Phonemic assessment and phonics are generally evaluated through one-on-one oral tests.<sup>3</sup> When timed, such tests also detect naming fluency.

_Vocabulary_ is often measured indirectly through general comprehension subtests, but there are also direct measures. For instance, asking the student to provide a name for pictures (expressive vocabulary), or to match spoken words with pictures (receptive vocabulary); to provide a word that best matches a definition presented verbally by the teacher (expressive vocabulary); to provide a definition to a word (receptive vocabulary); to select a word that does not belong in a group of words; to provide a synonym or an antonym for words; and so on. All these can be evaluated either orally or with written tests.<sup>4</sup> The most frequent way of measuring _fluency_ is to ask a student to read a passage aloud for one minute. The number of correct words read is counted and this total equals a student's oral reading fluency rate (Hudson, Lane, & Pullen, 2005; RTI International, 2008).<sup>5</sup> Abadzi (2006) sets the cutting point between minimally fluent readers and non-fluent readers at around 45 words per minute.<sup>6</sup> At that speed, reading is still choppy but allows understanding, falling probably on Level 3 in the NAEP Oral Reading Fluency Scale (see Table 1), which is already considered fluent.

The NAEP Fluency Scale, in addition to calculating the correct words read per minute, also provides a descriptive guide for oral reading performance based on the student’s “naturalness” of reading. The student’s performance is rated on a four-point scale, with emphasis placed on phrasing of words, adherence to syntax, and expressiveness (Hudson, Lane, & Pullen, 2005). The National Reading Panel sets fluency at a reading rate faster than 90 words per minute and with expression (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2003), closer to level 4 in the NAEP scale.

> 3 Some examples of one-on-one oral assessment of phonemic awareness are: the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP), the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS), the Developmental Reading Assessment, K-3 - 2nd Edition (DRA-2, K-3), the Early Reading Diagnostic Assessment (ERDA), the Phonological Awareness Test (PAT), and the Texas Primary Reading Inventory (TPRI). There are not many group-administrated, written assessments of phonological awareness, one rare example being the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS). Examples of oral assessment that measure phonics are DIBELS, ERDA, the EarlyGrade Reading Assessment (EGRA), the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE), and TPRI (Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1999).

- 4 Examples of tests that measure vocabulary are: the Abecedarian Reading Assessment, Aprenda: La Prueba de Logros en Espanol - 3rd Edition, Assessment of Literacy and Language (ALL); Boehm Test of Basic Concepts - 3rd Edition (Boehm-3); Bracken Basic Concept Scale – Revised; Bracken School Readiness Assessment (BSRA); Brigance Diagnostic Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills - Revised (CIBS-R); Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development II (IED-II), Brigance Screen tests; Developmental Reading Assessment, K-3 - 2nd Edition (DRA-2, K-3) A Spanish version of the DRA-2 is also available - the Evaluacion del Desarrollo de la Lectura (EDL); Early Reading Diagnostic Assessment (EDRA); Gray Diagnostic Reading Tests; Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test -- 4th Edition (SDRT-4); Standardized Reading Inventory - 2nd Edition (SRI-2);  Stanford Achievement Test -- 10th Edition (SAT-10); Stanford Reading First; Test of Reading Comprehension -- 3rd Edition (TORC-3).

- 5 Examples of measures of oral fluency skills are: AIMSweb Standard Reading, DIBELS, EDRA, EGRA, Gray Oral Reading Test IV (GORT - 4), the National Assessment of National Center for Education (NAEP) Fluency Scale, and the Reading Fluency Monitor Read Naturally

- 6 This is meant to set a line between children who are able to read with enough precision and speed to understand what they read, and those that still stumble with print, not a standard.

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