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needed, particularly oral or visual. Moreover, the ability to read and write is a criterion for the selection of contact farmers in the T&V extension system in some countries in Africa. For women to fully participate in extension activities, this requirement must be changed.

1.33 Measures to compensate for female illiteracy in providing extension services are suggested in Chapter 3, Section 7. In the longer .. increasing scnool enrollment of girls will help boost the productivity if female farmers. But effective extension services can also help narrow the productivity differential between more and less educated farmers, as a number of studies (including Schultz 1988) show.

## Case 9. CAIEROON: EXTENSION AGENTS AND **WInOE** FARMERS

In the earty stages of the MIDENO project in the Cameroon, extension agents were encouraged to meet with farmersa groupa but individuats coutd atso request that Extension Agents (EAs) visit their farms. Also, farmers who purchased inputs were often visited. Anatysis fndicated that farmers who experienced farm visita and group meetings understood the recomriendations better and were more likety to adopt them than those who onty ettended group meetings. Atthoush assistance was sumoosed to be the same for men and women, men in the survey received eicht times more individuat farm visits than did women. Mate farmers had little retuctance to ask for farm visits. Women beLleved their farma were "too smalt," "too poor" or "too far oway" to rate a visit. Many women indicated that they did not think they coutd or shoutd ask for a visit. Others thought visits were reserved for farmers who purchased Inputs, something which fewer women did than men. For their part, the EAs concluded that women did mot ask for visits because they were not interested. it was evident that the strategy of asking farmers to step forward to request visits was not as appropriate for women as for men (Koons 1988). The situation liproved under tater project initiatives for expanded extension detivery to wiomen farmers. (Watker 19891

# (f) Sociocultural Factors Affecting Transmission of Information

1.34 In most countries, cultural norms circumscribe male-female interaction. These tend to be more restrictive in rural than urban areas, and in traditional than modern societies. In Islamic countries, prohibitions tend to be more rigid. These norms may or may not be codified into law. Sociocultural factors affect extension on two levels -- that of agent to farmer, and of male farmer to female farmer.

## Case 10-NIGERIA: EXTENSION DIRECTED TO **MEN**

Diagnostic surveys in Imo State reveated that atthough women make a major contribution toward increased food production in Imo State, they hardty benefited from extension services. Their needs were seen mainty In terms of home science - sewing, ctothing, cooking, and chitd care. the ectension service directed new technotogy te men and tended to hotd meetIngs, demonstrations, and training In tocatfons that are inconvenient for women farmers. (Ohuegbe 1989) As a resutt of these f indings extension services in Imo State gere radical(y changed to ensure a more effective service for women farmers. (Okoro 1989>

1.35 Extension Agent-Female Farmer Interaction. In some countries, the gender of agricultural agents does not appear to be an overriding issue. In many African countries, it does make a difference. Even where women have equal legal status, rural women may be shy and reluctant to speak

up in extension meetings in the presence of male agents or men from the same village. Women lack confidence because of Jower educational levels and less contact with the outside world. Men are seen as authority figures whose