rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
transactions principles described. Therefore, the type of legal system of a country should not be a deterrent to introducing reforms in this area.

In the secured transactions reform, special **emphasis should be given to the following elements:**

- **Broadening the scope of the secured transactions laws** . This reform should focus on areas such as: (i) Allowing broad pools of assets (revolving assets) with a generic description of the assets to be accepted as collateral. Currently, none of the MENA countries allow for the use of broad pool of assets with no specific description of each asset to be used as collateral, restricting the development of inventory and receivables financing. (ii) Adopting the ―functional approach‖ to secured transactions, which should allow equal treatment to all transactions secured by movable property no matter what the nature of them is (financial leases, consignments, assignment of receivables, secured sales contracts, loans secured with movable property, retention of title, etc.) with regard to publicity and priority vis a vis third parties. This is a critical concept to avoid having a system with hidden liens due to the lack of publicity of some of them. Most countries currently treat some of the transactions secured with movable property (such as financial leases or long term operational leases) under a different regime by which these transactions do not have to be registered in a public registry.

- **Simplifying the creation of security interests in movable property.** Eliminating cumbersome and unnecessary formalities for the creation and enforceability of security interests in movable property. These formalities tend not to add any value, but usually increase the cost of the transactions which end up being reflected in an increased cost of credit. The general practice should be to allow the parties to freely agree on the conditions of the transaction in the credit agreement. Currently, a number of MENA countries require unnecessary formalities to create and enforce security interests in movable property.

- **Modernizing movable collateral registries.** The collateral registry is the cornerstone of a functioning and efficient secured transactions system. Without a functioning registry, the best secured transactions law in the world would be completely ineffective and useless. The registry fulfills an essential function of the system which is to notify parties about the existence of a security interest in movable property (of existing liens) and to establish the priority of creditors vis a vis third parties.  None of the countries in MENA have modernized their secured transactions registry in line with standard internationally accepted practices. Therefore, collateral registries in MENA usually lack the critical features of a modern registry: centralization in a single database, electronic web-based system, registration of notices, accessibility to the general public for real time consultations, unified registry for all types of movable assets, cost effectiveness, restrictions on the authority of registrar, security of data, etc.

35
**Since the most common purpose of processing credit data is credit risk management, the institutions authorized to access credit registers generally come from the credit sector.** This includes banks, credit cooperatives, credit card issuers, factoring companies, debt collection agencies. In a minority of countries in the European Union, access to the credit registers is wider than just creditors. In these cases, the credit register is open to entities such as insurance companies, telecommunication providers, retailers and mail order companies.<sup>42</sup>

**Since consumers’ lives are affected by the data collected in the credit registers, transparency of the information stored and procedures to access data should be clearly regulated and enforced.** Consumers need to be informed about data processing, such as the exact purpose for which their data is processed, so that they can estimate which economic decisions are affected by the data recorded in the database. It is also important for consumers to be aware of how the decisions they take affect the content of their personal data in the future.

**Dispute settlement procedures should be known to consumers and data should be protected from theft.** Consumers should have the right to contest erroneous data or provide explanations on causes of arrears. Credit bureaus should be legally obliged to provide consumers with their credit report upon request and free of charge within a certain deadline. Furthermore it is recommended that procedures be in place to reduce the risk of identity theft and ensure that the technical security of the databases prevents unauthorized access. In addition, consumers should be educated on the use of their data. Additionally verification mechanisms to enable credit bureaus to match their records against national ID data-bases would contribute to effective verification of borrowers.

> 42 European Commission, DG Internal Market and Services, _Report of the Expert Group on Credit Histories_ , June 2009

43
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Hanson, S., R. Nicholls, N. Ranger, S. Hallegatte, J. Corfee-Morlot, C. Herweijer and J. Chateau (2011). A global ranking of port cities with high exposure to climate extremes. _Climatic Change_ , 104: 89111.

Hawksworth, J. (2006), _The World in 2050_ , PricewaterhouseCoopers, UK.

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Henderson, J.V. and H.G. Wang (2007), Urbanization and City Growth: the Role of Institutions _, Regional Science and Urban Economics_ , 37, 283-313.

- Hewitt, K. (ed.) (1983). _Interpretation of Calamity: From the Viewpoint of Human Ecology_ . Boston: Allen and Unwin.

- Hsu, W.-K., C.-P. Tseng, W.-L. Chiang and C.-W. Chen (2012). Risk and uncertainty analysis in the planning stages of a risk decision-making process. _Natural Hazards_ , 61: 1355-1365.

IPCC (2012). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Lall, S.V. and U. Deichmann (2012), Density and Disasters, _World Bank Research Observer_ , 27-74-105.

Lerner-Lam, A. (2007). Assessing global exposure to natural hazards: Progress and future trends. _Environmental Hazards_ , 7(1): 10–19.

McGranahan, G., D. Balk and B. Anderson (2007). The rising tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. _Environment and Urbanization_ , 19(1): 1737.

Mileti, D. (1999). _Disasters by Design_ . Washington, DC : Joseph Henry Press.

Munich Re (2003a). Annual Review: Natural Catastrophes 2002, Topics. Munich: Author.

[http://www.munichre.com/publications/302-03631_en.pdf].

Neumayer, E. and F. Barthel (2010). Normalizing economic loss from natural disasters: A global analysis. _Global Environmental Change_ , 21: 13-24.

Peduzzi, P., H. Dao, C. Herold and F. Mouton. (2009). Assessing global exposure and vulnerability towards natural hazards: the Disaster Risk Index. Natural _Hazards and Earth System Sciences_ , 9: 1149-1159.

40
4 ITAs make it easier to erect extra barriers against CEE-5 exports (Ostry, 1993: 11). For instance, trade in steel had been governed by quantitative quotas and pricing arrangements. With the removal of these restrictions under the ITAs, CEE-5 exporters have become more vulnerable to anti-dumping actions. As a result, both the structure of NTB measures and their coverage may change as rapidly as CEE-5 exports to the EC.

The empirical procedure identifies market access before entry into force of the Europe Agreements. The trade provisions of the ITAs distinguish among various products in terms of changes in their market access over the next ten years. These products are identified by CN codes. In order to use the available trade statistics, the CN items have to be converted into SITC (Standard International Trade Classification) equivalents. The SITC. Rev. 3 classification is used, because it is more extensive and quarterly trade data are available only in the Revision 3. Since SITC. Rev. 3 is broader fian other classifications, the loss of accuracy associated with moving from the very detailed CN scheme (around 9.6 thousand items) to a less disaggregated trade classification (3,118 basic headings or items) is least. Because export data for the CEE-5 are less reliable, the study uses trade sWistics of the EC.

# m. PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF THE ITAs

The liberalization of EC-CEE-5 trade began in the late 1980s and climaxed with the signing of the Association Agreements in 1991 and 1992. Access improved significandy following the collapse of communism in Central Europe in 1989- Some trade liberalizing measures were implemented by the EC in anticipation of the successful completion of Europe Agreement negotiations.6 As a result, the level of restrictions on CEE-5 exports into the EC was considerably lower in 1990 and 1991 than in the 1980s and, by the same token, concessions granted in the ITAs improved market access in 1990-91.

Except for Romania which enjoyed GSP status, until around 1988 there had been no significant 6 For instance, Hungary and Poland were granted GSP status effective on January 1, 1990, while it was grated to Bulgaria and the FCSK in 1991. The problem with GSP status is that it is at the discretion of the importing country and subject to periodical review. Therefore, an indisputable benefit of the EAs for the CEE-5 (as can be readily seen from comparing MFN and GSP tariff rates in Table 2) is that most tariffs levied on EC imports will be at least lowered to GSP rates, thus removing uncertainty concerning GSP status in the future.
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The above findings are summarized in graphical form in Figures 1 and 2. Figure 1 shows that with the conventional inequality decomposition the between-group contribution is low in absolute terms, but is always highest for the 8-way breakdown of the village population into caste groupings. Figure 2 provides the contrasting results for the ELMO partitioning index, illustrating that in the case of the Jatab versus all-Other breakdown of the population, in the latter two survey years’ calculations, the village income distribution comes nearly halfway to a complete partitioning of the income distribution.

Thus, the ELMO statistic appears to be capturing well the extent to which the Jatabs as a group have been “left behind” or are “socially excluded” from the overall growth process in Palanpur – as was described in Section 2. The conventional inequality decomposition approach suggests that social groupings (at least as defined here) are not particularly pertinent to an evaluation of the evolution of inequality in the village. But this index fails to capture the extent to which a particular group in the village - the Jatabs - has fallen behind during the overall growth process in Palanpur. Interestingly, the focus here has also revealed that in Palanpur it is not so much the group of Scheduled Caste households that have fallen behind, but rather one relatively disadvantaged group within the broader set of Scheduled Caste households in the village whose fortunes have clearly failed to improve. This latter observation indicates that, at least in the Palanpur setting, a focus on Scheduled Caste households as the “socially excluded” group would fail to capture what is happening. In Palanpur, the Scheduled Castes comprise both Jatab and Passi households, and this represents 20
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Figure 5: Estimated Per-Capita Relative Risk of Conflict Events for Locations in Figure 3, Distance variables only
over the baseline with the future wind speed baseline is just 72 percent. The wind speed model gives a higher baseline but a lower percentage increase in damages to come out with the same overall damage. With the wind speed model, the damages range from $17 to $75 billion/yr depending on the climate model. The impacts from GFDL and MIROC are generally higher than the other climate models because they both predict a greater reduction in minimum pressure and higher wind speeds. The GFDL damage estimates are also higher because GFDL predicts a large increase in hurricane frequency.

Table 3: ADDITIONAL US Hurricane Damages Caused By Climate Change in 2100

|Damage Model|CNRM|ECHAM|GFDL|MIROC|Average|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Minimum Pressure|+14.6|+58.3|+57.3|+36.2|+41.6|
|Wind Speed|+17.0|+34.6|+75.3|+31.2|+39.5|

Note: Change in US damages caused by warming for each climate scenario in billions USD/yr from future baseline.

The predicted distribution of additional hurricane damages caused by climate change is not even across the US coastline. Figure 5 displays the additional damage caused by climate change in each coastal region. The damages are expected to be much higher along the Gulf Coast (Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama) and Florida. The damages could then trail away as one moves north. On average, 43 percent of the climate change damages are expected to hit the Gulf Coast states and another 44 percent are in Florida. The Southeast (Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware) would come in a distant third with 12%. Although more powerful hurricanes can reach the Mid-Atlantic (New Jersey, and New York) and New England (Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine) regions, they would account for less than 1% of national damages.

17
Policy Research Working Paper 7362

# **Abstract**

There have been many initiatives to improve education outcomes in South Asia. Still, outcomes remain stubbornly resistant to improvements, at least when considered across the region. To collect and synthesize the insights about what actually works to improve learning and other education outcomes, this paper conducts a systematic review and metaanalysis of 29 education-focused impact evaluations from South Asia, establishing a standard that includes randomized control trials and quasi-experimental designs. It finds that while there are impacts from interventions that seek to increase the demand for education in households and communities, those targeting teachers or schools and thus the supply-side of the education sector are generally much more adept at improving learning outcomes. In addition, interventions that provide different actors with resources and those that incentivize behavioral changes show moderate but statistically significant impacts on student learning. A mix of input- and incentive-oriented interventions tailored to the specific conditions on the ground appears most promising for fostering education outcomes in South Asia.

This paper is a product of the Social Protection and Labor Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The corresponding author may be contacted at rchase@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
financing constraints reduce the likelihood of starting a business in Thailand, especially in poorer regions (Paulson and Townsend, 2004). In comparison, having an existing bank relationship increases the chances of starting a business with hired employees in Bosnia and improves the odds of survival for the new entrepreneur (Demirguc-Kunt, Klapper, and Panos, 2008). Furthermore, according to studies of German and Canadian firms, a higher equity ratio in new firms has a particularly positive effect on investment in R&D, while such an effect has not been found in old firms (Müller and Zimmermann, 2006; Baldwin et al., 2002).

Without access to formal financing, start-up firms might resort to informal sources. For example, a previous study finds that family and friends provide affordable and accessible funding to Indian SME’s in start-up and growth phases (Allen, et al., 2006). Yet financing from friends and family might be “unreliable, untimely” and bearing “significant non-financial costs” (Djankov et al 2002, p. 9). For instance, a study across 29 countries finds that firms choose informal financing over more formal routes when government officials are corrupt as a way to avoid paying bribes (Mehnaz and Wimpey, 2007); thus firms might be willing to bear the costs of informal financing if there is the added benefit of evading corruption. A study of Chinese firms finds that while more firms use informal financing than bank financing, only bank financing is associated with higher growth rates (Ayyagari et al., 2007).

To the best of our knowledge there is no systematic cross-country study of the usage of financing by new and young firms. Our study attempts to fill this gap by examining a vast firm-level database constructed from 170 World Bank Enterprise Surveys (WBES). This database includes about 70,000 firms, most of which are small 3
Though slight, the labor content of wearing apparel exports increased over the 2000s—both in nominal values and as a share of gross exports. In nominal values, the wages paid to produce wearing apparel exports in South Africa continue to be lower than in comparators—consistent with low GVC integration. As a share of gross exports, the labor intensity of wearing apparel exports has become higher than most comparators, with the exception of Brazil and China. This suggests a generally high use of domestic labor in production even by international standards (as confirmed above—whereby each $100 dollars of gross exports generates $43 of wages), and is consistent with the observed decline in GVC participation on the buying side.

Similar to what was observed for motor vehicle exports, the increase in export-wages in wearing apparel was concentrated in upstream input sectors, including services, due to the backward linkages to the domestic economy. Both in nominal values and as a share of gross exports, the direct content of wearing apparel exports decreased while the indirect content increased over the 2000s in South Africa. Direct wages are behind the large labor content in Brazil’s wearing apparel exports, while the indirect content explains China’s high labor intensity, in line with recent evidence (Kee and Tang 2016).

The labor content of South Africa’s exports in the food products GVC also increased slightly between 2001 and 2011, both in nominal values and as a share of gross exports. While indirect wages paid to produce food product exports are more important than direct wages across countries, most comparators show a higher indirect content per $100 of exports than South Africa. The domestic labor contained in South Africa’s electronic equipment exports dropped substantially, despite an increase in the indirect content. Nevertheless, the labor intensity of electronic exports remains relatively high, behind only Peru and Brazil.

# **Figure 18: Direct and indirect labor content per $100 of gross exports in GVC-intensive sectors 2001 vs. 2011**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Wearing Apparel Motor Vehicles<br>BRA 20012011 BRA 20012011<br>CHL 20012011 CHL 20012011<br>CHN 20012011 CHN 20012011<br>COL 20012011 COL 20012011<br>IND 20012011 IND 20012011<br>PER 20012011 PER 20012011<br>RUS 20012011 RUS 20012011<br>THA 20012011 THA 20012011<br>TUR 20012011 TUR 20012011<br>ZAF 20012011 ZAF 20012011<br>0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80<br>Total LVAX share (%) Total LVAX share (%)<br>Direct LVAX Indirect LVAX Direct LVAX Indirect LVAX<br><!-- End of picture text --> 29
- 16 -

Project-Financed PHN Research

|Region/<br>Country|Project|Fiscal<br>Year|Total<br>Amount<br>of Project<br>(US$ million)|Amount<br>of Loan/<br>Credit<br>(USS million)|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Haiti<br>|Economic and Social Fund<br>|1991|23.6|11.3|
|Honduras<br>|Social Investment Fund|1991|60.0|20.5|
|Jamaica<br>|Population and Health<br>|1987|12.4|10.0|
|Jamaica<br>|Social Sectors Development<br>|1990|67.0|30.0|
|Mexico|Basic Health Care|1991|249.8|180.0|
|Peu<br>|**Primary**Health Care<br>|1983|55.5|33.5|
|Venezuela|Social Development|1991|320.9|100.0|