Chalk and King, 1998), some with rigorous scientific designs, control groups, extensive quantitative outcome measures, and long-term follow-up. This research indicates that while programs can improve participants’ knowledge and willingness to report abuse, they do not appear to reduce victimization among participants compared to controls. Thus, many researchers and advocates argue against initiatives that focus primarily on increasing girls' ability to protect themselves and instead advocate for those initiatives that aim to change male norms and behaviors and to promote positive models of forming relationships (Chalk and King, 1998; Bolen, 2003).

## **_Violence prevention in the context of sexual and reproductive health education_**

In middle and low-income countries, most gender-based violence prevention in schools has occurred in the context of reproductive health education (HIV/AIDS prevention, “family life education” or “lifeskills” programs). These initiatives range from formal, stand-alone classes to material integrated into the broad school curriculum, peer education programs, and school-based awareness campaigns. They vary greatly in the extent to which they address gender-based violence directly; some merely discuss gender issues or sexual negotiation more generally. While school-based programs have successfully improved students’ knowledge about HIVAIDS and other health issues in many settings, they have had a more limited impact on sexual behavior (Leach et al., 2003). In many cases, researchers suggest that weak programming may be to blame; school-based programs often suffer from poor content, lack of teacher training, resistance by teachers, an overemphasis on anatomy, cultural barriers, and parental objections to sex education.

Little is known about the ability of these programs to improve violence-related attitudes or behaviors. One quasi-experimental study of life skills education among 9th graders in South Africa found that the program had only a minor impact on attitudes towards sexual coercion, in part because levels of reported attitudes condemning such behavior were already high at baseline. Nor is it clear that there is a link between reported attitudes and behavior (Magnani et al., 2003). Researchers have presented compelling evidence to suggest that HIV/AIDS prevention programs need to do a better job of addressing gender power imbalances to be effective in many settings. For example, researchers from the London School of Economics conducted a longitudinal, qualitative evaluation of a school-based peer education program in Zimbabwe where HIV prevalence was several times higher among girls than boys (Campbell and MacPhail, 2002). The evaluation concluded that the program’s failure to address gender power imbalances had entrenched them further. Male peer educators bullied and harassed female counterparts and encouraged other boys to pressure girls for early and frequent sex. Researchers concluded that the program had failed to address sexual coercion, despite the evidence that it plays a substantial role in the spread of HIV in this area.

# **MULTI-SECTORAL: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL SERVICES AND PUBLIC SAFETY**

## **Background**

Throughout this review, we have emphasized the value of collaboration between justice, health, education and other sectors to ensure an effective and comprehensive response to gender-based violence. However, this section will address key areas that-almost by definition-require a multi-sectoral approach, namely, economic empowerment of women, social services for girls and women who experience gender-based violence, and infrastructure projects.

Research highlights the links between social and economic factors and intimate partner violence against women. In many settings, women with high economic and social status appear to be somewhat protected, but the relationship between socio-economic status and violence is not necessarily linear (Jewkes, 2002b). Evidence suggests that violence against women may actually rise as women initially gain greater access 35