Women entrepreneurs are more likely to lack information about the tastes, preferences, and price sensitivity of foreign customers (Campos et al. 2019), which could be linked to limited learning due to smaller access to networks. They are also more likely to view customs and trade regulations as major constraints, and since their businesses are smaller, they are more affected by non-tariff measures (International Trade Centre 2015). Possible interventions, yet to be evaluated, include marketing interventions to attract new customers and improve product design, export-readiness programs, virtual trade missions, participation in fairs, and information on and simplification of trade regulations. The interventions discussed above that encourage crossover to male-dominated sectors, which are typically less protected and more profitable, and access to trade finance can also make women-led businesses more likely to become exporters. More evidence on the effects of these policies is crucial since the literature finds a strong correlation between exporting and increases in productivity (Verhoogen 2023). Furthermore, if a lack of demand for their products is a binding constraint for women entrepreneurs (as shown in Ghana by Hardy and Kagy 2020), interventions on skills and capital alone might not be effective. Rather, interventions that help women access new markets (e.g., crossing over to tradeable industries, exporting, using digital technology to sell online, or accessing procurement) would be a priority.

# 5.3 Increasing access to public and private procurement

Some estimates indicate that women-led firms earn less than 2 percent of purchases made by large corporations and governments (Vazquez and Frankel 2017). A significant share of large corporations do not collect sex-disaggregated data on procurement, which is usually the first step in designing corporate supplier diversity programs (IFC 2023). Initiatives in several countries aim to connect women entrepreneurs with market opportunities through corporate procurement. Women-led businesses can benefit from these initiatives by expanding access to markets and internal value chain financing. Moreover, there is potential for external value chain financing even for smaller firms by linking microfinance with value chains. Casaburi and Willis (2024) review the evidence on bunding financial contracts with value-chain contracts and highlight how it can reduce transaction costs.

However, evidence on the effectiveness of these programs is not yet available, nor is there clarity on how best to integrate women-led businesses into corporate value chains. Qualitative studies suggest that when public procurement has open procedures with clear guidelines and streamlined application processes, women-led firms are more likely to apply and win contracts (Siegrist 2022). An RCT evaluating a training program on how to win large contracts showed positive effects on small business performance in Liberia, but effects were not disaggregated by gender (Hjort et al. 2020).

# 5.4 Increasing access to digital platforms and e-commerce

The growing role of services in the global economy and trade creates new opportunities for women to reap the rewards of trade (World Bank and World Trade Organization 2020). However, women entrepreneurs face a series of constraints that prevents them from benefitting from e-commerce. Women-led firms lag behind in the adoption of new digital technologies for several reasons.<sup>30</sup> First, there are significant gender gaps in mobile phone ownership and Internet access, email accounts, and business

> 30 See Verhoogen (2023) for a non-gendered survey of factors constraining the uptake of new and traditional technologies.

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