rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
_R. = {R, X R 2 X RJ_ _(8)_ _R._ = _VRSR XR2 xR3 (9)_ 54. This approach was used for railway vehicles (14.100); engines and turbines (15.100); construction, ning and oil-field machinery (15.500); and electical transission, distrbution, and industrial apparatus (16.100).

55. For some goods, equivalence in specification, type or fimction could not be fiund. Therefre, the paameter having the strongest influence on the price of the goods was selected as the bais for quality matching If this paaneter was matched, the goods were conidered as satisfig the requement of quality matching.

56. Only in recent years could dweDings be sold in China, therefore basic price infonnation on residendal buildings covers the period from 1988 to 1990, which have to be extrapolated backward to 1986. Prices of non-residential buildings were estimated based on the costs of those buildings. Prices in the U.S. can be estinatedby selling prices and floor space (from the _Stat&i Absact of the United States, 1988)._ Bilateral compaisons for constuction are shown in Table 10: 24
**Table 9: Value of food subsidies by quintile (Million LYD)**

||**Q1 **|**Q2 **|**Q3 **|**Q4 **|**Q5 **|**Total**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Flour|25.2|21.1|18.3|15.1|9.6|89.3|
|Flour-bread|89.4|82.7|71.9|59.8|47.5|351.2|
|Semolina|4.1|3.5|2.7|1.9|1.0|13.2|
|Rice|42.3|37.4|33.1|26.5|18.1|157.4|
|Sugar|29.2|25.3|21.4|17.4|11.3|104.6|
|Tea|8.2|7.2|6.1|4.6|3.0|29.1|
|Macaroni|32.3|26.9|22.6|17.9|12.0|111.7|
|Vegetable Oil|70.7|59.3|50.9|40.2|27.1|248.3|
|Paste tomatoes|26.1|22.1|18.7|14.7|9.9|91.4|
|Milk for children|2.9|4.3|5.2|6.1|5.7|24.2|
|Milk (concentrated)|17.6|15.8|13.1|9.7|6.4|62.6|
|Total|348.0|305.6|264.1|213.8|151.6|1,283.0|

Source: Libyan Household Consumption Survey 2007/8; Libyan authorities; and Bank staff calculations.

The per-capita data suggest that subsidies benefit all people broadly equally, with the exception of flour used for bread and milk for children.<sup>12</sup> Figure 2 plots the total monetary value of food subsidies per capita on the _y-axis_ and the population percentiles on the _x-axis_ . The curves are flat, indicating everyone across the spectrum of the population derives the same monetary value from food subsidies. Again, this results is not surprising given that the quota system is established on a per-capita basis, allocating the same quantity of food at subsidized prices to every individual regardless of the income bracket.

> 12 Household sizes are different across quintiles, as noted earlier, with poorer households also being the largest. It is therefore useful to also look at per-capita estimates in addition to per-household estimates to assess whether or not food subsidies are progressive.

12
# **Figure 2: Tanzanian Preferential Liberalization in Services with the EU:**

**Part B: Partial equilibrium welfare effects in the markets for African and Rest of the World services in Tanzania**

**_Rest of World Market: Welfare Effects_**

## **_Africa Market: Welfare Effects_**

<!-- Start of picture text --> B A<br>C D<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> B A<br>C D<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> J<br>α<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> δ<br>β<br>D<br>I<br>γ<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text -->
**<br><!-- End of picture text -->

Demand for rest of world services declines due to preferential agreement. Equilibrium for ROW moves from A to B. RENTS decline by ABCD. If RENTS are initially captured the change in welfare is –ABCD < 0. If RENTS are not captured initially, there is no welfare change in this market.

57
Economist Intelligence Unit, 2011. “Global Microscope on the Microfinance Business Environment 2011.”

- Hermes, Niels, Robert Lensink, and Aljar Meesters, 2009. “Financial Development and Efficiency of Microfinance Institutions.” University of Groningen, mimeo.

- Hermes, Niels, Robert Lensink, and Aljar Meesters, 2011. “Outreach and Efficiency of Microfinance Institutions.” _World Development_ , 39(6): 938-948.

- Kaufmann, Daniel, Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastruzzi, 2007. “Governance Matters VI: Governance Indicators of 1996-2006.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4280. Washington, DC.

- Klapper, Leora, Lus Laeven, and Raghuram Rajan, 2006. "Entry Regulation as a Barrier to Entrepreneurship." _Journal of Financial Economics_ 82(3): 591-629.

- Maksudova. Nargiza, 2010. “Macroeconomics of Microfinance: How Do the Channels Work?” CERGE-EI Working Paper Series No. 423. Prague.

- Vanroose, Annabel and Bert D’Espallier. 2013. “Do Microfinance Institutions Accomplish Their Mission? Evidence from the Relationship Between Traditional Financial Sector ”

- Development and Microfinance Institutions’ Outreach and Performance _. Applied Economics_ 45(15): 1965-1982.

- Vanroose, Annabel and Bert D’Espallier. 2009. “Microfinance and Financial Sector Development.” Centre Emile Bernheim Working Paper no. 09/240.

17
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<!-- Start of picture text --> Fabrication technology<br>and automation<br>Machines controlled by operators<br>Machines controlled by<br>computers<br>Additive manufacturing including<br>rapid prototyping and 3D printers<br>Other advanced manufacturing<br>processes (e.g. laser, plasma<br>sputtering, high speed machine,<br>E-beam, micromachining)<br><!-- End of picture text -->
Table A.21: Analysis of enumerator bias distribution

|VARIABLES|Brazil|Vietnam|Senegal|Bangladesh|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Share of Signifcantly Diferent Interviewers|0|0.09|0.08|0.11|
|Number of Signifcantly Diferent Interviewers|0|13|2|4|
|Number of Interviewers|8|145|25|37|
||Ghana|India|Korea|Kenya|
|Share of Signifcantly Diferent Interviewers|0|0|0|0.2|
|Number of Signifcantly Diferent Interviewers|0|0|0|2|
|Number of Interviewers|44|18|9|10|

Note: Data from the Firm-level Adoption of Technology (FAT) surveys in Brazil, Vietnam, Senegal, Bangladesh, Ghana, India, and Korea. Significantly different interviewers are identified from the regressions of employment on interviewer dummies with controlling for stratification information (e.g., sector, size, and region). For each country, the share of significantly different interviewers is computed by dividing the number of interviews conducted by significantly different interviewers by the total number of interviews.

we re-interview 100 randomly selected firms with a short version of the questionnaire. For those firms, we randomly select three business functions and ask about the presence of the relevant technologies.<sup>39</sup> Both the original and back-end interviews in the pilot are conducted by phone by different interviewers.

Despite using phone interviews which are subject to greater measurement error than faceto-face interviews, comparison of answers from the pilot reveals that 73% of the answers were the same across the two interviews.<sup>40</sup> We estimate a probit model to assess the likelihood of consistent answers between the original and the back-check interviews, controlling for firmlevel fixed-effect. Reporting the use of a technology in the back-check interview is associated with 80.6% of likelihood of reporting the use of the same technology in the original interview. Conversely, reporting that a technology is not used in the back-check interview, is associated with a 29.3% likelihood of being reported in the original survey.

# **Additional validation exercise with employer-employee census (RAIS) in Brazil**

Some final ex-post checks were conducted with the Brazil data and takes advantage of the fact that we have access to the RAIS administrative data, which is a matched employeremployee dataset that covers the universe of firms in the sampling frame. This allows us to

> 39The pilot coincided with the beginning of the data collection for phase two which includes new countries, and Kenya is one of them. Despite the fact that Kenya is not in the sample, the pilot is informative about the significance of response bias. The re-interviews produce 1,661 answers (106 interviews times 3 business functions times an average of 5.2 technologies per function).

> 40The consistency ranges from 65% in business administration to 77% in sales across business functions, and from 85% among the most basic technologies to around 61% in intermediate, and 77% at the most advanced technologies across functions.

109
license two more fixed service carriers and two new mobile carriers.<sup>49</sup> While the NCA now has a full complement of commissioners (with the Minister not among them), given the structural weaknesses of NCA, the credibility of the commitment to liberalization and competition is weak.

- Guinea does not have an independent regulator.  La Direction Nationale des Postes et Telecommunications is an office within the Ministry of Communications, Post and Telecommunications.<sup>50</sup> Guinea has a poorly functioning telecommunications network, and has not made a clear commitment to liberalization.  The incumbent carrier, Société des Télécommunications de Guinée, has a statutory monopoly in fixed service and over 75 percent of the market in mobile telephony.  Partial privatization to Telekom Malaysia in 1995 failed when the private partner withdrew in 2005.<sup>51</sup>

- Guinea-Bissau is a very small country, one of the poorest nations in the world, and has one of the least developed telecommunications systems with around 12,000 operating telephones.  The nation has established a telecommunications regulator, the Institute of Communications of Guinea-Bissau, and has adopted a legislative framework for liberalization.<sup>52</sup> A majority interest in the state-owned monopoly carrier was sold to Portuguese Telecommunications, but in 1998 the new owner abandoned the country in the midst of political instability.

- Until recently, telecommunications regulation in Liberia was undertaken by an office within the Ministry of Communications, and policy favored the incumbent state-owned enterprise, the Liberia Telecommunications Corporation (LTC). Liberia announced a new liberalization policy in July 2005, and in September a statute was enacted that created an independent regulator, the Liberia Telecommunications Authority.<sup>53</sup> The first chair of the LTA was appointed by the

> 49 See Republic of Ghana, Ministry of Communications, _National Telecommunications Policy_ at www.nca.org.gh/ncatemp/downloads/Ghana%20Telecom%20Policy%20Final.pdf.

> 50 MBendi _Information for Africa_ . 2000. “Guinea: Computers and Communications.”

> 51 _Trade Policy Review—Republic of Guinea_ , Report of the Secretariat, World Trade Organization, p. 73, at www.wto.org/English/tratop_e/tpr_e/s153-4_e.doc and M. Fulgence, “Telekom Malaysia se retire de la société de télécommunications de Guinée,” _Le Potentiel_ , January 21, 2005, at www.lepotentiel.com/afficher_article.php?id_edition=&id_article=196.

> 52 See www.icgb.org/english/decree999.html.

> 53 Republic of Liberia, _National Telecommunications Strategy and Policy:  Telecommunications Sector Policy Document_ , 2005.

45
# **III. Benchmarking Latvia**

Three recent studies – the World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness Report, the World Bank Knowledge Economy Index, and Porter and Stern’s analysis of national innovation capacity -- highlight some of the complex challenges that Latvia will have to surmount if it is to create a globally competitive, high value added 21<sup>st</sup> century economy.

# <u>A. Global Competitiveness Report</u>

The 2002-2003 Global Competitiveness Report seeks to understand “the microeconomic bases of a nation’s prosperity measured by its level of GDP per capita. The focus is on whether current prosperity is sustainable, and on the specific areas that must be addressed if GDP per capita is to achieve higher levels in the future.”<sup>22</sup> Microeconomic competitiveness is important, the report observes, because “sound monetary and fiscal policies and the removal of distortions in exchange rates and other prices will eliminate impediments to productivity, but microeconomic foundations must be in place if productivity is actually to increase....Without microeconomic reforms, growth will be snuffed out as exports and jobs fail to materialize, wages stagnate, and the return on investment proves disappointing.”<sup>23</sup> The Microeconomic Competitiveness Index (MICI) attempts to measure the quality of a country’s microeconomic foundations of development. The index is a weighted average of two inter-related sets of variables: (i) “the sophistication with which domestic companies or foreign subsidiaries operating in the country compete, and (ii) the quality of the microeconomic business environment.”<sup>24</sup> The first set of variables attempts to measure whether a nation’s companies have the managerial, organizational and technical capacity to shift from a competitive model based on the production of simple products with low wage labor to a competitive model based on the production of sophisticated products utilizing sophisticated production processes and high wage, skilled labor.

The second set of variables measures, in effect, measures the extent of cluster development in a particular country. As the report observes, “In developing countries, clusters are normally shallow or underdeveloped. Firms compete on the basis of cheap labor or local natural resources and they depend heavily on imported components, machinery and technology. Specialized local infrastructure and institutions are absent. As economies advance, clusters advance and deepen to include suppliers of specialized inputs, components, machinery and services; specialized infrastructure; and institutions providing specialized training, education, information, research, and technical support....The challenge for an economy is to move from isolated firms to an array of

> 22  Michael E. Porter, “Building the Microeconomic Foundations of Prosperity: Findings from the Microeconomic Competitiveness Index,” in Peter K. Cornelius (ed.), <u>The Global Competitiveness Report 2002-2003, Oxford University Press 2003, p. 24.</u>

> 23  Ibid., p. 29

> 24    Ibid., p. 25

26
26

- rate premium over the official exchange rate in percent, defined am (BE-OE)/OE, where BE is black market exchange rate and OE is official exchange rate. Source: International Currency Year book, previously known as Pick's Currency Yearbook.

- XY6589s Average for the period 1965-89 of the export to GDP ratio in percent. Sources: foreign trade: INFIFS; GDP: BESD IEC National Account.

- INFL6589: Average of the annual inflation rate on CPI for the period 1965 to 1989. Sources inflation on CPI (period average): IMFIFS.

- VINF6589: Variance of inflation from 1965 to 1989. Source: inflation on CPI (period average): IMFIFS.

- SEGRY6589: Change in the Central Bank's claims on the public sector (IFS lines 12a, 12b, 12c including the central government and public enterprises), given by the difference in the year-end and begining-year data, as a ratio of GDP in current prices in the same year.

- Dr: Dummy va-;.able for real interest rate average from 1965 to 1989, where 1 for positive numbers and 0 for negative numbers.

- DA: Dummy variable for Africa, where 1 for African countries and 0 for others.

- DLA: Dummy variable for Latin America, where 1 for Latin American countries and 0 for others.
# **5 REFERENCES**

Abeysinghe, T. and Rajaguru, G. (2004). Quarterly Real GDP Estimates for China and ASEAN4 with a Forecast Evaluation. Journal of Forecasting 23: 431-447 Albala-Bertrand, J. M. (1993). Political Economy of Large Natural Disasters With Special Reference to Developing Countries. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

Albala-Bertrand, J. M. (2006). The Unlikeliness of an Economic Catastrophe: Localization & Globalization. Working Papers 576, Queen Mary, University of London, Department of Economics.

Baritto, F. (2008). Disasters, Vulnerability and Resilience. Working paper. UN-ISDR.

Benson, C. (1997a). The economic impact of natural disasters in Fiji. Working Paper No.97. London, UK, Overseas Development Institute (ODI).

Benson, C. (1997b). The economic impact of natural disasters in the Philippines. Working Paper No.99. London, UK, Overseas Development Institute (ODI).

Benson, C. (1997c). The economic impact of natural disasters in Viet Nam. Working Paper No.98. London, UK, Overseas Development Institute (ODI).

Benson, C. (1998). The cost of disasters. Development at risk? Natural disasters and the third World. J. Twigg. Oxford, Oxford Centre for Disaster Studies, UK National Coordinated Committee for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR): 8-13.

Benson, C. and Clay, E. (1998). The impact of drought on Sub-Saharan African economies. World Bank Technical Paper Series No. 401. Washington, D.C., The World Bank.

Benson, C. and Clay, E. (2000). Developing countries and the economic impacts of catastrophes. Managing disaster risk in emerging economies. A. Kreimer, Arnold, M. (eds.). Washington, D.C., World Bank Publication.

Benson, C. and Clay, E. (2001). Dominica: Natural disasters and economic development in a small island state. Disaster Risk Management Working Paper Series No.2. Washington, D.C., The World Bank.

Benson, C. and Clay, E. (2004). Understanding the Economic and Financial Impacts of Natural Disasters. Disaster Risk Management Series. The World Bank.

Box, G.E.P., and Jenkins, G.M. (1976). Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and Control. San Francisco, Holden-Day.

Burton, K., Kates, R. and White, G. (1993). The Environment as Hazard, 2nd edition. New York, Guilford Press.

25
# **X.  Overall Evaluation of Local MBA Programs**

## **Figure 7**

<!-- Start of picture text --> MBA Survey Ques. 9: What is your overall evaluation of local<br>MBA programs?<br>11%<br>22%<br>42%<br>25%<br>Inadequately Fairly well prepared<br>Well prepared No Response<br>Figure 8<br>Neelankavil MBA Survey (1994): What is the overall evaluation<br>of MBA programs by Fortune 1000 Executives?<br>6% 10%<br>23%<br>62%<br>Inadequately prepared Fairly well prepared<br>Well prepared No Response<br><!-- End of picture text --> As illustrated in Figure 7, the overall evaluation of emerging market MBA programs shows that 67% of the respondents find local MBA graduates to be “fairly well prepared” or “well prepared”, while 11% found them to be “inadequately prepared”. On the face of it, it seems that businesses judge the overall quality of local MBA graduates to be adequate, though not overwhelmingly strong.

This picture changes, however, at the regional level. In the Africa region, 22% of respondents said that locally trained MBAs were inadequately prepared, while 17% of the respondents from the Middle East region also found the local MBAs inadequately prepared. These results seemingly point to a mismatch in the skills imparted to MBA 21
# Public Work Programs and Gender-Based Violence: Evidence from Lao PDR

Elizaveta Perova<sup>1</sup> *, Erik Johnson<sup>1</sup> , Aneesh Mannava, Sarah Reynolds<sup>2</sup> , and Alana Teman JEL codes: D1, D04, I15, J12, J16 Key words: public work programs, gender-based violence, Southeast Asia, randomized intervention

## 1 World Bank

2 University of California, Berkeley, School of Public Health

*Corresponding Author eperova@theworldbank.org

We gratefully acknowledge funding from the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE) and Australia’s DFAT to carry out this work. The data collection protocols were approved by Health Media Labs IRB. We thank Aline Coudouel, Patrick Premand, Stephanie Kuttner and participants of the East Asia and Pacific Chief Economist Office seminar for insightful comments. We thank Amber Peterman, Sofia Amaral and S Anukriti in advance for reviewing the work. All errors are ours.
## _Source: Authors' estimates using datafor GLSS I and GLSS3._

While comparisons between the two surveys are somewhat hampered by the apparently more liberal definition of migration in 1988-89 survey, comparing the relative proportions among those who did migrate may still be possible. In both years there is very little migration from rural to urban areas-most migrants from rural areas went to other rural areas. What is even more interesting is that rather more than half of the migrants from urban areas went to the rural sector, and only a negligible fraction went to the capital city. Ghana had a remarkable experience among developing countries in actually showing "deurbanization" in this period. Overall the 1988-89 survey found that 63.7 percent of the population was rural, but in the 1991-92 survey this proportion had gone up to 65.2 percent.

The recent evidence on migration flows thus shows that, in the groups which are most generally prone to migrate, the income levels in town, in real terms are not perceived to be higher than in the rural areas. It is consistent with the finding that the incidence of poverty is increasing and is probably higher in Accra than in the rural economy in 1992.

# 7. **Conclusions and Recommendations**

# 7.1 **The Future of Labor Absorption in Ghana**

The slow-down and, perhaps reversal, in the rural-to-urban flow of labor is symptomatic of a basic shortcoming in the economic recovery of Ghana-viz., the inadequate growth of the productive sector in the non-agricultural economy. The rate of growth of GDP in real terms, although slowing down a bit in the 1990-95 period, has still been reasonably adequate at an average of 4.3 per cent. (It had been fully one percentage point higher in the 1985-90 period). But much of this growth has been fueled and led by the services sector. According to the National Accounts this sector has surpassed agriculture as the major contributor to GDP-since 1992 its share has exceeded 46 per cent. There are several positive aspects to the growth in the services sector. Government services no longer dominated the growth in services, in spite of the sharp increase in wages particularly in 1992. Growth has been strong because of the relatively strong performance in the major sub-sectors like tourism, communications and financial services. Some part of this growth can be directly traced to liberalization and the strengthening of private banking and other service activities. It has also been noted that the restoration of agricultural production to a somewhat higher level has encouraged the growth of off-farm trading activities. However, it is arguable that some of this increase in service sector incomes is a once-for-all adjustment to the recovery and cannot be sustained at this growth rate without commensurate growth of the production sectors-in agriculture as well as in non-agriculture.

In this connection the recent experience of the manufacturing sector in Ghana is a matter of concern. The immediate impact of the ERP was encouraging as the growth 49