rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
_Table 1: Average index of gender/disability equality by opinion about the justification of violence toward children_

||Parents<br>beating<br>children|Teachers<br>beating<br>children|
|---|---|---|
|Never be justified|0.16|0.21|
|Something in|||
|between|-0.06|-0.23|
|Always bejustified|-0.44|-0.45|

Source: Computations from the CDG–World Bank 2022 microdata. All of these figures are statistically different from zero at the 5 percent threshold. The index standard deviation over the whole population is set at 1 by definition. The difference in the equity score between the group whose members never find violence to be justified and the one where people always find violence to be justified is about 0.6 to 0.7 of a standard deviation. This gives a Cohen’s d of 0.6 to 0.7, which corresponds to a medium-tolarge effect size.

- 4.6 Officials believe that violence toward children is justified much less often in EAP, and perceive less of it

Officials are more likely to state that violence from parents towards children is justified than violence from teachers toward children. This is true in all surveyed countries (Figure 10). Agreement with statements supporting acceptance of violence towards children is much lower in the EAP region than in other surveyed countries: about 60 percent of respondents in EAP reported that violence toward children is never justified, which is almost twice as high as the average of non-EAP countries surveyed (34 percent) (Figure 11). Mongolia is the only EAP country where some officials justified violence from both parents and teachers. These opinions correlate with estimates of the prevalence of sexual violence. In the EAP region, the guessed prevalence of sexual violence toward children is 16 percent, versus 32 percent for respondents outside of the region.

Domestic violence against children is lower in the surveyed East Asian countries, in line with officials’ beliefs. The share of parents reporting that they violently discipline their children in household surveys is correlated with the estimated/perceived share of children victims of sexual violence (Figure 12). Although these two types of violence are different, they are often correlated (Ney, Fung, & Wickett, 1994). The share of child victims of sexual violence is unknown but according to self-reported surveys, the share of children violently disciplined by their parents is significantly lower in East Asian countries than in the other countries surveyed. But this share remains as high as 70 percent in Lao PDR and Vietnam (Source: UNICEF, 69 percent in Lao PDR (2017) and 68 percent in Vietnam (MICS, 2014).

There is a robust statistical link between the share of respondents justifying violence toward children and per capita GDP of their country. After accounting for the difference in per capita GDP, the share of respondents claiming that violence toward children is never justified is not statistically different in the EAP region than outside of it.

14
# **The Division of Revenues from Unexpected Demand**

# **Shocks**<sup>_∗_</sup>

Paulo Bastos<sup>_†_</sup> Natalia P. Monteiro<sup>_‡_</sup> Odd Rune Straume<sup>_§_</sup>

**Keywords** : Unexpected demand shocks, firm performance, wages, rent sharing, managers. **JEL Classification** : J2, J6, F16, F66

> _∗_ This paper is financed by National Funds of the FCT – Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology within the project UIDB/03182/2020. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank and its affiliated organizations, those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or those of the governments they represent. We remain responsible for any errors.

> _†_ Development Research Group, World Bank; CEPR; and REM/UECE, pbastos@worldbank.org.

> _‡_ Department of Economics/NIPE, University of Minho, n.monteiro@eeg.uminho.pt

> _§_ Department of Economics/NIPE, University of Minho, o.r.straume@eeg.uminho.pt
Policy Research Working Paper 5119

# **Abstract**

This paper studies the effect of enforcing labor regulation in an economy with a dual labor market. The analysis uses data from Brazil, a country with a large informal sector and strict labor law, where enforcement affects mainly the degree of compliance with mandated benefits (severance pay and health and safety conditions) in the formal sector, and the registration of informal workers. The authors find that stricter enforcement leads to higher unemployment but lower income inequality. They also show that, at the top of the formal wage distribution, workers bear the cost of mandated benefits by receiving lower wages. Wage rigidity (due, say, to the minimum wage) prevents this downward adjustment at the bottom of the income distribution. As a result, formal sector jobs at the bottom of the wage distribution become more attractive, inducing the low-skilled self-employed to search for formal jobs.

This paper—a product of the Social Protection & Labor Markets Team, Human Development Network —is part of a larger effort in the department to understand the effects of enforcing mandated benefits (and other labor market regulations) on labor market outcomes in developing countries. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http:// econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at ralmeida@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
further _exploratory_ analysis of the impact of advertised P4P. Specifically, we estimate regressions of the form given in equation (2) for four additional teacher attributes: age, gender, risk aversion, and an index capturing the Big Five personality traits.<sup>28</sup> Results are reported in Table A.3, with details of the variable construction provided in the table-note. We are unable to reject the sharp null of no advertised P4P treatment effect for any of these exploratory outcomes.

**Student learning induced by placed recruits** The skill and motivation of placed recruits on arrival are policy relevant insofar as these attributes translate into teacher effectiveness. To assess this, we combine experimental variation in the advertised contracts to which recruits applied, with the second-stage randomization in experienced contracts under which they worked. This allows us to estimate the impact of advertised P4P on the student learning induced by these recruits, holding constant the experienced contract—a pure compositional effect (Hypothesis IV).

Our primary test is derived from estimates on student-subject-year level data. The advertised treatment about which a given student’s performance is informative depends on the identity of the placed recruit teaching that particular subject via qualification type and district. We denote this by _Tqd_<sup>_A_for teacher</sup><sup>_j_with qualification</sup> type _q_ in district _d_ , and suppress the dependence of the teacher’s qualification _q_ on the subject _b_ , stream _k_ , school _s_ , and round _r_ , which implies that _q_ = _q_ ( _bksr_ ). The experienced treatment is assigned at the school level, and is denoted by _Ts_<sup>_E_.We</sup> pool data across the two years of intervention to estimate a specification of the type for the learning outcome of student _i_ in subject _b_ , stream _k_ , school _s_ , and round _r_ . We define _j_ = _j_ ( _bksr_ ) as an identifier for the teacher assigned to that subjectstream-school-round. The variable _Ij_ is an indicator for whether the teacher is an incumbent, and the index _q_ = _q_ ( _j_ ) denotes the qualification type of teacher _j_ if that teacher is a recruit (and is undefined if the teacher is an incumbent, so that _Tqd_<sup>_A_is</sup> always zero for incumbents). Drawing on the pseudo-panel of student outcomes, the variable ̄ _zks,r−_ 1 denotes the vector of average outcomes in the once-lagged assessment among students placed in that stream, and its coefficient, _ρbr_ , is subject- and round-

> 28Here we follow Dal B ́o et al. (2013) who measure the risk preferences and Big Five personality traits of applicants for civil service jobs in Mexico, and Callen et al. (2018) who study the relevance of Big Five personality traits for the performance of health workers in Pakistan.

24
GDP its average, annual per capita real growth rate in the period 2005-2014 could increase to more than 2 percent, compared to the expected stagnation in real output per capita under the continuous trend scenario (Table 8A).

In Brazil the greatest growth dividend is expected to come from reducing the probability of banking crises, followed by improvements in macro management and cyclical output volatility. Mexico is another country where continued progress with stabilization policies makes a sizable contribution to growth.<sup>37</sup>

# _4.3 Sensitivity analysis_

As mentioned earlier the estimated coefficients in Loayza _et al_ . (2005) (Appendix Table 1) are robust to changes in the estimation method. The signs of the coefficients are also robust to changes in the time horizon: 30 year averages (pure cross section estimation) vs. 5 year averages (dynamic panel estimation). However, there are differences in the size and significance of some of the coefficients (Appendix Table 2). Given these differences and the fact that the pure cross-section regression resembles most closely the models in the empirical literature we test the sensitivity of the growth effects to changes in the time horizon. We estimate the growth effects of the forecasted changes in the underlying growth determinants using the estimated coefficients from the pure cross country regression (shown in the second column of Appendix Table 2) and compare them to the ones obtained using the estimated coefficients from the dynamic panel estimation (5-year averages) (shown in the fourth column of Appendix Table 2).

The main conclusions for the relative importance of the growth determinants at the regional level and for the developing world as a whole remain unchanged (compare Tables 6 and 9). Again we find that the largest growth dividend comes from continued improvement in

> 37 See Loayza _et al_ . (2005) for a detailed discussion of the results on the countries in Latin America and Caribbean.

30
||_Table_|_4:_**_Primarynetenrollm_**|**_ent_**_rates_||
|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)<br>**Netprimaryenrollment**<br>**rate1990(%)**|**(2)**<br>**Netprimaryenrollment**<br>**rate1998(%)**|**(3)**<br>**Averageannualrateof**<br>**changerate1990-98(%)**|**(4)**<br>**Averageannualrateof**<br>**changenecessaryto**<br>**achievegoal(%)**<br>**(1998-2015)**|
|Alldeveloping countries|81|84|0.5|1.0|
|EastAsiaandPacific|96|97|0.1|0.2|
|EuropeandCentralAsia|85|93|1.1|0.4|
|LatinAmericanand<br>Caribbean|84|94|1.4|0.4|
|Middle Eastand North<br>Africa|82|86|0.6|0.9|
|South Asia|66|73|1.3|1.9|
|Sub-SaharanAfrica|54|60|1.3|3.0|

Source: UNESCO Progress toward universal primary enrollment was achieved in every region during the 1990s, with some of the fastest growth rates in enrollment in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa where the numbers of children out of school are the greatest. Though Sub-Saharan Africa lags farthest behind, progress in some African countries has been rapid. For example, Malawi and Uganda achieved large increases in enrollments in a very short period of time by removing impediments such as school fees. And Ethiopia, where enrollments remain very low, increased its enrollment rate by 18% a year between 1992 and 1996. Despite these gains, progress will need to be accelerated in Sub-Saharan Africa and most other regions in order to achieve the MDG education target by 2015.

Even in countries where progress toward universal primary enrollment is proceeding apace, there is concern with education quality; policy makers are questioning the value of getting more children into school if they aren't learning once they are there. Measuring progress in education attainment by school enrollment rates tells us little about learning outcomes or education quality. This is because figures on school enrollments, whether calculated on a net or gross basis, are not closely correlated with the rate of primary school completion. There is a growing body of evidence that completion of five to six years of schooling is necessary for mastery of basic competencies, so children who enroll in school and then leave before completing the primary course of study may not attain functional literacy or basic numerical skills (Mingat and Bruns 2002). Therefore, while monitoring progress on primary enrollments is important, the key indicator to monitor for measuring MDG progress is the primary completion rate, for which data is just recently being assembled.

# **_Goal_** _3 -_ **_Gender Equality_**

The Millennium Development Goals call for gender equality and the empowerment of women, with a target for equal enrollments of boys and girls in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all stages of education by 2015. As can be seen in Table 5, girls'

> 4 This expands the coverage of the International Development Goals, which called for equal enrollments in only primary and secondary stages but also set a closer target of 2005. While progress on this goal was made in the 1990s, it was clearly not adequate to meet the 2005 goal in most regions. The Millennium Gender Equality Goal

7
(Adhvaryu et al., 2019). A novel feature of this paper is that I use a panel data setting and household level measure of exposure to coffee price change (i.e., the fraction of household farmland allocated to coffee). Existing literature mostly relies on repeated cross-sections and/or a measure of exposure that is based on geographic locations, so that all households located in a given geographic region are assumed to be equally exposed to price shocks. However, this approach masks massive variation in households’ choice of crop portfolio within a narrowly defined geographic unit. In Ethiopia’s top coffee-producing district, for instance, the fraction of farmland allocated to coffee ranges from less than 10% for some households to 100% for others, averaging about 60%.<sup>1</sup> My approach enables me to capture variation in exposure to coffee price shocks among households within a narrowly defined geographic unit. Moreover, Ethiopia provides an ideal setting to study this problem compared to most of the settings studied in the literature. About 30% of the households live the below poverty line (World Bank Group, 2015), coffee production is the main source of livelihood for about 20% of the population (Central Statistical Agency, 2016), and there is considerable variation in the share of coffee production in household income due to large geographic variation in agro-climatic suitability to grow coffee.

I use the Ethiopian Socioeconomic Survey (ESS) data collected by the joint effort of the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (CSA) and the World Bank.<sup>2</sup> ESS offers nationally representative panel data (2011, 2013 and 2015 rounds) on about 4000 households and provides information on household production, consumption, labor supply, and child anthropometric measures. This data has a number of unique features compared to similar datasets used in the literature. First, it includes direct measure of household consumption expenditure disaggregated into food and non-food items. Second, the dataset includes on- and off-farm labor supply decision disaggregated by gender and age groups. Third, it includes plot level information on input usage and crop production. Finally, it includes information on household’s access to social and economic services such as access to credit (formal and informal), transfers, and productive safety net programs.

The results from empirical exercises show that changes in international coffee prices have significant pass-through to household food and non-food consumption. A 1% decrease in international coffee price results in about an 0.8% decrease in adult equivalent consumption

> 1A similar pattern exists in other major coffee districts of the country, and looking at more narrowly defined geography such as _Kebele_ , which is the lowest administrative unit, gives a similar conclusion.

> 2See `https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2053/download/40408` for details on the sampling procedure and coverage of this data.

2
**<u>Table 5.1:  Trade-related aid from all donors, 2001-2004</u>**

|**Category**�||Amount (|US$ millions|)|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Year**�|2001|2002|2003|2004|
|**Policy-Making**|||||
|Trade mainstreaming in PRSPs/development plans|122|73|144|125|
|Regional trade agreements|56|163|166|95|
|WTO Accession|13|25|27|8|
|Dispute settlement|3|3|3|2|
|Trade and environment, competition, investment|133|76|64|66|
|Transparency and government procurement|2|2|7|7|
|Trade education/ training including in negotiation techniques|46|66|86|37|
|Other|44|37|32|34|
|**Policy-Making Totals**|**418**|**445**|**529**|**374**|
|**Trade and Business Development**|||||
|Trade facilitation procedures, customs valuation and tariff reform|105|151|283|372|
|Technical, sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards|127|61|122|66|
|Business support services and institutions|497|342|417|389|
|Public-private sector networking|27|51|117|67|
|E-commerce|2|37|31|54|
|Trade finance|413|336|384|461|
|Trade promotion strategy and implementation|230|315|752|653|
|Export market analysis and development|187|251|346|561|
|**Trade and Business Development- Totals**|**1,587**|**1,544**|**2,453**|**2,622**|
|**Totals, All Above**|**2,005**|**1,989**|**2,982**|**2,996**|

Source: OECD-WTO Trade Capacity-Building Data Base 19
<!-- Start of picture text -->
1.2-  /of<br>I_ z  F  _<br>0.8- z  _<br>0.6-  _<br>0.4-  _  - 981<br>0.2<br>0  - ,  _<br>Malawl  Sub-Saharan<br>Africa<br><!-- End of picture text -->

Figure 17: Cellular Subscribers<sup>per100inhabitants,Malawi and</sup> SSA.

Source- Intemnational Telecommunication<sup>Union(2001)</sup> Note. Data for Sub-Saharan Afrnca<sup>(SSA) excludes South Africa</sup> Despite the large increase in cellular prices following the<sup>entrance</sup> Celtel, cellular coverage has increased greatly in Malawi over<sup>the</sup> past three years. At the end<sup>of 1998,</sup> before Celtel entered the market,<sup>there</sup> were only about 7,000 cellular customers in Malawi. By<sup>theendof</sup> 2001, there were close to<sup>60,000</sup> customers. This expansion was not just due to expansion at Celtel<sup>-over</sup> half of cellular customers<sup>attheend</sup> of 2001 subscribed to TNM's<sup>service.</sup> Despite this expansion, it is important to note that growth in<sup>cellular</sup> subscribers in Malawi has lagged<sup>behindgrowthin other countries in SSA.In1998,the number</sup> of cellular subscribers per<sup>100inhabitantsinMalawiwasclosetotheaverageforSSA(see</sup> Figure 17). By 2001, despite<sup>the growth in Malawi, Malawiwas lagging far behind the average.</sup> There are several plausible<sup>reasonsforthelargeincreaseinsubscribersthatoccurred</sup> despite the large tariff increase.<sup>One reason might be that Celtelintroducedseveralservicesthat</sup> made cellular service more<sup>attractivetopotentialusers.In particular,Celtel'sintroductionof</sup> pre-paid service, in addition<sup>to being moreattractiveto someusers, allowed potential customers</sup> to subscribe to cellular service<sup>withouthaving tomeet the stringent conditions(e.g.,relatedto</sup> credit) that post-paid customers<sup>neededtomeetto qualifyand doesnot requirethemto paya</sup> deposit.<sup>50</sup> However, the introduction<sup>of pre-paid service doesnot appearto betheonly reason</sup> for the expansion - about 30<sup>percentof Celtel'scustomersand70 percentof TNM'scustomers</sup> subscribed to post-paid services<sup>at theendof 2001(EMC,2002, pp.25-26).Another possible</sup> explanation might be that the<sup>introductionof competitionmight haveencouragedTNMto invest</sup>

> 50 In 1998, TNM required<sup>a Kwacha1500 deposit (about US$34).</sup>

47
<!-- Start of picture text --> 0.25<br>0.2<br>0.15<br>0.1<br>0.05<br>0<br>Malaysia Food Textiles, Wood, Media and Chemical, Basic and Electrical Machinery<br>-0.05<br>beverage apparel and paper and other rubber, fabricated and optical and<br>-0.1 and tobacco leather furniture manuf. plastics and metals equipment transport<br>other<br>-0.15<br>minerals<br>-0.2<br>-0.25<br>∆(TFP, 2000-05, 2010) ∆(TFP Dispersion, 2000-05, 2010)<br>Panel C: Philippines<br>0.5<br>0.4<br>0.3<br>0.2<br>0.1<br>0<br>Philippines Food Textiles, Wood, paper Media and Chemical, Basic and Electrical and<br>-0.1 beverage and apparel and and furniture other manuf. rubber, fabricated optical<br>tobacco leather plastics and metals equipment<br>-0.2 other<br>minerals<br>∆(TFP, 2000-07, 2008-15) ∆(TFP Dispersion, 2000-07, 2008-15)<br>Source: Country data as detailed in Table 1 and authors’ calculation<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# **5. Conclusion**

This paper documents the evolution of productivity in developing EAP since 1990. It examines labor productivity and total factor productivity. <mark>EAP’s productivity has been gradually catching up with the frontier (the United States), with China having the fastest growth. T</mark> he paper identifies and discusses the sources of the countries’ productivity growth. <mark>Productivity growth is driven by sustained within-sector productivity growth. Reallocation of labor to sectors with higher productivity, such as industry and services, also contributed to productivity improvements. Nevertheless, resource misallocation remains. Firm-level evidence from four EAP countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam) suggests that resource</mark> 24