refugee population is associated with a 3.7% increase in the luminosity index within 10 km of the camp, the equivalent effect on consumption is approximately (0.015 × 0.037) *100 = 5.5%. Therefore, the paper provides rather strong evidence that vicinity to the camp increases economic activity and household consumption for local residents. These findings are also consistent with those outlined above for the Kagera region of Tanzania.

# Congolese refugees in Uganda and Rwanda

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, ex-Zaire) has been the center of the first (1996-1997) and second (1998-2003) Congo wars that saw several countries and several armed groups involved and the largest death toll for a single war since World War II. Up to 5.4 m people may have perished as a consequence of these wars, although the actual number of casualties remains a disputed issue. In addition to generating death and mass displacement within Congo, hundreds of thousands of Congolese fled to neighboring countries including Uganda and Rwanda. Two studies looked at the impact of these refugees on host communities in these two countries.

Kreibaum (2015) looked at Uganda and finds that, overall, the refugee presence increases monthly consumption of the host population. Increasing the number of refugees per 1,000 inhabitants by 10 increases consumption on average by 3 percent, which is about equivalent to one day’s income for the local population. Interestingly, this does not match the perception of the local population which feels that the presence of refugees decreases well-being. Taylor et al. (2016) look at Congolese refugees in Rwanda and find a positive effect of aid on the local economy. This is the only paper in our knowledge that uses a general equilibrium model supported by microeconomic survey data to assess the impact of cash and food aid assistance to refugees in camps on the local economy identified as host communities living in a 10 km radius from the camps. They find that each adult refugee receiving cash assistance increases the annual real income of host households by 205 to 253 USD, which is more than the value of cash assistance provided to refugees of 120—126 USD. They also find positive impacts on local trade and food aid, although the latter impact is smaller than the impact of cash assistance.

Therefore, both studies find a positive impact of refugees on household well-being of local communities, which is in line with the studies on Burundian and Rwandan refugees in Tanzania and the work on the Kakuma refugee camp in Kenya.

# IDPs in Sudan

The wars ravaging across Sub-Saharan Africa have led to the internal displacement of millions of people, particularly in countries such as Nigeria, Sudan, South-Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Somalia due to the prolonged nature of conflict in these countries. These populations are very difficult to study, or even count, because access to IDPs is limited due to war and restrictions are imposed by governments who often share responsibility for displacement. Population surveys are very scarce and published studies are rare. One exception is represented by two studies on internal displacement in the Sudanese region of Darfur, particularly the city of Nyala, a city that counted almost 3 m residents in 2010. This city became the epicenter of internal displacement in the Darfur region with up to 700,000 IDPs located in camps on the outskirts of the city or scattered around the city.

Alix-Garcia, Bartlett and Saah (2011) studied the impact of IDPs on local prices and find a significant association between the growth in IDPs and the rise in food prices. The impact varies across products, from an IDPs/prices elasticity of 0.4 for fava beans to 2.9 for wheat. This relation is found to be significant for key products like sorghum, wheat, fava beans and oil but not for other products such as millet or sugar. Alix-Garcia and Bartlett (2015) return to study the same case focusing this time on occupations. They find that local residents living in Nyala had a higher likelihood of being employed in skilled sectors and a lower likelihood of becoming unemployed relative to a control group drawn from a comparable city not affected by IDPs (el Obeid). Such effect is particularly visible for male older workers but also present for females. The same paper also uses house improvements as a proxy of wealth and finds that people living in Nyala 61