rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
collectors. On the other hand, the North American market is dominated by unglazed water collectors employed for applications such as heating swimming pools.

**Figure 3: Installed Capacity of Solar Thermal Systems**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 172,4<br>151,9<br>146,8<br>127,8<br>111,0<br>98,4<br>2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009<br>Unglazed AC Unglazed WC Glazed WC Evacuated tube WC<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Weiss et al. (2005 to 2011 Issues). WC is water collector and AC is air collector.

# **3. The economics of solar energy**

There is a wide variety of solar energy technologies and they compete in different energy markets, notably centralized power supply, grid-connected distributed power generation and offgrid or stand-alone applications. For instance, large-scale PV and CSP technologies compete with technologies seeking to serve the centralized grid. On the other hand, small-scale solar energy systems, which are part of distributed energy resource (DER)<sup>7</sup> systems, compete with a number of other technologies (e.g., diesel generation sets, off-grid wind power etc.). The traditional approach for comparing the cost of generating electricity from different technologies

> 7 DERs are essentially „small power generation and storage applications, usually located at or very near customer loads‟ (Denny and Dismukes, 2002).  Broadly, DERs include technologies and applications, which can be categorized into grid-connected applications, known as „distributed generation‟ (DG) and a separate category known as stand-alone systems, which includes electric as well as non-electric applications (IEA 2002, Byrne et al., 2005b).

10
resilience. We generate a binary proxy measure for CSA if a household used at least one or more of hybrid maize seed, inorganic fertilizer, and/or minimum tillage (MT).<sup>14</sup> Before conducting our analysis, we expected a positive correlation between climate shocks and vulnerability, and a negative correlation between climate shocks and resilience. Table 1 defines the remaining variables. We chose all the variables used in the regressions based on the conceptual framework in section 2, drawing from several examples in the literature (see for example Jain, 2007; Thurlow et al., 2012; Wineman and Crawford, 2017; Al Mamun et al., 2018; Braimoh et al., 2018; Alfani et al., 2019; Ngoma et al., 2019; Azzarri et al, 2020).

# 4.3 Empirical strategy

Although the RALS is a longitudinal data set, vulnerability and resilience are defined as single states over all three waves. This implies that most of our estimating equations are crosssectional rather than fully exploiting the panel dimension of the data. We estimate a probit regression model, as specified in Equation 2: where _y_ is a _j_<sup>_th_</sup> dependent variable ( _j_ = vulnerable or resilient) for household _i_ ; **_ClimS_** is vector of exogenous climate shocks described above; **_X_** is vector of socio-economic and demographic factors such as assets, crop diversity, age and education level of the household head; _credit_ is a dummy = 1 if any household member obtained credit from any source; _CSA_ is a dummy =1 if a household used any MT (ripping, basins, and/or zero tillage for main tillage on at least one plot), hybrid maize seed and inorganic fertilizer; _distmkt_ is the distance in kilometers from the homestead to the nearest main market; _dist_ is a dummy controlling for district-specific attributes such as topology and other things, and _μi_ is the idiosyncratic error term. In addition to the variables in levels, we also include interactions between CSA and each of the climate shock measures to assess if adopting CSA influences the effects of climate shocks on outcomes.

# 4.4 Identification strategy

Proper identification of Equation 2 requires addressing the endogeneity<sup>15</sup> of CSA adoption, crop diversity, and access to credit. Without this, the parameter estimates of the effects of climate shocks will be biased because these variables reflect farmer choices and may “codetermine” the outcomes. For example, farmers that adopt CSA, have diversified crops, and

> 14 MT is defined as the use of either ripping, planting basins, or zero tillage as the main tillage method at the plot level. Minimum tillage is the most prevalent form and the basic CSA principle in Zambia. MT practices are known to help farmers adapt to water stress by improving water collection and retention in planting stations, while hybrid maize seed and inorganic fertilizers are key in helping farmers build resilience.

> 15 In econometrics, “endogeneity” broadly refers to situations in which an explanatory variable is correlated with the error term.

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4 some funds offered to buy back fund shares for several times the amount each voucher holder had to pay for a voucher book.

**Figure 1: Key results of the investment process in the first wave of privatization**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 277.7 8.566 8.566<br>100%-<br>90%/ 29 % _ %<br>80% 37 %<br>70% 5% 0 individuals<br>60%- Emixed 1/<br>50% I N7% investment funds<br>40%/O 3--1<br>30%- 6% 68%U/<br>20%-<br>10%<br>0%<br>million billion points million people<br>shares sold invested partcipating<br><!-- End of picture text --> 1! people investing part of their points themselves and another part wth funds.

# **3. Survey of Czech voucher funds**

The analysis tries to shed some light on the ownership patterns that emerged after privatization. In order to get a better understanding on this issue, the set of the top ten investment funds which emerged in the first wave in the Czech Republic are analyzed. The ten biggest Czech funds represent more than 43% of the entire market, measured in number of investment points acquired, and more than 60% of the market held by funds (see Table 7 2)7.

In choosing the top ten funds for an analysis about investment funds, it is not suggested that big funds behave similarly. On the contrary, very distinctive patterns can be observed 7 The ten biggest Czech _and_ Slovak funds account for half of all voucher points and about 71% of all points allocated to funds.
# **Figure A1.7. Poverty rate for base in 201 and for different Gini values in 2030 (Percent)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 70<br>60<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>2012 2030(Gini=0.53) 2030 (Gini=0.41)<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Figure A1.8: MDG 1 (poverty rate) by simulation and year (Percent)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 65<br>60<br>55<br>base<br>50<br>min+<br>45 inf+<br>hd+<br>40<br>geff+<br>35<br>30<br><!-- End of picture text --> 32
ing is strongly predictive of the survey-based test score years later. Using the criterion suggested by Oster (2015), I test whether additional unobservables could drive the true cross-sectional effect to zero, and find that under the assumptions she suggests, unobservables would not change the finding that secondary schooling in Kenya increases subsequent human capital (test scores).<sup>42</sup> Thus, having a pre-treatment measure of academic capabilities could be sufficient for (reasonably) unbiased analysis of impacts on learning outcomes.

When I turn to employment outcomes in Tables 6 and 7, the patterns are quite different. For both outcomes, the range of values provided by the cross-sectional point estimates does not include the point estimate from the regression discontinuity; however, for both outcomes, given the wide confidence interval in the regression discontinuity design, it is not statistically distinguishable from the OLS values.

In the case of employment, the cross-sectional relationship is always statistically indistinguishable from zero, in the case of self-employment, is always significantly negative. These regressions never have very high _R_<sup>2</sup> values, however, and the inclusion of the KCPE control does not change this by very much. As such, the bounding approach of Oster (2015) is very sensitive to reasonable choices of the maximum _R_<sup>2</sup> that inclusion of unobservables could yield. For both outcomes, the bounding approach cannot reject null effects or effects of the opposite sign with _Rmax_ = 0 _._ 1. However, with Oster’s suggested

> 42I use Oster’s `psacalc` program in Stata, first with the _R_ 2 scale-up factor of Π = 1 _._ 3, then with _Rmax_ = 0 _._ 5, following the suggestions in Oster (2015) in light of the discussion in Gonzalez and Miguel (2014); the Vocabulary + Raven’s outcome in the KLPS survey is constructed from relatively few items (compared to an hour-long test like the PIAT to which Oster refers).

31
same in tax changes for industrial European and the rest of countries.<sup>30</sup> While, in principle, we cannot rule out other plausible considerations, we show in the next section that this need not be the case and that a simpler explanation could simply rely on non-linear distortionary and disincentive-based e¤ects of tax rates on output.

# 6 The non-linear e¤ect of tax changes on output

As discussed in the Introduction, and based on di¤erent types of macroeconomic models, the output e¤ect of tax changes is expected to be small at low initial levels of taxation but exponentially larger (in absolute value) when initial tax levels are high. Therefore, the distortions and disincentives imposed by taxation on economic activity are directly, and non-linearly, related to the level of tax rates. By the same token, for a given level of initial tax rates, larger tax rate changes have larger tax multipliers.

In this section, we ...rst show that these non-linear theoretical arguments are actually present empirically, and then that they can also explain (i) the linear ...ndings of Section 5 when estimating the tax multiplier for industrial Europe and the rest of countries, and (ii) the VAT or indirect tax multipliers calculated on country-speci...c studies using di¤erent empirical strategies. We also show further evidence that these non-linear e¤ects are powerful in explaining (i) the di¤erent e¤ect of tax changes on output observed depending upon the motivation of the exogenous tax change (e.g., like the one identi...ed by RR when comparing the output e¤ect of long-run growth versus inherited de...cit-driven tax changes), (ii) the perceived (survey-based) extent to which taxes reduce the incentive to work and invest, and (iii) policymakers’tax plans to deal with the current need for increasing economic activity and addressing ...scal de...cits. We also show that the same non-linear arguments are present in RR’s sample.

## 6.1 Multipliers for di¤erent levels of initial tax rates

We will ...rst evaluate how the e¤ect of tax rate changes on output depends upon the initial level of the tax rate. For this purpose, we modify our linear speci...cation (6) as follows:

> 30 Results are not shown for the sake of brevity.

27
66 In contrast, Ghana's relatively low freight rate (under 5 percent) reflects the high share of diamonds (about 35 percent) in this country's total exports. Seemingly, very different values and stowage factors for the goods being exported explain some of the cross-country variation in African freight costs.

A third point reflected in Table 13 is that average nominal freight rates for African exports are consistently higher, with the exception of the oil exporters, than those on similar goods shipped from other countries.31 For all sub-Saharan countries combined, ad valorem freight costs are about 20 percent above their competitors. However, these aggregate figures conceal the true importance of adverse freight rates on specific products due to the overall importance of gemstones, gold, other precious metals and similar products in African exports. Freight is typically a very small share of these high value, easily transportable products, so wide variations in their nominal transport costs will not occur (however, for some footwear, textile and clothing products African transport costs range between 15 to 50 percent -- see Table 14). Also, many products like coffee, cocoa, petroleum and metal ores can be transported by bulk carriers, tankers, or tramp shipping which can be chartered in more competitive markets than those for the liner trades. This study will later argue that government policies relating to the liner trades plays an important role behind Africa's adverse freight costs.

# B. The Magnitude of Cross-Product Variation in Freight Costs

An important question concerns the magnitude of the variance in African transport costs across products - - particularly manufactured goods. If sectors exist where the nominal freight costs are low, or the adverse African transport differential narrows (or is even reversed), their identification may be helpful for "flagging' potentially promising areas for investment and the promotion of export ventures. A related question is whether the adverse African transport cost differentials generally extends to different types of carriers. Since the United States data distinguish between air and vessel shipments, African freight rates for each mode of transport can be analyzed 3'The reversal is due to the fact that Africa (particularly Nigeria) exports a light high quality crude to the United States which generally commands a price premium over crude petroleum shipped from other regions. For example, the U.S. Department of Energy (1995, p. 112) estimates that in 1993 the average price per barrel of Nigerian crude was $17.79 as opposed to an average price of $14.78 for all OPEC shipments. As a result of this African price premium the nominal freight rate (i.e., actual freight charges as a percentage of product price) for Africa is lower than average for all OPEC members.
term loans falling by 14 percentage points as a share of total debt and medium-term loans increasing by 13 percentage points between 2008 and 2010. The average remaining maturity of public debt increased from 3 years in 2008 to 4 years in 2010. The government’s debt strategy aims to raise the average remaining maturity of the public debt to 4.5 years over the medium term, by issuing more medium and long-term securities on the domestic market and reducing the amount of short-term securities issued (Ministry of Public Finance, 2011). The share of fixed interest rate debt in the debt portfolio also rose from 31 percent to 52 percent. On a less positive note, the share of foreign currency denominated debt in the debt portfolio increased from 40 percent in 2008 to 55 percent in 2010, which is attributable to both the borrowing from multilateral lenders and the issuance of foreign currency denominated securities on the domestic market to meet demand for these securities from local banks.

The measures taken to strengthen public finances and thus curb the growth of public debt appear to have brought about an improvement in investor confidence. Standard & Poors and Fitch both revised the outlook on Romania’s sovereign credit rating of BB+ from negative to stable in 2010. CDS spreads on public debt dropped from 610 basis points (bps) in February 2009 to 290 bps at the end of 2010 (Ministry of Public Finance, 2011).

Romania’s medium-term public debt dynamics appear quite favorable, in the main because the average real interest rate on government debt is very low; it was 0.8 percent in 2010 and is projected to decline to zero by 2016.<sup>5</sup> The low real interest rate on public debt is attributable to the large share of loans from the multilateral lenders in the public debt portfolio which are at interest rates which are lower than those which Romania pays on the debt which it has issued to the market. Nevertheless, it is likely that the average real interest rate on government debt will rise above zero over the long term, because Romania will gradually reduce its borrowing from the multilateral lenders and replace it with borrowing from the domestic and international markets, where interest rates will be higher. In 2011, the government issued Euro denominated medium-term notes on the international market, to maintain Romania’s presence in the international capital markets.

> 5 This projection is from the Debt Sustainability Analysis of the World Bank and IMF.

9
|Presidential system LIC countriesi,t|||2.586<br>(2.864)||||0.619<br>(3.759)||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Herfindahl Index in HIC countriesi,t||||-19.865<sup>**</sup><br>(9.135)<br>||||-19.857<sup>**</sup><br>(8.150)<br>|
|Herfindahl Index in UMC countriesi,t||||-8.119<sup>~~*~~</sup><br>(4.705)||||-8.953<sup>~~*~~</sup><br>(5.263)|
|Herfindahl Index in LMC countriesi,t||||-10.092<sup>~~***~~</sup><br>(3.790)||||-9.425<sup>~~*~~</sup><br>(5.057)|
|Herfindahl Index in LIC countriesi,t||||7.459<br>(5.010)||||7.405<br>(6.795)|
|Constant<br>|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|R<sup>~~2~~</sup>within<br>|0.648|0.644|0.690|0.649|0.610|0.605|0.657|0.621|
|R<sup>~~2~~</sup>overall|0.498|0.541|0.637|0.575|0.543|0.527|0.694|0.552|
|Time dummies|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Observations|1,062|1,062|904|1,012|947|947|803|898|

Notes: * = significant at 10 %; ** = significant at 5 %; *** = significant at 1 %; robust standard errors in parentheses.

35
# **6. Conclusions**

The purpose of this paper was to determine the effects of a public works program, PATI, on crime rates in municipalities in El Salvador. The results show that this program can play an important role in reducing crime and violence in the country. Taking advantage of the existing panel database at the municipal level of crimes and the treated municipalities in the past few years, we estimated the effects of PATI on crime rates at the municipality level.

The results of this paper show that PATI reduced crime rates in treated municipalities. These results are consistent with earlier impact evaluation findings that suggested that the program improved satisfaction with the neighborhood as well a civil participation in treated communities. Most of the reduction is explained by income effects, as the program provided a cash benefit to beneficiaries, which substituted the lack of income and, potentially, the need to engage in illegal activities. This is the case of theft and extortion. Decrease in non-economically motivated crimes is mostly potentially driven by social capital factors related to community participation and work requirements that leave less time to commit crime. Strong crime reducing effects may be the result of the fact that most of PATI’s beneficiaries were youth, particularly from an age group at high risk of engaging in antisocial and criminal behavior (15–24 years).

In summary, while PATI was not specifically designed to prevent crime, it seems to have had a significant and important effect on violence and crime levels in threatened municipalities in El Salvador. This paper shows that the effects of a public works program can extend beyond the typical ones affecting labor market outcomes. They can also complement other critical preventive measures to reduce conflict and crime in their areas of operation.

13
60

||**Tab**<br>|**le 19 Siz**<br>|**e of Contr**<br>|**ibutions**<br>|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|in m. CHF|1996<br>Total|1998<br>Total|2000<br>Total|2002<br>Total|PF under<br>public law|Collective– and<br>Common Instit.|
|Employees|9,139|9,440|10,398|11,835|2,608|4,857|
|Employers|16,260|17,894|16,712|17,946|4,509|5,836|
|Other Contributions|699|1,325|1,101|1,549|0|138|
|Total Contributions|26,098|28,659|28,211|31,330|7,117|10,831|
|% Employers|62.3%|62.4%|59.2%|57.3%|63.4%|53.9%|
|Swiss GDP (current<br>prices)|373,993|390,191|415,529|431,064|||
|Tot. Cont. as % of<br>GDP|7.0%|7.3%|6.8%|7.3%|||
|Total Members(mn)|3.15|3.14|3.23|3.31|0.51|1.77|

Source: Bundesamt für Statistik (2004a)

# Old–age Credit Balances:

In 2002 accumulated balances on the notional old-age credit accounts amounted to CHF 123 billion. This represented 28 percent of the total assets of pension funds and corresponded to 29 percent of GDP. Total old-age credit balances grew by almost 8 percent per year since 2000, when they amounted to CHF 106 billion or 26 percent of that year's GDP.

Old-age credit balances represent the contributions and minimum interest income that must be credited to these accounts under the mandatory system. Since the system was introduced in 1985 and applies only to the so-called coordinated earnings of members (i.e., earnings that range approximately between 40 and 120 percent of average earnings of all Swiss workers), it is not surprising that they account for a fraction of total pension fund assets.

Currently available data do not report the amounts of contributions that are made to the mandatory part of the system, nor the payouts of accumulated mandatory balances due to retirement or death. A more complete picture will become available in 2006 following the implementation of the new reporting and accounting standards.

# Annuities:

Table 20 presents several factors that describe the Swiss annuities market. Total annuity and capital payments are shown in values and as a fraction of GDP. In 2002, annuity payments were more than three times their level in 1987, i.e., two years after the introduction of the mandatory system. During the same time span, annuity payments more than doubled as a fraction of GDP, reaching 4.22 percent of GDP in 2002. The yearly increase is due to both an increase in the number of recipients and an increase in the average annuity payment. The same is true for capital (lump sum) payments. From 1987 to 2002 they rose from 0.36 to 0.82 percent of GDP. During this period, they increased as a proportion of total payments from 15 percent in 1987 to 19 percent in 2000 but then fell to 16 percent in 2002. The fall in the relative share of capital payments in 2002 is probably due to the increase in the incidence of early retirement since early retirement packages are often tied to an annuity. Figure 20 illustrates the different growth patterns for annuity and