differences across the two surveys, controlling for other individual, household and geographic characteristics described in Table A2.

Table 2 also examines how the choice of survey approach affects gender gaps in reporting of ownership and rights. Consistent with matrilineal traditions in Malawi, Table 2 shows that women overall are more likely than men in both surveys to report exclusive ownership/rights (columns 9- 10), with this difference widening under the individual interview approach. Among non-household head women, for whom exclusive reported ownership is lower than men in the business-as-usual approach, individual interviews also flip the gender gap in favor of this sub-sample of women (columns 11-12), and also leads to higher levels of exclusive economic ownership, as well as exclusive rights to sell/bequeath, relative to men.

**Table 2. Means of Ownership and Rights, by Survey Approach (T1/IHS4 vs T5/IHPS) and Gender**

||**HH**|**Heads**|**Wom**<br>**Non-HH**|**en**<br>**Heads**|**All**|**Women**|**Me**<br>**A**|**n**<br>**ll Men**|**Differen**<br>**wi**<br>**All Wom**<br>**All M**|**ce in shar**<br>**th owner**<br>**en vs.**<br>**en**|**e of (women**<br>**ship/rights**<sup>**(5**</sup><br>**Non-HH**<br>**Women v**<br>**Over**|**-men)**<br><sup>**)**</sup><br>**Headed**<br>**s. Men**<br>**all**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**(1)**|**(2)**|**(3)**|**(4)**|**(5)**|**(6)**|**(7)**|**(8)**|**(9)**|<br>**(10)**|**(11)**|**(12)**|
||**T1:**<br>**IHS4**|**T5:**<br>**IHPS**|**T1:**<br>**IHS4**|**T5:**<br>**IHPS**|**T1:**<br>**IHS4**|**T5:**<br>**IHPS**|**T1:**<br>**IHS4**|**T5:**<br>**IHPS**|**IHS4:**<br>**cols.**<br>**(5)-(7)**|<br> <br>**IHPS:**<br>**cols.**<br>**(6)-(8)**|**IHS4:**<br>**cols.**<br>**(3)-(7)**|**IHPS:**<br>**cols.**<br>**(4)-(8)**|
|**Reported own.**|||||||||||||
|Exclusive|**0.80**|**0.63**|0.22|0.24|0.37|0.33|**0.27**|**0.18**|0.10***|0.15***|-0.05***|0.06***|
||**[0.40]**|**[0.48]**|[0.41]|[0.43]|[0.48]|[0.47]|**[0.44]**|**[0.38]**|||||
|Joint|0.07|0.08|0.23|0.23|0.19|0.19|0.20|0.20|-0.01***|<br>-0.01|0.03***|0.03***|
||[0.25]|[0.27]|[0.42]|[0.42]|[0.40]|[0.40]|[0.40]|[0.40]|||||
|**Economic own.**|||||||||||||
|Exclusive|**0.37**|**0.44**|**0.14**|**0.11**|0.20|0.18|**0.12**|**0.08**|0.08***|0.10***|0.02***|0.03**|
||**[0.48]**|**[0.50]**|**[0.35]**|**[0.31]**|[0.40]|[0.38]|**[0.33]**|**[0.28]**|||||
|Joint|<br>0.11|<br>0.21|<br>0.33|<br>0.30|<br>0.27|<br>0.29|<br>0.30|<br>0.26|0.03***|<br>0.03|0.03***|0.04***|
||[0.31]|[0.41]|[0.47]|[0.46]|[0.44]|[0.45]|[0.45]|[0.44]|||||
|**Right to sell**|||||||||||||
|Exclusive|**0.49**|**0.39**|0.14|0.17|0.23|0.22|0.22|0.20|0.01*|<br>0.01|-0.08***|-0.03|
||**[0.50]**|**[0.49]**|[0.35]|[0.38]|[0.42]|[0.41]|[0.41]|[0.40]|||||
|Joint|0.04|0.03|**0.12**|**0.06**|**0.10**|**0.06**|**0.11**|**0.06**|-0.01***|<br>-0.01|0.01***|0.00|
||[0.50]|[0.16]|**[0.32]**|**[0.24]**|**[0.29]**|**[0.23]**|**[0.31]**|**[0.24]**|||||
|**Right to bequeath**|||||||||||||
|Exclusive|**0.59**|**0.45**|0.17|0.20|0.28|0.25|0.22|0.20|0.06***|<br>0.06*|-0.05***|0.00|
||**[0.49]**|**[0.50]**|[0.37]|[0.40]|[0.45]|[0.43]|[0.42]|[0.40]|||||
|Joint|0.05<br>[0.21]|0.04<br>[0.19]|**0.16**<br>**[0.37]**|**0.07**<br>**[0.25]**|**0.13**<br>**[0.34]**|**0.06**<br>**[0.24]**|**0.15**<br>**[0.36]**|**0.08**<br>**[0.28]**|-0.02***|-0.02**|0.01***|-0.01*|
|**SDG owner**<sup>**(3)**</sup>|**0.66**|**0.50**|**0.34**|**0.28**|**0.42**|**0.32**|**0.38**|**0.28**|0.04***|<br>0.04*|-0.04***|0.00|
||**[0.50]**|**[0.50]**|**[0.48]**|**[0.45]**|**[0.49]**|**[0.47]**|**[0.49]**|**[0.43]**|||||
|**Observations**|**3,099**|**511**|**8,863**|**1,707**|**11,962**|**2,218**|**10,066**|**1,721**|||||

14