to catch up over the subsequent year (as evidenced by the increasing trend in positive earnings and hours worked that control groups means show in Table 1).

Appendix Table A12 examines the occupational choice impacts of the training, showing that the short-term income-generating activity impacts observed above were largely driven by increases in the likelihood of intern/apprentice positions and self-employment, though the shift towards these sectors is short-lived with no impacts persisting past the first follow-up. Overall, our pooled results suggest that the training had limited aggregate impacts on occupational choice: the estimated coefficients indicate shifts of 1 percentage point or less on probability of self-employment, employer status, or apprenticeships, none of which are statistically significant. The coefficient on wage work is larger, at 4 percentage points, but this is also not statistically significant. Looking at impact heterogeneity over time, we see some evidence of short-term impacts for selected work categories that diminished over time. Specifically, our results indicate that the training led to short-term increases of almost 30% in both the likelihood of holding an apprentice position and self-employment. Both of these impacts disappear by the second follow-up, with limited evidence of any impacts at either the second or third follow-ups. Notably, the limited increases in wage work in later survey rounds suggests that the apprenticeships secured at the first follow-up did not transition to subsequent paid wage work at a faster rate than the control group was able to secure paid work.

Table 2 explores whether the training improved job quality. There are no effects on the probability that youth work a job in the area of their studies.<sup>26</sup> The training did increase the probability of having a written contract (a pooled effect of 14%, which is only significant at the 10% level), a permanent contract (a large pooled effect of 38% due to an increase of 3 percentage points over a low control mean of 8%), and of working in a registered firm (a pooled effect of 14%).<sup>27</sup> Interestingly, the positive impact on having a permanent contract is driven by effects after 10 and 15 months, which could reflect improvements over time. However, no effects are detected on the probability of receiving job benefits that characterize formal jobs (contributions to Social Insurance, Health Insurance, and paid annual leave). The lack of program impacts on the probability of having a formal job is also confirmed when looking at a snapshot of administrative, Social Security records obtained 17 months after training.<sup>28</sup>

> 26There are also no effects on measures of job satisfaction asked only in the second and third follow-ups.

> 27Around 26% of employees in the formal sector report having informal jobs in Rwanda (Rwandan National Institute of Statistics, 2022).

> 28In November 2022, 17 months after training, we were able to recover information on registration to Social Security records for all 900 youth in our sample. The data indicate that 62% of youth in the control group were registered with Social Security at that time, which means they have had a formal job at some point in their lives. Appendix Table A13 shows a small treatment effect of 2 percentage points that is not statistically significant.

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