rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Lewis and Lockheed linguistically heterogeneous will have greater gender gaps in education. We are unable to directly examine the impact of heterogeneity on the gender gap <u>within</u> marginalized groups because education data that are disaggregated by gender <u>within ethnic group are not available for most</u> countries.

**_Data and approaches._** We use an indicator of heterogeneity, “ethnolinguistic fractionalization (ELF)”, that was developed by Alesina and others (2003) to explain the drivers of economic growth. The index, based on the work of ethnologists and anthropologists, captures the degree of racial and linguistic heterogeneity within 190 countries. ELF allows cross-country comparisons of fractionalization of ethnicity and language, but does not provide specific evidence of exclusion. A country could be highly heterogeneous with all groups reciprocally accorded the same level of esteem or value and there would be no social exclusion.<sup>5</sup> Social exclusion occurs only when one group is accorded lower esteem than another group. ELF is highly correlated with other measures of exclusion, including a new version of the index and a new index of ethnic diversity and geographical clustering (EDC) both constructed by Matuszeski and Schneider (2006).

We focus on three main schooling variables: the female primary completion rate, the difference between the male and female primary completion rates, and a learning score. Table 2 presents the variable descriptions and the data sources; summary statistics are provided in table 3. Schooling data come from the World Bank (2005a), Barrow and Lee (2000) and Crouch and Fasih (2004).

Few cross-national measures of actual learning are available, and the learning score measure is based on Crouch and Fasih’s (2004) “imputed learning scores” for 55 countries. This measure is derived from countries’ actual performance on various international tests, as equated to a common measure: an aggregate of the national average for science and mathematics scores on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).<sup>6</sup>

> 5 For example, Switzerland.

> 6 TIMSS is a project of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), a nongovernmental organization that has sponsored cross-national assessments of achievement on a four-year cycle, typically for students who have completed four to eight years of school. The most recently published assessment involved 46 education systems, including 26 from low- and middle-income countries and was carried out in 2003; the 2007 assessment is underway in approximately 60 countries.

17
|Household income is below 30,000 CFA|-0.0424|-0.06|39|
|---|---|---|---|
||(0.20)|(0.10)|.|
|House walls are brick/semi-rigid|0.0795|0.07|20|
||(0.05)|(0.18)|.|
|House floor is Cement|-0.0814|-0.02|29|
||(0.09)|(0.76)|.|
|House has five or more rooms|-0.0536|-0.016|19|
||(0.12)|(0.68)|.|
|**House has a TV**|<br>**0.0935**|<br>**0.19**|08|
||**(0.10)**|**(0.02)**|.|
|Household member has a mobile phone|0.0324|0.11|27|
||(0.40)|(0.02)|.|
|Village – Population (thousands)|-.01|.05|205591|
||(0.77)|(0.24)|.|
|Village distance to closest urban center|-0.01|-0.01|2339|
||(0.02)|(0.01)|.|
|Village distance to closest bus/train Stop|-0.003|-0.01|2331|
||(0.29)|(0.11)|.|
|# of functional private schools in village|-0.46|-0.16|07|
||(0.01)|(0.47)|.|
|Village Chief has primary education|0.05|0.05|25|
||(0.75)|(0.73)|.|
|**Village Chief has secondary education**|**0.32**|**0.29**|**.20**|
||**(0.06)**|**(0.07)**||
|A paved road is in/serves the village|-0.01|0.33|.1|
||(0.97)|(0.09)||
|**Village has a secondary school**|**0.27**|**0.26**|**.17**|
||**(0.09)**|**(0.10)**||
|Village has a literacy center|0.02<br>|0.05<br>|.48|
||(0.90)|(0.76)||
|Village has a health center or maternity|0.04<br>|0.12<br>|.54|
||(0.77)|(0.35)||
|# of potables water sources built in 2007 or|-0.004|-0.01|114|
|<br>2008|(0.86)|(0.68)|.|
|Most common language is the same in the|0.28|0.25|85|
|<br>village and the commune|(0.20)|(0.24)|.|
|Probability that two households in the village|-0.583|-0.31|75|
|<br>speak the same language at home|(0.12)|(0.38)|.|
|Observations|3,663|Various||
|R-squared|0.78|||

Note: OLS with commune fixed effects and village-clustered standard errors (p-values). Standard errors in parentheses, clustered at commune level. The multivariate specification also controls for the fraction of village respondents that come from each of eight ethnic groups, the fraction that is Muslim and the fraction that is Catholic. None of these are significant, either in the multivariate nor bivariate specifications.

Poorer villages could have lower radio access and simultaneously be more likely to support clientelist promises. Income and wealth are not, however, systematically higher or lower in villages 18
of such firms are still relatively rare, often do not track firms for long periods, and often lose firms which die to attrition, systematic data on the rates, correlates, and causes of firm death have not been available. This paper overcomes these issues by pooling together data from 16 panel surveys in 12 countries, in which special efforts were made to limit attrition and ascertain the status of firms which closed down. Using this, we are able to provide stylized facts on the rate of firm death over time, provide descriptive evidence on which types of firms are most likely to die, and test three competing theories for why firms die. Our evidence suggests that the most common reason for firm death is that less profitable and less productive firms end up making losses and closing. However, other small firms, particularly those run by women, close because of illness and family reasons, suggesting non-separability between the household and firm, while a minority of firms, largely run by more educated owners, close because better opportunities arise for the owner.

We see several potential uses for this research. The first is as a benchmarking tool. There is currently little evidence for researchers or policymakers tracking the failure rates of firms in their study or intervention to compare to, to know whether the rates they see in their data are high or low. This paper provides guidance as to what death rate can be expected at different time horizons. The second potential use is for targeting of programs. Programs that want to work actively with businesses for several years may wish to avoid small firms at greatest risk of closing down, while other programs that are designed to help firms at risk of failure to survive may wish to use the information provided here to decide which firms to offer the program to. Finally, the results may be of interest in deciding whether interventions are needed, and what types of intervention. To the extent that firms are exiting because they are low productivity and competition is reallocating production to more efficient firms, policymakers may not want to intervene. Similarly, if firm death arises because of voluntary exit in pursuit of better opportunities, again no intervention may be warranted. In contrast, if firms die because of a lack of separability with household shocks, or because of firm shocks that were not able to be insured, policymakers may want to experiment with policies to insure these types of shocks. Our results suggest that there is a subset of smaller firms, run by women, for whom such policies may be of particular importance.

24
82 Pakistan, and Egypt. All of these countries fall in the South and West Auian and North African regions.

Analyses of mortality trends by sex confirm, as with education, that in most regions of the world the prospects for survival are improving more rapidly by women than for men (United Nations, 1982). Most countries are converging toward the sex differences in mortality schqdules that **are** observed in the industrially advanced countries, but **the pace** of progress differs markedly by region. Women's education is the **best** predictor of the level and sex differences in mortality schedules; female enrollment rates are used in 50-year forecasts of national mortality schedules (Zachariah and Vu, 1988: xv). Until life expectancy at birth for women exceeds 60 **years,** the rate of increase in longevity is greater in countries where more than 70 percent of girls are enrolled in primary school (as 1956-59).' Thus, studies of national mortality patterns confirm the critical role of women's education in the rate of health improvement of national populations, extending the evidence beyond the survival of a woman's own children that is documented from household studies (Cochrane gt &I., 1980; Mensch *al_., 1986).

In conclusion, women are especially poor in relation to men in their acquired capabilities, such as schooling, in the world's poorest countries, and. in these same countries women's low health status is reflected in their shorter lives in comparison to men's. This deficit is particularly pronounced in South and West &sia and North antd subSaharan Africa. Increasing the productive capabilities of women in **these** poor countries through investment in their schooling appears to be an efficient use of social and private individual investment resources. Beyond schooling, other public policies have been proposed to help women realize more efficiently their productive potentiai and
9 Sobarzo's "Case 2" scenario assumes a perfectly elastic supply of foreign capital. The Mexican economy experiences a much larger GDP increase than in Case 1, which has a fixed capital stock assumption (8.0 per cent GDP increase versus 1.9 per cent in Case 1).7 This higher level of growth, in turn, translates into a significant deterioration in Mexico's trade balance with the ROW, given Sobarzo's _ad hoc_ export supply and import demand functions used to model Mexico's trade relations with North America and the ROW.<sup>8</sup> Case 3 in Cox and Harris illustrates the negative extemalities of the NAFIA if it becomes an inward-oriented bloc. In this analysis, the elimination of tariffs among member countries is combined with a 10 per cent increase in ad valorem tariffs applied by Canada, Mexico, and the United States against third country imports. Table 1 shows this would reduce trade volumes between NAFTA and non-member **s** ignificantly via direct trade suppression. An explicit movemen **t** oward an inward-oriented trade bloc in North America seems unlikely. After all, as illustrated by the Canadian welfare results, participating countries would also be negatively affected. Still, these results highlight the dangers for the ROW of such a development.

Perhaps, the main message of these analyses concerns the importance of capital flows in detenrining the final outcome of NAFTA from the perspective both of member and third countries. Specifically, CGE results suggest that barriers to capital flows, as well as the 7 See Sobarm (1992). Note that the welfare impact of both scenarios is approximately the same (see Table 1); the explanation being that despite the larger expansion of the Mexican eco,nomy in case 2, the additional income generated by the use of foreign capital does not belong to Mcxican nationals.

' Mexico's overall trade balance experiences a 18.3 per cent deterioration, refleting an 18.9 per cent deterioration _vis-a-vis_ the rest of North America (United States and Canada) and a 17.1 per cent deterioration _vis-avis_ the ROW.
# **1.  Introduction**

The International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified tiger as _endangered_ in its Red list of Threatened Species of <u>(http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/15955/0</u> ). The wild tiger population of tropical Asia dropped from about 100,000 to 3,500 in the past century. The Bali, Javan and South China subspecies are believed to be extinct in the wild. An estimated 2,380 Bengal tigers survive, along with 340 Indochinese, 500 Malayan and 325 Sumatran tigers. The surviving wild tiger population of tropical Asia inhabits a scattered arc from southwest India to northwest Indonesia, much of it in upland areas. Bengal tigers survive in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and northern Myanmar, while the remaining Indochinese tigers are found in western and southeastern Myanmar<sup>1</sup> , Lao PDR, Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand. In contrasting geographic concentration, Sumatran tigers are confined to one Indonesian island and Malayan tigers exist only in Peninsular Malaysia and one small area in southern Thailand. Long term survival of the tiger is dependent on conservation of tiger habitats.<sup>2</sup> The global community has mobilized to conserve the tiger’s remaining habitat through the Global Tiger Initiative, which is supported by all countries with known tiger populations, the World Bank, and over 40 civil society organizations.<sup>3</sup> Participating countries and institutions have endorsed the Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP), which aims to double the number of wild tigers by 2022 through habitat conservation programs and cooperation across national boundaries to stop poaching and illegal trade in tiger parts.

Operating under tight budget constraints, the GTRP confronts several complicating factors, including the need to conserve specific habitats large enough to accommodate this keystone

> 1 The ranges of the Bengal and Indochinese tigers may overlap in Myanmar.

> 2 This paper focuses on forest habitat loss, but we recognize that poaching and illegal trade in tiger parts can devastate remaining tiger populations, even when forest habitat is intact.

> 3 For more complete information, see http://www.globaltigerinitiative.org/html/participants.php

2
# **Figure 4. Share of country-year pairs with**

# **rising debt trajectory**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Percent of country-year pairs<br>60<br>40<br>20<br>0<br>World Advanced EMDEs<br>economies<br><!-- End of picture text --> Sources: Kose et al. (2017); World Bank.

Note: Share of country-year pairs for 34 advanced economies and 83 EMDEs in which debt is on a rising trajectory (i.e., negative sustainability gaps) over 1990-2020.

23
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44
Baek, Y., Collingsworth, J., Clemmer, S., Gignac, J., Jacobs, M., Garcia, P., & Sattler, S. (2020). The economic feasibility of solar and storage system in Illinois. _The Electricity Journal_ , 33(1), 106689. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2019.106689 Bekel, K., & Pauliuk, S. (2019). Prospective cost and environmental impact assessment of battery and fuel cell electric vehicles in Germany. _International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment_ , 24(12), 2220-2237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-019-01640-8 Belaïd, F., Ranjbar, Z., & Massié, C. (2021). Exploring the cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency implementation measures in the residential sector. _Energy Policy_ , 150, 112122. <u>https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112122</u> Berrone, P., Fosfuri, A., Gelabert, L., & Gomez-Mejia, L. R. (2013). Necessity as the mother of ‘green’ inventions: Institutional pressures and environmental innovations. _Strategic Management Journal_ , 34(8), 891-909. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2041 Böhringer, C., Moslener, U., Oberndorfer, U., & Ziegler, A. (2012). Clean and productive? Empirical evidence from the German manufacturing industry. _Research Policy_ , _41_ (2), 442451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2011.10.004 Borén, S. (2020). Electric buses’ sustainability effects, noise, energy use, and costs. _International Journal of Sustainable Transportation_ , 14(12), 956-971. <u>https://doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2019.1666324</u>

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<!-- Start of picture text --> 110<br>:<br>o<br>= 90 = ——— EAP<br>a ——LAC<br>£ 80<br>8 [7 —MNA<br>=<br>e/° —ECA<br>a<br>——SAR<br>$ 60<br>Fr —— SSA<br>50<br>40<br>1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005<br><!-- End of picture text -->
activities of business networks. Such incongruities can have substantial implications for what development programs do in this area. A better understanding of the institutions that support market exchange in SSA would seem essential in developing effective policy prescriptions.

To address these questions, we use data and research results from the Regional Program for Enterprise Development (RPED), a program of manufacturing enterprise surveys across the SSA region, conducted by the World Bank in the 1990s.<sup>2</sup> Among other things, RPED firm-level data can be used to examine the forms of private support institutions found in SSA and to assess how these private orderings shape patterns of market exchange and firm performance. The first section of the paper lays some groundwork with a brief review of the forces driving the formation of private support institutions in the region. We then look at the social capital embodied in these business support institutions and the way this social capital influences firm performance. In the last section, we consider the natural limits private support institutions face in the SSA setting in fostering SME structural transformation and the role for policy and programs.

The paper finds that SMEs in SSA endeavor to get around market failure and the lack of formal institutions protecting property rights and contracts by creating private governance systems in the form of long-term business relationships and networks, as firms do in other parts of the world. But in much of the region, SMEs find it hard even to establish these simple relation-based governance architectures. Economic instability undermines and weakens incentives for long-term, cooperative business relationships and hinders the creation of efficient private institutional arrangements. In this environment tight, ethnically-based, business networks thrive. However, a coordination failure in the indigenous-African manufacturing business community keeps firms from developing network-based governance architectures analogous to those found in ethnic minority communities. It is shown that there are important links between these informal governance institutions and SME performance. Networks raise the performance of “insiders” and, in the sparse business environments of the SSA region, tight networks can

> 2 For a description of the RPED research program and data see the World Bank website www.worldbank.org/rped.

4
# WPS4161

## Changing Farm Types and Irrigation as an Adaptation to Climate Change in Latin American Agriculture<sup>1</sup>

### Robert Mendelsohn

School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University USA and Niggol Seo University of Aberdeen Business School, UK

### **Abstract**

This paper estimates a model of a farm that treats the choice of crops, livestock, and irrigation as endogenous. The model is composed of a multinomial choice of farm type, a binomial choice of irrigation, and a set of conditional land value functions. The model is estimated across over 2000 farmers in Latin America. The results quantify how farmers adapt their choice of farm type and irrigation to their local climate. The results should help governments develop effective adaptation policies in response to climate change and improve the forecasting of climate impacts. The paper compares the predicted impacts of climate change using both endogenous and exogenous models of farm choice.

World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4161, March 2007 _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> 1 Funding of this project was provided by the World Bank.  We thank Emilio Ruz, Flavio Avila, Jorge Lozanoff, Luis José María Irias, Magda Aparecida de Lima, Jorge Granados, Jorge González, Flavio Játiva, Alfredo Albin, Bruno Lanfranco, Rafael Pacheco for their contribution to this project.  This project was funded by the Research Committee of the World Bank under the study 'Climate Change and Rural Development' that was tasked managed by Ariel Dinar.