**Table  2.4 Wastewater use for irrigation by level of economic development**

|**Characteristics**<br>**by level of**<br>**economic**<br>**development**|**Low-income**<br>**countries**<br>**(43 countries)**<br>**<$975**<br>**GNI/cap**|**Lower-middle-**<br>**income countries**<br>**(55 countries)**<br>**$976-3,855**<br>**GNI/cap**|**Upper-middle-**<br>**income countries**<br>**(46 countries)**<br>**$3,586-11,905**<br>**GNI/cap**|**High-income**<br>**countries**<br>**(66 countries, 27 OECD)**<br>**>$11,906**<br>**GNI/cap**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Wastewater use<br>practices|Indirect use of untreated<br>wastewater<br>commonplace due to<br>widespread pollution;<br>Direct use of untreated<br>wastewater and fecal<br>sludge commonplace,<br>especially in water short<br>areas|<br>Indirect use of<br>untreated effluents<br>commonplace;<br>Direct use of<br>untreated<br>wastewater still<br>observed;<br>Direct use of treated<br>effluents appearing|Direct use of treated<br>effluents on the<br>increase;<br>Indirect use of<br>untreated effluents still<br>problematic but<br>increasingly regulated|<br>Direct use of reclaimed<br>wastewater commonplace in<br>agriculture and industry|
|Wastewater use<br>policy<br>framework|Generally non-existent<br>or unenforced;<br>Informal (or unplanned)<br>use predominates|Emerging policies<br>and framework;<br>Enforcement<br>capacity a major<br>concern|Use policies generally<br>defined within water<br>resources management<br>framework;<br>Enforcement capacity<br>increasing|Use policies established and<br>enforced, often within an<br>integrated water resources<br>management framework,<br>especially in water short areas|
|Wastewater use<br>health issues|High burden of<br>helminthic and diarrheal<br>diseases (both<br>occupational and<br>consumer exposure);<br>Difficult to distinguish<br>cause due to high<br>background levels from<br>lack of basic water and<br>sanitation services|<br>Continued concern<br>with helminthic and<br>diarrheal diseases<br>(both occupational<br>and consumer<br>exposure);<br>Uncontrolled<br>industrial discharges<br>problematic in<br>emerging economies|Observed outbreaks of<br>typhoid and cholera<br>linked to agricultural<br>use of untreated<br>sewage;<br>Increasing concern<br>with industrial<br>discharges into<br>municipal sewer<br>systems|Pathogens under control;<br>Industrial discharges under<br>control;<br>Primarily concerned with<br>amenity values and exotic toxic<br>substances|
|Drivers of<br>wastewater use|Subsistence agriculture<br>in and around cities in<br>search of water;<br>Livelihood<br>opportunities;<br>Proximity & reliability<br>of supply;<br>Nutrient value of<br>wastewater|Water scarcity or<br>drought;<br>Urban food demand;<br>Proximity &<br>reliability of supply;<br>Nutrient value of<br>wastewater;<br>Exports protection|Water scarcity or<br>drought;<br>Proximity & reliability<br>of supply;<br>Food security;<br>Pollution of traditional<br>water sources;<br>Exports protection|<br>Water scarcity or drought;<br>Pollution prevention;<br>Food security;<br>Exports protection|
|Key wastewater<br>use countries|Sub-Saharan Africa<br>except South Africa;<br>Vietnam, Yemen|Bolivia, China,<br>Egypt, India, Iran,<br>Jordan, Morocco,<br>Pakistan, Sudan,<br>Syria, Tunisia, West<br>Bank and Gaza|Argentina, Chile,<br>Colombia, Lebanon,<br>Libya, Mexico, Peru,<br>South Africa|Non-OECD: Bahrain, Cyprus,<br>Israel, Kuwait, Malta, Oman,<br>Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE<br>OECD: Australia, France,<br>Greece, Italy, Japan, Portugal,<br>Spain, US (e.g., CA, FL, AZ)|

_Sources:_ Shuval _et al_ ., 1986; Bartone, 1997; Scott _et al_ ., 2004; WHO, 2006; Jimenez and Asano, 2008a; UNHABITAT, 2008; and Drechsel _et al_ ., 2010. Income data from World Bank, 2010.

13