Page 21 47. Weaker demand for girls' education probably means that increases in costs to parents will lead to higher dropout rates for girls than for boys (Schultz 1989). There are exceptions, however, in several Southern African countries where girls' enrollment exceeds boys' enrollment. It is not known how this pattern relates to the extensive migration of men to work in South Africa and the resulting high incidence of de facto female heads of household (Wheldon 1986). On the whole, however, especially in the poorer countries cf South Asia, parents are less likely to educate their daughters than their sons (Schultz 1989). Firmly entrenched social norms will take time and effort to change.

48. Better schools can build demand. Parental demand may be stronger for certain kinds of schooling. To change social norms to favor girls' education, it may be easier in the short run to change the kind of shooling offered. Research and experience suggest that parents of both daughters and sons are more willing to send their children to school when the school is reasonably close and when they are confident that A teacher will regularly be there to teach and supervise their children and has something reasonab3v useful to teach -- in short. when education is a real possibility. Demand may be stronger when they feel the children are studying subjects and learning skills that are not too esoteric -- that have some perceivable utility. The quality of books and equipment may also matter.

49. Schools may also fail to meet particular cultural requirements for girls. In some societies, for example, girls may be permitted to learn only from female teachers, of which there may be too few, as in Pakistan (see box). Even parents of sons may prefer female teachers, as women may be less harsh. Recruiting female teachers is probably one of the most effective ways to increase female enrollment. But it may also be most difficult to develop a cadre of female teachers to post in rural areas precisely in those cultures where restrictions on girls are heaviest and the need for female teachers is greatest. There may be too little physical seclusion for the girls (or the female teachers) at school. Inadequate lavatories are a particular problem for women and girls. Separate schools for girls may be needed.

50. Special requirements for girls may raise the cost to parents or society of educating girls. The main costs to society are likely to be teachers' salaries, buildings, and basic supplies, however, and the main costs to parents are likely to be fees that are similar for boys and girls.

51. Hore research is needed on parental willingness to pay for girls' education. Evidence from Kenya suggests that parents will pay substantial sums to educate girls at private community schools when they cannot gain admittance to publicly funded schools, but more girls at the private schools study scientific subjects (World Bank 1989a). Several studies discuss the importance of appropriate peer groups and suggest that girls' schools may be advantageous (see box).

52. Parents may also be more willing to educate girls who perform well in school. In some countries, girls' performance is weaker than boys', particularly in science (Eshiwani 1985; Kurrien 1988). The causes for this are not well documented, at least in the economic literature. But part of the explanation