Box 1. Wasted Potential—Indonesian women have higher levels of human capital, but work less, earn less, and promoted less (Contd.) This could be caused by a cultural influence that posits that the holder of public office should be male. In judicative bodies, women representatives in high ranking officials in the Supreme Court and Constitutional Court are very few, at 8.5 percent and 11.11 percent, respectively. Women judges account for only 27 percent of judges.<sup>24</sup> To ensure that human capital in Indonesia is not wasted, policy makers must ensure that women continue to have the potential to develop their human capital by addressing the various issues that prevent women from participating in the labor force, including improving access to quality childcare and ensuring that women are compensated fairly for their labor, and have the same opportunity for career progression.

# 3.3. Gender Disparity in School Completion

The most recent national household survey (Susenas 2019) indicates that about 4.4 million children and adolescents aged 7-18 are out of school, despite large improvements in enrollment in prior decades. There are large socioeconomic and geographical disparities: adolescents of junior secondary school age from the poorest households are more than four times more likely to be out of school than those from the wealthiest households. Geographically, the out-of-school rates at the district and province levels for junior secondary age range from 1.2 percent in Riau to 22 percent in Papua. The current out-of-school population is concentrated among children with disabilities, working children, married children, children from poor families and children living in rural, remote areas. Based on qualitative data collected from the districts, boys often complete junior secondary level and then drop out to become migrant workers, as per regulations of the Ministry of Manpower that stipulate a minimum requirement of junior secondary school completion for some jobs.

Female out-of-school prevalence (1.7 percent) is slightly lower than male (2.2 percent). Nearly 2 percent of urban females and 1.2 percent of rural females aged 7-to-15-years-old had never attended school, compared with 1.1 percent of urban males and 1.9 percent of rural males.<sup>25</sup> In terms of repetition, the rates are higher for boys at the primary level. In 2018, nearly 1.7 percent of boys repeated grades in primary school, compared with 0.9 percent of girls.<sup>26</sup> Despite pro-poor programs such as _Bantuan Operasional Sekolah_ and _Program Indonesia Pintar (PIP)_ that have been implemented to ensure students from poor households can access free basic education, poverty is still a key determinant of school enrollment in Indonesia (ACDP, 2013). There is a large gap between the value of the PIP and total reported out-of-pocket costs for households. Households report education expenditures at IDR 1.19, 1.67, and 1.91 million (US$87, US$122 and US$139) for a single student in primary, junior secondary, or senior secondary school, respectively.<sup>27</sup> However, PIP benefits

> 22 Sakernas 2018.

> 23 <u>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/855851490958133680/Could-childcare-services-improve-women-s-labormarket-outcomes-in-Indonesia</u>

> 24 _Source:_ BPS, Statistik Indonesia, 2017. _Note:_ *Figure from Judges is gathered from Berita MA (January 21, 2018) reported by Azizah (https://www.mahkamahagung.go.id/id/berita/2905/ketua-ma-hakim-perempuan-indonesia-memiliki-peran-penting- <u>dalam-pembangunan-hukum-nasional).</u>

> 25 Susenas, 2019.

> 26 Repetition rate is computed from student repeaters divided by total student last academic year. Source: Primary School Statistics 2017/18 and 2018/19.

> 27 Susenas 2018 MSBP.

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