The effect of these modifications is readily apparent in the results for 2007, but as the emphasis on measuring female labor force participation waned, the measured rate declined in 2008, specifically in rural areas. Nevertheless, the measured FLFP rate remained stable at a relatively elevated level for the next nine years (just under 20%), compared to the period before the methodological innovations were introduced. The overall rate measured by the ELMPS in 2012 was very close to the overall rate measured by the LFS, but, as shown in Figure 1, the ELMPS reported a larger gap between the rates in urban and rural areas than the LFS. The decline in the FLFP rate continued through 2020 in the LFS but was sharper in rural areas. Some recovery in the rate was observed in 2021.<sup>5</sup> There is no clear measurement-related explanation for the sharp decline in FLFP rates in 2018 and 2019, although the decline in 2020 can be clearly attributed to the pandemic (See ILO and ERF 2022).

# **3 Data and methods**

# **_3.1 Surveys_**

This research uses the latest waves of the Labor Market Panel Surveys for Egypt (ELMPS 2018) and Tunisia (TLMPS 2014). These surveys were carried out by the Economic Research Forum (ERF) in collaboration with the respective national statistical offices. Publicly accessible microdata are available through ERF’s Open Access Microdata Initiative (Assaad et al. 2016; Krafft, Assaad, and Rahman 2021; OAMDI 2016; 2019). The surveys are nationally representative after the application of sample weights, which are used throughout. The TLMPS 2014 sampled 16,430 individuals in 4,521 households and the ELMPS 2018 sampled 61,231 individuals in 15,746 households. Our analyses focus on working age individuals aged 15-64.

# **_3.2 Detection of employment and work_**

# _3.2.1 Individual questions_

The data collection instrument for the LMPSs is made up of household and individual questionnaires. The individual questionnaire uses a short reference period of seven days to detect the current labor force status and a long reference period of three months to detect the usual labor force status. Enumerators are instructed to administer the individual questionnaire to the individual him or herself, and collect data from proxy respondents only after three separate visits are made to attempt to meet the individual him or herself.<sup>6</sup> Besides a direct question on whether the individual was employed during the relevant reference period, those who answer in the negative are asked a standard keyword list made up of 15 different activities to detect work for pay or profit in line with the recommendations regarding the measurement of “employment” of the 19<sup>th</sup> ICLS, with any affirmative answer in either reference period sending the individual to the employment module. We refer to a “yes” in any of the employment or keyword questions as

> 5 Quarterly data reveals that the decline in the FLFP rate in 2020 was likely induced by the pandemic and was sharpest in the second and third quarters (ILO and ERF 2022).

> 6 Parents or guardians of children 6 to 14 can decide whether or not to allow these children to respond for themselves or to respond on their behalf.

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