Access to land has a qualitative aspect; particularly in the Sierra, respondents identified poor soil, steep terrain, and erosion as serious limiting factors to production and productivity. In Jatun Era, for example, landownership is well above average; nevertheless, respondents observed that this factor was more than offset by the agroecological limitations that are present.

The majority of the households in the four communities own relatively few domestic animals, essentially because they do not have enough land to dedicate to pasture. In addition, access to paramos (high Andean meadows) is limited, because little or none was obtained through agrarian reform or purchase. Villagers said that animals are important as a saving means for bad times and for meat consumption. Hence families without animals are generally regarded as poor.

Elderly and widows: The respondents in the Sierra communities were particularly sensitive to the relationship between landholding and the family cycle. In both Melan and Apunag, the perception that the elderly, widows, and other people left 'alone' are the poorest reflects the relative incapacity of this group to adequately exploit their land resources on their own. These households depend to a much greater degree than others on exchanges of labor and land. In particular, sharecropping is used to obtain a scarce resource (labor) in exchange for one (land) that for these households is plentiful."<sup>5</sup> Basic Needs: Three of the four communities in the Sierra assigned needs as housing or health a high weight. Poor housing quality was of particular concern to the inhabitants of Maca Chico and poor health was a defining element of poverty conditions by the families asked in Jatun Era Income and debt: Only the interviewed families in Maca Chico mentioned income to be a key determinant of poverty but they linked it not only to the obvious purchasing capacity of the household but also to the relationship between income and debt. As quite a few families are indebted in this community, the little current income what families possess has to finance the debt besides maintaining the family. If the families were not indebted, on the other hand, they could rather store some of their produce and sell it at higher market prices later in the season.'<sup>6</sup> Destiny: The interviewed families in Apunag feel that they are destined to be poor. Besides ethnic reasons, this feeling could well also be a product of the distant and poor lands where many indigenous communities are located. For example, it is impossible to leave the village of Apunag if rains are heavy because the road connection is so scarce and fragile.

# _5.2. The Costa Comun=ities_

Land. animals and capital: As for the Sierra, the command over productive resources like land, animals and capital, is the clearest indication of a family's well-being for Costa inhabitants

> _15 "MC, 'widows' are_ **_left_** _alone, because they (the men) leave in order to work"_ (household interview Membrillal, #1).

16 _'If the farmer had money, he could store (his products) until prices increased, but because of debts, he must sell (immediately)._ " (household interview Maca Chico, #2).

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