conservation progress has been highlighted in numerous studies. However, inconsistencies in data across countries and administrative boundaries hinder the accurate assessment of ecosystem health and biodiversity trends (Urbano et al., 2024; Geijzendorffer et al., 2016; Pereira et al., 2013). Moreover, the growing gap between emerging threats and infrequently updated data, often managed by underfunded institutions, presents an ongoing challenge.

To help address this gap, we have produced new public datasets by utilizing millions of georeferenced species occurrence records from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (Dasgupta et al. 2024a). Using machine-based pattern recognition, we developed a comprehensive database covering the occurrence regions of nearly 600,000 species. These maps were validated by comparing them with expert-reported maps for mammals, ants, and vascular plants, revealing strong correlations in global distribution patterns. Our expanded database includes a broad array of species across terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments, encompassing arthropods, mollusks, invertebrates, plants, fungi, and more, alongside traditionally studied amphibians, birds, fish, reptiles, and mammals. Figure 1 illustrates the composition of this expanded database, revealing new global distribution patterns that can inform conservation planning.

In this paper, we focus on the implications of our results for biodiversity protection in transboundary regions,<sup>2</sup> joint marine regions,<sup>3</sup> non-determined legal status areas,<sup>4</sup> and fragile and conflict-affected situations areas (FCS).<sup>5</sup> Conflicts and coordination failures in such areas have numerous direct and indirect impacts on biodiversity (see Rist, Norstrom and Queiroz (2024) for a review of the relationships between biodiversity, peace and conflict). These are often difficult to address in non-determined legal status areas and FCSs because of weak governance, limited administrative capacity, and insufficient institutions and policies. The effective protection of biodiversity in transboundary areas must rely on cooperation among the parties involved.

> 2 A <mark>transboundary area is an area of land and/or sea that straddles one or more boundaries between states, sub-natonal units such as provinces and regions, autonomous areas, and/or areas beyond the limits of natonal sovereignty or jurisdicton.</mark>

3 A joint marine regime governs shared Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) https://www.marineregions.org/eezlinetype.php#:~:text=Joint%20regime,exploitation%20of%20natural%20marine %20resources.

> 4 <mark>A non-determined legal status area is an area claimed by two or more countries without a determined legal status.</mark> Disputed areas can arise from a variety of factors, including the historical background, different religious or ethnic perspectives, possession of strategic natural resources, and fundamental changes in domestic and international environments.

5 The World Bank has recently released a list of Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations. The conflictaffected countries are Afghanistan, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Haiti, Iraq, Lebanon, Mali, Mozambique, Myanmar, Niger, Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, Ukraine, the West Bank and Gaza (territory), and Yemen. Additionally, countries facing institutional and social fragility include Burundi, Chad, the Comoros, the Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Guinea-Bissau, Kiribati, Kosovo, Libya, the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe, the Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tuvalu, the República Bolivariana de Venezuela, and Zimbabwe.

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