rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# **2 Natural Disaster Damage Indices**

The methodology and data sources used to make damage indices for natural disasters are extensively covered in Skoufias _et al._ (2017), and there are also additional details in Appendix A. Generally, the paper uses remote sensing data for the different disaster types - floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and the 2004 tsunami - that are combined with nightlight data - used as a proxy for economic activity - to construct an index that estimates the impact on districts and provinces.

More specifically, the nightlight data used provide a normalized annual light value ranging from 0 (no light) to 63 (maximum light) and are from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites. Using these data as a proxy for economic activity - when no other data exist - has been employed in papers such as Henderson _et al._ (2012), Hodler & Raschky (2014) and Michalopoulos & Papaioannou (2014). In our case, the nightlight data have been employed as a weight for the economic impact of disasters.

Floods are modeled through a combination of remote sensing images and GIS-modeling using the Geospatial Stream Flow Model (GeoSFM). The remote sensing inputs comprise weather data, such as rain and temperature, as well as soil and terrain data. These sources are then used by GeoSFM to model basins across Indonesia and the stream flow in each of these. The final steps consist of setting a threshold for when a stream flow is strong enough to flood the basin and then weighting this with the nightlight data and aggregating up to a district level.

5
is, surprisingly and uniquely, also observed among those employed in the public sector in these countries<sup>16</sup> . Conversely, in New EU Member States and Turkey, in particular, public workers have a less negative perception of their economic mobility. Central Asia is the only sub-region in which private employment is associated with a more positive perception on mobility, and in which the opposite happens for working in the agricultural sector<sup>17</sup> .

# **5. Conclusions**

**A substantial share of households in the region perceives that their standards of living in 2006 have fallen compared to 1989.** Using as a definition of movement a change in at least two steps in any direction, 47% of the households in the region declared to have moved down in the income distribution, regardless of their starting step. Around 40% of households perceive they have stayed in the same step, or moved at most one step in any direction. Less than 13% of households in the region perceive an improvement in their relative position.

**This pattern is consistent across sub-regions.** With the exception of New EU Member States and Turkey – the ones with higher economic growth during the period - in all sub-regions the most prevalent perception is of downward mobility. And even in these countries, almost 40% of the households declared to have moved down, behind around 50% of the households that consider doing only as well as in 1989. Western Balkans and South Caucasus are the regions with the most negative perceptions, where households that feel they have moved down reach 60% and 65% respectively. In Russia, Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus, and Central Asia countries, this share of households is close to 50% as well.

**Less affluent, older, rural and unemployed people show a more negative perception of economic mobility.** Taking advantage of the information available in the survey for 2006, we obtained that these characteristics were associated with perceptions of downward economic mobility.

**Current income can only explain only a small fraction of the observed variation in perceptions.** Welfare explains only a minor fraction of the variation in perceptions. Consumption can only explain 5% of the variations in perceptions, while the asset index explains only 8%, as measured by using the R-squared of the regressions

**Factors beyond objective well-being, including those related to trust and fairness are associated with perceptions of mobility.** Households in countries where income distribution has become more unequal have a more negative perception of their situation. Further, findings show that trust in public institutions, perceptions of fairness in the economy and preference for a market economy are associated with perceptions of improvement.

> 16 In the Western Balkans, the public sector employs 48% of the workforce, close to the 47% regional average. 17 In Central Asia, private employment accounts for 46% of the employment, below the regional average of 53%. The agricultural sector employs a share considerably higher than the regional average: 31% of employed workers vs. a regional average of 10%.

21 | P a g e
support and implementation capability to carry out those policies.<sup>62</sup> This results in enormous variation in performance: students in Vietnam perform as well as those in many OECD countries, while students in other middle‐income countries can attend school for a decade yet still struggle to read a newspaper headline or do double‐digit subtraction.

Much the same can be said of anti‐corruption campaigns: countries can hire experts to write laws denouncing the use of public resources for private gain, but in practice such policies only work to the extent that front‐line staff, their managers, and the whole public sector hierarchy are bound by strong standards, norms, and controls and are provided with incentives that are effectively enforced. Experimental and other research has carefully documented the ways in which organizational norms and incentives shape employee performance. In India, the same doctor working in her private practice after hours is vastly more diligent than when working in the public sector;<sup>63</sup> in Ghana, certain units within national ministries have created work environments enabling them to perform at considerably higher levels than others.<sup>64</sup> The World Bank is taking these concerns more seriously, even as it has struggled, over multiple decades, to become a true learning organization.<sup>65</sup> The expansion of the Bank’s sectoral agenda (into wide‐ ranging areas such as governance, social development, gender equality, and climate change) and the global imperative to become more active in fragile states have generated a corresponding demand to deploy an _array_ of implementation strategies. Meeting the Bank’s corporate objectives and, more importantly, helping our clients meet theirs, will entail not only adopting better policies but also giving more focused attention to building complementary support systems and organizations with strong implementation capacity.

> 62 This is amply demonstrated in the World Bank’s 2018 _World Development Report_ , _Learning to Realize Education ́s Promise_ .

> 63 Jishnu Das and Jeffrey Hammer (2005). “Which Doctor? Combining Vignettes and Item Response to Measure Clinical Competence.” _Journal of Development Economics_ 78 (2): 348 – 83.

> 64 Erin McDonnell (2017). “Patchwork Leviathan: How Pockets of Bureaucratic Governance Flourish Within Institutionally Diverse Developing States.” _American Sociological Review_ 82 (3, June): 476 – 510.

> 65 Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank (2014). “Learning and Results in World Bank Operations: How the Bank Learns.” Washington, DC: World Bank.

20
All selected beneficiary households received the basic CCT, which included cash transfers conditional on children’s primary school and health service attendance during the one-year time period. Households received a transfer of US $145 even if they did not have children. Households with children between 7 and 15 enrolled and attending in primary school received an additional US $90 per household and an additional US $25 per child (with all amounts referring to the total transfer received over the year). The school enrollment and attendance requirement was carefully monitored. However, due to implementation problems, children’s visits to the health centers were not monitored by the program (see Aguilera et al., 2006).

In addition to the CCT, one-third of the beneficiary households also received a scholarship that allowed one of the adult household members to choose among a number of vocational training courses offered in the municipal headquarters. The scholarship was conditional on regular attendance to the course. The courses aimed at providing participants with new skills for income diversification outside of subsistence farming. These beneficiaries were also offered labormarket and business-skill training workshops organized in their own communities.

Finally, another third of the beneficiary households received, in addition to the basic CCT, a grant for productive investments aimed at encouraging recipients to start a small non-agricultural business activity with the goal of asset creation and income diversification. This grant was conditional on the household developing a business development plan, outlining the objectives of the business and proposed investments in new livestock or non-agricultural income generating activities. Beneficiaries received technical assistance to make a business plan and also participated in business-skills training workshops organized in their own communities.<sup>9</sup> Due to implementation delays, the vocational training courses had not started at the moment the data of the follow-up survey, used for this paper, were collected. At the time of the survey, the

> 9 Take-up of the overall program among eligible households was 95%. As for the different components: 89% of the households eligible for the vocational training grant had enrolled one of its household members in a course. Take-up of the productive investment grant among eligible households in the program was near 100%. About 10% of the business development plans had initially been refused by the ministry, but these were sent back to the households and virtually all of them developed a new plan, with the help of technical assistance (with the few exceptions being the households that migrated out).

7
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST SEXUAL MINORITIES IN EDUCATION AND HOUSING: EVIDENCE FROM TWO FIELD EXPERIMENTS IN SERBIA

# **ANNEX I: Detailed Methodology**

The Annexes provide further detail (to that provided above) on the methodologies adopted for the experiments.

## **Education Experiment**

### **Independent (treatment) and dependent variables**

The treatment variable (independent variable) in this experiment is the presence or absence of femininity among 14 years old boys, applying to be enrolled in the 7<sup>th</sup> grade of public primary schools in Serbia. The dependent variable of the experiment is the outcome of the request for enrolment in the new school.

Primary schools were selected as the most suitable for two reasons: first, primary education (8 years) is compulsory and free of charge; second, it is common practice in Serbia for parents to contact the schools directly with questions regarding their children, thus limiting the experimental scenario to adults (more details below, in the section on data collection).

Grade seven was chosen because boys are old enough (age 14) for their femininity to be perceived as a distinctive characteristic. The experiment was conducted at the beginning of the second semester of the school year, leaving three more semesters to complete primary school. If we had opted for a boy in grade eight, it would only leave one more semester until the completion of primary school, which might have influenced the enrolment decision.

### **Data collection method**

The schools were contacted by purported mothers on behalf of the boys. In Serbian culture, the mother as caretaker is generally the one who contacts the children’s school. Also, Serbian men are less likely to talk about their son’s femininity with the school authorities.

The role of the mothers was assigned to six members of the Ipsos research team with extensive experience in conducting ‘mystery shopper’ surveys. The ‘mystery shoppers’ attended additional training prior to participating in the experiment.

Data collection was from 10 to 24 January 2017.

### **Scenario of the telephone conversation**

The telephone conversation scenario was as follows:

- The mother mentions the femininity of her son at the beginning of the interview before the school administrator has the chance to make any statement about the availability of places at the school. If the school administrator said that there was a place in the school before he/she was informed that the boy is feminine, it might be harder to change the statement after the mother gives this information.

- As a reason for mentioning this characteristic, the mother states that the femininity of the boy is quite obvious and she wants to draw the school’s attention to this fact immediately.

18
so it is not subject to such spillovers. Appendix A.1 describes our project timeline and sampling procedure in greater detail.

Table 1 reports demographic characteristics of the sample from the baseline survey. 71% of respondents are female, reflecting the fact that women were more likely to be at home when our project staff visited the household., but also enabling us to target those most likely to benefit from a reduction in barriers to overseas migration. Unlike some other migrant-sending countries such as Mexico, India, and Bangladesh, where the majority of migrants are male,<sup>5</sup> migration from the Philippines is female-dominated; between 1992 and 2009, 60.6% of new hires for overseas work were women (McKenzie, Theoharides, and Yang, forthcoming). Respondents report relatively high educational attainment (69% have completed high school and 36% have completed at least some post-secondary schooling) but low levels of household income (averaging P7,800 pesos/month, or US$157) suggesting they may have high returns to working overseas.<sup>6</sup> 34% report that they are “interested” or “strongly interested” in working abroad.

We revisited respondents in 2012 to collect information on their overseas job-search knowledge, job-search behavior, and migration decisions. We ask whether and how respondents searched for work overseas between 2010-2012, and we classify respondents as having migrated if they obtained a job offer and migrated abroad during that period.<sup>7</sup> We successfully surveyed 90.8% of respondents or another member of their household at endline, and we find no evidence of differential attrition across treatment assignment (Table A2).<sup>8</sup> Our primary analytical sample consists of these 90.8% for whom we successfully fielded an endline survey of the respondent or a fellow household member. Among the 9.2% who could not be reached at endline in this manner, we fielded brief 8
|**Table A24: International Research and Exchanges Board** **M**<br>**Data Provider**<br>International Research and Exchanges Board|**edia**|**Sustainability Index (MSI)**|
|---|---|---|
|<br>**Description**<br>International nonprofit organization headqua<br>specializing in education, independent media,<br>programs.|rtered<br>Intern|in Washington, United States,<br>et development, and civil society|
|**Website**<br>www.irex.org|||
|**Data Source**<br>Media Sustainability Index|||
|**Type**<br>Expert assessment|||
|**Respondents**<br>Panel of local respondents in each country, subjec<br>**Frequency**<br>Annual since 2002<br>**Coverage**<br>Developing country sample<br>**Public Access**<br>Yes<br>**Description**<br>Index rates countries on a variety of subcompone<br>of media available to citizens, professional journ<br>media, and the efficacy of institutions that supp<br>year we have carried forward score from those c<br>(up to two) but not in current year.|t to ce<br>nts rel<br>alism<br>ort ind<br>ountri|ntralized review<br>ating to freedom of speech, plurality<br>standards, business sustainability of<br>ependent media. Note that for each<br>es that were covered in earlier years|
|2007<br>2006<br>|2005|2004<br>2003<br>2002<br>2000<br>1998<br>1996|
|**Voice and Accountability**|||
|<br>Media Sustainability Index<br>X<br>X|X|X<br>X<br>X<br>..<br>..<br>..|
|**Political Stability and Absence of Violence**<br>NA<br>..<br>..|..|..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..|
|**Government Effectiveness**<br>NA<br>..<br>..|..|..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..|
|**Regulatory Quality**<br>NA<br>..<br>..|..|..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..|
|**Rule of Law**<br>NA<br>..<br>..|..|..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..|
|**Control of Corruption**<br>NA<br>..<br>..|..|..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..<br>..|
|**Country Coverage**<br>**63**<br>**63**<br>**Year of publication**<br>**2008**<br>**2007**|**37**<br>**2005**|**18**<br>**18**<br>**18**<br>**..**<br>**..**<br>**..**<br>**2005**<br>**2004**<br>**2002**<br>**..**<br>**..**<br>**..**|

62
whether they work in the formal sector, their labor income, their occupation and the socioeconomic status of their household. ENAHO collects very similar data from Peruvians. Neither LAPOP nor Gallup collect detailed data on employment and occupation.

We first show the information for our main explanatory variable.

In the first analysis, this is the informal employment rate measured in the 2017 census in the centro poblado in which Venezuelans reside which has a mean of 31.2%.<sup>5</sup> This is noticeably below the overall informal employment rate of 59.9% among Peruvians surveyed in ENAHO, indicating the Venezuelans are generally settling in areas in Peru with less formal unemployment. Only 8.0% of Venezuelan immigrants surveyed in ENPOVE are employed in the formal sector (i.e., they have an employment contract with social security benefits), hence the employment rate in the informal sector among Peruvians in a particular location is a good measure of the availability of job opportunities for Venezuelans and the competition with Peruvians for these jobs. We hypothesize that locations with higher informal sector employment rates have more opportunities and less competition with Peruvians for jobs. For this reason, we sometimes describe locations with high informal employment rates as having ’strong’ informal labor markets.

In the second analysis, this is the number of Venezuelan immigrants in a particular month and province (measured in the administrative data) as a share of the total local population measured in the 2017 census.<sup>6</sup> Over the full sample period of our analysis, the mean share of Venezuelans in the population is very low, 0.4% in the ENAHO sample, 0.3% in the LAPOP sample and 0.6% in the LAPOP sample. However, if we just look at ENAHO in December 2018, we see that the share has risen to 1.4%.

The remainder of the table shows the means and standard deviation for the control variables for Venezuelan immigrants in December 2018, as captured in the ENPOVE (Columns 1 and 2), and for the average Peruvian respondents in ENAHO in two periods: December 2018 and 2007-2020 (Columns 3 and 4, and 5 and 6, respectively). Additionally, we also provide descriptive data for the LAPOP and Gallup opinion surveys.

Venezuelan immigrants were slightly less likely to be female and are younger than their local

> 5Centro poblado is the smallest level of geographical disaggregation. In urban areas, they are equivalent to neighborhoods, while in rural areas they correspond to small towns.

> 6There are 198 provinces in Peru which generally correspond to labor market areas. In our regressions, we take the log of share variable. In order to include provinces with no Venezuelans and data prior to 2015, we add 1 to both the number of Venezuelans and the total population of each province. The median province has 55,000 inhabitants and the smallest nearly 3,000 hence this transformation should be immaterial. As the Venezuelan share of the population is very low in most provinces but highly skewed, it is important to measure this variable in logs.

11
# Table of Contents

||Introduction|1................<br>I|
|---|---|---|
|II.|Initiation and Sequencing.|6|
|III.|Securities Trading .10||
||Constituent Functions .10||
||Operational Categories .11||
||<br>Policy Considerations .13||
||Conclusion .26||
|IV.|Clearance and Settlement .27||
||Main Functions .29||
||Policy Considerations .33||
||Conclusion .39||
|V.|Conclusion .40||
|Bibliography|..............................................................................................|42|

# List of Text Boxes:

|1.|Example of a Computerized Securities Market System.|_5_|
|---|---|---|
|2.|IT Introduction in an Emerging Market - Korea|8|
|3.|IT Introduction in Developed Markets - UK and USA.|9|
|4.|Operational Categories .11||
|_5._|Examples of Information Commonly Provided .15||
|6.|Examples of Algorithm Approaches .17||
|7.|Risk Review Parameters .21||
|8.|Guidelines on Access .23||
|9.|Clearance and Settlement of Securities Transactions .28||
|10.|Comparison Criteria .29||
|11.|Settlement and Securities Administration in Mexico .31||
|12.|Settlement and Securities Administration in Korea .32||

# List of Figures:

1. Matrix of Trading Characteristics .14

# List of Annexes:

I. Securities Market Functions II. Principal Features of Automation in the Korean Securities Market III. Principle Features of NASDAQ and London Stock Exchange Automated Operations IV. The Toronto Stock Exchange Computer Assisted Trading System V. Approaches to Clearance and Settlement
parts of the United States, particularly in rural areas, water schemes are absent and many houses lack indoor plumbing (RCAP, 2010; Vance, 2016; Fetterman, 1967).<sup>5</sup> In general, the adoption of improved technology promises to improve sustainability, especially as the use of groundwater resources accelerates around the world (Janke et al., 2017; Gorelick and Zheng, 2015; Ahfield and Laverty, 2011; Barlow et al., 1996; Owolabi and Omotola, 1994). Brueckner (1997) finds that over the last few decades of the 20th century, the financing of economic growth increasingly relied on land-use exactions, as new residents paid for the cost of incremental infrastructure, including water and sanitation. Hsiao and Chang (2002) show that the fixed costs associated with installation significantly impact the number and location of water points and schemes. Surprisingly, there is a marked decline in the amount of hydrogeological data being collected in many parts of the developing world, with implications for the operational performance of water schemes across Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, among other regions (Sene and Furquharson, 1998).

One recent study indicates that aid disbursements have a positive, significant correlation to improved access to water supply and sanitation (Gopalan and Rajan, 2016). Another recent study suggests that donors need to increase aid allocation to water and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ndikumana and Pickbourn, 2017). There is also a need to identify and address structural constraints that could limit access to water and sanitation.

# **4. Methodology and Data**

- _(a) Methodology_

First, a <mark>locally weighted scatterplot smoothing (LWSS)</mark> (“Lowess Smoothing” of running-line least squares) is used to carry out a locally weighted non-parametric regression of “non-functionality”

> 5 In rural areas where the population is dispersed, such as parts of Texas along the Mexico border, the chances of not — having either indoor plumbing or any form of water scheme increases sharply. In six states Alabama, New Mexico, Arizona, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Mississippi—half of the households without these services live below the poverty level. The dire situation in the U.S. Appalachia has not changed much in the past 50 years.

9