Another proxy of effort is whether at the time of the enumerator’s unannounced visit a teacher was found to be in class teaching. Interacting this variable with social‐perception questionnaires treatment, we find a negative correlation between likelihood of teacher teaching and HRS (Tables 6).<sup>19</sup> Two important caveats are as follows: (i) reported analysis is correlational. No causal mechanisms are established in this analysis; and (ii) measures of actual effort are self‐reported and as such might be over‐stated.

# 7. Links between High Relative Self‐Regard and School Characteristics

We examine here whether HRS varies systematically based on (a) the ownership and organizational structure of the PPP school and (b) average learning levels by school.

Considering ownership and organizational structure, we are interested in examining whether schools where managers have stronger incentives to maximize teacher effort are less prone to HRS. To do this, we interact a dummy for ‘head teacher owns at least part of the school’ and, more weakly, ‘Board of Governors<sup>20</sup> member owns at least part of the school’ with treatment (teacher receives social‐perception questionnaire). Results are shown in Tables 7a and b. We find that HRS is much less likely in schools where the head teacher owns at least part of the school. Systematically lower rates of HRS are also in schools where members of the Board of Governors own at least part of the school, but the relationship is less strong.

Examining learning levels by school, we wish to see if HRS is concentrated among better or worse performing schools. For this estimation we use learning assessments from July 2012 (approximately 2 years before the study). Tests were administered in partnership with the Uganda National Examinations Bureau (UNEB) and include curriculum‐based assessments of student proficiency in English and Biology. In addition, UNEB administered an additional Mathematics test which the research team adapted from TIMSS, an international test,<sup>21</sup> adapted for local context through discussions with psychometricians in Uganda.

For each school we take averages of scores for three subjects – Mathematics,<sup>22</sup> Biology, and English. We then calculate, for each school, an average across these three subjects. Based on these school‐ wise averages, we divide schools into whether they are above or below the 25<sup>th</sup> percentile and the median. Defining indicator variables accordingly, we regress domain‐wise indexes on an interaction of these indicator variables with the treatment of a teacher receiving a social perception

> 19 Another way to look at this would be to examine the relationship between HRS and class‐size. Working under the assumption that teachers with larger class sizes have to, by definition, exert more effort, we examine the relationship between the two. Once again, there is an inverse relationship. Teachers with smaller class sizes are significantly more likely to exhibit HRS on both job‐satisfaction and ability and effort.

> 20 In PPP schools in Uganda, the Board of Governors is analogous to a School Management Committee.

> 21 The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is a series of international assessments of the mathematics and science knowledge of students around the world. For this research, we used a balanced selection of openly available questions from Grade 4 TIMSS Mathematics tests across specified learning domains.

> 22 For mathematics, we use scores from two assessments: one is curriculum based, and the other comes from a test of competency, based on the TIMSS assessment.

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