employment have been found in very different contexts, such as in the US (Martin et al. 1995). This suggests that adjusting the phrasing of the question is not enough. Rather, interviewer training is needed to address gender differences in the threshold for reporting an activity.

A critical implication is the necessity of including follow-up questions that ask about specific activities – both those that count towards employment and those that count towards other types of work. Studies have found that the use of lists and screening questions can be very useful for prompting the respondent to identify these activities that may otherwise be considered outside the scope of the survey (for example, Dixon (1982); Anker, Khan and Gupta (1987); Anker and Anker (1989); Anker (1990); Anker and Anker (1995); Martin and Polivka (1995); Schwartz (2002); Langsten and Salen (2008); Bardasi et al. 2011; Koolwal 2019); and survey experiments under the WW-E partnership).

This study was conducted at the same time as the National Institute of Statistics (INE) was updating its household survey to reflect the definitions of work and employment based on the ICLS 19. The results from this study are aligned with the changes that were made to the official survey methodology (Table 6). Specifically, beginning with the 2018 EPHPM, 1) the initial employment question no longer mentions payment – this is asked as a follow-up question; 2) the questions on paid and unpaid work no longer explicitly excluded “household tasks”, and 3) a follow-up question which lists frequently underreported activities was added.<sup>18</sup> Table 6. Labor force questions in the 2015 and 2018 EPHPM

||**2015**|**2018**|
|---|---|---|
||During the past week, did you<br>dedicate an hour or more to any<br>work or activity with payment in|During the past week, did you<br>dedicate an hour or more to any<br>work or activity?|
|Paid employment|cash or in kind, or did you get any<br>income? (Except housework)|During the past week, did you<br>dedicate an hour or more to any of<br>the following activities: <activity<br>list>|
|||For any of these jobs or in the ones<br>in which you helped last week, did<br>you receive, or will you receive any<br>pay or profits in money or in<br>goods?|
|Unpaid employment|During the past week, did you<br>perform or help carry out any<br>work, with relatives or individuals,<br>withoutpay?(Except housework)|During the past week, did you<br>dedicate an hour or more to<br>working in a business, farm,<br>institution, or helping a family<br>member without being paid?|

18 This list was composed of the following options: a) engaged in agricultural work; b) made something to sell (food, crafts, handicrafts, “paletas, charamuscas, chocobananos,” (local products) etc.); c) worked or engaged in activities in a business, farm, office, or institution; d) repaired equipment or appliances (irons, stoves, air conditioners, cell phones, computers, etc.); e) cleaned homes, ironed or washed other people's clothes, cared for children, sick people, or the elderly; f) secretarial work, photocopying, washing or caring for cars, pruning grass or trees; g) apply or paint nails, cut hair, sew, repair or mend clothes, wallets, or shoes; h) sold some product (jewelry, perfumes, raffles, by catalog); and i) sporadic work, errands, "chamba" and “remiendo” (local terms for irregular work).

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