# **2.2 Women’s Occupational Constraints**

Women in developing countries face a number of constraints on the allocation of their time between market and nonmarket activities. There are various factors, including cultural and social norms that may account for them; in many countries, cultural norms are that women are expected to continue to do most of the housework and childrearing—even if they engage in market work full time.<sup>10</sup> This tendency is often exacerbated by a lack of government programs to alleviate constraints associated with child care.

In what follows we will focus on access (or lack thereof) to infrastructure. The role of infrastructure in promoting growth in developing countries has been the subject of renewed scrutiny in recent years (see Box 2).<sup>11</sup> While many of the “new” channels through which infrastructure may affect growth are not gender specific, some of them do affect disproportionately women and their ability to allocate their time. In what follows we provide a brief review of some of the empirical evidence on how constraints on access to transport infrastructure, water and sanitation, and electricity, affect women's time allocation.

## **Box  2: New Channels through which Infrastructure Affects Growth**

In addition to the conventional positive effects on factor productivity and private investment, and possible adverse effects through crowding out, recent research and evidence on the role of infrastructure in the growth process has highlighted a significant impact on health and education outcomes.

Indeed, a number of studies have found a direct positive impact of various types of infrastructure services (namely, roads, electricity, water and sanitation, and telecommunications) on learning indicators, for boys and girls alike. A better transportation system (particularly in rural areas) helps to raise school attendance. Similarly, greater access to safe water and sanitation in schools tends to raise attendance rates (especially for girls) and the ability of children to learn, by improving their health. Access to electricity helps also to improve the learning process, by allowing children to spend more time studying and by providing the opportunity to use electronic learning devices.

Infrastructure may have a sizable impact on health outcomes as well. Access to safe water and sanitation helps to reduce infection risks, particularly among children. Better transportation networks contribute to easier access to health care, especially in rural areas. Access to electricity, by reducing the cost of boiling water, helps to improve hygiene and health as well. Availability of electricity is essential for the functioning of health care facilities and the delivery of health services. Getting access to clean energy for cooking in people's homes (as opposed to smoky traditional fuels, such as wood, crop residues, dung, and charcoal) improves health outcomes by reducing indoor air pollution and the incidence of respiratory illnesses (such as asthma and tuberculosis), and low birth weight and infant mortality <u>(see World Bank (2008)). According to some estimates, indoor air pollution from</u>

> 10See for instance Thambiah (2009) for a discussion of the case of Malaysia.

> 11 Agénor (2010 _a_ , 2010 _b_ , 2010 _c_ , 2011) provides a more extensive review of these channels, which include, in addition to health and education (as discussed in Box 2), an effect on the durability of private capital, network externalities, and an impact on innovation. For a more “conventional” review of the role of infrastructure, and a general perspective on policy options for Sub-Saharan Africa, see Foster and BriceñoGarmendia (2010).

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