rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
The opportunities to compete in quality are not the same for all products. On the one hand, commodities or relatively homogeneous products have not scope for quality upgrading mainly because their reference prices are set up in competitive exchanges (Rauch 1999). On the other hand, trade in differentiated products is conducive to competition in quality and, thus, to high unit values.

Pakistan main exported products is a mix of homogeneous and differentiated goods. Linens (6302), men’s suits (6203), articles of leather (4203), and knitted or crocheted jerseys (6110) are differentiated goods with high variation in unit values. While a kilogram of rice, for example, cost around US $0.6 and had low volatility in prices in 2000, a kilogram of leather articles cost around US$ 5.3 and had high price volatility in the same year. This suggests that there is less quality heterogeneity within market destinations in rice than within market destinations of leather articles.

**Table 4**

**Evolution of Main Exported products**

|Product|Unit %<br>|of Exp|Mean UV(USD) <br>2000|SD<br>|% of Exp|Mean UV(USD)<br>2007|SD<br>|% of Exp|Mean UV(USD) <br>2009|<br> SD<br>0|CAGR (%) <br>0-07|CAGR (%)<br>07-09|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|6302|kg|10.5|6.5|10.7|14.3|11.5|70.2|15.4|6.8|11.9|8.6|-23.3|
|5205|kg|14.0|2.6|0.8|10.0|2.8|0.9|9.2|2.9|0.8|1.0|1.2|
|1006|kg|3.4|0.6|0.9|5.8|0.6|0.6|5.2|1.0|1.4|0.0|25.5|
|6203|item|3.4|8.0|5.8|4.4|42.1|295.9|5.1|19.8|69.8|26.9|-31.5|
|5209|kg|4.4|3.9|1.8|3.7|5.1|3.9|3.5|6.9|9.6|3.9|16.5|
|5208|kg|4.1|4.1|2.1|3.7|5.3|3.5|3.6|4.9|2.5|3.6|-3.6|
|4203|kg|5.3|19.9|11.9|3.0|30.0|75.8|3.6|29.0|30.6|6.0|-1.7|
|5513|kg|3.9|4.1|2.1|2.9|4.4|2.3|2.0|4.8|3.9|1.1|4.8|
|2710|kg|0.5|0.3|0.1|2.8|3.2|5.2|1.9|30.4|82.1|38.3|209.9|
|6110|item|4.5|6.9|3.9|2.7|9.9|6.4|2.5|15.8|52.1|5.3|26.0|
|**To**|**tal exp**|**54.0**|||**53.3**|||**52.1**|||||

Source: Authors’ calculations Over the last decade, Pakistan has upgraded the export quality of the differentiated products. This can be seen by the increase in the mean unit value and by the increase in the standard deviations between 2000 and 2007. For some products this quality upgrading, though, has taken place at a slower pace than the average quality upgrading by world exporters. The graphs here show the ratio of Pakistan unit values to the weighted average unit value from countries exporting these products, using export value as a weight. While Pakistan relative prices has remained somehow stable for homogeneous products, the relative unit value has decreased for linens (4203) (the most important product in terms of export value) and knitted or crocheted jerseys (6110). This may hint the fact that Pakistan has not been able to adjust their production process as efficient as other main exporting countries (i.e. China) to face the phase-out of the textile and clothing (T&C) export quotas at end-December 2004.

The low level of export sophistication in Pakistan is likely to weigh negatively on the country’s future economic growth. Pakistan’s increase in export sophistication is modest. In 1986, the 14
Only the industries with enough observations for the estimation of coefficients to be possible are included.

In general the results at the firm and industry levels are similar. The differences emerge when we compare the full sample and the restricted sample to the Doing Business city only. The significance of results increases with the restricted sample because the two data sets (Doing Business and Enterprise Surveys) become more comparable.

# **V. Conclusion**

This paper presents basic statistical relationships between the number of procedures, time and cost to obtain an electricity connection and other variables using a new data set on the process of obtaining an electricity connection for 183 economies. The statistical relationships presented in this paper suggest that the new indicators not only add value by providing high-frequency data for a wide range of countries on connection processes and costs, but that they could also serve as a useful proxy for the performance of the electricity sector overall. Using the new data, we find electricity to be of greater quality and bribe payments to electric utilities to be less frequent in countries where it is easier and less costly to obtain an electricity connection. We also find that connection costs are higher in countries where technical and non-technical losses in the transmission and distribution system are high, and that privately owned utilities provide new connections at a lower cost than publicly owned utilities. Our analysis also suggests that the general procedural environment in a country influences the complexity of connection processes; they tend to involve more procedures in countries where other regulatory processes are also procedureintensive. Last, the analysis indicates that firms perform better in terms of sales in countries where it is easier and less costly to get an electricity connection. This seems to be especially true for firms in the manufacture of tanning and dressing of leather industry and in the manufacturing of motor vehicles industry.

20
Today for all practical purposes SN‐CITEC is Burkina Faso’s only large cottonseed processing company, coexisting with multiple much smaller, less technologically advanced, companies. Following the company’s privatization in 1995, an investment of CFAf 12 billion was made to modernize its cotton crush‐ ing facilities. _Geocoton_ (the successor of DAGRIS) holds a 52.5 percent stake in SN‐CITEC while most of the remainder is held by SOFITEX, implying that SN‐ CITEC receives preferential access to cottonseed over its competitors. This begs the question of whether SN‐CITEC would have been profitable if it bought cot‐ tonseed at market prices.

By most accounts, SN‐CITEC is the most technologically advanced cotton‐ seed processing operation in WCA. The company’s maximum annual capacity is 120,000 tons with a total labor force of almost 1,000 employees (Table D1). As much as 95 percent of its energy requirements are met by the use of husks and it achieves more than a 16 percent oil extraction rate, equivalent to the rates achieved in the US. SN‐CITEC produces fully refined oil and in 2008 began forti‐ fying it with Vitamin A under its own label (Jarvis 2009). It has also installed a pilot plant for biofuel production with an annual capacity of 3,000 tons, and plans to expand this to 10,000 tons (Bayoulou 2010).

# **Table D1**

**Price and Quantity Cotton Statistics for Burkina Faso and SN‐CITEC**

||**_‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐_**<br>|**_‐‐‐ Quantit_**<br>|**_ies (tons)_**<br>|**_‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐_**<br>|**_‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐_**<br>|**_‐‐‐‐ Prices_**<br>|**_(CFAf/kg)_**<br>|**_‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐_**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**_Cotton_**|**_Seed_**|**_Oil_**|**_Meal_**|**_Cotton_**|**_Seed_**|**_Oil_**|**_Meal_**|
|**1999/00**|254,189|108,817|15,234|52,135|185|24|467|35|
|**2000/01**|275,800|100,064|16,555|47,083|170|29|449|39|
|**2001/02**|378,522|103,217|17,798|50,667|200|29|485|40|
|**2002/03**|404,419|107,320|17,252|55,013|192|32|502|45|
|**2003/04**|483,390|90,210|12,250|47,690|191|40|490|33|
|**2004/05**|632,503|97,134|14,798|47,660|215|40|461|36|
|**2005/06**|713,123|103,046|19,448|53,279|179|40|450|38|
|**2006/07**|684,958|98,268|16,244|51,781|170|40|503|45|
|**2007/08**|355,422|88,442|15,596|47,793|163|82|738|103|
|**2008/09**|451,473|115,000|19,550|63,250|179|82|602|124|

**Notes:** The first and fifth columns refer to the entire country’s cotton crop. The remaining col‐ umns refer to SN‐CITEC. Cotton prices refer to final payments (base price plus supplement). **Source:** Zanfongnon (2009) and Bayoulou (2010).

A second large company, SOFIB ( _Société Industrielle Barro et Frères_ ), began cottonseed processing in 1984 with annual capacity of 36,000 tons and labor force

**_Page 47_**
endogenously in NEDUM-2D, is 56%, very close to the 57% average figure reported by the ENMODO mobility survey for the AMBA region (Ministerio del Interior y Transporte 2010). The average commuting times computed by the model is 54 minutes so slightly higher than, yet in the same magnitude order as the 44 to 49 minutes reported by ENMODO.

While we have shown some local discrepancies between model results and data, the calibration of NEDUM-2D is satisfactory overall for the main features of the internal structure of Buenos Aires urban area: size and shape of the urban footprint, population distribution, land values, average commuting times and mode shares. Improving the NEDUM-2D modelling framework so that it can account for multiple employment centers would improve the fit of the model to data. This endeavor is left for the future, with the belief that although it will add some realism, it will not modify the main conclusions of the current analysis.

# 6 Policy analysis: Urban sprawl, emissions and welfare

## 6.1 Evolution of the urban area in the baseline

In order to investigate the impact over time of the removal of public transport subsidies and alternative scenarios, our study relies on projections of various inputs to the NEDUM-2D model from 2012 to 2050; in particular the future evolution of transport prices, income and population. In the baseline scenario population and income are supposed to pursue their recent trends over the next four decades. In particular, incomes are assumed to grow at the same average annual rate as Argentina’s per capita net income over the 1970 – 2015 period (in constant 2010$), i.e. 1.24%, starting at US$ 18,140 in 2012 and reaching close to US$ 29,000 in 2050. The number of households in the urban area will evolve at the same annual pace as it did over the 2001 – 2012 period, reaching a little over 6.96 million in 2050. In the baseline scenario the prices of fuel and public transport fares increase at an identical pace to reach 120% of their 2012 levels in 2050. The evolution of these demographic and economic variables are summarized in Figure 7. It is also supposed that the current subsidization rate of public transport remains unchanged over time – around 2/3 of public transport fares. These inputs are a priori identical in the alternative counterfactual scenarios, unless the policies investigated explicitly impact some variables such as transit fares. Robustness to these assumptions on the evolution of main socio-economic variables is explored below with a high growth scenario.

21
Table 3: Loan Report by Sector (as of September 2018)

|**Sector**<br>|**Ave.**<br>**Female**<br>**Employees**<br>|**Ave.**<br>**Male**<br>**Employees**<br>**Avera**<br> <br>|**ge Earning**<br>|**Average Loan Taken**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Agriculture|1.85|1.4<br>ETB|546,796.00|ETB 193,055.00|
|Construction|2.68|3.32<br>ETB|361,921.00|ETB 325,797.00|
|Manufacturing|2.29|1.77<br>ETB|807,156.00|ETB 282,563.00|
|Other|2.76|1.97<br>ETB|367,175.00|ETB 378,036.00|
|Service|2.29|1.36<br>ETB|823,229.00|ETB 260,160.00|
|Trade|10.59|0.64<br>ETB|554,863.00|ETB 238,844.00|
|**Total**|**22.46**|**10.46**<br>**ETB**|**3,461,140.00**|**ETB 1,678,455.00**|

Management and local staff can also obtain disaggregated figures to see how WEDP performs locally. For example, the number of clients that have registered in each city can easily be provided, as well asthe number registered at each OSS.

Much of the information can be displayed for any time period specified and disaggregated according to OSS, MFI, TVET Agency, and city for various indicators and information collected. Data can be extracted and used for advanced analysis using statistical software. Frequently used WEDP bimonthly reports generated from MIS data include the training provided report, the lending performance reports, and the report on the discrepancy between new members registered and trained.

# _1. Training provided_

Chart 2: WEDP Training by Training Institutions (as of September 2018) <!-- Start of picture text --> 9%<br>15% Adama PTC<br>7%<br>Bahirdar PTC<br>6%<br>DOT<br>EDC<br>14% Hawassa PTC<br>25%<br>Mekelle PTC<br>Meles Zenawi PTC<br>11%<br>Other<br>13%<br><!-- End of picture text --> 18
- Filmer, Deon and Norbert Schady (2014). “The Medium-Term Effects of Scholarships in a LowIncome Country,” _Journal of Human Resources_ 49 (3): 663-694.

- Franklin, Simon (2015) “Location, Search Costs and Youth Unemployment: A Randomized Trial of Transport Subsidies in Ethiopia.” Centre for the Study of African Economies Working Paper WPS/2015-11

- Gentilini, Ugo, Maddalena Honorati, and Ruslan Yemtsov (2014). “The State of Social Safety Nets 2014.” Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

- Gertler, Paul J., Sebastian W. Martinez, and Marta Rubio-Codina (2012). “Investing Cash Transfers to Raise Long-Term Living Standards,” _American Economic Journal: Applied Economics_ 4(1): 164-192.

- Gibson, John, David McKenzie, and Steven Stillman (2011) “The impacts of international migration on remaining household members: Omnibus results from a migration lottery program”, _Review of Economics and Statistics_ 93(4): 1297-1318.

GMA News online (2007) “Money from overseas makes OFW kids ‘lazy’”, September 28, <u>http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/content/62394/money-from-overseas-makes-ofwkids-lazy/story/</u> [accessed 10 October, 2017].

- Hamoudi, Amar, and Duncan Thomas (2014). “Endogenous coresidence and program incidence: South Africa's Old Age Pension.” _Journal of Development Economics_ 109: 30-37.

- Handa, Sudhanshu, Luisa Natali, David Seidenfeld, Gelson Tembo, and Benjamin Davis, on behalf of the Zambia Cash Transfer Evaluation Study Team (2018). “Can unconditional cash transfers raise long-term living standards? Evidence from Zambia,” _Journal of Development Economics_ , doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.01.008.

- Haushofer, Johannes, and Jeremy Shapiro (2016). “The Short-Term Effects of Unconditional Cash Transfers to the poor: Experimental Evidence from Kenya,” _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ 131(4): 1973-2042.

- Haushofer, Johannes, and Jeremy Shapiro (2016). “The Long-Term Effects of Unconditional Cash Transfers: Experimental Evidence from Kenya,” _unpublished manuscript_ , available at: <u>http://jeremypshapiro.com/papers/Haushofer_Shapiro_UCT2_2018-01-30_paper_only.pdf</u> [accessed 27 February, 2018].

- Hicks, Joan Hamory, Michael Kremer, Isaac Mbiti, and Edward Miguel (2018). “Addressing Youth Unemployment through Training and Grants:  Experimental Evidence from Kenya.” ASSA 2018 Presentation.

- Hussam, Reshmann, Natalia Rigol and Ben Roth (2017) “Targeting high ability entrepreneurs using community information: Mechanism design in the field”, Mimeo. MIT.

- Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad, and Mohammad H. Mostafavi-Dehzooei (2017). “Cash Transfers and Labor Supply: Evidence from a Large-Scale Program in Iran,” _Economic Research Forum Working Paper Series_ No. 1090.

23
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I POLICY RESEARCH **WORKING** PAPER 1310

# Summary findings

China's two main cconomic problems before reform were low incentives to workers and the misallocation of resources among sectors. These problems werc the result of a development strategy oriented toward heavy - industry.

By improving material incentives, China's reforms created a flow of new resources and allowed them to be allocated to sectors suppressed under pre-reform strategies.

The onset of reform in China was not allowed to disrupt production from exisring resources. Instead, the newly created resources were permitted to accrue and to flow into the more productive, often light industrial sectors, thus stimulating continuous growth of the national economy during reform.

Low incentives and the suppression of nonpriority sectors are common features of the legacy of economies in transition from central planning chat based their development on the rapid growth of heavy industry. China's approach may be of interest to them. Among lessons China learned are that: Autonomy must be granted to micromanagement units and preserved to improve the incentive structure and create a new flow of resources.

While maintaining essential minimum levels' of production in the pre-reform priority sectors, autonomous enterprises must be permitted and encouraged ro allocate new incremental resource flows to the previously suppressed sectors.

* [n parallel, the distorted policy environment and planned-allocation system must be progressively reformed to bring them into line with the new system of incentives and modus operandi of autonomous enterprises.

This paper -a product of the Agricultural Policies Division, Agriculture and Natural Resources Departmnent was presentedto aBankwide seminarin March 1994. Copies of this paperareavailablefreefrom the World Bank, 1818 HStreet NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Cicely Spooner, room Ng-037, extension 30464 (41 pages). June 1994.

_7hc PoCcy Pteseairc Wartig Paper Sdceds bmthe Plicy_ Research _Dina progrss to encong teas the cr of about development iFsx An objectiveof t)esaens a to get the fsrdingsout qukly. evn if thc prtiwonsaTc kss tijn filly polishd thc . papers carry the_ nanscs _Of the authrsandsboudd be sumdandectiedacordingly. T'he_ flndingi _htrpretaos, and cor.dusi0ns are the :as¢hor' own and sho nUot 6cat iuatotbc WorildBan iss Excuti¢tcBoardofDI:irwsors, or any ofi;tsmemnbecountrics_

## Produced by the Policy Research Dissernination Cemecr
**Table 1. Distinguishing different types of regulations and their impact on services trade**

|||**Legitimate market**<br>**regulatory goal**|**Barriers to services**|**Trade disciplines**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|||||•Mkt A d Ntil|
|**Discrim**|**inatory**|No|**Yes**|are ccess an aona<br>treatment|
|||No|**Yes**|• Market access<br>• Right of establishment<br>• “Local Presence”|
|**Non-**<br>**discriminatory**<br>|**Non-**<br>**harmonized**|Yes|**Yes**<br>(regulatory<br>heterogeneity)|• “Domestic regulation” disciplines<br>• Sector-specific regulatory<br>disciplines<br>• Regulatory cooperation<br>• MRAs|
||**Harmonized**|Yes|**No**|--|

_Source:_ authors based on (Mustilli and Pelkmans 2013) In trade and investment agreements, various provisions are designed to address the barriers mentioned above: disciplines on national treatment seek to eliminate preferences granted to domestic suppliers; disciplines on market access are directed at measures that restrict market competition; and disciplines on issues linked to establishment and local presence aim at ensuring that foreign service suppliers are not impeded in serving local markets through a commercial presence in the territory of another party or forced to establish a presence in such markets as a pre-condition for supplying their services.

Addressing barriers to services trade and investment arising from regulatory heterogeneity and nondiscriminatory regulatory conduct remains a challenge, however. Such a challenge can be aptly summed up by the continued inability of WTO Members to agree to a set of disciplines on domestic regulation under the GATS Article VI:4 work program.

Traditionally, countries have devised two means of reducing the trade incidence of regulatory heterogeneity: harmonization and mutual recognition. Both imply a high degree of regulatory cooperation. The experience of the Single European Market has revealed the limits, complexity and political sensitivities inherent in aiming for regulatory harmonization in services markets (as it necessarily begs the question of harmonizing to whose standard?), a process made more complex still by the limited availability of widely accepted international standards in service industries. More progress has been achieved through mutual recognition agreements and their flexible tolerance for various ( _de minimis_ ) forms of regulatory heterogeneity (De Brujn, Kox and Lejour, 2006). Beyond the EU, however, tangible progress on the mutual recognition front remains scant, even within regional confines characterized by above average levels of market integration, such as in the NAFTA or ASEAN contexts.

# III. Policies for reducing services trade costs

Trade costs in services can, on the one hand, be explained by _prima facie_ trade and investment barriers, which can usually be addressed by unilateral policy reforms or reciprocally through trade negotiations. On the other hand, other trade costs associated with regulatory requirements, compliance, and administrative procedures, can best be addressed through regulatory cooperation 5
# **<u>Table 5.2: World Bank Projects with Trade Facilitation Components</u>**

|<br>Regions|<br>A<br>Projects|<br>pproved Pr<br>FY96-03<br>Countries|<br>ojects<br> <br>Trade<br>Facilitation<br>Commitment<br>(US$million)|App<br>Projects|roved and P<br>FY04-06<br>Countries|rojected<br> <br>Trade<br>Facilitation<br>Commitment<br>(US$million)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Sub-Saharan Africa*|13|22|68|33|33|633|
|Middle East &North Africa|2|2|8|9|5|331|
|South Asia|2|2|158|10|8|358|
|East Asia and Pacific|1|1|14|12|7|331|
|Eastern Europe and Central Asia|5|4|46|5|3|187|
|Latin America and Caribbean|3|3|11|6|4|79|
|TOTAL|26|34|305|75|60|1918|

* includes regional projects Source: “Trade Facilitation in the World Bank”. Available on the World Bank website.

22
**_Energy demand models for policy_** **_<u>formulation</u>_**

D = device intensity 4. Transport analysis: E = S x (M/Fe) Where M = vehicle miles and Fe = fuel economy The model can be run independently on a stand alone mode and can be used for specific sector analysis or for analyzing the energy system of a given geographic region. The model has been widely used and it is reported that 85 countries have chosen the model for their UNFCCC reporting requirements.

# **The POLES model**

The POLES (Prospective Outlook on Long-term Energy Systems)<sup>36</sup> model is a recursive, disaggregated global model of energy analysis and simulation. It covers both the demand and the supply sides of the energy systems and has been used for long-term energy policy analysis by the European Union and the French government. The demand-side of the model is quite detailed and covers key world regions and major consumers.<sup>37</sup> The demand is analyzed at a disaggregated level in each country or region following the bottom-up approach. The model is disaggregated into five sectors (industry, transport, residential, service and agriculture) to ensure homogeneous levels of activities. To capture the importance of the industrial sector and the transport sector, industry is further disaggregated in four groups, namely steel, chemical, non-metallic minerals and other industries, while four modes of transport, namely road, rail, air and water are considered.

The total demand is decomposed into two parts: substitutable demand and captive demand (normally for electricity). In each sector, the total demand for each part (captive

> 36 See LEPII-EPE (2006) and LEPII-EPE and Enerdata (2006) for further details.

> 37 The regions covered are: North America, South America, Central America, Western Europe, Central Europe, Former Soviet Union, North Africa and the Middle East, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, South East Asia, Continental Asia and Pacific OECD. Individual countries covered are G7 countries, two groups for the rest of the European Union, and five major developing countries, namely China, India, Brazil, Mexico and South Korea.

87