rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
|Agricultural Credit and Export Promotion Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|---|---|
|Agricultural Credit and Export Promotion Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Credit and Export Promotion Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Credit and Export Promotion Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Credit and Export Promotion Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Credit and Export Promotion Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Power Project(03)|Karen T. Rasmussen|
|Structural Adjustment Credit Project|Lloyd E. Mckay|
|Structural Adjustment Credit Project|Lloyd E. Mckay|
|Structural Adjustment Credit Project|Lloyd E. Mckay|
|Park Rehabilitation and Conservation Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Park Rehabilitation and Conservation Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Park Rehabilitation and Conservation Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Park Rehabilitation and Conservation Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Park Rehabilitation and Conservation Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Structural Adjustment Credit(SAC)Project(02)|Kapil Kapoor|
|Structural Adjustment Credit(SAC)Project(02)|Kapil Kapoor|
|Structural Adjustment Credit(SAC)Project(02)|Kapil Kapoor|
|Structural Adjustment Credit(SAC)Project(02)|Kapil Kapoor|
|Structural Adjustment Credit(SAC)Project(02)|Kapil Kapoor|
|Structural Adjustment Credit(SAC)Project(02)|Kapil Kapoor|
|EmergencyDrought Recoveryand Mitigation Project|Stephen JeremyBrushett|
|EmergencyDrought Recoveryand Mitigation Project|Stephen JeremyBrushett|
|EmergencyDrought Recoveryand Mitigation Project|Stephen JeremyBrushett|
|EmergencyDrought Recoveryand Mitigation Project|Stephen JeremyBrushett|
|Agricultural Services and Management Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Services and Management Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Services and Management Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Services and Management Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|Agricultural Services and Management Project|Watson C. Chidawanyika|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|SexuallyTransmitted Infections(STI)Prevention and Care|PhilipR. Gowers|
|Lower Burma Paddyland Development Project||
|in a different potency group|according t|o the choice of index.|
|---|---|---|
|For example,<br>the RQ and TPQ <br>because TPQs are based on a|potency cate<br> chemical's p|gorizations may differ<br>otential for becoming|
|airborne as well as its toxi<br>chemicals have yet to be ass<br>any other index.<br>Consequent<br>HHED without being assigned <br>Table 2.1:<br>Potency Group|city.<br>Furth<br>igned an RQ <br>ly these sub<br> a potency gr<br>s|ermore,<br>a number of TRI<br>and are not listed under<br>stances are listed in the<br>oup ranking.|
|a|eee|ee<br>ee|
|Threshold Planning Quantity<br>(TPQ)<br>-acute only<br>(pounds)<br>|<br>1,<br>10,<br>100<br>|<br><br>1,000,<br>16,000<br><br>|
|[ Reportable Quantity(Ra)-pounds|| 1, 10, 100 ||2,000 | 5.000<br>||
|Water Quality Criteria<br>(WQC)<br>-<br>mg/L|<1|>10|

# 2.3 The Longitudinal Research Database (LRD)

The LRD is an establishment-level database constructed £rom information contained in the Census of Manufactures (CM) for the years 1963, 1967, 1972, 1977, 1982 and 1987, and the Annual Survey of Manutactures (ASM) from 1973 to 1989. It is administered by the Center for Economic Studies (CES), which was set up within the Census Bureau in 1982 to develop the database, to use the data for the improvement of Census Bureau operations, 9
## **Figure 11: Poverty rates will fall substantially in all countries by 2050**

<!-- Start of picture text --> A. Poverty headcount rate, $1.90 per day (percent)<br>Initial year (2012) Baseline<br>Faster productivity growth Education convergence<br>Mobilized savings ER convergence<br>60 ER convergence + gender parity All interventions<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>Botswana Lesotho Namibia South Africa Swaziland<br>B. Poverty headcount rate, $3.10 per day (percent)<br>Initial year (2012) Baseline<br>Faster productivity growth Education convergence<br>Mobilized savings ER convergence<br>ER convergence + gender parity All interventions<br>80<br>70<br>60<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>Botswana Lesotho Namibia South Africa Swaziland<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: The extreme poverty headcount rate is based on $1.90 international poverty line determined with 2011 PPP while the moderate poverty headcount rate is based on $3.10 international poverty line determined with 2011 PPP. Source: Authors’ simulation results.

# **5. CONCLUSION**

The SACU economies have relatively diverse demographic and economic starting points. This diversity is present in terms of their demographic profile. For example, South Africa and Botswana are furthest along in the demographic transition process with working-age population shares that will peak before 2050, when the rest of SACU will still have growing shares of 22
16 _Table 3: Use of services and inequalities in service use by income*_

||Allwester|ndoctors|Western<br>Generalpr|doctors<br>actitioners|Speci|alists|Traditiona<br>medi|l Chinese<br>cine|Inpatie|nt care|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Average<br>percapita|CI|Average<br>percapita|CI|Average<br>percapita|CI|Average<br>percapita|CI|No. per 100<br>persons|CI|
|Hong Kong|||6.99|0.0573|1.27|-0.1580|||||
|(China)|8.27|0.0241|||||2.55|0.0237|14.00|-0.0954|
|Japan|16.00||||||||9.57||
|Korea, Rep.|9.76|-0.0234|||||1.38|-0.0321|7.00|-0.0734|
|Singapore|||||||||12.00||
|Taiwan (China)|8.44|-0.0534|||||2.02|0.0401|10.00|-0.1470|
|OECDaverage|7.15||3.62|-0.0904|1.62|0.0105|||16.40|-0.1516|

* Data are from Lu et al.<sup>35</sup> , except in the case of Japan and Singapore, where the numbers are from Imai<sup>18</sup> and the World Bank’s World Development Indicators respectively, and the OECD averages, which were computed from the OECD’s Health Statistics database in the cases of Western doctor visits and inpatient admissions, and Masseria and van Doorslaer<sup>36</sup> in the case of GP and specialist visits. OECD averages are based on 15-19 countries, depending on the variable. Figures for Hong Kong (China) refer to 2002, Japan’s and Korea’s to 1998, Singapore’s to 1994, and those for Taiwan (China) to 2001. Japan’s figure for Western physician consultations may include visits to traditional providers. The concentration index measures the extent to which use is higher among higher income groups: a positive value indicates that, on average, the better off make greater use of services; a negative index indicates the opposite.<sup>37</sup> The OECD concentration indices are from Masseria and van Doorslaer.
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Policy Research Working Paper 4904

# **Abstract**

Past research has found that subjective questions about an individuals’ economic status do not correspond closely to measures of economic welfare based on household income or consumption. Survey respondents undoubtedly hold diverse ideas about what it means to be “poor” or “rich.” Further, this heterogeneity may be correlated with other characteristics, including welfare, leading to frame-of-reference bias. To test for this bias, vignettes were added to a nationally representative survey of Tajikistan, in which survey respondents rank the economic status of the theoretical vignette households, as well as their own. The vignette rankings are used to reveal the respondent’s own scale. The findings indicate that respondents hold diverse scales in assessing their welfare, but that there is little bias in either the economic gradient of subjective welfare or most other coefficients on covariates of interest. These results provide a firmer foundation for standard survey methods and regression specifications for subjective welfare data.

This paper—a product of the Poverty Team, Development Research Group—is part of a larger effort in the department to test new methods of measuring well-being. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ. worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at kbeegle@worldbank.org, khimelein@worldbank.org and mravallion@ worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
SADC’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE The structure of the regional air transport market has altered since 2001, with a transfer of the market share of South African Airlines to a number of the company’s subsidiaries such as SA Airlink and South African Airways Express (table 2.13). Thus, while the market share of South African Airlines appears to have declined from 35 percent in 2001 to 25 percent in 2007, when the subsidiaries are added back, the market share actually increased slightly to 37 percent in 2007. Other key players in the air transport market in the SADC are international airlines such as Air Namibia, Air Mauritius, and Air Zimbabwe. Interestingly, Kenya Airways and Ethiopian Airlines, though major carriers for Africa as a whole, do not feature prominently in the SADC market. Previously significant European carriers, notably British Airways, had largely disappeared as of 2007.

Only a few countries in the SADC have made progress toward achieving international standards in air safety, making this an area ripe for further regional collaboration. South Africa’s air safety has met all international standards. Several countries (Namibia, Mozambique, and Tanzania) have been moving toward achieving international standards in air safety oversight, but the remaining countries in the SADC are in need of

**Table 2.13 Changes in market share of major regional carriers, 2001–07 (%)**

|Airline|2001|2004|2007|
|---|---|---|---|
|South African Airways|34.7|28.6|24.1|
|British Airways P.L.C.|10.9|0|0|
|Air Zimbabwe(Pvt)Ltd.|7.5|3.6|7.9|
|Air Botswana Corporation|6.6|5.8|4.7|
|Air Namibia|6.4|9.6|7.7|
|Air Mauritius|4.7|4.1|4.5|
|TAAG Angola Airlines|4.2|3.6|2.5|
|Zambian Airways|1.6|0.8|7.3|
|SA Airlink d/b/a South African Airlink|0|6.3|8|
|Comair Ltd.|0|6.5|5.8|
|South African Express Airways(Pty)Ltd.|0|7.2|5.3|
|**Other**|1.9|2.5|5.2|
|_Source:_Derived from Bofinger 2009.||||

significant development (figure 2.16). These deficiencies are highly correlated with national accident rates, suggesting that institutional failings can largely explain Africa’s poor accident record. Air navigation services and air traffic control throughout Sub-Saharan Africa are spotty and concentrated in a few centers. South Africa, among the SADC countries, has several radar installations and is able to actively monitor traffic. Zimbabwe is also equipped with radar installations. In Malawi, some surveillance coverage existed in the past, but the aged equipment was too expensive to repair and is now no longer salvageable.

The notion that air safety is a regional problem and requires regional solutions is gaining widespread support and momentum. In the SADC, a project called the Cooperative Development of Operational Safety and Continuing Airworthiness Program is under way to address air safety by pooling regional resources.

Another important factor in air safety is the vintage of the airline fleet. Southern Africa’s aircraft fleet has been renewing since 2001, and as of 2007, 55 percent of seats flown were on newer aircraft (figure 2.17).

36
# **3 THE DEMAND FOR RETIREMENT PRODUCTS**

The point of departure for this discussion of the demand for retirement products in Sweden is a survey of the institutional environment over the past quarter century. The survey identifies and discusses a number of institutional changes that have paved the way for future growth in the magnitude and diversity of privately provided retirement products. The second part of the chapter discusses the factors that affect the demand for private insurance, setting these in a Swedish context, and the third part discusses the role played by various retirement products in the overall income of present pensioners. The chapter concludes with an indication of the outlook for the demand for annuities in the coming decades of the 21<sup>st</sup> century.

## **_3.1 The Changing Landscape Surrounding Private Insurance_**

In 2004, 26 percent of the total assets of households were in private individual insurance (Table 4) and about 40 per cent of the population 20-64 years old utilized a tax deduction for payments of private insurance premiums (Figure 2). This has not always been the case. As recently as 1980, private insurance constituted only 9 per cent of the total assets (denoted TA in Table 4) of households, even though for at least the two decades prior to the mid-1980s private insurance provided the best after-tax return among all forms of personal saving (Palmer 1985). Nevertheless, in 1980, only about 4 percent of persons aged 18-64 utilized a tax deduction for premiums paid for private insurance (Jonannisson 2000). Clearly, then, the demand for private insurance has increased substantially in the past couple of decades.

**Table 4.  The Financial Portfolio of Households, year-end figures**

||SEK bn|1980<br>% TA|% GDP|SEK bn|2005<br>% TA|% GDP|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Individual Insurance|34|9|6.0|657|26|24.6|
|Equities|36|10|6.7|565|22|21.2|
|Mutual Funds|**|**|**|484|19|18.1|
|Bank Deposits|182|50|33.5|619|25|23.2|
|Bonds|43|12|8.0|107|4|4.0|
|Currency|28|8|5.4|87|3|3.3|
|Other|44|12|8.0|2|0|0.1|
|Total|367|100|67.0|2521|100|94.4|

Source: Statistics Sweden and Palmer (1985) for 1980 data.

In the 1980s a number of structural changes in the financial market dramatically altered the landscape for individual saving in general and created indirectly a better environment for private insurance. In addition, the 1990s brought structural tax and pension reforms, with direct bearing on the development of contractual saving, as we have already indicated. Here we summarize the most important institutional developments.

Well into the 1980s, the Swedish financial system was constrained by a comprehensive array of quantitative restrictions on bank and insurance company portfolios, such as lending ceilings on banks and portfolio composition requirements for all financial institutions. These restrictions favor investments in bonds at the expense of equities, while interest rates were regulated by the central bank rather than determined by market forces (Gottfries, Persson and Palmer 1989). A general wave of financial liberalization in Europe in the 1980s spread also to 18
-39-

Romer, P., 'Increasing Returns and Long-Run Growth," Journal of Political Economy, 94, 1986, pp. 1002-37.

, "Crazy Explanations for the Productivity Slowdown," 1988.

, "Capital Accumulation in the Theory of Long-Run Growth," in R.J. Barrro ed., Modern Business Cycle Theory, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1989.

Rostow, W., The Stages of Economic Growth, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1960.

Sachs, J., "The Current Account and Macroeconomic Adjustment in the 1970's," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, vol. 2, 1981.

., "Theoretical Issues in International Borrowing,n Princeton Studies in International Finance, no. 54, 1984.

Summers, R., and A. Heston, "A New Set of International Comparisons of Real Product and Price Levels: Estimates for 130 Countries, 1950-1985," The Revie of Income and Wealth, vol. 34, 1988, pp. 1-25.
|P143594|2015|2015|11/19/2014|1 Active|Lebanon|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|P143594|2015|2015|5/19/2015|2 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2016|12/1/2015|3 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2016|6/14/2016|4 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2017|12/2/2016|5 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2017|6/12/2017|6 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2018|12/28/2017|7 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2018|6/29/2018|8 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2019|2/14/2019|9 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2019|2/28/2019|10 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2020|9/5/2019|11 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2020|3/31/2020|12 Active|Lebanon|
|P143594|2015|2021|7/14/2020|13 Active|Lebanon|
|P143596|2014|2015|8/14/2014|1 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2015|12/29/2014|2 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2015|6/29/2015|3 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2016|11/17/2015|4 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2016|4/14/2016|5 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2017|10/24/2016|6 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2017|6/12/2017|7 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2018|11/13/2017|8 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2018|5/31/2018|9 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2019|12/7/2018|10 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2019|6/3/2019|11 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2020|12/12/2019|12 Active|Vietnam|
|P143596|2014|2020|6/26/2020|13 Active|Vietnam|
|P143605|2014|2017|2/15/2017|1 Closed|Senegal|
|P143605|2014|2017|6/5/2017|2 Closed|Senegal|
|P143608|2015|2015|6/22/2015|1 Closed|India|
|P143608|2015|2016|10/19/2015|2 Closed|India|
|P143608|2015|2016|5/23/2016|3 Closed|India|
|P143608|2015|2017|11/28/2016|4 Closed|India|
|P143608|2015|2017|4/14/2017|5 Closed|India|
|P143608|2015|2018|10/30/2017|6 Closed|India|
|P143608|2015|2018|4/18/2018|7 Closed|India|
|P143608|2015|2019|11/13/2018|8 Closed|India|
|P143645|2013|2013||0 Closed|Tanzania|
|P143645|2013|2014|4/16/2014|1 Closed|Tanzania|
|P143650|2014|2014|6/22/2014|1 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2015|12/23/2014|2 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2015|2/12/2015|3 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2016|7/16/2015|4 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2016|1/19/2016|5 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2017|7/20/2016|6 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2017|2/1/2017|7 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2018|10/4/2017|8 Closed|Gambia,The|
|P143650|2014|2018|5/4/2018|9 Closed|Gambia,The|
27

# 5: Total Demand Maize

Trade liberalization vs Price Guorontee <!-- Start of picture text --> I71<br>1 5<br>- 1 4<br>3 71<br>19 74 75 76 7 7 -78 79 so 8 1 8° 83 34 85<br>Ii o - price guorantee / -teors + =trade lib-<br>9~~~~~~~~~~~~~<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# 6-: Gov. supply adjustment Maize

Tradelibefalizotion vs Price Guorontee <!-- Start of picture text --> 4<br>7<br>12<br>14<br>1974 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 =5 82 83 84<br>Yeors<br>a - prize quarontee + trade lib.<br><!-- End of picture text -->
interest rates. In the period following the GFC, incentives for carry trade were strong as declining interest rates in developed economies widened the gap between these interest rates and the ones in emerging economies. In this context, emerging market firms could profit by issuing international bonds at low interest rates and investing the proceeds in local bank deposits, shadow banking products, and commercial paper (or other instruments) at relatively higher rates (Bruno and Shin, 2016).

Consistent with the carry trade idea, there is evidence that emerging market firms held a substantial amount of the proceeds from international bond issuances in cash through bank deposits, which in turn could have encouraged banks to increase lending (Shin and Zhao, 2013; Chung et al., 2015; Acharya and Vij, 2016; Bruno and Shin, 2016). In fact, there is a positive correlation between emerging market firms’ international bond issuances and domestic bank lending in emerging economies during the post-GFC period (Avdjiev et al., 2014; Powell, 2014; Caballero et al., 2016). A survey by the BIS suggests that firms’ deposits contributed to about a third of the debt liability growth of banks in emerging economies during 2009-13 (BIS, 2015). Moreover, there is some evidence that emerging market firms directly acted as financial intermediaries themselves. For example, some firms issued debt abroad and then lent the proceeds by granting more trade credit in domestic currency to their suppliers (Hardy and Saffie, 2019).

Whereas foreign investors seem to have been a key driver behind emerging economies’ bond issuance activity since 2008, the rise in nonfinancial corporate bond financing in China occurred amid low levels of foreign investor participation. The share of foreign participation in Chinese bond markets remained stable at about 1.6 percent of the total value of bonds outstanding during 2014-17 (Cerutti and Obstfeld, 2019). Continuing efforts to liberalize the Chinese bond market and the inclusion of Chinese bonds in benchmark indices (which institutional investors tend to follow to make investment decisions) are expected to encourage the entry of more foreign investors into China’s bond markets.

10