory.  If the results
            for cross-section regressions can be viewed as representing
            the long-term equilibrium, the single most important
            determinant of capital spending appears to be cash flow.
            Apparently, managers care more about cash flow and cost of
            capital than about stock market signals and the level of
            output.  And at the firm level, managerial perceptions about
            fundamentals are more important that market perceptions.
            For managers, the stock market may be a side show to capital
            spending decisions.  To generalize in a way useful for
            developing countries: firm level financial decisions are
            closely linked to real decisions in the economy.  Internal
            finance is the most important use of funds so there is a
            close relationship between real and financial decisions.
Water pollution abatement by Chinese
            industry : cost estimates and policy implications
Using factory-level data provided by
            China's National Environmental Protection Agency and
            the Tianjin Environmental Protection Bureau, the authors of
            this report estimate the costs of water pollution abatement
            for Chinese industry.  Using their econometric results, they
            analyze the cost-effectiveness of current pollution control
            policy in China and make the conclusions that follow.  (1)
            For each pollutant, marginal abatement costs exhibit great
            differences by sector, scale, and degree of abatement.  (2)
            The benefits of stricter discharge standards should be
            weighed carefully against the costs.  (3) Emissions charges
            as low as $1 per ton would be sufficient to induce 80
            percent abatement of suspended solids, chemical oxygen
            demand, and biological oxygen demand, respectively.  (4) The
            current regulatory system provides an economic incentive to
            abate by charging a levy on pollution that exceeds the
            standard.  The results of this analysis suggest, however,
            that changing to a full emissions charge system would
            greatly reduce overall abatement costs.  The approach the
            authors recommend for measuring the costs of abatement is to
            use joint abatement cost functions that relate total costs
            to treatment volume and the simultaneous effect of
            reductions in suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand,
            biological oxygen demand, and other pollutants.  Tests of
            alternative functional forms suggest that a simple (constant
            elasticity) model fits the data as well as a complex
            (translog) model does, permitting sophisticated policy
            experiments with relatively simple calculations.
Income insecurity and
            underemployment in Indonesia's informal sector
Recent legislation to provide income
            security to workers in Indonesia covers only those in the
            formal sector, initially. Workers in the informal sector are
            at an even greater risk of income loss and are more
            vulnerable to shocks due to lower average incomes. The
            author addresses the question of whether there is a
            rationale for income security schemes for Indonesia's
            informal sector. Research suggests that, through a range of
            existing public programs, Indonesia's government
            already provides important security mechanisms for informal
            sector workers, and must continue to do so. The author finds
            no compelling evidence of the need for a nationwide income
            security scheme for such workers. The author's argument
            against a new income security scheme is based on three main
            conclusions. First, only about 12 percent of the informal
            sector workforce and even less of the formal sector is
            underemployed. Second, this level of underemployment does
            not represent compelling empirical evidence of income
            insecurity. The connection between underemployment and
            income insecurity is problematic in theory and remains
            unsubstantiated by national survey data. Third, many
            mechanisms already exist in Indonesia to mitigate the
            disruption caused by income insecurity. Households and
            communities use private strategies to smooth consumption and
            investment and the government is already active in providing
            additional income security. Not only does empirical evidence
            fail to justify a major new policy response, but most
            evidence suggests that such a response is not presently
            necessary. The author suggests that any new initiative
            directed at income insecurity should be limited in scope and
            should focus on Eastern Indonesia and on remote or isolated
            areas of Java, areas with below average incomes. If concerns
            about income insecurity persist, money should be spend
            finding out where it actually is before implementing a
            nationwide scheme to deal with it.
Partners or predators : the impact
            of regional trade liberalization on Indonesia
The authors empirically assess regional
            integration and liberalization scenarios impact on Indonesia
            and other Pacific Rim economies, including the complete
            Uruguay Round, further global liberalization and the
            creation of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
            (ASEAN) or Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) free
            trade areas. They consider how major international exchange
            rate realignments affect the world trade pattern, and
            Indonesia in particular. The analysis uses a multi-country,
            computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to quantify the
            trade liberalization impact on countries, sectors, and
            factors. The extended APEC-CGE model consists of nine linked
            country models: Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore
            (together), the Philippines, Thailand, China (including Hong
            Kong), Korea and Taiwan, Japan, the United States and the
            European Union. Each country model is linked through
            explicit bilateral trade flows modeling for each traded
            sector. The empirical results lead to several conclusions:
            a) eliminating tariff and non tariff barriers in industrial
            countries (especially the Multifibre Agreement) gives Asian
            developing countries the opportunity to expand exports and
            achieve productivity gains; b) creation of an APEC free
            trade area gives participants significant benefits, with
            little effect on nonmembers while creation of an ASEAN free
            trade area gives its members little benefit, thus ASEAN
            countries should work toward more liberalization under GATT
            or hasten the APEC free trade area creation; c) all
            economies gain the most from further multilateral
            liberalization; and d) major exchange rate realignments
            significantly affect bilateral trade balances and world
            trade volume and direction. However, they have less effect
            than trade liberalization on the internal production and
            trade structure. Sectoral protection and subsidy rates vary
            greatly and their elimination yields significant efficiency
            gains. Changes in exchange rates have less effect.