than women to have their preferences met by default without having to engage in household water management.

We define having **effective power through influence or persuasion** as not having direct control in the decision (1) despite desire to have procedural control or (2) because the desire not to be involved in decision-making stems from wanting to avoid penalties or other negative consequences ( _external_ or _introjected regulations_ ). Yet, behind the scenes, when they have a difference in opinion on how the decision should be made, they influence the decision-maker’s mind, so they are pleased with the outcome. This second form of effective power can entail high time and opportunity costs, as power is exercised indirectly within intrahousehold negotiations.

It should be noted that not all of those who are not involved in decision-making have effective power. Many individuals have no agency in these decisions.

# **3. Data and descriptive statistics**

Our data was collected through a household survey and a set of qualitative tools. The survey was administered in three primarily rural sub-counties in Kilifi County, Kenya (Kaloleni, Magarini, and Ganze). The household survey had two components: a household and an individual questionnaire. The householdlevel questionnaire was first administered to the primary respondent who makes the decisions and is the most informed about the household’s water choices. After administering the household-level questionnaire, each adult household member 18 years and older, including the primary respondent, was interviewed privately.<sup>i</sup> The individual-level questionnaire included detailed questions about who normally makes the decisions within the household regarding water collection and use: (1) which water source the household uses for drinking water, (2) how much can be spent on regular water expenditures—such as fees, transportation, costs for delivery, and (3) how the water is allocated and used in the household. It also included four questions that are typically asked in the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) regarding who normally makes the decisions within the household on (1) large household purchases, (2) health care for oneself, (3) visits to one’s family or relatives, and (4) how the money the respondent earns is used.

After asking who makes the decision, the respondents then were asked if they desired to be involved in the decision, and if they answered no, they were asked why they did not desire to be involved. They could select all that applied to them and add more reasons if needed. If they were not involved in the decision, they were asked if they would face consequences for participating in the decision and the types of consequences. The respondents were also asked whether they ever had a difference of opinion with others regarding the decision made over the activity (regardless of whether they voiced they opinion regarding this difference), and if they did, whether they tried to influence or persuade others in the decision-making process, and how happy they were with the outcome.

The survey was administered in January and February 2023 to 630 households in 30 villages. These households were randomly selected from a household listing conducted in August 2022. The team oversampled households with co-wives and extended family households. The final sample includes 613 households with a total of 1,059 women and 808 men.<sup>ii</sup> Table 1 describes the women and men in these rural households. Nineteen percent of women and 16 percent of men are married and live with the wife’s in-laws. Sixteen percent of women and 36 percent of men are unmarried and live with their parents. A large share of these young women and men are currently attending school.

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