rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
This makes the Ibrahim Index by far the broadest indicator we survey, but also makes it difficult to think of as a pure governance indicator because it also contains many broad development outcomes as well.

# _Measurement Error is Everywhere_

A major theme in our discussion up to this point is that all governance indicators have limitations which make them noisy or imperfect proxies for the concepts they are intended to measure. The presence of measurement error in all governance indicators that this implies is central to the rationale for constructing aggregate indicators, and so we begin by discussing it in some detail. We think it is useful to distinguish between two broad types of measurement error that affect all types of governance indicators:

- First, any specific governance indicator will itself have measurement error relative to the particular concept it seeks to measure, due to intrinsic measurement challenges.  For example, a survey question about corruption will have the usual sampling error associated with it.  Similarly, we have already discussed how efforts to objectively document the specifics of the institutional environment or regulatory regime will face challenges in coming up with a factually accurate description of the relevant laws and regulations in each setting. Or for instance measures of the composition and volatility of public spending, which are sometimes interpreted as indicators of undesirable policy instability, are subject to all of the usual difficulties in measuring public spending consistently across countries and over time.   And finally we have also noted how there can simply be differences of opinion between respondents -- for example different groups of experts might come up with rather different assessments of the same phenomenon in a particular country.  These divergences of opinion can also usefully be interpreted as measurement error.

- Second, to the extent that we are interested in broad concepts of governance, any specific indicator is almost by definition an imperfect measure of the broader concepts to which it pertains, no matter how accurate or reliable that specific indicator is.  A specific assessment of corruption in public procurement would not be fully informative about overall corruption in the public sphere, even if it were

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everything that went out of the household through sales, gifts, and stock increases. Modules 5 and 6 are household diaries in which a single diary is used to record all household consumption activities. The two household diaries differed by the frequency of supervision that each received from trained survey staff. The infrequent diary received supervisory visits weekly while the frequent diary was supervised every other day.

Module 7 is a personal diary, where each adult member keeps their own diary while children were placed on the diaries of the adults who knew most about their daily activities. Diary entries are specific to an individual and should leave no scope for double-counting purchases or self-produced goods. It is possible that a “gift” could be given to the household and accidentally recorded by two individuals. However, interviewers were trained to cross-check individual diaries for similar items purchased, produced, or gifted that occur on the same day and to query these during the checks. In many cases, one person will acquire food for the household (such as buying 5 kilograms of rice), which is entered in the diary of the person acquiring the food. So the personal diary is a not an individual’s record of food consumption. Rather, it records the food brought into the household by each member even if for several members to consume (as well as food consumed outside the household). Each individual respondent with a diary was supervised every other day. This intensive supervision of the personal diary sample would be impractical for most surveys but these investments were made in order to establish a benchmark for analytic comparisons. We view module 7 as akin to a 24-hour food-intake approach, not only because of the intensity of supervision but also because of the detailed cross-checks on meals to check for food in-flows and out-flows that were otherwise missed. Module 7 arguably provides the most accurate estimate of actual food consumption and calorie availability.

The field work was conducted from September 2007 to August 2008 in villages and urban areas from seven districts across Tanzania: one district from each of the regions of Dodoma, Pwani, Dar es Salaam, Manyara, and Shinyanga and two districts in the Kagera Region. The districts were purposively selected to capture variations between urban and rural areas as well as across other socio-economic dimensions to inform survey design related to labor statistics and consumption expenditure for low-income settings. Communities were randomly selected from the 2002 Census, with probability-proportional-to-size (PPS). Within communities, a random sub-village (enumeration area, EA) was chosen and all households therein were listed. A total of 24 households were randomly selected to participate and three households were randomly assigned to each of the eight modules. Among the original households selected for the survey and assigned 12
FIGURE 6d

# TOT Shock & Change in Res Bal Low Income Countries

<!-- Start of picture text --> 0.18 -<br>0.16- Benin 0<br>0.14-<br>03<br>I 0.12 - Mourito ia O<br>0<br>0.1 ~~~~~~Togo 0<br>CD 0.08- Sierra Leone O3 TogoO MadagascarOJAalawi0<br>I 0.08<br>Sri Lanka 0 Kenya El<br>0.04 - Senegal O<br>C 0.02 - Sudan O H iti D<br>anzania O Do nglad Ish °<br>______________India Guinea 0 e O D Pa,ds &repfdi<br>.C ~~~~~~~~Cent IM0r4 gp a<br>Malmniopia C<br>-0.04 -<br>-0.06- I I I 1 Guinw BjaO<br>-0.9 -0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1<br><!-- End of picture text --> TOT Shock Correlation Coefficient: .15
_ESTIMATING FOOD PRICE INFLATION_ _33_ <!-- Start of picture text --> Yemen, Rep. 2008-07-01 / 2021-08-01<br>2.6<br>2.4<br>2.2<br>2.0<br>1.8<br>1.6<br>1.4<br>1.2<br>1.0<br>0.8<br>Price Inflation (Year on year, %) 19.20322<br> 40 40<br> 30 30<br> 20 20<br> 10 10<br> 0 0<br>-10 -10<br>-20 -20<br>2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021<br>Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan<br>2008 2009 2009 2010 2010 2011 2011 2012 2012 2013 2013 2014 2014 2015 2015 2016 2016 2017 2017 2018 2018 2019 2019 2020 2020 2021<br><!-- End of picture text --> Figure A1. Estimated food prices, inflation and intra-month volatilities in Yemen.

_Note:_ Price of food baskets in local currency, local-market average, January 2015 =1. The top charts shows Open, High, Low and Close price estimates of the total food basket price. The food basket consists of a 24 market-average of retail prices of Cooking Oil (Vegetable, 1 L), Rice (Imported, 1 kg), Sugar (1 kg), Wheat (1 kg), Wheat Flour (1 kg), Beans (Kidney Red, 1 kg), Onions (1 kg), Potatoes (1 kg), Tomatoes (1 kg), Eggs (12 Units), Peas (Yellow, Split, 1 kg) and Lentils (1 kg). The bottom chart shows monthly food price inflation as a year-on-year percentage increase in Close prices. _Source:_ Figure prepared by the author for this paper. A Live version of all graphs, including graphs at the subnational level, are maintained in the on line data repository.
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projects cited in W.orld Bank 1989). In chese cases,<sup>the poor possessed</sup> information about their micro social structure not known<sup>to outsiders that</sup> proved essential to effective implementation and sustainability.<sup>In contrast,</sup> second generation World Bank projects that have given<sup>a prominent role to</sup> pastoral or herder associations have met with much greater<sup>success. For</sup> example, the pastoral associations introduced in Zaire<sup>have improved</sup> pastoralist' access to veterinary drugs and services<sup>and have led to the</sup> establishme-t of a federation of associations called<sup>the Association des</sup> Cooperatives d'Eleveurs de l'Ituri (ACOOPELI). Acoopeli<sup>has come to play an</sup> integral part in implementation: it has taken over<sup>activities, including the</sup> management of the abattoir, originally entrus ed<sup>to the Government's</sup> comparatively ineffective livestock parastatal, ONDE.

In rural water supply, development agencies have become<sup>convinced</sup> of the need for popular participation. In the 1970s, development<sup>agencies'</sup> main emphasis was the development and installation of durable, easy-to-fix hand pumps. But a high proportion of the systems installed<sup>have fallen into</sup> disrepair and become useless. In Tanzania, for<sup>example, water schemes with a</sup> capacity to serve more than 40 percent of the rural<sup>population have been</sup> constructed, but only ten to fifteen percent actually<sup>benefit from these</sup> sche..ies because most schemes ceased to function or are not<sup>utilized properly</sup> (Therkildsen 1989:1). The successful exceptions<sup>have been distinguished by</sup> strong community participation. In Kenya's Kwale<sup>project, for example, social</sup> extension agents work with local women's groups.<sup>Pumps are installed only</sup> after local groups have decided that they really<sup>want a pump and have</sup> demonstrated their capacity to operate and maintain<sup>it (including the levying</sup> fees). In Malawi's Rural Piped Water Supply Program,<sup>community participation</sup>
Use of public financial management systems ( _PFM_ ) is constructed in turn as a simple average of four other variables: use of national (i) budget execution procedures, (ii) financial reporting procedures, (iii) auditing procedures, and (iv) procurement systems. Detailed criteria for these four PFM dimensions are provided in Appendix 2. Correlations among these four variables average .66 (ranging from .54 to .77).

In the SMPD, donors report total aid disbursements for the calendar year 2007, excluding humanitarian aid and debt relief. They also report how much of this aid was “for the government sector.” The latter includes aid disbursed to NGOs, parastatals or private companies if and only if it is provided in the context of an agreement with officials authorized to act on behalf of central government. Aid to the government sector reported in the SMPD, aggregated over all recipients, was roughly $37 billion, or 82.7% of total aid.

Following OECD (2008a), we measure _PFM_ as a share of aid to the government sector, while budget support ( _DBS_ ) and program-based approaches ( _PBA_ ) are measured as a share of total aid. Aid not for the government sector clearly does not use country PFM systems, so _PFM_ alternatively could be calculated as a share of total aid. However, providing aid to NGOs or other private entities in the absence of an agreement with the government does not always reflect a donor’s desire to avoid weak country systems. Governments of some middle-income nations are not very concerned about obtaining aid or interfering with its provision to NGOs, and a sizeable share of aid may go directly from donors to NGOs. For these recipients, donors’ use of PFM systems as a share of total aid would be a misleading indicator of trust in country systems. In any case, results reported below are unchanged if we replace government sector aid with total aid in the denominator of _PFM_ .

Some aid projects may be provided in support of program-based approaches, even if they are not part of an agreement with governments. Hence the DAC monitoring indicators measure _PBA_ and _DBS_ (a subset of _PBA_ ) as a share of total aid, not as a share of aid to the government sector. Again, however, our empirical findings are not sensitive to this choice of denominator.

We classify aid delivered through program-based approaches as recipient-managed because the programs are led by government and reflect its priorities, and include processes for harmonizing donor procedures and using some country systems (see Appendix 2). Subject to those conditions, aid delivered in the form of projects can qualify as program-based, even if it does not use country PFM systems. As the case of _PBA_ illustrates, the distinction between donor-managed and recipient-managed aid is more accurately depicted on a continuum than as a 12
do we consider the effects of changes in precipitation and weather variability. Although potentially important, the long-run evolution of each of these features is relatively uncertain and their productivity impacts (with the possible exception of those of precipitation) are hard to quantify.<sup>5</sup> Our focus is on the direct impacts of higher temperatures, the most predictable consequence of rising atmospheric CO2 levels. A final caveat concerns carbon fertilization effects. While elevated CO2 levels tend to increase plant growth under certain controlled conditions, how significant this boost will be in reality remains unclear (e.g., Parry et al., 2004; Cline, 2007). For this reason, we zero out carbon fertilization effects throughout our analysis; in this sense, our impacts can be viewed as worst-case scenarios of global warming.

The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. In the next section, we lay out a simple household model and analytically derive the welfare consequences of climate change. Section 3 discusses the issues in estimating climate effects on endowment prices and section 4 reports the results of this estimation. The distributional analysis of climate change in India is presented in section 5 and the paper concludes in section 6 with a summary of the findings and a discussion of their implications for policy.

# **2 Framework**

## **2.1 Basic household model**

Households are assumed to have preferences over food and non-food consumption, the latter taken as the numeraire good. Real household per capita consumption is thus _c_ = _z_ + _px_ , where _z_ and _x_ are, respectively, the per-capita quantities of non-food and food and _p_ is the price of food. Denote the per-capita endowment of homogeneous farmland by _a_ , which for urban households (as well as for many rural ones) may be zero. Farmland and the household’s own labor are combined in fixed proportions, along with a variable quantity of hired labor _h_ (per household member) to produce _y_ units of food per capita with constant returns to scale. Restricting the household to producing only food crops is strictly for notational convenience and can be relaxed. As we will see shortly, however, the assumption of a Leontief production technology is consequential.<sup>6</sup>

> 5Quoting from the 2009 World Bank report ”...the magnitude and precise timing of [changes in monsoon patterns] is unknown, as global circulation models lack accuracy at finer spatial resolutions and there remain large uncertainties in projecting local changes in climate” (p. 67). See also Sanghi, Mendelsohn, and Dinar (1998) for a similar conclusion. We discuss the effect of precipitation on agricultural productivity further in section 4.5.

> 6This assumption can be motivated by the observation that managing a farm of given size, including supervising the hired workers, requires the continual presence of family members, thus involving a relatively fixed time commitment (see Feder, 1985, and Eswaran and Kotwal, 1986, for models along these lines).

4
# Figure 12.  Country correlations for CE and control of corruption

<!-- Start of picture text --> Low CC High CC<br>1.0<br>0.8<br>0.6<br>0.4<br>0.2<br>0.0<br>Low corruption control = 0.50***<br>-0.2<br>High corruption control = 0.31***<br>-0.4<br>-0.6<br>-0.8<br>AzerbaijanYemen Côte d'Ivoire Ukraine<br>Oman Congo, Rep.NicaraguaEcuador UruguayGuyanaLiberia Argentina<br>Brazil Namibia NigerBolivia KenyaZimbabwe AngolaQatar<br>Ghana Saudi Arabia MozambiqueThe Gambia Colombia Tanzania LibyaGabon Iceland EthiopiaMongoliaSudan SenegalMali Burkina Faso<br>AlgeriaUzbekistan MyanmarSouth Africa Paraguay<br>Iran, Rep. of Madagascar<br>UgandaCameroon Indonesia Honduras Suriname Togo<br>Russian Federation Papua New Guinea<br>Bahrain Congo, Dem. Rep.<br>NigeriaPeru Iraq<br>Sierra Leone Kazakhstan Guinea-Bissau Costa Rica Botswana Armenia<br>Guinea<br>Chile<br>Zambia<br>Kuwait<br>NorwayMalawi New Zealand<br>Australia Guatemala<br>Brunei Darussalam<br>United Arab Emirates<br>Canada<br>government spending and real GDP 1980-2020<br>Correlation between cyclical components of real<br><!-- End of picture text --> Notes: Each bar represents the correlation between the (HP) cyclical components of real GDP and real government spending for countries with high (low) control of corruption, defined as control of corruption above (below) the sample median. The difference between the two averages is significant at the 10 percent level. *, **, and *** denote significance at the 10, 5, and 1 percent level, respectively. Sources: Authors’ calculations based on International Country Risk Guide and WEO (IMF) data.
From Técnicas de Salud ́s perspective, the analysis of the implementation efficiency requires a consideration of all those elements that have an impact on the provision of goods and services—in other words, a consideration of the total sequence of activities, inputs, outputs and information flows that contribute to the success or failure of projects.<sup>12</sup> Within this approach, the response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic is understood as a system that integrates multiple efforts from various sectors, organizations and actors (either programs, services and community-based activities<sup>13</sup> and the specific interventions from the national health system).

In other words, the chosen framework to analyze the efficiency of the national response to HIV/AIDS in Colombia takes the PEN ( _Plan Nacional de Respuesta ante el VIH y el SIDA. Colombia 2008-2011_ ) into account, but it is not limited to it.

All health systems perform a common set of functions—namely, the provision of personal and population services, financing, input generation, and stewardship.<sup>14</sup> Despite all its particularities, the HIV/AIDS care network is a sub-system within the health sector. Therefore:

- Care services need to be provided; all inputs, functions and processes substantiated in the act of care—e.g., in the moment in which a blood test is conducted, an anti-retroviral treatment is prescribed, a drug is given to an HIVinfected person, etc.

- Funding must be ensured—the effective functioning and the sustainability of programs require sufficient resources.

- However, ensuring resources and funding—while an entirely necessary condition for providing care services to the people—is not sufficient in and of itself to provide services. The system as a whole needs to be led, mobilized and governed.

> 12 Parsons W (1996) Public Policy. An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Policy Analysis, Aldershot: Edward Elgar, p. 474.

> 13 Rodríguez-García R. et al. (2011) Analyzing Community Responses to HIV and AIDS. Operational Framework and Typology, Policy Research Working Paper 5532, The World Bank.

> 14 World Health Organization.World Health Report 2000. Health Systems: Improving Performance. Geneva, World Health Organization.

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packing of fruit juices, and development of more convenient forms of traditional products might offer significant opportunities if domestic demand can be stimulated through higher incomes and lower prices. Higher incomes are a function of macroeconomic policy and the state of the world economy, but lower processing costs and scale economies offer the potential to reduce retail prices for many processed foodstuffs, with a subsequent stimulus to demand.

5.19 Quality standards for exports and improvements in quality control would increase competitiveness in world markets. Export markets have been lost for lack of effect4!.v- mechanisms for enforcing trade contracts and the resulting failure of domestic markets to transmit existing price differentials for quality products all the way down the marketing chain-from exporters to processors to farmers. A commodity exchange could forge stronger links among farmers, processors, and exporters and help transmit incentives to invest in postharvest tecbnology and adequate warehouses to maintain quality standards. In the case of nontraditional high-value commodities, contract farming would increase incentives to farmers to meet the quality standards required by processors, and modernization of the domestic produce marketing chain would also be beneficial. If foreign investors with needed marketing, managerial, and technical expertise were encouraged to invest in food retailing, exporters would have access to well packaged and good-quality produce that met foreign standards.

# Agricultural Research Strateas

5.20 Without productive agricultural technologies for crops and livestock, no diversification program can succeed for long. With the important exception of Malaysia, most Southeast Asian systems for agricultural research have focused heavily on rice. This bias needs to be redressed in such a way that the continuing progress made in raising productivity in rice cultivation is not jeopardized. There are two problems. First, most agricultural scientists in these countries are 'crop-specific." They were trained as rice breeders or as specialists in the diseases of rice, the pests that attack rice, or the types of soil in which rice is grown. They are so-called, "putty-clay" human capital, and
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for inputs ("despesas diversas") into 20 categories is given only for the 24 major industry groups (see table 15 of the Censo Industrial). The information published in Producio Fisl.a refers to firms with 5 employees or more and/or a gross value of output that exceed 640 times the highest minimum wage in 1975. Only these firms were required to fill in census forms. However, in part 1 estimates are published for the smaller firms as well in separate tables so that the aggregate figures we use give a complete picture.

The information for Mexico was derived from the X Censo Industrial 1976 (1979a and 1979b), which refers to 1975. Here the CMAE-classification (Catalogo Mexicano de Actividades Economicas) was applied. It has a 4 digit classification for product groups; over 15,000 commodity items are specified but they share the generic number of the industry category into which they fall. There are two volumes, the Resumen General (1979a), containing general information for product categories, and the Desglose (1979b), in which detailed information on quantity and gross value of output at the product level is published. In the latter only the information on product groups which exceed 1 million pesos is published. Information on petroleum refining was not presented in the industrial census, but was derived from the detailed Mexican national accounts, Sistema de Cuentas Nacionales de Mexico (SPP, 1981). We derived information on indirect taxes and subsidies from this latter source in order to adjust the values to a producer price basis, which was the valuation basis used elsewhere in this study.

# Measurement of the Relative Level of Gross Output within Industries

The basic procedure involved weighting physical output of individual product items in 1975 by a common set of price weights. These "prices" were unit values, derived from production censuses by dividing gross value of output by the corresponding quantities. Two sets of binary comparisons were made, i.e. Brazil/USA and Mexico/USA. Each involved (a) unit value weights of country X (Brazil or Mexico) to compare gross volume of output of that country with that in the United States: or (b) unit value weights of the USA to derive the quantity ratio between country X and the United States as follows: v (QX * pU) E (QU * pU) (3.1b) y y with Qy= quantity of product y Py= unit value of product y X = country X U = United States