rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
**A16 Vietnam**

**Table A16: Reqional disparitv** trend$s in Vietnam

|**Year**|Max/Min<br>(MMR)|Simple<br>coefficient<br>of variation<br>(CVu)|Weighted<br>coefficient<br>of variation<br>(CVw)|Relative<br>mean<br>Deviation<br>(Rw)|Unweighte<br>gini index<br>(GuL)|d Weighted<br>gini index<br>(Gw)|Theil<br> <br>index<br>(T)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1990|11.625|0.668|0.537|0.346|0.257|0.239|0.106|
|1991|14.473|0.781|0.665|0.389|0.282|0.273|0.152|
|1992|21.881|1.062|0.854|0.448|0.318|0.304|0.214|
|1993|23.082|1.058|0.862|0.471|0.327|0.315|0.223|
|1994|24.079|1.053|0.890|0.502|0.336|0.332|0.244|
|1995|23.915|1.057|0.889|0.510|0.335|0.334|0.246|
|1996|27.723|1.047|0.967|0.580|0.366|0.400|0.290|
|1997|24.746|1.067|0...0996|.<br>.0.596|.<br>._0.372|_<br>0.410|0.306|

**Figure** A16: RegionaG disparity trends in Vietnam

<!-- Start of picture text --> 1 .000<br>0.800- t g-1:<br>0.600 .~<br>0.400<br>0.200 : -0 2k-7:0,_';$<br>0.000<br>1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997<br>Year<br>-<br>Simple coefficient of vanation (CVu) Weighted coefficient of variation (CVw) 10 Relative mean Deviation (Rw)<br>+Unweighted gini index (Gu) +Weighted gini index (Gw) -Theil index (T)<br><!-- End of picture text --> 51
**Figure 4: Policy Report Downloads by language and VPU Figure 5: Download Distribution**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Downloads Distribution of Policy Reports: 2008 to 2012<br>Downloads from 2008 to 2012 by VPU<br>All Reports with Downloads<br>Other<br>Chinese<br>Arabic<br>Russian<br>Spanish<br>French<br>English<br>0 1000 2000 3000<br>Downloads per Report<br>WBI AFR EAP ECA LCR MNA SAR FPD HDN PRM SDN OTH<br>Source: World Bank Documents & Reports and World Bank Omniture.<br>Source: Omniture and World Bank SAP database.<br>60,000 400<br>300<br>40,000<br>200<br>Number of Reports<br>20,000 100<br>Downloads by Language<br>0<br>0<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Downloads follow a highly skewed pattern.** This distribution, seen below in Figure 5, is typical for count data: datasets that track the incidences of an action, such as downloads, are highly centered on zero and low numbers. A large portion of policy reports were downloaded relatively few times: Almost 40 percent of policy reports were downloaded between 1 and 100 times.  The “knee of the curve”<sup>18</sup> of the dataset occurs around 250 downloads.  Those policy reports that were downloaded more than 250 times compose 13 percent of our sample.  There are only 25 policy reports (2 percent of the dataset) that have more than 1,000 downloads during the period investigated (FY2008 to FY2012).  Over 31 percent of the policy reports in our dataset (517 out of 1,611) were never downloaded. It is, however, important to keep in mind that many policy reports were not intended to reach a large audience but prepared to assess very specific technical questions or inform the design of lending operations.

**Policy reports that have been released for a longer period of time are downloaded more often.** Average downloads per document and the number of policy reports that have been downloaded drop in recent fiscal years.  Downloads of reports decline over time: Policy reports have an average of 1.6 daily downloads during their first year of release, which decreases to 0.6 downloads during their second year and approximately 0.4 downloads during the third year. Twenty-five policy reports that have been downloaded more than 1,000 times all were released between fiscal years 2008 and 2010.  When these outliers are excluded from the dataset, the average downloads are reduced to 87 for the time period. Table 3 shows the summary statistics for the cumulative downloads for policy reports.

> 18 The “knee of the curve” is the point at which the derivative of the curve is transitioning from a value greater than one to a value less than one.

12
Tarr, David G. 2007. Russian Accession to the WTO: An Assessment. _Eurasian Geography and Economics_ , Vol. 48, No. 3, May-June, 306-319.

Tarr, David, and Peter Thomson. 2005. The Merits of Dual Pricing of Russian Natural Gas. _The World Economy_ , Vol. 27, Issue 8. August 2004, 1173-1194 U.S. Trade Representative. 2006. Fact Sheets on the Russia-United States Bilateral Agreement on Russian WTO Accession, November. Available at http://www.ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2006/November/United_States,_Russia_ Sign_Bilateral_WTO_Market_Access_Agreement_Negotiations_on_WTO_Membership_Now_ Move_to_the_Multilateral_Pha.html.

World Bank. 2010.. Doing Business 2010. Available at http://www.doingbusiness.org/ World Bank. 2010. Enterprise Surveys 2009. Available at http://www.enterprisesurveys.org World Bank, 2009. Russia Economic Report Number 19, June. Available at http://. <u>www.worldbank.org/ru.</u> World Bank. Logistic Performance Index 2007. Available at <u>http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTTRANSPORT/EXTTLF/0,,conte ntMDK:21514122~menuPK:3875957~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:515434,00.htm l</u> World Trade Organization. 2005. Technical Note on the Accession Process, Note by the Secretariat, November 28, WT/ACC/10/Rev.3. Available at: http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/acc_e.htm.

World Trade Organization, The Agreement on Agriculture. Available at: www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm 25
~~—~~ Reproduction of the Question on Relationship to Householder From the 2010 Census 2. How is this person related to Person 17 Mant ® ONE baw.

Husband or wife Parent-in-law Bialogical son ar daughter Son-in-law of daughter-in-law Adopted son or daughter Other relative Stepson or stepdaughter Roomer or boarder Breather or sister Housemate or roommate Father or mother Unmarried partner Grandchild (Other nonrelative
19 _Fiscal Crisis in Central Europe_ expenditures, and for about 30 percent of total ir Czechoslovakia. As a matter of fact, expenditures on social security increased fiom 1986-88 to 1991-92 by about 80 percent in Hungary and 90 percent in Poland, but by less than 40 percent in Czechoslovakia. In 1986, the share of GDP spent on social security in Czechoslovakia was two points higher than in Poland and only one percentage point lower than in Hungary. The same figure in 1992 is four percentage points lower than in Poland and almost ten percentage points lower than<sup>in Hungary.</sup>

||P<br>Annual Incre|**Ta**<br>oland and<br>ases of Num<br>(annual|**ble**4.1<br>Czechoslov<br>ber of Pen<br>% increase|akia:<br>sioners, 19<br>)|86-92.|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||1986|1987|1988|1989|1990|1991|1992|
|Poland||||||||
|Total|2.1|2.8|3.0|2.4|4.1|11.8|6.9|
|Non-farmers (FUS)|1.6|1.8|2.0|1.6|2.3|9.9|**_5.7_**|
|Old age|0.8|1.2|1.3|0.9|3.9|17.9||
|Disability|2.4|2.5|2.6|2.3|1.6|6.0||
|Surviving|2.4|2.7|2.3|2.9|1.4|1.7||
|Farmers (KRUS)|4.4|7.2|7.0|5.7|11.1|18.9|11.2|
|Czechoslovakia 1/||||||||
|Total|..|0.9|0.2|2.5|1.1|2.1|1.2|
|Old Age|..|1.6|0.2|2.4|2.1|3.1|**_1.5_**|
|Disability|..|0.7|0.6|0.6|_1.5_|2.6|2.2|
|Surviving|..|0.4|0.3|0.3|0.6|0.7|0.0|
|Other|..|-4.0|-1.7|24.1|-10.6|-7.4|-5.6|

Source: Biuletyn Statystyczny and Rocznik Statystycz4iy, several issues; Statisticka Rocenka 1989, 90 and 1992, and Czech Republic Bureau of Statistics.

1/ Data for 1992 refer to Czech pensioners only. However, they account for about three fourths of the pensioners of former Czechoslovakia.

To some extent, the increase in social security spending was a necessary consequence of transition. However, the data for Poland and Hungary - particularly if compared to Czechoslovakia - strongly suggest that the system has been stretched well over its institutional
well as the exposures and risks to children's wellbeing. Using a gender lens, the paper focuses on differences between boys and girls and on how societal-based gender roles shape the differences and consequences.

# **Incidence of Child Labor**

14. _The Pesquisa NaconalAmostra do Domicilio_ (PNAD), a national household survey conducted in 1996, estimates that in Brazil 2.6 million children between the ages of ten and fourteen, or 15 percent of the population in the age group, work at least an hour a day.<sup>5</sup> This suggests a large decline from 1993 when 4.5 million children worked. Concerning the absolute number of children working in 1996, the number of children working in rural areas exceeded that of urban areas by only 292,000; however, participation rates (proportion of children between 10 and 14 year who are working) are higher in rural areas (36 percent) than in urban areas (9 percent). In both urban and rural areas, twice as many boys as girls work (see Table 1).6

**Table 1: Incidence of Child Labor (number of children working) and Participation Rates (percentage of all children between the ages of 10-14)**

|-|-<br>-- -<br>.Ur|ba.<br>-|-|Rural-||Total|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Girls|379,811|6%|450,314|23%|830,125|10%|
|Boys|771,759|12%|994,042|48%|1,765,801|20%|
|Total|1,151,570|9%|1,444,356|36%|2,595,926|15%|

Source: Calculations based on PNAD, 1996 15. School and work are not mutually exclusive activities; many working children in Brazil also attend school, as Table 2 demonstrates. Boys are more likely than girls to be engaged only in work as well as to combine work with school. Gender differences are particularly stark in the rural areas where 12 percent of boys compared to 5 percent of girls are working exclusively, and 36 percent of boys compared to 18 percent of girls are both working and attending school.

> 5For consistency reasons this paper examines 1996 data. It is noteworthy that more recent evidence demonstrates that child labor continues to decline.

> 6 The sample used for this paper consists of 37,401 observations of children ages 10-14. Of this population 75-85% lives in urban areas, 50% are girls, and each age group comprises roughly 20% of the children. The most highly represented *states are Para, Mato Grosso do Sul and Goias.

5
Evidence from this cohort suggests that the omission of test scores has minor effects on the estimated effects of school type.

Our paper makes three main contributions to the literature. The first is distinguishing between public and private schools when assessing vocational education. While there has been a resurgence of interest in the efficacy of public versus private schooling in developing countries, this is the first research to our knowledge that explicitly distinguished between public and private vocational education at the high school level.<sup>5</sup> The second main contribution is estimating heterogeneous effects of school type, across scholastic ability, age, and family background, for both men and women. The final main contribution is the use of a household panel, covering 14 years, to distinguish between age and cohort effects and assess changes in the returns to vocational education over time. To the extent that bias due to confounding unobserved characteristics remains constant over time, this provides an accurate estimate in the changes in returns over time.

There are four main findings. First, students are primarily sorted into school type based on their entering test scores. Public vocational and general schools attract high-scoring students, while the lowest-scoring students tend to choose private vocational school. Second, male public school graduates enjoy a substantial wage premium, amounting to approximately 20 percent, suggesting that they benefit from a combination of higher school quality, peer effects, and signaling. Third, private vocational graduates enjoy outcomes that are at least as favorable as private general graduates, despite coming from more disadvantaged backgrounds. Finally, in recent years, the returns to public vocational school for men have plummeted, and male vocational graduates now face a large wage penalty.

We organize the rest of this paper as follows. The next section provides background on the Indonesian education system and the mix of vocational versus general education. Section III describes the data. Section IV analyzes school choice patterns. Section V investigates the effects of different school types of labor market outcomes. Sections VI to VIII explore heterogeneity in the effects across different types of people. The final section concludes and provides policy recommendations.

> 5 Newhouse and Beegle (2006) find that public junior secondary school students in Indonesia perform better than private school students in national examinations. In contrast, Jimenez, Lockheed, and Paqueo (1991) and World Bank (2007) find that private primary school students outperform public school students in several other developing countries.

4
during the 1999-2015 period), such that LAC is a more equal region today than it was 20 years ago (World Bank, 2011).<sup>6</sup> Figure 1 GDP and Poverty rate (1960s-2010s) <!-- Start of picture text --> 7,000,000 40<br>6,000,000 35<br>30<br>5,000,000<br>25<br>4,000,000<br>20<br>3,000,000<br>15<br>2,000,000<br>10<br>1,000,000 5<br>0 0<br>1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010<br>GDP (constant 2010 Million US$) Poverty rate ($3.20 a day, 2011 PPP)<br>GDP (constant 2010 Million US$)<br>Poverty rate ($3.20 a day, 2011 PPP)<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Source:** World Bank and own elaboration.

Despite the general reduction in absolute poverty and income inequality, the overall welfare of the population has not improved equally in other areas, such as access to basic education and public services. In this paper we are interested in understanding, first, if people in LAC are receiving equal opportunities early in life—whatever their socioeconomic background—and, second, if such opportunities are contributing to improved welfare outcomes later in life. The 6 According to the World Bank (2011), the decrease in inequality has been driven by improvements in labor market outcomes, such as labor income, a higher incidence of government transfers and demographic changes.

10
which accounted for 95 percent of total exports.

Figure 2: Mexico - economic integration (Source: Nicita 2004) <!-- Start of picture text --> Degree of Openness Degree of Openess<br>0.7 35<br>0.6 GATT NAFTA NEG NAFT A 30<br>0.5 25<br>0.4 20<br>0.3 15<br>0.2 10<br>0.1 5<br>0 0<br>Openess Tariff (Import w eighted)<br>1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000<br>(I+E)/GDP Tariff %<br><!-- End of picture text --> Some important elements emerge from Figure 2. First, the process of trade liberalization in Mexico started in the 1980s. When trade liberalization is measured as a reduction in tariffs, the most important reforms were undertaken during the second half of the 1980s (Peters 2000). A second interesting point, is that the response of the economy to this first wave of liberalization was rather slow, with trade volumes showing only a modest increase after large tariff reductions. On the other hand, the relatively small reduction in tariffs observed after NAFTA was followed by a substantial increase in the importance of trade volumes in the Mexican economy. These facts suggest that the substantial increase in economic integration between the Mexican and the US economies is explained by a combination of NAFTA and the peso devaluation. In other words, the peso devaluation pushed Mexican firms into the foreign markets that were opened via the window of NAFTA; once many of the Mexican manufacturers had absorbed the sunk costs of entering foreign markets, they remained integrated despite the revaluation of the Mexico peso during the late 1990s. This may explain the significant increase in the degree of openness that occurred after the devaluation, which was not reversed even when the real exchange rate revalued. A second complementary explanation behind the pattern followed by openness is that NAFTA implied much more than a tariff reduction scheme, involving deep regulatory and institutional 8
Using Probabilistic Models to Appraise and Decide. Ley-Borrás and Fox community, through mechanisms such as traditional (re)insurance and alternative risk transfer (ART) products such as catastrophe (CAT) bonds (see Caballero, 2003; Freeman et al., 2003; Gurenko and Lester, 2004; and Hoffman and Brukoff, 2006).

Figure 1 shows the different types of financing instruments that can be used by governments to access funds to deal with disasters, and their utilization time horizon.

**Figure 1: Sources of disaster financing.**

|**Post‐disaster financing**|**Relief phase**<br>(1 to 3 months)|**Recovery phase**<br>(3 to 9 months)|**Reconst. phase**<br>(over 9 months)|
|---|---|---|---|
|Donor assistance (relief)||||
|Budget reallocation||||
|Domestic credit||||
|External credit||||
|Donor assistance (reconstruction)||||
|Tax increase||||
|**Ex‐ante financing**||||
|Budget contingencies||||
|Reserve found||||
|Contingent debt facility||||
|Parametric insurance||||
|CAT‐Bonds||||
|Traditional insurance||||

Source: Ghesquiere and Mahul, 2010.

# **Strategy**

Sovereign disaster risk financing and insurance strategies can help countries manage the budget volatility associated with natural disasters and should be guided by three main steps: (i) identification and assessment of the contingent liabilities associated with disasters; (ii) improving the post‐disaster budget response capacity of the state; and (iii) reducing the long‐term financial exposure of the state (for more details see World Bank and G20, 2013).

The two key factors that must be considered within an effective disaster risk strategy are the cost and timing of the available instruments. Immediately following a disaster a government will not require funding for the entire recovery and reconstruction program; although resources will be needed to support relief operations, most of the funds will not be required until the reconstruction programs commence – often several months after a disaster.

A number of governments have successfully implemented sovereign disaster risk financing strategies based on a combination of ex‐ante and ex‐post financing instruments. Typically, governments adopt a layered, bottom‐up approach (Ghesquiere and Mahul 2010) which involves combining risk‐retention and risk transfer instruments such that:

**6**
## MALARIA: **THE IMPACT OF TREATED BED-NETS ON CHILDHOOD** MORTALITY IN **TRE** GAMBIA

# Pedro L. Alonso, Allan G. Hill, Patricia H. David, Greg Fegan, Joanna R.M. Armstrong, Andreas Francisco, Kabir Cham, Brian M. Greenwood

In rural Gambia, as in many other parts of sub-Saharan Africa, malaria remains one of the most important causes of death in children under five. **1** When vaccination coverage rates are high and deaths due to the common infectious diseases of childhood are reduced, malaria may be the principal cause of death. **2** Malaria is particularly important to control not only because of its direct effect on mortality and morbidity but also because it acts in conjunction with other diseases to increase both morbidity and mortality rates from other causes. _3_

# THE STUDY

In recent years, there has been growing concern about the development of drug-resistant strains of malaria, provoking renewed interest in vector control and the reduction of manvector transmission rates. _b_ The efficacy of insecticideX BM Greenwood, AK Bradley AM Greenwood et al. Mortality and morbidity from malaria in a rural area of The Gambia, Trans R **Soc** Trop Ned **Xyg** 1987 81:478-86. U and A Brinkmann, Malaria and health in Africa: present situation and epidemiological trends, Trop **Med &** Parasitol 1991, 42:204-13.

2 BM Greenwood, AM Greenwood, AK Bradley et al. Deaths in infancy and early childhood in a well-vaccinated, rural West African population. Ann Trop **Paodiat** 1987 7:91-9.

_3_ DCW Mabey, A Brown, BM Greenwood. Plasuiodium falciparum malaria and Salmonella infections in Gambian children. **J** Infect Dis 1987 46:181-202.

_4_ JA Rozendaal. Impregnated mosquito nets and curtains for self-protection and vector control. Trop Dis Bull 1989 86:RlR41; CF Curtis, JD Lines, P Carnevale et al. Impregnated bed nets and curtains against malaria mosquitoes. In: Appropriate methods

**2**
- 30 -

are Balausa's (1978) "stages" approach to comparative<sup>advantage and Michaely's</sup> (1981) income levels and the structure of trade.<sup>The dimensions of this exercise</sup> need not be limited to physical capital (and<sup>income levels) as skill intensity</sup> and other product/country characteristics can be<sup>brought into play.> However,</sup> as all major exporters of textiles and clothing<sup>in the post World War II period,</sup> starting with Japan, evolved under quota restrictions,<sup>the results would have to</sup> be interpreted with extreme caution.

There are two sources of information for further<sup>research concerning</sup> EZ's textile and clothing exports to the West in the<sup>immediate future. Firstly,</sup> the installed capacity in EE, especially in the<sup>more standardized production</sup> lines of fabrics and yarn, should give some indications<sup>of these countries'</sup> immediate export potential. Although such information<sup>is available at a quite</sup> detailed level", the economic interpretation of this<sup>type of engineering data</sup> is beyond the reach of the authors. The second<sup>source is national statistics on</sup> trade with COMECON countries. After all, the EE countries might have been exporting a quite different bundle of goods to the<sup>Soviet Union and to each other</sup> compared to their exports to the West. The reason why<sup>Czechoslovakia's trade</sup> patterns with EC were so different fron' the other<sup>EE countries may lie in that</sup> country's extreme trade dependence on the Soviet Union.<sup>However, difficulties</sup> in constructing a detailed and factual data set<sup>on COMECON trade considerably</sup> reduce the appeal of this route.

34 See, e.g., Baldwin (1971) Helleiner (1976), Hufbauer (1970) and Yeats (1990). M See, e.g. The International Textile Magazine, December 1990, pp. 58-77.
**_Energy demand models for policy_** **_<u>formulation</u>_**

# **MEDEE Model**

As indicated earlier, the MEDEE model was developed initially by Chateau and Lapillonne (1978) and has been expanded through additional research at IIASA and elsewhere (see Lapillonne (1978), Lapillonne and Chateau (1981), and Finon and Lapillonne (1983)). The MAED model described above is essentially derived from the MEDEE model. The main difference between MAED and MEDEE is that MAED was based on an earlier version of MEDEE which has been further developed by IAEA into its present form, while MEDEE remains the model of the original authors and is supported by their energy consulting firm ENERDATA. Thus the modeling approach remains the same but the development of the two products has taken different paths in the recent times. To avoid duplication, MEDEE model is not elaborated any further here.

# **5.1.3 Energy forecasting as part of an integrated model**

# **LEAP Model**

The Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) is a flexible modeling environment that allows building specific applications suited to particular problems at various geographical levels (cities, state, country, region or global). As an integrated energy planning model LEAP covers both the demand and supply sides of the energy system. However, we briefly outline the demand forecasting features of the LEAP model here.

The model follows the accounting framework approach to generate a consistent view of energy demand (and supply) based on the physical description of the energy system. It also relies on the scenario approach to develop a consistent storyline of the possible paths of energy system evolution. Thus for the demand forecasting, the model does not optimize or simulate the market shares but analyses the implications of possible alternative market shares on the demand.

85