school was not the fees but textbooks and teaching aids, and PTA and school contribution in both years. It is interesting that in 1993 household expenses for textbooks and teaching aids were much higher in the north as compared to central and south regions. Households in the Northern regions spent around a half of their total spending on primary education on textbooks and teaching aids, while these accounted for around a quarter in the central and around 15 % in the South. In 1998, households in the north spent relatively less on these items, while households in central and south increased the shares of their spending on these items.

PTA and school contributions account for a quite large proportion (24 %) of total household education spending in the north and central regions in both years. There are in principal no tuition fees for primary education, but there are in practice several other fees and voluntary contribution. One example of the PTA is parent contribution for school construction expenses. These contributions are quasi-voluntary as they are not officially regulated by the government, but considered as necessary by schools and teachers. The importance of these contributions to total private spending for education varies widely between regions. The PTA and school contribution in the Northern regions was much higher than in the South and Central regions, except the Central Highlands in 1998. In the Northern Uplands and Red River Delta in 1998, items such as books, PTA contribution, and teaching aids accounted for 77 percent of total household spending per primary school child, and this accounted of 87 % in North Central. These items amounted to only 22 % in 1993 and 26 percent in 1998 in the Mekong Delta.

**Table 13: Composition of private spending on primary education by region, 1993 and 1998** (%)

||Northern<br>Uplands|Red River<br>Delta|North<br>Central|Central<br>Coast|Central<br>Highlands|South East|Mekong<br>Delta|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_1993_||||||||
|Fees|3.1|3.8|5.1|4.0|1.3|12.6|2.7|
|PTA&schoolcontribution|23.5|18.7|22.8|11.7|16.7|6.8|6.7|
|Uniforms|0.1|1.0|16.0|23.1|12.2|15.8|12.5|
|Textbooks&school supplies|55.4|42.7|46.0|24.1|26.3|14.0|16.0|
|Transportation,lodging&food|13.0|11.6|3.0|16.8|39.9|43.5|57.0|
|Others|4.5|20.8|8.4|20.0|4.4|8.3|4.8|
|_1998_||||||||
|Fees|1.1|11.9|1.3|0.9|1.2|13.1|0.8|
|Privatefees|9.0|25.6|10.8|22.7|2.8|17.6|5.3|
|PTA&schoolcontribution|23.9|14.3|23.3|16.0|39.0|9.7|6.5|
|Uniforms|1.7|6.5|10.2|16.6|28.1|12.5|17.5|
|Textbooks&schoolsupplies|51.5|33.2|41.0|29.5|40.0|18.3|19.0|
|Transportation,lodging&food|5.8|7.2|4.5|16.3|12.6|26.8|46.9|
|Others|8.3|7.0|9.9|6.5|8.6|4.8|3.2|

_Source:_ Author's estimates based on 1992-93 and 1997-98 VLSS

> In contrast, in the South regions, especially in the Mekong Delta, uniforms, textbooks and transportation, food and lodging were the largest spending items. In the Mekong Delta, transportation, food and lodging accounted for about a half (57 percent in 1993 and 47 % in

> 1998) of household education expenditure per primary school child. It is very interesting that in

> south regions, PTA and school contribution were relative small (less than 10%). As data did not allow for further breakdown of expenditure on transportation, food and lodging, it is impossible

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