rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# Table 8: Is it liquidity needs?

The dependent variable is the standard deviation of the rate of growth of real value added for each 4 digit ISIC industry in each country. All regressions included a country and industry specific effect. Liquidity needs is the ratio of total inventories over annual sales for U.S. corporate firms in the same industry between 1980 and 1989. External dependence is the fraction of capital expenditures not financed with internal funds for US firms in the same industry between 1980 and 1989 and was build using the methodology of Rajan and Zingales (1998). Capital per worker is the average ratio of capital to total number of employees for each sector in the US between 1980 and 1997. Human capital is the measure of the share in total wage bill of workers with some college and college graduated in each industry in the U.S., obtained from Autor et. al. (1999). High technology is a measure of the use of computer technology in each industry in the U.S., also from Autor et. al.(1999). Industry volatility is the standard deviation of real value added growth in each industry in the US during the period 1981-1997. All regressions used private credit (as a fraction of GDP) as a measure of financial development. All coefficients were estimated by 2SLS using a country’s legal origin as instrument of its level of financial development. Column (1) reproduces the coefficient obtained in the base case <u>(column (5),</u> Table 3) for comparison.

|Variables|(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|(7)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Interaction|-1.206*|-0.822*|-1.040*|-1.135*|-1.221*|-1.115*|-1.040*|
|Liq. Need x Pvt. Cred.|(0.227)|(0.222)|(0.219)|(0.248)|(0.229)|(0.214)|(0.222)|
|Interaction||-0.078*||||||
|Durable x Pvt Cred.||(0.024)||||||
|Interaction|||-0.068*|||||
|Ext. dep.x Pvt. Cred.|||(0.026)|||||
|Interaction||||0.006||||
|_K/L_ x Pvt. Cred.||||(0.098)||||
|Interaction|||||-0.438*|||
|Human Cap.x Pvt. Cred.|||||(0.123)|||
|Interaction||||||-0.254*||
|Tech. use x Pvt Cred.||||||(0.111)||
|Interaction|||||||-0.588|
|Indus. vol.x Pvt. Cred.|||||||(0.308)|
|Diferential in volatility||||||||
|Percentage points|4.1|2.8|3.6|3.9|4.2|3.8|3.6|
|Fraction of IQR|59|40|51|56|60|55|51|
|Obs.|2301|2301|2301|2301|2273|2273|2301|

Note:*=Significant at 5% confidence. Robust standard errors in parenthesis.

38
Busso, M., and S. Galiani (2014): "The Causal Effect of Competition on Prices and Quality: Evidence from a Field Experiment", Working Paper 20054, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.

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20
WPS3397

# **_A Unified Framework for Pro-Poor Growth Analysis_**

# B.  Essama-Nssah<sup>•</sup>

Poverty Reduction Group The World Bank Washington, D.C.

# Abstract

Starting with a general impact indicator as an evaluation criterion, this paper offers an integrative framework for a unified discussion of various concepts and measures of propoor growth emerging from the current literature. It shows that whether economic growth is considered pro-poor depends fundamentally on the choice of evaluative weights. In addition, the framework leads to a new indicator of the rate of pro-poor growth that can be interpreted as the equally distributed equivalent growth rate. This is a distribution-adjusted rate of growth that depends on the chosen level of inequality aversion. Illustrations based on data for Indonesia in the 1990s show a strong link between growth and poverty reduction in that country. A decomposition of the observed poverty outcomes reveals the extent to which changes in inequality have blunted the poverty impacts of both growth and contraction. Finally, the results also demonstrate that absolute and relative indicators of pro-poor growth can lead to conflicting conclusions from the same set of facts.

Keywords: Pro-Poor Growth, Evaluation, Indonesia, Inequality, Poverty Decomposition. JEL Classification: C15, I32, O53 World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3397, September 2004 _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._ • The author is grateful to Erwin H.R. Tiongson and Jean-Yves Duclos for their insightful comments, and to Shaohua Chen, Aart Kraay, Michael Lokshin, and Martin Ravallion for very useful discussions.
<!-- Start of picture text --> 3.75-<br>3.50-<br>=<br>8 3.25-<br>3.00-<br>2.75-<br>2000 2005 2010 2015 2021<br>Year<br>Cluster 1 2<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 3.50-<br>a...<br>gees<br>=<br>3.00-<br>275-<br>2000 2005 2010 2015 2021<br>Year<br>Cluster 1 2<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 3.75-<br>3.50-<br>3.50-<br>= a...<br>8 3.25- gees<br>22<br>==<br>3.00- 3.00-<br>2.75- 275-<br>2000 2005 2010 2015 2021 2000 2005 2010 2015 2021<br>Year Year<br>Cluster 1 2 Cluster 1 2<br>35- 3.5-<br>$ $& 30-<br>@ 30- ey<br>= z<br>25- ee ee ee eee 25-<br>2000 2005 2010 2015 2021 2000 2005 2010 2015 2021<br>Year Year<br>Cluster 1 2—3 Cluster 1 2—3<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 35-<br>@ 30-<br>=<br>25- ee ee ee eee<br>2000 2005 2010 2015 2021<br>Year<br>Cluster 1 2—3<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 3.5-<br>& 30-<br>ey<br>z<br>25-<br>2000 2005 2010 2015 2021<br>Year<br>Cluster 1 2—3<br><!-- End of picture text -->
- Figueres 2008: Figueres, Christiana. Tuning the instrument. In: Financing Action on Climate Maintaining Momentum. UNEP publication (2008).

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- Figueres 2007a: Figueres, Christiana. “From Tons to Trends”, chapter in Global Environmental Governance, Perspectives on the Current Debate, Lydia Swart and Estelle Perry eds., Center for UN Reform Education, New York (2007).

- Figueres 2007b: Figueres, Christiana, “The Bali Batik: Design Options for  the post 2012 Climate Regime”, Sustainable Development and Human Settlements Division of ECLAC, Santiago de Chile (2007).

- Figueres et al 2005: Figueres, Christiana / Haites, Erik / Hoyt, Edward, Programmatic CDM Project Activities: Eligibility, Methodological Requirements and Implementation. Study for the Carbon Finance Business Unit of the World Bank (2005).

Figueres and Philips: Scaling Up Demand-Side Energy Efficiency Improvements through Programmatic CDM, ESMAP (2007).

Figueres and Newcombe: Evolution of the CDM, 2012 and Beyond, United Nations Foundation (2007).

- GTZ 2008a: GTZ CDM Highlights No. 56. Accessed December 19th, 2008 at: http://www.gtz.de/en/dokumente/en-climate-cdm-highlights-56.pdf (2008).

- GTZ 2008b: GTZ CDM Highlights No. 64. Accessed June 22, 2009 at: <u>http://www.cdmindia.com/CDM%20Highlights_64.pdf</u> (2008).

Gregg et al 2008: Gregg, Jay S. / Andres, Robert J. / Marland, Gregg, China: Emissions Pattern of the World Leader in CO2 in Co2 emissions from fossil fuel consumption and cement production, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L08806, doi: 10.1029/2007GL032887 (2008).

- Growth Report 2008: Spence, Michael, et al, The Growth Report. Strategies for Sustained Growth and Inclusive Development, Washington (2008).

- Hinostroza M, et al: Potential for broad based energy efficiency projects under programmatic CDM, UNEP Riso Cente (2007).

Holm 2007: Holm Olsen, Karen. The Clean Development’s Contribution to Sustainable Development: A Review of the Literature, 84 Climatic Change 1 (2007).

Holm Olsen and Fenhann 2008: Holm Olsen, Karen / Fenhann, J **ø** rgen, Sustainable Development Benefits of Clean Development Mechanism Projects. A New Methology for Sustainability Assessment Based on Text Analysis of the Project Design Documents Submitted for Validation, 36 Energy Policy2819 (2008).

38
Table A3: IEC Slopes: Robustness Formality Assignment

|**Specifcation:**<br>Avg. of 31 Countries|**Ma**<br>(1)|**in**<br>(2)|**Geog**<br>(3)|**raphy**<br>(4)|(5)|**Produc**<br>(6)|**t Codes**<br>(7)|(8)|**All**<br>(9)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Slope|7.0|7.4|6.3|5.8|4.3|3.8|3.8|3.3|2.7|
|Confdence Interval|[6.4,7.6]|[6.7,8.1]|[5.6,7.0]|[4.8,6.4]|[3.5,4.7]|[3.1,4.1]|[3.1,4.1]|[2.7,3.5]|[2.0,3.0]|
|# of p-values_<_0.05<br>|30|30|29|28|28|28|27|25|25|
|_R_<sup>2 </sup>adjusted|0.12|0.13|0.17|0.34|0.38|0.52|0.53|0.54|0.57|
|Household Characteristics||X|X|X|X|X|X|X|X|
|Urban/Rural|||X|||||||
|Survey Blocks||||X|||||X|
|Food Products|||||X|||||
|COICOP 2-dig||||||X||||
|COICOP 3-dig|||||||X|||
|COICOP 4-dig||||||||X|X|

This table shows the average slope of the Informal Engel curve across countries for different specifications under the robustness scenario assignment of places of purchase to formality. The robustness scenario differs from the central scenario by assigning specialized stores to the informal sector, in addition to maintaining corner stores, non brick and mortar and self-production in the informal sector. The slopes are estimated from: _Share In f ormali_ = _β_ . _ln_ ( _expenditure pc_ ) _i_ + Γ _Xi_ + _εi_ . The dependent variable is informal expenditure share and the main explanatory variable is log expenditure per capita. Controls include household characteristics (household size, age, gender, education of head), location indicators (urban/rural, survey enumeration blocks), and product codes for food vs all other purchases, 2nd, 3rd and 69
20 Figure 1: Literature on Health and Development

||Determinants|Data<br>Consequences|Availability<br>and Quality|
|---|---|---|---|
|Infant and child<br>mortality|Extensive<br>Examples:<br>Rosenzweig<br>and Schultz (1982);<br>Thomas et al.<br>(1990)|Nil|Good|
|Infant and child<br>morbidity|Extensive<br>Examples: Cebu<br>Study Team (1990);<br>Wolfe and Behrman<br>(1987)|Limited<br>Examples:<br>Moock and<br>Leslie (1986)26|Good|
|Adultmortality|Limited|Nil|Poor|
|Adult<br>morbidity|Limited<br>(World<br>Bank<br>1989a)|Limited<br>Examples:<br>Strauss<br>(1986); Deolalikar<br>(1988)|Poor|

26 For a study using United States data, see Salkever (1982).
POLICY **RESEARCH WORKING PAPER** 1752

# Summary findings

Using the household survey and other data sources, Canagarajah and Thomas analyze returns to education and other aspects of Ghana's labor market profile from 1987 to 1991.

The labor force grew slower than the population did between 1980 and 1990, but the supply of labor is expected to increase as the population of youth is expected to grow faster from 1990 to 2000. And labor force participation rates for 26- to 45-year-olds have been increasing rapidly.

Over time, the average labor force participation rates of women have become equal to men's; that of children younger than 15 has remained unchanged at 38 percent. More than half of Ghana's child laborers are employed in agriculture.

The formal sector's share of employment is on the decline, while the private informal sector's share has increased, especially in urban areas. Over time, the informal sector (in which most workers have a primary education or less) has absorbed more labor than the formal sector (in which most workers have middle or secondary schooling).

Unemployment is pervasive in urban areas, and is less visible in rural areas. Labor productivity may not have increased and is possibly declining.

Between 1987 and 1992, there was reverse migration, with many people moving from urban to rural areas, mostly for family reasons. Employment-related migration has also been on the increase.

As is true elsewhere, the level of education affects participation in the labor force. Literacy rates for women are lower than those for men, which is one reason men dominate the private formal sector. The rate of return to education increases with higher education and work experience. The return for each additional year of schooling ranges from 4 percent to 6 percent in Ghana, quite high for a Sub-Saharan African country. Private and social returns to education are greater for primary than for secondary or postsecondary education.

- - This paper a product of Human Development 3, Africa Technical Families is part of a larger effort in the region to analyze the links between education and employment. Copies of the paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Betty Casely-Hayford, roomJ8-270, telephone 202-473-4672, fax 202-473-8065, Internet address bcaselyhayford@worldbank.org. April 1997. (50 pages)

> **_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates_** _the findings of Dork in progress to encourage the excaange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the_ **_names_** _of the_ **_authors_** _and should be cited accordingly. The findings,_ **_interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this_** _paper are entirely tbose of_ **_the_** _autbors. They do not necessarily represen_ **_t_** _he vieur of the World Bank,_ **_its_** _Executive_ **_Directors, or the_** _countries they represent._

Produced by the Policy Research Dissemination center
contraceptives at 10 percent and oral contraceptives at 3 percent. Use of other modern methods such as condoms, female sterilization, and IUD accounted for less than 1 percentage point each.

# **3 Empirical Methodology**

We use three data sources to evaluate the impact of the availability of contraception on fertility: first, a contraceptive use survey collected under the auspices of Pathfinder International – Ethiopia (Pathfinder International Ethiopia 2005); second, a health facility survey collected to augment the Pathfinder survey; third, the 1994 Census of Ethiopia. The Pathfinder survey was collected in September 2004 and covered Ethiopia’s four largest regions, which together are home to 86 percent of the population:<sup>12</sup> Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR, and Tigray. It provides information on the level of knowledge, attitude, and practice of family planning. The survey used a stratified multi-stage sampling design in four regions combined with urbanrural residence for each region. Weredas (districts) constituted the primary sampling units. In total 58 weredas were sampled and 176 communities (PA/kebeles) within these districts were surveyed, 113 rural and 63 urban.

To collect information on health facilities, family planning services and Community Based Reproductive Health (CBRH) programs available in the 58 Pathfinder survey districts a Wereda Health Facility and CBRH (WHFC) survey was conducted in July 2005. The information was provided by health departments or social sector departments. In each wereda, general questions were asked regarding the entire wereda and specific questions were asked about the communities covered by the Pathfinder Survey. Five communities that could not be accurately identified are dropped, leaving 171 communities. Furthermore, uncertainty arose about whether some of the urban communities surveyed in the WHFC survey were accurately linked to the Pathfinder survey (26 in total) and, to be cautious, these were also dropped. After merging with the rates for modern contraceptives to be 14 percent, 16 percent and 14 percent in the Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP regions. In September 2004, Pathfinder International Ethiopia conducted a survey on family planning and fertility in Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray regions. The use of modern methods was the highest in Oromia (24 percent) followed by Tigray (20.4 percent), Amhara (20.5 percent) and SNNP region (17.1 percent) (Pathfinder International Ethiopia 2004).

12Ethiopia is divided into 9 regions, with each region further divided into zones; there were 68 zones in Ethiopia at the time of the Pathfinder survey. Each zone is divided into weredas (or woredas, which correspond to districts). Each wereda is divided into a combination of Kebeles in urban areas and Peasant Associations (PAs) in rural areas. Kebeles and PAs are the smallest administrative unit of local government.

5
level dynamics in the Zambian export sector. In Section 3, we draw on regression analysis to explore the determinants of Zambian export instability. Sections 4 and 5 are qualitative in nature. Our insights gained from a large number of interviews with Zambian business and government representatives conducted in the first half of 2014 are summarized in Section 4. In Section 5 we conclude by drawing some policy conclusions from the foregoing analyses.

# **2. The composition of Zambian exports, 1999-2011**

# **2.1 Export patterns across destinations and products**

# _Main export destinations_

The quantitative analysis of this paper is based on transactions-level Zambian customs data for the period 1999-2011, drawn from the ASYCUDA system. In total, the data set covers 1.37 million trade transactions, of which some 99,000 are exports (see Table 1).<sup>2</sup> We first present a number of key summary statistics, starting with Zambian export patterns across destination countries. Table 2 shows that averaged over our sample period, fully 80% of Zambian export transactions are with fellow Sub-Saharan countries. In value terms, however, exports to African clients account for less than 25%, with Europe by far the most important destination (53%). This means that export shipments to other African countries are on average much lower-value than shipments to overseas destinations.

As evident from Table 3, the composition of destinations has undergone significant changes since the turn of the millennium. In value terms, overseas markets have become even more dominant than they had been in 1999, with Europe’s share rising from 50% to 57% and East Asia’s share increasing nine-fold, from 2% to 18%.

> 2 This dataset has also been analyzed by Banda and Simumba (2013) in an interesting complementary study to ours. Note that our data do not cover two important components of Zambian trade: informal trade flows and services. On the former, see e.g. World Bank (2005, 2014), and on the latter, see e.g. Mattoo and Payton (2007).

3
These conclusions led us to propose the following policy recommendations:

- General average dwell time objective at platform level, in a not congested context, should be dropped. The objectives to be set in relation to dwell time would need to be revisited with differentiated targets according shipper and shipment characteristics (e.g. clearance in less than 4 days is a reasonable objective for some industrial companies),

- Target shippers and C&F to encourage more efficient behaviors. Reforms would indeed only be useful if shippers and C&F agents share the common objective of making dwell time in ports minimum. They need to have incentives to do that and awareness campaigns on the potential impact of fast clearance on factory prices or customer service level should be organized. The calculation of full logistics cost should replace the evaluation of demurrage and parking costs currently used to assess port transit costs. The use of pre-arrival clearance or best practices in logistics management (such as reduction of inventory level) should be encouraged.

- An alternative position is to adopt a demand-driven approach where short dwell time is no longer an objective as such but rather a mean to meet expectations of those shippers that want to keep cargo dwell time in ports minimal. Setting an overambitious and unattainable dwell time for all shippers seems indeed pointless and setting differentiated targets to maximize port user satisfaction appears a more sensible objective. Main industrial companies for example are more likely to adopt short dwell time objectives because of the high regularity of their imports (same materials, fixed replenishment intervals) while small commercial companies will probably need support to keep dwell time in ports minimal for the few containers they order every year.

- Available statistical tools can help customs profile shippers’ behaviors and help terminal operators improve yard productivity therefore delaying capacity investments. However, the latter is only possible if data on cargo characteristics is made available to terminal operating companies and used to segregate full containers according expected dwell time. In that respect this study has only used very partially the potential of data available in ASYCUDA and Cameroon customs are encouraged to further the investigation of databases.

Further research is needed to better address the long cargo dwell time issue in Sub-Saharan African ports:

- Further research is needed to investigate governance issues, for example to see if long delays between arrival and lodging can be interpreted because of ongoing negotiations with agents with a view to lower overall import cost for shipment. Likewise, long time between duties payment and exit may be related to redundant controls.

29