electricity, water and etc., education of household head, sex of household head, age of household head and employment status of household head. _Xjz_ includes municipal level characteristics, including log of natural number of the total number of Venezuelans living in the municipality. The coefficient, _↵p_ 3, identifies the coverage gap between Venezuelan and Brazilian. This gap is then divided into the explained and the unexplained component as discussed in (Oaxaca and Ransom, 1994).

# **4 Data**

## **4.1 Data Sources**

The data for this analysis comes from five sources. The education data comes from the 2019 and 2020 School Census; the labor market data comes from the 2019 Annual Report on Social Information (RAIS); the social assistance data comes from the _Cadastro Unico_ ; and the population data comes from National Migration Registry System (SISMIGRA) and International Traffic System (STI-MAR) for Venezuelans and from Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics Foundation’s (IBGE) population estimation counts for Brazilians (Summary of Social Indicators).

The School Census on basic education is carried out annually by INEP (Anisio Teixeira National Institute for Educational Research and Studies). It collects information on early childhood education, elementary education, high school education and professional education, irrespective of whether the organization is public or private. It contains information on school amenities, infrastructures and management, as well as, detailed information on students and teachers. Information on the teachers include their level of training, teaching activities, places of origin along with sex, gender and race, while the information on the students include demographics data along with places of origin. One caveat in this data is that it does not include any data on student’s socio-economic or family background. In 2019, it included data on about 176,000 schools, 2.3 million teachers and 50 million students, with 20,272 (0.05% of all students) Venezuelan students in regular traditional school, all over Brazil. In 2020, Brazilian students in regular school increased to 37,738.

The RAIS dataset is an administrative data managed by the Ministry of Economy. It covers all formally employed wage earners, either public or private, and is collected annually, including data on demographics, income, occupation, nationalities, new hires and terminations during the year. In 2019, it contains information about 28,910 Venezuelans with about 19,746 employed in the formal sector as of December 31, 2019.

_Cadastro Unico_ is a database that collects details about low-income families and is used to identify vulnerable people in the society to develop appropriate benefits for them. Apart from income, it contains information on beneficiary status of _Bolsa Familia_ program, living conditions, demographics, education and labor market outcomes. This paper uses _Cadastro Unico_ of December 2017, December 2018, December 2019 and July 2020 for our analysis. On average, _Cadastro Unico_ includes information on about 78 million people (28 million households) and as of September 2020, there were about 77,291 Venezuelans (30,500 households) registered in it.

The SISMIGRA is an administrative record, maintained by the Federal Police, of migrants, who applied for residence permits and contains information on age, sex, country of birth and municipality 17