mobility in response to the expansion of roads and electricity, with residents moving from low-skilled jobs to high-skilled jobs. This latter finding is consistent with the negative effect of these two types of infrastructure expansion on agricultural employment (shown in Table 6) in rural areas.

# **6.3 Gender**

In this section, we examine the different effects on the employment of men and women that stem from investments in roads and electricity. We run separate regressions for each gender group, and present the results in columns 3 and 4 of Table 7 in the Appendix. We find that the direction in which these infrastructure investments affects employment does not differ by gender. However, the magnitude of the does The DHS sample results show that roads and electricity have greater marginal effects for women than for men. Columns 3 and 4 show that in locations along the grid, bringing roads 10 km closer marginally increases employment by 7.6 percentage points among men and by 39 percentage points among women, with these effects being statistically significant. The additional employment gain due to the joint investment in bringing both roads and electricity 10 km closer is larger for women (6.5 percentage points) than for men (2.2 percentage points).

Unlike in the DHS sample, the impacts from using the LSMS sample of countries are relatively similar between men and women.

The OLS results are reported in the Appendix Table 13. The main conclusions from these results qualitatively mirror those from the IV estimates, with a few differences. The OLS results show that electricity expansion increases employment both for men and women, and continues to increase employment in areas with high access to roads; this is consistent with the findings from the IV regressions. The OLS results show that, while the joint effect of roads and electricity is positive for both groups, its magnitude is larger for women.

The findings imply that employment gains from investment in road and electricity infrastructure in Africa accrue to a greater degree among women than among men. However, in certain countries, the effects might be larger for men, as shown in the LSMS. Africa is undergoing a spectacular transition away from low-paid jobs towards skilled and better-paid occupations; our results show that this transition differs by gender.

# **6.4 Age group**

To analyze the differential employment effects of roads and electricity by age, we categorize individuals in age groups: 20-45 and 46-66 years old. Because of differences in occupational choices made by individuals in different age groups, the employment effect of infrastructure expansion might differ by age.

The IV results are reported in columns 7 and 8 of Table 7. For both samples, the results show greater net employment gains for the 20-45 age group than for the 45-66 age group. In locations with high access to electricity, brining road networks 10 km closer increases the likelihood of working to a greater degree among those in the younger group than those in the older group (+25.6 vs. +20 in the DHS sample, and +5.0 vs. -2.3 in the LSMS). In locations that have high access to roads, increasing proximity to 28