The surveys administered a household questionnaire, an individual questionnaire, an agriculture questionnaire, and a community questionnaire. The HP dataset, with its focus on agricultural production and productivity, includes variables predominantly from the agriculture, household, and individual questionnaires (see ‘Survey instruments’ below). The survey questionnaires were administered in faceto-face interviews and recorded as Computer Assisted Personal Interviews (CAPI) using the Survey Solutions platform in Ethiopia (waves 4 and 5), Malawi (waves 3 and 4), Mali (wave 2), Nigeria (waves 3 and 4), Tanzania (waves 3, 4 and 5) and Uganda (waves 7 and 8). In Uganda, CAPI software CWEST was used in wave 2, and SurveyBe in waves 3 to 5. In all other rounds of the surveys, Paper Assisted Personal Interviews (PAPI) or Computer Assisted Field Interviews (CAFE) were used.

Outside of the survey questionnaires, additional variables were recorded and are provided as part of the publicly available datasets. First, land areas of agricultural plots and/or parcels were in many cases measured using handheld GPS devices, since respondent-reported land areas were shown to be unreliable (Carletto et al., 2013). Furthermore, households, agricultural plots, and communities were georeferenced via GPS during the survey operations, which enables the integration of survey data with geo-spatial data.

Sampling, tracking, and survey weights The surveys supported by the LSMS-ISA are designed to be nationally representative of the country’s population of households. To achieve this, a stratified two-stage probability sampling approach is employed, with census Enumeration Areas (EAs) selected as primary sampling units with probability proportional to size. Survey strata consist of urban/rural levels and administrative areas. In each selected EA, all households are listed and then randomly selected from the complete list. Population and housing censuses are used as sampling frames. Once households have been sampled and interviewed, sampling weights are constructed and provided to data users to allow for the calculation of nationally and subnationally representative estimates. These weights reflect a given household’s inverse probability of selection into the sample. For each survey, that is for any country-wave, the household weights approximately sum to the total population of households in the country. Weights were adjusted to account for attrition, inclusion of split-off households (i.e. new households that form by splitting from an existing household) and were post-stratified to ensure that they sum up to known population totals.

The surveys included in the HP are panel surveys that follow different units from round to round across time. Households are tracked through time in Ethiopia, Niger, and Nigeria, individuals are tracked in Malawi, Uganda, and Tanzania. Where individuals are tracked, the households they reside in are also tracked. Enumeration Areas (EAs) are tracked in Mali, with resampling of households within EAs in each wave. Agricultural plots cannot be tracked through waves (or even across seasons, in the case of Uganda), but parcels are tracked across waves in Ethiopia and Malawi, and across seasons within waves in Uganda. Parcels are defined by the World Program for the Census of Agriculture as a “piece of land of one land tenure type entirely surrounded by other land, water (...) or other features not forming part of the holding”, whereas plots are a section of the parcel “on which a specific crop or crop mixture is cultivated”(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015). In Malawi, we assume that “gardens” are equivalent to parcels. In Tanzania, “plots” have a definition that is akin to parcels, and parcels are not explicitly tracked.

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