South African labor market (Gradín 2019).<sup>33</sup> In contrast, Black male workers are overrepresented in manual occupations such as machine plant operators and assemblers, which are classified as broadly green jobs and are numerous.

Relative to rural workers, urban workers are more likely to be in strictly defined green jobs while rural workers are more likely to be in broadly green jobs. The results for strictly green jobs do not change when industry dummies are added to the regression. This may reflect the more urban nature of strictly green jobs, in professional fields as well as public services. However, the point estimate for broadly green jobs decreases, while remaining negative, suggesting that manufacturing industries, which are broadly green jobs, may be partly driving the results.

# 4.2 Which Green Workers Are in the Greenest Jobs?

When restricting the sample to only those working in strictly green occupations,<sup>34</sup> results show that not only are women less likely to be in strictly green jobs (Table 4), but they are also less likely to be in the greenest jobs (Table 5). Women are 8.2 percent less likely to be in the greenest jobs. The coefficient estimate remains negative when controlling for industry.

Relative to the youngest age group, older individuals are more likely to be in the greenest jobs. The coefficients are positive and statistically significant for the oldest age groups (age 45-54 and 55-65) with the oldest age group being 8.5 percent more likely to be in the greenest jobs as compared to the youngest age group (15-24). Thus, while the oldest age groups were the least likely to be in green jobs, those who do end up in green jobs are in the greenest.

Individuals with less than complete high school education are more likely to be in the greenest jobs (Table 5), even though they were less likely to be in green jobs as compared to other age groups (Table 4). Every education group is 30 percent less likely than workers without completed high school to be in the greenest jobs. This result stems from the fact that while most green jobs are high skilled, some low-skill, high employment occupations, such as garbage collectors and motor vehicle mechanics and fitters have high GTI scores, resulting in the greenest jobs belonging to those with lower than grade 12 level of education (see Figure 6).

Individuals from the African subpopulation are more likely to be in the greenest of the green jobs. All other population groups are on average less likely to be in the greenest jobs, even when controlling for education level, industry, and urban residence. Once controlling for industry, the gap reduces, but remains negative. So, while Black Africans are less likely to work in a strictly green job, when they do have that job, it is greener.

Urban workers are more likely to work in the greenest of the strictly green jobs. Individuals working in the urban areas are 15 percent more likely to be in the greenest jobs. This seems to reflect the industrial distribution across locations, though. When controlling for industry, the

> 33 The legacy of apartheid labor market policies such as the _job reservation act_ and the _Bantu education act_ is still reflected in the present labor market, with Black South Africans being underrepresented in professional occupations and in institutions of higher learning and overrepresented in elementary occupations.

34 We do not do this exercise for potentially green jobs since the broad green definition includes tasks that could become green (hence the green task intensity (GTI_broad)), but this transition is far from certain.

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