rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
three maternal health services included in this study, namely contraception, ANC4+, and SBA. As indicated earlier, the mini-DHS did <u>not cover immunization indicators.</u> Therefore, the latest survey for these indicators is the 2011 DHS.

**Table 3a. Trends in absolute gaps MNCH between poor and rich households, 2000-2014**

||Diff: Bot<br>Earlier<br>Survey|tom40%-<br>Latest<br>Survey|Top60%<br>P-value|Diff: Po<br>Earlier<br>Survey|orest-Rich<br>Latest<br>Survey|est<br>P-value|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Stunting|4|10|**0.050**|12|20|0.123|
|Wasting|0|3|0.994|3|4|0.914|
|Underweight|5|8|**0.049**|13|17|0.574|
|NMR|-12.9|-13.2|NA|-8.6|-8.5|NA|
|IMR|-24|-3|NA|-10|-1|NA|
|U5MR|-19|3|NA|-2|11|NA|
|Measles Vaccination|-16|-12|**0.024**|-34|-33|**0.016**|
|Full Immunization|-11|-12|0.290|-28|-33|0.973|
|Contraceptive|-7|-14|**0.096**|-23|-26|0.136|
|ANC4+|-10|-24|0.488|-31|-52|0.770|
|SBA|-8|-19|0.130|-25|-51|0.632|

Authors’ compilation from the DHS (2000, 2005, 2011 & 2014) data. Note: The p-values are for the F-test of the difference-in-differences (Diff-in-Diff). The first part of the results is for the test: _Is [(bottom40% in the Latest Survey) - (top600% in the Latest Survey)] equal to [(bottom40% in the Earlier Survey) - (top60% in the Earlier Survey)]?_ And, in the second part the results are based on the following test: _Is [(bottom20% in the Latest Survey) - (top20% in the Latest Survey)] equal to [(bottom20% in the Earlier Survey) - (top20% in the Earlier Survey)]?_ Test is not applicable for NMR, IMR and U5MR.

Table 3a shows the gap between the poor and the rich, and between the poorest and the richest.<sup>12</sup> Therefore, a positive value for an ill health outcome (child undernutrition or child mortality) shows a pro-rich absolute inequality, i.e., child undernutrition rates and mortality levels were lower among children from the better off households. Likewise, a negative value in any of the immunization and maternal health

> 12 The poor and the rich classification refers to the bottom 40% and the top 60% respectively; whereas, the poorest and the richest classification refers to the bottom 20% (the first wealth quintile) and the top 20% (the fifth quintiles).

18
## **Table 9. Typical Financing Requirements of SPSPs**

|**Water**|**Electricity**|
|---|---|
|•<br>Total establishment costs for**PNOs**range from<br>US$100 per connection to US$300 per connection,<br>depending upon ease of access to raw water, ability to<br>pay of customer base, degrees of competition from<br>other network providers and other sources of water,<br>dispersion of households being targeted, cost of capital<br>and duration of borrowing tenors, and pumping and<br>storage investment needs. These costs may be<br>recovered<br>through<br>membership<br>fees,<br>upfront<br>connection charges, connection costs spread out over<br>an agreed payment period or may be folded into tariffs.<br>•<br>**Point sources**(kiosks) Investment requirements for<br>point source networks also vary. This cost, which<br>ranges from US$ 100 to US$ 2,000, is primarily<br>determined by distance to the source, and for<br>independent systems could also include the cost of<br>developing a water source.<br>•<br>**Mobile distributors:**The average investment cost<br>for a second-hand water tanker is US$10,000-15,000,<br>while new ones cost more.|•<br>SPSP<br>investment<br>requirements<br>ranged<br>from<br>US$1,000 to a few million dollars. For larger<br>investments, commercial lenders’ loan terms are often<br>difficult to meet: monthly interest rates can range from<br>1 percent to 3 percent, for a period of a year to two<br>years. Non-commercial lenders may charge 5 percent<br>per month interest rates.<br>•<br>Financing instruments include: co-financing grants,<br>output-based subsidies, soft loans, guarantees for debt<br>financing, subsidies, and equity contributions from<br>different sources (beneficiaries, investors, etc). For<br>user-based systems, contributions to capital investment<br>may also be made in the form of cash, labor or local<br>materials.|

# **4.6 Pricing, Sales and Earnings**

Data on pricing, sales and earnings was not provided consistently and information was generally limited to prices of goods (e.g. solar panels) and water and electricity services (see Table 10). More information on prices was available for water supply than for electricity (water data from 93 points of reference in 47 countries was collected and analyzed, as presented in Chart 2 below) Data on profits was scarce, and the reliability of this, particularly for informal SPSPs, was difficult to ascertain. The most accurate information on sales was available from tankers and kiosks as it was easier to track sales for these over a given period through observation.

24
# _National Social, Economic and Environmental Objectives_

## Development objectives that have significant bearing on utilization of water resources are:

1. Industrial objectives, particularly the provisions for industrial growth, type and location of industries. Water is an essential requirement for many industries, particularly for effluent discharge. It is also linked to industrial waste processing and maintenance of environmental standards. Although present consumption by industries in Bangladesh is small in absolute terms, the demand is projected to increase from 39 million cubic meters per month in 1995 to 64 cubic meters per month in 2005.6

2. Energy and power generation objectives. Presently, Kaptai Hydroelectric Plant is the only source of hydro power in Bangladesh. But there are plans for a number of other power projects in the Power System Master Plan, including extension of Kaptai, projects on Sengu and Teesta rivers, Matamuhuri Projects, etc.

3. Flood management objectives. Since Bangladesh lacks storage capacity for flood water, flood protection has centered on embankments, river closures, drainage control structures and drainage pumps. Storage of flood water in river channels and floodplain depressions are also prevalent. Static water bodies, such as river channels and ponds are often used for conserving flood and monsoon water for dry season irrigation.

4. Irrigation objectives, including major surface water irrigation and minor irrigation. The former consists of primary pumping plants and gravity diversion schemes in canal distribution systems and the latter consists of small manual and powered pumps to lift surface or ground water with earthen distribution systems constructed by farmers. Conjunctive use of both surface and groundwater is also a major objective to meet agricultural demand in the critical months, February-April, when surface water availability is low. Surface and groundwater are hydrologically interconnected, except for groundwater stored in confined aquifers. Concurrent planning for both are therefore essential.

5. Agriculture, fisheries, livestock and forestry objectives. Fisheries is an extremely important aspect of Bangladesh rural economics, nutrition and poverty alleviation measures. An estimated 73 percent of rural households take part in this activity.<sup>7</sup> There are about 78,000 hectares of ponds where fish culture is practiced.

6. Environmental objectives. Specific objectives and guidelines for environmental impact assessment and research and training programs were developed under the Flood Action Program (FAP), which need to be implemented for sustainable development.

- 6 MPO estimate. See National Water Plan, GOB, 1986.

- 7 Source: Bangladesh Fisheries Resource Survey System, Directorate of Fisheries, GOB.

6
provincial number of internet users per capita. The estimated effects on firm export outcomes are shown in columns (2), (4), and (6) of Table 5. We find clear evidence of a significant increase in firm export participation, export intensity and real exports in the specialized input-intensive industries as a province’s internet penetration grows, suggesting that the trade facilitation role of the internet outweighs other offsetting considerations. All in all, the evidence in Table 5 shows that the gains from increased internet penetration for firm export performance have arisen from improvements in communications with clients and suppliers.

Third, we examine what dimensions of the new communication medium were most relevant. Specifically, we test if industries in which firms typically rely more on websites see a greater improvement in export performance when internet penetration increases in a province. We use as measures of provincial internet penetration, the number of .CN domains per capita as well as the total number of .CN domains, which reflect the internet content that firms and households generate in that province. In particular, the number of .CN domains increases with the number of online services such as websites in the province. We pair these measures with the share of firms with websites in specific industries in Vietnam as the interaction term in re-estimating Eq. (1). The results shown in Table 6 show a significant increase in the probability of participating in export markets, the ratio of exports to total output, and real exports for firms in industries relying more heavily on websites in provinces where the numbers of .CN domains per capita or of .CN domains in absolute terms grew faster. Hence, we conclude that the gains from increased internet penetration for firm export performance in China have arisen also from using online services, including by establishing a visible virtual presence.<sup>27</sup> We also examine whether it is access to broadband internet that improves firm export outcomes or access to the internet per se. Our sample period covers the beginning of the rapid expansion of broadband internet penetration in China but data on the provincial number of broadband internet users before 2007 are not available. However, we can approximate expansion in the access to broadband internet by using changes in the kilometers of optical fiber line per province, which is one of the key means through which broadband internet is delivered. We estimate a variant of Eq. (1) where a second interaction term is included between the number of

> intensity measure (based on Rauch’s liberal classification) is available at the 3-digit ISIC revision 2 level which is concorded to the Chinese firm-level data at the 3-digit level based on verbal descriptions.

> 27 Estimates (not reported here) interacting the numbers of .CN domains or numbers of .CN domains per capita with either the China share of post and telecommunications or the US share of ICT capital services, are qualitatively similar to those in Table 6.

18
# finterational Differences in Wage and Nonwage Labor Colts

by Lui A. River

## Tabl of Cosaw

|L 1<br>|......<br>.do*t|2|
|---|---|---|
|H.|Basic Mushoduiogk01l 1w1<br>Meuwiqg Wag .d Non-Wap Co4s|4|
|m.|PeviWo<br>inteAa.<br>.... .......|7|
|IV.|Noo-W4c CoatRo.............. .|8|
|V.|TotalLaborCostLvels<br>.<br>..|11|
|VI.|Enforcemet of NWC Regulations<br>..............|16|
|VU.|LaborMktDistotm<br>XdNWC Ruatim<br>Ls<br>.<br>...<br>in|20|
|Vm.|Inanational Diffatnces in Labor Cost Levels|23|
|IX.|ConclUsions<br>..<br>..|26|
||Tables......|28|
||References<br>..<br>.<br>........|35|
||Appendicies<br>.......|39|
Projections of future economic growth vary considerably, but economic growth is expected to continue. Economic growth rate projections range from between 1 and 3.1 percent for the IPCC’s four SRES scenarios, for example (van Vuuren and O’Neill, 2006). It is generally assumed that growth in industrialized countries will be slower than that in developing economies. Among the developing regions, East Asia in particular will continue to have higher growth rates. Different outlooks exist with respect to Sub-Saharan Africa: some recent assessments assume that institutional barriers will result in slower (though positive) economic growth than in other developing regions, while the OECD projects Africa to grow faster than Latin America (Rosegrant et al., 2009, see Table 4.5 for comparisons).

As might be expected, given the range of projections in drivers to 2050, there are several sets of projections of future livestock product demand in response to increases in population, urbanization and income. Some figures are shown in Table 2 (from Steinfeld et al., 2006). A range of scenarios is summarized in van Vuren et al. (2009) as follows. The global consumption of meats and milk, fats, and sugars increases considerably, while consumption of roots and tubers, pulses, and cereals as food is stable or slightly declines.

Table 2. Past and projected trends in consumption of meat and milk in developing and developed countries. Data for 1980-2015 from Steinfeld et al. (2006) and for 2030-2050 from FAO (2006).

|||**Annual per capi**<br>|**ta consumption**<br>|**Total con**<br>|**sumption**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||**Meat (kg)**|**Milk (kg)**|**Meat (Mt)**|**Milk (Mt)**|
|**Developing**|**1980**|14|34|47|114|
||**1990**|18|38|73|152|
||**2002**|28|44|137|222|
||**2015**|32|55|184|323|
||**2030**|38|67|252|452|
||**2050**|44|78|326|585|
|**Developed**|**1980**|73|195|86|228|
||**1990**|80|200|100|251|
||**2002**|78|202|102|265|
||**2015**|83|203|112|273|
||**2030**|89|209|121|284|
||**2050**|94|216|126|295|

12
Regarding the soil carbon content, the results from the pooled OLS model suggest that the soil carbon content has a positive impact on the maize yield with a decreasing return on both of the seed types in Kenya. The elasticity evaluated at the means is about 0.32 for the purchased HYV maize, while it is about 0.57 for the local/recycled HYV maize. Because the average carbon content levels are about the same for the two seed types, according to the HYV adoption model in Table 3, the results suggest that the local/recycled HYV maize has a greater physical responsiveness to the soil carbon content than the purchased HYV maize. The impact of the organic fertilizer is also greater on the local/recycled HYV maize than on the purchased HYV maize. According to the endogenous switching model, the average impact of an additional one ton of organic fertilizer application per ha increases the maize yield by 4.1 percent for the local/recycled HYV maize and 2.2 percent for the purchased HYV maize. The estimated coefficients are robust across the estimation models. Thus, it seems that the local/recycled HYV maize is more physically responsive to the organic matter, i.e., the soil carbon content and the organic fertilizer, than the purchased HYV maize.

The sizes of the estimated impacts of organic fertilizer may seem small. But note that the estimated coefficients of the organic fertilizer could be biased toward zero because of the possible attenuation biases created by the measurement errors in the organic fertilizer variables. First, it is difficult to measure the quantity of the applied organic fertilizer. Farmers may not remember clearly how much of the organic fertilizer they applied. Second, the quality of the organic fertilizer varies from one farmer to another. The quality of the organic fertilizer depends on the contents and how it is 17
on biased technical change into the factor-proportions literature.

# **2.2 Biased technical change**

This literature can also be divided into two different approaches. The first one assesses whether factor shares vary systematically with the level of development (e.g. Young[34], Gollin[14], Bernanke and Gurkaynak[3], and Ortega and Rodriguez[27]). The second investigates whether complementarities between inputs and technology bias technical change (e.g. Acemoglu[1], Caselli[6]).

The first literature initially found that labor shares in national income vary widely, ranging from 0.05 to 0.80 in international cross-sectional data (e.g. Elias[11] and Young[34]). Gollin[14] questioned these estimations by arguing that the widely used approach, which is based on Cobb-Douglas production functions, tends to underestimate the labor income of self-employed workers, and the corrected labor shares fall in the range of 0.65 to 0.80. This evidence was later reaffirmed by Bernanke and Gurkaynak[3], but rejected by Ortega and Rodriguez[27]. The latter uses industrial survey data to explore the same question, and controlling for the measurement problem of self-employed workers it found a significant negative cross-sectional relationship between capital share and per capita income within industries. In a related paper, Dobbelaere and Mairesse[9], find that imperfections in the product and labor markets generate a wedge between factor elasticities in the production function and their corresponding shares in revenue, at firm and industry levels.

The second approach builds on the works by Kennedy[20], Samuelson[32], and Drandakis and Phelps[10], who proposed an induced innovation theory that highlights the relation between factor prices and technical change. The modern formulation of this theory has been presented by Acemoglu[1], who study how cross-country differences in factor endowments bias technical change. In his framework, the price and market-size effects determine the direction of technological change. The price effect reflects the incentives to generate technologies that create more expensive goods. The second effect captures the incentives to produce technologies for which there is a big mar5
<!-- Start of picture text --> (c) Share of Increased exports from Brazil (2000-2010)<br>(d) LAC Imports from China & Emerging<br>Asia ($ billions)<br>140<br>100%<br>Other Countries<br>120<br>90%<br>China From Emerging<br>80% 35.8% 100 Asia<br>EU27 From China<br>70%<br>80<br>Argentina<br>60%<br>21.0% United States 60<br>50%<br>40<br>40% Japan<br>19.0%<br>30% Sub-Saharan Africa 20<br>20% 8.7% Russia 0<br>4.4%<br>10% 3.3%<br>2.9% India<br>0% 2.3% 2.6%<br>(f) Brazil's Merchandise Imports, by origin<br>(e) Share of Increased Imports into Brazil<br>($ billion)<br>2000-2010<br>100% Other 45<br>90% 31.1% 40 EU27<br>EU27<br>80% 35 United States<br>70% China 30 China<br>60% 19.6% 25<br>United States Argentina<br>50% 20<br>40% 19.5% Argentina 15 Japan<br>Sub-Saharan<br>30% Sub-Saharan 10 Africa<br>20% 11.4% Africa 5 India<br>India<br>10% 6.1% 0 Russia<br>4.9%<br>Japan<br>0%<br>2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br>2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Author‘s calculations based on WITS database.

One can see another dimension to the trend by focusing on particular geographic trade corridors. For example, if one focuses on the Pacific coast of Latin America, one can see that the ―Pacific Rim‖ has changed its pattern of trade as well over the last two decades. It is too early to tell on the basis of the last decade, but there may well be a new ―emerging Pacific Rim‖ characterized by rapidly increasing trade relations between developing countries on both sides of the Pacific Ocean. While it is true that regional trade agreements (NAFTA, CAFTA) have strengthened North-South trade with the United States in Mexico and Central America, in South America, China has become a major destination for Pacific Coast economies. Two illustrative examples are Chile and Peru. In the case of Chile, note how China has rapidly overtaken Japan‘s role as the major Asian export destination over the last decade (Figure 11(a)). Nearly a quarter of Chile‘s merchandise exports go to China. This is all the more remarkable since, at the start of the 1990s, this figure was nearly zero, and it remained below 5 percent until the start of the 18
From this analysis the economy could be characterized by the syndrome “ _High-value monocrop export economy with overvalued exchange rate”_ . This syndrome is a variant on Dutch Disease with the distinction that overvaluation is due as much to policy as to export revenues from the booming sector. In such a case we would expect to see the following symptoms:

- GDP is highly sensitive to crop export revenue, and crop price.

- Over-valuation of the exchange rate undermines the competitiveness of nonmonocrop sectors.

- Growth occurs only in non-traded service sectors without import competition.

- There is low growth in import substituting industrialization because of competition from imports.

- There is difficulty in developing new export industries due to the high profitability of the monocrop.

These symptoms are demonstrably present in Malawi, and the economy has responded rapidly to improvements in the real exchange rate. The state of the current account, high growth in consumer imports and the weak growth of ISI manufacturing are strong indications that further carefully managed devaluations of the real exchange rate would have beneficial effect.

# **III. HRV CONSTRAINTS MATRIX**

Although Malawi’s recent growth has been strong, the lack of investment in tradeable sectors, and smallholder productivity (particularly irrigation and livestock) raises questions of its sustainability and robustness. In addition to the exchange rate, it is clear that other constraints operate which deter investment in external or domestic industries. The following section uses the HRV constraints matrix presented earlier to further analyze the causes of low investment and entrepreneurship in Malawi. We discuss in turn whether investment is constrained by finance, complementary factors, government failure or market failure.

## **E. IS GROWTH CONSTRAINED BY FINANCE?**

The banking sector has undergone substantial reforms since the 1980s with foreign investors entering the market from 1994. Deregulation has increased the number of banks from two in 1994 to nine in 2008. Despite this, in the ICA survey (WB, 2006) businesses quote “cost of finance” and “access to finance” as the top two most severe constraints after macroeconomic stability. Furthermore informal firms report that “access to finance” is their _most_ serious constraint. While real lending interest rates have been

- 27 -
- captures a BBR (Balanced Budget Rule), where is the historical

- <sup>tttt</sup>

- fraction of the expenditure that is spent on public investment. In this case, when θθ= θθ<sup>hi</sup> θθ<sup>hi</sup> the cyclical resource revenue increases by one dollar, all windfall is spent, but only the fraction in extra spending is channeled to investment (the<sup>tt</sup>

- remaining falling on government consumption). ). . θθ<sup>tthi</sup>

- • When , all cyclical resource revenue is spent, but it falls only on public 1 −θθ<sup>hi</sup>

- remaining falling on government consumption). ). .

- • When , all cyclical resource revenue is spent, but it falls only on public<sup>hi</sup>

- investment, as prescribed under a BBR-HR (Balanced Budget-Hartwick Rule). θθ= 1

# _B. The LTGM-NR External Balance_

The LTGM-NR External Balance submodel keeps the structure of the Default submodel but accounts for the public sector in more detail and allows for a relationship between the public and private investment via the availability of savings.

**The external sector.** A key equation in this submodel is the constraint which imposes that aggregate investment must be equal to domestic savings less the current account balance (CAB), −c (16) pp gg where and denote private and public savings, respectively, and iitt = ss̅tt + sstt bbtt c is the pp gg current account balance, all expressed as a share of GDI. Public savings are tt tt tt ss̅ ss bb endogenously determined by the fiscal rule in place (details below), and private savings are assumed to be an exogenous share of GDI. The CAB is financed by (exogenous) foreign direct investment (FDI) or newly created external debt (we abstract from other forms of portfolio investment, as they are less common in developing countries):

13