rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Resistance to multilateral influence
            on reform : the political backlash against private
            infrastructure investments
Coercive isomorphism is a prominent
            source of institutional change. The literature to date has
            emphasized how actors that are powerful and legitimate (for
            example, a national government) may coerce the adoption of
            reforms by dependent actors (for example, state governments
            and other organizations whose activities are governed by the
            federal government). The authors observe that an
            actor's power alone may be sufficient to promote
            reform, regardless of the actor's legitimacy. But such
            reforms are more susceptible to subsequent change than those
            that emerge from processes not subject to the influence of
            external actors whose sway derives from their power alone.
            They develop and test their arguments in the context of the
            worldwide electricity provision industry by analyzing
            countries' adoption of reforms in response to
            conditional lending practices by multilateral organizations
            such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
            The authors find that reforms adopted in response to
            coercive pressures exerted by these organizations encounter
            much greater resistance, and that the incidence of financial
            and economic crises, the absence of checks and balances in
            established political institutions, and the inexperience of
            investor coalitions dramatically increase the predicted
            level of resistance.
Managing unilateral market power in electricity
This paper first describes those
            features of the electricity supply industry that make a
            prospective market monitoring process essential to a
            well-functioning wholesale market. Some of these features
            are shared with the securities industry, although the
            technology of electricity production and delivery make a
            reliable transmission network a necessary condition for an
            efficient wholesale market. These features of the
            electricity supply industry also make antitrust or
            competition law alone an inadequate foundation for an
            electricity market monitoring process. This paper provides
            examples of both the successes and failures of market
            monitoring from several international markets. More than 10
            years of experience with the electricity industry
            restructuring process has shown that market failures are
            more likely and substantially more harmful to consumers than
            other market failures because of how electricity is produced
            and delivered and the crucial role it plays in the modern
            economy. Wholesale market meltdowns of varying magnitudes
            and durations have occurred in electricity markets around
            the world, and many of them could have been prevented if a
            prospective market monitoring process backed by the
            prevailing regulatory authority had been in place at the
            start of the market.
Estimating household responses to
            trade reforms : net consumers and net producers in rural Mexico
This paper explores an empirical
            methodology to assess the impacts of trade reforms on
            household behavior in developing countries. It focuses on
            consumption and income responses: when price reforms take
            place, households modify consumption and production
            decisions and local labor markets adjust. The paper proposes
            a joint estimator of demand and wage price elasticities from
            survey data. The method uses an empirical model of demand to
            extract price information from unit values, and uses this
            information to estimate the response of households to price
            reforms. By correcting unit values for quality effects and
            measurement error, the method overcomes the problem of the
            endogeneity of unit values. By endogeneizing household
            income, the model corrects potential biases in the
            estimation of own- and cross-price elasticities in
            consumption. The paper applies the method to an expenditure
            and income survey for rural Mexico. It shows that the
            corrections suggested in this paper are empirically
            important. In particular, it shows that allowing for
            consumption and income responses is a key element of an
            accurate empirical assessment of trade policy.
Growing together or growing apart a
            village level study of the impact of the Doha Round on rural China
Most studies of the opening of the
            Chinese economy focus at the national level. The few
            existing disaggregated analyses are limited to analyzing
            changes in agricultural production. The authors use an
            innovative village equilibrium model that accounts for
            nonseparability of household production and consumption
            decisions. This allows them to analyze the impact of trade
            liberalization on household production, consumption, and
            off-farm employment, as well as the interactions among these
            three aspects of household decisions. They use the village
            model to analyze the impact of price changes and labor
            demand, the two major pathways through which international
            trade affects households. Analyzing the impact of trade
            liberalization for one village in the Jiangxi province of
            China, the authors find changes in relative prices and
            outside village employment to have opposite impacts on
            household decisions. At the household level the impact of
            price changes dominates the employment impacts. Comparing
            full trade liberalization and the more limited Doha
            scenario, reactions are more modest in the latter case for
            most households, but the response is nonlinear to increasing
            depth of trade reforms. This is explained by
            household-specific transaction (shadow) prices in
            combination with endogenous choices to participate in the
            output markets. Rising income inequalities are a growing
            concern in China. Whether trade liberalization allows
            incomes to grow together or to grow apart depends on whether
            one accounts for the reduction in consumption demand when
            household members migrate. Assessing the net effect on the
            within-village income distribution, the authors find that
            poorer households that own draught power gain most from
            trade liberalization. The households that have to rely on
            the use of own labor for farm activities and are not endowed
            with traction power, nor with a link to employment
            opportunities in the prospering coastal regions, have fewer
            opportunities for adjustment.
The WTO Doha Round, cotton sector
            dynamics, and poverty trends in Zambia
The Zambian cotton sector went through
            significant reforms during the 1990s. After a long period of
            parastatal control, a process of liberalization in cotton
            production and marketing began in 1994. These reforms were
            expected to benefit agricultural farmers. In Zambia, these
            are rural, often vulnerable, smallholders. The authors
            investigate the connection between the dynamics of the
            cotton sector and the dynamics of poverty and evaluate to
            what extent cotton can work as a vehicle for poverty
            alleviation. They find that cotton can indeed act as an
            effective mechanism for increased household welfare. They
            also find income gains associated with cotton production, as
            well as positive impacts on the long-run nutritional status
            of Zambian children. The impacts, however, are relatively small.
The WTO Doha Round, cotton sector
            dynamics, and poverty trends in Zambia
i WPS3697

# **The WTO Doha Round, Cotton Sector Dynamics**

## **and Poverty Trends in Zambia**<sup>1</sup>

by Jorge F. Balat<sup>2</sup> and Guido G. Porto<sup>3</sup> Chapter 6 in _Putting Development Back into the Doha Agenda: Poverty Impacts of a WTO Agreement_ , Thomas W. Hertel and L. Alan Winters (eds.) forthcoming from the World Bank, Washington, DC.

### World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3697, September 2005

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> 1 We wish to thank G. Rucci for her assistance in preparing this paper, and to T. Hertel, B. Hoekman and W. Martin for encouragement and support. We have benefitted from the comments of I. Brambilla, T. Hertel, A. Nicita, M. Olarreaga, I. Soloaga and A. Winters. The detailed comments of J. Lay at the volume conference are greatly appreciated. The discussion among participants at the The Hague conference was also very useful.

> 2 Development Research Group, mailstop MC3-303, World Bank, 1818 H Street, Washington DC 20433. email: jbalat@worldbank.org

> 3 Development Research Group, mailstop MC3-303, World Bank, 1818 H Street, Washington DC 20433. email: gporto@worldbank.org
Impacts of the Doha Development
            Agenda on China : the role of labor markets and
            complementary education reforms
The authors assess the implications of
            multilateral trade reforms for poverty in China. They do so
            by combining results from a global modeling exercise with a
            national CGE model that features disaggregated households in
            both the rural and urban sectors. They examine two trade
            reform scenarios: one involving global trade liberalization,
            and one involving possible Doha Development Agenda reforms.
            Using the World Bank's $2 a day poverty line, the
            authors find that multilateral trade reforms do in fact
            reduce poverty in China. The biggest reductions occur in the
            rural areas-largely as a result of higher prices for farm products.
Remittances : transaction costs,
            determinants, and informal flows
Recorded workers' remittances to
            developing countries have grown rapidly, to more than $100
            billion in 2004, bringing increasing attention to these
            flows as a potential tool for development. But even these
            statistics are likely to significantly understate true
            remittances, as a large share is believed to flow through
            informal channels. Estimates of the importance of the
            informal sector vary widely, ranging from 35 percent to 250
            percent of total remittances. The primary motivation of the
            authors is to develop the first empirical methodology to
            estimate informal flows. They use insights from the
            literature on shadow economies and empirically estimate
            informal remittances for more than 100 countries using
            historical data on the balance of payments (BOP), migration,
            transaction costs, and country characteristics. Their
            results imply that informal remittances amount to about
            35-75 percent of official remittances to developing
            countries. There is significant regional variation: informal
            remittances to Sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe and
            Central Asia are relatively high, while those to East Asia
            and the Pacific are relatively low. These estimates are
            supplemented with detailed household survey data on
            remittance receipts in a number of countries. The results
            also shed light on the determinants of recorded remittances
            and the associated fees in the formal sector. The authors
            find that the stock of migrants in OECD countries is the
            primary determinant of remittances. In addition, money
            transfer fees and the presence of dual exchange rates reduce
            the share of remittances reported in national accounts. In
            turn, transaction costs are systematically related to
            concentration in the banking sector, lack of financial
            depth, and exchange rate volatility. There is also evidence
            that remittances are misrecorded in the BOP as "errors
            and omissions."
Fiscal determinants of empowerment
Empowerment of local governments and
            citizens is a primary object of decentralization. Using the
            analytic lens of empowerment, the author explores the nature
            of decentralized governance and how this type of structure
            is likely to be more or less empowering. His primary concern
            is fiscal decentralization, specifically the association
            between fiscal determinants and the degree of empowerment of
            both citizens and local governments. The author's main
            argument is that both the revenue and expenditure
            characteristics of local public finances have an effect on
            the degree of empowerment. His hypothesis is that in a
            context of decentralized local governance, empowerment is
            most likely to occur when three conditions prevail: low
            costs of participation, large and flexible budgets, and a
            high proportion of tax revenues from a local base. But these
            ingredients for empowerment will not necessarily produce
            outcomes that are progressive and pro-poor. The author
            contrasts the intrinsic and the instrumental approaches to
            empowerment, but he does not assess the impact of
            empowerment on instrumental outcomes. For this hypothesis to
            support an instrumentalist perspective on empowerment,
            further empirical work must be conducted.
Openness, industrialization, and
            geographic concentration of activities in China
Rapid development, a widening regional
            gap, and growing concentration of activities have
            characterized the Chinese economy since the reforms in the
            late 1970s. This paper examines the spatial disparities of
            the economic concentration in different stages of
            development from a geographic approach in the case of China.
            It aims at offering empirical supports on (1) how
            concentrated the economic activities are; (2) what factors
            determine the economic concentration; and (3) whether this
            concentration differs in the coastal and inland regions. The
            results show that the high-technology industries highly
            concentrate in the coastal provinces. The limited diffusion
            of the labor intensive activities within the coastal region
            does not significantly modify the major trend of the
            location and specialization of the industries in the inland
            region, and does not contribute to narrowing the regional
            disparities. The paper argues that in order to stimulate the
            geographic diffusion of economic activities to the inland
            region, it is important to appropriately alleviate internal
            migration control, reduce unnecessary state intervention,
            and further encourage domestic market integration.
Openness, industrialization, and
            geographic concentration of activities in China
WPS3706

# **Openness, industrialization and geographic concentration of activities in China**<sup>�</sup>

## **Maurice Catin**<sup>**°**</sup>

## **Xubei Luo**<sup>*****</sup> **Christophe Van Huffel**<sup>**°**</sup>

**_Abstract:_** Rapid development, a widening regional gap, and growing concentration of activities have characterized the Chinese economy since the economic reforms in the late 1970s. This paper examines the spatial disparities of the economic concentration in different stages of development from a geographic approach in the case of China. The paper aims at offering empirical support on (i) how concentrated the economic activities are; (ii) what factors determine the economic concentration; and (iii) whether this concentration differs in the coastal and inland regions. The results show that the high-tech industries are concentrated highly in the coastal provinces. The limited diffusion of the labor intensive activities within the coastal region does not significantly modify the major trend of the location and specialization of the industries in the inland region, and does not contribute to narrowing the regional disparities.

The paper argues that in order to stimulate the geographic diffusion of economic activities to the inland region, it is important to appropriately alleviate internal migration control, reduce unnecessary state intervention, and further encourage domestic market integration.

**_Key Words_** : China, stages of development, specialization, spatial concentration. **_JEL Code:_** F15, L60, O53, R12.

World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3706, September 2005 _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> � We would like to thank Jean-Jacques Dethier, Shahrokh Fardoust, Alan Gelb, Gillmore Hoefdraad, Bert Hofman, Russell Pittman, and Mark Sundberg for helpful comments, and participants at the Workshop on Economic Development and Transition (Journées de l'Association Française de Science Economique) in Clermont-Ferrand, May 2005, for fruitful discussions.

> ° CRERI, University of South Toulon-Var, France.

> * World Bank, Development Economics Vice Presidency.

1
Multilateral trade liberalization
            and Mexican households : the effect of the Doha development agenda
Empirical evidence suggests that global
            trade reforms are unlikely to produce analogous results
            across countries, especially when analyzing their effect on
            poverty. This implies that the analysis of trade reform on
            social welfare cannot be generalized and needs to be
            conducted on a country by country basis. Moreover, even
            within the same country, geographic areas, households, and
            individuals are likely to be differentially affected, some
            of them benefiting more than others, while others might
            lose. With this in mind, the author provides a quantitative
            estimate of the effect on Mexican households from the
            implementation of the Doha development agenda. His analysis
            uses a two-step approach for which changes in prices and
            factors are estimated through a CGE model (GTAP) and then
            mapped into the welfare function of the household using
            household survey data. The empirical approach the author
            uses aims to measure the impact of Doha implementation by
            tracing changes in the household prices of goods and factors
            and their impact on household welfare, taking particular
            account the role of domestic price transmission. The
            findings suggest that multilateral trade liberalization
            alone would have a negative effect on Mexican households,
            even though very small. However, when the implementation of
            the Doha development agenda is complemented by domestic
            policies aimed at increasing productivity and improving
            domestic price transmission, the overall effects become
            positive. The results point to the importance of domestic
            price transmission in determining the variance of the
            effects across households.
Brain gain : claims about its size
            and impact on welfare and growth are greatly exaggerated
Based on static partial equilibrium
            analysis, the "new brain drain" literature argues
            that, by raising the return to education, a brain drain
            generates a brain gain that is, under certain conditions,
            larger than the brain drain itself, and that such a net
            brain gain results in an increase in welfare and growth due
            to education's positive externalities. This paper
            argues that these claims are exaggerated. In the static
            case, and based on both partial and general equilibrium
            considerations, the paper shows that (1) the size of the
            brain gain is smaller than suggested in that literature; (2)
            the impact on welfare and growth is smaller as well (for any
            brain gain size); (3) a positive brain gain is likely to
            result in a smaller, possibly negative, human capital gain;
            (4) an increase in the stock of human capital may have a
            negative impact on welfare and growth; and (5) in a dynamic
            framework, the paper shows that the steady-state brain gain
            is equal to the brain drain so that a 'beneficial brain
            drain' cannot take place, and a net brain loss is
            likely during the transition.