Table <u>3. GVCs and Female Labor Force Participation – Baseline Results</u>

|||||(a)All regio|nsincluded||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Female O|wnership|Female To|p Manager|Female E|mployees|Female<br>Wo|Production<br>rkers|
|Variables|GVC1|GVC4|GVC1|GVC4|GVC1|GVC4|GVC1|GVC4|
|Ln(Age)|0.047***|0.047***|-0.005**|-0.005**|0.075***|0.077***|0.014|0.019*|
||(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.002)|(0.002)|(0.008)|(0.008)|(0.010)|(0.010)|
|Ln(Gov own.)|0.015***|0.015***|0.0005|0.0003|0.015|0.017|0.081***|0.083***|
||(0.004)|(0.004)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.014)|(0.014)|(0.019)|(0.019)|
|Main city|0.015***|0.015***|0.011***|0.011***|0.114***|0.115***|-0.033**|-0.024|
||(0.004)|(0.004)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.010)|(0.010)|(0.015)|(0.015)|
|Medium|0.002|0.004|-0.033***|-0.034***|0.997***|0.998***|0.717***|0.755***|
||(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.009)|(0.009)|(0.011)|(0.011)|
|Large|0.003|0.013***|-0.053***|-0.055***|2.462***|2.460***|2.189***|2.271***|
||(0.005)|(0.005)|(0.004)|(0.003)|(0.020)|(0.020)|(0.021)|(0.020)|
|GVCs|0.013***|-0.098***|-0.011***|-0.006|0.093***|0.424***|0.323***|0.402***|
||(0.004)|(0.011)|(0.003)|(0.008)|(0.014)|(0.059)|(0.017)|(0.044)|
|Constant|0.163***|0.165***|0.194***|0.193***|0.839***|0.841***|0.552***|0.579***|
||(0.009)|(0.009)|(0.007)|(0.007)|(0.024)|(0.024)|(0.032)|(0.032)|
|Country dum.|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Year dum.|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Sector dum.|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Observations|83,949|83,949|84,341|84,341|41,224|41,224|41,234|41,234|
|R-squared|0.115|0.116|0.099|0.099|0.548|0.548|0.498|0.495|
|||||(b)MEN|A region||||
||Female O|wnership|Female To|p Manager|Female E|mployees|Female<br>Wo|Production<br>rkers|
|Variables|GVC1|GVC4|GVC1|GVC4|GVC1|GVC4|GVC1|GVC4|
|Ln(Age)|0.037***|0.036***|3.85e-05|-3.26e-07|0.067***|0.072***|-0.069***|-0.064***|
||(0.006)|(0.006)|(0.004)|(0.004)|(0.024)|(0.024)|(0.023)|(0.023)|
|Ln(Gov own.)|-0.017|-0.016|-0.005|-0.005|0.074|0.082|-0.010|-0.013|
||(0.011)|(0.011)|(0.005)|(0.005)|(0.056)|(0.055)|(0.065)|(0.065)|
|Main city|0.023***|0.024***|0.019***|0.018***|0.200***|0.209***|-0.035|-0.030|
||(0.008)|(0.008)|(0.005)|(0.005)|(0.033)|(0.033)|(0.033)|(0.034)|
|Medium|0.023***|0.027***|0.0005|-0.0001|0.848***|0.857***|0.448***|0.497***|
||(0.080)|(0.008)|(0.005)|(0.005)|(0.030)|(0.030)|(0.025)|(0.025)|
|Large|<br>0.047***|<br>0.061***|<br>-0.009|<br>-0.011*|<br>2.311***|<br>2.320***|<br>1.449***|<br>1.578***|
||(0.011)|(0.011)|(0.006)|(0.006)|(0.067)|(0.066)|(0.051)|(0.051)|
|GVCs|0.031***|-0.070**|-0.007|-0.003|0.228***|0.753***|0.417***|0.645***|
||(0.011)|(0.029)|(0.006)|(0.017)|(0.043)|(0.236)|(0.045)|(0.153)|
|Constant|0.047**|0.051***|0.050***|0.049***|0.445***|0.447***|0.602***|0.619***|
||(0.019)|(0.019)|(0.012)|(0.012)|(0.073)|(0.073)|(0.073)|(0.073)|
|Country dum.|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|<br>Year dum.<br>|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Sector dum.|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Observations|11,714|11,714|11,730|11,730|4,857|4,857|6,863|6,863|
|R-squared|0.109|0.109|0.019|0.019|0.503|0.503|0.471|0.465|

Robust standard errors in parentheses, *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Considering the sectoral activity of firms, the regressions for all the regions (Table A4a in the appendix) and for the MENA region (Table A4b) show that firms operating in the textile and garments sector are more likely to have a female owner and manager as well as a higher number of female production workers. Moreover, female employees are hired intensively in firms operating in leather sector. In the MENA, textile and leather seem to be the most female intensive, while the other sectors have a negative bias against women. These results are in line with the findings of Frederick et al. (2022) who argue that female employment is highest in apparel manufacturing sector. They find that textiles and leather sectors are the most important employer of women across developing countries as the percent of all female employment working in textiles 15