and women’s participation in household decision making. We explore the Census of Human Resources of the Guatemala Central Government (collected by INE in 2017-2018), 2017 and 2018 municipal statistics (published by INE and by FUNDESA), 2017 social spending data (from ICEFI), and 2017 data assessing the degree of societal agreement with broad gender-parity statements (collected by Latinobarómetro in 2017). Based on these data sets we define variables that capture social norms and the role of public policy at the local level with: (i) share of women in high-paying public sector jobs (in the central administration) at the department level (based on data from the Census of Human Resources, 2017-2018), (ii) intrafamily violence at the municipality level (based on data collected by 2017 INE); and (iii) share of males agreeing with gender parity in congress and in the judicial system relatively to the entire population (based on 2017 Latinobarómetro). We proxy the influence of social public policies with: (i) 2017 municipal number of preprimary centers (collected by INE), (ii) 2017 per capita spending in education and health at the department level (collected by ICEFI), and (iii) the municipal road accessibility in 2018 (collected by FUNDESA). See Table A1 for details on these variables.

The set of local labor market characteristics include the per capita GDP at the municipality level in 2017 (collected by FUNDESA), the ratio of male-to-female employment in each municipality based on 2018 Population Census,<sup>9</sup> sectoral structure of (male) employment from the 2018 Population Census, and the municipality crimes rate in 2018 (collected by INE).

The main 2018 census sample includes 1,696,260 women of working age (25 to 49 years old) living in households were they or their partner is the household head. Our final sample covers a total of 333 municipalities (out of 340 total) and 22 departments (out of 22). FLFP increased from 26% to 32% between 2002 and 2018. Women in the 2018 sample are, on average, middle-aged, married, and low educated; most of married women have an employed husband, while women having children younger than 13 have more than one child on average. Access and use of technology is low. When looking at subnational variables, we find an average of 6 reported cases of intrafamily violence against women per 1,000 women in the municipality and an average of 9 <mark><percent of?></mark> men agreeing with having gender parity in Congress or in the Judicial system per 10 <mark><percent of?></mark> people agreeing in the department population. The average number of preprimary centers is 1.5 per 100 children ages 4 to 6. Section II in the supplementary materials present and discuss descriptive statistics in detail for all the variables we use in our analysis.

In Figure 3 we illustrate simple municipal-level correlations across FLFP, and several of FLFP drivers. The strong and positive association with the per capita GDP (Panel A) suggests that Guatemalan municipalities are in the upward “U-shaped” curve with development. There is also a

> 9 The gender wage ratio would be a better measure of the level of discrimination in local labor markets, but the 2018 National Census does not provide information on income variables.

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