rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Table 3. Predictors of Job Quality across Regions

||_All_<br>_(1)_|_LAC_<br>_(2)_|_EAP_<br>_(3)_|_SAR_<br>_(4)_|_SSA_<br>_(5)_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Age|0.0121***<br>(0.00160)|0.00504**<br>(0.00171)|0.00612*<br>(0.00207)|0.00981**<br>(0.00102)|0.0200***<br>(0.00204)|
|Male|0.0880***|-0.00256|0.0201|0.111|0.0715|
||(0.0280)|(0.0224)|(0.0566)|(0.0434)|(0.0412)|
|Education: secondary|0.440***|0.303***|0.179|0.444*|0.474***|
||(0.0344)|(0.0544)|(0.0953)|(0.128)|(0.0391)|
|Education: tertiary|0.696***|0.474***|0.542*|0.841**|0.935***|
||(0.0592)|(0.0628)|(0.171)|(0.170)|(0.0782)|
|Urban|0.165***|0.175***|0.124|0.115|0.165***|
||(0.0189)|(0.0394)|(0.0571)|(0.0474)|(0.0396)|
|Sector: mining|0.390***|0.505***|0.588*|0.448|0.299**|
||(0.110)|(0.129)|(0.210)|(0.218)|(0.0983)|
|Sector: manufacturing|0.509***|0.549***|0.460**|0.556*|0.303**|
||(0.0787)|(0.164)|(0.120)|(0.149)|(0.116)|
|Sector: utilities|0.615***|0.472**|0.392**|1.029*|0.688***|
||(0.116)|(0.204)|(0.0963)|(0.310)|(0.143)|
|Sector: construction|0.140***|-0.0145|0.413**|0.0904|0.214*|
||(0.0487)|(0.0731)|(0.0784)|(0.0536)|(0.105)|
|Sector: commerce|0.217***|0.276**|0.359***|0.0276|0.0296|
||(0.0585)|(0.103)|(0.0372)|(0.0259)|(0.0959)|
|Sector: transport and communications|0.291***|0.312***|0.203|0.206|0.382***|
||(0.0509)|(0.0944)|(0.0898)|(0.0733)|(0.0990)|
|Sector: financial and business services|0.672***|0.533***|0.723**|0.772|0.722***|
||(0.0808)|(0.138)|(0.189)|(0.267)|(0.158)|
|Sector: public administration|0.952***|0.616***|0.533**|0.737|1.398***|
||(0.116)|(0.135)|(0.157)|(0.457)|(0.146)|
|Sector: other services, unspecified|0.0898|-0.165|0.284**|0.0567|0.212**|
||(0.0618)|(0.113)|(0.0732)|(0.106)|(0.0926)|
|Country fixed effects|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Adjusted R<sup>2</sup>|0.455|0.331|0.429|0.438|0.464|
|Observations<br>_Note:_The sample includes 33 countries (|550,768<br>11 in LAC, 11 in|268,029<br>SSA, 4 in EAP,|98,640<br>3 in SAR, 2 in|112,832<br>ECA, and 2 in|60,273<br>MENA). Each|

_Note:_ The sample includes 33 countries (11 in LAC, 11 in SSA, 4 in EAP, 3 in SAR, 2 in ECA, and 2 in MENA). Each country is given equal weight in the regressions. Robust standard errors in parentheses. *** p < .01 ** p < .05 * p < .1 22
2007 reduced grain exports by an average of 9.2 million tons per year compared with 2005, and poor crops in the EU and Ukraine reduced their exports by an additional 10 million tons in 2007. However, these declines were more than offset by large crops in Argentina, Kazakhstan, Russia and the U.S. Total grain exports from these countries in 2007 increased by about 22 million tons compared with 2006. Global grain production _did_ decline by 1.3 percent in 2006 but it then increased 4.7 percent in 2007. Thus the production shortfall in grains would not, by itself, have been a major contributor to the increase in grain prices. But when combined with large increases in biofuels production, land use changes, and stock declines it undoubtedly contributed to higher prices. The production shortfall was most significant in wheat, where global production declined 4.5 percent in 2006 and then increased only 2 percent in 2007. Global oilseed production rose 5.4 percent in 2006/07 and declined 3.4 percent in 2007/08.

**Rapid income growth in developing countries has not led to large increases in global grain consumption and was not a major factor responsible for the large grain price increases.** However, it has contributed to increased oilseed demand and higher oilseed prices as China increased soybean imports for its livestock and poultry industry. Both China and India have been net grain exporters since 2000, although exports have declined as consumption has increased. Global consumption of wheat and rice grew by only 0.8 and 1.0 percent per annum, respectively, from 2000 to 2007 while maize consumption grew by 2.1 percent (excluding the demand for biofuels in the U.S.) as shown in Figure 11. This was slower than demand growth during 1995-2000 when wheat, rice and maize consumption increased by 1.4, 1.4 and 2.6 percent per annum, respectively.

<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 11. Global Grain Consumption<br>(Index, 2000=100)<br>130<br>Maize<br>125 Maize (Ex US biofuels)<br>Wheat<br>120<br>Rice (milled)<br>115<br>110<br>105<br>100<br>95<br>90<br>2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007<br>Source: DECPG calculations based on USDA data.<br><!-- End of picture text --> 14
<!-- Start of picture text --> <br>OPPORTUNITIES THREATS<br> Successful peace-building process and  Regional image due to drug-trafficking and<br>sustained political stability that is slowly petty crimes<br>being recognized internationally  Government and market failures related to<br> Global interest in the history of anti-slavery specific goods and services<br>external movement originating from the United  Price levels too high compared to<br>environment States, or Obama-mania comparable tourist destinations<br> Recent recognition among the sportsmen  Adverse environmental and social impacts if<br>about the excellence of specialized fishing tourism is mismanaged, as has been the<br>potentials in Sierra Leone experience with mining industry<br> Opportunity to shape image as a newcomer  Mis-marketing without being backed by<br>especially with pristine and unspoiled tourist authentic quality control which may destroy<br>sites its opportunities<br> Saturation of neighboring tourist High degree of poverty and limited law<br>destinations, e.g., The Gambia enforcement could lead to social unrest<br> Strong developmental interest locally and<br>internationally, contributing towards the<br>public goods and infrastructure<br> Formation of a new hotel owners’<br>association and other business forums<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# **8. Competitive Position**

Overall, the Sierra Leonean tourism industry is currently positioned as a relatively difficult destination in terms of access which is yet to be ‘discovered’ by potential tourists. The chart below (see Figure 4) demonstrates the competitive position of Sierra Leone vis-à-vis other countries within West Africa.

**FIG 4: Tourism competitiveness in West Africa**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 70<br>60<br>Gabon (169k)<br>50<br>40 Gambia<br>30<br>Senegal (386k)<br>20<br>10 Ghana (428k) S Leone (40k)<br>0<br>-20.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0<br>Low growth (2001-04, %) High growth<br>Per capita receipt from tourism, $<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Note:** Size of bubble shows no. of tourist arrivals **Source:** UN/WTO

11
The second distinctive feature of this exercise is its incorporation of compatible data from different sources. For the period since 1960, we use georeferenced track information on major cyclones striking Bangladesh from the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD). Equivalent information for the Indian coastal region comes from the India Meteorological Department (IMD). For cyclones prior to 1960, we add information from the IBTrACS database maintained by the Global Data Center for Meteorology, operated by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The IBTrACS data for the Indian Ocean have been provided by meteorological institutions in the region. We also use them for a few post-1960 cyclones that are not included in the data available to us from BMD and IMD. We ensure cross-source compatibility by using WMO standards for the two commonly-available measures of storm strength: maximum wind speed (measured in knots (kt)) and radial distance from a storm’s center to its zone of maximum wind speed. We employ a standard IMD storm classification based on maximum wind speed intervals in kt: (Cyclonic Storm (CS) [34-47 kt]; Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) [48-63]; Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (VSCS) [64-119] and Super Cyclonic Storm (SuCS) [120+]. We have excluded all storms rated as tropical depressions because their maximum wind speeds are below 34 kt.

The third distinctive feature of our exercise is use of the constructed database to explore temporal and spatial patterns in cyclone impacts that can provide the context for future householdlevel research on adaptation by coastal communities. Our analysis is aggregative in this paper, but the source database can provide high-spatial-resolution cyclone incidence and impact measures for households and communities in both coastal and interior locations.

We should introduce a cautionary note at the outset. During the past 140 years, technical support for cyclone tracking has evolved from land-based telegraphy in the 19th century, through 3
economic achievements have proven resilient despite its vulnerability to global economic shocks, natural disasters, sporadic bouts of political turmoil, weak governance, and the rising costs of unplanned urbanization.

The country has also made considerable improvements in social indicators, meeting several Millennium Development Goals ahead of schedule. Bangladesh has a large and relatively young population; of 161 million people in 2015, 29 percent were below the age of 15. Each year, 1.3 million young people join the labor force. The poverty rate at the international poverty line decreased from 44.2 percent in 1991 to 33.7 percent in 2000 and 18.5 percent in 2010 (World Development Indicators 2016). Employment is expanding in many of the country’s fast-growing economic sectors, including garment production, export-oriented manufacturing, light engineering, shipbuilding, agribusiness, information technology, and pharmaceuticals, and demand for more highly skilled professionals and technical experts is on the rise. However, 89 percent of the labor force is in the informal economy, and a shortage of workforce skills is a major problem (World Bank, 2013). In order to promote the sustainable development of the skilled labor force, it is crucial to understand the skill demands of the formal labor market and the sectors with the greatest growth potential.

# **3. Data and Methodology**

## _a) Survey Instrument_

The data used in this study were collected by the 2012 ESS, which covered employment in the formal labor market only. The survey covered five economic sectors: manufacturing, wholesale and retail commerce, finance, education, and public administration. Together, these sectors employ 91 percent of Bangladesh’s formal sector workforce. The survey sample included 6,981 employees at 500 randomly selected enterprises, and the ESS evaluated both their cognitive skills and personality traits (Nomura _et al_ ., 2013).

## _b) Hypotheses_

The objective of this paper is to analyze the relationship between personality traits and wages by using a unique set of employer-employee matched labor market data from Bangladesh. The 6
# **7.3 Can transport subsidies do better?**

With the exception of the means tested direct transfer implemented in Chile, all transport subsidies reviewed show either a neutral or regressive distributive impact. Thus, these policies are not doing much for the poor.<sup>23</sup> We have also seen that this is not particularly unique to the transport sector; most subsidies in the electricity and water sectors have the same neutral or negative impacts.

Can transport subsidies do better? This is an empirical matter that needs to be studied further. Quantitative simulations would probably help in reforming policies to improve their targeting properties. However, there is probably a limit to how progressive subsidies can be when policies are designed and executed within the narrow confines of the transport sector. This will happen for the same reasons that sectoral subsidies do not seem to function well in the utility sectors; first, because of the ‘access problem’ and, second, because there is too much variance in consumption levels for a subsidy based in consumption to discriminate well between poor and non-poor households.

One of the main obstacles to improve the performance of utility subsidies is the access problem; a significant group of poor people are not connected to these services and thus cannot benefit from utility price subsidies. The analogy of the ‘access problem’ in the transport sector is the prevalence of walking among the poor due to a lack of affordable fares for services that, if affordable, would be used by the poor.

**<u>Table 9: Walking as a percentage of all trips</u>**

||<br>**Poor**|<br>**Non-Poor**|<br>**Source**|
|---|---|---|---|
|Mumbai, Indiaa|63%|45%|Cropper (2007)|
|Nairobi, Kenyab|57%|24%|Howe and Bryceson (2000)|
|Conakry, Guinea|78%|61%|SITRASS (2004a)|
|Douala, Cameroon|77%|52%|SITRASS (2004b)|

_Notes_ : a work trips, b percentage refers to the first trip (usually work related) reported.

Table 9 presents some evidence on the mode split between poor and non-poor households as regards walking. It is clear that poor individuals walk much more than non-poor households. Thus, subsidies that operate through public transit fares do not reduce the out of pocket cost of the mode chosen by many poor people, and a significant amount of benefits will accrue to higher income households.

One of the main reasons why transport affordability measures are adopted is to allow poor households to change the travel mode, shifting from walking to using motorized public transport. Thus, it could be argued that more subsidies are required so that the worse off in society can take public transport instead of walking. However, it is likely that fare reductions will only have a modest impact on modal split and most of the effort

> 23 In addition, it must be borne in mind that urban transport subsidies do not benefit rural areas, where poverty is usually more intense and widespread.

39
- Guimbard, Houssein, Sébastien Jean and Mondher Mimouni (2011), "GTAP 8.1 Data Base Documentation - Chapter 10.D: MAcMap-HS6 2007, an exhaustive and consistent measure of applied protection in 2007."

- Harris, Richard (1984), "Applied General Equilibrium Analysis of Small Open Economies with Scale Economies and Imperfect Competition," _American Economic Review_ , Vol. 74(5), pages 1016-32.

- Harrison, Glenn H., Thomas F. Rutherford and David G. Tarr (2002), “Trade Policy Options for Chile: The Importance of Market Access,” _World Bank Economic Review_ , Vol. 16, Number 1.

- Harrison, Glenn W., Thomas F. Rutherford and David G. Tarr (1997), "Quantifying the Uruguay Round," _Economic Journal_ , Vol. 107, No. 444, September, 1405-1430.

- Harrison, Glenn H., Thomas F. Rutherford and David G. Tarr (1997a), “Economic Implications for Turkey of a Customs Union with the European Union,” _European Economic Review_ , Vol. 41(3-5), 861870.

- Harrison, Glenn H., Thomas F. Rutherford and David G. Tarr. (1996), “Increased Competition and Completion of the Market in the European Community: Static and Steady-State Effects,” _Journal of Economic Integration_ , 11(3), September 1996, 332-365.

- Harrison, Glenn W., Thomas F. Rutherford and David G. Tarr (1995), "Quantifying the Outcome of the Uruguay Round," _Finance and Development_ , December.

- Harrison, Glenn H., Thomas F. Rutherford, David G. Tarr and Angelo Gurgel (2004) “Trade Policy and Poverty Reduction in Brazil,” _The World Bank Economic Review_ , Vol. 18, 289-317, 2004.

- Helpman, Elhanen and Paul Krugman (1985), _Market Structure and Foreign Trade_ , Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

- Helpman, Elhanen, Mark Melitz and Stephen Yeaple (2004), Exports Versus FDI with Heterogeneous Firms,” American Economic Review, Vol. 94(1), March, 300-316.

- Hummels, David L. (2007), "Transportation Costs and International Trade in the Second Era of Globalization," _Journal of Economic Perspectives_ , Vol. 21(3), 131-154.

- Hummels, David L., Peter Minor,  Matthew Reisman and Erin Endean  (2007),  “Calculating Tariff Equivalents for Time in Trade,” Arlington, VA: Nathan Associates Inc. for the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Available at: http://www.krannert.purdue.edu/faculty/hummelsd/research/tariff_equivalents.pdf

- Hummels, David L. and G. Schaur (2013), “Time as a Trade Barrier,” _American Economic Review_ , Vol. 103, 1-27.

- Jafari, Yaghoob and Wolfgang Britz (2017), “Modelling Heterogeneous Firms and Non-Tariff Measures in Free Trade Agreements Using Computable General Equilibrium,” _Economic Modelling_ , <u>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2018.04.004, in press.</u>

- Jafari, Yaghoob and David G. Tarr (2015), “Estimates of Ad Valorem Equivalents of Barriers Against Foreign Suppliers of Services in Eleven Services Sectors and 103 Countries,” _The World Economy_ . DOI:  10.1111/twec.12329

43
POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER 3052

# Abstract

Many fear China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) will impoverish its rural people by way of greater import competition **in** its agricultural markets. Anderson, Huang, and lanchovichina explore that possibility bearing in mind that, even if producer prices of some (land-intensive) farm products fall, prices of other (labor-intensive) farm products could rise. Also, the removal of restrictions on exports of textiles and clothing could boost town and village enterprises, so demand for unskilled labor for nonfarm work in rural areas may grow even if demand for farm labor in aggregate falls. New estimates, from the global economywide numerical simulation model known as GTAP, of the likely changes **in** agricultural and other product prices as a result of WTO accession are drawn on to examine empirically the factor reward implications of China's WTO accession. The results suggest farmnonfarm and Western-Eastern income inequality may well rise in China but rural-urban income inequality need not. The authors conclude with some policy suggestions for alleviating any pockets of farm household poverty that may emerge as a result of WTO accession.

This paper-a product of the Economic Policy Division, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network-is part of a larger effort in the network to assess the impact of China's WTO accession. Copies of the paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Sarah Lipscomb, room MC4-404, telephone 202-458-7266, fax 202-522-2530, email address slipscomb@worldbank.org. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at k.anderson@adelaide.edu.au, jikhuang@public.bta.net.cn, or eianchovichina@worldbank.org. May 2003. (33 pages)

> _The PolPcy Research Workong Paper Sebyes dremtnates the fCndcigs of work in proass to encourage the exchange of ideas about development Issues. An objective of the series is toget the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretathons, and conclusions expre-ssed in tb s paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessanly represent the viewo of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countnes they represent._

Produced by Partnerships, Capacity Building, and Outreach
# **'kble 4. Items for which household expenditures are reduced.**

|**_Rank_**|_Melan_|_Apunag_|_Maca Chico_|_Jatun Era_|**_Beilavista_**|**_Membrilial_**|_Vilano_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1|Food|Clothing|Food|Clothing|Clothing|Food|Food,<br>clotiing,<br>Medicine|
|2|Clothing|Medicine|Clothing|Food|Food|Medicine|Alcohol,<br>fiestas|
|3|Fiestas|Food|Fiestas|Number of<br>children|Medicine|Clothing|Public<br>transport|
|4<br>|food<br>I sharing|Flesas<br>I<br>_|Public<br>I transport|_|Secondary<br>school|||

Source: Field intervies for Rural Qualitative Assessment (1994).

Food. Households in all four Sierra communities report that they are purchasing less food and are utilizing the most inexpensive items available. In particular, women reported this mechanism. Processed foodstuffs such as starches (especially pasta and rice), salt, sugar, and vegetable shortening are used in very small quantities to complement diets based largely on potatoes, corn, and bar1ey. The consumption of more nutritious, but more expensive items, such as meat and milk is rare.23 Clothing. Households report that they purchase clothing less frequently than before and used clothing is often sought out. Women and children wear clothes for longer periods of time; children's clothing is passed down to younger siblings. In indigenous communities, -men tend to wear traditional clothing more than men, but this custom still requires the purchase of manufactured items. While in communities like Melan, women sew clothing from cloth purchased in local markets, the self-production of cloth is essentially a lost art.

Community ritual. Community celebrations (fiestas) are less common and less expensive. In Apunag, some households report that they do not participate in celebrations at all, in order to dedicate scarce resources to food consumption. In Maca Chico, community ritual celebrations have been shortened considerably, while in Melan, fiesta expenditures have been converted from a community responsibility to an individual household option. While this change may be viewed in a positive light, one negative impact is that it tends to reduce community solidarity.

Medicine. Households have also reduced their expenditures for medicine. In the Sierra, they had traditionally relied upon locally-available herbs and other remedies and only seldom used government provided services. Nevertheless, these few visits to clinics and hospitals have been reduced and are now reserved only for the gravest cases.

> 23 This element of household survival is particularly significant given the fact that the rates of infant and child malnutrition are highest in rual communities in the Sierra. In 1990, chronic malnutrition of children below the age of five reached 67 per cent in the rural Sierra. This compares very high to a national average of 45 per cent. See World Bank (1995).

25