working-age population (see the detailed treatment of this topic<sup>inthe Ukraine countrysection</sup> below). ' This finding is consistent with recent research by the World Bank<sup>on the social impact</sup> of enterprise restructuring in Russia, which found that labor mobility<sup>appearsto be much higher</sup> than captured by official statistics, challenging the standard argument<sup>thatthelackofa</sup> developed housing market has impeded labor mobility in this country. The study found that labor migration on a shift/semi-permanent basis has developed into a significant<sup>featurein</sup> today's Russia; bread-winners leave their families at the original<sup>placeof residenceandfind</sup> jobs, often informally, in major "centers of gravity".<sup>22</sup> At the same time, it is important to stress that the nature of the migration (permanent or temporary) cannot<sup>be determinedon the basisof</sup> this research, and cases of return migration are also common in some locations,<sup>usuallyfor the</sup> reason that things did not work out for the migrant in the other location. Social impact monitoring carried out in Romania in 2000 found that it was not<sup>unusualfor those whomigrated</sup> from the mining regions to return within a year, usually for the reason that<sup>the "promisedwork"</sup> never materialized or was of a lower quality or level of pay than expected.

81. There are several barriers to studying labor migration that takes<sup>place outside of thecontext</sup> of formal programs to assist migrants: the fact of the migration is usually<sup>poorlyreflectedin</sup> official statistics and other available data (for example, a family may<sup>continuetoownitshouse</sup> or apartment in the town it has migrated from); the nature and duration<sup>of the migrationare</sup> unpredictable; and individuals who migrate disperse to other<sup>locationsandarenot easily</sup> identified in the "magnet" locations. Also, bearing in mind the focus of the research on communities where mine closure or mass downsizing took place<sup>severalyearsago,itislikely</sup> that a wave of migration would have happened earlier, as those possessing the<sup>inclinationand</sup> financial and other resources required to migrate successfully would have left<sup>in searchof better</sup> opportunities.

82. Given the need for "pull" factors in addition to the obvious<sup>"push"factor,theactual</sup> experience with migration of individual mining communities is highly sensitive<sup>toa numberof</sup> factors, including the proximity of growth centers. For example, even though the coal communities of Russia's Tula Oblast (which was not part of this research but well<sup>known tothe</sup> researchers) have been very hard-hit by mine closure, many laid-off miners<sup>havefound</sup> employment in Moscow, which is about four hours away by car. Typically,<sup>workerstravelto</sup> Moscow for several weeks or months at a time and work in construction,<sup>with theirfamilies</sup> remaining behind in Tula Oblast. As such, the employment is<sup>not permanentandmuchfault</sup> could probably be found with the work conditions; but given the absence of<sup>alternative</sup> employment closer to home, Moscow as a labor market has been important<sup>for manyfamiliesin</sup> the coal communities of Tula Oblast.<sup>23</sup> . As the dominant growth<sup>centerintheregion, Moscow</sup> has also served as a magnet for workers from the mining communities of the Donbass,<sup>whoalso</sup> find opportunities in other cities in Ukraine and southern Russia.

83. Of the countries in which research was carried out, migration figured<sup>most prominentlyin the</sup> expectations of policymakers in Romania, and Romania is also unique<sup>inhaving introduceda</sup>

> 21 See, for examplc, Friebel and Guricv (1999).

> **22** World Bank (2001b).

> 23 The dramatic improvement in overall economic conditions in Tula<sup>Oblast is reflected in World Bank (2001b),</sup> which relates the views of the head of a raion in Tula oblast that<sup>was among thehardest hit by mine closure.This</sup> research respondent described 1997 as "hell" and 2001 as "heaven",<sup>noting that if three yearsago there were</sup> typically 50 people in his waiting room seeking assistance, today the<sup>number has shrunkto 2-3 people.</sup>

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