tangentially touch upon the type of “domestic” democratic accountability referred to in this present research, which essentially is located at the national and sub-national levels where services are delivered.

Moving from accountability relationships to the service delivery mechanisms themselves, one of the most significant analyses of a principle-agent conception of service delivery is provided by the World Bank’s 2004 _World Development Report_ (WDR 2004),<sup>56</sup> which developed a “Service Delivery Framework”<sup>57</sup> comprised of four constituent elements. Recognizing that public intervention is necessary in the provision of social services, a “long route” to accountability and service delivery would involve citizens—acting as principles—using their “voice”<sup>58</sup> to demand improvements in services from policy makers, who serve as agents. For their part, policy makers rely on “compacts”<sup>59</sup> with service provider organizations, such as ministries of health and education or regional hospitals or school districts. In this “long route”, provider organizations then “manage”<sup>60</sup> the frontline service providers—the doctors, nurses, teachers, and engineers—to more effectively deliver services. A final step in this accountability chain is the role of “client power”<sup>61</sup> —a condition in which end users express their preferences and levels of satisfaction to frontline providers.<sup>62</sup> While such a model of service delivery is rooted in conceptions of democratic accountability, it can likewise be contextualized with respect to the growth of the welfare state since the end of the second World War and the emergence of new public management theory in the early-1990s. Both of these phenomena have created an environment where the role of the government has changed to become, respectively, both a provider and manager of public goods such as social services. From a demand side, the rise of the welfare state largely explains the growth of social service provision. To be sure, Myles and Quagagno (2009) argue that since the 1960s, expenditures on social transfers have grown considerably as a result of social insurance schemes as well as national social service programs in health and education.<sup>63</sup> From a supply side, new changes in government management techniques have put a premium on delivering services in an accountable, efficient, and evidence-based manner.

> 56 World Bank, _World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People_ (WDR 2004), Washington, DC (2003). 57 “The four service-related actors—citizens/clients, politicians/policy makers, organizational providers, frontline professionals— and the four relationships of accountability that connect them, [including]: (i) voice and politics, which connect citizens and politicians; (ii) compacts, which connect politicians/policy makers and providers; (iii) management, which connects provider organizations with frontline professionals; and (iv) client power, which connects clients with providers.” World Bank, WDR (2004, p. 48).

58 As noted by the World Bank, Voice "connects citizens and politicians and comprises many formal and informal processes, including voting and electoral politics, lobbying and propaganda, patronage and clientelism, media activities, and access to information. Citizens delegate to politicians the functions of serving their interests and financing governments through their taxes. Politicians perform by providing services, such as law and order or communities relatively free of pathogens. Citizens enforce accountability through elections and other less definitive means, such as advocacy, legal actions, and naming and shaming campaigns." World Bank, WDR (2004, p. 48).

59 Compacts, as defined by the WDR 2004, are “The broad, long-term relationship of accountability connecting policy makers to organizational providers. This is usually not as specific or legally enforceable as a contract. But an explicit, verifiable contract can be one form of a compact” (World Bank WDR 2004) p. 54.

60 Management, as defined by the 2004 WDR, is “The relationship of accountability connecting organizational providers and frontline professionals, comprising internal processes for public and private organizations to select, train, motivate, administer, and evaluate frontline professionals. These processes may be rule-bound in large bureaucracies, or idiosyncratic and ad hoc in small, private providers” (World Bank WDR 2004) p. 54.

61 Client Power, as defined by the 2004 WDR, is “The relationship of accountability connecting clients to the frontline service providers, usually at the point of service delivery, based on transactions through which clients express their demand for services and can monitor supply and providers” (World Bank WDR 2004) p. 54.

62 This “short route” to service delivery as well as other concepts will be further explored and operationalized in the subsequent conceptual framework.

> 63 J. Myles and J. Quagagno, “Political Theories of the Welfare State,” _Social Service Review_ 76 (1), 75th Anniversary Issue (2009) p. 34–57.

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