rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# **REFERENCES**

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- Bloom, N., Propper, C., Siler, S., & Van Reenan, J. (2015). “The impact of competition on management quality: Evidence from public hospitals,” _The Review of Economic Studies_ , _82_ (2), 457‐489.

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- Campbell, S., Reeves, D., Kontopantelis, E., Middleton, E., Sibbald, B., & Roland, M. (2007). “Quality of primary care in England with the introduction of pay for performance,” _The New England Journal of Medicine_ , _357_ (2), 181‐190.

22
# **References**

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Barth, J. R., Sun, Y., and Zhang, S. 2019. Banks and Natural Disasters. SSRN Electronic Journal Benton, T., Bieg, C., Harwatt, H., Pudasaini, R., Wellesley, L. 2021. Food system impacts on biodiversity loss: Three levers for food system transformation in support of nature. Research Paper. Chatham House. London, UK.

- Calice, P. and F. Miguel. 2021. Climate-related and Environmental Risks in the Banking Sector in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Preliminary Assessment. Washington, DC.

Calice, P., Diaz Kalan, F. A., & Miguel, F. 2021. Nature-Related Financial Risks in Brazil. Policy Research Working Paper no. WPS 9759. World Bank Group, Washington, D.C.

Dasgupta, P. 2021. The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review. London: HM Treasury.

- European Commission. 2019. Communication from the commission: Guidelines on non-financial reporting: Supplement on reporting climate-related information. European Commission. Brussels, Belgium.

- Global Footprint Network. 2021. Ecological Footprint. Webpage. Accessed on October 15, 2022. https://www.footprintnetwork.org/our-work/ecological-footprint/

- IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services). 2019. The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Summary for Policymakers. Bonn, Germany: IPBES.

Johnson, J. A., G. Ruta, U. Baldos, R. Cervigni, S. Chonabayashi, E. Corong, O. Gavryliuk, J. Gerber, T. Hertel, C. Nootenboom, and S. Polasky. 2021. The Economic Case for Nature: A Global Earth-Economy Model to Assess Development Policy Pathways. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35882 . License: CC BY 3.0 IG

- <mark>Karolyi, G. and Tobin-de la Puente, J., 2022. Biodiversity Finance: A Call for Research into Financing Nature. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4142482 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4142482</mark>

Kedward, K., Buller, A. and Ryan-Collins, J. 2021. Quantitative easing and nature loss: exploring naturerelated financial risks and impacts in the European Central Bank’s corporate bond portfolio. UCL Institute for Innovation and Public Purpose. IIPP Policy Report (IIPP 2021/02).

- Leclère, D., Obersteiner, M., Barrett, M., Butchart, S. H. M., Chaudhary, A., De Palma, A., DeClerck, F. A. J., Di Marco, M., Doelman, J. C., Dürauer, M., Freeman, R., Harfoot, M., Hasegawa, T., Hellweg, S., Hilbers, J. P., Hill, S. L. L., Humpenöder, F., Jennings, N., Krisztin, T., ... Young, L. 2020. “Bending the curve of terrestrial biodiversity needs an integrated strategy”. Nature, 585(7826), 551–556. <u>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2705-y.</u>

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<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 2<br>Primary goods<br>-A-<br>CX<br>Manufactures<br><!-- End of picture text --> This last scenario may plausibly reflect Vietnam's current situation. There is currently a large labor surplus in Vietnam's agriculture, The average amount of agricultural land per capita is less than one tenth of an hectare (ITNDP, 1999a) and peasants are estimated to be working only 71% of their time (GSO, 1999a). Thus, the agricultural labor force is already larger than what the limited available land can absorb. In such circumstances one may reasonably assume that marginal labor productivity is close to zero, and that each manufacturing job that is not created represents, in the countryside, one more mouth to feed with the same rice bowl. This implies that labor could be drawn from the primary sector into manufacturing without substantially reducing the production of primary goods. In addition, investment in manufacturing would presumably not require a large amount of capital to be drawn away from agriculture. Section I of this paper indicates that much capital could merely be redirected from the capital-intensive and import-substituted industrial State enterprises towards the export-oriented sector. More capital could also be raised from abroad though foreign investment and through better mobilization of savings.

But by how much, then, could manufacturing exports be expected to increase through a better allocation of resources? Given income from non-manufacturing export of $5,812.6 million in 1997, the above calculations based on the regression by Wood and Mayer (1998) suggest that there is scope for Vietnam to at least triple its manufacturing exports in the near future, from $3,372 million to about $9,881 million. This means that Vietnam's still unused comparative advantage in manufactures can be estimated to amount to roughly $6.5 billion, which represents about 25% of the country's 1997 GDP or $85 per capita.

# _e) The Labor Content of Vietnam's untapped comparative advantage_

How would a better use of Vietnam's comparative advantage in manufactures translate into employment growth? We can get an idea by using the "factor content" method. This method involves calculating the amount of labor embodied in trade flows. Although not undisputed, it has widely been used in studies that estimate the impact of increased trade flows or of alternative trade strategies on labor demand (see Wood, 1994). Even though it is a partial equilibrium analysis, it has generally been found to produce estimates of the same order of magnitude as general equilibrium models.

I C
The evolution of beliefs about how people make decisions is evident in the US judicial history of racial segregation.<sup>2</sup> In _Plessy v. Ferguson_ (1896), racial hostility was treated as based on nature: “Legislation is powerless to eradicate racial instincts,” argued Justice Brown. Fifty years later, in _Brown v. Board of Education_ (1954), Chief Justice Warren argued that segregation shapes individuals’ self-schemas (their sense of themselves): <mark>To separate [Black children] from others of similar age or qualification solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may</mark> affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.

Another 50 years later, Justice Breyer argued in a dissent to Chief Justice Roberts that segregation perpetuated racism: <mark>The context here is one of racial limits that seek, not to keep the races apart, but to bring them together...segregation policies did not simply tell schoolchildren ‘where they could and could not go to school’...they perpetuated a caste system rooted in the institutions of</mark> slavery and 80 years of legalized subordination.<sup>3</sup> Behavioral science research supports the views of Chief Justice Warren and Justice Breyer. Based on their experiences, communities create cultural categories. Activated cultural categories constrain (or enable) how people are able to think of themselves and others. At the stroke of a pen, law issues a command but does not change how people think, and yet law makes possible experiences and exposure that over time do exactly that.

This essay has two main arguments, an analytical one and a policy one.

> 2 This history is reviewed in Turner (2015).

> 3 _Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1_ (2007).

4
# **Box 5: Cruise Industry in the OECS (cont...)**

The profile of international tourism in OECS countries – summarized in the mismatch between international passenger traffic and tourism receipts – introduces key strategic topics from the economic, transport sector, and fiscal viewpoints.

From the economic viewpoint, the fact that OECS international tourism is tilted towards cruise-ship passengers represents an enormous opportunity. Even with a relatively small share of international passengers in stay over (one third of total in 2011), the overall contribution of tourism to the economy is quite significant, ranging from 24% in Grenada to 74% in Antigua and Barbuda (WTTC, 2012); much higher than the 14-16% found in leading Caribbean destinations. If and when stay-over trends improve, the local economies can benefit from higher demand for:

- Traditional crops such as tropical fruits (including mango, pineapple, and papaya) and fresh

- produce, goods for which local production is competitive compared to imported substitutes,

- Fish and seafood that are already procured locally (except for cold water fish), and their value

- could be increased with more processing,

- Services, including those provided at yachts and marinas, where spending is the highest in the

- tourism industry,

• Hotel receipts linked to services and goods, which are currently sourced locally at a rate of 90%. The average occupancy rate at 62% is comparable to main competitors (Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica). This average, however, masks an uneven occupancy rate whereby a handful of the resorts/hotels are at 92% occupancy, and the rest have occupancy at or below 40% due to poor quality and lack of investments.

From the transport sector viewpoint, focusing on increasing stay-over tourism means taking a closer look at the connectivity of the OECS islands, both among themselves and with the rest of the world, not only via air transport but also via local ferries. In particular, air connectivity is limited and acts as a constraint to growth and the development of large-scale tourism. The interplay of the air transport industry and the hotel industry is complex. The hotel industry, vulnerable to economic slowdowns in countries of visitor origin, depends on airlift for filling their rooms. The air transport industry, vulnerable to fuel prices and the seasonality of the tourism industry, depends on the draw the hotel industry creates, i.e. the demand the quality of their properties can raise. In addition, the tourists wishing to travel, who in many cases are mid- to even low- market, are deeply sensitive to (a) the price of getting to the destination as compared to alternatives, and (b) the value of services received at the destination, making their demand highly elastic.

_Source: Briceno-Garmendia, C., Bofinger, H., Millan, M.F. and Cubas, D. ( 2013)._ 76
Taking advantage of this variation in the size of migrant exchange rate shocks, these papers examine the impact of the shocks on changes in outcomes in migrants’ origin households, using detailed panel household survey data from before and after the Asian financial crisis.

Yang (2008b) shows that these exogenous increases in migrant resources are used primarily for investment in origin households, rather than for current consumption. Households experiencing more favorable exchange rate shocks see greater increases in child schooling and reductions child labor (for children aged 10-17). They also raise their non-consumption expenditures in several areas likely to be investment-related (in particular in educational expenditures), and show enhanced entrepreneurship participation in entrepreneurial activities. Households raise hours worked in self-employment, and become more likely to start relatively capital-intensive household enterprises (transportation/communication services and manufacturing). By contrast, there is no large or statistically significant effect of the exchange rate shocks on current household consumption. Yang and Martinez (2005) extends the analysis and shows that these positive migrant exchange rate shocks also lead these households to be more likely to exit poverty status.

Aside from impacts on migrant origin households, it is also of interest to examine how migrant return decisions changed in response to the exchange rate shocks accompanying the Asian financial crisis. In research on migration decision-making, a current debate is whether durations of migrants’ stays overseas are determined primarily by straightforward life-cycle considerations, as opposed to being driven by the need to reach target-earnings levels. By “lifecycle” considerations, one means simply that households choose the length of stay overseas that balances the marginal benefit from higher savings overseas (and thus higher lifetime consumption) against the marginal utility cost of overseas work (as in Stark, Helmenstein, and Yegorov (1997) and Dustmann (2003)). On the other hand, when households face borrowing constraints and minimum investment levels, lengths of stay overseas can be determined by the amount of time needed to accumulate a “target-earnings” level, as in Piore (1979) and Mesnard (2004).

Distinguishing between the two alternative motivations for return migration is important, because the return decisions of “life-cycle” migrants and “target-earners” can respond very 9
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# **Table 7: Performance by Development Partner Groups by Indicators A. All Partner Countries** **<u>(including FCS and non-FCS)</u>**

||**Bilateral**|**MDBs**|**Other**<br>**MOs**|**Other**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Ind 3:**Aid flows are aligned with national priorities (aid on<br>budget)|-9.4|26.8|23.4|-9.8|
|**Ind 4:**Strengthen capacity by coordinated support (technical<br>assistance)|-6.4|22.0|28.2|-40.8|
|**Ind 5a: **Use ofcountryPFMsystems|-10.9|25.7|31.8|-8.6|
|**Ind5b: **Use of country procurement systems|-6.4|12.9|19.0|0.3|
|**Ind 6:**Strengthen capacity by avoiding parallel project<br>implementationunits (PIUs)|6.6|-6.4|-38.7|20.7|
|**Ind7: **Aid is morepredictable|-8.1|24.5|19.0|-10.1|
|**Ind 8:**Aidis untied|8.4|14.8|-3.2|-122.5|
|**Ind 9:**Use of common arrangements or procedures (program-<br>based approaches—PBAs)|-9.2|13.2|15.7|37.2|
|**Ind 10a: **Jointmissions to thefield|-10.0|12.9|39.6|-1.9|
|**Ind 10b: **Joint country analytic work|-11.3|19.0|45.2|-13.9|
|**Total **|**-56.7**|**165.4**|**180.0**|**-149.3**|

# **B. FCS**

||**Bilateral**|**MDBs**|**Other**<br>**MOs **|**Other**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Ind 3:**Aid flows are aligned with national priorities (aid on<br>budget)|-2.8|9.0|7.1|-1.2|
|**Ind 4:**Strengthen capacity by coordinated support (technical<br>assistance)|-2.2|6.7|9.3|-7.7|
|**Ind5a:**Use of countryPFM systems|-2.9|9.2|7.4|-1.7|
|**Ind 5b: **Use ofcountry procurement systems|-1.9|5.0|5.8|-0.5|
|**Ind 6:**Strengthen capacity by avoiding parallel project<br>implementation units(PIUs)|1.6|-2.2|-9.1|4.7|
|**Ind 7: **Aidismore predictable|-2.1|6.5|4.7|0.5|
|**Ind 8:**Aidis untied|2.1|3.5|-0.6|-29.3|
|**Ind 9:**Use of common arrangements or procedures (program-<br>based approaches—PBAs)|-2.0|5.6|3.6|3.2|
|**Ind 10a: **Jointmissions to thefield|-2.7|3.1|11.5|0.9|
|**Ind 10b: **Joint countryanalytic work|-3.1|7.6|12.1|-5.2|
|**Total **|**-15.9**|**54.0**|**51.7**|**-36.2 **|

_Note: Islamic Development Bank does not have operations in FCS, and therefore average MDB performance is divided by 5 for table 6-A and by 4 for table 6-B_ The comparison between table 7-A and B shows almost the same. This confirms that even disaggregated by indicators, relative development partner performance is similar between FCS and non-FCS.

In FCS (Table 6-B), the average performance of MDBs is the strongest, followed by other MOs, bilaterals and vertical funds. Bilaterals exceed the average on two indicators: indicator 6 (strengthen capacity by avoiding parallel PIUs) and indicator 8 (aid is untied). On indicator 8, the better than average performance of bilaterals is a reflection of particularly weak performance of vertical funds. As vertical fund assistance is almost all tied, relative performance of other groups becomes positive almost by default.

14
# **Importing, Exporting and Innovation in Developing Countries**<sup>**¥**</sup>

## MURAT ŞEKER<sup>*</sup>

Enterprise Analysis Unit World Bank

> ¥ I would like to thank to Ana Margarida Fernandes, Daniel Rodriguez Delgado and my colleagues in Enterprise Analysis Unit for their helpful suggestions.

> * Contact: 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 MSN F4P 259. Email: <u>mseker@worldbank.org</u> www.enterprisesurveys.org
(MPIs) are numerous.<sup>3</sup> However, for multidimensional _inequality_ measures, the policy impact has been more muted.

Why is this? One possibility might be the complexity of existing measures.<sup>4</sup> To be effective in policy analysis, a measure needs to be easily understood and communicated. But this desirable characteristic is unlikely to be present unless it has been prioritized and intentionally built into the measure along with the traditional axiomatic requirements.<sup>5</sup> In addition, the process of bringing a particular multidimensional measure to data can be daunting, requiring many consequential choices not addressed in most theoretical presentations (Alkire and Foster 2010). On what basis should a given cardinalization of a variable be selected? How can the variables be made comparable to one another? Where should the relative importance of variables be reflected? The structure of a measure might facilitate or hinder the answers to such questions, impacting its dependability and ease of use in policy analyses.

The aim of this paper is to identify axiomatically-sound multidimensional inequality measures having attributes well-suited for policy.<sup>6</sup> Our focus is the two-stage approach of Maasoumi (1986), which yields intuitive measures frequently used in empirical analyses.<sup>7</sup> In this approach, a multidimensional inequality measure is constructed using two components: an _aggregation function_ converting each person’s dimensional achievements into an aggregate indicator; and an _inequality measure_ evaluating the resulting vector of indicators. His original presentation used general means and generalized entropy measures; ours considers a general set of aggregation functions based on Bosmans et al. (2015) and Lorenz-consistent inequality measures.<sup>8</sup> Two-stage measures inherit several of the standard axioms for multidimensional inequality measures from the properties of their components. However, Dardanoni (1995) has shown that at

> 3 Google Scholar and the site www.mppn.org list hundreds of empirical studies using MPIs along with many policy applications. The relative infrequency for multidimensional inequality indices is noted in Hong (2009), Seth and Santos (2018) and IPSS (2018).

> 4 For example, Lugo (2007) notes how the parameters of a measure can obscure its meaning, hampering applications.

> 5 See Foster (2024) who discusses an approach to “intentional measurement”.

> 6 As we shall see below, the required properties include anonymity, scale invariance and replication invariance, as well as the two generalizations of the transfer principle to multidimensional measures.

> 7 According to Bosmans, Decancq, and Ooghe (2015 p. 95) the two-stage approach “dominates the empirical literature”. Recent applications include Nilson (2010), Justino (2012), Rhode and Guest (2013, 2018), Bartels and Stockhausen (2016).

> 8 Aggregation functions are assumed to satisfy continuity, concavity, and linear homogeneity; Lorenz-consistent measures follow the Lorenz criterion when it applies.

3
# **Figure 27. Distribution of FDI by Region, Number of Firms**

# **(a) FDI for Firms with Global Ultimate (a) FDI Investment in Domestic Owner Firms**

<!-- Start of picture text --> WATER<br>3.3<br>0.8 CONSTRUCTION<br>2.8<br>DISTRIBUTION<br>4.7<br>6.8 TRANSPORTATION<br>2.3<br>13.0<br>2.8 TRAVEL 5.4<br>2.7 5.8 ICT 13.1<br>55.0<br>FINANCIAL<br>81.5<br>REAL ESTATE<br>PROFESSIONAL<br>ADMINISTRATIVE AGRICULTURE<br> MANUFACTURING<br>SERVICES<br>3.3<br>3.1 0.9 WATER<br>3.3 CONSTRUCTION<br>9.2<br>34.3 DISTRIBUTION<br>11.5 8.9<br>TRANSPORTATION<br>87.5 14.3 TRAVEL<br> AGRICULTURE ICT<br> MANUFACTURING 9.2 FINANCIAL<br>6.7<br>REAL ESTATE<br>SERVICES<br>6.2<br>1.7 PROFESSIONAL<br>ADMINISTRATIVE<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: RUSLANA.

51