rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# **c. Administration of Payments**

P4P payments are administered by district steering committees comprised of members of the District Government, Providers and civil society (Ministry of Health Republic of Rwanda, 2006; Fritsche et al 2010). Facilities submit monthly activity reports ( _Ujit_ ) and quarterly requests for payment to the district steering committee, which is responsible for verifying the data and authorizing payment. For the referral indicators, the facility must also submit verification from the hospital that the referral was appropriate and the referred patient was treated. The committee verifies the reports by sending auditors to facilities on a quarterly basis on an unannounced randomly chosen day. The auditors review the utilization registry and facility records to verify the data reported is the same as the data recorded in facility records. During the 2006-2008 period, MoH conducted a survey of face-to-face interviews with approximately 1000 patients to verify the accuracy of the records. This survey found that false reporting on patients or services was less than 5 percent (HDP 2008).

Information used to compute each facility’s overall quality score is collected under the existing national monitoring system that requires all district hospitals to monitor and supervise the quality of health centers in their districts. Every quarter, a district hospital team from different services (e.g. prenatal, curative care, preventive care) visits each facility on an unannounced randomly chosen day to assess the facility’s quality through direct observation and review of patient records using a standardized tool. At the end of the visit, the team discusses their findings with the facility’s personnel and provides recommendations to improve quality. In P4P districts, the data are used to construct the overall quality score for the facility each quarter.

# **3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK**

# **a. Model**

In this section we use a simple behavioral model to hypothesize how the introduction of P4P would likely affect provider behavior. We have in mind a rural clinic with no close substitutes locally. We assume for simplicity that a facility acts as one single decision-maker that we call the provider. Key to this discussion is the provider’s objective function. We assume that medical care providers typically value their patients’ health as well as the income they earn from 7
# **II Lack of quality in public goods and individualized solutions to collective problems in the middle class**

In this section we illustrate some of the behavioral patterns of the middle and upper classes in the Dominican Republic<sup>1</sup> , such as an observed tendency to adopt individual solutions to solve collective problems. We draw from household surveys to illustrate to the propensity of using private services (health, electricity, transportation) by citizens of different socioeconomic strata.

Besley and Coate (1991) argue that schemes for universal provision of public goods (education, health, etc.) can redistribute income from the rich to the poor. They develop a discrete choice model where some individuals can afford to consume a higher quality service in the private sector. Redistribution does occur, but in some cases it might involve a deadweight loss. Concretely, if the quality of the public good supplied is low, both low-income and highincome individuals may be worse off, as the poor effectively receive a public service, but they do not value it, whereas the rich pay taxes for nothing in return (as they use private solutions).

The Dominican Republic seems to have fallen in one of these inefficient equilibriums for political economy reasons: it is too costly to create both the political and the civil society coalitions that would lead to achieve greater government accountability and an improvement in public services. As we will see in the next section, citizens ́ trust in institutions is low and those who can afford it have already decided to respond individually to the problems. In this section we introduce some examples of sectors or activities in which the middle and high classes in the Dominican Republic have opted for private solutions to substitute or complement poor public service provision.

## **II.1 Electricity supply**

The Electric sector in the Dominican Republic has been characterized by large energy losses caused by deficient infrastructures and maintenance, poorly targeted subsidies and widespread no-payment of bills. Reforms have proven to be slow and not always successful: for instance, the privatization process of the distribution companies had to be partially reversed, as mentioned inefficiencies resulted in persistent loses for private operators (see Reinstein and Cayo, 2010).

New investments in infrastructure at the beginning of the decade motivated an increase in effective generation capacity of 43% and helped to partly reduce blackouts and distribution

> 1 See Annex II for a brief review of the different definitions of middle class and their use in the Dominican case.

[4]
definitive duties were fixed. The Mexican company appealed but the Court confirmed the Resolution of the Commission in August 1997.

- Two years later, the Mexican company requested a new investigation to leave without effect the antidumping duties that had been applied. This action led to the reduction of duties on glucose syrup to 3.32%.

This case was the first one in which a revision of duties was requested on the basis of a change of circumstances. The process was favorable to the exporting company in relation to one of its products.

In addition, the case resulted in a Commission policy of not accepting price undertakings, considering that the effect, which would be the same as for the application of antidumping duties, would not justify the effort and logistics necessary to track and inspect accordingly. Instead, antidumping duties are controlled by Customs, they are fiscal revenue, and do not require supervision by the Commission.

Although Peruvian law contemplates price undertakings, the Commission interpreted it as an option and not as an obligation, choosing to restrict them to inevitable cases, as for example, when instead of being proposed by the exporter or its government, price undertakings are agreed by the parties as a way to suspend the investigation.

# _C.  Textile Clothing: China_

- In October 2003, the Society of Industries requested that the CDS carry out a safeguard investigation against textile clothing products of Chinese origin, due to the extraordinary increase in their volume.

- The Commission conducted a study of 288 items of clothing, towels, bed sheets and bed linen, and identified 106 which represented the main quantity of Chinese imports into Peru at present. Safeguard measures were to be applied to these imports.

- China's protocol of accession to the WTO established a _Specific Product Transitional Safeguard_ mechanism, which contains a clause that allows for the imposition of provisional safeguards. For this mechanism to be applied, it must be proved that the reported imports cause or threaten to cause disruption in the domestic industry.

- In November 2003, only one month after the investigation was initiated, the INDECOPI's Antidumping and Countervailing Measures Commission report concluded that conditions for an immediate application of provisional transitional safeguards to Chinese textile clothing articles had been met, and that if these measures were not taken, the domestic industry that supplies the local market would suffer an injury that would be very difficult to repair.

- The Commission also recommended that Customs take adequate control measures to avoid evasion of the possible duties to be applied, through migration of items or contraband. It also recommended that the Ministry of Production and the interested economic agents be alert for any increase in the imported volume of items that were not affected, so as to take new measures as soon as possible.

27
where _st_ is defined **by** equation **(1)** above and **b** is the band width.

According to theory, the distribution of _v_ can be quite complicated. Even under two simplifying _assumptions_ made **by** Krugman **(1991)** in a famous article that generated a sub-field of research on target zones-that the band is **100%** credible and that the authorities intervene only at the boundaries-the distribution is not normal, but rather follows a particular S-shape." But extensive empirical investigation of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism in the 1980s and early 1990s established that the spot rate does not in fact obey the predicted distribution. There are a number of likely reasons for this, among them the lack. of **full** credibility of the zones<sup>12</sup> and the prevalence of intramarginal intervention.

For these reasons we shall assume in our work that _v_ follows instead an autoregressive process, of the form vt **=** _pv-l_ **_+_** _ut,_ where _u_ is iid. In fact, we will focus on the random walk case of **_p =_ 1,** in accordance with most time series analyses of exchange rates, which cannot reject the unit root hypothesis.<sup>3</sup> rates, where the authorities are believed to be following an indexation policy.

**"** When the spot rate draws close to one edge, speculators are aware that there is a limit on how far it can continue to move in that direction. The expected value will show a regression back toward the central parity. As speculators respond to that expectation, they will push the spot rate away from the margin, even without any intervention.

> **12** Imperfect credibility was in the event justified **by** realignments in the early 1980s, and especially **by** the ERM crises of **1992-93.** It is also relevant for the present exercise, which is entirely based on a starting point that assumes imperfect credibility.

> **13** In unreported results, we found that estimates of **p** were practically **I** in most regressions using equation **(1).** One extension for further research would be to use statistical distributions implied **by** more sophisticated versions of the target zone theory. Another would be to take the observed statistical distribution from historical episodes such as the ERM currencies in the 1980s or 1990s.

**16**
<!-- Start of picture text --> Policy, Ro -arch, alhd Extern I Affairs<br>Edcation and Employment<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> WPS 676<br><!-- End of picture text --> This paper-a product of the Education and Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department-is part of a largereffort in PRE to strengthen the abililyofthe Bankand borrowers to address the challenges in higher education. Copies are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Cynthia Cristobal, room S6-035, extension 33640 (48 pages, with graphs and tables).

Enrollment in the University of Sana'a grew gradually from fewer than 100 students in 1970, shortly after it opened, to about 4,500 in 1979. Government policy at f : tried to balance the university enrollment with the capacity of the marketplace to absorb university graduates.

University enrollment began to increase at an outstanding rate after 1985, following the heavy expansion of secondary education in the country in the late 1970s. From 1987 to 1991, total enrollment expanded from about 17,000 to 44,000 students. If the present rate of intake continues, total enrollment is projected to reach 79,000 students by the year 2000.

This explosive growth has created numerous problems, including overcrowded classrooms, insufficient staff resources, deteriorating physical plant and equipment, inadequate educational materials and equipment, and a low level of absorption of graduates into the labor force.

These developments threaten the quality of degree programs in several disciplines. The government shculd act immediately to develop a strategy to protect its investment in higher education. The policy should consider the country's medium- and long-term needs, the constraints on its resources, and the growing social aspirations of its people. The goal of this assessment should be to design a strategy that will make higher education a more effective investment to serve the needs of **the** country and to protect its resources.

The PRE Working Paper Scrics disseminates Lhc findings of work undcr way in the Bank's Policy, Rescarcii, and Exttcrn! AffairsComplcx. An objective of thc scrics is to get thesc findings out quickly, cvcn if prcsentations arc Icss than fully pol ished. The findings, interprctaLions, and conclusions in thcsc papers do not necessarily represent official Bank policy.

Produced by **the** PRE Dissemination Ccntcr
Kochenderfer-Ladd, E.I. and Ladd, G.W. (2015). A synthesis of person-and relational-level factors that influence bullying and bystanding behaviors: Toward and integrative framework. _Aggression and Violent Behavior,_ 23, 75-86.

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33
# **Table 5: Profits Z-Score Regressions**

||**De**<br>|**pendent Vari**<br>**Quantile R**<br>|**able: Profits**<br>**egressions**<br>|**Z-Score**<br>||<br>|**OLS**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**(1)**|**(2)**|**(3)**|**(4)**|**(5)**|**(6)**|**(7)**|
|_Quantile_|**10**<br>coef/se|**50**<br>coef/se|**90**<br>coef/se|**95**<br>coef/se|**99**<br>coef/se|**Simple**<br>coef/se|**Weighted**<br>coef/se|
|Ben Ali firm (BA)|-0.714***|-0.016|1.203***|2.377***|3.737***|-0.043|0.820|
||(0.078)|(0.051)|(0.112)|(0.155)|(0.163)|(0.257)|(6.013)|
|BA*Highly Regulated (de Jure)|0.184**|0.069|1.101***|28.296***|158.823***|6.718|86.378***|
||(0.089)|(0.057)|(0.226)|(0.254)|(0.666)|(5.467)|(17.660)|
|Highly Regulated (de Jure)|0.009|-0.000|0.121|0.236*|0.668**|0.110*|8.209***|
||(0.019)|(0.002)|(0.153)|(0.137)|(0.322)|(0.063)|(2.485)|
|Offshore|0.014|0.020***|0.185***|0.313***|0.984***|0.031|-9.992|
||(0.013)|(0.002)|(0.024)|(0.102)|(0.317)|(0.134)|(7.856)|
|Foreign|-0.035**|-0.003**|0.136***|0.408***|2.476***|0.349|36.196*|
||(0.017)|(0.001)|(0.044)|(0.126)|(0.510)|(0.322)|(18.720)|
|Firm Age (log)|-0.022|0.002***|0.028***|0.069***|0.389***|-0.016|1.910|
||(0.022)|(0.000)|(0.004)|(0.013)|(0.078)|(0.044)|(3.159)|
|Year Dummies|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Sector Dummies|No|No|No|No|No|No|No|
|Weights|None|None|None|None|None|None||Net Profits||
|Number of observations|43,128|43,128|43,128|43,128|43,128|43,128|43,128|
|R2|0.005|0.006|0.023|0.038|0.039|0.040|0.771|

Note: *,**,*** denote significance at the 10%, 5% and 1% significance level respectively. Standard errors are clustered by sector. The sample is confined to 2006-2010 and to firms which report using hired labor, producing more than 1600 USD worth of output and having labor productivity in excess of 400 USD, operating in sectors governed by the investment code in which at least one Ben Ali firm is contemporaneously active. Standard errors are clustered at the 5-digit sector level. Highly Regulated (de Jure) is a dummy variable indicating whether the particular 5 digit sub-sector the firm operates in is subject to both authorization requirements and FDI restrictions at time t.

32
**Table 5: Alternative Specification including total unemployment and the ratio of male to female unemployment**

||(1)<br>Physical<br>Violence|(2)<br>Sexual<br>Violence|(3)<br>Any<br>Violence|
|---|---|---|---|
|ln(U)|-0.019|-0.030|-0.049|
||(0.055)|(0.037)|(0.066)|
|ln(U<sup>ratio</sup>)|0.509***|0.157|0.554***|
||(0.082)|(0.108)|(0.155)|
|Observations|348165|268173|266517|
|X controls|Y|Y|Y|
|Year FE|Y|Y|Y|
|CountryFE|Y|Y|Y|

# _Source:_

Authors’ analysis based on data from the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS).

# _Notes:_

* p<0.10, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Standard errors are robust to arbitrary forms of heteroscedasticity and are clustered at the country level. All estimates are of equation (3). The dependent variable in each regression is a binary dummy variable taking the value one if the individual female respondent was a victim of violence, defined as physical (1), sexual (2) or either (3) in the last twelve months. X is a vector of controls for age and education of respondent, education of her spouse, and urban location. Relative to Table 1, the HP-filter detrended male and female unemployment rates are replaced with the HP-filter detrended unemployment, ln(U), and the detrended ratio of the male to female unemployment, ln(U<sup>ratio</sup> ).

32
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- ———. 2007d. “The World Bank Group’s Africa Action Plan: Progress in Implementation.” Report M2007-0112, World Bank, Washington, DC.

54
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# **2.2** Employment, Unemployment, and the Returns to Education

The first part of our review of the characteristics of the labor market in Morocco focuses on the sectoral distribution of the workforce, the structure of public employment, the composition of unemployment, and the returns to education.

## **2.2.1 Sectoral distribution of the workforce**

In Morocco, a sizable share of the workforce (around 55 percent in 2000) remains employed in the agricultural sector. This proportion is quite high compared to around 35 percent for lower middle-income countries. At the same time, women still account for only 22 percent of the total urban workforce. Data on the occupational distribution of the workforce in urban areas show that wage employment is dominant, followed by self-employment. Panel 6 in Figure 3 displays the distribution of the workforce by occupational status for 2000. It shows that wage earners accounted for about 61 percent of total employment, and self employment for about 24 percent. Most of the wage earners are employed in the private urban sector, though public sector employment (central government, local communities, public enterprises) also accounts for a large proportion (around 19.5 percent). The rest of the workers are non remunerated aid-families, apprentices, employers or home workers. The average educational level of the work force is rather low, with 55 percent not holding any degree in 2000.

The evidence for developing countries in general suggests that contractions of available opportunities in salaried occupations tend to drive workers toward self employment. In Morocco, the data seem also to suggest that the share of self employment in total urban employment tends to rise when wage employment decreases. However, during the 1990s (a decade marked by a weak growth performance, as noted earlier), self employment did not significantly increase, remaining at around 24 percent of total employment. Although some observers have argued that the urban labor market in Morocco has undergone a process of "informalization", this argument is debatable. If we simply define "informalization" as a reduction in the share of wage employment in total employment, it is not obvious that there has been a growing informalization of the urban labor market. Indeed, even if there are marked fluctuations on a yearly basis, wage employment is by far the major 8