Gille 10 _Xi_ is a vector of household and land characteristics,<sup>9</sup> _Xv_ of village characteristics.<sup>10</sup> The heterogeneity in productivity across castes and States is taken into account by controlling for Caste dummies _C_ and State dummies _Ds_ . The characteristics of members from the same caste and from other castes are also added in some specifications.

Standard errors are corrected for clustering at the village level, since individuals are likely to be correlated within villages.

# Caste and Cross-Caste Impact

This section first looks at the impact of the education of members from the same caste and of members from other castes in the village on agricultural output. Table 2 presents four different specifications, and each column has a different set of controls. Column 1 only controls for farm and demographic characteristics as well as village characteristics (population of the village in log and land area). Column 2 additionally controls for variables at the caste in the village level, namely the number of caste members in the village and the caste mean value of demographic characteristics (mean age of the head of household in the caste, percentage of female heads of household in the caste, and mean household size in the caste). Column 3 controls for the same variables calculated over members of the other castes in the village. Column 4 additionally controls for the amount of land owned by caste members and by members of the other castes as a proxy for the wealth of the caste and of the other caste, as well as for the amount of transfers within the caste as a proxy for the strength of the insurance network in the caste. To keep the table easy to read, the coefficients on demographic and farm characteristics are reported in table S1.1 in the appendix.

The first specification in table 2 is the baseline specification: It controls for State dummies in addition to the controls cited above. The mean level of education of members from the same caste in the same village is positive and significant: an additional year in the mean level of education of members from the same caste increases agricultural productivity by 4.4 to 6.1 percent. On the contrary, the education level of members from other castes in the village has no impact. Whatever the set of controls, the coefficient is close to zero and not significant. The education of the head of household does not seem to have any impact on agricultural production.

However, there may be measurement error in the education of the head of household. It could be that the education of members from the same caste is a better measure of the education of the head of household than her/his own response. Specification 2 instruments the education level of the head of household, taken from the _survey_ , by the measure of the education level of the head of household in the _listing_ . Instrumenting by a measure of one variable by another measure of the same variable corrects for measurement error if the two measures have uncorrelated measurement errors (Wooldridge 2010). The household survey and the listing are two sets of data on the same households that are independently collected. The two measures of the education of the head of household are strongly but not perfectly correlated: the correlation between the two measures is 0.78. The first stages are reported in table S1.2 in the supplementary appendix S1. In the second stage the coefficients change very little compared to specification 1. There is still a strong effect of the education level of members from the same caste but no cross-caste effects. Moreover, instrumenting the education level of the head of household only marginally changes its coefficient estimate.

Specification 3 further checks if the correlation between the education level of members from the same caste and the agricultural productivity of the household is driven by unobservables by controlling for district dummies. The sample only includes districts for which there is information about at least two

> 9 Age, gender, education level of the head of household, household size, quality of the soil, the share of land that is owned, and the share of irrigated land.

10 Population and area of land.