rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
- [18] Fonner, V., K. Armstrong, C. Kennedy, K. O’Reilly and M. Sweat (2014). “School based sex education and HIV prevention in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis,” PLoS One.

- [19] Godlonton, S. and R. Thornton (2013), “Learning from Others’HIV Testing: Updating Beliefs and Responding to Risk,” American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 103(3), 439-444.

- [20] Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). “The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 701—721.

- [21] Harrison, A., M. Newell, J. Imrie, G. Hoddinott (2010). “HIV prevention for South African youth: which interventions work? A systematic review of current evidence,”BMC Public Health.

- [22] Imbens, G. and J. Wooldridge (2009), “Recent Developments in the Econometrics of Program Evaluation”, Journal of Economic Literature, 47(1), 5-86.

- [23] Imbens, G. and D. Rubin (2015), Causal Inference for Statistics, Social, and Biomedical Sciences. Cambridge University Press.

- [24] Jensen, R., and Oster, E. (2009). “The Power of TV: Cable Television and Women’s Status in India.”The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124(3), 1057-1094.

- [25] Kearney, M.S., and Levine, P.B. (2015). “Media Influences on Social Outcomes: The Impact of MTV’s 16 and Pregnant on Teen Childbearing.” American Economic Review, 105(12) , 3597-3632.

- [26] Kearney, M.S., and Levine, P.B. (2019). “Early Childhood Education by Television: Lessons from Sesame Street”. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 11(1), 318-50.

- [27] Kling, J.R., J.B. Liebman and L.F. Katz (2007), “Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects.” Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

- [28] Krishnaratne, S., B. Hensen, J. Cordes, J. Enstone and J. Hargreaves (2016). “Interventions to strengthen the HIV prevention cascade: a systematic review of reviews,” Lancet HIV, 3(e307—17).

- [29] La Ferrara, E. (2016). “Mass Media and Social Change: Can We Use Television to Fight Poverty?”, Journal of the European Economic Association, 14(4), 791-827.

- [30] La Ferrara, E., Chong, A., and Duryea, S. (2012). “Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil.”American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4(4), 1-31.

34
equity has become more important after 1987, consistent with the overall boom in the Indian stock market during this time.

# **(ii) ICICI data**

Sources and uses of funds: The results based on ICICI's portfolio of firms tell a similar story (table 4). For the 1978-1993 period, internal finance provided about 38 percent of total funds while external finance provided the remaining 62 percent. The ICICI data is somewhat more useful than the RBI data in that it provides more disaggregated information on the components of external finance. While external equity provided 5 percent of funds, debentures provided 9 percent, long-term borrowing from financial institutions (FIs) 13 percent, bank borrowing for working capital 8 percent, and creditors 18 percent.<sup>20</sup> With regard to the uses of funds, gross fixed assets accounted for about 54 percent of the total uses of funds by these firms.

# (iii) A **comparison**

It is interesting to compare these findings for India with that of Singh (1995), shown in Table 5. In general, Singh (1995) found that, compared to firms in advanced countries, firms in developing countries financed the growth of net assets from internal sources to a far smaller degree. In particular, Indian companies seem to rely much more on external equity finance for their growth compared to Anglo-Saxon firms today. For instance, in the case of the top 100 Indian manufacturing firms for the 1980-90 period, external equity contributed to about 20 percent of the growth of the average firm. This is significantly higher than the estimates shown I In addition to IFCI, ICICI, and IDBI, Industrial Reconstruction Bank of India (IRBI) also provides long-term finance to Indian corporations. Unit trust of India (UTI), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), and General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC) also provide financial assistance and take equity positions in Indian companies. In addition, there are state-level financial institutions (SFCs, SIDCs) that provide long-tern finance to Indian companies.

19
# **Table 9**

Dependent Variable: Wage Index

|VARIABLES|(1)<br>OLS-FE|(2)<br>OLS-FE|(3)<br>IV-FE|(4)<br>IV-FE|(5)<br>IV-FE|(6)<br>IV-FE|(7)<br>IV-FE|(8)<br>IV-FE|(9)<br>IV-FE|(10)<br>IV-FE|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|POST|21.21|14.95|433.41***|394.14***|421.89***|366.84***|264.59***|103.81***|310.73***|125.09***|
||(16.53)|(15.19)|(75.55)|(44.79)|(72.24)|(23.90)|(71.42)|(21.83)|(75.73)|(21.97)|
|POST_Dictator|-19.33***<br>(6.04)|-23.03***<br>(7.42)|||||||||
|POST_Labor|-35.11**|-9.97|-285.06***|-144.47***|-300.53***|-140.19***|-261.27***|-44.59**|-252.75***|-6.86|
||(16.36)|(10.19)|(62.10)|(18.89)|(42.71)|(19.83)|(54.81)|(21.25)|(55.90)|(20.53)|
|Time|-2.19|-2.29|-33.59***|5.73**|-31.09***|7.04***|-17.55***|19.30***|-23.17***|17.99***|
||(2.52)|(1.88)|(7.88)|(2.68)|(4.69)|(1.53)|(2.29)|(1.69)|(2.39)|(1.93)|
|Timesq|0.31*|0.23|1.40**|-0.03|1.25***|-0.12|0.58|-0.98***|0.89*|-0.90***|
||(0.16)|(0.19)|(0.59)|(0.18)|(0.40)|(0.08)|(0.48)|(0.11)|(0.49)|(0.10)|
|WorkingAgePop||-0.00***||-0.00***||-0.00***||-0.00***||-0.00***|
|||(0.00)||(0.00)||(0.00)||(0.00)||(0.00)|
|rGDP||0.00*||0.00***||0.00***||0.00***||0.00***|
|||(0.00)||(0.00)||(0.00)||(0.00)||(0.00)|
|LFPRate||1.18||2.46||2.50||3.78**||4.41**|
|||(1.48)||(2.26)||(2.15)||(1.57)||(1.90)|
|Observations|269|215|47|47|47|47|47|47|47|47|
|Number of Countries|20|17|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|8|
|R-squared|0.20|0.47|||||||||
|Partial R-squared|||0.19|0.09|0.21|0.11|0.20|0.20|0.21|0.20|
|Hansen J p-value|||0.17|0.35|0.18||0.94|0.60|0.46||
|Kleibergen-PaapF statistic|||34.44|42.79|85.92|48.46|73.60|3.87|965.78|4.86|

Note: Robust and clustered standard errors at the country level are in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. POST is instrumented with the debt-to-GDP ratio, terms of trade, and five-year change in democracy score in columns (3) and (4). In columns (5) and (6) the instruments also include lagged POST. POST is instrumented with external debt-to-GDP ratio interacted with the change in world interest rates, terms of trade, and five-year change in democracy score in columns (7) and (8). In columns (9) and (10) the instruments also include lagged POST. The coefficient on POST interacted with dictatorships is not identified due to insufficient variance within the sample.
# **Table 2: The relationship between ethnicity, education, urban residence and age at marriage. Analysis of the 1992 Rwanda Demographic and Health Survey**

# **A. Dependent variable: Indicator for being Tutsi (females only)**

|Urban|0.066|0.063|0.056|
|---|---|---|---|
||[0.018]***|[0.027]**|[0.026]|
|Years of education|0.009|0.007|0.008|
||[0.0013]***|[0.0012]***|[0.013]***|
|Region dummies|No|Yes|Yes|
|Age dummies|No|No|Yes|
|N =|6498|6498|6498|

# **B. Dependent variable: age at marriage (Married females only)**

|Tutsi|1.325|1.238|1.145|
|---|---|---|---|
||[0.216]***|[0.220]***|[0.208]***|
|Urban|0.138|0.151|0.063|
||[0.171]|[0.178]|[0.169]|
|Years of education|0.178|0.173|0.190|
||[0.013]***|[0.013]***|[0.013]***|
|Region dummies|No|Yes|Yes|
|Age dummies|No|No|Yes|
|N =|4341|4341|4341|

Marginal effects of logit regressions in panel A, linear regressions in panel B. The data is taken from the Demographic and Health Survey, 1992, Rwanda. The data are weighted as recommended by the data provider. Clustered (by enumeration area) standard errors between square brackets. ***, **, *: significant at the 1, 5 and, 10 percent confidence interval, respectively.

19
c with human capital:

# 3.2 Other variables

We adopt two measures capturing the level of ...nancial development. First, we use the ratio of the overall bank credit extended to the private sector over country’s GDP (BCct0) as a proxy for the strength of the banking sector. This is our main ...nancial variable, following our theoretical motivation about the disciplining role of external debtholders. Second, we take the ratio of stock market capitalization over the GDP (StMct0) to examine whether stockholders exert a similar disciplining in‡uence on exports of the domestic producers. The data for both our measures are from the widely used database by Beck et al. (2000), which contains various indicators of ...nancial development across countries and over time. The annual data for the GDP per capita (GDPct0) are taken from the World Development Indicator report 2006 and are reported in constant 2000 US dollars. The strength of banking sector (BCct0) and the GDP per capita (GDPct0) are correlated at 61%.

Bank credit may also facilitate export survival by reducing the costs of external ...nance to exporters. We control for this alternative channel by deploying an interaction term between countries’overall bank credit and industries’dependence on external ...nance (BCct0 � ExFj). Industry-level measure of external ...nance dependence for ISIC 4-digit sectors comes from Raddatz (2006) and is based on ...nancial data about US ...rms from Compustat. In particular, dependence on external ...nance (ExFj) is de...ned as capital expenditures minus cash ‡ow from operations, divided by capital expenditures, for the median ...rm in each industry.

Similarly, we interact exporting countries’endowments of physical and human capital with corresponding factor intensities at industry level (�ct0 � CapIntj, hct0 � HumIntj). The factor intensities for ISIC 4-digit sectors come from Romalis (2004). Human capital intensity (HumIntj) is computed as the ratio of nonproduction workers to the total employment in each industry. Physical capital intensity (CapIntj) is measured as 1 minus the share of total compensation in value added. Both factor intensities are then adjusted to re‡ect the share of raw materials.

12
# **References**

- Ashraf, Nava, Diego Aycinena, Claudia Martinez and Dean Yang. 2011 “Remittances and the Problem of Control: A Field Experiment Among Migrants from El Salvador”, Mimeo. University of Michigan.

- Aycinena, Diego, Claudia Martinez and Dean Yang. 2011 “The impact of remittance fees on remittance flows: Evidence from a field experiment among Salvadorean migrants”, Mimeo. University of Michigan.

- Benton, Marques, Stephen Meier, Charles Sprenger 2007. “Overborrowing and undersaving: lessons and policy implications from behavioral research”, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston Paper 07-04.

- Bertrand, Marianne and Adair Morse 2011. “Information disclosure, cognitive biases, and payday borrowing”, _Journal of Finance,_ 66(6): 1865-93.

- Cai, Jing 2012 “Social networks, and the decision to insure: Evidence from randomized experiments in China”, Mimeo. UC Berkeley.

- Carpena, Fenella, Shawn Cole, Jeremy Shapiro and Bilal Zia. 2011. “Unpacking the causal chain of financial literacy”, _World Bank Policy Research Working Paper no. 5798._

- Chandavarkar, AG 1980 “Use of migrants’ remittances in labor-exporting countries”, _Finance and Development_ 17(2): 36-9.

- Chin, Aimee, Leonie Karkoviata, and Nathaniel Wilcox, “Impact of Bank Accounts on Migrant Savings and Remittances: Evidence from a Field Experiment,” mimeo, University of Houston, 2010.

- Clemens, Michael A., Claudio E. Montenegro, and Lant Pritchett. 2009. “The Place Premium: Wage Differences for Identical Workers Across the U.S. Border.” Center for Global Development Working Paper 148.

- Connell, John 1980. “Remittances and rural development: migration, dependency and inequality in the South Pacific.”, Occasional Paper no. 22, Australian National University Development Studies Centre.

- Cole, Shawn, Thomas Sampson and Bilal Zia 2011. “Prices or Knowledge: Prices or Knowledge? What Drives Demand for Financial Services in Emerging Markets?”, _Journal of Finance_ 66(6): 1933-67.

- Cox Edwards, Alejandra and Manuelita Ureta 2003. “International migration, remittances and schooling: evidence from El Salvador”, _Journal of Development Economics_ , 72, 2: 42961.

- Durand, Jorge and Douglas Massey 1992. “Mexican migration to the United States: A critical review”, _Latin American Research Review_ 27: 3-42.

- Gibson, John, David J. McKenzie, and Halahingano Rohorua 2006. “How cost elastic are remittances? Evidence from Tongan migrants in New Zealand” _Pacific Economic Bulletin_ 21(1): 112-28.

- Gibson, John, David McKenzie, and Bilal Zia. 2012. “The Impact of Financial Literacy Training for Migrants.”

- Gine, Xavier, Dean Karlan and Muthoni Ngatia 2011. “Social networks, financial literacy, and index insurance”, Mimeo. World Bank.

- Government Accountability Office 2004 “The Federal Government’s role in improving financial literacy: highlights of a GAO Forum”, <u>http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0593sp.pdf</u> [accessed April 20, 2012].

18
Identification of the impact of hosting refugees comes from the spatial differences in within-village temporal variations in refugee intensity, i.e., the intensity of the net influx of refugees, conditional on household- and round-specific fixed effects and a rich set of time-varying covariates. However, I also show that the main findings are sensible to a number of falsification and variables specification tests and to extending the empirical strategy to an instrumental variables approach, using a weighted sum of the number of refugees hosted in Ethiopia by country of origin, in which the weights are the inverse geographic distances between a survey village and each of refugees’ countries of origin, as an instrument for refugee intensity.

I find evidence that hosting refugees has different implications on household welfare depending on the type of welfare measure. While negatively affecting consumption expenditure per capita with an estimated elasticity of about 0.19, it has no statistically significant effect on wealth. The finding on consumption is not in line with 80%-90% of the existing evidence from the broader literature that examines the short- or long-term welfare impacts of hosting refugees, expellees, or internally displaced persons, as per a recent survey in Verme and Schuettler (2021). Similarly, while increasing households’ probability of falling into consumption poverty, it has no effect on wealth poverty status. In particular, I estimate that a 1% increase in refugee intensity increases the probability of falling into consumption poverty by about 18 percentage points. Decomposing household consumption expenditure per capita into food, education, and other nonfood components, the results further reveal that hosting refugees changes the composition of consumption, as it solely affects food consumption expenditure. The consumption effects prevail in rural areas with no effects in urban centers, while no heterogeneity is found between the two areas concerning wealth and wealth poverty results.

Key mechanisms explaining the adverse consumption effects include displacement of individual hosts from salaried employment—in temporary labor activities, on the extensive margin—and a spike in prices of agricultural inputs (seed and fertilizer) but not changes in selfemployment in non-farm businesses, societal cooperation within the customary labor-sharing arrangements, and prices of food items.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 provides background information on refugees and hosts in Ethiopia. Section 3 presents the data sources and construction of the main variables. Section 4 lays out the empirical strategy. Section 5 describes the summary 5
Policy Research Working Paper 8325

# **Abstract**

This paper explores the impact of the adoption of information and communications technology on firm performance and labor market outcomes using a firm survey from the manufacturing sector in Argentina. The findings are that at the firm level adoption of information and communications technology leads to increases in firm productivity and wages, and that the effects are heterogeneous across firms, being larger for initially high-productivity and high-skill firms. The increase in wages occurs even after controlling for skill composition, implying that there are productivity and rent-sharing mechanisms at play.

Further findings show that adoption of information and communications technology is associated with employment turnover as captured by the replacement of workers, elimination of occupations, creation of new occupations, and decrease in the share of unskilled workers, supporting the view that ICT is complementary with skilled labor. At the same time, there is an increase in employment across all skill categories. This result is compatible with positive output effects that drive employment, and with job turnover within the unskilled group.

This paper is a product of the Finance, Competitiveness and Innovation Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at irene.brambilla@econo.unlp.edu.ar and dtortarolo@berkeley.edu.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
constant interest rate of 5 percent to the stock data from Guidotti and Kumar (1991).

8. Mexico Overall public sector deficit and primary deficit are from Hierro and Sanguines (1991).

9. Morocco Overall public sector deficit is from Easterly and SchmidtHebbel (1991). Primary deficit was calculated by deducting external interest payments as derived from World Bank (1991), as well as domestic interest payments estimated by applying a constant interest rate of 5 percent to the stock data from Guidotti and Kumar (1991).

10. Peru Overall public sector deficit is from Paredes (1991). Primary deficit was calculated by deducting external interest payments as derived from World Bank (1991), as well as domestic interest payments estimated by applying a constant interest rate of 5 percent to the stock data from Guidotti and Kumar (1991).

11. Philippines Overall public sector deficit is from Easterly and SchmidtHebbel (1991). Primary deficit was calculated by deducting external interest payments as derived from World Bank (1991), as well as domestic interest payments estimated by applying a constant interest rate of 5 percent to the stock data from Guidotti and Kumar (1991).

12. Venezuela Overall public sector deficit is from M. Rodriguez (1991). Primary deficit was calculated by deducting external interest payments as derived from World Bank (1991), as well as domestic interest payments estimated by applying a constant interest rate of 5 percent to the stock data from Guidotti and Kumar (1991).

26
6 The above relationship indicates that the own-price elasticity of aggregate transport demand for a particular market is lower, in absolute value, than the weighted average of the mode-specific own-price elasticities because of the presence of positive cross-price elasticities among modes. The relationship among the concepts of price elasticities are illustrated in Figure 1. Note that, because the number of modes can differ across studies and cross-price elasticities differ as well, the own-price elasticity estimates from different studies may not be strictly comparable.

One could also focus on own- and cross-price elasticities facing individual firms. These differ from modal or market elasticities of demand. Firm elasticities vary considerably depending upon the extent and nature of competition.51 Empirical estimates of transportation demand rarely focus on demand elasticities facing individual firms, hence we do not consider them turther in this review.

There is also a distinction between short-run and long-run price elasticities. In the long run consumers (or firms) are better able to adjust to price signals than in the short run. Hence long run demand functions tend to be more elastic (less inelastic) than short run demand. Unfortunately, few studies are explicit about the time horizon of their elasticity estimates.

Concepts of demand elasticities for transportation are further complicated by mode choice (mode split, volume share) elasticities.A/ Many transportation The elasticity of demand facing a firm depends greatly on the nature of competition between firms, e.g., Cournot quantity game, Bertrand price game, collusion, etc. A growing number of economists have looked at the price sensitivity of demand facing a Zirm within the framework of conjectural variations. See Appelbaum (1982) and Slade (1984). As far as we are aware, the only example of this kind applied in transport pricing is Brander and Zhang (1989) to inter-firm competition between duopoly airlines in the U.S.

6 In many of the early studies of mode choice, logit models were applied to route (or regional) aggregate market share data. Application of a logit model to aggregate data not only leads to a loss of important information about changing market size in response to a price change, it also has a serious theoretical inconsistency as analyzed by Oum (1979).
Policy Research Working Paper 10211

# **Abstract**

This paper quantifies the trade creation effects of South Asia’s trade agreements within the region and with the rest of the world. The paper uses an extensive database of bilateral trade covering the manufacturing, agriculture, and service sectors in 190 countries over 1990–2015. The estimates of various specifications of a structural gravity model, including domestic trade flows, capture the potential heterogeneous effects. The main finding is that these effects are in general stronger for trade agreements signed by South Asian countries and even stronger in the case of intraregional agreements. The effects of free trade agreements vary substantially among countries and sectors and between final and intermediate goods. The paper shows that the trade policy implemented in South Asia in the previous decades has been successful, but at the same time the results point toward the existence of clear missing opportunities for the region. The opportunities lay in (i) better backward integration with the rest of the world to improve efficiency and help strengthen exports, and (ii) further deepening of intraregional agreements to continue making progress in regional integration.

This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, South Asia Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The author may be contacted at sfranco2@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team