rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
one additional practice. Furthermore, data from our control group show that only about 36 percent of firms that receive the six-page report get back in touch with SEBRAE during the following year to obtain more business advice or participate in training or mentoring.

We tested whether providing information about business practices during the second NaN visit in a more succinct and compelling format can increase take-up of SEBRAE services. If attention is limited, as may well be the case among small firms in developing countries, providing simple information may be more effective than providing full information (Kremer, Rao and Schilbach 2019). Together with SEBRAE-PR, we designed an information sheet that was added to the six-page report in 2018. Appendix 3 contains a sample information sheet. We used four different versions of the information sheet.

The basic version adds several pieces of concise information to the six-page report. It uses a scale of business practice adoption (labeled “scale of excellence”) to visualize how many out of the 29 business practices a firm is currently using. The information sheet also benchmarks business practices relative to other firms in the same sector, stating which percentage of firms adopt more practices than this firm and which percentage adopt the same number of practices. Further, it lists five simple actions the firm can take to start adopting more business practices. At the bottom of the page, the firm is invited to a free training session. The page gives the title, time, date, and location of the event and asks the firm to enroll by calling a phone number.

The second version, pre-enrollment, includes the same information as the basic version, but the invitation to training lets the firm know that it was already enrolled in the session. The intention here was to overcome procrastination that firms may face when enrolling in a SEBRAE service.

The third version, motivation, includes the same information as the basic version, but at the top of the page provides an additional sentence asking: “Did you know that being one level below your competitors (adopting between 1 and 5 fewer business practices) makes your firm on average 26 percent more likely to die within one year?<sup>1</sup> ” This statement was meant to provide tangible information on the benefits of adopting more business practices. It may also make the threat of competition more salient, thereby increasing firms’ incentive for adopting new business practices (Bloom et al. 2015).

The fourth version, motivation plus pre-enrollment, includes the information in the basic version plus the motivating sentence and pre-enrollment in the training session.

> 1 This correlation is based on SEBRAE data.

6
# **K Sector Change**

Table K.1. Sector Change between the First Job in Colombia and Current Job in Colombia

||PEP [=1]|PEP [=0]|**Difference**<br>PEP [=1]-PEP [=0]|Mean-Diff.<br>(P-value)|Observations|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|
|_A. Sector Change [=1]_||||||
|Labor Income (log)|0.52|0.36|0.16***|0.00|570|
|Years of education before migration|14|13.28|0.72***|0.00|632|
|Weekly Hours Worked (log)|3.84|3.9|-0.06|0.29|416|
|Consumption per capita (log)|1.45|1.18|0.27***|0.00|632|
|_B. Sector Change [=0]_||||||
|Labor Income (log)|0.50|0.38|0.12***|0.00|351|
|Years of education before migration|13.66|13.25|0.41|0.11|414|
|Weekly Hours Worked (log)|3.99|4.00|-0.01|0.95|261|
|Consumptionper capita (log)|1.40|1.16|0.24***|0.00|414|

Table K.2. Sector Change between the Best Job in Venezuela and the Current Job in Colombia

||PEP [=1]|PEP [=0]|Difference<br>PEP [=1]-PEP [=0]|Mean-Diff.<br>(P-value)|Observations|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|
|_A. Sector Change [=1]_||||||
|Labor Income (log)|0.50|0.34|0.16***|0.00|1,225|
|Years of education before migration|13.77|13.11|0.66***|0.00|1,379|
|Weekly Hours Worked (log)|3.91|3.94|-0.03|0.39|832|
|Consumption per capita (log)|1.42|1.16|0.26***|0.00|1,379|
|_B. Sector Change [=0]_||||||
|Labor Income (log)|0.49|0.39|0.10***|0.00|520.00|
|Years of education before migration|13.68|12.86|0.82***|0.00|587.00|
|Weekly Hours Worked (log)|3.91|3.93|-0.02|0.78|350.00|
|Consumptionper capita (log)|1.39|1.18|0.21***|0.00|587.00|

92
of credit finance across the different regions is quite skewed. While credit finances more than 80% of purchases in Oromia, shares of credit-purchases drop to 35.7% and 40% in SNNP and Amhara regions, respectively. In Tigray, credit finances around 63% of fertilizer purchases. In terms of access to credit (from all type of sources such as friends, banks, microfinance and cooperatives), more households in Amhara and Oromia have access to credit than households in Tigray and SNNP. The average obtainable credit ceiling is also higher in Oromia and Amhara.

As mentioned, supplying fertilizer and facilitating credit for its acquisition has been an important component of Ethiopia’s PADETS program. In the 2004 survey, households were asked if they participated in extension program and how productivity gains from the package compared with the traditional practices. More than 64% of the sampled households participated in the package and 95% of the households found the new technology more profitable than the traditional one. More than 50% of the households responded that production increased by half while 20% of households reported production increase of more than 50%. Only a small proportion of households (7%) felt that the extension package was riskier than the traditional practices and only 11% of the households opted out of the extension package.

Among these, 33% of households reported that a lack of credit was a major reason why they withdrew from the program. That credit would be constrained is perhaps understandable, as 62% of households ran into difficulty repaying the input loan on one or more occasion. The three major reasons for default on the input loans are low yield due to rain failure, low output price and timing of repayment (being forced to repay immediately after harvest when output prices are depressed). The efficacy of fertilizer also depends on land preparation and fertilizer application may be constrained by a lack of essential farm implements. The Ethiopian Agricultural Research Institute best practice guides suggest three to five cycle of pre-harvest land preparation to get the optimal results from fertilizer applications, but 57% of households report that they lack land-preparation tools.

In the 2006 wave of the survey, the share of chemical fertilizers is around 18% of the total value of outputs while the share of all purchased inputs (including expenditures on chemical fertilizer, improved and traditional seeds, hired labor, transportation, rented in oxen and tractor) is around 27%. The figures may be indicative of the profitability of chemical fertilizers and other purchased inputs. However, adoption seems to be lower as only 45% of the cropped area is covered by chemical fertilizer; and the intensity of fertilizer use is on average below the recommended dose of 200 kilograms per hectare.

# **Empirical Results**

Estimation results from the panel selection model are given in Table 3. In general, the model fits well and the parametric values and related statistical test are consistent with the notion that fertilizer markets in Ethiopia 10
**Risk financing and transfer strategy.** The board of directors and manager will likely need expert advice on development of  the risk financing and transfer strategy.  A reinsurance intermediary should be chosen through international competitive bidding to design a program based on modeling that includes the capacity requirements and structure to achieve the objectives of the pool.  The intermediary may also be charged with negotiating with re-insurers and/or capital markets, evaluating the quotations and products offered by the markets, and, following a decision by the board on the strategy, placing the program in the market.

**Investment policy and fund management.** As the size of reserves grow, asset management becomes increasingly important.  A segregated trust or escrow account should be established to hold invested funds for benefit of policyholders to protect them from possible creditor action or other use.  The board of directors and pool manager will have to determine a funds management strategy and exercise careful oversight of the investment manager(s) chosen to invest pool funds. An advisor is often engaged in such circumstances to assist the board/ manager develop and implement a long term investment mandate for the pool reserves, to determine fund manager selection criteria and to develop a monitoring approach.  A custodian would also have to be appointed to safeguard the assets.

**Marketing and public education campaign.** A domestic public relations firm should be engaged to develop a marketing and public education campaign that will inform the public about the catastrophe pool before it is launched.  The objective of the campaign is to explain and build public confidence in the pool in order to maximize participation by potential insureds.  Marketing and public education activities will need to continue after the pool is launched in order to contribute to increasing the penetration of the pool over time.

**Liaison with local governments.** The pool manager will need to liaise with local governments because property registrations and records at local authorities will form the basis of insurance cover.  If the program is compulsory the local tax authorities may be involved in enforcement.

**Liaison with structural engineering firms.** Catastrophe insurance pools can contribute to the enforcement of building codes through commercial arrangements with independent engineering firms that would be retained to certify the construction quality of new residential dwellings to be insured by the pool.  If mitigation incentives in law require inspection and certification of new dwellings, the pool manager will have to establish business relationships with structural engineering firms and arrange for inspections of these dwellings when applications for insurance are received.

# **Operational Challenges in Managing Catastrophe Insurance Pools**

Once the pool is launched, the government, the pool’s board of directors and its management will have to monitor its operations to ensure that it functions effectively and 32
at the bottom of our regression tables (see, e.g., Table 6) indicate that our informal lending variables are endogenous in our consumption regressions, especially for the pooled and the rural samples. The instrumental variables estimates of the effects of informal credit should therefore be more credible than the OLS estimates.

Table 4 showed that formal credit use is also systematically related to household characteristics, and thus the endogeneity of that variable is a valid concern for our consumption regressions. While party affiliation (our wide radius measure of social capital) is strongly linked to formal credit use, it would not be a good candidate for use as an instrument. It would be implausible to argue that party affiliation affects household consumption only through its effects on access to formal credit, and thus party affiliation does not satisfy the exclusion restriction. Rather than use party affiliation as an instrument for formal credit use in the consumption regressions that follow, we therefore use it as an additional control. To the extent that the coefficient for formal credit use is positive and significant, and its inclusion substantially reduces the explanatory power associated with the party affiliation variable, it would suggest that a large share of the consumption benefits of party affiliation work through formal credit access. In this way, we could provide some evidence suggesting that the wide-radius social capital derived from party affiliation has some positive effects on access to formal credit (and the consumption levels of affiliated households).

# **5. Empirical Results**

# **5a. Effects of Informal Finance on Consumption**

Table 5 reports our base OLS results on how access to credit affects consumption per household member.<sup>18</sup> Columns 1-3 report the OLS results for the pooled, urban, and rural samples, respectively. Usage of informal loans is positively and significantly associated with consumption per capita in all three samples, though the coefficient is substantially smaller in the urban sub-sample. Informal credit, therefore, plays a more prominent role in rural areas than in urban areas. This is consistent with the notion that informal credit is more effective in regions in which close relationships between people

> 18 We have also explored how access to _long-term_ finance affects consumption. The results are almost identical to what are in Tables 5 and 6, and thus we do not report them.

15
# **1. Introduction**

Following the World Health Organization’s flagship report (WHO 2001), mental health is receiving increased attention in public health and policy spheres. According to widely circulated global burden estimates, unipolar depressive disorders are the leading cause of disability adjusted life-years (DALYs) in the Americas and the third leading cause in Europe, but they also rank highly in lower income countries. For instance they are the second leading cause in the Western Pacific, the fourth leading cause in SouthEast Asia and the fifth leading cause in the Eastern Mediterranean (Ustun et al., 2004).<sup>1</sup> While depression is not in top ten causes of DALYs in Africa, it is recognized as major source of disability particularly in conjunction with the HIV/AIDS epidemic (Freeman et al., 2005). The relatively few low-income country estimates of poor psychological health suggest that prevalence levels are not systematically lower than those found in wealthier countries (Bijl et al. 2003). The lifetime prevalence of psychiatric morbidity in rural Ethiopia was found to be 31.8 percent (Awas et al., 1999); a community survey of 1,454 adults in Sao Paulo, Brazil found a lifetime prevalence for any disorder of 45.9 percent (Andrade et al., 2002); and a review of 5 prevalence studies in 4 countries undergoing rapid socioeconomic change found lifetime prevalence rates of common mental disorders ranging from 23 percent in Pelotas, Brazil to 46 percent in Goa, India (Patel et al., 1999).

An economist’s viewpoint adds to this literature in two different ways. First, there are increasing calls for broadening the concept of well-being to include other markers of “human development” besides income or consumption-based measures. Mental health could well be an important new addition, as poor mental health directly affects well-being. Understanding how (and if) mental health indicators can be collected in the context of large-scale household surveys is thus important. Second, the _impact_ of mental health on economic behavior is of inherent interest. To the extent that mental health affects labor force participation or productivity, there may be a direct economic rationale for public investments in improving mental health.

Incorporating mental health measures in household surveys would extend current social science research on health, which attempts to understand the interrelations between poor physical health and economic and social outcomes (e.g. Strauss and Thomas, 1998). The consequences of mental disorders such as depression and anxiety are presumed to be significant yet are largely under-researched in low-income countries. A comparative research project of the World Bank’s Development Research Group attempted to address this knowledge gap by investigating the socio-economic context of poor mental health in low

> 1 Such statements should be treated with caution given the sparse data on both physical and mental health available in many countries in these regions.

- 2 -
Relative to a domestic firm, the probability of exporting for a foreign firm is higher by almost 6 percentage points. This effect is quite large since the average probability of exporting for domestic firms is only 6.3 percent. Only a few other determinants of exporting status have statistically significant coefficients. Large firms, not surprisingly, tend to export. Interestingly, firms featuring a higher share of ownership by the largest owner (e.g., a proxy of family ownership) are less likely to export.

# **Are there Spillover Effects of FDI?**

An important benefit from FDI is believed to be the spillover effects of FDI on domestic firms in terms of transfers in technologies, managerial know-hows, and competition effects. The spillover effects can be either horizontal or vertical. Horizontal spillovers refer to effects of the presence of foreign-owned firms on domestic firms within the same industry (or specializing in the same product). There are two counteracting effects related to horizontal spillovers: (a) the positive aspects such as technological spillovers, personnel movements, transfer of managerial know-how, and the cultivation of more efficient local input suppliers; (b) the negative aspects associated with foreign firms being competitors of domestic firms, taking away market shares, increasing the average fixed costs and, therefore, reducing productivity of domestic firms. The positive horizontal effects are also tempered by the fact that foreign firms have strong incentives to reduce the spillover of productive secrets to domestic firms via intellectual property rights and paying for efficiency wages to reduce personnel departures. Thus, the horizontal spillover effects tend to be ambiguous. Indeed, many recent studies find insignificant and even negative horizontal spillover effects—sometimes dubbed the “market-stealing” effect. The reference along this line includes Haddad and Harrison (1993) on Morocco, Aitken and Harrison (1999) on Venezuela, Djankov and Hoekman (2000) on the Czech Republic, and Konings (2001) on Bulgaria, Romania and Poland. The evidence appears to be more positive for the horizontal effects of FDI in developed countries (Haskel et al. 2002; Keller and Yeaple 2003) based on evidence from the United Kingdom and the United States. In contrast, Kee (2010) finds positive horizontal FDI spillover effects due to the cultivating of and the stronger demand for local input suppliers based on a sample of Bangladeshi garment firms. Vertical spillover effects refer to the potential benefits for 9
|**Country Code**<br>**(3-letter CTY)**|**Country**<br>**Name**|**Excel Workbook**<br>**File Name**|**Spreadsheet Names within**<br>**Country Workbook**|**Available**<br>**Years of**<br>**Data**|**Current**<br>**Version**<br>**(last updated)**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|KOR|South Korea|AD-KOR-v1.0.xls|AD-KOR-Master ,<br>AD-KOR-Products ,<br>AD-KOR-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-KOR-Foreign-Firms|1986-2004|v1.0<br>(8/2005)|
||||AD-MEX-Master ,|||
|MEX|Mexico|AD-MEX-v1.0.xls|AD-MEX-Products ,<br>AD-MEX-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-MEX-Foreign-Firms|1987-2003|v1.0<br>(8/2005)|
||||AD-NZL-Master ,|||
|NZL|New Zealand|AD-NZL-v1.0.xls|AD-NZL-Products ,<br>AD-NZL-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-NZL-Foreign-Firms|1995-2004|v1.0<br>(8/2005)|
|PER|Peru|AD-PER-v1.0.xls|AD-PER-Master ,<br>AD-PER-Products ,<br>AD-PER-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-PER-Foreign-Firms|1992-2002|v1.0<br>(8/2005)|
|TUR|Turkey|AD-TUR-v1.0.xls|AD-TUR-Master ,<br>AD-TUR-Products ,<br>AD-TUR-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-TUR-Foreign-Firms|1990-2004|v1.0<br>(10/2005?)|
|USA|United States|AD-USA-v1.0.xls|AD-USA-Master ,<br>AD-USA-Products ,<br>AD-USA-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-USA-Foreign-Firms|1980-2005|v1.0<br>(8/2005)|
||||AD-VEN-Master ,|||
|VEN|Venezuela|AD-VEN-v1.0.xls|AD-VEN-Products ,<br>AD-VEN-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-VEN-Foreign-Firms|1992-2002|v1.0<br>(8/2005)|
||||AD-ZAF-Master ,|||
|ZAF|South Africa|AD-ZAF-v1.0.xls|AD-ZAF-Products ,<br>AD-ZAF-Domestic-Firms ,<br>AD-ZAF-Foreign-Firms|1992-2004|v1.0<br>(8/2005)|

Note that we use the 3-letter UN country symbol to identify both the antidumping using countries (table 2.1), and then also the foreign countries that may be subject to the antidumping investigation, as even something as seemingly simple as the exact spelling of country names can differ across countries and sources of data. The 3-letter UN country symbol for each of the countries and territories in the database is presented in a table in the Appendix.

8
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