rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Political Reservation and Female
            Labor Force Participation in Rural India
Despite income growth, fertility
            decline, and educational expansion, women's labor force
            participation in rural India dropped precipitously over the
            last decade. This paper uses nationwide, individual-level
            data allow to explore whether random reservation of village
            leadership for women affected their access to suitable job
            opportunities, demand for participation in the labor force,
            and income as well as intrahousehold bargaining in the short
            and medium term. Political empowerment through reservation
            affected women's but not men's participation in
            public works, but also women's participation in labor
            markets, income, and participation in key household
            decisions, with a lag.
Coastal Development between
            Opportunity and Disaster Risk : An Assessment of the Coastal
            Protection System in Vietnam
This paper provides a high-level
            assessment of Vietnam's sea dike system and its
            prescribed dike safety standards. The assessment estimates
            that 65 percent of the sea dike system does not meet the
            safety standards and that about $2 billion in capital
            investment is necessary to meet the standards, mainly in the
            Red River Delta. It also shows that current safety standards
            need finetuning, especially in areas with high risk and
            growth. This paper acts as a technical background paper to
            the report Resilient Shores: Vietnam's Coastal
            Development between Opportunity and Disaster Risk
            (Rentschler et al. 2020).
Coastal Development between
            Opportunity and Disaster Risk : An Assessment of the Coastal
            Protection System in Vietnam
Policy Research Working Paper 9351 Resilient Shores: Vietnam’s Coastal Development between Opportunity and Disaster Risk _Background Paper_ Coastal Development between Opportunity and Disaster Risk An Assessment of the Coastal Protection System in Vietnam _Mathijs van Ledden Tran Thanh Tung Dzung Huy Nguyen Long Thanh Nguyen_ Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery & Urban, Disaster Risk Management, Resilience and Land Global Practice August 2020
Coastal Development between
            Opportunity and Disaster Risk : A Multisectoral Risk
            Assessment for Vietnam
This paper presents a multisectoral risk
            assessment, analyzing natural risks faced by key drivers of
            socioeconomic development in coastal Vietnam. The analysis
            quantifies the exposure of assets and economic activity to
            the following natural hazards: riverine flooding, coastal
            flooding, typhoon winds, coastal erosion, and saline
            intrusion. These hazards are analyzed according to their
            impact on agricultural production, aquaculture, human
            settlements, industrial zones, tourism, health care
            facilities, schools, and the electricity transmission
            network. Overall, the results show the complex nature of
            natural risk in Vietnam, with significant exposure of key
            economic sectors, public services and assets. The estimates
            suggest that exposure varies greatly between hazards,
            sectors, and provinces. This paper provides detailed
            technical descriptions of the methodologies, data sources,
            and analytical assumptions employed to obtain the estimates,
            and acts as a technical background paper to Resilient
            Shores: Vietnam's Coastal Development between
            Opportunity and Disaster Risk (Rentschler et al., 2020).
Mama Knows (and Does) Best :
            Maternal Schooling Opportunities and Child Development in Indonesia
This paper leverages quasi-experimental
            variation in increased access to basic formal education,
            introduced by a large-scale school construction program in
            Indonesia in the 1970s, to quantify the benefits to the
            children of women targeted by the program. Novel and rich
            data allow the analysis of a range of health, cognitive and
            socio-emotional development outcomes for children ages 6 to
            8 in 2013. The paper finds that increased maternal access to
            schooling has positive and multidimensional effects on
            children. The effects are particularly salient at the bottom
            of the distributions of outcomes. Drawing on insights from
            economics, psychology, and sociology, the paper examines
            pathways for these impacts. Evidence suggests that mothers
            who were exposed to more schooling opportunities during
            childhood demonstrate less hostility toward their children
            when parenting and also invest more in their children's
            preschool education.
Ex-ante Evaluation of the Impact of
            Increases in Minimum Wages on Labor Market Outcomes in Kosovo
This paper uses microsimulation
            techniques to quantify the potential ex-ante impacts of
            several minimum wage increases on labor market outcomes in
            Kosovo. The results show that the overall impacts of a
            minimum wage increase in the baseline scenario are likely to
            be modest, although the impacts for some groups may be
            stronger. In the most extreme scenario, an increase to 250
            euros per month, the simulated unemployment rate increases
            by 0.4 percentage point in the short term and about 0.6
            percentage point in the long term. The youth unemployment
            rate (ages 15-24) is anticipated to increase by up to 1.1
            percentage points in this scenario, a relatively large
            increase considering the already high levels of unemployment
            among this group. Similarly, unemployment among the
            unskilled (with primary school or less) is simulated to
            increase by 0.6 percentage point in the short term and up to
            0.8 percentage point in the long term. The paper finds that,
            even if raising the minimum wage is long overdue, due to
            decreasing nominal wages in real terms, policy needs to
            strike a fine balance between protecting workers and
            ensuring that employment effects are not too large.
Teacher Pay in Africa : Evidence
            from 15 Countries
Pay levels for public sector workers—and
            especially teachers—are a constant source of controversy. In
            many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, protests and strikes
            suggest that pay is low, while simple comparisons to average
            national income per capita suggest that it is high. This
            study presents data on teacher earnings from 15 African
            countries. The results suggest that in several (seven)
            countries, teachers’ monthly earnings are lower than other
            formal sector workers with comparable levels of education
            and experience. However, in all of those countries, teachers
            report working significantly fewer hours than other workers,
            so that their hourly earnings are higher. Teachers who
            report fewer hours are no more likely to report holding a
            second job, although teachers overall are nearly two times
            more likely to hold a second job than other workers. With
            higher national incomes, the absolute value of teacher
            earnings rises, but they fall as a percentage of income per
            capita. The study explores variation across types of teacher
            contracts, the association between teacher earnings and
            student performance, and the association between teacher
            earnings premia and other aspects of economies.
Low-Cost Private Schools in Tanzania
            : A Descriptive Analysis
This paper discusses the potential role
            of low-cost private secondary schools in Tanzania. The share
            of private enrollment has been negatively correlated with
            the availability of public schools. With the 2016 Fee-Free
            Basic Education Policy, the public secondary education
            system is experiencing significant demand pressures. The
            government has limited resources to address these pressures.
            Using micro-data from the Morogoro region, the paper finds
            that private schools have excess capacity that can allow for
            absorption of additional students at relatively low cost
            through potential public-private partnerships. The paper
            finds no evidence that service delivery or student
            performance is worse in private schools relative to their
            public counterparts. These findings provide empirical
            evidence on some key enabling conditions for potential
            public-private partnerships for secondary education in Tanzania.
The Impact of Employer
            Discrimination on Female Labor Market Outcomes :
            Experimental Evidence from Tunisia
The role of employer discrimination in
            widening labor market differences between men and women has
            been hypothesized and investigated in different settings.
            Using a field experiment, this paper examines the presence
            and magnitude of gender-based discrimination by employers at
            the point of screening in Tunisia. The study sent out 1,571
            fictitious and substantially identical pairs of male and
            female resumes in response to online job advertisements. On
            average, women were 2.4 percentage points more likely than
            men to receive a callback from an employer. However, this
            average effect hides substantial heterogeneity across
            economic sectors. In the information technology sector,
            women were 15 percentage points less likely to receive a
            callback than men. No discrimination against or in favor of
            women is found in engineering, whereas in marketing and
            finance, women were 19 and 4 percentage points more likely
            to receive a callback, respectively. The paper also finds
            that, unlike men, women may suffer from discrimination based
            on their physical appearance. Veiled women were 8.5
            percentage points less likely to receive a callback than
            non-veiled women. Overall, the findings suggest that, at the
            point of screening, employer discrimination against women in
            Tunisia is sector specific, and, on its own, it cannot fully
            explain the complex challenge of female unemployment in the country.
Multinational Corporation
            Affiliates, Backward Linkages, and Productivity Spillovers
            in Developing and Emerging Economies : Evidence and Policy Making
Recent research on productivity
            spillovers from affiliates of multinational corporations in
            developing and emerging economies finds that backward
            linkages from affiliates of foreign-owned firms to local
            suppliers constitute the main channel transmitting
            productivity spillovers.  This finding has important policy
            implications, given that host economy governments often
            spend considerable resources on attracting multinational
            corporation investments and promoting their impact on
            technological development and economic growth. This paper
            conducts a new and comprehensive survey of recent empirical
            studies that focus on the drivers and impacts of backward
            linkages between multinational corporation affiliates and
            their local suppliers. The literature survey reveals that
            several characteristics of multinational corporation
            affiliates and domestic firms, host economy conditions, and
            various mediating factors influence the level of use of
            local suppliers, the nature and degree of technology
            dissemination, and the materialization of productivity
            spillovers among domestic firms. These findings are used to
            identify the main areas where policy making can be
            effective. The paper discusses various types of soft or
            light-handed industrial policies that host economy
            governments can design and implement to foster the extent of
            linkages between multinational corporations and local
            suppliers, facilitate technology dissemination, and enhance
            productivity spillovers among domestic firms.
Identifying Effective Teachers :
            Lessons from Four Classroom Observation Tools
Four different classroom observation
            instruments -- from the Service Delivery Indicators, the
            Stallings Observation System, the Classroom Assessment
            Scoring System, and the Teach classroom observation
            instrument -- were implemented in about 100 schools across
            four regions of Tanzania. The research design is such that
            various combinations of tools were administered to various
            combinations of teachers, so these data can be used to
            explore the commonalities and differences in the behaviors
            and practices captured by each tool, the internal properties
            of the tools (for example, how stable they are across
            enumerators, or how various indicators relate to one
            another), and how variables collected by the various tools
            compare to each other. Analysis shows that inter-rater
            reliability can be low, especially for some of the
            subjective ratings; principal components analysis suggests
            that lower-level constructs do not map neatly to
            predetermined higher-level ones and suggest that the data
            have only few dimensions. Measures collected during teacher
            observations are associated with student test scores, but
            patterns differ for teachers with lower versus higher
            subject content knowledge.
Lost Wages : The COVID-19 Cost of
            School Closures
Social distancing requirements
            associated with COVID-19 have led to school closures. In
            April, 192 countries had closed all schools and
            universities, affecting more than 90 percent of the
            world's learners: over 1.5 billion children and young
            people. Closures are expected to reduce schooling and lead
            to future losses in earnings. Starting from the assumption
            that every additional year of schooling translates to 8
            percent in future earnings, this paper estimates and
            confirms the loss in marginal future earnings on the basis
            of a four-month shutdown. The authors also estimated the
            losses by level of education. The findings show that the
            school closures reduce future earnings. It is also likely
            that students from low-income countries will be affected
            most, where the earning losses will be devastating. These
            estimates are conservative, assuming closures end after four
            months, with schools re-opening in the new academic year,
            and that school quality will not suffer.
Long-run Returns to Private Equity
            in Emerging Markets
This paper provides the first evidence
            on the long-run returns to private equity in emerging and
            frontier markets using the cash flows from every equity
            investment made by the International Finance Corporation
            across 130 countries over 58 years. Risk-adjusted returns
            are comparable to the S&P 500, at least from 1961 until
            2010. Returns improve with economic growth, but decline as
            banking systems deepen and countries relax capital controls.
            These results are consistent with the thesis that financial
            frictions have prevented the flow of capital from rich to
            poor countries, and that the persistence of impact
            investors&#x2019; performance may rely on identifying or
            creating new markets that lack access to capital.
An Optimal Rice Policy for Sierra
            Leone : Balancing Consumer and Producer Welfare
Rice is a staple food in the West
            African nation of Sierra Leone with little difference in
            consumption between poor and wealthy households. Rice
            production is also an important source of livelihood with
            half of all households, three-quarters of rural households
            and about two-thirds of poor households grow rice. The final
            price of rice in the domestic market is an important policy
            issue. The policy challenge is complicated by the fact that
            poor households, which earn the bulk of their income from
            rice production, also purchase rice when own production is
            inadequate. Under the broad assumption that money income is
            a reasonable measure of well-being, this paper develops a
            simple model of the Sierra Leone rice sector and applies
            procedures to determine key outcomes in terms of domestic
            production, imports, and exports under conditions that
            maximize consumer's and producer's surplus. The
            paper finds that the rice sector is operating at a
            suboptimal level. In addition, simulations suggest that an
            optimal policy path to balance consumer and producer welfare
            and meet the higher societal objective of creating jobs
            requires a moderate level of tariff on imported rice,
            combined with structural policies to improve the
            productivity of the sector.
Supporting Teacher Autonomy to
            Improve Education Outcomes : Experimental Evidence from Brazil
What is the impact of greater teacher
            autonomy on student learning? This paper provides
            experimental evidence from a program in Brazil. The program
            supported teachers, through a combination of technical
            assistance and a small grant, to autonomously develop and
            implement an innovative project aimed at engaging their
            students. The findings show that the program improved
            student learning by 0.15 standard deviation and grade
            passing by 13 percent in sixth grade, a critical year of
            transition from primary to lower-secondary education. The
            paper explores two mechanisms: teacher turnover and student
            socio-emotional skills. Teacher turnover is reduced by 20.7
            percent, and the impacts on student outcomes are
            concentrated in the schools with the largest reductions. The
            findings also indicate positive impacts on conscientiousness
            and extroversion among the students. The results suggest
            that increasing the autonomy of public servants can improve
            service delivery, even in a low-capacity context.
The Oil Nouveau-Riche and Arms Imports
Countries that strike it rich when
            exploring for oil and gas often fail to see growth
            materialize. This paper shows that one way things can get
            messy is via squandering new wealth, based on future
            resource revenues, on arms imports. In the five years
            following a giant oil or gas discovery, arms imports
            increase by 25 percent. The effect is even larger, at 51
            percent, when the price of oil is as high as $80 per barrel.
            These estimates can be interpreted causally as the timing of
            giant oil discoveries is unpredictable due to the uncertain
            nature of exploration.
The Effects of Land Title
            Registration on Tenure Security, Investment and the
            Allocation of Productive Resources : Evidence from Ghana
Smallholder farmers' investment
            decisions and the efficiency of resource allocation depend
            on the security of land tenure. This paper develops a simple
            model that captures essential institutional features of
            rural land markets in Ghana, including the dependence of
            future rights over land on current cultivation and land
            rental decisions. The model predictions guide the evaluation
            of a pilot land titling intervention that took place in an
            urbanizing area located in the Central Region of Ghana. The
            evaluation is based on a regression discontinuity design
            combined with three rounds of household survey data
            collected over a period of six years. The analysis finds
            strong markers for the program's success in registering
            land in the targeted program area. However, land
            registration does not translate into agricultural
            investments or increased credit taking. Instead, treated
            households decrease their amount of agricultural labor,
            accompanied by only a small reduction of agricultural
            production and no changes in productivity. In line with this
            result, households decrease their landholdings amid a surge
            in land valuations. The analysis uncovers important
            within-household differences in how women and men respond
            differentially to the program. There appears to be a general
            shift to nonfarm economic activities, and women's
            business profits increased considerably.
The Effects of Land Title
            Registration on Tenure Security, Investment and the
            Allocation of Productive Resources : Evidence from Ghana
Policy Research Working Paper 9376 The Effects of Land Title Registration on Tenure Security, Investment and the Allocation of Productive Resources

# Evidence from Ghana

_Andrew Agyei-Holmes Niklas Buehren Markus Goldstein Robert Osei Isaac Osei-Akoto Christopher Udry_ Africa Region Gender Innovation Lab September 2020
Violence and Newborn Health :
            Estimates for Colombia
This paper examines the relationship
            between maternal exposure to violence during pregnancy and
            newborn birthweight. The paper exploits variation in the
            timing of exposure and in the geographic location of
            expectant mothers across Colombian municipalities. Exposure
            to violence in early pregnancy had a large negative impact
            on birthweight, primarily for boys, and the effect was
            mitigated by their mothers' education. Girls were
            affected mainly by shocks in later stages of gestation.
            Furthermore, their mothers were more likely to engage in
            potentially harmful behaviors during the pregnancy. This
            evidence exposes the importance of parental responses in
            shaping the effect of exposure to violence on newborn health.