rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
by local artists organizations, government agencies — such as Ministries of Education, Information Technology, and Culture — and even private parties and development organizations:

- Provide technological training in local languages in addition official languages. This may entail starting with explaining what the Internet is to what a gigabit is, and providing content tailored for different age groups — since young people tend to have a higher ability to adopt digital skills faster than older folks.

- Explain to artists the advantages of digital marketing compared to disadvantages such as piracy.

- Digital technologies provide unlimited possibilities to produce derivative works. But artists should be trained to know the boundaries to avoid the trappings of infringing on other people’s work.

- Since online experiences can be abusive, fake, and even manipulative, artists should be trained to understand and to deal with emotional and physiological implications of negative digital experiences — this is the so-called digital “social-emotional literacy.”<sup>69</sup>

- Discuss the digital toll on personal health. For example, “prolonged reading on glossy self-illuminated screens can cause eyestrain, headaches and blurred vision. Such symptoms are so common among people who read on screens—affecting around 70 percent of people who work long hours in front of computers—that [at least in the United States] the American Optometric Association <u>officially</u> ”<sup>70</sup>

- <u>recognizes computer vision syndrome.</u>

Digital technology has changed creative work in profound ways. While it has killed some jobs, it has also created others; and while it has shifted the ‘work-life’ balance, it has also made remarkable contributions, contributions that facilitate creativity. There is more to be done, particularly in bridging the gender and other digital divides. And more needs to be done to facilitate the harvest of intellectual rights for artists, especially in the developing world. Such actions cannot be achieved overnight. But the creative world needs sound policies that will encourage more fair and inclusive creative work in the digital age. This is likely to help expand the role of creative output in expanding human development in our increasingly digitized world.

***

> 69 Yoram Eshet-Alkala, “Digital Literacy.”

> 70 Ferris Jabr, “The Reading Brain in the Digital Age.”

21
NRI deposit flows to India gained momentum in the 1980s after the RBI introduced NRI deposit schemes to tap flows from the Indian diaspora. It made deposits fully repatriable, offered attractive interest rates, and assumed the exchange rate risk on foreign currency-denominated accounts. These schemes proved to be vulnerable during the 1991 balance of payments crisis, when the outflows of deposits compounded the pressure on the external accounts. Subsequently the composition of deposits was shifted toward rupee denominated accounts; their repatriable component was reduced; and the exchange risk on foreign currency deposits was shifted to the banks. The deposit inflows resumed and continued to be substantial during the 1990s.

Authorities responded to the robust inflows and India’s strong external position by linking the interest rates offered on foreign currency deposits with Libor rate, i.e. essentially lowering the interest rates on NRI deposits; by granting the banks flexibility to set interest rates on rupee deposits; and by making all new deposits fully repatriable.<sup>31</sup> These measures resulted in the interest rates on NRI deposits declining sharply, and in moderating their inflows. Subsequently the maximum permissible spread on NRI deposits over Libor was lowered during surges, and increased during the period of capital flow slowdown.

**Figure 18: Ceilings on Interest Rate Spreads (over Libor) for NRI Deposits have been revised in sync with the Capital Flow Cycle**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Interest rate Spread on nonresident external rupee Interest rate Spread on foreign currency nonresident<br>account (NRERA) (FCNR)<br>300<br>300 Spreads were L<br>i<br>250 Interest rate spreads Spreads were raised during Li 250200 raised during sudden stops be<br>200 were lowered when sudden stops b r<br>capital inflows e 150 Interest rate spreads a<br>150 were robust r were lowered when l<br>a 100 i<br>100 l capital inflows were z<br>i 50 robust e<br>50 z d<br>e 0<br>0 d<br>‐50<br>‐100<br>basis points<br>basis points<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: RBI Master Circulars on Interest Rates on NRI Deposits, various years.

31 Gordon and Gupta (2004) established that the nonresident deposits respond positively to the differential between the interest rates on these deposits the return on competing international assets; with the impact of the interest rate differential outweighing the impact of other factors.

28
# **3.2 Mechanisms**

There are two main channels through which an increase in tradable activity can generate growth in non-tradable services. First, the effect could come from sectoral linkages. The growth in tradable services may lead to growth in input-supplying non-tradable services, or conversely, growth in tradable services could make tradable service inputs into non-tradable services cheaper or of higher quality. This in turn could spur non-tradable service growth in input-receiving sectors. Alternately, on the demand-side, tradable service growth may increase local income, which in turn increases consumer demand for non-traded services. Whether the sectoral linkages or demand-side mechanisms explain our main results is ultimately an empirical question.

We consider the sectoral linkages channel first. To explore this, we use the Indian inputoutput tables from 2006-07, which show the linkages of non-tradable service sectors to and from tradable services, as a share of inputs to/from all the sectors in the economy. We use this to categorize non-tradable service sectors into four categories: (i) sectors that provide a below median (low) share of inputs _to_ tradable services, (ii) sectors that provide an above median (high) share of inputs _to_ tradable services, (iii) sectors that receive a below median (low) share of inputs _from_ tradable services, and (iv) sectors that receive an above median (high) share of inputs _from_ tradable services.

To test for the sectoral linkages channel, in Table 4, we estimate separate regressions for district-level employment in each of these 4 categories in response to an increase in tradable services employment. In column 1, we find that district-level employment increased in nontradable services sectors that provide a low share of inputs to tradable sectors, but there is no statistically significant change in the employment in non-tradable sectors that provide a high share of inputs to tradable sectors (column 2). Similarly, in columns 3 and 4, we find that district-level employment increases in non-tradable services sectors that receive a low share of inputs from tradable sectors, but there is no statistically significant change in the employment in non-tradable sectors that receive a high share of inputs from tradable sectors. Taken together, we find that in response to increased district-level employment growth in tradable services, there is an increase in district-level employment in non-tradable service sectors that have low input-output linkages with the tradable services sector.

Next, we consider the consumer demand channel. Following Fan et al. (2021), we analyze the group of non-tradable consumer services, which are largely demanded by local consumers and not used as inputs. As they discuss in their application to India, the expenditure share of consumer services increases with income, but is virtually unrelated to demand from pro14
the drivers of differences in job satisfaction for select subsamples. To start with, for a subset of respondents we have information on job characteristics. Second, individuals were asked to rate how much control they considered they had over their lives, varying from “1. No control”, “2 some control”, “3 a great deal of control” to “4 complete control”. This variable may capture the degree that self-employment is associated with greater empowerment, for example by providing more independence.

Third, the survey also generated an experimentally solicited measure of risk aversion through a series of lottery games played with a subset of the sample(see Falco et al. (2010)). A representative subset of 288 respondents from the UPS was invited to participate to a number of workshops where they were presented with a series of 21 lottery games. In each game participants were asked to choose between two alternative lotteries. Each lottery took the shape of an opaque bag containing a number of coloured marbles. To each colour was attached a money prize and each respondent was asked to choose from which of the two bags he would prefer to pick a random marble. At the beginning of the task each participant was told that, once they had made their 21 choices, one would be picked at random and acted out, i.e., they could pick a marble from the bag they chose in that case and would be paid the corresponding winnings. The winnings of the gamble ranged from 10,000 to 110,000 CEDIs, with average winnings calibrated just above 30,000 CEDIs. This sum was estimated to be larger than the average daily earnings of a worker in the sample and therefore the stakes were high enough to elicit participants’ true risk-preferences. From this, an estimate of each of the participants’ individual Coefficients of Relative Risk Aversion was retrieved.<sup>11</sup>

# 3.2 Employment States

For the purpose of this analysis, we distinguish between five paid employment states among workers who respond to the standard question about whether they have done any work for pay, profit or gain for the last seven days, even for one hour.<sup>12</sup>

> 11For further details on how this measure was constructed, the sampling design and the definition of other key variables (see CSAE, 2008; Falco, 2010; Falco et al., 2010).

> 12We do not have a variable for whether a worker is covered by the sparse social protection programs that exist, hence we base our categorizations of formality on firm size.

11
22 years than any other category (such as cancers, infectious and parasitic diseases, cardiovascular disease). Yet there is virtually no organized research on the topic of injuries in developing countries.27

# Eventual Difference Research Might Make

Research on household demand for health and on health behavior would obviously contribute to better design of public health and nutrition programs, for example by improving understanding of how education improves health and whether and how public information and services can substitute in the short run for education. It could lead to more sustainable financing of health care, through greater understanding of whether and how to implement user charges and how to rely on private sector programs without prejudicing public health goals or restricting access of the poor to health services. Health -- planners have naturally tended to focus on problems of the health system supply-side problems -- as the critical constraint to improving health. A great advantage of household studies is their emphasis on the demand side, on beneficiaries as consumers, and on behavior, including health-seeking behavior.

Research on the political economy of public expenditures on health would broaden the nature of health policy discussiGn in the international public health community beyond the (important and relatively well-understood) area of primary health care, and could contribute to improvements in the public management (including regulation, quality control, and monitoring of private provision of health care) and financing of health care. Research in this area 27 See Jamison and Mosley (1990, forthcoming) for an impressive effort to tackle health sector priorities by looking across disease and injury categories.
**Table 5:. Poverty Targeting Performance of Vaso de Leche Expenditures-Values of Transfers**

|_Datasetandyear_|_Percent _<br>_alloc_<br>_Poor_|_oftransfers_<br>_atedto..._<br>_Nonpoor_|_Difference_|_Average _<br>_trans_<br>_Poor_|_percapita_<br>_ferto..._<br>_Nonpoor_|_Targeting_<br>_coefficient_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Alltransferstohouse_<br>ENNIV1997|_holdswith _<br>0.72|_childrenofag_<br>0.28|_e6 andunder_<br>0.44|25.3|14.7|42.1|
|PETS 2002|0.74|0.26|0.48||||
|_Alltransfers_|||||||
|ENNIV1997|0.63|0.37|0.25|23.2|12.2|45.2|
|PETS2002|0.76|0.24|0.52||||

We use the living standards measurement surveys (ENNIV) for 1994 and 1997 to get a better sense of how targeting of the poor changed over time. In particular, we estimate simple regressions of (a) the district per capita VL transfers on the percent of the district population that is poor; (b) the share of the district population participating in the VL program on the percent of the district population that is poor; and (c) the average value of per capita district VL transfers received by recipients on an indicator of the particular household's poverty status. Each of these models is estimated for both the 1994 and 1997 samples and the difference in the elasticity (marginal effect) estimates for the district (household) regressions were tested. The results (Table 6) indicate that while the poor are targeted, with positive elasticities of per capita district transfers with respect to the district poverty rate, the degree of this expenditure targeting fell substantially between 1994 and 1997.

Nonetheless, the effect of the poverty rate of a district on the percentage of the district population participating increased over this period with the elasticities rising from 0.6 to 0.8. The effect of this increase in coverage appears to have offset the decline in targeting of district expenditure levels, to the extent that poor recipients received increasingly larger transfers than the nonpoor on average in 1997 than they did in 1994.

Turning to nutrition-based targeting, the VL program also is concentrated on households with low nutritional status of children. This is illustrated in Table 7, where coverage rates of all children under five years of age are presented by quintile of height-forage z-scores (HAZ) for the three household surveys with information on both VL participation and anthropometric status of children. In 1997, for example, 64 percent of the children in the least well-nourished quintile lived in households that received VL food transfers, while just over 30 percent were in the most nourished quintile. Nonetheless, despite the fact that the primary stated objective of the VL program is to reduce the levels of malnutrition in Peru, over a third of the intended beneficiaries in the most malnourished quintile were missed.

_14_
|**Table 1**<br>**_Type of country_**|**: Means and standar**<br>**_Variable_**|**d deviation**<br>**_N_**|**of the sa**<br>**_Mean_**|**mple**<br>**_SD_**|**_Min_**|**_Max_**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Returns|235|7.51|2.6|0.3|14.7|
||Schooling|219|9.37|1.9|3.8|13.0|
|All|Transition|235|0.46|0.5|0.0|1.0|
||Post-1992|235|0.63|0.5|0.0|1.0|
||Polityindex|231|7.06|5.3|-9.0|10.0|
||Trade(% GDP)|214|83.29|40.7|24.0|313.6|
||Returns|108|6.80|2.8|0.3|14.0|
||Schooling|92|9.97|1.7|4.4|12.8|
|Transition countries|Post-1992|108|0.73|0.4|0.0|1.0|
||Polityindex|107|4.15|6.4|-9.0|10.0|
||Trade(% GDP)|88|95.06|30.6|42.9|172.0|
||Returns|127|8.11|2.3|3.6|14.7|
||Schooling|127|8.93|1.9|3.8|13.0|
|Non-transition countries|Post-1992|127|0.55|0.5|0.0|1.0|
||Polityindex|124|9.58|1.7|-5.4|10.0|
||Trade(% GDP)|126|75.07|44.8|24.0|313.6|

We applied a panel data model to leverage the cross-sectional and time-series dimensions of our data. Our approach entails a Difference-in-Difference method with a Random Effects (RE) model to estimate the effect on the returns to education brought by two different shocks (i.e., treatments): (i) the fall of the Soviet Union and its bloc, and (ii) the accession of transition countries to the EU. We chose a Difference-in-Difference method because we have two well-defined shocks (i.e., the fall of the Soviet Union and its bloc, and EU accession), and we opted for the RE model to use the between variations to estimate the effect of each treatment on the returns to education while taking into account how the treatment and control groups differentiate from each other. The decision to choose the RE was supported by the results of the Breusch and Pagan Lagrangian Multiplier (LM) test and the Hausman test (Wooldridge 2001; see Annex 4). The results of the first test exhibited evidence of variance across entities, namely the presence of random effects; while the results of the second test showed that the RE estimator is consistent and efficient in comparison to the FE estimator, which is only consistent.

7
# Gendered Impacts of Climate Change Evidence from Weather Shocks<sup>*</sup>

Anna Fruttero, Daniel Halim, Chiara Broccolini, Bernardo Coelho, Horace Gninafon, and Noël Muller

## **JEL: J16, O15, Q54**

**Keywords** : climate change, gender, health, education, livelihoods, agency, vulnerability, shocks

> * Broccolini, Coelho, Fruttero, Halim and Muller: The World Bank; Gninafon: Université Laval. We thank Hana Brixi, Andrea Kucey, and Laura Rawlings for their guidance; Anne Kuriakose, Ezgi Canpolat, Ana Gren, Miriam Muller, Elizaveta Perova, Luca Tiberti, Julia Vaillant, and Andrea Woodhouse for their comments and insights. Horace Gninafon acknowledges financial support from the World Bank Group Africa Fellowship Program. Corresponding authors: Anna Fruttero (afruttero@worldbank.org) and Daniel Halim (dhalim@worldbank.org).
and _Pkt_ * is the consumer price level of country _i_ ’s _k-th_ trading partner in period _t_ .4 Price levels at time 0 represent the base period of our index numbers. Note that according to this definition, an increase in _q_ implies a real appreciation of the local currency. Hence, the RER volatility is the standard deviation of the (natural logarithm of the) RER variation between period t and t-12: where _q_ it is the log( _Q_ it). Note that for robustness purposes we also compute the RER volatility of the 2-year (24-month) variation of the RER as well as 3-, 4- and 5-year variation.

_Openness_ : We now consider policy and outcome measures of trade and financial openness. Regarding _trade openness_ , our _policy measure_ is based on an updated version of the Sachs and Warner (1995) binary variable of trade liberalization (Wacziarg and Welch, 2003). This dummy variable takes the value of 1 whenever the trade regime is considered as an open one and 0 otherwise.<sup>5</sup> We use the share of years in the 5-year period that the country enjoys an open trade regime.

The _outcome measure_ of openness to international trade in goods and services is the real value of exports and imports (that is, total trade) as a percentage of GDP. Further tests on the smoothing properties of trade openness will imply the analysis of the composition of trade flows. In our paper we break down total trade as percentage of GDP into manufacturing and non-manufacturing trade (both expressed as percentage of GDP). The data for total trade and its composition is obtained from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators (WDI) and the United Nations’ COMTRADE database.

_Policy indicators_ of financial openness are measured by two different proxies: the first one is the IMF binary variable of capital account restrictions, which takes the value of 1 in the years when there are no restrictions on capital account transactions and 0 otherwise. We use the share of years in the 5-year period where there are no restrictions. The source of the data is Prasad, Rogoff, Wei and Kose (2003) based on the _IMF Annual Report on_

> 4 Data on exchange rates are drawn from the line rf of the IMF’s International Financial Statistics, which represents the average nominal exchange rate for the period. To approximate prices, we use the consumer price index (CPI) because of the timeliness of publication and the availability of the data on a monthly and quarterly basis.

> 5 According to Sachs and Warner (1995, p. 22), we consider a country to have a _closed_ trade policy if one of the following features hold: (i) More than 40% of its trade is covered by non-tariff barriers, (ii) It has average tariff barriers higher than or equal to 40%, (iii) Its black market exchange rate depreciates at a rate that is more than 20% relative to the official exchange rate (during the 1970s and 1980s), (iv) It has a socialist economic system, and (v) a state monopoly on major exports.

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**Figure 3. Parents’ Fining Behavior**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 90<br>80<br>70<br>60<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7<br>Amount the teachers gave to the (passive) parent<br>(% of endowment)<br>% third-party parents who fined<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Serra, Barr and Packard (2011) 118. Fining the teacher is costly to the third party parent, and the decision to fine depends on the intrinsic benefit from imposing the fine outweighing the fixed cost. Assuming that the intrinsic benefit to the parent of fining increases as the gap between what the parent believes the teacher ought to allocate and what they actually allocate widens (with the latter below the former), then only when the gap gets sufficiently wide will the fine be levied. For this reason, the minimum unfined offer chosen by each third party parent gives us a direct measure of that parents‟ intrinsic benefit from fining, i.e., their preference for participating in holding teachers to account.

119. Table 11 shows that for 77% of parents the minimum unfined offer is less than half of the endowment, 21% of the parents chose a minimum unfined offer of precisely one half of the endowment , and only 2% chose minimum unfined offers greater than one half. It is worth highlighting, particularly for readers not familiar with experimental methods and the results obtained from the same game in other countries (e.g., Barr et al. 2009), that parents in Albania are revealing a comparatively strong willingness to pay to fine teachers who share unfairly within the game.

researchers who are familiar with the implementation of strategy elicitation to non-students in lab-type experiments conducted in the field. However, the lack of inconsistencies can be explained by the fact that all parents were literate. The minimum years of schooling are 4 only for 1% of the sample. 44% of the parents completed 8 years of schooling and the remaining parents completed secondary school (27%) or even achieved an undergraduate or postgraduate degree (30%).