force participation by 2.6-10 percentage points and Attanasio and Vera-Hernandez (2004) show that the probability of female employment increased from 0.12 to 0.37 as a consequence of a community nursery program in rural Colombia. Additionally, a childcare subsidy induced by a program aimed at expanding pre-primary school facilities in Argentina was found to increase maternal employment (Berlinski & Galiani 2007). Lefebvre and Merrigan (2008) show that the introduction of a new childcare policy in Quebec (Canada) (licensed childcare provision at reduced fees) had a large and statistically significant impact on the labor supply of mothers with preschool children. Gathmann and Sass (2012) analyze a reform that raised the prices of public daycare and find that parents respond by reducing public daycare and increasing childcare at home and subsequently, female labor force participation declines with effects strongest in low-income households. For Mexico specifically, Calderon (2014) demonstrates that the childcare subsidy program “Programa de Estancias Infantiles” substantially increased women’s probability of working.

The provision of affordable childcare is not only showing effects on women’s labor participation, but research also documents its impacts on productivity and the quality of women’s employment. Sanfelice (2018) finds that provision of center-based childcare in Brazil increased the probability of maternal employment by 44 percentage points, and it enabled mothers to work full-time and their likelihood to be employed in the formal sector (Sanfelice 2018). In Vietnam, women who gained access to childcare services were able to extend their hours of work, increase their incomes and move from self into wage employment (Dang et al. 2019). Finally, Clark et al. 2019 find women shifting into the formal sector as a result of access to childcare in Kenya. For Mexico specifically, Calderon (2014) demonstrates an increase in income following the significant expansion of childcare in 2007.

<mark>Access to quality childcare also shows positive effects for children. Without adequate early childhood education, young children do not have the necessary skills to fully benefit from the education they receive at the primary level. Young children need sustained access to supportive, nurturing environments that provide a high degree of cognitive stimulation and emotional care throughout the early years. Compared to children who attend quality pre-primary programs, children who enter school without adequate preparation are more likely to have poor academic performance, repeat grades, and drop out of school. Quality preprimary programs are linked to life-long benefits for individuals and society at large. They reduce the need for remedial education or rehabilitative actions later on, including in terms of reducing the risk of incarceration and improving welfare in adulthood (Schweinhart et al 2005, Heckman & Masterov 2007, Reynolds et al 2001, Feinstein 2003, Currie and Thomas 1999). It must be noted, however, that children will only benefit from increased access to early childcare and education if the services being provided meet core quality standards (Schweinhart et al 2005).</mark> Demand for childcare services may be limited by a number of factors, including affordability, accessibility and quality (Mateo Días & Rodríguez-Chamussy 2016). Mateo Díaz and RodriguezChamussy (2016) cite evidence according to which the distance to a childcare center has been associated with the decision to enroll children (or not). At the same time, the demand for childcare services in Mexico does not seem to be exclusively determined by market variables (price, quality and quantity), but also by cultural factors and social norms. The notion that women are responsible for the care of children and the elderly is still widespread among Mexican households (Arceo Gómez & Santillán 2018). Arceo Gómez and Santillán (2018) analyze data from the ELCOS Survey (Encuesta 3