The discussion that follows focuses on two types of measures: export restrictions and import liberalization-cum-facilitation. These measures cover most of the measures in the data set. Details on the set of policy instruments included in these two categories are reported in Appendix Table A1.<sup>5</sup> The data set encompasses significantly more measures than reported by the two international organizations that have engaged in monitoring exercises. The first of these is the International Trade Centre (ITC), which launched a COVID-19 dashboard in early 2020 that provides information on trade measures taken by countries. The focus of this effort is not limited to food and medical products. As of October 9, 2020, the ITC repository comprised 338 measures implemented by 145 countries, custom unions and autonomous territories, substantially fewer than what is reported by the GTA.<sup>6</sup> The second is the WTO, which reports on COVID-19 related measures notified by its members and maintains a separate data set on export and import-related measures compiled by the WTO Secretariat that is drawn from official sources. The latter includes only measures that are verified by the WTO members concerned. Transparency is a fundamental dimension of WTO membership. This also applies to emergency measures. WTO members must notify quantitative restrictions that are motivated by domestic emergencies, including public health. The relevant 2012 Decision on Notification Procedures for Quantitative Restrictions (WTO G/L/59/Rev.1) stipulates that notifications must occur at two yearly intervals, and more salient to the present context, report changes as soon as possible, and no later than six months from their entry into force (Hoekman, 2020).<sup>7</sup> WTO members may engage in so-called reverse notifications as well, reporting on measures imposed by other countries and customs territories.

In principle, transparency through notification and reverse notification supports discussion in the WTO of measures taken. In practice many WTO members have not lived up to their transparency obligations, notwithstanding commitments by G20 Trade Ministers to notify the WTO of trade-related measures taken. As of October 9, 2020, 55 WTO members had submitted 245 notifications related to COVID-19. These span export restrictions and import liberalization/trade facilitation measures as well as changes in product regulation (standards) and economic support programs. Brazil is the leader in having notified 28 measures, followed by Kuwait (16), the United States (14), the European Union (12), the Philippines (11), Thailand (11) and the Republic of Korea (9) (Figure 1). Three-quarters of these COVID-19 related notifications pertain to product standards for medical supplies and PPE.<sup>8</sup> Through October 9, 2020 only 58 COVID-19 related notifications did not pertain to sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) or technical barriers to trade (TBT). This compares to 645 measures – both export restrictions and import liberalization/facilitation – targeting food and medical products in the GTA data set.<sup>9</sup>

> 5 Note that the data do not include changes in health and safety standards applicable to the products concerned, i.e., sanitary and phytosanitary measures and technical barriers to trade (product standards).

> 6 The ITC considers overseas and autonomous territories separately from the home country. This is not done in the GTA or WTO monitoring exercises. See https://www.macmap.org/covid19.

> 7 The 2013 Agreement on Trade Facilitation similarly has transparency requirements, requiring WTO members to publish promptly information on import, export or transit restrictions or prohibitions.

> 8 This is consistent with the May 14, 2020 G20 Trade Ministerial commitment to: “Reduce sanitary and technical barriers by encouraging greater use of relevant existing international standards and ensuring access of information on relevant standards is not a barrier to enabling production of PPE and medical supplies.”

> 9 As noted, the GTA COVID-19 monitoring exercise does not encompass SPS and TBT measures.

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