Pakistan found that community participation is crucial for developing ownership and for ensuring longterm sustainability of rural water supply projects (Haq, Hassan and Ahmad, 2014). Several studies have also highlighted the importance of capacity development and institutional support to ensure the longrun sustainability of these projects. An impact evaluation of small community water systems in Bolivia funded by the Bolivian Social Investment Fund found that training and capacity development of communities are crucial for improved performance of these schemes in terms of access and availability of water (Newman et. al., 2002). In Malawi, newer community driven rural water supply schemes were found to be performing better than the older ones, indicating poor sustainability of the schemes due to lack of institutional support (Kleemeier, 2000). In Suriname, socially appropriate technological choice along with involvement and support of the community in general and women in particular were found to be the factors crucial for success of community driven water supply projects (Smith, 2011).

While assessments of various participatory community driven water supply projects have found evidence supporting their success in improving service delivery, there is very little evidence on the relative effectiveness of community driven projects compared to traditional supply driven projects. A study of rural water supply schemes from ten states (including Kerala) in India found that community managed schemes performed ‘somewhat better’ than traditional supply driven schemes (Misra, 2008). Though the study did not focus on a detailed comparison, it found that compared to traditional supply driven schemes, community managed schemes experience less frequent breakdowns and also lesser proportion of beneficiary households report water shortage.

# 2.2 _Various Approaches to Rural Water Supply in Kerala_

According to the 2011 Population Census, Kerala is the home to 33.4 million people which constitutes about 2.8 percent of the total population in India. Although the state receives one of the highest levels of rainfall in the country, with an average of 3,000mm annually, the undulating terrain of the state drains most of the rainwater into the sea. Denudation of tropical forests and vegetation in the aftermath of population explosion adversely affected the natural recharge of aquifers and the water retention capacity of the soil. In addition, the steep and crowded topography provides little opportunity for water storage. With increasing demand for water due to rising population, the groundwater has been over exploited with insufficient recharge thus decreasing water tables.<sup>3</sup> As a result, several districts in Kerala face widespread source failures during summer months and many habitations in midland and highland face near drought conditions. In addition, Kerala also struggles with water quality issues with near universal bacteriological contamination in the open wells; and presence of excess iron, fluoride, salinity, and excess nitrate in ground water.

> 3 10 years ago a bore-well struck water at 80 feet below the ground, but now it touches only after 140 feet (World Bank 2013).

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