lower production and productivity than non-poor households. The log of the per hectare harvest values<sup>5</sup> are used in the analysis that follows. The average harvested area within the sample is 1.2 hectares with poor households having a higher and statistically significant value than non-poor households. Also when looking at the distribution of land sizes between the two groups, poor households were less likely to be in the bottom two deciles and more likely to be in the eighth and ninth deciles.

The amounts (in kilograms) of three physical inputs<sup>6</sup> are included in the determinants of agricultural productivity regressions: fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide. The average household in the sample used 184 kilograms of fertilizer, 10 kilograms of pesticide and 24 kilograms of herbicide. While the incidence of input use is not significantly different between poor and nonpoor households, richer households use significantly more fertilizer and pesticide per hectare than poorer households. The natural log of all input amounts are used in the regressions below<sup>7</sup> .

In addition to physical inputs, the amounts of both hired and family/household labor<sup>8</sup> were included in determinants of agricultural poverty regressions. While poorer households use significantly more adult male and female family labor on their farms compared with richer households, there is no significant difference in per hectare terms. In contrast to family labor, non-poor households used significantly more hired female and child labor than poor households in the sample even in per hectare terms. There is no significant difference between the days of hired male labor between poor and non-poor households. For both family and hired labor, male labor was used/hired more than female and child labor both in terms of total days and days per hectare.

The value of agricultural capital owned per hectare by the household was also incorporated. Agricultural capital in this measure includes ploughs, sprayers, wheelbarrows, cutlasses, hoes, and other animal equipment. As might be expected, non-poor households owned more agricultural capital in total value and value per hectare. Crop selection may also play a role in agricultural production and poverty (Nkonya et al., 2010). To assess the importance of crop selection, an indicator for whether the household grew any cash crops (consisting of cotton,

> 5 The total area harvested by the household was calculated through a multi-step process. The GHS Panel data contains both farmer estimates and GPS measures of plot size. However, each plot can have more than one crop grown on it. Farmers also report the area of the plot where the crop was harvested. To take advantage of the GPS measures of plot size, the percent of the plot where each crop was harvested was calculated by taking the selfreported crop harvest area and dividing by the self-reported plot size. Multiplying the GPS measured plot size by this percent yields a GPS based harvested area for each crop. Crop harvested areas were then aggregated to the household level. Weighted land size deciles were then calculated based on this measure.

6 The data contains information on the amounts of these inputs used on each plot. The amounts used on harvested plots were converted to kilograms where necessary and then aggregated to the household level.

> 7 Calculating the log of input (fertilizer, labor, etc.) amounts poses a problem since not all households used every input and thus there are observed values of zero.  To overcome this hurdle, the method laid out in Battese (1997) is applied here whereby the log of numeric variable _Xi_ is calculated according to the following function:

# ln _Xi_ =ln(max[ _Xi_ , _Di_ ])

where _Di_ is an indicator for zero cases (i.e. takes a value of 1 when _Xi_ =0 and zero otherwise).

> 8 Hired and family labor were separated into male, female, and child (under 15 years of age) labor days hired/used. The GHS asks farmers about labor used for harvesting only and thus the values do not reflect labor used for planting or crop maintenance. All labor inputs are observed at the plot level and were aggregated to household totals.

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