rural areas with (updated) poverty rates above 14 percent while continuing in the 403 initially targeted communes (World Bank, 2012a). We measure the 2013 impact of the INDH in terms of how those communes that were treated starting in Phase I compare to the communes not treated in Phase I. However, with the majority of the control areas starting to receive Phase II, we are essentially measuring whether the five years of Phase I treatment has a durable or additional effect.

The surveys collected data on a variety of areas likely to be affected by the INDH as well as ancillary information useful for an analysis of the outcomes. The data collected include geographic identifiers and socio-demographic characteristics of household members, including their level of education, employment status, and health. The data also include details on children, including anthropometric measurements (weight and height). At the household level, there is information on type and characteristics of housing; access to basic services (such as water, electricity, sanitation); assets; household income; and consumption expenditures. For comparability, the questionnaires were identical for all the survey rounds.

It is important to note that individuals and households were not themselves carefully tracked over rounds. Although attempts were made to contact the same households, if a household was not found in the commune where it was originally sampled, an alternative household was used in its place.<sup>9</sup> Households and individuals also cannot be identified across rounds of the survey; the data are essentially a panel of communes. The sample size was also reduced from 15 households per commune to 12 in the last round, and we have limited our sample to 12 households per commune across all three rounds for the sake of consistency. Ultimately, our data consist of 1,488 households in each round. In 2008, this yields 8,986 individuals. In 2011, the sample is 9,002 individuals and in 2013, it is 8,608 individuals.

# _3.2 Indicators for Economic Outcomes and ECD_

The outcomes examined in this paper relate to both economic development and ECD. Three different outcomes underlie our analyses of economic development—income, consumption, and assets. For reasons discussed below, all of our outcomes are expressed in per capita terms. Originally in nominal Moroccan dirham, all outcomes are updated into real, 2013 terms using the consumer price index (CPI) (World Bank, 2015). Economic outcomes are analyzed both in terms of annual real 2013 per capita levels and in terms of the log values of the annual real 2013 per capita levels, where coefficients can be interpreted in terms of percentage changes.<sup>10</sup> The value of income was based on questions<sup>11</sup> about household income in the past 12 months, where respondents (each member of the household who received any income, in cash or in kind) could list all household sources of income<sup>12</sup> and their amount in daily, weekly, biweekly,

> 9 If possible, the originally sampled household was replaced by the new household that had moved into the same dwelling.

> 10 Interpreting coefficients in semi-logarithmic equations as percentage changes is an approximation. Small changes in continuous variables come closest to reflecting percentage changes. Larger changes and using dummy rather than continuous variables causes greater divergence (Halvorsen & Palmquist, 1980).

> 11 Income source, its regularity, periodicity, and its amount.

> 12 Sources of income included (1) sale of family farm products; (2) wages from agricultural activity; (3) salaries from non-agricultural activity; (4) agricultural self-employment; (5) non-agricultural self-employment; (6) being an agricultural employer; (7) being a non-agricultural employer; (8) rental property (real estate, land, transport, and so on); (9) sales of property (real estate, land, transport, and so on); (10) regular transfers from households in Morocco; (11) regular transfers from households abroad; (12) irregular transfers from households in Morocco; (13) irregular

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