rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# _Regulation of temporary employment_

Indicators of the stringency of EPL for temporary contracts refer to: 1) the “objective” reasons under which they could be offered – only for temporary jobs such as temporary vacancies to replace a regular worker; training contracts, seasonal work; 2) the maximum cumulated duration of a contract.

Detailed indicators for the different components of employment protection have been first normalized from 0 to 1 from the least to the most restrictive in the country sample. They have then been aggregated into two synthetic indicators for regular and temporary contracts and an overall indicator of EPL. The aggregation process follows previous studies (e.g. OECD, 1994, 1999, 2004) and is largely based on simple averages of detailed regulatory aspects (see Annex 1 for details). Table 1 presents the synthetic indicators for all the countries in the sample used in our empirical analysis. As a simple validation test, our two synthetic indicators are highly correlated with those recently produced by the OECD (2004).<sup>11</sup> Three main points emerge from the synthetic indicators in Table 1. First, there is a large heterogeneity of regulatory settings within each of the world regions. Whether in the industrial country group or any other region, countries differ significantly in the stringency of their labor regulations. Secondly and bearing in mind this within-group variance, some regions tend to have a larger concentration of countries with strict regulations, in particular Europe and Central Asia, South Asia and Latin America. Third, many low-income countries have labor regulations that mimic or even exceed those of industrial economies—even if the latter have approached these conditions only gradually during their process of development. Indeed, while one might have expected a positive relation between the level of mandated labor protection and income across countries (i.e. labor protection is a normal good), the relationship is in fact weakly negative across our sample of countries.

**Table 1 The synthetic indicators of the stringency of employment protection for regular and temporary employment**

|Country (by region)|Overall<br>employment<br>index|Rank|Regular<br>employment<br>protection index|Rank|Temporary<br>employment<br>index|Rank|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Sub-Saharan Africa (SAS)_|||||||
|Botswana|0.20|24|0.40|44|0|1|
|Cameroon|0.67|75|0.67|80|0.67|60|
|Cote d'Ivoire|0.53|55|0.22|12|0.83|70|
|Ethiopia|0.57|63|0.40|44|0.75|63|
|Ghana|0.18|17|0.35|31|0|1|

> 11 In order to check the quality of our index, we compare it to the new indicator derived by the OECD (2004). The comparison can be made for 15 industrial and transition countries: Canada, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States. The correlation between our weighted index for overall employment regulation with the relevant overall OECD index is statistically significant at 1 per cent level (correlation coefficient= 0.82).

10
# Acknowledgement

This paper is an interim product of an ongoing World Bank research study on Transport Taxation and Road User Charges in Sub-Saharan Africa. The research<sup>reported in the paper</sup> was carried out **with** the active involvement of Ghanaian officials and draws<sup>extensively on</sup> information and data provided by them. The valuable assistance provided<sup>by Abbey Sam</sup> (Ghana Highway Authority), S. K. Nunoo (Ministry of Road and<sup>Highways) and Adote</sup> (Ministry of Transport and Comnmunications) is gratefully acknowledged.

Esra Bennathan initiated the research with the support and collaboration<sup>of Robert Warner</sup> and Lyn Squire, and has provided valuable advice and guidance throughout<sup>the course of</sup> the study. Anil Bhandari contributed with a detailed analysis of the traffic<sup>data reported in</sup> the paper and provided information on road construction and maintenance<sup>costs. William D.</sup> 0. Paterson advised on the assessment of road damage and associated cost<sup>functions. The</sup> report has benefitted from the reviews and comments by David Newbery,<sup>Jeffrey Gutman and</sup> Thampil Pankaj. The study was managed by Asif Faiz, Highways<sup>Adviser in the</sup> Infrastructure and Urban Development Department.
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- 20 -

# Table 4 (Continued) Comparative Analysis of Nomlnal Transport Costs for aolor Carlbbean Manufacturos and Ores Exports to **the** United States

||1986 Expor|ts|U.S.|No|minal Froia|ht Rate|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||% of|Applied|Caribbea|n Other||
|Country/Product<br>I/<br>Val|ue(SOOO)|Total 2/|<br>Tariff 3/|Exporter|s Exporter|Difference<br>4/|
|St. Kitts-Nevis|||||||
|Television<br>Parts, NSPF (6850855)|2,279|<br>10.3|<br>1.6|1,5|<br>3.5|<br>-2.0|
|Transformers<br>(6820520)|1,762|<br>7.9|0.4|1.2|<br>6.3|<br>-5.1|
|Parts of Electric Motors (6825500)|<br>1,547|<br>7.0|0.0|1.9|<br>5.4|<br>-3.5|
|Television<br>Apparatus (6850860)|1,438|<br>6.5|3.5|1.2|<br>2.7|<br>-1.5|
|Unrated<br>Transformers<br>(6820710)|1,123|<br>5.1|0.0|0.5|<br>5.1|<br>-4.6|
|Subtotals|13,737|<br>36.8|<br>1.2|1.3|<br>4.5|<br>-3.2|
|St. Lucia|||||||
|Brassieres<br>(3762430)|1,243|<br>10.1|<br>32.0|2.9|<br>3.4|<br>-0.5|
|Electrlc<br>Clrcult Broakers (6858035|)<br>883|7.2|1.4|0.5|<br>4.7|<br>-4.2|
|Fixed Resistors (6861082)|784|6.4|0.2|1.3|<br>3.3|<br>-2.0|
|Brassieres,<br>Plain (3762830)|689|5.6|18.0|4.0|<br>4.0|<br>0.0|
|3ody Support<br>Garments (3762886)|503|4.1|17.5|3.8|<br>3.4|<br>0.4|
|Subtotals|4,102|<br>33.4|15.1|2.4|<br>3.8|<br>-1.4|
|St. Vincent|||||||
|Lawn Tennis Rackets (7348600)|4,992|<br>63.7|2.5|1.5|<br>2.1|<br>-0.6|
|Infants<br>Dresses (3842515)|1,155|<br>14.7|<br>28.7|4.7|<br>6.6|<br>-1.9|
|Subtotals|6,147|<br>78.4|7.5|2.1|<br>3.0|<br>-0.9|
|Suriname|||||||
|Alulminum<br>Oxide (4171240)|24,780|<br>64.2|0.0|14.2|<br>7.5|<br>6.7|
|Bauxite,<br>NES (6010600)|4,169|<br>10.8|0.0|26.7|<br>22.1|4.6|
|Womens Footwear (7004514)|2,620|<br>6.8|10.0|2.9|<br>6.2|-3.3|
|Subtotals|31,569|<br>81.8|0.9|14.8|<br>9.3|5.5|
|Trinidad<br>& Tobago|||||||
|Crude Petroleum (4751010)|553,216|<br>70.4|0.6|4.4|<br>8.3|-3.9|
|Fuel Ol Under 25 Degrees (4750535)|<br>85,815|<br>10.9|0.5|8,4|<br>9.8|-1.4|
|Anhydrous<br>Awmonia (4806540)|37,670|<br>4.8|0.0|18.0|<br>14.3|<br>3.7|
|Fuel Oil Over 25 Degrees (4751015)|<br>26,597|<br>3.4|0.0|5.1|<br>7.1|-2.0|
|Methyl Alcohol (4279700)|10,208|<br>1.3|0.0|20.6|<br>32.9|-12.3|
|Iron and Steel Rods (6071700)|9,908|1.3|0.4|13.1|<br>13.4|<br>-0.3|
|Subtotals|723,414|<br>92.1|0.5|5.9|<br>9.0|-3.1|

1/ United States TSUSA classificatio **n** umbers are shown In parentheses. Tho average applied tariff and average nominal freight rates have been computed using weights based on the values for the major Caribbean manufactures exports to the Unitod States.

2/ These figures show the share of the product In total exports of all goods.

3/ Measured by the ratIo of all tariff revenues collected on the product to the f.o.b. value of the Import. This ratio Is then multiplied by 100. For offshore assembly Items the tariffs are net of Imperted components from the Unitod States.

4/ The nominal freight rate for Caribbean products minus that for other exporters. A negative value Indicates a favorable Caribbean transport differential. 5/ Tho **1966** statistits contain a relatively high value of Items like used construction machinery that **were** re-exports to **the** United States. See Appendix Table 6.
29 for public action to seek to level the playing field, by promoting greater opportunities for the poor and disadvantaged.<sup>31</sup> Though many countries in Latin America have recently begun to experiment with such active promotion policies, none has yet developed an integrated strategy for this. Chile comes closest, with the combination of _Chile Solidario_ and _Chile Crece Contigo_ . Elsewhere, coherence in a set of policies aimed explicitly at promoting opportunity for the disadvantaged remains lacking. Therein lies the second great challenge to the social protection system in LAC in the decade that begins in 2010.

# **5. Conclusions**

This paper has reviewed the achievements and limitations of social protection in Latin America in the last couple of decades, and considered some of the challenges that face it in the immediate future. In doing so, it sought to take into account the multiple layers of interdependence between social assistance and social insurance. We introduced their distinct objectives as risk‐pooling and consumption smoothing for social insurance, and poverty reduction for social assistance. But the interdependence between the two systems, arising from the variability of income streams, overlapping sources of finance, and the incentives they set for individuals, was also noted.

These inter‐relationships were a common thread in our brief review of social assistance in LAC since the Second World War. Because mandatory and contributory social insurance schemes were Birmarckian in inspiration, and thus contingent on formal employment, they excluded the bulk of workers, and almost all of the poor in the region. Since the late 1980s, democratic governments have sought to complement this “truncated welfare state” by extending non‐contributory social assistance benefits to those previously excluded. This has led to mixed results: on the one hand, states in Latin America have succeeded in reaching their poor. A variety of non‐contributory social pensions, such as Brazil’s _Benefício de Prestação Continuada_ (BPC), now do make relatively large transfers to people formerly excluded from any social protection. Unemployed and informal sector workers in Argentina, who might previously not have qualified for formal severance pay or unemployment insurance, can now receive the _Asignación Universal por Hijo_ . Most prominently, conditional cash transfers – a homegrown invention ‐ have mushroomed throughout the region, with a remarkably good track record in targeting, and proven impact on school enrollment (at least).

On the other hand, the system of benefits that arose from this “organic expansion” remains dualistic and divided. Because social insurance is (largely) financed by taxing formal sector employment, while

> 31 See e.g. World Bank (2006) and Bourguignon et al. (2007).
In this paper, we seek to unpack the economic effects of EVD, and epidemics more broadly, in agrarian societies. We focus on the availability of agricultural labor for critical and time-sensitive tasks such as planting and harvesting, which normally require a degree of worker coordination and mobilization. Liberia, for example, has a labor recruitment system known as _kuu_ for assembling agricultural workers for seasonal tasks, especially in the production of rice, the principal crop. We consider the hypothesis that fear of congregating in groups disrupted worker mobilization and led to severe labor shortages, thus depressing rice production and, ultimately, rural welfare. To explore this mechanism, we link a geographically disaggregated indicator of Ebola disease mortality with nationally representative household survey data on agricultural production and household welfare.

To preview, we find that higher Ebola prevalence (as measured by local mortality) led to greater disruption of group-labor mobilization for planting and harvest and reduced rice area planted as well as rice yields. Consistent with this evidence, household welfare, measured by per capita expenditures, fell by more in Ebola prevalent areas with more intensive rice-farming, i.e., in precisely those areas differentially affected by agricultural labor shortages.

Other research, produced during and in the immediate aftermath of the EVD crisis in Liberia, also suggests that serious agricultural labor shortages occurred due to contagion fears. However, these findings are based largely on impressionistic or subjective evidence from non-representative samples.<sup>6</sup> Using a simulation model, FAO (2015) estimates that,

> 6 Among respondents to a World Bank cellphone survey who had already harvested, over 80 percent reported lower production in 2014 than in the previous year, the main reason being the labor disruption due to Ebola (World Bank 2015). This was also the main reason cited by those with crops still in the field as to why the harvest had not been completed. UNDP (2014) finds a decline in the supply of labor due to deaths, the migration of workers to escape the disease, and the unwillingness to engage in collective activities such as land preparation and harvesting.

3
count of existing contributions and the differing capacities and resources among States.” It formally “intends to provide a basis for predictable and equitable burden- and responsibility-sharing among all United Nations Member States, together with other relevant stakeholders as appropriate.” Underpinning the global debate on responsibilitysharing is the assumption that “the grant of asylum may place unduly heavy burdens on certain countries” (UN General Assembly 2018), typically countries neighboring a conflict area. In this perspective, the number of refugees a country is to host is simply a function of its geography.

This paper examines empirically the proposition that the hosting of refugees falls disproportionately on neighboring countries, which in most cases are in the developing world. To do so, we use data on worldwide bilateral refugee stocks compiled by UNHCR to examine the spatial distribution of refugees and its evolution over time. Our period of analysis is 1987-2017.

Our main findings can be summarized as follows. While refugees still remain overwhelmingly in a country neighboring their country of origin, the past decades have seen a trend towards greater geographic diffusion. We begin by showing that the global population of refugees has been increasingly dispersed across host countries, as captured by a falling Herfindahl index of host-country shares.

We then document several features of the data underlying this greater diffusion, using four outcome measures of refugee spatial distribution. First, we compute the average distance refugees have traveled between their country of origin and their country of destination. The average distance traveled by refugees has increased substantially over time. Next, we look at the probability that source and host countries are contiguous, and show that the share of refugees going to an adjacent country has fallen. Third, we construct a measure of refugee spatial dispersion by computing the Herfindahl index of refugee shares by source country. The Herfindahl index of refugee shares fell substantially over time, indicating that refugees from a given conflict are now more dispersed across host countries.

These results paint a picture of a more globalized and far-reaching refugee network and imply a more equal distribution of the responsibility for hosting refugees, albeit with the backdrop of highly unequal distribution to start with. To get some indication 3
technologies and products of nationally-owned intellectual property rights in high-tech industries limits the profit-making capabilities of domestic enterprises. The growing gap in the capabilities between advanced countries and China defies easy solutions. Promoting creative entrepreneurship and creating an innovative milieu should evolve into key development programs.

# **_III. Targeting innovative cities: comparison between Beijing and Shanghai_**

# **Overview**

Beijing and Shanghai are two of China’s leading cities. Each plays a different role in the national economy and these roles are continuing to evolve.

**Table 1:** Major indicator of Beijing and Shanghai, 2002

||Area<br>|Population*|GDP|GDP/Capita|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1,000km<sup>2</sup>)|(1,000)|(RMB billion)|(RMB)|
|Beijing|17|14,230|321.3|28,449|
|Shanghai|6|16,250|540.9|40,627|

_Note_ : * only registered residential population, floating population not included _Source_ : Beijing Statistic Yearbook 2003; Shanghai Statistic Yearbook 2003.

# **Changing roles in the national economy**

Since the establishment of the socialist economy, Beijing has developed into an industrialized city with a fully integrated industrial structure covering the fields of electronics, iron and steel, machinery, chemicals, textiles, automobile manufacturing, etc. But Beijing is constrained from developing large industrial complexes by the lack of water resources. This bottleneck limits Beijing’s industrialization. Still, Beijing has an irreplaceable position in the national economy and is often the first choice for foreign companies wanting to locate in China. These advantages are quite crucial in developing knowledge intensive business services.

Shanghai is ideally located to serve as the gateway to the Yangtze Valley area from the sea. But before the first Opium War between China and the Britain in 1840s, it was little more than a small town supported by fishing and weaving. Since then, following the unfair treaties sighed after a series of wars, foreigners came into Shanghai to establish settlements and businesses. The British, along with the Americans and French, were allowed to live in certain territorial zones without being under Chinese laws. As a result, Shanghai became greatly influenced by Western culture. It became an international port and the financial and commercial 8
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# **INNOVATIVE AND ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY OF INTERNATIONAL KNOWLEDGE**

# **An empirical analysis of productivity sources in Latin American countries**

Leopoldo Laborda Castillo<sup>*</sup> World Bank and Institute of Latin American Studies University of Alcalá (Spain) Daniel Sotelsek Salem<sup>***</sup> Institute of Latin American Studies University of Alcalá (Spain) Jose Luis Guasch<sup>**1</sup> World Bank and University of California, San Diego (USA)

# **Keywords**

Technical Efficiency, Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA), Malmquist index.

> * Research Associate at the Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Alcalá c/ Trinidad no1, Colegio de Trinitarios, Alcalá de Henares, 28801, Madrid. (Spain). Phone: +34 91 8820399. e- mail: llabordacastillo@gmail.com

** Professor of Economics at the University of Alcalá (Spain). e-mail: daniel.sotelsek@uah.es

> *** Senior Economist at the World Bank and Professor of Economics at University of California, San Diego (USA) e-mail:  jguasch@worldbank.org

> 1The authors are thankful to Esperanza Lasagabaster and two anonymous referees for very useful comments.

1
Diversification and Resource Management: Refocusing the Role of Agriculture? Dartmouth Publishing, Aldershot, UK.

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29
ZIMBABWE‘S INFRASTRUCTURE: A CONTINENTAL PERSPECTIVE Kaseke, Nyasha. 2010. ―The Cost of Power Outages in Zimbabwe‘s Mining Sector.‖ African Executive, Issue 277, Nairobi, Kenya.

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