# **_Livestock_**

There is ample evidence in support of a gender gap in livestock holdings – particularly at the household level.<sup>11</sup> Male-headed households in the FAO’s RIGA (Rural Income Generating Activity) database have larger livestock holdings than female-headed households in Ghana, Madagascar, Malawi, and Nigeria (FAO 2011a; FAO 2011b). In Mali, only 39% of female-headed agricultural holdings have any cattle, compared to 68% for male-headed holdings (FAO 2011a). Covarrubias et al. (2012) conducted a detailed descriptive analysis of livestock using household data from the Tanzania National Panel Survey. They find that rural male-headed households are more likely than their female-headed peers (65% vs. 51%) to report any income from livestock activities and they manage herds that are a third larger than female-headed household herds (Covarrubias, Nsiima, and Zezza 2012).<sup>12</sup> Women’s concentration in small-scale production is also well documented (FAO 2011b).<sup>13</sup> Covarrubias et al. (2012) find that the composition of female-headed household’s herds is weighted more toward small animals and less toward cattle when compared with those of male-headed households.<sup>14</sup> A similar pattern, in which men keep large animals while women keep smaller ruminants and poultry, is observed in other contexts in Africa (FAO 2009).

Gender gaps in the ownership and control of livestock assets likely influence women’s access to markets as well. While there is variation across contexts, even when women are involved in livestock production, they tend to be less involved then men in the marketing of livestock or decisions on how to use the revenue (Kristjanson et al. 2014). In their analysis of livestock market participation across three countries in Eastern Africa, Waithanji et al. (2013) find that, while women were more likely to sell the products that they managed (e.g., chickens, eggs, milk), men made up the bulk of the share of cattle and large livestock sales. Time and mobility constraints may also limit women’s market participation: the authors found that women were more likely to sell their products at the farm gate, while men were more likely to rely on outside markets.

# **_Savings_**

Formal savings rates – particularly in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa – remain low, as under-supply remains constrained by steep transaction costs, regulatory hurdles, and a lack of trust (Karlan, Ratan, and Zinman 2014). Savings demand is further dampened by unfavorable – and sometimes negative – real interest rates, deposit requirements, distance to deposit-receiving institutions, and the behavioral and liquidity constraints of poor households (Jack 2013).

Meanwhile, there are clear divides in terms of gender and financial inclusion in Sub-Saharan Africa. More than 38% of men hold some type of account compared to 30% of women (Demirguc-Kunt et al.

> 11 Evidence on the individual-level gender gap in livestock is limited due to the lack of data on intra-household ownership and control of livestock (Njuki and Sanginga 2013). As a consequence, we know very little about any potential individual-level gender differences in livestock productivity (Kristjanson et al. 2014).

> 12 Interestingly, Covarrubias et al. (2012) do not uncover gender gaps in terms of animal management within male-headed households. Nearly two-thirds of households have joint male-female management of livestock, while 18% have exclusively male managers and 17% have only female managers. Yet households with only female managers (including in female-headed households) report lower levels of input use (e.g., animal fodder) and animal vaccinations, and lower values of live animal sales than male managers.

13 There may also be gender differences in the quality of livestock breeds used by women and men (Herrero et al. 2013), but the evidence in support of this argument is inconclusive.

14 As Covarrubaias et al. (2012) note, gender differences in cattle ownership may be linked to supervision and labor constraints that female-headed households face relative to male-headed households -- leading to a preference for smaller animals that can remain near the home for supervision.

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