migration can be considered not only in<sup>the positive senseasacommon response by individuals</sup> and families to difficult circumstances, but<sup>alsointhenormativesenseasadesirableoutcome</sup> that can help achieve equilibrium on the local<sup>labor market (recognizing that those departingmay</sup> be more likely to possess good skcills and to be<sup>moreproductive workers).</sup> 78. The foregoing suggests that some form<sup>ofmigration support (notnecessarilyfinancial)</sup> should also be an explicit policy in response<sup>totheemploymentproblemscausedbymine</sup> closure. In actual experience, however, policy directed<sup>atsupportingmigrationorotherwise</sup> stimulating labor mobility has been limited<sup>inthe casesunder review,fora number of reasons.</sup> First, in each country economic conditions<sup>havebeengenerallydifficulteverywhere,and</sup> officially sponsored migration is a politically<sup>andsociallysensitiveissuewhenthereareno</sup> obvious growth centers that can receive<sup>migrantswithoutdisplacingthelocal workforceand</sup> creating social tension. The problem of<sup>disposingof housingintheminingtownandof the</sup> availability of affordable housing in the new<sup>locationisalsoa severeconstraint. Thecostsof</sup> migration are high, and in cases where demand<sup>forsuchsupportishigh,practical andfinancial</sup> considerations would rule out the possibility<sup>of supportingmigrationofthepresumedscope.</sup> And while one can speak of a theoretically<sup>optimal populationsizeandcompositionforany</sup> given municipality that would help bring<sup>abouta(theoretical)equilibriumonthelocallabor</sup> market, governments might not wish to undertake<sup>theanalytical challengeof quantifyingthese</sup> variables and determining the related required<sup>scopeof migration supportfora varietyof social</sup> and political reasons. There need not be a contradiction<sup>betweensupportingpolicydirectedat</sup> preserving and developing the local economy<sup>and policydirectedat helpingpeople leavea place,</sup> but in practice it is difficult to combine these<sup>twopolicies intoanintegratedapproachto</sup> mitigating the effects of mine closure.

79. Another potential problem in the implementation<sup>of migrationsupportprogramscouldbea</sup> disinclination on the part of local officials<sup>tosupport migration,to theextent thattheseprograms</sup> are based on discretionary funds. This can be seen in the experience of Russia's<sup>local</sup> development programs, where particularly isolated<sup>municipalitieswithpoorfutureprospects</sup> have been given the choice of using their<sup>funds eithertosupportthe migrationof families back</sup> to "mainland" Russia or to carry out local development<sup>programs.Municipalofficialsinsuch</sup> cases are faced with the difficult task of finding<sup>the right balancefor the use of thelimitedfunds</sup> they receive, and in the first years of the<sup>administrationof these programstended tospend most</sup> of the funds on unrealistic local development<sup>programs ratherthanonfacilitating migration.</sup> Novoshakhtinsk in Russia is an interesting exception<sup>tothisgeneralstatement,havingmanaged</sup> to combine a successful local development effort<sup>basedonfacilitatingthegrowthof thesmall</sup> business sector while at the same time helping<sup>its residentsfind workoutside of thecity through</sup> an agency that was established for this purpose.<sup>Theagency,whichcontinuestofunction,assists</sup> people considering accepting job offers in<sup>other places(oftentemporaryorseasonal)primarily</sup> through verifying the legitimacy of the employer,<sup>whichisanimportantserviceascasesof</sup> deception of labor migrants are widely reported.

80. Despite the difficulties that face the<sup>migrantorwould-be migrant,theresearchfindingsas</sup> well as other evidence indicatc that to one<sup>degreeoranother,migrationfromcommunities</sup> impacted by mine closure is taking place, and in<sup>themajorityof caseswithoutofficial support.</sup> The commonly encountered view of the<sup>immobilityoflaborin thetransitioncountriesis</sup> challenged by the research findings in<sup>someof thelocations, notablyinUkraine,wherethe</sup> quantitative component of the research found<sup>evidenceof averyhighlevelof migrationof the</sup> 23