rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
A Duration Analysis of CONALEP diversified technical education programs; this group’s labor force participation and employment performance in January 1994 was compared with that of CONALEP graduates of 1991, and of 1991-93 combined. The first comparison group was created from a mail survey of all graduates, with a 45% response rate, and therefore is likely to be biased toward those who were either employed, studying, or had a higher level of earnings. The second comparison group was made up of employed workers aged 20 to 24, as reported in the aggregates of the ENEU of January 1994.

The results of these evaluations concluded that CONALEP graduates actively participated in the labor market at a much higher rate than the similar age cohort of the general population, and at a much higher rate than graduates from traditional technical high schools. On average, CONALEP graduates found jobs faster than control individuals, and about two-thirds of CONALEP graduates worked in jobs related to the specialization they had studied. Using crosscohort comparison, these evaluations also suggested that CONALEP graduates’ earnings increased rapidly within the first two to three years of employment.

These conclusions are as expected, although the magnitudes of the participation rate and the increase in earnings in comparison to the magnitudes in traditional technical high schools and the general population are surprising—30% in Lane and Tan, and 40% in Lee. The results should be considered with caution, since these studies failed to control for possible self-selection bias that could account for different labor market outcomes between the CONALEP group and the comparison groups. In addition, some of these evaluations do not fully explain how the control groups were constructed.

A fourth evaluation, aimed at understanding the background experience and goals of CONALEP students, conducted a survey with 5% of the senior students (ready to graduate) and freshmen students, the control group. The sample was 4,930 third year students and 725 first year students who, on the basis of their responses, were then divided into three groups using a socioeconomic status indicator. The results confirm the assumption that close to one-third of the students from CONALEP come from a low socioeconomic background. Another 40% come from a middle socioeconomic range. About 18% have parents with basic secondary school or more, own their own home with four or more rooms and have either a car, a phone, or both. The average entry test scores for the sample show several important trends in social class, gender, and cohort, as described below.

7
Tasputs: Activities: : eT en Bo 1) Integrated 7-hour curricular guidelines 1) Ee auels: Intermediate Results: Higa RESures Budget: same as the 2) 100% of the teachers with a 40-hour a 1) % of 1) New school format budgetmunicipal of the ather week workload enrolments in 1) Student attendance, attractiveto students, schools. 3) Continuous and permanent training of Single-Shift Target: increase of the student focused ‘on student 2) Human resources: teachers and managers Schools attendance : leadership Addition of work hours 4) Planning meetings with compulsory 2016 target: 2) Teacher absence [licenses) Target: students’ needed to bring every participation of all teachers of a given 35% of i Target: reduction in teacher interest and teacher to the 40-hour school enrolment anh absenteeism and medical licenses engagernent increase category, 5) Calling of assembly with the school full-time 3) Parents’ participation in the cae We <3) 3) U 9112: Sher} community prior to the beginning of the schools schools 2) School dropout 3) Up to 2013: Special j a ‘ a : 2020 Target: 25% salary increase Single-Shift Program Target: increase in the parental perieeesaete ——_ Ay Oneal incharee of 6) Designing of schools’ Action Plans, attendance toschool meetings ee enaa renee ; ee which unfold into the teachers’ Action 4) Literacy SS a managing the GC Programs Target: 100% of students literate by mec atelveals ad program at the central 7) Journal-related activities for 4'*, 5" and the end of 1* grade ze sorte tira level 6" praders (from 2014 on) Years
Consider next the outcome where _q_ < _c_ and _k_ = 1. Naturally, _q_ = 0 cannot be an optimal solution (cf. (11)), so only internal solutions are feasible here. We may write (11) as follows, inserting from (3b): We notice that the LHS and the first term on the RHS are both positive for _a, q_ > 0, whereas the second term on the RHS is negative for _q_ < _c_ . Thus, we distinguish between the following three cases:

- < _c_ , and thus it is optimal to increase _q_ until _q_ ≥ _c_ (cf. (11)). But then we are back to the case with _k_ = 0 and _q_ determined by (13), as described above. The intuition here is that the ability of the offset market to profitably deliver offsets to the policy bloc (RHS of the inequality) is relatively small. The solution is then determined out of a concern for the domestic mitigation market. Notice that the higher _a_ is (e.g., the higher the allocation rate _α_ is), the more likely this case is. Further, without the updating rule (i.e., _a_ = 0) this case can never occur.

- b) − _aq_ ∂∂ _Eq_ <u>1</u> < _E_ 20 − _E_<sup>ˆ</sup> 2<sup>(</sup> _q_<sup>)</sup> for _q_ = _c_ . In this case, equation (11b) must have (at least one) internal solution with _q_ < _c_ .<sup>11</sup> The ability of the offset market to profitably deliver offsets is now greater. This implies that the quota price may be determined more out of a direct concern for the offset market, and less out of a concern for the domestic mitigation market in the policy bloc. However, we cannot conclude in general whether or not this solution with _q_ < _c_ and _k_ = 1 is preferred over the solution with _k_ = 0 and _q_ determined by (13). The former case utilizes relatively cheap abatement options in the offset market, but ′

- abatement in the policy bloc is far too low as _R_ 1 ( _E_ 1) < _q_ < _c_ . In the latter case, mitigation in the policy bloc is optimized, but none of the abatement options in the offset market are utilized.

> 11 If emissions in the two regions are convex (or linear) in _q_ , we can show that the second order condition of (12) is fulfilled for _q_ ≤ _c_ . Thus, there is just one internal solution which is optimal given _q_ ≤ _c_ .

11
THE REPUBLIC OF CONGO’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A CONTINENTAL PERSPECTIVE minute phone call to the United States through the fixed line network is $5.40, twice as high as in regional peer countries (table 3).

Poor availability, high costs and slow speeds for installation of fixed line services have obstructed the market for internet access in RoC. At the end of 2009, there were only 15,000 internet subscribers in the country, the bulk of which connected via GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) networks (source ARPCE). ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) connections in May 2010 totaled just 121, of which only eleven had access to downlink speeds of 512kbps, the highest rate recorded at the time. The number of broadband subscribers was estimated to reach 130 in September 2010, according to Teleography.com, and RoC’s eGovernment Readiness Index has fallen over time (from 0.2855 in 2005 to 0.2737 in 2008).

Political will and institutional strengthening will be required for success in the implementation of the new legal and regulatory framework, new ICT projects, and the submarine cable agreement. Under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries process in which the Republic of Congo was engaged from 2006 to January 2010, the trigger for the floating completion point was the adoption of a regulatory framework for the telecommunications sector that established competition in international gateways and the wireless local loop. Two actions were undertaken to meet the HIPC requirement: first, the repeal of a 2004 decree that restored the monopoly on international gateways and granted exclusivity in the wireless local loop market to Congo Telecom, the incumbent operator; and second, the adoption of new legislation to set up an independent telecommunications regulatory authority (ARPCE) and ensure clear and transparent regulatory regimes, particularly in frequency management.

**Table 3. Benchmarking Congo’s road infrastructure**

||Unit|**Republic of**<br>**Congo**|Resource-<br>rich<br>countries|Sub-<br>Saharan<br>Africa|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Paved road density|km/1000 km2<br>of arable land|**25**|111|101|
|Unpaved road density|km/1000 km2<br>of arable land|**11**|287|340|
|GIS rural accessibility|% of rural pop within 2 km from regional and<br>national roads|**34**|21|23|
|Paved road traffic|Average Annual<br>Daily Traffic, cars per day|**850**|1,570|1,201|
|Unpaved road traffic|Average Annual<br>Daily Traffic, cars per day|**50**|56|54|
|Paved network condition|% in good or fair condition|**38**|67|79|
|Unpaved network condition|% in good or fair condition|**21**|62|59|

_Source_ : Gwilliam and others 2008.

17
judgments on reforms in this area. Applied cases of subsidies and their distributive incidence are presented in Section 7.

The ideas presented in this section are well developed in the welfare economics and income distribution literature, but have not been applied to the transport sector It is hoped that this section will clarify the microeconomic basis for many of the approaches used to evaluate subsidy policies and discuss the most useful ways to present the available information.

From a practical point of view, detailed information on household travel patterns and socioeconomic characteristics is ideally required in order to apply the methodology proposed. While in many cases a household survey and mobility study will be available for a given city, in others, especially in developing countries where data collection efforts are less frequent, the information available will be sparser or outdated.

This paper presents an approach consistent with the income distribution literature, and already applied to utility and transport subsidies by Foster (2005), among others. The distributive implications of affordability policies are analyzed by graphing the Lorenz curve or relative benefit curve.

The relative benefit distribution curve (or Lorenz curve) graphs the percentage of a subsidy accruing to the first nth rank of households, according to some measure of income, expenditure or wealth distribution. More formally, the graph of a relative distribution curve can be defined as: where h denotes the jth ranked household from the lowest to the highest, r(j) is the value of the graph at the household ranked j, sh is the benefit accruing to household h and S is the total benefit distributed by the policy. Figure 3 gives an example where two curves are graphed. The curve above the 45o line shows a progressive distribution of benefits, since K% of poorest households receive more than K% of the total benefits whatever value of K is chosen. The curve below the 45o line shows a regressive distribution of benefits since poorer households now receive less than a proportional amount of the benefit.

25
In the remainder of the study we present indicators based on survey responses for all freight forwarders and where relevant also disaggregated by freight forwarder size. A survey of importing firms would provide an important additional perspective, although many of these firms would not have the specific knowledge of the sources of border delays or other operational decisions made by freight forwarders. Moreover the universe of importing firms would be much larger and more diverse than the universe of freight forwarder firms, making the logistics of such a survey considerably more complex. Our survey questionnaire incorporated where relevant a distinction between freight forwarder decisions and importing firm (client) decisions. Thus our survey reflects where necessary both the freight forwarder as well as the importing firm perspectives.

The primary purpose of the survey is to provide insights into how delivery time - and uncertainty over delivery time - are reflected in the costs of delivery. We investigate operational decisions and ask about the terms of the contracts governing delivery by the freight forwarder. We use the survey to elicit an estimate of the magnitude of the costs of (unexpected) delays, and express these costs as a proportion of the value of the underlying import shipment. In general our survey questions presuppose that the expected costs of delivery (at the expected time) are borne by the importing firm through the contracted fees they pay to the freight forwarder. If an unexpected delay causes the freight forwarder to violate the contractual terms of delivery, the cost of this delay will generally be borne by the freight forwarder.<sup>6</sup> Insofar as absorbing the costs of delays raises the price of freight forwarding services, the costs of delay should ultimately be borne by importing firms as well. The importing firm may also bear additional induced costs such as additional warehousing or other hedging costs.<sup>7</sup> In that sense the results we report may understate the size of the costs time and uncertainty. On the other hand, the contracted penalties for late deliveries may include a margin intended to induce effort by the freight forwarder, and so might overstate the true costs to the importing firm of delay.

> 6 The costs that a delay of an individual shipment imposes on the importing firm should be covered, in a perfectly competitive equilibrium, by the penalty structure in the contract.

> 7 Marteau _et al._ (2007) argue that importing firms bear the direct costs associated with moving goods (including freight costs, port and handling charges procedural fees, agent sides, and side payments) but also absorb “induced” costs associated with hedging for the lack of predictability and reliability of the supply chain. Only some of these costs are reflected in the fees paid to freight forwarders and transporters.

7
_The Way Forward for Rural Deueloprnent?_ _Decentralization:_

# an inappropriate mix of services in relation to local preferences.

Findings of a study on municipal local government capacity in Colombia (World Bank 1995) suggest that there is considerable latent capacity to be exploited at the local level, if municipalities are given an active development role.<sup>By using existing,</sup> but underutilized capacity and through locally-initiated efforts to upgrade capabilities most of the municipalities selected were able to meet effectively<sup>new</sup> challenges posed by decentralization.

The study found that capacity does not necessarily increase with<sup>jurisdictional</sup> size. Although small municipalities did have some difficulties obtaining<sup>appropriate</sup> professional support, they were successful at implementing a range of simple RDrelated projects. Large municipalities, with populations over 80,000, generally<sup>have</sup> significant resources to draw on and had sophisticated organizational<sup>structures</sup> that enabled complicated activities to be successfully implemented. Medium-sized municipalities (30,000-80,000 people) faced the largest challenge as the<sup>relative</sup> costs of improving capacity are high and must be spread over time. This<sup>requires a</sup> long-term commitment that may conflict with the political realities posed by a system that elects mayors for a single term of two years.

The Colombian experiment in decentralization seeks to give political power to decentralized local institutions, to provide them with resources to carry out prescribed functions, and to permit the inclusion of a wide range of institutions in the decentralization process. Focusing on the design of the political, fiscal and institutional elements of decentralization together has significantly increased the potential for successful RD outcomes.

Fourth, there needs to be a proper system of _accounttability_ for decentralized institutions to each of their different constituents, and some system of sanctions that penalizes institutions that fail to carry out their functions appropriately. Where accountability is absent, the legitimacy of a decentralization initiative can be lost quickly. In Ghana, where District Administrators were able to retain effective power because of their ties to the center, local scandals involving embezzlement of 35
**Figure 4** : Proportion of facilities with access to minimally adequate communication tools by facility type (hospital vs. non-hospital) in Kenya, Sierra Leone, and Tanzania

<!-- Start of picture text --> Tanzania<br>Sierra Leone<br>Kenya<br>Tanzania<br>Sierra Leone<br>Kenya<br>0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%<br>Non-hospital Hospital<br>Internet<br>Phone<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# Emergency transport capacity

In the case of an emergency, rapid transportation of a patient to a better-equipped referral center may be needed. Emergency transport is ideally provided by an ambulance, which is equipped with life-saving supplies and equipment and can accommodate limited medical care en route. However, when an ambulance is not available, other facility-sponsored emergency transport (such as an official vehicle or repurposed facility utility van, for example) can be a stopgap. Where no emergency transport is available (or where patients are responsible for their own emergency transport), this increases the likelihood that a severely sick patient may not receive timely care at the level of facility required.

Are ambulances available at facilities in Kenya, Sierra Leone, and Tanzania to transport patients? Overall, the SDI data indicate that 95% of facilities in Sierra Leone have an ambulance on call at the facility; followed by 71% in Kenya, and 55% in Tanzania. It is worth noting, however, that 14% of facilities with an ambulance in Sierra Leone did not have fuel for the ambulance available on the day of the survey; the same is true for only 7% of facilities in Kenya, but 41% in Tanzania. While systematic lack of fuel is not captured in the survey, these data do suggest that a facility’s ambulance may be unusable from time to time due to an empty tank. In Tanzania, 32% of facilities report that no emergency transport is available, followed by 17% of facilities in Kenya, and only 3% in Sierra Leone. This implies that some facilities may face challenges in operationalizing emergency referrals during a pandemic.

Figure 5 shows that in Sierra Leone, an ambulance is most commonly available at lower-level facilities as opposed to hospitals. In contrast, in Kenya and Tanzania, an ambulance is more likely to be available in a higher-level facility (Appendix Table 3). This type of information can potentially provide relevant insight in designing optimal ambulance dispatch systems during a pandemic.

12
compared to the poverty rate of 47 percent in 2018. Coupled with a high degree of insecurity, loss of livelihoods, and displacement, these results on households’ vulnerability to poverty illustrate the importance of urgent humanitarian action and investments in shock-responsive social safety nets.

Our contributions are as follows: First, our paper contributes to the literature on the impacts of climate change and weather shocks on welfare outcomes in a fragile and conflict-prone context (see section 2 for details). We show that droughts, measured by temperature and NDVI anomalies as deviations from long-run weather distribution in the country, adversely affect consumption and poverty rates in a conflict-affected region.

Second, from a methodological perspective we show that rainfall deficits are not ideal for measuring drought in arid and semi-arid regions that receive little to no rainfall. In Afghanistan, we show the distribution of rainfall anomalies (and absolute levels of precipitation) are tight, with little variation across clusters (less spatial variation) or between years. That is, rainfall-based measures do not adequately capture the full intensity of droughts. This finding has two implications: (i) past literature that uses rainfall deficits in arid contexts (Sub-Saharan African nations, for instance) may be underestimating the impact of droughts, and therefore, (ii) in such regions, other measures, such as temperatures and vegetation, seem to capture the drought-like conditions more appropriately, as illustrated in this paper.

Finally, our paper contributes to the growing literature that uses a combination of remote sensing satellite and household data to quantify households’ vulnerability to extreme weather events, events exacerbated by climate change.<sup>6</sup> Remote sensing methods are particularly valuable in a context with little on-the-ground data, such as conflict-affected Afghanistan. These data allow us to capture the spatial and temporal variation in weather shocks with higher precision to quantify households’ vulnerability to such shocks to inform future policy decisions.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly presents related literature. Section 3 describes the socioeconomic and weather data, followed by a description of how we construct weather anomalies in 2018 in Section 3.5. Section 4 describes the empirical strategy. Section 5 presents key results and discusses the heterogeneity in impact estimates. Finally, Section 7 concludes.

> 6See Fisker et al. (2021) for details on how to use the data in economic applications and a detailed list of literature using remote sensing data.

4
I POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER 2313

# Summary findings

Financial liberalization was expected to make interest rates and asset prices more volatile, with distributional consequences such as reduced or relocated rents and increased competition in financial services. Honohan examines available data on money market and bank interest rates for evidence of whether these things happened.

He shows that as more and more countries liberalized, the level and dynamic behavior of developing-country interest rates converged to industrial-country norms. In the short term, volatility increased in both real and nominal money market interest rates. Treasury bill rates and bank spreads, evidently the most repressed, showed

- the greatest increase as liberalization progressed shifting substantial rents from the public sector and from favored borrowers.

Whereas quoted bank spreads in industrial countries contracted somewhat in the late 1990s, spreads in developing countries remained much higher, presumably reflecting both market power and the higher risks of lending in the developing world.

There was no clear-cut change in mean rates of inflation, monetary depth, or GDP growth. If anything, there was a small average improvement in inflation, but a decline in monetary depth and economic growth, relative to trends in industrial countries.

- - This paper a product of Finance, Development Research Group is part of a larger effort in the group to explore optimal policy under financial liberalization. Copies of the paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Agnes Yaptenco, room MC3-446, telephone 202-473-1823, fax 202-522-1155, email address ayaptenco@worldbank.org. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web atwww.worldbank.org/ research/workingpapers. The author may be contacted at phonohan@worldbank.org. April 2000. (48 pages)

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent._ Produced by the Policy Research Dissemination Center