health services (such as weight checks for young children and prenatal care). There was also a significant (10 percent) reduction in chronic malnutrition. The evaluation found that making the grants conditional on performance improved health outcomes but not education outcomes. There are several hypotheses to explain this. First, improvements in health indicators could be easier to achieve than those in education, perhaps because health indicators were lower at baseline than education indicators. Second, education gains may require more people and long-term efforts (regular attendance at school). It is also possible that perhaps the fact that communities provided education support to almost all children, instead of just those out of school, minimized the effect of the program (Olken, Junko, & Wong, 2011).

A number of lessons from Generasi may apply to the INDH. Having the established architecture and machinery of a CDD approach provided a strong foundation for Generasi. The program was more effective where baseline levels were low, so priority areas should be selected based on low indicators. In addition, performance incentives worked better to affect health indicators. It is important to ensure that the incentive scheme is easy for communities to understand. Furthermore, targets should regularly be reviewed and updated to reflect priority areas for improvement. Given the results and lessons learned from Indonesia, the following design modifications could enhance the impact of the INDH on ECD outcomes for the poorest Moroccan children.

First, in addition to targeting poor areas using the _Haut Commissariat au Plan_ (Higher Planning Commission, HCP) poverty map, the INDH could also target using a nutrition map showing anthropometric data at a commune or other disaggregated level.

Second, the INDH could create a specific program focused on ECD and include a menu of options for community-level ECD services, especially those related to nutrition (for pregnant women and children who are under the age of two) and early childhood care and education services (for children under six years of age). These could include building or revamping health centers, creating community child development groups or playgroups, supporting community preschools or community centers with integrated ECD services and outreach such as home visits, and advocacy activities to sensitize the community about benefits of ECD. They could also include construction grants for pre-primary classrooms that include classrooms, school furniture suitable for pre-primary classrooms, playground materials, and sanitation facilities.

Third, the INDH could provide incentives for performance on ECD outcomes, specifically related to nutrition and early childhood care and education.

Finally, to complement these modifications, raising awareness and sensitizing parents and caretakers so they can make better decisions about ECD (for example, assessing the menu of services) and improve ECD outcomes at home could further enhance impact. This could be done through mass media and technology (such as cell phones, radio, TV) and through reaching key leaders (for example, imams).

# **_7 Conclusions_**

This study examined whether the INDH, a national community-driven human development program in Morocco, had an impact on economic outcomes and human development, focusing specifically on ECD as the foundation of human development and when cycles of poverty begin. The study used three rounds of panel data on rural communities near the cutoff for program targeting to assess program impact. The analysis showed that while the INDH had an impact on economic outcomes during Phase I, the effects had dissipated by 2013. Additionally, the INDH did not have either direct or indirect effects on ECD. Although it did not explicitly target ECD, the focus on improving economic outcomes and social services could have generated 33