Table 2: Heterogeneity in impacts of partial school reopening on working hours by individual/household characteristics

|Interaction term _Z_|(1)<br>Female|(2)<br>Ag HH|(3)<br>Urban|(4)<br>Large<br>Urban|(5)<br>Above<br>Mean<br>Wealth|(6)<br>Any Kids<br>Aged 0-4|(7)<br>>2 HH<br>Adults|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Post|-1.516|-1.047|0.994|0.994|-1.319|-1.322|-4.799<sup>_∗_</sup>|
||(2.330)|(2.222)|(3.214)|(3.227)|(2.644)|(2.737)|(2.710)|
|Post _×_ Treat|3.793<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|1.756|3.337|3.337|6.095<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|5.035<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|2.598|
||(1.785)|(1.820)|(2.127)|(2.136)|(2.590)|(1.945)|(2.086)|
|Post _×_ Z=1|1.570|-0.591|-1.100|0.698|1.056|-1.526|6.723<sup>_∗_</sup>|
||(1.739)|(3.738)|(4.117)|(5.162)|(3.705)|(3.696)|(3.732)|
|Post _×_ Treat _×_ Z=1|-0.687|5.485<sup>_∗_</sup>|-0.280|-1.238|-4.209|-3.376|1.065|
||(1.629)|(3.204)|(2.940)|(4.108)|(3.108)|(3.080)|(2.858)|
|Observations|8538|8538|8538|5172|8538|8538|8538|
|Mean, pre-reopen control|16.475|16.475|16.475|16.475|16.475|16.475|16.475|

This table presents estimates of Equation 1 but interacting a characteristic _Z_ with all right-hand side variables except the household fixed effects. The column label indicates which characteristic _Z_ is being used. Values for household characteristics are from the first time they are observed in the data. ‘Large Urban’ is a dummy for location in one of Kenya’s largest urban areas (Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru, Kisumu, Kiambu) relative to any rural area, while ‘Urban’ is a dummy for location in any urban area. ‘Above Mean Wealth’ is a dummy for whether and index of household wealth, based on housing and asset ownership, is above the sample mean. The dependent variable is total working hours over the last 7 days, with individuals not working coded as working 0 hours. Observations include data from May to November 2020, and include treatment households with children in grades 4 or 8 (indicated by ’Treat’), control households with children in an adjacent grade, and ‘mixed’ households with both (results not shown). ’Post’ is a dummy for being observed on or after the partial school reopening on October 12. Regressions include household and county by month fixed effects, and additional household and individual controls. SEs clustered at household level. * _p <_ 0 _._ 1, ** _p <_ 0 _._ 05, *** _p <_ 0 _._ 01 of the pandemic on mothers’ labor supply relative to fathers’ and other women’s, pointing to school closures as the mechanism. But this result aligns with the data on childcare hours in Kenya: responsibilities prior to the pandemic were less gendered than expected prior to the pandemic and both women’s and men’s hours increase by over one-third during school closures, though women’s hours increase by more in absolute terms. A childcare shock in this context could thus affect both parents’ labor participation. Different mechanisms may also underlie the similar increases for women and men, which we discuss further in subsection 4.2.

The impact of partial reopening on work hours is over four times as large for adults in agricultural households (61%), defined as households with any agricultural activity. This is consistent with effects on total hours driven largely by household agriculture.<sup>12</sup> Adults in non-agricultural households do not significantly increase work hours, likely reflecting constraints on increase wage or enterprise labor supply in the short term.

We observe no differences in impacts between urban (46%) and rural households. The definition of ‘urban’ in the data includes many peri-urban areas; over 35% of household classified as urban 12. The difference is larger and significant when considering impacts on agricultural hours (Table A4).

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