family members), and the high transaction costs related to screening for productive tenants. The finding on women’s higher eviction costs suggests that strengthening women’s tenure security may also improve the efficient functioning of land rental markets (Quisumbing and Pandolfelli 2010).

_Labor market participation:_ Property rights interventions can affect labor supply decisions – particularly when households face labor supply constraints – and this effect likely varies between rural and urban settings (Galiani and Schargrodsky 2011). A land titling intervention in urban Peru, for example, led households to increase their labor supply, but this shift was driven primarily by adult men (Field 2007). Panel data analysis from northern Tanzania also suggests that giving women stronger property and inheritance rights could be associated with improved employment outcomes. Women were more likely to work outside the home and receive higher earnings in communities that experienced positive changes in women’s inheritance rights (Peterman 2011).

Yet there remain substantial knowledge gaps on the effects of land formalization interventions on labor market and self-employment outcomes, especially in rural areas (Deininger and Feder 2009). Even less is known about the gender-differentiated labor impacts of these types of interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa.<sup>38</sup> _Migration_ : A growing body of evidence points to causal links between changes in property rights and migration decisions (Chernina, Castañeda Dower, and Markevich 2014; Valsecchi 2014). Indeed, a reduced fear of expropriation following a property rights intervention may induce some households to leave their land and migrate to an area with more economic opportunities. In Mexico, de Janvry et al. (2015) found that households whose lands were certified were 28% more likely to have a migrant relative to non-certified households. Interestingly, the authors find that this positive correlation between migration and certification is significantly stronger for female-headed households, who faced higher _ex ante_ tenure insecurity than male-headed households. Migration and property rights likely interact with labor force outcomes as well. Emran and Shilpi (2014) exploit historical variation in malaria incidence in rural Sri Lanka to examine the adverse effects of land market restrictions on migration and wage earnings. They find that, while restrictions on land transfer increase women's labor force participation, women also experience lower earnings – likely due to the higher costs of out-migration to areas with higher wages.

# **_Final outcomes_**

_Land and labor market earnings_ : Facilitating women’s access to land, livestock, and labor markets may also help them derive additional sources of income and increase market efficiency. Deininger et al. (2015) analyze detailed household data, collected by the World Bank’s LSMS-ISA initiative, from six African countries to identify correlations in land market participation. They find that women may benefit more – in terms of earnings – from the renting out of land to the average producer rather than relying on their own production. The authors hypothesize that women’s lower relative tenure security is a chief impediment to their land market participation, given the heightened risk of expropriation that leasing out could entail (Deininger, Xia, and Savastano 2015). Experimental evidence from a savings intervention in Sri Lanka has also uncovered a relationship between savings deposits and increased wage income (Callen et al. 2015). Given the potential for labor market impacts of property rights interventions, it will therefore be important to measure changes in labor market earnings and test for gender differences in earnings outcomes.

> 38 Labor market participation also has relevance for savings interventions. Recent experimental work from Sri Lanka demonstrates a positive link between formal savings and wage labor outcomes (Callen et al. 2015).

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