_Popular_ (CINEP) _Noche y Niebla_ online database of human rights and political violence events, following the criteria and definition of the CNMH. The data exclude attacks perpetrated by criminal gangs or by the state’s armed forces, but nonetheless, these attacks in Colombia since the mid-1990s have been almost exclusively a strategy used by guerrilla groups.

The variation across time and space of violent attacks against civilians in the country is depicted in Figures 1 and 2. In the first, darker shades indicate a higher number of attacks through the period of analysis (1999-2016). Except for the south-east of the country, the most remote and low-density populated region,<sup>25</sup> the occurrence of attacks is scattered around the country. The map also shows their rarity, as most municipalities did not experience any attack in 16 years. Figure 2 shows the evolution of attacks by month of occurrence. There are more occurrences in the mid-2000s and less towards the end of that decade, coinciding with the pattern of conflict intensity in the country.

In the municipalities included in DHS (487 across the three survey rounds), there were 49 attacks in the period of study occurring in 29 different municipalities; that is, approximately 6% of the municipalities in the sample experienced at least one attack between February 1999 and March 2016. The recurrence of attacks in a municipality is low: ten of them experienced more than one attack in the period, and Tumaco, in the Pacific south-west, and Bogotá, the capital, had the highest occurrence with six and five attacks respectively. Not all events resulted in victims; in 23 attacks there were no fatalities and in 17 there were no wounded people. This reinforces the idea that the fear of potential devastation can be larger than the immediate effect on human lives.

# **B. Pregnancies and births data**

Violence data by municipality and month of occurrence are matched to household survey data from the Colombian DHS on the month of pregnancy (then aggregated and reported by trimester) and the municipality of residence of the mother. DHS are coordinated nationally representative crosssection surveys conducted in developing countries, which collect detailed information from women in reproductive age (13-49 years old in Colombia) and their households. These surveys include the history of live births in the five years before each survey. I use the V, VI and VII survey rounds (corresponding to 2005, 2010 and 2015),<sup>26</sup> which together account for live births occurring between November 1999 and March 2016 (pregnancies starting in February 1999).

DHS also include the characteristics of children, including their weight at birth, the main measure of newborn health used here. This is the most widely used measure in the literature to capture the fetal environment and has also been used to show the effects of early conditions later in life. Other measures of newborn health are underdeveloped and have not become widespread (Conti 2013). The main general limitation of DHS data is the potential missing birthweight information.<sup>27</sup> All results in the chapter need to be interpreted bearing this data restriction in mind. I also use neonatal mortality (death before the 28th day of life) as a complementary measure of newborn health, as

> 25 This region is also mostly dominated by the Amazon rainforest. DHS are representative of 99% of the country and the uncovered areas are disperse rural areas in this part of the country.

> 26 DHS surveys have been conducted in Colombia since 1986 but earlier rounds lack some crucial information for this study, particularly about pregnancy or publicly released identifiers to match municipalities with external data sets.

> 27 The child’s length at birth or the mother’s assessment about the relative size of their child (smaller/larger than average) can be used to alleviate the reporting problem. In our data, however, the reporting of length is even lower than that of birthweight, and there is no data collected about the baby’s relative size.

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