refugee crisis, if any, is limited to a subset of low-skilled workers, a result that Peri and Yanesov (2017) and Clemens and Hunt (2017) also disputed.

Interstingly, all these papers ignore the question of household well-being. Whether the decrease in wages for a subset of low-skilled workers ultimately results in a decrease or increase in average household wellbeing depends on production and productivity. Therefore, these results do not provide any evidence on whether living standards of the local residents of Miami have improved or not in the aftermath of the Mariel boatlift. This has been an important gap in this specific debate.

The only paper that looks at outcomes beyond the labor market is Saiz (2003), who finds that rental prices increased in the short and medium run (1979-1983) by between 7 and 11 percent more in Miami than in comparison municipalities. These findings were limited to lower-quality housing and show that demand for this type of housing remained strong over the period. The literature also offers some explanations for the lack of impact of the Mariel boatlift on the labor outcomes of the host community. The structure of the industry in Miami (notably a relatively high share of textile and apparel industry) offered jobs for lowskilled non-English speaking labor (Card 1990). Using a confidential micro data version of the Annual Surveys of Manufacturers, Lewis (2004) finds little evidence that these industries expanded their production of labor intensive goods relative to other productions (like a Heckscher-Ohlin open economy model would have predicted). However, he also shows that these industries opted for labor intensive technologies in the aftermath of the crisis and adopted computers more slowly than industries in comparison cities expanding employment at the extensive rather than intensive margin. The new arrival of Cubans also helped to compensate for a net decline in internal migration to Miami (Card 1990) whereas the overall increase in population increased local consumer demand, which in turn increased labor demand. Bodvarsson, Van den Berg, and Lewer (2008) find that the positive impact of Cuban immigration on retail sales per capita (demand effect) outweighed the negative impact of the immigrant wage on native wages (substitution effect on the labor market).

# Former Soviet Union (FSU) escapees to Israel

In the aftermath of the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989, the lifting of emigration restrictions in the Soviet Union and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, many Jews from the Former Soviet Republics migrated to Israel. It is estimated that between 1989 and 1995, 610,100 immigrants arrived in Israel from the Former Soviet Union, increasing the size of the population by 13.6%, with nearly half of this population having tertiary education and significant work experience (Borjas and Monras, 2017). Alhtough these immigrants were not classified as refugees after 1989, the sudden nature of this phenomenon with the unexpected collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the substantial push and pull factors at play and the scale of the migration flow made this crisis a relevant case-study for several of the scholars working on forced displacement.

Friedberg (2001) was the first to assess the impact of this migration flow on the labor market of local residents. The paper finds a negative impact on wages and a nonsignificant impact on employment levels. However, when using an Instrumental Variable approach (IV) and subdividing the workforce into occupational groups, the author finds no evidence that the influx of FSU citizens has adversely affected the wage growth of local workers. When a distinction is made between high skilled and low skilled workers, it is found that high skilled workers’ wages gained whereas the effect on low skilled workers and overall employment was nonsignificant.

Cohen-Goldner and Paserman (2011) also study FSU migrants to Israel and find a significant negative effect on wages in the short-term but not in the long-term. A 10 percent increase in the share of immigrants lowers native’s wages in the short-run by 1-3 percent, an effect that disappears after 4-7 years. The shortterm effect is explained by the impact on low skilled blue collars whereas there are no short or long-term effects on high skilled white-collar workers. These effects are also found to be similar for men and women. The differences in results between Friedberg (2001) and Cohen-Goldner and Paserman (2011) can be 53