context, we turn to the Indonesian national standard for ECED as an alternative way to look at quality. Using textual analysis, we compared ECERS-R to Indonesia’s ECED Standard and found 28 out of 43 ECERS-R items discussed in the national standard (see Table 9).<sup>18</sup> Based on this crosswalk of ECERS-R items to Indonesia’s own standards, we conducted further analyses. First, we calculated the mean ECERS-R score using only the 28 items that were found to be common between ECERS-R and the national standard—we call this alternative measure of quality, the “Indonesia standard.” The mean and standard deviation of this alternative measure is presented in Table 10.

As shown in Figure 1, many of the items that were retained in the Indonesia standard are those that pick up variation in quality, such as items 16, 17, and 22. Meanwhile, the Indonesia standard also lacks quite a few items that showed no variation such as items 10, 11, and 27. Thus, we believe that this measure of observed classroom quality may be more suitable than the original ECERS-R total score for our analysis of preschool quality and child development.

Second, we re-estimated Model 5 from our regression analyses above by using the Indonesia standard instead of the ECERS-R. We call this Model 6. It is our preferred model specification as it corrects for measurement error using instrumental variable and also uses a measure of observed classroom quality that is more locally relevant. The results of Model 6 are presented in Table 11.<sup>19</sup> The results of Model 6 show that utilizing the Indonesia standard yields fairly consistent significant relationships between observed classroom quality and child development outcomes. For the social competence domain of the EDI, a one unit increase in the Indonesia standard is associated with a 0.121 unit increase in child development. Similarly, the size of the coefficient is 0.167 units for the language and cognitive development domain – the largest association for this model. For the physical health and well-being domain; a one unit increase in the Indonesia standard is associated with a 0.107 unit increase. Likewise for emotional maturity the estimated coefficient is 0.088 units.

Similar to previous estimations, Model 6 also shows mixed findings for teacher characteristics. Increasing the proportion of teachers with senior secondary or post-secondary education is associated with higher EDI in social competence and communication and general knowledge. The point estimates are fairly large relative to observed classroom quality. A 100% increase in teachers with post-secondary education is associated with a 1.078 to 1.188 unit increase in EDI. In contrast, increasing the mean years of teaching in a center is negatively associated with physical health and well-being and communication and general knowledge. While the coefficient is negative, the magnitude is fairly small relative to teacher’s education, ranging from -0.015 to - 0.045 units. Neither experience in ECED nor teacher training are significant predictors of child development. For structural characteristics, hours of operation per week is a positive predictor of EDI, with point estimates ranging from 0.027 (social competence) to 0.036 (language and cognitive development). Student-to-staff ratio is a significant positive predictor only for physical health and well-being (0.013 units) and the magnitude is very small compared to other predictors in the model.

_The quality of Indonesian ECED services in context_ The second analysis we conduct serves to tackle the question of how to use ECERS-R to

> 18 Such an approach necessarily limits our ability to make comparisons to other settings where ECERS-R has been applied.

> 19 Unstandardized regression coefficients of Model 6 are presented in Annex A (along with Models 1-5)

13