rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
10 in African studies, which focused on both Kenya and Nigeria.24/ Despite the slightly higher socioeconomic backgrounds of girls, their education in some developing countries is adversely affected by prevailing social attitudes which favor the intellectual advancement of males, particularly in coeducational settings. For example, while schools might seek to interest boys in skills that are useful in the labor market, girls are urged into more domestically relevant activities.25 / A sex-differentiated focus has been described for science and mathematics training in Kenya, where most government secondary schools are single-sex.Z2/ The result of Kenyan girls' schools receiving less govern-ent assistance was lower quality education, especially in mathematics and sci. The study concluded that girls' lower access rates to secondary school, as well as their attendance at under-funded girls only schools, resulted in a female disadvantage in terminal national examinations -- a disadvantage which also affected the university attendance and professional preparation of young Kenyan women. In a case study o.f a West African girls' boarding school in the early 1970s, its "hidden curriculum" included the socialization of young women for future roles as wives and mothers, whereas most students actually intended to seek fulltime employment after completing their education. While the official government policy in that country was to offer the same educational opportunities to boys and girls, the researcher found that differing social attitudes about the usefulness of educating young women and young men influenced the curriculum.27D Nigeria. The small amount of existing empirical evidence on single-sex education in Nigeria is inconc'..-ive. In a descriptive study of the education of Nigerian females in the early 1970s, both attendance rates and
**Policy, Research, and External Affairs i**

**_'~LO :1 4_ I [CU:1±11 : .1 IPubic Sector Management and Private Sector Development** i L _ - - . . . - . _

# WPS 699

This paper-- a joint product of the Public Sector Manag -men, and Private Sector Development Division, - Country Economics Department and the Private Sector Division, Legal Department is part ol'a larger effort in PRE to explore how to strengthen the efficiency of thiC private sector in developing countries by redefining public and private boundaries. Copies arc available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington. DC 20433. Please contact Ernestina Madrona, room N9-'961, extension 37496 (126 pages).

The United States -xperience with antitrust and with directive regu.ation in the rail, trucking, airline, and telephony sectors offers useful lessons for developing countries. The experience highlights the realities both **oe** market failure and of the difficulties of implementing regulation to control it - and reveals tihat imperfect regulation may be no better than imperfect competition.

original objectives, and the regulators were captured by the regulated. For rail and trucking regulation, the regulatory outcome probably was worse than it would have been under laissezfaire.

Bradburd and Ross recommend the following hierarchy of regulatory responses to imperfect competition in LDCs: Antitrust measures to regulate price fixing and to require approval for mergers above some threshold level of industrial concentration are straightforward to implement and have provided some gains in economic welfare. The regulation of price discrimination, restrictive vertical practices, and predatory pricing is administratively more difficult, and the potential gains are less clearly evident. In many situations, import competition can be an efficient altemative.

Direct regulation of rail, trucking, airline, and telephony was frequently inefficient, the regulatory apparatus often lost sight of its

> * First, ensure that domestic markets are open to import competition to the maxinmum leasible extenlt.

* Second, in cases of nontradables and when f'ree access to imports is impossible, adopt streamlined antitrust policies that minimiize the need for discretionary judgments.

* Third, consider direct regulation of natural monopolies as a last resort, but only in an cconomically import,anlt sector and only if' designed to minimize the likclilhold of rcgulatory misdirection.

The PRE Working Paper Scrics disseminates the findings of Work undcr way in thc Banks Policy, Researchi, and Extcrnal AffairsComplex. A objective of the scrics **is** to get **thcse** findinigs out quickly, cven ifpresentations arc less ihan frll\y poliishedt. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in these papers do not necessarily repiesentofficial Bank policy.

> Produced by the PRE Dissemination Centcr
**Figure 3.2: Aquaculture ponds in the Red River Delta**

Source: Ottinger et al. 2018 (aquaculture ponds Red River Delta), Google Maps (background satellite image).

**Figure 3.3: Aquaculture ponds in the Mekong River Delta**

Source: SWIRR<sup>2</sup> (aquaculture ponds Mekong River Delta), Google Maps (background satellite image).

11
where antihelminthic drugs are widely available at low cost and where wastewater and excreta use is limited to distinct areas in a country as, for example, in Pakistan (Feenstra _et al_ . 2000). Mass antihelminthic drug campaigns against intestinal nematode infection may need to be considered at least once per year in areas where 50−70% of the school-aged children have soil-transmitted helminthic infections. Where the prevalence of these infections exceeds 70% in school-aged children and more than 10% of the individuals are moderately or heavily infected, then the children should be treated 2−3 times a year (Montresor _et al_ . 2002).

**_Industrial effluents:_** Initial efforts should be made to identify sources of industrial discharges. Phase in an approach that first requires the largest polluters to clean up their waste or divert them from the municipal sewers, and eventually requires all industrial discharges to be pretreated up to defined standards or diverted. Establish a charging mechanism for the remaining industrial effluent loads that can safely be treated at the municipal WWTP—for example, organic wastes (BOD or COD), suspended solids, nutrients.

_Source:_ Adapted from Carr _et al_ ., 2004; WHO 2006; Mara, 2009; Mara and Sleigh, 2010c.

# _5.1.3 Examples of phased implementation plans_

Three examples of how a phased strategic plan can be developed are shown below. In the case of a low-income country, Ghana, it required several steps before a cost-effectiveness analysis could be utilized to choose among possible multiple barriers to disease transmission (Box 5.2). In Chile, an upper-middle-income country, an emergency control program based on multiple barriers forestalled a cholera outbreak and the subsequent implementation of a sanitation plan allowed the country to go from virtually no treatment up to full wastewater treatment in the span of two decades (Box 5.3). Finally, the example of Israel, a high-income country facing extreme water scarcity, illustrates a mature wastewater irrigation program developed over more than four decades, that today reclaims 75 percent of all municipal sewage for agriculture and provides half of all irrigation water in the country, thus liberating significant freshwater sources for other higher-valued urban and industrial uses (Box 5.4).<sup>31</sup> The examples demonstrate that countries at different levels of development, in very different circumstances, and following different implementation pathways, have been able to confront the health hazards associated with untreated wastewater use for agriculture and, in the incipient case of Ghana, have the possibility of continuing to work steadily toward the needed health risk reductions.

> 31 Two other examples for water-scarce lower-middle-income countries include Jordan (Box 2.7) and Tunisia (Box 2.8), both of which have also made impressive progress over a few decades.

52
Table 8 displays the LPM estimation results for the non-MENA panel in column 2 and the TSLPM estimation results for the MENA countries in columns 3-5.<sup>37</sup> The coefficient of Int_nh in column (2) is negative and significant, while the coefficient of the interaction term Int_nh x RELPOL is positive and highly significant. However, the total effect of Int_nh on conflict is insignificantly different from zero.<sup>38</sup> ETHPOL is highly significant and positive, and the effects of other traditional variables are in line with those obtained in Esteban, Mayoral and Ray (2012).

The results from the first-stage estimation for the MENA panel suggest that the interaction of TOTBORD with RELPOL is a significant determinant of external intervention. This result is in line with the notion that the longer the border of a country in the Middle East the higher the probability of having a transborder ethnic or sectarian group and therefore the higher the probability of external interventions enabled by the presence of a cross-border group. The effect of primary exports on intervention is highly significant and positive in the first-stage estimation, suggesting that in this oil-rich region, external interventions are also driven by a private prize linked to oil resources. The effect of MOUNTAINS is significant and negative as expected because the presence of mountains makes it harder to intervene with boots on the ground. In the secondstage conflict-incidence equation, ETHPOL is an insignificant factor in explaining civil conflict in MENA. The coefficient of the interaction term between predicted intervention and RELPOL is highly significant and positive, which confirms that intervention exacerbates religious polarization and leads to high intensity conflict. Thus, we cannot reject the hypothesis that non-neutral and non-humanitarian intervention is a determinant of civil conflict in MENA. Moreover, it appears that the effects of some of the other exogenous variables (e.g., PRIMEXP and LGDPC) on the

> 37 We apply the STATA option of variance clustering at the country level.

> 38 The total effect is that of the external intervention and its interaction with RELPOL and is measured at means of the variables.

36
# **Figure B32: Permanent component—Precious metals and fertilizers**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Index, January 1970 = 100<br>140<br>Gold Platinum Silver<br>130<br>120<br>110<br>100<br>90<br>80<br>70<br>1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020<br>Source : Authors’ calculations<br>Index, January 1970 = 100<br>105<br>Phosphate Potassium TSP Urea<br>100<br>95<br>90<br>85<br>80<br>1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Source : Authors’ calculations<br><!-- End of picture text --> _— 73 —_
**Table 4: Modal Mix for Fuel Consumption in Transport Sector**

||||1980|||||2005|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||Domestic|Inland||||Domestic|Inland|||
||Total|Air|Waterways|Rail|Road|Total|Air|Waterways|Rail|Road|
|Country|(ktoe)|%|%|%|%|(ktoe)|%|%|%|%|
|Argentina|10,475|8.0|0.9|0.2|90.9|13,599|9.1|0.2|0.4|90.3|
|Bolivia|712|14.8|0.0|1.7|83.4|1,219|10.9|1.1|0.4|87.6|
|Brazil|25,654|6.8|6.4|2.6|84.2|52,998|5.0|2.1|1.3|91.6|
|Caribbean|1,975|2.9|0.0|0.0|97.1|3,579|2.5|0.0|0.0|97.5|
|Chile|2,040|0.0|5.3|1.3|93.3|5,653|0.0|6.2|0.4|93.4|
|Colombia|3,975|0.0|0.8|0.5|98.6|6,707|0.6|3.0|0.5|95.9|
|Costa Rica|440|0.0|2.6|0.2|97.3|1,356|0.0|0.2|0.0|99.8|
|Cuba|2,172|0.0|23.3|2.9|73.8|682|0.0|0.0|1.2|98.8|
|Ecuador|1,341|0.0|16.3|0.4|83.3|3,537|0.0|10.1|0.0|89.9|
|El Salvador|285|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|971|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|
|Guatemala|454|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|1,614|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|
|Honduras|205|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|694|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|
|Mexico|22,935|0.0|0.0|2.9|97.1|44,296|0.0|1.9|1.6|96.4|
|Nicaragua|295|3.3|2.8|0.0|93.9|475|0.0|3.0|0.0|97.0|
|Panama|342|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|780|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|
|Paraguay|357|0.0|0.9|0.0|99.1|995|0.0|0.0|0.0|100.0|
|<br>Peru|1,959|0.5|11.5|0.0|88.0|3,170|0.0|0.9|0.0|99.0|
|Uruguay|551|6.6|6.4|0.0|86.9|744|0.4|0.0|0.0|99.6|
|<br>Venezuela|9,182|0.0|0.0|2.5|97.5|14,201|0.0|0.0|0.3|99.7|
|Other Latin America|335|11.2|2.2|0.0|86.6|1,791|6.0|0.0|0.0|94.0|

Based on the available data and following normal practices in energy accounting systems, the study considers four modes of transportation: road, rail, water and air. If data is available, road transportation, which is the primary mode for providing transportation services as well as energy consumption and associated emissions, can be disaggregated further into auto, bus etc.

Source: IEA (2007) 13
**Table 10: How many of the Studies in One Review’s Recommended Category of Intervention are Included in Other Reviews?**

||||**Percentage of**<br>**Kremer,**|**studies included in**<br>**Krishnaratne**|**review**||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Conn**<br>**2014**|**Glewwe et**<br>**al. 2014**|**Brannen, &**<br>**Glennerster**<br>**2013**|**,**<br>**White, &**<br>**Carpenter 2013**|**McEwan**<br>**2014**|**Murnane &**<br>**Ganimian 2014**|
|Conn 2014 - Pedagogical interventions|--|6%|0%|6%|6%|18%|
|Kremer, Brannen, & Glennerster 2013 - Matching teaching<br>to students’ learning|50%|50%|--|50%|100%|50%|
|Krishnaratne, White, & Carpenter 2013 - Materials provision|17%|67%|50%|--|100%|67%|
|McEwan 2014 - Computers or instructional technology|0%|30%|30%|40%|--|70%|
|Murnane & Ganimian 2014 - Information provision|11%|0%|11%|33%|33%|--|

**Table 11: How many of the Studies in One Review’s Recommended Category of Intervention are Included in Other Reviews? – RCTs only**

||||**Percentage of RC**<br>**Kremer,**|**T studies included**<br>|**in review**||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||||**Krsnaratne**|||
||**Conn**<br>**2014**|**Glewwe et**<br>**al. 2014**|**Brannen, &**<br>**Glennerster**<br>**2013**|**,**<br>**White, &**<br>**Carpenter 2013**|**McEwan**<br>**2014**|**Murnane &**<br>**Ganimian 2014**|
|Conn 2014 - Pedagogical interventions|--|0%|0%|6%|6%|12%|
|Kremer, Brannen, & Glennerster 2013 - Matching teaching|||||||
|to students’ learning|50%|50%|--|50%|100%|50%|
|Krishnaratne, White, & Carpenter 2013 - Materials provision|17%|67%|50%|--|100%|67%|
|McEwan 2014 - Computers or instructional technology|0%|30%|30%|40%|--|70%|
|Murnane & Ganimian 2014 - Information provision|11%|0%|11%|33%|33%|--|

32
Rou3nia

|1985<br>1986|0.44<br>0.47|84.71<br>8261|8.02<br>4249|9.47<br>|29.48<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1987|<br>0.46|.<br>8200|.<br>3503|51.43<br>4273|41.89<br>|
|1988|0.34|.<br>9355|.<br>305|.<br>|49.81<br>|
|1989|<br>0.12|.<br>9043|.<br>000|3.27<br>000|27.23<br>|
|1905-1969|0.35|.<br>8576|.<br>2207|.<br>|10.27<br>|
|EAST||.|.|**25.73**|29.83|
|ASIAN**FOUR**<br>1985|51.29|7297|5117|||
|1986|<br>51.64|.<br>7321|.<br>5861|70.12<br>8006|88.44<br>|
|1987|50.71|.<br>7886|.<br>5886|.<br>7464|91.40<br>|
|1988|48.87|.<br>7579|.<br>4856|.<br>6407|89.75<br>|
|1989|48.99|.<br>7845|.<br>5677|.<br>2|81.12<br>|
|19w.-1989|<br>50.16|.<br>7614|.<br>5494|7.36<br>7216|85.24<br>|
|||.|.|.|a6.90|
|ALL "FA||||||
|SUPPLIERS<br>1985|75.70|67.59|4068|6021||
|1986|76.20|<br>68.48|.<br>5146|.<br>7517|74.83<br>|
|1987|78.63|<br>7424|.<br>5292|.<br>|80.63<br>|
|1988|79.43|.<br>73.52|.<br>4335|71.29<br>5956|81.27<br>|
|1989|81.57|<br>67.09|.<br>4343|.<br>6538|69.86<br>|
|1985-1989|78.61|<br>7031|.<br>4639|.<br>|71.25<br>|
|||.|.|65.99|75.10|

Source: The World Bank computer files on the MFA and UNSO COMTRADE Data Base.

- Notes: Shares (columns I - IV) are calculated using v&lue in current dollars. Utilization (column V) is based on voltume of shipments. Textile products are defined broadly as SITC (Revision 2) 65 plus 84.

- a As a percentage of total imports of textile products from all sources.

- b Restricted imports are imports subject to bilateral quotas. As a percentage of total imports from the given supplier.

- c Imports subject to binding restrictions are those irports with quota utilization rates of 90 percent or greater. As a percentage of total imports from the given supplier.

- d As a percentage of restricted imports from the given supplier.

e EC(10) in 1985, EC(12) thereafter. Trade shares exclude intra-EC trade.

c n.a. = not available; *- not applicable (not under quota).
# **I) Introduction**

Sociologists have for a long time made the assumption that individuals are concerned about their relative status. Such an emphasis may be found in the writings of Karl Marx who wrote that "our desires and pleasures spring from society, we measure them therefore by society and not by the objects which serve for their satisfaction. Because they are of a social nature they are of a relative nature"<sup>1</sup> . This idea of relative concern is also at the basis of the concept of relative deprivation which was introduced originally by Stouffer et al. (1949) and systematized by Runciman (1966) who also stressed the importance of reference groups. He argued that there does not seem to be a strong correlation between the level of "class-political discontent" and objective indicators of material deprivation so that this discontent is rather related to the gap which exists between one's economic and social conditions and the perceived conditions of some reference group.

Economists have also quite a long tradition of including relative income or status in models of utility maximization but for many years those taking such a point of view were the exception. Duesenberry (1949), for example, assumed that individuals have a desire for self-esteem and as a consequence they tend to imitate the consumption patterns of those who have a higher socioeconomic status. Similar ideas may be found in the works of Hirsch (1976) who coined the term "positional goods", Frank (1985) and in numerous papers analyzing in recent years the determinants of happiness (e.g., Blanchflower and Oswald, 2004, Clark, 2003, Ferrer-i-Carbonell, 2005). More recently Hopkins (2008) in a paper on happiness and relative concerns argued that there are at least three reasons why concern for relative position seems to be so deeply rooted in human behavior. His first explanation, which he calls the "rivalry story", stresses the fact that, in ancient times, men who were successful (e.g. in hunting) would use their

> 1 This citation is taken from Pedersen (2004) but Pedersen himself seems to have found it in Rainwater (1974).

2
86 Table A7: Estimates of Preference Parameters (2SLS)

||**Panel A: Se**|**cond Stage**|
|---|---|---|
||Dependen|t variable:|
||Log of food’s<br>expenditure share|Log of crop’s<br>expenditure share|
||(1)|(2)|
|Log of household income [ˆ_η_]|-0.656***<br>(0.129)||
|Log of crop price [1_−_ˆ_σA_]||-0.714***<br>(0.153)|
|Household size|0.135***<br>(0.029)||
||**Panel B: F**|**irst Stage**|
||Dependen|t variable:|
||Log of household<br>income<br>(1)|Log of crop<br>price<br>(2)|
|Lottery/_ad hoc_income|8.81e-07***<br>(1.37e-07)||
|Disaster/other relief payments|8.16e-07***<br>(1.42e-07)||
|Regional potential yield_>_0||-0.062***<br>(0.0044)|
|F-statistic|37.2***|199.4***|
|p-value|0.0000|0.0000|
|Fixed Effects?|PSU|Crop, HH|
|Clustered SEs?|by PSU|by HH|
|Weighted?|Yes|Yes|
|Observations|19,910|91,416|

_Notes_ : *** denotes significance at the 1% level. Columns (1) and (2) display results for the estimation of equations (31) and (32), respectively, by Weighted Two-Stage Least Squares (2SLS), with standard errors in parentheses. PSU stands for “Primary Sampling Unit”, and HH stands for “household”. Weighted regressions use the statistical weights provided by the 2019 edition of the HIES. In Column (1), the dependent variable in the second stage is the log of the _adjusted_ food expenditure share, which is computed as ln( _ξnh_<sup>_A−φ_ˆ) for household</sup><sup>_h_of district</sup><sup>_n_,where</sup><sup>_ξA_is</sup> food expenditure share and _φ_<sup>ˆ</sup> = 0 _._ 0105 is our estimate of parameter _φ_ (see Table II). See Section VI.A.1 for details on data sources, identification strategies, and variables’ definitions.
# _3. The teacher responds to students’ needs_

There is a growing body of theory and research on the important role that teacher responsiveness plays in the classroom. For instance, one study established that studentperceived emotional support was more important than instructional support in predicting students’ social skills and academic competence (Malecki & Demaray, 2003). Sensitivity and responsiveness appears to be even more important for students at risk for low engagement or achievement (Hamre & Pianta, 2005).

Being responsive to students’ needs may take a variety of forms. Responsive teachers show fairness and justice toward their students, demonstrate compassion toward students as individuals, and provide the emotional or physical support that students need in class (Bishop, Berryman, & Richardson, 2002; McGee & Fraser, 2001; Klem & Connell, 2004; Wharton-McDonald et al., 1998).

Overall, students whose needs are met enjoy the long-term benefits of being more engaged in school and performing better academically, socially, and behaviorally (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Corno, 2008; Malecki & Demaray, 2003). Thus it is important for teachers to recognize individual students’ needs and respond appropriately.

# _4. The teacher does not exhibit gender bias and challenges gender stereotypes in the classroom_

Teacher behaviors such as calling on students of different races and genders equally and using inclusive language are central features of a positive learning environment and are linked with improved student achievement (Pittinsky, 2016; Pittinsky & Montoya, 2016). Unfortunately, it is still common that children of different genders are treated differently, and that teachers reinforce gender stereotypes in the classroom. For example, in a qualitative observational study of Zimbabwean students (equivalent to Grade 11 and 12 in the United States), classroom observations revealed that compared with girls, boys received significantly more teacher-initiated contact overall, more direct questions, more teacher feedback, and greater attention (Mutekwe & Modiba, 2012). Stark gender contrasts also arose in the educational materials used, where more masculine characters were depicted compared to feminine characters. Of the characters that were women, students were given a stereotypical image of women being weak or helpless, often wearing aprons or looking after babies.

Classic work describes that teachers’ uneven expectations in the classroom have important consequences for student learning (Grossman & Grossman, 1994; Sadker & 12