rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
trade documentation initiated a few years earlier with the support of the European Commission, and significant coordination among the various stakeholders. Five documents previously required by the authorities were redesigned – two documents were eliminated, while the remaining (the Titre du Commerce Exterieur (TCE), customs declaration, and technical control documents) were redesigned to reduce duplication and to standardize terminology. The customs declaration was aligned to international standards. In addition, two of the four documents required for goods removal were eliminated. The development of electronic formats for trade documents made it possible both to share information amongst the various stakeholders and to process the information contained within the documents.

**Tunisia Trade Net System (TTN).** Building on this foundation, a key initiative was the creation of a semi-public agency (TTN) in February 2000 to create and operate a value-added network that would provide electronic data interchange (EDI) for stakeholders and to expedite flows and processing of trade documents. TTN shareholders include 10 government agencies, among which are the national port authority and Tunis Air, and 18 private sector units, among which are several banks and the Tunisian Internet Agency. The system interfaces with all agencies involved in international trade procedures, including the Tunisian Customs, Ministry of Commerce, technical control agencies, Central Bank, ports, as well as the private sector traders, agents, freight forwarders, customs brokers and banks.

Three main sets of documents are processed through the TTN system: the TCE, customs declaration, and technical control documents. In addition, the system processes on-line tariff payments. A single connection to the central server enables each participant to exchange documents and messages with other participants. Shipping manifests and customs declarations are sent over the network, thereby reducing processing time. The manifest data for Customs is also available to the cargo handling operator in electronic format, eliminating data capture by the latter and improving planning and operational processes. TTN provides a flexible user interface: Trade professionals (customs brokers, freight forwarders, ship agents, etc...) use client based applications that are designed to handle processing of large numbers of transactions whereas occasional users can opt for a web-based interface.

TTN employs 45 staff, 25 of which are experts in information technology. TTN users enter into a contract with TTN to access the network for a monthly service subscription fee of about US$70, as well as a processing fee per document (US$3 for each of the three required documents). TTN users can access the system through the web or personal computer interfaces.

**Other initiatives** .  A number of other initiatives were necessary to complement the above actions.  These included, (a) the enhancements to the customs computer system to support international message and document standards for

37
# **List of References**

Blinder, A., and A.B. Krueger (2013), “Alternative Measures of Offshorability: A Survey Approach”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 31/2, pp. S97-S128, http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/669061 Cali, Massimiliano; Francois, Joseph; Hollweg, Claire Honore; Manchin, Miriam; Oberdabernig, Doris Anita; Rojas Romagosa, Hugo Alexander; Rubinova, Stela; Tomberger, Patrick (2016) “The labor content of exports database” Policy Research working paper; no. WPS 7615. Washington, D.C., World Bank Group.

Costinot, A., L. Oldenski, and J. Rauch (2011), “Adaptation and the Boundary of Multinational Firms”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 93/1, pp. 298-308, <u>http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00072</u> De Backer, K. and S. Miroudot (2013) "Mapping Global Value Chains", OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 159, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5k3v1trgnbr4-en Del Prete, D., Giovannetti, G., and Marvasi, E. (2016a). “Global Value Chains: new evidence for North Africa.” WP N. 07/2016 University of Firenze.

Dimaranan B. V. and Narayanan B. G. 2014. Skilled and unskilled labor data. Chapter in <mark>Narayanan, G., Badri, Angel Aguiar and Robert McDougall, Eds. 2012.</mark> _<mark>Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 8 Data Base</mark>_ <mark>, Center for Global Trade Analysis, Purdue University</mark> Escaith, Hubert (2014) “International Supply Chains, Trade in Value-Added and Development: A Small Economy's Perspective” (July 5, 2013). Available at SSRN: <u>https://ssrn.com/abstract=2536952or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2536952</u> Grossman, G.M and E. Rossi-Hansberg (2008), “Trading Tasks: A Simple Theory of Offshoring”, American Economic Review, 98(5), 1978-97.

Grundke, R. et al. (2017a), “Having the right mix: The role of skill bundles for comparative advantage and industry performance in GVCs”, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, 2017/03, OECD Publishing, Paris. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/892a4787-en Grundke, R. et al. (2017b), “Skills and global value chains: A characterisation”, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, 2017/05, OECD Publishing, Paris. <u>http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/cdb5de9b-en</u> Hausmann, R., Hidalgo, C., Bustos, S., Coscia, M., Chung, S., Jimenez, J., Simoes, A., & Yildirim, M. (2011). “The Atlas of Economic Complexity”, Puritan Press.

Hausmann, R., & Hidalgo, C. (2011). “The network structure of economic output”, Journal of Economic Growth, 16, 309-342.

Jouanjean, M., J. Gourdon and J. Korinek (2017) “GVC Participation and Economic Transformation: Lessons from three sectors”, OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 207, OECDPublishing, Paris.

Kowalski, P. et al. (2015), “Participation of Developing Countries in Global Value Chains: Implications for Trade and Trade-Related Policies”, OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 179, OECD Publishing, Paris. <u>http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5js33lfw0xxn-en</u> Lanz, R., S. Miroudot, and H. K. Nordås (2013), “Offshoring of Tasks: Taylorism Versus Toyotism”, The World Economy, Vol. 36/2, pp. 194-212, <u>http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/twec.12024</u> 32
- 47 -

,otation:

|Md<br>=|Demand for nominal money base|
|---|---|
|P<br>=|Domestic price level|
|t<br>=|Time subscript|
|r<br>=|Apositive constant|
|y<br>=<br>|Real GDP<br>|
|a<br>=<br>id<br>=|"Cagan's"parameter<br>Nominal domestic interest rate for private documents|
|mg<br>=|Nominal supply of money base|
|M<br>=|Equilibrium nominal money base stock|
|vr<br>=|<br>Domestic inflation|
|6<br>=|Change (e.g. &xt=xt-x,1, for any "x")|
|TB<br>=|<br>Trade balance result (in dollars)|
|e<br>=<br> <br>|Free (i.e., black) market exchange rate (L.E. per US$)<br>|
|da<br>=|Total, real domestic absorption|
|pa<br>=|Private, real domestic absorption|
|ga<br>=|Government's real, domestic absorption|
|V<br>=<br>|A positive constant<br>|
|a<br>=|"Financialdistress" parameter|
|Et_I0<br>=|Expectations at time t-1|
|n<br>=|"Marshall-Lerner" parameter|
|_A_<br>=|Proportion of non-interest current account (NICA) result<br>surrendered at C.B.E.|
|a<br>=|Devaluation of C.B.E.'s exchange rate|
|<br>e<br>=|<br>Devaluation of free exchange rate|
|w7r=|World inflation|
|G<br>=|Government's nominal domestic absorption|
|An<br>=|<br>Private, nominal domestic absorption|
|=<br>NISA=<br>|<br>Proportion of Central-Bank absorbed foreign sector<br>result that gets monetized (i.e., non-sterilized)<br>Non-interest service account (Suez, tourism, workers'<br>remitances, etc.) (in dollars)<br>|
|NICA=|TB+ NISA|
|=|Proportion of total non-social-security financed<br>deficit that gets monetized|
|NINSFD|= Non-interest, net of social security financing and<br>fi fii fil dfii|
||oregn nancng sca ect|
|Bd<br>=|Outstanding stock of Government's (and CBE's) domestic<br>debt|
|i9<br>=|Nominal, average interest rate on domestic government<br>debt|
|a<br>=|Arrear factor (i.e., proportion of foreign due interests<br>|
||actually paid)|
|FA<br>=|<br>Foreign assets of C.B.E. (in dollars)|
|*<br>=<br>f|<br>Proportion of foreign debt held by public companies and<br>authorities at base year (all due interest paid into<br>blocked account)|
|B<br>=|Outstanding stock of foreign debt for which C.B.E. is<br>(ultimate) payment agent|
scale model. On closer inspection of the implementation features of the PI/BSED trainings in Ethiopia, we find suggestive evidence that the role of the trainer appears to be key.

Much of the education literature within economics on teacher characteristics focuses on the relationship between specific teacher attributes (such as experience or education) and student achievement and has few consistent findings (Hanushek 2006). From a synthesis of more than 800 meta-analyses, Hattie (2008) suggests that the individual competence of the teacher, in bringing the material to the students, is most important. For example: being able to explain well, encouraging the students to try things out, encouraging meta-cognition in the students, providing quick feedback, and other facets. All structural characteristics (like class size) or how well the subject knowledge of the teacher was (or how well-studied) were not as important. In this paper we use detailed trainer characteristics and data from the participants of the PI/BSED study to analyze a range of teacher attributes that may have mattered for the women entrepreneurs who took the training.<sup>3</sup> We find a statistically significant positive association between student psychological constructs of empowerment, such as locus of control, self-efficacy, and personal initiative and the trainer having a history of entrepreneurship him- or herself. Since only 41% of the TVET trainers reported they ever owned a business we believe this mismatch between the trainers and entrepreneurs was critical for the lack of overall impact.

The TVET trainers’ limited exposure to the world of entrepreneurship may be one of the major barriers to successfully train women entrepreneurs on these psychology-focused skills. Perhaps those trainers with their own exposure to entrepreneurship have a better understanding of the target group and are more likely to provide relevant practical examples. These trainers may also be perceived as those who have already circumvented some of the issues that these women entrepreneurs are facing and are therefore perceived as more inspiring and influential role models to them.<sup>4</sup> Qualitative analyses of trainers' teaching behavior

> 3 The results section includes a discussion and tests to address possible concerns on the non-random allocation of students to trainers.

> 4 Since we did not collect data on the trainer characteristics of the DOT trainers we were not able to replicate this analysis for the DOT study. The DOT model operates as a social enterprise for youth and uses “interns” to deliver the trainings. The DOT trainers
Given this pattern and the fact that Turkish/Moroccan immigrants have lower levels of parental education than migrants from other origins (Table 1), we estimate separate spillovers of foreignborn students from Turkey/Morocco versus migrants from other origins. Migrants from origins other than Turkey and Morocco are heterogeneous in their native languages but exhibit notably higher levels of parental education than migrants from those countries, although lower than native Dutch.

The estimates of the treatment effect of immigrants from Moroccan/Turkish origin versus other origins, irrespective of their duration of stay in the Netherlands, are displayed in Table 5. Estimated effects are quite small in magnitude and statistically insignificant, irrespective of the country of origin of migrants. Therefore, while length of stay matters for spillovers between immigrant and native students, country of origin appears to play little role when duration of stay is not taken into account.

We therefore also investigate whether migration duration of stay has different spillover effects on natives, depending on migrant origin. To ensure sufficient variability in the treatment variable, however, we construct an alternative treatment measure where we exclude immigrants from ex-Dutch colonies as well as those that have one Dutch parent from our measure of immigrant concentration.<sup>21</sup> In other words, we calculate the share of recent immigrants by excluding migrants who are more likely to have been exposed to Dutch prior to migrating, and denote this treatment 100 respectively, compared to a minimum value of 0 (perfect similarity) and a maximum of 106, for a median dissimilarity value of 86 for the 217 countries in the Max Planck Institute sample.

21We also attempted to estimate separate spillovers for Turkish/Moroccan migrants who recently migrated as well as recent migrants from other origins. However, distinguishing between both duration of stay and origin of migrants to measure treatment intensity generated large standard errors, due to limited within school variation in the share of foreign-born students who are both recent migrants and from a particular origin. Estimates using these measures of treatment were therefore quite imprecise, and lacked significance for all subgroups mainly due to large standard errors.

27
35 Lipton, M. (1977), **Why poor people stay poor: Urban Bias in World Development** , Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Mellor, J. (1976), **The New Economics of Growth: A strategy for India and the Developing World,** Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.

Mwabu, G. and E. Thorbecke (2004), “Rural development, growth and poverty in Africa”, _Journal of African Economies_ , 13, AERC Supplement 1, ppil16-i65 Ravallion, M. (2002), "On the Urbanization of Poverty," Journal of Development Economics, 68(2), 435-442 Reardon, T. (2001), “Rural Non-Fram Income in developing countries, report to the FAO, available at http://econ.worldbank.org/files/26753_treardon.pdf Sahn, D., D. Stifel and S. Younger (2003), “Exploring Alternative Measures of Welfare in the Absence of Expenditure Data”, _Review of Income and Wealth_ , 49(4), pp463-489 Sahn, D. and Stifel Van de Walle, D. And D. Cratty (2004), “Is the emerging non-farm market economy the route out of poverty in Vietnam?”, _Economics of Transition,_ 12 (2), 237-275 Vernon, V. (2002), “Urbanization in Developing Countries”, _World Bank Research Observer_ , 17(1), pp89-112

# **Bibliography for decentralization and participation**

Ackerman, J. (2004), “Co-Governance for Accountability: Beyond "Exit" and "Voice"”, World Development, Vol. 32 ( 3); p. 447 Bardhan, P and D. Mookherjee (2003), “Decentralization and accountability in infrastructure in developing countries”, Boston University, mimeo, available at: <u>http://www.bu.edu/econ/Working%20Papers/papers/Dilip%20Mookherjee/ddinf.pdf</u> Bardhan, P. (2004), “Governance Issues in Delivery of Public Services”, _Journal of African Economies_ , 13, AERC Supplement 1, ppil67-il82 Bardhan, P and D. Mookherjee (forthcoming), “Corruption and decentralization of infrastructure in developing countries”, _Economic Journal_ , available in draft at: ~ <u>http://www.econ.yale.edu/ egcenter/decdelinf.pdf</u> Beesley, T. and S. Coate (2003), “Centralized vs. decentralized provision of local public goods: a political economy approach”, Journal of Public Economics, 87 (12), pp2611-2637 Chuwa, E.W., E. K. Zovu and P.M. Mbula (2002), “Participation and Impact of Poverty Oriented Public Works Projects in Rural Malawi”, Development Policy Review, 20 (2), 159-176 Cornwall, A. (2003), “Whose voices” Whose choices” Reflectsion on genger and participatory development”, World Development, 31 (8), 1325 Cremer, J. A. Estache and P. Seabright (1996), “Decentralizing Public Services: what can we learn from the Theory of the Firm?”, _Revue d’Economie Politique,_ 106 (1), Estache and Sinha (1995), “Does decentralization increase spending on infrastructure?”, World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper, Number 1995 Estache (1995), **Decentralizing Infrastructure: Advantages and Limitations** (1995), editor, World Bank Discussion Paper No 29
|P125237|2012|2018|1/31/2018|12 Closed|Malawi|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|P125237|2012|2019|8/31/2018|13 Closed|Malawi|
|P125244|2011|2012|3/30/2012|1 Closed|China|
|P125244|2011|2013|6/22/2013|2 Closed|China|
|P125268|2010|2011||0 Closed|Europe and Central As|
|P125268|2010|2012||0 Closed|Europe and Central As|
|P125268|2010|2013||0 Closed|Europe and Central As|
|P125269|2009|2011||0 Closed|Honduras|
|P125269|2009|2012||0 Closed|Honduras|
|P125269|2009|2013||0 Closed|Honduras|
|P125269|2009|2016|8/6/2015|1 Closed|Honduras|
|P125272|2012|2012||0 Closed|Niger|
|P125272|2012|2013|7/27/2012|1 Closed|Niger|
|P125272|2012|2013|2/23/2013|2 Closed|Niger|
|P125288|2011|2011||0 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2012|9/20/2011|1 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2012|4/18/2012|2 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2013|11/6/2012|3 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2013|6/20/2013|4 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2014|1/5/2014|5 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2015|7/6/2014|6 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2015|11/25/2014|7 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2015|2/18/2015|8 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2016|7/23/2015|9 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2016|12/17/2015|10 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2016|5/23/2016|11 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2017|12/19/2016|12 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2017|6/27/2017|13 Closed|Guyana|
|P125288|2011|2021|7/21/2020|14 Closed|Guyana|
|P125298|2013|2013||0 Closed|Lao People's Democra|
|P125299|2011|2012|5/25/2012|1 Closed|India|
|P125299|2011|2013|10/9/2012|2 Closed|India|
|P125299|2011|2013|6/18/2013|3 Closed|India|
|P125299|2011|2014|11/1/2013|4 Closed|India|
|P125299|2011|2015|7/10/2014|5 Closed|India|
|P125299|2011|2015|2/18/2015|6 Closed|India|
|P125301|2011|2011||0 Closed|Comoros|
|P125301|2011|2012||0 Closed|Comoros|
|P125301|2011|2013||0 Closed|Comoros|
|P125301|2011|2014|8/6/2013|1 Closed|Comoros|
|P125301|2011|2015|10/27/2014|2 Closed|Comoros|
|P125301|2011|2015|2/4/2015|3 Closed|Comoros|
|P125301|2011|2016|11/26/2015|4 Closed|Comoros|
|P125301|2011|2017|4/14/2017|5 Closed|Comoros|
|P125302|2013|2011||0 Closed|Bangladesh|
|P125302|2013|2012||0 Closed|Bangladesh|
|P125302|2013|2014|9/29/2013|1 Closed|Bangladesh|
growth model, developed in spirit of Solow (1956) – Swan (1956) growth models, and uses investment, savings and productivity as building blocks and ties these variables to economic growth. The model also includes labor market forces that are important in driving growth together with an external sector through which additional investment can be sourced. An important finding from the growth equation obtained after solving the model shows that investment becomes less effective in generating growth with an increase in the capital‐to‐ output ratio. This implies that the same level of investment share of output will generate lower growth if capital in the economy is growing faster than output. Hence, an investment‐led growth strategy in absence of reforms that focus on growth of productivity, human capital and participation will eventually run out of steam.

The model is calibrated for Bangladesh by matching some of the standard moments in growth literature. An appealing feature of the model is that it is fairly parsimonious with regards to the parameters. Nonetheless, robustness checks are performed around the parameter values used in the benchmark exercises. The calibrated model is then used to perform several quantitative exercises that feature different scenarios on how the drivers of growth evolve over time.

The main finding of the analysis is that for Bangladesh to sustain a high real GDP growth rate, it is essential that the country focus on reforms that drive TFP growth. An investment‐led strategy that boosts investment share to 35 percent by 2020 coupled with improvements in efficiency of public capital will deliver GDP growth of 5 percent for the next decade. However, maintaining such level of investment will deliver lower than 5 percent GDP growth beyond 2025 in absence of TFP growth as high capital‐to‐output ratio will make investment less‐and‐less productive in generating growth. Alternatively, a sustained high GDP growth path in absence of TFP growth will require massive investments that exceed the levels targeted by the government. More alarmingly, the required investments will soon reach levels that are unrealistic to attain.

Finally, the model can also be used to infer what the implied growth paths spell for the sustainability of government debt position. The country has a low government debt to GDP ratio which stood at 34 percent at the end of 2015. The analysis finds that the government debt situation is sensitive to government operations and that meeting tax revenue targets is essential to keep the government debt to GDP ratio in check. The government debt sustainability will face additional risk if the government overshoots its expenditure without making much progress on the revenue front.

# **2. A Simple Growth Model**

In order to quantitatively analyze the growth prospects of Bangladesh, I use a version of the World Bank’s LTGM which is an extension of the Solow (1956) – Swan (1956) growth 4
Table 2: Balancing tests, cash transfer vs. savings default

||Cash|Transfer||Savin|gs Default||P-value:|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Mean|SD|N|Mean|SD|N|Cash = SD|
||Panel A: Base|line survey (Ju|ne to|August 2013)||||
|Male|0.63|0.48|234|0.68|0.47|240|0.356|
|Married|0.62|0.49|234|0.63|0.48|240|0.957|
|Number of hh members|4.7|2.2|234|4.7|2.1|240|0.811|
|Acres of land|1.4|1.1|234|1.5|1.3|240|0.174|
|Value of non-fxed assets (MK)|194,543|663,336|234|132,394|384,826|240|0.176|
|Asset index|-0.12|3.18|234|-0.19|3.07|240|0.831|
|Distance to branch (km)|3.73|1.71|234|3.66|1.74|240|0.914|
|Hyperbolic|0.26|0.44|234|0.21|0.41|240|0.335|
|Patient now, impatient later|0.27|0.44|234|0.26|0.44|240|0.790|
|Impatience (switching point, out of 6)|2.94|2.06|234|2.89|2.02|240|0.790|
||Panel B: Total|of itemized ex|pendi|tures from roun|d 1 survey|||
|Total|15,150|12,766|233|14,888|13,779|239|0.812|
|Food|5,003|5,205|233|5,427|5,553|239|0.381|
|non-durables|2,414|2,929|233|2,143|2,497|239|0.251|
|Durables and investments|6,213|8,295|233|5,702|8,416|239|0.495|
|Transfers and fees|1,234|2,836|233|1,183|2,626|239|0.807|
|Unplanned food|278|621|233|325|666|239|0.412|
|Unplanned non-durables|65|303|233|96|356|239|0.328|
||Panel C: Bank|transaction b|efore r|ound 1 survey||||
|Any activity 7 days prior|0.07|0.26|234|0.08|0.27|240|0.772|
|Any activity 90 days prior|0.33|0.47|234|0.32|0.47|240|0.793|
|Value of deposits 90 days prior|8802.447266|41571.29688|234|18609.83594|161433.9219|240|0.396|
|Value of withdrawals 90 days prior|-8018.194336|32845.48828|234|-24761.42383|266764.0313|240|0.353|
|Value of net deposits 90 days prior|784.25|13997.69|234|-6151.59|108023.50|240|0.333|

Reported p-values from test of equality of means in Cash and Savings Default groups based on regressions that include village and week-of-first-survey fixed effects mirroring the results specifications. ‘Asset Index’ is a principal component index based on 62 asset and seven livestock categories. The impatience measure is based on a series of questions asking whether the respondent would prefer MK 400 tomorrow or a different amount in one month. The choices increased as follows: MK 450, 500, 600, 800, 1000 or more. We report the ordinal number of the question for which the respondent preferred to wait; larger numbers indicate greater impatience. ‘Non-durables’ is the sum of spending on non-food non-durables. ‘Durables’ is the sum of spending on durable goods, assets, livestock and farm inputs. Withdrawals are represented as negative numbers. Exchange rate: MK 420 per USD.

30