# **a. Types and general extent of private sector engagement**

**Table 1.** Types of private sector engagement in the provision of educational services at the primary and secondary levels in South Asia

|**Type of Financing and Management**|**AFG**|**BGD**|**BTN**|**IND**|**LKA**|**MLD**|**NPL**|**PAK**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|(1) Privately funded and privately managed (unaided)<br>schools|x|xx|x|xx||x|xx|xx|
|(2) Government funded/supported, privately managed<br>(aided) schools|x|xx||xx|||see<br>footnote<sup>1</sup>|x|
|(3) Government funded and managed schools, with<br>school-level services from the private sector||||xx|||||
|(4) Privately funded and privately managed schools for<br>planned transition into the government system later|x||||||||
|(5) Outside-classroom tutoring|N/A|xx||xx|xx|N/A|xx|xx|

_Notes:_ 1. “xx” indicates considerable prevalence, i.e. the type is listed in household or school census questionnaires, with at least a 10% share of total enrollment in the country, or is reported for roughly 10% or more of schools, or is reported for roughly 10% of children, according to government or institutional documents or peer-reviewed research papers. “x” indicates modest prevalence, i.e. the type is listed in household or school census questionnaires but accounts for less than 10% of total enrollment, or is reported for at least 100 schools or 3% of schools but less than 10% of schools, or is reported for at least 10,000 children or 3% of children, according to government or institutional documents or peer-reviewed research papers. The blanks denote that the type is not prevalent enough to qualify for an x or xx rating. “N/A” denotes that no information can be obtained from any source.

2. AFG: Afghanistan; BGD: Bangladesh; BTN: Bhutan; IND: India; LKA: Sri Lanka; MLD: Maldives; NPL: Nepal; PAK: Pakistan.

3. Religious schools are managed by the private sector but not considered here. Their reported share in household survey data is about 0.1% in Afghanistan, 1.5% in Nepal, 2% in Pakistan, and 3%–7% in Bangladesh in the three age groups. Their curriculum often differs greatly from the secular curriculum, making it difficult to assess religious education along with non-religious education.

# 7. According to the latest household survey data<sup>2,3</sup> , almost one-third of school children in

1 At most government schools in Nepal, the local community has been handed some management powers since 2001, due to an amendment to the Education Act. However, we consider them government schools as teacher management and recruitment, a key management activity, is still practically largely controlled by the government.

2 Afghanistan: 2007/08 National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Survey Bangladesh: 2010 Household Income and Expenditure Survey Bhutan: 2007 Living Standards Survey India: 2009/10 (66<sup>th</sup> round) National Sample Survey (Schedule 10: Employment and Unemployment) Nepal: 2009/10 Living Standards Survey Pakistan: 2010/11 Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey 3 As this paper considers both household-level and school-level data, it is worth noting using household survey data tends to show better the true size of private schooling than school-level data, due to the prevalence of unrecognized schools. For example, in India, Kingdon (2007) examines statistics from multiple household- and school-level surveys and estimates the true number of private schools to be up to three times that in official school-level statistics. This is corroborated by Muralidharan and Kremer (2008)’s finding through a large-scale independent survey that 51% of private primary schools in rural areas in 20 Indian states are unrecognized. On the one hand, teachers in government and government-financed schools may want to over-report enrollment to receive more funding. On the other hand, households are more likely to report enrollment of children in unrecognized schools 4