rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Cost - effective integration of
            immunization and basic health services in developing
            countries : the problem of joint costs
With limited budgets for rural primary
            health care, developing countries are under pressure to
            integrate the basic medical services that government health
            centres provide, with the vaccination programs that mobile
            immunization teams handle. Application of cost effectiveness
            analysis is complicated by two inherent difficulties. First,
            because the two types of health care programs improve the
            health of different target groups, some common measure of
            the effectiveness of the two programs must be agreed upon.
            Here the "healthy life years" saved by the two
            alternatives is implemented as a useful measure of
            effectiveness. The second difficulty is that of modelling
            the joint costs of simultaneously producing more than one
            health care service. Using the method described here,
            economists can address this problem in a way that does
            justice to both the superior efficiency of the mobile teams
            and the superior comprehensiveness of the fixed centres.
Compounding financial repression
            with rigid urban regulations : lessons of the Korea housing market
The objective of this paper is to
            explore the interactions between financial and urban
            policies, and their joint impact on the performance of the
            housing sector during the course of economic development.
            The central hypothesis is that extended periods of financial
            repression and the scarcity of mortgage lending have
            generated significant distortions in the output of the
            Korean housing sector.  In addition, combined with very
            restrictive urban planning and land use regulations, this
            financial situation may have led to under-investment in the
            urban sector of Korea during much of the past two decades.
            A broader question which is left unaddresssed is whether
            such distortions and under-investment have been an integral
            component of the rapid growth policies of other East Asian
            market economies such as Japan and Taiwan, or what
            differences there might be.  The analysis in the paper
            progresses from economic growth policies and directed credit
            to urban outcomes; the key link is the behavior of Korean households.
Methodological problems in
            cross-country analyses of economic growth
Many cross country studies have been
            conducted over the last twenty years to explain how various
            factors affect economic growth rates in the developing
            countries. The data in these studies - which underlie
            international economic comparisons and serve as the basis
            for economic policy recommendations - give researchers the
            systematic and scientific information required for their
            investigations. But the conclusions are often fragile and
            sometimes contradictory. This paper finds that research
            results are sensitive to the choices of components, the aim
            of the investigation, and the type of model used. In
            general, researchers need to have better statistical data,
            particularly on economic policy indicators, and must subject
            the selected sample to careful tests. Cross-country studies
            are particularly unreliable when it comes to estimating the
            economic impact of government budgetary and regulatory
            policies. These studies thus provide only a weak basis for
            developing country economic policies.
The selection and use of pesticides
            in Bank financed public health projects
Vector, snail and rodent-borne diseases
            are responsible for a great deal of human morbidity and
            mortality in the tropical developing countries. Of the three
            methods for controlling tropical diseases, environmental,
            biological and chemical, pesticides are the best
            alternative. Whenever possible, however, these chemicals
            should be used in conjunction with environmental or
            biological methods and the appropriate drug or vaccine.
            Public health officials must be concerned that the compound
            chosen is safe for the user as well as inhabitants and
            domestic animals in the treated area. The method of control
            must also be appropriate for each targeted vector, because
            there are large biological differences among species. Some
            other considerations are that: (a) the chemical must be a
            narrow spectrum pesticide; (b) it should be effective in the
            proposed geographic area; (c) the target should be evaluated
            to check its resistance to a given chemical; and (d) the
            proposed pesticide must not pose a hazard to species that
            are not targeted.
Teacher-nonteacher pay differences
            in Cote d'Ivoire
Because base salaries for teachers in
            Cote d'Ivoire are higher than wages of workers in other
            occupations, there is some question about whether teachers
            are overpaid. This paper used multivariate analysis based on
            the monthly wage rate functions to investigate the
            differences between teachers and other occupations. It was
            found that the base salaries for teachers contained an
            economic rent component, largely due to the wage setting
            behaviour of the Ivorian government. This salary premium
            disappears, however, when the total renumeration package is
            considered, i.e. including in-kind benefits, bonuses and
            commissions, which are more widely received by non-teachers.
            Policymakers should thus be cautious when considering budget
            cuts that would lower teachers salaries, cuts certain to
            make the teaching profession less attractive.
Objectives and methods of a world
            health survey
Many developing countries are trying to
            improve the routine collection of health information by
            strengthening surveys, censuses, and registration systems.
            At the international level, too, efforts are underway to
            provide information on health and health interventions,
            including statistical reporting programs of the U.N. and the
            World Bank. In view of the limited financial resources in
            the developing countries, would a world health survey
            complement these health information systems and contribute
            to long-term health care? This paper finds that although a
            series of coordinated country health studies could be
            valuable, there are many tradeoffs. Considering the variety
            of health problems and priorities in developing countries,
            it is probably more important to develop the expertise to
            conduct and analyze health studies than to devise a standard
            questionnaire to collect health data. As for the cost
            effectiveness of health programs, a world health survey is
            not the appropriate vehicle for such evaluations, but it
            could address such concerns as access, coverage, patient
            costs, and financing systems.
Institutional aspects of credit cooperatives
The most common form of government
            intervention in the rural sector has been massive lending at
            subsidized interest rates. Credit programs generally aim to
            reach small farmers. However, despite the expansion of
            credit over the last three decades, few farmers in low
            income countries seem to have received or benefited from
            such credit. It has thus been common for small-scale farmers
            to resort to the formation of organized credit groups or
            cooperatives. This paper is a normative analysis of
            cooperatives viewed as institutions to improve the plight of
            small-scale farmers. The purpose is to analyze which
            structures are most successful, then to promote credit
            cooperatives and to design an optimal incentive scheme in
            place of subsidized credit policies of the past. The paper
            concludes by stating that a policy of providing assistance
            to existing and potential credit groups on how to set
            incentives, implement monitoring schemes and develop
            centralized resources is more desirable and more cost
            effective than the old fashioned and largely regressive
            subsidized credit policies.
Inflationary rigidities and
            stabilization policies
Latin American countries provide the
            best living laboratory to study inflationary processes and
            stabilization programs. The purpose of this paper is to
            analyze the experience with orthodox stabilization policies,
            which are based on a tight fiscal stance and not supported
            by a system of price controls. The analysis of these
            policies is structured as follows. Part I analyzes in detail
            the question of why purely orthodox policies were especially
            effective in stopping hyperinflation as opposed to chronic
            inflation processes. Part II turns to chronic inflation
            countries and analyzes three basic types of stabilization.
            The first type is based almost exclusively on fiscal
            adjustment. The second considers programs which employ
            nominal anchors in conjunction with fiscal adjustments. The
            third type examines the exchange rate based stabilizations
            which often evolve out of a monetary-fiscal package. In the
            final part of the paper, the authors consider the long run
            view which extends beyond specific programs and emphasizes
            the importance of persistence in fiscal discipline and in
            adherence to nominal anchors.
Comparisons of real output in manufacturing
This study is concerned with the
            conceptual and measurement problems which arise in
            comparisons of levels of per capita output and productivity
            in different countries. The author stresses the reliance of
            standarized valuations of the different elements of output
            rather than official exchange rates when making comparisons.
            Two approaches are noted; (1) the expenditure approach and
            (2) the production approach. The production approach,
            discussed here, looks at the industry of origin and provides
            a basis for growth accounting, comparative structural
            analysis, studies of technological performance, and work on
            labor productivity and total factor productivity. This
            approach provides a sounder base for constructing relative
            indicators of productivity. It also reveals trade protection
            policies and their incidence on different sectors of the
            economy. The approach shows which data are anomalous and
            which analytically useful in industrial census. It also
            shows how new insights might be gained by exploiting some
            official sources which often remain untapped by
            international agencies.
Issues in adjustment lending
Reaping the full benefit of adjustment
            packages depends on a government's commitment to reform
            as well as a variety of complementary factors, many of which
            have not been duly considered because of the lack of time,
            resources, and skills. It is becoming increasingly clear
            that if these packages are to be more effective and
            credible, the menu of policy options might be expanded in
            three areas. One is translating adjustment policies into
            improved economic performance -- the objective of domestic
            strategy. The second is reconciling policy reforms with
            changing external strategy. The third is improving the
            process of adjustment itself. The report concludes that
            attention needs to be placed on the commitment to price
            reforms and nonprice areas. Support might increase for the
            outward orientation of countries -- if discussions are
            extended to consider external factors and if
            nondistortionary ways of promoting domestic production are
            explored. There must also be greater government commitment
            to building support for the reforms as well as flexiblity in
            the external financing community.
Projecting the Economic Consequences
            of the COVID-19 Pandemic
The highly uncertain evolution of the
            COVID-19 pandemic, influenced in part by government actions,
            social behavior, and vaccine-related developments, will play
            a critical role in shaping the global recovery’s strength
            and durability. This paper develops a modeling approach to
            embed pandemic scenarios and the rollout of a vaccine in a
            macroeconometric model and illustrates the impact of
            different pandemic- and vaccine-related assumptions on
            growth outcomes. The pandemic and the measures to contain
            it, including vaccine deployment, are assumed to be
            represented by consumption shocks in a macroeconometric
            model. In the baseline scenario, social distancing and a
            gradual vaccination process allow policy makers to make
            significant inroads in containing the pandemic. In a
            downside scenario, insufficient pandemic control efforts
            accompanied by delayed vaccination leads to persistently
            higher infection levels and a materially worse growth
            outcome. In contrast, in an upside scenario, effective
            management of the pandemic combined with rapid vaccine
            deployment would set the stage for stronger growth outcomes.
Achieving Privacy : Costs of
            Compliance and Enforcement of Data Protection Regulation
Is privacy a luxury for the rich world?
            Remarkably, there is a dearth of literature evaluating
            whether data privacy is too costly for companies to
            implement, or too expensive for governments to enforce. This
            paper is the first to offer a review of surveys of costs of
            compliance, and to summarize national budgets for
            enforcement. The study shows that while privacy may indeed
            prove costly for companies to implement, it is not too
            costly for governments to enforce. This study will help
            inform governments as they fashion and implement privacy
            laws to address the “privacy enforcement gap”—the disparity
            between the privacy on the books, and the privacy on the ground.
Achieving Privacy : Costs of
            Compliance and Enforcement of Data Protection Regulation
Policy Research Working Paper 9594 World Development Report 202 <mark>1</mark> _Background Paper_ Achieving Privacy Costs of Compliance and Enforcement of Data Protection Regulation _Anupam Chander Meaza Abraham Sandeep Chandy Yuan Fang Dayoung Park Isabel Yu_ World Development Report 2021 Team & Macroeconomics, Trade and Investment Global Practice March 2021
The Effect of Information and
            Subsidy Measures on Adoption of Solar Lanterns : An
            Application of the BDM Bidding Mechanism in Rural Ethiopia
Solar lanterns are a relatively
            inexpensive renewable-energy option for household lighting
            in developing countries. However, the transition to these
            lighting sources is slow. To understand why, this study uses
            the Becker-Degroot-Marschak bidding mechanism in a
            randomized field experiment to investigate the effect of
            information provision and subsidy policy instruments on the
            uptake of solar lanterns. Subjects’ willingness to pay tends
            to be low enough that most of them would purchase the solar
            lantern only if it is subsidized. Households with access to
            grid electricity have a lower willingness to pay and are
            less likely to adopt, while those using kerosene as a source
            of lighting are more likely to adopt. Access to credit also
            increases willingness to pay.  Information treatments have
            limited impact:  provision of different types of information
            about the private and public benefits of solar lantern use
            increases adoption only when it is combined with a high
            level of subsidies.  Given the relatively low cost of solar
            lanterns, the results suggest that achieving universal
            electricity access under the United Nations’ Sustainable
            Development Goals by any means will require subsidizing access.
Regulating Personal Data : Data
            Models and Digital Services Trade
While regulations on personal data
            diverge widely between countries, it is nonetheless possible
            to identify three main models based on their distinctive
            features: one model based on open transfers and processing
            of data, a second model based on conditional transfers and
            processing, and third a model based on limited transfers and
            processing. These three data models have become a reference
            for many other countries when defining their rules on the
            cross-border transfer and domestic processing of personal
            data. The study reviews their main characteristics and
            systematically identifies for 116 countries worldwide to
            which model they adhere for the two components of data
            regulation (i.e. cross-border transfers and domestic
            processing of data). In a second step, using gravity
            analysis, the study estimates whether countries sharing the
            same data model exhibit higher or lower digital services
            trade compared to countries with different regulatory data
            models. The results show that sharing the open data model
            for cross-border data transfers is positively associated
            with trade in digital services, while sharing the
            conditional model for domestic data processing is also
            positively correlated with trade in digital services.
            Country-pairs sharing the limited model, instead, exhibit a
            double whammy: they show negative trade correlations
            throughout the two components of data regulation. Robustness
            checks control for restrictions in digital services, the
            quality of digital infrastructure, as well as for the use of
            alternative data sources.
Deep Integration in Trade Agreements
            : Labor Clauses, Tariffs, and Trade Flows
Deepening preferential trade agreements
            extend coverage to social issues, including labor clauses.
            While there is a long history of debate over the intent of
            labor clauses, less is known about the impact of labor
            clauses. Recent studies show that labor clauses improve
            working conditions, but the impact on trade flows is still
            debated. Existing studies do not include a full set of fixed
            effects (to control for endogeneity and unobserved
            confounding factors), other dimensions of deep agreements
            that could be correlated with labor clauses (tariffs and
            other “deep” clauses), and pseudo-Poisson maximum likelihood
            estimation. This paper combines all three with additional
            robustness checks. While the estimated effect of trade
            agreements is positive overall, the estimated marginal
            relationship between labor clauses and trade volume is
            generally negative but varies with the type of clauses.
            Freedom of Association, Forced and Child Labor, and
            International Labor Standards are consistently associated
            with higher trade flows. Clauses that are more likely to
            eliminate illicit trade, including clauses related to
            discrimination, protection of working conditions, and
            third-party monitoring exhibit a negative marginal
            relationship with trade flows.
The Effectiveness of Environmental
            Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements
Trade liberalization can spur
            environmental degradation. Concerns over these adverse
            impacts have led to a debate over the need for environmental
            provisions in regional trade agreements (RTAs), however the
            effectiveness of such provisions is unknown. This paper
            provides new causal evidence that environmental provisions
            are effective in limiting deforestation following the entry
            into force of RTAs. It exploits high-resolution,
            satellite-derived estimates of deforestation and identify
            the content of RTAs using a new dataset with detailed
            information on individual provisions. Accounting for the
            potential endogeneity of environmental provisions in RTAs,
            the paper finds that the inclusion of specific provisions
            aimed at protecting forests and/or biodiversity entirely
            offsets the net increases in forest loss observed in similar
            RTAs without such provisions. The inclusion of these
            provisions limits agricultural land expansion, but does not
            completely offset increases in total agricultural
            production. The effects are concentrated in tropical,
            developing countries with greater biodiversity.
Trade Barriers in Government Procurement
This paper estimates trade barriers in
            government procurement, a market that accounts for 12
            percent of world GDP. Using data from inter-country
            input-output tables in a gravity model, the paper finds that
            home bias in government procurement is significantly higher
            than in trade between firms. However, this difference has
            been shrinking over time. Results also show that trade
            agreements with provisions on government procurement
            increase cross-border flows of services, whereas the effect
            on goods is small and not different from that in private
            markets. Provisions containing transparency and procedural
            requirements drive the liberalizing effect of trade agreements.