# **2.5  Other Types of Female Empowerment**

Whereas the papers discussed so far are concerned with the effects of female access to financial resources, another branch of the literature puts the spotlight on measures of female bargaining power. Thomas (1994) uses the relative education level of the wife compared to the husband as a proxy for bargaining power. Based on data from the United States, Brazil, and Ghana, the paper documents that the mother's education has a bigger effect on the nutritional status of girls (measured by height for age) compared to the father's education, while the opposite is true for boys.

Another important determinant of bargaining power in marriage should be the value of the outside option. Rubalcava and Thomas (2000) exploit variation over time and across U.S. states in the aid paid to single women with children (Aid to Families with Dependent Children, AFDC). AFDC improves the outside option of married women with children, and therefore might affect their bargaining power in marriage. Based on PSID data from 1968 through 1992, the authors show that the presence of AFDC indeed has a significant impact on expenditure shares with marriage. This is especially true for low-income households with children, those most likely to benefit from AFDC in case of separation. Interestingly, and contrary to studies from developing countries, the food budget share is lower when female bargaining power is higher.<sup>9</sup> Additional data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX) shows that the share allocated to child goods (toys, baby clothing, baby furniture) increases, while the share of “male” goods (alcohol, car maintenance, sports entertainment) decreases. The authors also find an increase in health care spending, which they interpret as human capital investment.

Bargaining power may also increase in asset holdings. This idea is explored by Doss (2006). Using data from the Ghana Living Standards Surveys in 1991/92 and 1998/99, the author finds that in households where women own a larger share of assets (land, savings, and business assets), the share of expenditures on food and education is larger, but the share of alcohol expenditures is smaller. The share of medical expenses, on the other hand, decreases with female asset ownership. The authors argue that medical expenses are primarily curative and speculate that women with higher bargaining power are able to keep their families healthier.

Quisumbing (2003) uses relative education and assets at marriage as measures of bargaining power. Data from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and South Africa are used to show that bargaining power matters for expenditure shares. The results differ a lot by country, however. For example, in Bangladesh and South Africa women's assets increase expenditure shares on education, while in Ethiopia men's assets have this effect. Similarly, female assets have a negative affect on food budget shares in South Africa. In some countries, women's asset ownership increases boys' schooling relatively more than girls' schooling, while in others the reverse is true.

Another form of female empowerment is political empowerment. Chattopadhyay and Duflo (2004) study how the gender of political leaders affects public good provision in rural India using data from a natural experiment. In India, one third of the local government head positions are randomly reserved for women. The authors find that leaders invest relatively more in infrastructure that is relevant to the needs of their own genders. Namely, female leaders favor

> 9 The authors hypothesize that women use their increased bargaining power to spend more time with children and work less in the market, which leads to a decline in food consumed outside the home.

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