||**Log [Sel**<br>|**f-reported P**<br>|**roductivity (X**<br>|**OF/ha)]**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)<br>All crops|(2)<br>All crops|(3)<br>Export crops|(4)<br>Food crops|
||(0.011)|(0.011)|(0.020)|(0.014)|
|Total number of crops produced|0.033***|0.023*|0.078***|-0.014|
||(0.013)|(0.013)|(0.022)|(0.016)|
|Household used any purchased seed|-0.166***|-0.152***|-0.099|-0.178***|
||(0.043)|(0.043)|(0.070)|(0.051)|
|Plots that Use Chemical Fertilizer (% of total)|0.304***|0.296***|0.445***|0.123|
||(0.074)|(0.073)|(0.103)|(0.091)|
|Plots that Use Pesticide (% of total)|0.634***|0.598***|0.669***|0.561***|
||(0.061)|(0.060)|(0.082)|(0.082)|
|Export crops dummy (1 if Household produced any export||0.295***|||
|crop)||(0.039)|||
|Constant|11.422***|11.343***|11.627***|11.588***|
||(0.105)|(0.104)|(0.171)|(0.125)|
|Region fixed effects|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Adjusted R-squared|0.417|0.424|0.368|0.336|
|**% gap**|**31%**|**27%**|**17%**|**40%**|
|Observations|5428|5428|3588|4601|

_Note: ***/**/* indicate statistical significance at the 1/5/10 percent level respectively._ Next, we run a Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis to identify the drivers of the gender gap: both in terms of different levels of endowments and in terms of differential returns from those endowments. Results are shown in Table 5.

Within endowments (the ‘explained’ component), we see that cultivating a smaller total land area is the main factor acting to female household head’s advantage, due to the documented inverse relationship between land area and productivity.<sup>4</sup> This relationship has been observed in many developing countries and can be considered a stylized fact (Kimhi 2006; Larson et al. 2014). To a lesser extent, we also see that the older age of female household heads compared to male household heads, and their higher use of female household labor, works to their advantage. While having an older – and thus perhaps more experienced – household head is more important for export crops, having more female household labor only benefits women in food crop cultivation.

Given the additive linearity property of the decomposition, it is possible to determine the contribution of each component towards the gender gap. The ratio of the different components to the overall gap describe the importance of each covariate. The most important factors in widening the gender gap are female household heads’ lower rates of export crop cultivation (0.44 of overall gap) and use of household male labor (0.51 of gap), followed by their lower use of pesticide (0.33 of gap) and then chemical fertilizer (0.08 of gap). Lower use of non-labor inputs – especially of chemical fertilizer – is a more significant driver of the gender gap in export crop productivity, while lower use of household male labor matters more for the gap in food crop productivity.

In aggregate terms, however, the inverse farm-size productivity relationship (IR) dominates the endowment effect, leading to it reducing the gender gap on average, while the gender gap in agricultural productivity is completely driven by lower returns to inputs. These lower returns appear to be driven by variables outside 4 As first noted by Chayanov (1926) in Russia and rediscovered by Sen (1962) in India, it states that land productivity decreases with farm size.

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