rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Moving people to deliver services :
            how can the WTO help
The previous General Agreement on Trade
            in Services (GATS) negotiations produced little
            liberalization of the movement of individual service
            providers (mode 4), and the potentially large global gains
            from such movement remain unrealized. In the current
            negotiations, as part of the Doha Development Agenda,
            developing countries are seeking greater openness in their
            area of comparative advantage: the movement of providers
            unrelated to commercial presence abroad. At the same time,
            many multinational firms would like easier intra-corporate
            movement of their personnel. We describe how this
            coincidence of interest could be harnessed to deliver
            greater openness at least for skilled service providers.
Gender, time use, and models of the household
The aim of this paper is to explain why
            time use data are essential for analyzing issues of gender
            equity and the intra-household allocation of resources,
            comparing living standards, and estimating the behavioral
            effects of changes in policy variables. The first step in
            the exposition is to show that the neglect of these data in
            much of the literature on household behavior, in both
            developed and developing economies, can be traced to
            unrealistic assumptions on domestic production and the
            mistaken idea that non-market time can be viewed as leisure.
            It is argued that an approach is required that makes
            explicit the need for data on the time family members spend
            on domestic work as well as on labor supply. An approach of
            this kind is outlined and used to identify the specialized
            assumptions that are employed when they are missing. The
            paper also discusses the limitations of available time use
            survey datasets that are due to deficiencies in survey
            design. The more serious and common problems are illustrated
            using as case studies the Statistics South Africa 2000 Time
            Use Survey and the time use module included in the
            Nicaraguan 1998 Living Standards Measurements Survey.
Product market integration and
            household labor supply in a poor economy: evidence from Vietnam
This report considers how product market
            integration in a country's primary agricultural export
            alters the economic activities of men and women in a poor
            economy. Between 1993 and 1997, Vietnam relaxed its rice
            export quota and freed internal restrictions on the trade of
            rice across regions. These reforms contributed to an almost
            30 percent increase in the real price of rice. Using a panel
            of rural Vietnamese communities that spans the period of
            policy change, the authors relate the regional and
            intertemporal variation in the price of rice to changes in
            the economic activities of children, young adults, and
            adults by gender. They find that higher rice prices are
            associated with lower participation in wage work by boys,
            girls, and young adults, and lower participation in
            household production by adults. Moreover, higher rice prices
            are associated with less time devoted to household
            production for all age groups and adults devoting more hours
            to wage work. Finally, with the exception of children, labor
            market responses to changes in rice prices mostly do not
            differ statistically for males and females.
Household composition and the
            response of child labor supply to product market
            integration: evidence from Vietnam
Market integration raises the relative
            price of a community's export product. The author
            examines how the response of child labor supply to an
            increase in the relative price of a primary export product
            varies with a child's household composition. The
            specific context for his study is the liberalization of rice
            markets in Vietnam in the 1990s. Between 1993 and 1998,
            Vietnam lifted export restrictions on rice, allowing the
            domestic price to rise toward international levels, and
            eliminated internal restrictions on the flow of rice between
            regions of Vietnam. So, the relative price of rice increased
            overall in Vietnam, but the degree of price change varied
            across communities with the lifting of restrictions on
            internal flows. The author finds that the response of child
            labor supply to rice price increases is increasing the
            amount of time children work. Thus, household composition
            attributes that are associated with higher levels of child
            labor are also associated with larger declines in child
            labor with rice price increases. The results are consistent
            with girls particularly benefiting from product market
            integration because they work more than boys do. The results
            suggest that economic factors associated with economic
            reform may attenuate differences in the activities of
            siblings that are typically associated with cultural
            traditions and norms.
Poor people's knowledge :
            helping poor people to earn from their knowledge
How can we help poor people to earn more
            from their knowledge rather than from their sweat and
            muscle? This paper draws lessons from projects intended to
            promote and protect the innovation, knowledge, and creative
            skills of poor people in poor countries, particularly to
            improve the earnings of poor people from such knowledge and
            skills. The international community has paid considerable
            attention to problems associated with intellectual property
            that poor countries buy-such as the increased cost of
            pharmaceuticals brought on by the WTO's agreement on
            the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS).
            This paper is about the other half of the
            development-intellectual property link. It is about the
            knowledge poor people own, create, and sell rather than
            about what they buy.  The paper calls attention to a broad
            range of poor people's knowledge that has commercial
            potential. It highlights the incentives for and concerns of
            poor people-which may be different from those of corporate
            research, northern nongovernmental organizations, or even
            entertainment stars from developing countries who already
            enjoy an international audience. The studies find that
            increased earnings is sometimes a matter of poor people
            acquiring commercial skills. Legal reform, though often
            necessary, is frequently not sufficient. Moreover, the paper
            concludes that the need for novel legal approaches to
            protect traditional knowledge has been overemphasized.
            Standard instruments such as patents and copyrights are
            often effective. Rather than legal innovation, there is a
            need for economic and political empowerment of poor people
            so that they have the skills to use such instruments and the
            influence to insist that institutional structures respond to
            their interests. Finally, the paper concludes that there is
            minimal conflict between culture and commerce. There are
            many income-earning expressions of culture, and it is
            incorrect to presume that expressions of culture must always
            be income-using.
Building and running general
            equilibrium models in EViews : Building and running general
            equilibrium models in eviews
A crucial step in policy analysis
            involves computing consequences of policy actions. The
            author shows how to implement numerically a general
            equilibrium model in EViews. Computable general equilibrium
            models are now commonly used in both industrial and
            developing countries to assess the impact of external shocks
            or economic policies on the structure of the economy or the
            distribution of welfare. The current version of EViews
            offers a set of tools for building and solving simulation
            models in general. The same tools make it possible to
            conduct policy analysis within a general equilibrium
            framework. Based on the generalized Salter-Swan framework
            and macroeconomic data for Indonesia, the author shows how
            to process a social accounting matrix, specify and calibrate
            the model, and run simulations. The results replicate
            welfare and structural effects of shocks and policies
            consistent with the underlying conceptual framework. They
            also reveal the key role played by structural parameters,
            such as the elasticity of export transformation and that of
            import substitution, in determining the extent of structural
            adjustment to shocks and the relevance of the policy response.
A literature review on the use of
            expert opinion in probabilistic risk analysis
Risk assessment is part of the decision
            making process in many fields of discipline, such as
            engineering, public health, environment, program management,
            regulatory policy, and finance. There has been considerable
            debate over the philosophical and methodological treatment
            of risk in the past few decades, ranging from its definition
            and classification to methods of its assessment.
            Probabilistic risk analysis (PRA) specifically deals with
            events represented by low probabilities of occurring with
            high levels of unfavorable consequences. Expert judgment is
            often a critical source of information in PRA, since
            empirical data on the variables of interest are rarely
            available. The author reviews the literature on the use of
            expert opinion in PRA, in particular on the approaches to
            eliciting and aggregating experts' assessments. The
            literature suggests that the methods by which expert
            opinions are collected and combined have a significant
            effect on the resulting estimates. The author discusses two
            types of approaches to eliciting and aggregating expert
            judgments-behavioral and mathematical approaches, with the
            emphasis on the latter. It is generally agreed that
            mathematical approaches tend to yield more accurate
            estimates than behavioral approaches. After a short
            description of behavioral approaches, the author discusses
            mathematical approaches in detail, presenting three
            aggregation models: non-Bayesian axiomatic models, Bayesian
            models, and psychological scaling models. She also discusses
            issues of stochastic dependence.
A literature review on the use of
            expert opinion in probabilistic risk analysis
WPS 3201 A Literature Review on the Use of Expert Opinion in Probabilistic Risk Analysis Fumika Ouchi

# World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3201, February 2004

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._
Decentralization or fiscal autonomy
            What does really matter effects on growth and public sector
            size in European transition countries
This paper examines the importance of
            fiscal autonomy in the analysis of decentralization. Using
            new data published by the OECD (2001 and 2002), it
            reproduces several indicators and proposes new measures of
            decentralization that take into consideration su-bnational
            governments' autonomy over their revenues. Two models
            are reproduced: Davoodi and Zou (1998) on decentralization
            and economic growth, and Oates (1985), on decentralization
            and public sector size. Some evidence suggests that fiscal
            autonomy positively affects economic growth. Also, it seems
            to affect the size of the state, but evidence on this
            relation is limited. Despite some statistical weaknesses,
            there are sufficient indications to argue that sub-national
            governments' fiscal autonomy should be a major concern
            when measuring decentralization.
The dynamics of poverty and its
            determinants - the case of the Northeast of Brazil and its states
In the northeast region of Brazil, the
            poverty picture of the past two decades reveals large
            fluctuations in the poverty level, and poverty depth.
            Findings based on the Brazilian annual household survey
            (Pesquisa Nacional de Amostra Domiciliar, PNAD) datasets
            from 1981-99 reveal that individual characteristics such as
            education, experience, and labor market association of the
            household head are important correlates of poverty. Taking
            these into account, data reveal that a Nordestino
            (northeasterner) is 24 percentage points more likely to fall
            below the indigent poverty line than other Brazilians.
            Analyses also reveal large differences in poverty levels by
            education, and these differences have increased over time.
            The authors observe that the probability of being poor is
            decreasing with increasing educational attainment. The
            gender of the household head does not matter for poverty,
            according to the poverty profile. But when the authors
            control for education and other individual characteristics,
            female-headed households have a much larger likelihood of
            being poor than male-headed households. Household size also
            matters for poverty. Larger households are more likely to
            experience poverty than smaller households, and the effect
            is concave. Moreover, households with children under age 5
            appear more likely to fall below the poverty line, than
            families with no children below age 5. The presence of
            old-aged people (above 65 years) in the household is an
            important factor contributing to poverty reduction.
The limits to competition in urban
            bus services in developing countries
The authors make the case for the return
            of regulation in the organization of urban bus services in
            developing countries. During the past three decades urban
            public transport policy has gone through several phases. The
            1980s and 1990s were characterized by liberalization of the
            sector from public ownership and monopoly provision. The
            experience of several countries, in particular Chile,
            indicates that a full liberalization of the sector may not
            be the welfare-maximizing option. The authors discuss the
            market failures that justify this claim and present the
            regulatory options available in this emerging new role of
            government. Throughout the paper they illustrate ideas with
            examples from Chile, Colombia, and a few other countries.
Public management and essential
            public health functions
The authors provide an overview of how
            different approaches to improving public sector management
            relate to so-called core or essential public health
            functions, such as disease surveillance, health education,
            monitoring and evaluation, workforce development,
            enforcement of public health laws and regulations, public
            health research, and health policy development. The authors
            summarize key themes in the public management literature and
            draw lessons for their application to these core functions.
Aid, policies, and growth :
            revisiting the evidence
The authors revisit the relationship
            between aid and growth using a new data set focusing on the
            1990s. The evidence supports the view that the impact of aid
            depends on the quality of state institutions and policies.
            The authors use an overall measure of institutions and
            policies popular in the empirical growth literature. The
            interaction of aid and institutional quality has a robust
            positive relationship with growth that is strongest in
            instrumental variable regressions. There is no support for
            the competing hypothesis that aid has the same positive
            effect everywhere. The authors also show that in the 1990s
            the allocation of aid to low-income countries favored those
            with better institutional quality. This
            "selectivity" is sensible if aid in fact is more
            productive in sound institutional and policy environments.
            The cross-country evidence on aid effectiveness is supported
            by other types of information as well: case studies,
            project-level evidence, and opinion polls support the view
            that corrupt institutions and weak policies limit the impact
            of financial assistance for development.
Boosting productivity via innovation
            and adoption of new technologies : any role for labor market institutions
The authors present empirical evidence
            on the determinants of industry-level multifactor
            productivity growth. They focus on "traditional
            factors," including the process of technological catch
            up, human capital, and research and development (R&D),
            as well as institutional factors affecting labor adjustment
            costs. Their analysis is based on harmonized data for 17
            manufacturing industries in 18 industrial economies over the
            past two decades. The disaggregated analysis reveals that
            the process of technological convergence takes place mainly
            in low-tech industries, while in high-tech industries,
            country leaders tend to pull ahead of the others. The link
            between R&D activity and productivity also depends on
            technological characteristics of the industries: while there
            is no evidence of R&D boosting productivity in low-tech
            industries, the effect is strong in high-tech industries,
            but the technology leaders tend to enjoy higher returns on
            R&D expenditure compared with followers. There is also
            evidence in the data that high labor adjustment costs
            (proxied by the strictness of employment protection
            legislation) can have a strong negative impact on
            productivity. In particular, when institutional settings do
            not allow wages or internal training to offset high hiring
            and firing costs, the latter reduce incentives for
            innovation and adoption of new technologies, and lead to
            lower productivity performance. Albeit drawn from the
            experience of industrial countries, this result may have
            relevant implications for many developing economies
            characterized by low relative wage flexibility and high
            labor adjustment costs.
Toward a microeconomics of growth
What drives growth at the microeconomic
            level?  The authors divide the factors that determine a
            location's growth performance into two groups,
            "1st advantage" and "2nd advantage." The
            term 1st advantage refers to the conditions that provide the
            environment in which new activities can be profitably
            developed, including most of the factors on which
            traditional theory has focused, such as access to inputs
            (labor and capital), access to markets, provision of basic
            infrastructure, and the institutional environment. The term
            2nd advantage refers to factors that increase returns to
            scale and can lead to cumulative causation processes. They
            may be acquired by learning, through technological
            spillovers, or by the development of thick markets of
            suppliers and local skills.  The authors' analysis
            suggests that empirical investigation of the drivers of
            growth must shift down to a more microeconomic level.  Such
            an analysis has become more feasible as data at the
            subnational level have become more available.  By viewing
            recent empirical evidence on drivers of growth through their
            analytical framework, the authors are able to begin to
            sketch out a microeconomic agenda for growth.  They
            emphasize that it is the manner in which 1st and 2nd
            advantages interact that shapes the pattern of development.
            The authors then turn to the example of how policy has
            affected manufacturing growth performance in India.  They
            analyze links between the direction of state-level labor
            regulation and growth in the organized manufacturing sector,
            how state-led expansion of bank branches into rural areas
            has affected unregistered or informal manufacturing, and how
            the pre-reform technological capability of industries
            affected their response to liberalization in 1991.  The
            analysis suggests that policy choices at the local level
            affect growth.  Both theory and empirics need to downshift
            to the microeconomic level if we are to make advances in
            identifying specific means of encouraging innovation and growth.