> whether the child wanted become a health worker at age 12 or not, while _PARENT_ indicates whether the parents had an influence on the decision to become a health worker.

To investigate the importance psychosocial characteristics, we also included several psychosocial characteristics captured by series of questions during the survey. The variables and reliability of the scales constructed for the student responses are listed in Table 5. The first construct, _INTEGRITY_ , reflects the extent to which the students disapprove of individuals accepting pay for more hours than they worked or reimbursement for more than actual expenses.<sup>32</sup> Table 5 shows that with a CronbachAlpha of 0.70, the scale is quite reliable. Somewhat less reliable is the variable based on past trusting behaviour. We use the measure suggested by Glaeser, Liabson, Scheinkman and Soutter . The Cronbach-Alpha for _TRUST1_ is 0.42. If we reduce the items to the first two we obtain _TRUST2_ , for which the Cronbach-Alpha raises to 0.51. To measure initiative we calculate the interitem correlation of three questions. The items for _INITIAT_ also show a moderate level of reliability (Cronbach-Alpha=0.47).

Another approach to investigate the importance of psychosocial characteristics is to measure the individual’s behavior in a game. We played two behavioral games with the subjects: a generalized trust game and a third party punishment game. The first measures generalised trust while the second measures the individual’s judgement of fairness. The games are explained in detail in the appendix.<sup>33</sup> In the first game the subject receives an amount _x_ from player A and passes any portion of this amount on to Player C. The student’s behavior in the game reflects trustworthiness to an unknown party or what is called _generalized reciprocity_ . There is strong evidence for the role of reciprocity in labor market choices and performance, both from lab experiments as well as from combining survey and experimental data . The game was selected because the extent to which the students respond positively to being entrusted with resources in the game may be a predictor of their response to being entrusted with public resources in real life. Thus, it might act as a proxy for their preference for or behavior in public service. We therefore expect that individuals with higher intrinsic motivation behave more reciprocal in the generalized trust game.

The second game is the Third Party Punishment Game as set out by Fehr and Fischbacher . In this game Player 1 can give any share of a received amount to Player 2; while Player 3 can impose a fine on Player 1 when she judges his behavior to be unfair. How much Player 3 is willing to pay to punish Player 1 is a direct measure of the strength of their

> 32 The items were taken from the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) which has been used in research activities during the last 40 years and is very appropriate to use with students (see http://www.cps.nova.edu/rcpphelp/CPI.html) 33 The games are anonymous and follow the standard procedures of experimental economics (they are played in a classroom, for real money, and follow a precise script).

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