export proceeds, high tariff protection, restrictive import licensing requirements, and other restrictive non-tariff barriers have limited the scope of intra-regional trade in the past. According to the IMF (2000) the overall degree of restrictiveness for the whole ESA region has been until recently relatively high; in the early 1990s it was 9.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10, where 10 indicates the most restrictive regime). The situation has now changed to some extent as a result of the liberalization of their trade regimes. The average overall trade restrictiveness for the region has fallen from 9.7 to less than 6 in 1998. In general, SADC countries are less restrictive. As of 1998, nine out of 14 members of SADC (Botswana, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique, and Zambia) had moderately open or fully open trade regimes.

Less restrictive and more liberal trade regimes have translated into more open economies. Tables 1 & 2 present openness indicators based on the ratios of exports to GDP and of exports plus imports to GDP for SADC and COMESA, respectively, from 1990 to 2001. Two types of exports and imports are reviewed, in terms of merchandise trade and in terms of trade in goods and services.

**Table 2. Openess indicators for Eastern and Southern Africa countries (Measured as per cent** of GDP)

||Mnrchands|n**wVs**|**Mmcrawds**|**eInVorts**|Exgtsofgoo|ds&services|<br>In'ortsofgo|ods&services|Totl<br>badeof|goods&servla|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||1990|1999|1990|1999|1990|1999|1990|1999|1990|1999|
|Angola|38|83|15|51|39|86|21|95|60|181|
|Botswan|47|52|52|44|55|28|50|33|106|61|
|Burund<br>|7|8|20|17|8|9|28|18|36|27|
|Congo|11|9-|9|61|30|24*|29|22-|59|46|
|DjlboutI|6|4|51|50|41+|47|58+|61|98|108|
|<br>Egypt Arab|6|4|21|18|20|15|33|24|53|39|
|Eritrea|||||20++|10|57++|92|77|102|
|Ethopi|4||16||8|14|12|29|20|43|
|Kenya|12|17|25|27|26|26|31|31|57|57|
|Lesoth|10|19|109|86|17|24|122|95|139|119|
|Malawi|22|24|31|39|24|27|33|42|57|69|
|Maurflu|45|37|61|53|65|65|72|68|138|133|
|Mozambiqu|5|7|36|29|8|11|36|37|44|48|
|<br>Namibi|43|36|46|41|47|49|56|56|102|105|
|Rwand|4|3|11|13|6|6|14|23|20|28|
|Seychelle|15|24|50|71|62|74|67|88|129|162|
|<br>South|21|21|16|21|24|26|19|23|43|49|
|Sudan|3|8|5|14||8||15|0|23|
|Swazilan|66|70|79|85|76|74|76|90|152|164|
|Tanzani|10|6|24|18|13|14|37|26|50|41|
|Ugand|3|8|5|21|7|11|19|23|27|34|
|Zambia|40|24|37|22|36|23|37|41|72|64|
|Zimbabw|20|34|21|39|23|46|23|47|46|93|
|SADC|31|35|53|54|42|49|58|76|113|128|
|COMES|20|22|29|33|27|33|32|47|65|80|
|United|7|8|9|11|10|11|11|13|21|24|
|Japan|9|9|8|7|10|10|9|8|20|18|
|<br>EU|22|27|23|26|28|33|28|31|56|64|
|LatinAmerica&|13|16|11|18|14|16|12|18|26|34|
|MiddleEast&North|32|23|25|20|33|30|35|28|68|58|
|Sub-Saharan|22|24|19|25|27|28|26|31|53|60|
|World|16|18|16|19|20|23|20|23|40|46|

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Independently of which openness indicator is used, it is clear that SADC countries have increased their openness and so has the SADC as a region. For COMESA countries, more than half of its members (mostly those that are also members of SADC) experienced r7