relocation. Resettlement is often controversial. Global experience and that in Africa attest to the importance of strict adherence to voluntary decision-making on the part of participants, careful selection, full information for all stakeholders, effective support services for the new arrivals, and adequate investment in infrastructure. An assessment of several decades of public support for resettlement in Indonesia shows mixed results tending toward the negative. Improvements in the incomes and access to public services of settlers were offset by disappointing outcomes in agricultural production, environmental degradation, and resentment against the newcomers on the part of indigenous inhabitants (World Bank undated). Preliminary results regarding a program of market-assisted land reform in Malawi, in contrast, indicate more positive outcomes (Chirwaa 2008). The Government of Ethiopia has operated a substantial program of voluntary resettlement for a targeted group of vulnerable residents in densely settled parts of the country. The program has generated much attention and controversy, but a rigorous assessment is not yet available. If local young people can secure access to land in or near their communities, this is clearly the simpler approach. If relocation is required, lessons of past experience should be fully weighed.

**Pathway 3: Sale of services and part-time farming.** Higher valued agriculture will be more intensive in use of services, creating employment opportunities for those who can provide them. Demand for transport, plant protection, veterinary services, mechanized field operations, and advice can be met by young men and women who have skills and enough capital to start small businesses. Thus a third group of young people may be part-time farmers, either managing their own holdings or contributing to family operations described under pathway 1, with enough capital to establish themselves as sellers of services or as occasional wage workers. While these young people may not have the capital to acquire a full array of farm machinery, they could offer services on a paid basis through purchase or leasing of a limited selection of equipment. Young people entering these activities would also need skills to deliver the required services and maintain the machinery.

**Pathway 4: Wage work.** The seasonal nature of agriculture creates demand for part-time wage work at peak periods even on small farms. In a heterogeneous farm structure with significant numbers of large holdings, wage work on a regular basis is also observed. Most of this is relatively low-skilled and low-paid, and few young people aspire to be low-skilled day laborers. However, paid work, even if undesirable, is a better option than not working at all for the very poorest. Therefore it is anticipated that a fourth group of young people will take wage work, whether formal or informal, on large commercial farms or in the processing and service sectors (see Box 1). These young people need skills to handle a range of tasks and equipment. At a minimum, for the most basic low-skilled work, they need good health to withstand often grueling working conditions. Such wage work could fit into the livelihood strategies described above in combination with other activities, or could be considered a temporary option until better opportunities appear.

Not all wage work is poorly paid or low-skilled. Some very large enterprises, both in primary production and processing, require a range of skills depending on the technical sophistication of the production process and types of machinery used. Drivers, machine operators, mechanics, quality testing technicians, and others will be required in increasing numbers in the future, and these jobs are often better paid than unskilled day labor. For example, Red Fox Ethiopia, a floriculture firm located outside of Addis Ababa draws labor from the 15