partially fill the gap in research on Morocco and provide policy makers with critical, useful information. By highlighting the main constraints to equality among young children, this information can help in identifying vulnerable children and in gaining a better understanding of the phenomenon as a whole.

We draw on the concept of inequality of opportunity and methods for quantifying unequal opportunities (de Barros, Ferreira, Vega, & Chanduvi, 2009; de Barros, Vega, & Saavedra, 2008; Deutsch & Silber, 2008; Roemer, 1998, 2014; Shorrocks, 2013) to assess inequality in ECD. We demonstrate a number of challenges in terms of unequal early health and survival, nutrition, and social-emotional and cognitive development. Overall, we find that while there have been some improvements in ECD, particularly in health, substantial inequalities and deficits persist. These inequalities and deficits in ECD will affect children into their adult lives and present a substantial barrier to ensuring shared prosperity and adult equality in Morocco. More must be done to ensure children have equitable opportunities to develop and thrive.

This paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 discusses the data we use to measure ECD and inequality over time in Morocco. Section 3 describes the methods we use to assess ECD, quantify inequality, and decompose its origins. Section 4 presents our findings in terms of ECD trends, risk factors, inequality, and the drivers of inequality. Section 5 concludes with a discussion on how to promote ECD and equal opportunities for ECD in Morocco in light of our findings.

# **_2 Data for Assessing Inequality_**

In discussing the data, we first describe the surveys used to measure ECD and then how we measure ECD and circumstances.

# _2.1 Surveys of ECD in Morocco_

The paper relies on four different surveys conducted in Morocco:

- Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) of 2003/04

- Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) of 2006/07

- National Population and Family Health Survey (ENPSF) of 2011

- National Human Development Observatory (ONDH) panel baseline round of 2012<sup>8</sup>

- All these surveys are relatively similar in nature. They all have (a) a household

component that allows for assessing the circumstances in which children live and (b) an individual component that collects data from women and children on ECD.

The DHS of Morocco for 2003/04 was conducted by the Ministry of Health (MOH) in collaboration with the Measure DHS program, ORC Macro, and the Pan Arab Project for Family Health (PAPFAM). The survey includes detailed information on fertility, maternal and child health, the nutritional status of children and mothers, family planning, child mortality, maternal mortality, disability, chronic diseases, and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV. The survey collected information at the household, woman, and child level. The resulting data are nationally representative after the application of sample weights. The 2003/04 round was fielded from October 2003 to February 2004. In fielding, 11,513 households and 16,798 women aged 15–49 years were interviewed successfully. Anthropometric data were also collected directly through measurement of children.

> 8 Statistics presented in this paper may be different than those in the reports for the various surveys because of differences in the universe (children versus mothers or households) or other elements of data treatment.

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