rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
exceeds the number of enclosed test papers, the testing agency is directed to select the longertenure students by examining the school enrollment records for the last three months (again, ADU reports that this is a rare event, as changes in enrollment usually occur at the start of the academic year and the QATs are administered well into the academic year). The testing agency also checks the enrollment and attendance records over the last three months for fictitious students and impersonation cases.

QAT procedures have been developed to discourage schools from strategically concentrating on some grades for test preparation and to limit the risk of test leakage and its consequences. In primary schools, the QAT tests two grades; in middle and secondary schools, it tests three grades. Which specific grades are selected to be tested in a given school are kept strictly confidential by the ADU team—both the testing agency and the program school learn which grades will be tested only when the sealed test packets are opened by the testing agency at the school in the presence of the school administrator(s) just before testing time. The testing agency also only brings in the sealed test packets to be used at that school on the day of the test. In addition, for each grade, eight different question papers are prepared by the ADU. These questions papers are randomized for each grade. Table 2 shows the practical results of implementing these procedures: it presents the top-four combinations of tested grades and the associated shares of program schools by QAT round.

A number of additional, more standard procedures are applied to prevent cheating. Teachers and school administers are not permitted to enter the testing area during the test. Test invigilation is typically carried out by a team of at least three persons. Children are not allowed to bring any materials or stationery (other than pens) into the testing area. The grades selected for the QAT are tested simultaneously in the same testing area and the seating for the students is mixed. All test materials provided to the test takers are collected back. All unused test materials are retained by the testing agency. ADU also reports that test item recycling across QAT rounds is presently rare given the size of its test item bank.

The QAT serves as the main source of data for the analysis of learning dynamics in program schools. While PEF has conducted nine QATs since the inception of the FAS program (QAT 9, the latest QAT, was administered in March 2010), this study uses data from QAT 4−QAT 8 which spans November 2007–November 2009, a two-year period, covering, in whole or in part, three academic years. QAT 4 is the first QAT round in the analysis as it represents the 13
This paper assesses the regulatory governance of electricity independent agencies in LAC region. In order to do that, we selected a theoretical framework of analysis and designed a survey that was completed by nineteen countries of the region (Trinidad and Tobago, Peru, Mexico, El Salvador, Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Guatemala, Ecuador, the Dominican Republic, Argentina, Jamaica, Honduras, Chile, and Uruguay). The evaluation of agencies’ governance was done through several indexes that reflect different dimensions of agencies’ organization and functioning.

Following Correa _et al._ (2006) and the majority of the research on the subject, we measure only electricity agencies’ governance structure and the implementation of some components and do not assess the impact of agencies’ decisions on regulatory outcomes, despite the consideration of agencies’ practices in our Electricity Regulatory Governance Index. In other words, we do not measure the impact of agencies’ governance on the performance of the sector or the quality of their regulations.

# **3.1 The benchmark model of analysis:**

We assess electricity regulatory agencies using the independent regulator model as our benchmark of analysis. This decision was based on two main factors. The first factor is related to the use of independent regulatory agencies as the model for electricity regulation in the majority of the region. According to our database,<sup>3</sup> almost 70 percent of the countries in the region have adopted a separate regulator from the line ministry as the preferred institutional arrangement for electricity regulation. The second factor is related to empirical evidence that considers the independent regulator model as the most effective approach in the regulation of privatized infrastructure industries (Brown _et al_ ., 2006).

**<mark>Figure 3: Countries with separate electricity regulator in LAC</mark>**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 32%<br>68%<br>Countries with separate<br>regulatory agencies<br>Countries with<br>ministry/SOE regulation<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: LAC Electricity Regulatory Governance Database. The World Bank. 2007.

# **3.2 Theoretical framework:**

We conceive regulatory agencies as both public bodies that are part of the public administration— and as such in charge of the delivery of public services—and as instruments to implement regulatory policies. This approach to assessing electricity agencies’ governance led us to consider not only existing research on infrastructure agencies’ designs (documented in the literature review), but also notions and tools of public sector governance applied to decentralized structures of government.

> 3 Based on the information collected through the surveys submitted by countries, we designed a database composed of 46 electricity regulators (including both federal and national regulators). This paper analyzes the governance of national electricity regulatory agencies and does not include agencies at the state level.

- 9 -
- 19 -

_Di_ represents the treatment status and the selection mechanism is the same as Equation (2) above.

39. The results are shown in **Table 6** . There are slight differences in the wage equation between the treatment and control groups. For examine, the gender inequality in wages looks greater among noncommuters. That is, informal employees or family business workers are faced with a greater gender inequality, which may be plausible in the Malagasy economy. However, the results are broadly similar to the above. It can be concluded that the differences in the wage equations are negligible, and our main results shown above remain robust.

**Table 6. Endogenous treatment effects model with different outcome equations between the treated and**

**<u>the untreated</u>**

|Dependent var.|ln_W_for|treated|ln_W_for|non-treated|_D_||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Coef.|Std.Err.|Coef.|Std.Err.|Coef.|Std.Err.|
|_D_<sup>1</sup>|1.027|(0.424) **|||||
|ln_TAXIBE_|||||-0.080|(0.038) **|
|ln_SUBUBUS_|||||0.028|(0.043)|
|ln_MINCBD_|||||0.105|(0.188)|
|ln_RENT_|||||0.035|(0.012) ***|
|ln_AGE_|0.327|(0.148) **|0.285|<br>(0.147) *|-0.359|(0.158) **|
|_MALE_|0.288|(0.073) ***|0.642|<br>(0.094) ***|<br>-0.151|(0.092) *|
|_PRIM_|0.007|(0.134)|0.150|<br>(0.125)|0.296|(0.171) *|
|_SECO_|0.043|(0.157)|0.170|<br>(0.171)|0.613|(0.173) ***|
|_TERT_|0.416|(0.179) **|0.463|<br>(0.219) **|0.705|(0.172) ***|
|_Q1_|-0.425|(0.225) *|-0.533|<br>(0.253) **|-0.733|(0.216) ***|
|_Q2_|-0.504|(0.156) ***|-0.406|<br>(0.212) *|-0.422|(0.186) **|
|_Q3_|-0.483|(0.119) ***|-0.521|<br>(0.181) ***|<br>-0.064|(0.176)|
|_Q4_|-0.372|(0.111) ***|-0.429|<br>(0.164) ***|<br>0.006|(0.168)|
|ln_HHS_|-0.089|(0.087)|0.006|<br>(0.104)|<sup>-0.100</sup>|<sup>(0.130)</sup>|
|ln_MINCSB_|-0.014|(0.038)|<sup>-0.003</sup>|<br>(0.039)|0.024|(0.049)|
|ln_ROOM_|0.086|(0.089)|0.155|<br>(0.108)|0.193|(0.117) *|
|_HOME_|-0.091|(0.085)|<sup>-0.028</sup>|<br>(0.093)|0.093|(0.133)|
|_POWR_|0.201|(0.118) *|0.284|<br>(0.184)|<sup>-0.109</sup>|<sup>(0.192)</sup>|
|_TAPW_|0.059|(0.131)|0.308|<br>(0.172) *|-0.145|(0.188)|
|_TOIL_|0.079|(0.095)|0.048|<br>(0.112)|<sup>-0.053</sup>|<sup>(0.132)</sup>|
|Constant|11.444|(0.546)***|10.100|<br>(0.766)***|0.558|(0.783)|
|Obs.|858||||||
|No. of district|8||8||8||
|dummies|||||||
|Endogenous selec|tion test:||||||
Policy Research Working Paper 8345

# **Abstract**

Management of common-pool resources in the absence of individual pricing can lead to suboptimal allocation. In the context of irrigation schemes, this can create water scarcity even when there is sufficient water to meet the total requirements. High-frequency data from three irrigation schemes in Mozambique reveal patterns consistent with inefficiency in allocations. A randomized control trial compares two feedback tools: i) general information, charting the water requirements for common crops, and ii) individualized information, comparing water requirements with each farmer’s water use in the same season of the previous year. Both types of feedback tools lead to higher reported and observed sufficiency of water relative to recommendations, and nearly eliminate reports of conflicts over water. The experiment fails to detect an additional effect of individualized comparative feedback relative to a general information treatment.

This paper is a product of the Impact Evaluation Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at pchristian@worldbank.org, fkondylis@worldbank.org, and vmuelle1@asu.edu. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility.worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
<!-- Start of picture text --> a||<br>||<br>||<br>||<br>3 | |<br>||<br>||<br>| |<br>o=||||<br>||<br>eI | |<br>3<br>g|<br>5<br>=| |<br>o||<br>7|<br>|<br>|<br>|<br>a |<br>|<br>|<br>|<br>°||<br>°<br>2006 2012 2013 2018 2024<br>Election year<br><!-- End of picture text -->

<!-- Start of picture text --> Ss | |<br>||<br>||<br>“||||<br>||<br>| |<br>+||<br>|<br>tiBero}9—--£-—-—-——----«--—-—-—-—-—-—F-—-—-—----—+4-----------} ||||<br>g<br>Boa! || ||<br>S|<br>|<br>~|<br>|<br>|<br>aot ||<br>|<br>| |<br>||<br>||<br>2006 2012 2013 2018 2024<br>Election year<br><!-- End of picture text -->
|Percentage of population having a minority language as mother<br>tongue (ML)|0.001|
|---|---|
|Population Density (PD)|0.023|
|Population (POPF)|0.039|
|Snowfall (Annual - in centimeters) (SNOW)|0.168|
|Total|1.000|
|Index = (. 001*ML + 0.175*ISNOW + 0.80*IAMW + .024*IPD)*IPOPF||

Note: Calculations based on regression coefficients. The use of a variable prefixed by I means that a relative index of the variable is used. Source : Shah (1994a).

This approach is subjective and therefore potentially controversial. Recent experience in Australia vividly demonstrates the problems that arise if such an approach is followed in practice as discussed in the following section. Some subjectivity and imprecision can be alleviated by using quantitative analysis in choosing factors and weights as done in Denmark, Finland, Japan, Netherland and Norway and termed as the ―standardized cost‖ approach. However, these refinements add multiple layers of complexity.

# **_(c) The theory-based representative expenditure system (RES-TB)_**

The theory based representative expenditure attempts to implement conceptually desirable view of expenditure needs equalization objectively i.e. localities to be compensated for inherent cost disabilities rather than differences that reflect different policies, preferences and differential fiscal capacities. This means that the influences of these latter factors must be isolated. By doing so, the representative expenditure system can be significantly improved. This is done by using a conceptual framework that embodies appropriately defined concept of fiscal need and properly specified expenditure functions that are estimated using objective quantitative analysis, as proposed by Shah (1996) for Canada. Under this refined approach, the so-called _the theory-based representative expenditure system_ , the equalization entitlement from expenditure category _i_ equals the per capita potential expenditure of jurisdiction _A_ for category _i_ based on own need factors if it had national average fiscal capacity _minus_ per capita potential expenditure of jurisdiction _A_ on expenditure category _i_ if it had national average need factors and national average fiscal capacity. The formula for equalization entitlement based on expenditure classification _i_ for state x could be stated as follows: where _EE_<sup>_i_</sup> _x_<sup>is the equalization entitlement for expenditure classification</sup><sup>_i_for state</sup><sup>_x_,</sup> _POPx_ is the population of state _x_ , _PCSE_<sup>_i_</sup> _x_<sup>is the per capita standardized expenditure by</sup> state _x_ on expenditure classification _i_ (or the estimated amount the state would have spent to meet actual needs if it had national average fiscal capacity), and _PCSE_<sup>_i_</sup> _na_<sup>is the</sup> national average per capita standardized expenditure for classification _i_ . This is the estimated expenditure for all states, based on national average values of fiscal capacity and need. The equalization entitlement for a particular expenditure classification could be positive, negative, or zero. The total of these entitlements in all expenditure categories is 9
in two phases from Quang Ninh to Quang Nam (phase 1) and from Quang Ngai to Kien Giang (phase 2).<sup>2</sup> This national program was divided into three periods with clear objectives for each:

- 2009–2012: Planting mangrove forests parallel to the sea dike system

- 2013–2016: Upgrading and developing the sea dike system alongside the road network

- 2017–2020: Constructing a sluice system to adapt the sea dike system to sea level rise and operate it for transportation.

It is widely recognized that the sea dike system is below its established grade level in many places and needs further upgrade. The government has introduced a grade level system for sea dikes that reflects the number of people and area protected. The higher the grade level, the higher the return period for which the sea dike should be able to withstand storm surge and waves. It is widely acknowledged in Vietnam that, due to funding constraints, many sea dikes do not comply with these grade levels. Moreover, the rapid growth in the coastal zone also makes it likely that these grade levels will increase in the near future to mitigate the increased risk to assets and livelihoods.

The aim of this technical note is to provide a preliminary assessment of investment needs for Vietnam’s structural coastal protection system — consisting of sea/estuary dikes and revetments — based on the existing data and design standards managed by the Vietnam Disaster Management Authority (VNDMA). The work has been conducted as part of the Increasing Resilience in Vietnam’s Coastal Areas Program<sup>3</sup> under the Vietnam Disaster Risk Management Advisory Services & Analytics. This draft note has been prepared for discussions with representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and other relevant agencies. The assessment and its results have been integrated into the report _Resilient Shores: Vietnam’s Coastal Development between Opportunity and Disaster Risk_ (Rentschler et al. 2020).

# 2. Data collection and dike safety standards

An inventory of all sea and estuary dikes and revetments has been compiled as a basis for this assessment. The dike profile information provided by the VNDMA’s Dyke Management Department was used to produce a detailed list of the characteristics of each stretch of the coastal protection system. Table 2.1 shows an example for Quang Ninh Province. This information is provided for every 1–10 kilometers, and the list includes over 500 stretches of coastal protection, throughout all of Vietnam’s 28 coastal provinces. Where crest height information was not available, this was estimated using the best available data from nearby locations. It is noted that the list provides information about the former flood protection level.<sup>4</sup> A new method of classifying this information has recently been adopted and is used throughout the assessment. It is explained in Section 3.

**Table 2.1. Overview of coastal protection information used in this assessment** _Example of a coastal protection stretch in Quang Ninh province_

4
García‐López, M.A., A Holl and E. Viladecans‐Marsal. 2013. Suburbanization and the highways: when the Romans, the Bourbons and the first cars still shape Spanish cities, Institut d'Economia de Barcelona working paper 2013/05.

Ghani, E., A. Goswami, and W. Kerr. 2012. Is India's Manufacturing Sector Moving Away from Cities ?, NBER Working Paper #17992.

Ghani, E., A. Goswami, and W. Kerr. 2014. Highway to Success: The Impact of the Golden Quadrilateral Project for the Location and Performance of Indian Manufacturing. Economic Journal, _forthcoming_ Giuliano, G. and K.A. Small. 1991. Subcenters in the Los Angeles region, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 21: 163–182.

Giuliano, G., Redfearn, C., Agarwal, A., Li, C., & Zhaun, D. 2007. Employment concentrations in Los Angeles, 1980 – 2000; Environment and Planning, A39: 2935–2957 Glaeser, E. 1999. Learning in cities. Journal of Urban Economics 46:254–277.

Glaeser, E. and M. Kahn. 2001. Decentralized employment and the transformation of the American city. BrookingsWharton Papers on Urban Affairs :1–47.

Glaeser, E., Kahn, M.E., 2004. Sprawl and urban growth. In: Henderson, J.V., Thisse, J.‐F. (Eds.), Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, vol. 4. North Holland, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 2482–25 Glaeser E., H. Kallal, J. Scheinkman and A. Shleifer. 1992. Growth in cities. Journal of Political Economy, 100: 1126–1152 Glaeser, E.L., J.E. Kohlhase. 2004. Cities, regions and the decline of transport costs. Papers in Regional Science, 83: 197‐228 Glaeser, E., Mare, D.C., 2001. Cities and skills. Journal of Labor Economics 19: 316–342.

Glaeser, E., and G. Ponzetto. 2010. “Did the Death of Distance Hurt Detroit and Help New York?” In Agglomeration Economics, edited by Edward L. Glaeser, 302–37. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gollin, D., R. Jedwab, and D. Vollrath. 2013. Urbanization with and without Structural Transformation. Unpublished manuscript, George Washington University, Department of Economics.

Gonzales de Olarte, Efraín; del Pozo Segura, Juan Manuel. Lima, una ciudad policéntrica. Un análisis a partir de la localización del empleo. Investigaciones Regionales, núm. 23, 2012, pp. 29‐52. Asociación Española de Ciencia Regional. Madrid, España. http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=28924472002 Gordon, I. and P. McCann. 2000. Industrial clusters: Complexes, agglomerations and/or social 32
to be filled by an open, competitive recruitment process led by the PSC. This put some of the LTAs within MoFED in charge of implementing a plan that could potentially endanger their own employment. Additionally, the agencies responsible for PSR and representing the general civil service saw mainstreaming as a way of legitimizing the higher salaries and status of the LTAs rather than as a program of rationalization and integration.

During the course of the preparation missions for the P&PP, the Bank team reopened the dialogue. It was difficult to proceed with a civil service reform agenda without addressing this issue. As a first step the team was able to get all of the key actors – representatives of MoFED, HRMO, PSC and external consultants – to openly discuss the issue and consider including a DLI on “LTA mainstreaming” in the project. The negotiations on this DLI spanned several missions and were complex, especially since some of the representatives from MoFED were LTAs themselves. In the end, the relevant actors agreed on a five-step LTA mainstreaming process captured in one DLI that satisfied all the parties. To be consistent with recruitment regulations, it required posts currently occupied by LTAs to be filled through competitive processes in which incumbents could participate. To satisfy the LTAs speaking for MoFED, it allowed for salary levels to stay at their current levels through the option of a “scarcity/market premium” to bridge any gap between the civil service pay structure and current remuneration rates (contingent upon the results of a remuneration survey) and/or by “grandfathering” remuneration levels for LTAs who would retain their positions. At the time of writing some forward movement has been made. It remains to be seen how much progress will be made but, at least, there is some agreement on the way forward.

# **VII. Conclusion**

This paper has described the role that intensive, client-led engagement and the use of a resultsbased lending instrument played in the preparation process for the Sierra Leone Pay and Performance Project. Only time will tell if the early positive results achieved in the preparation process and in the early implementation phase will translate into real gains as project implementation continues. But it does appear that there will be some positive forward movement where there had been none in the past, insofar as government ownership and understanding of reforms, inter-agency cohesion and Bank-GoSL relations are concerned. One advantage of the approach used, however, is that measuring the results will be straightforward due to the use of the results-based instrument. Simply put, if the project disburses fully, the project is a success, and if not, it will still be a partial success. Disbursement will not be the sole metric for the effectiveness of the project design and preparation 21