rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
to their means (see Figure 11). This implies that the differences in size distributions are not purely caused by economies of scale but are due to some intrinsic differences across industries.

Further industry analysis shows that Food and Paper industries have lower turnover rates (see Figure 11). Capital intensities vary across industries but do not explain the differences in the shape of the size distribution. Using establishment data for the U.S. economy, RossiHansberg and Wright (2007) show that the larger the capital intensity in a sector, the thinner is the right tail of the size distribution. They define sectors at 2-digit SIC level. The industries analyzed here are more narrowly defined and at this level the relation suggested by their model does not hold. I looked at the average capital intensities of establishments that were in the market in 1979 and that entered in 1980<sup>15</sup> . I found the capital-output ratio of every establishment and then plotted the average ratio for every industry (see Figure 12). The Paper industry, which is the most capital intensive, has the thickest right tail. The other industry with a thick right tail is the Food industry and its capital intensity is among the lowest. Hence capital intensity does not play a distinguishing role in explaining the differences in the shape of size distributions for narrowly defined Chilean industries.

# 4.2 Estimation

The model introduced above is estimated using simulated method of moments. With this method, I try to find the values of the model parameters that bring the vector of moments from the simulated data closest to those from the data.

## 4.2.1 Data Moments

Eight moments are chosen for parameter estimation. They are prominent in explaining the industry structure and they also reflect the cross-industry differences. As one of the targets of this paper is fitting the industry size distribution, 10, 25, 50, 75 and 99<sup></sup> percentiles are chosen. The shape of the size distribution is affected by the exogenous destruction rate of products, aggregate expenditure, efficiency type distribution, and innovation cost parameters. Another moment is the entry rate which plays an important role in identification of the destruction rate. Two other moments, the mean and the variance of establishment growth rates, are

> 15Capital data was only available for these establishments in the dataset.

22
- Grais, Wafik; Melo, Jaime de, and Urata, Shujiro, 'A General Equilibrium Estimation of the Effects of Reductions in Tariffs and Quantitative Restrictions in Turkey in 1978", in T.N. Srinivasan and J. Whalley (eds.), _General Equilibrium Trade Policy Modeling_ (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986).

- Harberger, Arnold C., 'Reflections on Uniform Taxation", in R.W. Jones and A.O. Krueger (eds.), _The Political Economy of International Trade_ (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1990).

- Harrison, Glenn W., 'The Sensitivity Analysis of Applied General Equilibrium Models with MPSS: Users Guide", _Unpublished Manuscript,_ Department of Economics, University of South Carolina, June 1990.

- Harrison, Glenn W.; Jones, Richard; Kimbell, Larry J., and Wigle, Randall, 'How Robust Is ApplUed General Equilibrium Modelling?", _Journal of Policy Modelling,_ v. 14, 1992 forthcoming.

- Harrison, Glenn W., and Manning, Richard J., 'Best Approximate Aggregation of Input-Output Systems", _Journal of the American Statistical Association,_ v.82, December 1987, 1027-1031.

- Harrison, Glenn W.; Rutherford. Thomas F., and Wooton, Ian, 'An Empirical Database for a General Equilibrium Model of the European Communities", _Empirical Economics,_ v.16, 1991, 95-120.

- Harrison, Glenn W., and Vinod, H.D., "Te Sensitivity Analysis of Applied General Equilibrium Models: Completely Randomized Factorial Sampling Designs", _The Review of Economics and Statistics,_ v.79, 1992 forthcoming.

- Hatta, Tatsuo, and Haltiwanger, John, "Tax Reform and Strong Substitutes", _International Economic Review,_ v.27, June 1986, 303-315.

- Itoh, Motoshige, and Kiyone, Kazuharu, "Welfare-Enhancing Export Subsidies", _Journal of Political Economy,_ v.95, 1987, 115-137.

- Krueger, Anne, "Trade Policies in Developing Countries", in R. Jones and P. Kenen (eds.) _Handbook of International Economics_ (Amsterdam: North Holland, 1984).

- Lemer, Abba, "The Symmetry Between Import and Export Taxes", _Economica,_ v.3, 1936, 306-313.

- Milanovic, Branco, "Export Incentives and Turkish Manufactured Exports," World Bank Working Paper Number 768, 1986.

- Melo, Jaime de, and Tarr, David, _General Equilibrium Analysis of U.S. Foreign Trade Policy_ (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1992).

- Nogues, Julio, "The Experience of Latin America with Export Subsidies", _WeltwirtschaftlichesArchiv,_ v.126, 1990, 97-114.

- Panagariya, Arvind, "How Should Tariffs be Structured?", _PRE Working Paper No. 353,_ World Bank, 1990.

- Ramsey, Frank P., "A Contribution to the Theory of Taxation", _Economic Journal,_ v.37, 1927, 47-61.

- Rodrik, Dani, "Some Policy Dilenmmas in Turkish Macroeconomic Management," in T. Aricanly and D. Rodrik (eds.), _Turkey's Economic Development in the 1980s: Changing Strategies for the Next Decade_ (New York: MacMillan, 1988a).

> _-_ 33 -
studied, particularly in the urban context. In rural areas, the evaluation results of the Mexican program indicate that the program did not substantially impact mothers‟ labor force participation status. However, the program led to increases in mothers‟ time spent caring for children, which substituted for less time devoted to childcare by older girls in the household who were now in school. In urban areas, there was some evidence that some families did not take up the program in part because working mothers were unable to meet the time requirements of participating in the CCT program (e.g. attending meetings). This suggests that mothers‟ work competed with meeting the requirements to participate in the program. Maluccio‟s (2005) study of the RED program in Nicaragua demonstrates that it provided a valuable source of social protection for vulnerable populations during economic crises and mitigated the effects of economic shocks on household labor supply.

Another class of policies we reviewed that are designed to influence women‟s working behavior are policies that affect the availability and pricing of childcare. Our review of childcare programs in Guatemala, Colombia and Argentina found strong effects of childcare availability on mothers‟ rates of working and on the number of hours worked. The community daycare programs also had substantial positive benefits on the nutrition and development of the young children participating in them, that imply high benefit-cost ratios. In the context of Accra, Ghana, though, the local supply of childcare was found not to be a significant determinant of mothers‟ working decisions, because mothers mainly worked in the informal sector where it was easier to combine work with taking care of children. Thus, the effectiveness of childcare programs in increasing mothers‟ labor supply and hours worked is likely to depend on the country context.

Some strong evidence for a substantial effect of childcare costs on working behavior comes from formerly Communist countries like Romania and Russia that have undergone very large changes in the costs of childcare. Some countries went from childcare being free and widely available to all women to a situation where childcare was expensive and a major determinant of whether women worked. The two studies we reviewed by Lockshin (1999) and Fong and Lockshin (2000) find women‟s labor supply to be fairly elastic with respect to the price of childcare. An important finding is that childcare subsidies were more effective than wage subsidies or family income subsidies in increasing family income levels, in part because of better targeting at women whose labor force behavior was potentially affected by the policy. There 61
**Table A4 – Relationship between drivers of vaccine hesitancy and being willingness to get vaccinated**

||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Trust vaccine|0.693***|||||0.458***|
||(0.0202)|||||(0.0251)|
|Social norms||0.659***||||0.362***|
|||(0.0209)||||(0.0253)|
|Concern about COVID|||-0.0554*|||-0.0517**|
||||(0.0218)|||(0.0164)|
|Been vaccinated||||-0.0319||-0.0222|
|||||(0.0193)||(0.0145)|
|Trust internet|||||-0.0483|0.00876|
||||||(0.0365)|(0.0273)|
|Male|0.0248|0.0683**|0.0700**|0.0702**|0.0730**|0.0354|
||(0.0203)|(0.0210)|(0.0260)|(0.0260)|(0.0260)|(0.0193)|
|Under 35 years|0.0164|0.0304|0.0394*|0.0452*|0.0473*|0.0138|
||(0.0154)|(0.0159)|(0.0198)|(0.0198)|(0.0199)|(0.0148)|
|Rural|-0.00774|-0.0294|-0.0171|-0.0110|-0.0101|-0.0268|
||(0.0251)|(0.0259)|(0.0322)|(0.0321)|(0.0321)|(0.0239)|
|Complete Secondary School|-0.0275|-0.0407*|-0.0521*|-0.0527*|-0.0509*|-0.0283|
||(0.0161)|(0.0166)|(0.0206)|(0.0206)|(0.0207)|(0.0153)|
|Richest 20%|0.0343|0.0557**|0.0656**|0.0695**|0.0726**|0.0360|
||(0.0198)|(0.0205)|(0.0254)|(0.0254)|(0.0256)|(0.0190)|
|Constant|0.0858**|0.0711*|0.205***|0.172***|0.154***|0.123***|
||(0.0318)|(0.0329)|(0.0452)|(0.0420)|(0.0406)|(0.0341)|
|Observations|1843|1843|1843|1843|1843|1843|

Note: This chart is based on answers to question 8, 10, 13, 29 and 30 in Appendix B.***, **, and * indicate significance at the 1, 5, and 10 percent critical level. Standard errors in parentheses.

42
country will also enhance integration and quicker adjustment of migrants to the new labor market (UNDP 2009, p. 104).<sup>30</sup> Migrants, especially those in an undocumented or irregular situation, are likely to face discrimination, exclusion, exploitation and abuse at all stages of the migration process (GMG 2010). Female migrants and children often face greater risks, including of trafficking and being deprived of education and access to healthcare. Protecting the human rights of migrants is part of the obligations of the State to respect the internationally guaranteed rights of all persons, to protect those rights against abuses, and to fulfill the rights necessary for them to enjoy a life of dignity and security (GMG 2010).

Immigration and border control policies need to recognize that migration is primarily an economic phenomenon (Ratha 2009). Evidence from the US-Mexico border suggests that increasing the number of border control agents increases smuggler’s fees, but is unlikely to curtail the number of migrants as intended (Hanson _et al._ 1999, Durand and Massey 2002, Martin 2004, Passel and Suro 2005). Instead, providing legal channels for temporary migration when labor is in high demand in the destination country is more likely to enhance the benefits of migration for all parties.

In conclusion, migration and remittances can be a valuable complement to broadbased development efforts. Yet, migration and remittances (collective or individual) should not be viewed as a substitute for official development aid as they are private money that should not be expected to fund public projects. Also, not all poor households receive remittances and official funds are needed to address the needs of these households. Harnessing the development potential of migration and remittances by increasing the awareness of the decision makers and improving data on remittances and migration; facilitating labor mobility and recruitment across borders, while allowing for safe and affordable mechanisms for sending money back; and combating the increase of

> 30 For instance, the Philippines government organizes mandatory orientation courses for migrants prior to leaving where they learn about destination country customs and laws, resources available to them at the embassy or consulates, important contacts for any problems that might arise, and financial management (Ruiz 2008). The ―Swedish for Immigrants‖ course offered for newcomers in Sweden free of charge with specific classes designed for uneducated or illiterate immigrants and highly educated professionals who need specific vocabulary to be able to work in Sweden, respectively, is a good example of such training.

21
**Table 14 Trade Orientation and Firm Evolution: Panel Regressions**

||**E**<br>|**mployment Grow**<br>|**th**<br>|**Product**<br>|**Innovation**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Full Panel<br>(1)|(Non‐traders)t‐3<br>(2)|Fixed Effect<br>(3)|Full Panel<br>(1)|(Non‐traders)t‐3<br>(2)|
|(Export/Import)t‐3|0.090<br>(0.024)***|||0.167<br>(0.037)***||
|(Export)t‐3|0.046<br>(0.030)|||0.102<br>(0.036)***||
|(Import)t‐3|0.037<br>(0.016)**|||0.134<br>(0.027)***||
|Foreign (≥%10)|0.063|0.045|0.008|‐0.033|‐0.146|
||(0.024)***|(0.062)|(0.009)|(0.034)|(0.111)|
|Age|0.001|0.002|0.000|‐0.001|‐0.003|
||(0.000)***|(0.001)**|(0.000)***|(0.001)*|(0.001)**|
|Log(Labor)t-3|‐0.064|‐0.085|‐0.066|0.042|0.078|
||(0.009)***|(0.014)***|(0.004)***|(0.011)***|(0.018)***|
|(Export/Import)t||0.276|0.024||0.311|
|||(0.127)**|(0.007)***||(0.086)***|
|(Export)t||0.007|0.022||0.157|
|||(0.030)|(0.007)***||(0.106)|
|(Import)t||0.004|0.004||0.166|
|||(0.018)|(0.004)||(0.035)***|
|Observations|2537|879|5503|2533|862|
|R2/Pseudo R2|0.093|0.184|0.134|0.111|0.127|

Robust standard errors clustered by country, industry, and year are in parentheses. I control for 2-digit industry, survey year, and country fixed effects except in the FE regression for employment growth. Coefficients for the probit regressions show the marginal effects at mean values. In the table (1) is the regression using past values of the dependent variables (at t-3 ), (2) constrains the sample to the non-trading firms at (t-3), (3) is the fixed effect regression for employment growth.*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

# **8 Trade Orientation and R&D Relation**

A number of studies following from Cohen and Levinthal (1989) have argued that R&D investment has two roles in firm performance: directly leading to more innovation and allowing firms to assimilate knowledge or expertise from external sources (spillover effect). To see how important the second link is, I introduce an interaction term between R&D investment and trade orientation of the firm.

28
# **Table 6 International Remittances**

||**Percentage**|
|---|---|
|Transferred money to someone living in an-<br>other country or in a U.S. territory within past<br>year|20.0|
|**Most frequent means used to transfer funds**||
|Wire thefunds|44.8|
|Mailamoney order|23.8|
|Carry the cashpersonally|4.5|
|Bank-to-banktransfer|4.4|
|Maila check|3.7|
|Use a courier|2.9|
|Other|4.6|

The households in the OCC survey reported using a variety of forms of consumer credit. As shown in Table 7, 56 percent of individuals with bank accounts had a major credit card but only 8 percent of those without banks accounts did. When banked individuals looked for a loan, the largest percentage reported applying to a bank. In the case of the unbanked, the largest percentage turned to a family member. In terms of their use of nonbank forms of credit, 16 percent of the banked reported that they had obtained a credit card cash advance at some time in the previous 3 years, 10 percent had used a layaway plan to purchase a consumer good, and 5 percent had obtained a loan against their expected tax refund. In the case of the unbanked, 10 percent reported that they had used a layaway plan and 4 percent had obtained a tax refund loan. It is likely that the unbanked make much less use of bank loans and credit cards because they would not be able to pass traditional risk screening procedures. Interestingly, when the OCC survey asked if the respondents could borrow $500 for 3 months if the need arose, 68 percent of the banked were confident that they could do so as were 51 percent of the unbanked. This suggests that about a third of the banked and half of the unbanked in the survey are severely limited in their access to credit of any type.

19
_5_

## Box 1. Meteorology and Concentration of Air Pollutants - Some Examples

Sea breezes (water to land) prevail along a lake or seacoast during the day while land breezes (land to water) are more common at night. This cycle c-an cause pollutant concentrations to recur in coastal areas. A similar 'recycling' of pollutants can occur when winds flow out of a valley in day time, and into the valley at night, Radiation fog sometimes occurs under clear skies at night. The ground loses heat because of outgoing radiation and the air in contact with the ground cools down. If, in such cases, the air is sufficiently humid, the cooling will bring the air to saturation point and a fog will form. This is the mechanism which produces radiation fog and is quite common in valleys and basins surrounded by mountains. The top layer of the fog radiates essentially as a blackbody and cools down further, thus forming an inversion layer directly above the fog. The normal vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere is altered, leading to _thennal inve7sion_ and a heavy concentration of air pollutants in the lower atmospheric layers.

Rain often acts as a natural cleansing agent, flushing particles out of the air. Rain and humidity, however, can react with some pollutants such as NOx and SOx to yield acids or acidic depositions which corrode metals, destroy stone buildings and sculptures, and degrade water bodies and forests.

Solar radiation plays an important part in the formation of secondary pollutants, such as ozone, and also affects atmospheric stability near ground. The temperature of a region is related to the intensity of the solar radiation and its distribution with latitude, altitude, and cloud cover.

Ceiling height (mixing height or depth) is the height above which relatively vigorous vertical mixing occurs. There are significant differences in seasonal averages for ceiling height in temperate locations. The ceiling height also varies during the course of the day. During the summer daylight hours the ceiling height may reach several thousand feet, while in winter, less heat is received from the sun and the ceiling height may be as low as a few hundred feet [Bellomo and Liff 1984]. If the same amount of pollutants were found in each situation, one would expect a much higher concentration of pollutants in winter since there is a smaller volume within which the pollutants can disperse.

# Topography and Urban Spatial Form

The topography of a region can modify wind speed and direction, and can also influence temperature, principally through the combined effects of air drainage and radiation. As a result the atmospheric dispersion of pollutants is affected. In addition, air pollution problems are aggravated in some cities by the street canyon effect created by tall buildings, whereby vertical mixing of the atmospheric layers is prevented [OECD 1975]. The influence of topography and
**government;** and private barnks are less likely than state-owned banks to be covered by government guarantees. Thus, an additional **credit squeeze** may hit those **customers borrowing from smaller banks,**<sup>**8**</sup> **private banks, or domestic banks which are suffering from the deposit flight,** and typically SMEs depend more than other firms on small, private and domestic banks' lending.<sup>9</sup> The institutions which receive new flows of funds often have no established relationship with the borrowers of those institutions losing resources, and are thus less likely to make loans to those customers.

# **2.4 The Shocks Causing the Credit Crunch in East Asia**

The key factors leading to the specific credit crunch in East Asia can be divided into two broad categories: external factors stemming from the crisis itself and domestic factors predominantly associated with initial policy responses.

_A major reversal of international capital movements_ took place in 1997. According to data from the Institute of International Finance (IIF), net international inflows to the ASEAN 5 countries produced increasingly strong inflows reaching $93 billion in 1996. In 1997, there was an outflows of $12 billion, associated with the loss of confidence in some of the EA countries. Drawing on data from the Bank of International Settlements and from IIF, Radalet and Sachs (1998) estimate a capital outflow of $34 billion in the second half of 1997 -- a negative shock of 3.6 percent of GDP for the five countries under consideration. The short-term structure of their foreign borrowing was also an important element behind the drastic reversal (Chart 1).

_Unprecedented exchange rate devaluation_ (Chart 2) provided a major unanticipated shock (at least in its magnitude) to the corporate and financial sectors of the EA crisis-countries. This, in turn, multiplied the debt service burden and gave rise to

- s Kashyap and Stein (1994, 1997) argue that small banks should be more hit by monetary restrictions than large ones.

> 9 Berger, Kashyap and Scalise (1995) document a strong correlation between relative size of the lending bank and relative size of the borrowing firm in the US: i.e. small firms tend to borrow from small banks and large firms to borrow from large banks.

13
Distribution of Manufacturing Establishments by Region and Source of Electricity, Thailand

# Table Di.

<!-- Start of picture text --> REGION ELECTRIC (SOURCE OF ELECTRICITY)<br>Frequency<br>Percent<br>Row Pct<br>Col Pct 1PbLlic jPubLic Ow"n Gen.1<br>only mlin umin I Total<br>Bikok 10 6 0 t I14<br>1 1417 2.00 I 0.00 48.67<br>95.89 4.11 t 0 00<br>49.65 t 37.50 0.00<br>-,.---...... ........ ...... --- .<br>Metropolitan I 961 a t ° 104<br>I 32.00 l 2.67 I 0.00 I 34.67<br>1 92.31 7 7.69 0.00<br>I 34.041 50.00 0.001<br>... ... ... .... .. ... .. |+. +.. *. . .. ...<br>Worth U J 2 2 | 21 50<br>1 t5.3"3 t0.67 t 0.67 1 16.67<br>1 92.00 4.00 4.001<br>I 16.31 I 12.50 1 100.00 1<br>-..... -------- .+....... --------<br>Total 282 16 2 300<br>94.00 5.33 0.67 100.00<br><!-- End of picture text -->
The negative sign on natural resource<sup>abundance meritsfurtherattention,</sup> especially since the returns to R&D rise with net<sup>exportsof naturalresources</sup> The most straightforward explanation may simply<sup>bedefinitional.R&Ddata"[do]not include</sup> research on the soils for agricultural purposes,<sup>foroceanographyservingthefishing</sup> industry, concerning the economic exploitation<sup>ofsourcesofrawmaterials, fueland</sup> energy, nor concerning the use of satellite techniques<sup>for communicationapplications"</sup> (UNESCO 1980 p 743). It is not obvious<sup>whysoilresearchoroilexploration,which</sup> have very clear implications for productivity,<sup>shouldbeexcluded,butitislikely that</sup> countries specializing in natural resources will<sup>haveuncountedresearchexpenditures.</sup> The high estimated returns to R&D in natural<sup>resourcerich countriesmayalsobe</sup> partially due to upward bias to the degree<sup>thatresearcheffortin theseeconomiesis</sup> under-estimated by the available R&D data.

Alternatively, perhaps the low R&D investment<sup>inresourceabundantcountries</sup> occurs because the rents or market power associated<sup>withnatural resourceexploitation</sup> allow these economies to perform relatively<sup>welloverthemediumtermwithoutmuch</sup> innovation effort (Landes 1998): though the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden<sup>have</sup> chosen a high innovation path, Latin America,<sup>Indonesiaand Thailandareperhapsmore</sup> representative of resource rich economies<sup>that have followeda lowinnovationpath.This</sup> is consistent with Howitt and Mayer's (2002)<sup>modelof convergenceclubsand Maloney's</sup> (2002) application of it to explain Latin America's<sup>disappointingnaturalresource</sup> performance.

# V. **Summary of Findings**

This paper traced the evolution of innovation<sup>indicators alongthedevelopment</sup> process using international data on R&D expenditures.<sup>Thefirstpartofthepaper</sup> illustrated how R&D expenditures vary with the<sup>levelofdevelopment.Asexpected,</sup> R&D effort rises with development but at<sup>an increasingrate.In turn, the paper examined</sup> how different groups of countries (Latin<sup>America,East Asia,andnatural-resource-rich</sup> 20