rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
14, the correlation between the attitude towards shared economic responsibilities and agency seems positive for the cases of India and Pakistan, while no significant association is found for Bangladesh.

The onset of motherhood has been strongly linked to withdrawal of women from the labor force and selection into casual work or more flexible jobs which allow time for childcare. Deep-seated beliefs about women as mothers are evident in Figure 11 (middle right panel), where overwhelmingly, above 80 percent of respondents agree that women need to have children to be fulfilled. This holds across countries and cohorts, ranging from the 1940s -1980s. Correspondingly, the average age of women at their first birth has remained mostly stable, at around 17-18 years in Bangladesh and above 20 years in Pakistan. Figure 15 highlights this by showing how concentrated within a small area are the observations for these two countries. In the case of India, the slight increase of age at first birth is mirrored by a corresponding decline in the share of respondents who agree that women need to have children to be fulfilled.

IPV has generated a great deal of concern among policy makers and is of interest to researchers ( <mark>Chibber and Krishnan, 2011</mark> ). In finding solutions to IPV, understanding attitudes towards this violence, its justification especially, is important. Researchers have found a strong positive relationship between IPV experience and justification in several countries in Africa and Asia (Abramsky et al., 2011). Their results are not different from what we find in Afghanistan, India, Maldives, and Pakistan in Figure 16. In these countries, the linear relationship between IPV experience and IPV justification is positive —the higher the share of women that justify beating the higher the shares that are likely to experience beating (and verse versa). However, the slopes of the relationship are almost flat. On the contrary there is a negative relationship between the two variables for Bangladesh and Nepal. An explanation for the opposing relationships may not be available but the clustering of the different cohorts leads us to the conclusion that domestic violence, its justification and incidence, is sticky and warrants effective interventions.

# **6. Conclusion**

This paper explores the evolution of gender-normative attitudes and gender norm-influenced outcomes in South Asia. Using repeated cross-sectional data from nationally representative surveys in the region, we examine the levels, trends, and relationship of these outcomes for women born across half a century. Our results highlight the presence of wide gender disparities and of conservative gender attitudes, which are a proxy for norms. In terms of trends, all gender outcomes relating to employment, marriage and children, and intrahousehold power/negotiation have remained stable or even regressed, with the exception of education. These trends were observed for all women, irrespective of location, education, 26
was assumed for Ethiopia and Lesotho, which is the median bill collection rate for utilities on the continent. Cash collected by the utility in the reference year is assumed to be equivalent to total revenue (including tariff and non-tariff revenue) multiplied by the bill collection rate.

# A1.4 Capital cost estimates

All capital costs were annualized over the economic life of the plant ( _T_ ) at a real discount rate ( _r_ ) of 10 percent to yield annual capex: r Amortized capital cost= Overnight investment× . 1 −(1 + r)<sup>−T</sup>

## Generation capital costs by technology

Generation capital costs were estimated using the assumptions outlined in Table A1.2 and Table A1.3. Installed capacity data used in the reference year calculations are listed in annex 4. New replacement values of generation assets were determined by technology using reference costs from various sources including case studies of 21 IPP projects in SSA from Eberhard and Gratwick (2011), the U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Renewable Energy Agency, and individual projects developed in the region for each technology. In addition, heat rates assumed in Table A1.2 were used to calculate the amount of fuel required, from which fuel expenditures were estimated.

**Table A1.2** : **Assumptions about generation parameters**

|**Technology**|**Capex (US$/kW)**|**Economic life (years)**|**Heat rate (gigajoules/MW-hour)**|
|---|---|---|---|
|Biomass|2,500|30|14.25|
|Coal|2,403|30|9.29|
|CoGen|917|30|7.44|
|Diesel|1070|30|11.13|
|Gas CC|917|30|7.44|
|Gas OC|603|30|12.14|
|Geothermal|4,362|30|n.a.|
|HFO|1,250|30|9.81|
|Hydropower|See below|35|n.a.|
|Nuclear|4,102|60|n.a.|
|Solar|2,500|25|n.a.|
|Wind|2,000|25|n.a.|

_Sources_ : IEA, (U.S.) Energy Information Administration, International Renewable Energy Agency, and World Bank technical specialists.

_Note_ : n.a. = not applicable.

As with the AICD, a single cost was assumed in every country for each technology irrespective of location or size, with the exception of hydropower (Table A1.3). There were more categories for technologies than in the AICD study, which had three costs in total for all generation plants using fossil fuels (“oil,” coal, and gas). Plant-level data on hydropower generation capacity were obtained to estimate a weighted-average capital cost of hydropower in each country based on three capacity categories. Hydropower plants were assumed to be refurbished after 35 years at a cost of 35 percent of the cost of a new plant. The life of each existing hydropower plant was checked, and if the plant was less than 35 years old in the reference year, the capex in Table A1.3 was annualized over 35 years. If the plant was 73
Table **5:** Poverty and Unemployment

||_Number of Unemployed_<br>_Members in the Household_|_Bulgaria_|_Hungary_|_Poland_|_Estonia_|_Kyrgyz_<br>_Republic_|_Russia_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||||**Headcoun**|**t (P0, in pe**|**rcent)**||
|0||...|16.9|19.7|28.4|42.0|37.6|
|1||..|30.5|35.7|42.6|41.9|53.2|
|2||...|39.2|50.7|53.1|54.4|73.7|
|3 or|more|...|68.7|46.5|73.2|40.6|66.7|
|All||26.1|20.6|23.0|30.5|42.5|**39.4**|
|||Poverty|**Gap**(in pe|rcent)**V/**||||
|0||...|13.1|13.0|19.5|24.4|30.1|
|1||...|16.0|13.6|22.2|26.5|28.5|
|2||...|13.6|15.1|27.3|24.4|25.6|
|3 or|more|...|17.9|17.5|30.8|33.9|39.7|
|All||19.8|14.1|13.3|20.2|25.0|29.8|

_Source:_ Household Expenditure and Income Date for Transition Economies Data Set (HEIDE). _Notes:_

**I/** The poverty gap is the poor's average shortfall in expenditures from the poverty line, expressed **as** a percentage of the poverty line (this measure is also known as the expenditure gap ratio).

The role of education in this process is made clear in Table 6. There is a distinct difference between the East European and the FSU countries. In Eastern Europe, the link between lower poverty and higher education is extremely pronounced, but in the FSU this link is much weaker, to being almost non-existent in Kyrgyz Republic. In Hungary, e.g., the poverty incidence among households where the head has primary education or less is 33.9 percent, while in households where the head has university education it is 3.3 percent, i.e. ten times less. The equivalent figures for Kyrgyz Republic are 43.2 percent and 37.6 percent. The other countries are somewhere in-between these extremes.

33
Since equation (3) is a dynamic panel model, the fixed effect estimator will be biased. Therefore, we obtain estimates for this model using Arellano and Bond’s (1991) generalized method of moments (GMM). Table 8 reports these estimates for Argentina and Uruguay for _k=_ 0 and 4 and _j_ =0,4, and 8.<sup>18</sup> In both cases, the findings present a clear and common pattern. Systemic risk is a significant predictor of bank fundamentals even after controlling for its own lag, the more so the longer the time horizon as reflected in the point estimates and standard errors. Indeed, whereas the explanatory power of systemic risk increases with the time horizon, the coefficient on the lagged non-performing loans ratio declines. This can be more clearly seen in Figure 7, where we plot, for each country, the GMM coefficients for _NPL_ and _S_ for _k=0_ , _k=1_ , _k=2_ , _k=3,_ and _k=4_ (that is, for time horizons that go from zero to four month ahead).

In sum, even if the probability of bank default could be summarized by bank-specific fundamentals, a depositor interested in assessing this probability over the next quarter based on currently available information is expected to monitor systemic variables as much as (if not more than) the latest balance sheet data released by the authorities. While measures of systemic risk are likely to be stable and relatively silent about the standing of individual banks during tranquil times, they become key indicators of bank health and, for that reason, key drivers of market reaction during crises.

# **5. Conclusions**

Using evidence from the recent bank runs in Argentina and Uruguay, this paper showed that systemic risk has important effects on the way in which depositors behave and respond to standard bank fundamentals, questioning the traditional notion of market discipline. In particular, the paper illustrated how systemic risk may overshadow the role of bank fundamentals in driving

> 18 Comparable results are obtained using simple fixed-effects panel regressions.

21
modifications.<sup>129</sup> DHHS surveyed “covered entities,” which include all health plans, health care clearinghouses and health care providers. The DHHS estimated the additional costs incurred to be between $114 million and $225.4 million in the first year of implementation and approximately $14.5 million annually thereafter.<sup>130</sup> These costs include: (i) costs to HIPAA covered entities to revise and distribute updated notices of privacy practices; (ii) costs to HIPAA covered entities to comply with the requirements of breach notification; (iii) costs to business associates to ensure their subcontracts are complying with business associate agreement requirements; and (iv) costs to business associates to fully comply with HIPAA’s security rule.<sup>131</sup>

|**Legislation**|**Estimating**<br>**Entity**|**Affected**<br>**Respondents**|**Cost of Compliance**<br>**(US$/year)**|**Cost of**<br>**Compliance**<br>**Components**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Modifications<br>to the HIPAA<br>Privacy,<br>Security,|Department<br>of Health and<br>Human<br>Services|700,000 covered<br>entities.|$55.9 million|Notices of<br>Privacy Practices|
|<br>Enforcement,<br>and Breach<br>Notification<br>Rules|(2013)<sup>132</sup>|19,000 covered<br>entities.|$14.5 million|Breach<br>Notification<br>Requirements|
|||250,000–500,000<br>business associates<br>of covered entities|$21–42 million|Business<br>Associate<br>Agreements|
|||200,000–400,000<br>business associates<br>of covered entities|$22.6–113 million|Security Rule<br>Compliance by<br>Business<br>Associates|
||Total Costs||$114–225.4 million (first<br>$14.5 million (annually a|year)<br>fter)|

The following tables break down the estimated costs expended by covered entities and the business associates of covered entities in order to comply with the modified provisions of HIPAA, according to the DHHS study.<sup>133</sup>

> 129 Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules, 78 Fed. Reg. 5566 (Jan. 25, 2013) (to be codified at 45 C.F.R. pts 160 & 164).

> 130 _Id._ at 5567.

> 131 _Id._

> _132_ Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules, 78 Fed. Reg. 5566 (Jan. 25, 2013) (to be codified at 45 C.F.R. pts 160 & 164).

> 133 _Id._ at 5676.

22
# **Women’s Economic Participation, Time Use, and Access to Childcare in Urban Bangladesh**<sup>*</sup>

Emcet O. Taş and Tanima Ahmed<sup>†</sup> JEL Classifications: B54, J21, J22 Keywords: childcare, labor force participation, time use, secondary childcare, Bangladesh.

> * Acknowledgments: The authors thank Maria S. Floro, Aphichoke Kotikula, Jayati Sethi, Elizaveta Perova, Robin Mearns, Sabah Moyeen, Mercy M. Tembon and participants of a seminar organized by the World Bank Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality for their invaluable feedback. The data used in this paper were collected by the World Bank with financial support from the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality and additional support from the South Asia Gender Innovation Lab. All findings, interpretations, and any remaining errors in this paper belong to the authors.

> † The authors are affiliated with the World Bank. Correspondence: Tanima Ahmed (tahmed9@worldbank.org).
had not repartnered. During 2011–16, the period covered in the panel used in this analysis, Brazilian gross domestic product (GDP) shifted from a growth rate of around 6 percent to a contraction rate of 4 percent partially as a consequence of the global economic slowdown.<sup>2</sup> However, women’s earnings did not fall as much as men’s earnings over the period, and the gender wage gap thus narrowed. Additionally, the ratio of the female labor participation rate and the male rate rose from 68 percent to 71 percent.<sup>3</sup> In 2013, the rate of female homicides in Brazil was 4.8 deaths per 100,000 women, the fifth highest rate in the world at the time (Waiselfisz 2015). However, the rates of nonfatal violence are not quite as shocking. In a representative survey among women ages 15–69 in the state capitals of Brazil, the 12-month prevalence of any type of minor physical IPV was 21.5 percent and of severe physical IPV, 12.9 percent; rates were higher among younger women (Reichenheim et al. 2006). In comparison with other national statistics, these rates are about average. Prevalence was far greater than the mean estimates in North America (2 percent), moderately greater than those in Europe (8 percent) and Sub-Saharan Africa (9 percent), and close to the levels reported in Asia and Oceania (12 percent). Yet, the rates are well below the mean reported in North Africa and the Middle East (33 percent). The overall prevalence of IPV was also lower in Brazil than the average in Latin America of 21 percent, but closer to the rates in Mexico (15 percent) and Uruguay (10 percent) (Reichenheim et al. 2011).

Comprehensive legislation in Brazil addresses domestic violence. The most publicized piece of such legislation is Law 11.340, which was adopted in 2006 and is known as Lei Maria da Penha. The law created mechanisms to prevent domestic violence through changes in the legal system. These changes were expected to support more directly the survivors of domestic violence in pressing charges against their abusers. However, the homicide rate did not decline after the law was passed, although the women’s police stations that were expanded through the law have helped reduce female homicides (Perova and Reynolds 2017). In 2015, the law known as Lei do Feminicídio was passed to increase the punishments for female homicides that can be classified as family violence or discrimination. In these cases, female homicides are considered a

> 2 See “PIB a preços de mercado: Taxa acumulada em 4 trimestres (%), 1o trimestre 1996–4o trimestre 2020,” Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística), Rio de Janeiro, https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas/economicas/contas-nacionais/9300-contas-nacionaistrimestrais.html?=&t=serieshistoricas&utm_source=landing&utm_medium=explica&utm_campaign=pib#evolucao-taxa.

> 3 See “Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate),” World Bank, Washington, DC, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS/. Firpo and Pieri (2018) provide more information on changes in the Brazilian labor market over this period.

6
- Calvo, G. A. and E. G. Mendoza (2000). Rational contagion and the globalization of securities markets. _Journal of International Economics 51_ (1), 79–113.

- Chari, V. V. and P. J. Kehoe (2004, November). Financial crises as herds: overturning the critiques. _Journal of Economic Theory 119_ (1), 128–150.

- Comin, D., N. Loayza, F. Pasha, and L. Serven (2009, December). Medium-term business cycles in developing countries. Policy Research Working Paper Series 5146, The World Bank.

- Cook, D. and M. B. Devereux (2006). Accounting for the east asian crisis: A quantitative model of capital outflows in small open economies. _Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 38_ (3), 721–749.

- Dedola, L. and G. Lombardo (2009). Financial frictions, financial integration and the international propagation of shocks. _mimeo_ .

- Devereux, M. B. and J. Yetman (2009). Financial deleveraging and the international transmission of shocks. Bis working paper.

- Didier, T., I. Love, and M. S. Martinez-Peria (2010, January). What explains stock markets’ vulnerability to the 2007-2008 crisis. Mimeo, the world bank.

- Dooley, M. P. and M. M. Hutchison (2009, June). Transmission of the u.s. subprime crisis to emerging markets: Evidence on the decoupling-recoupling hypothesis. NBER Working Papers 15120, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.

- Gertler, M., S. Gilchrist, and F. M. Natalucci (2007). External constraints on monetary policy and the financial accelerator. _Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 39_ (2-3), 295–330.

- Gopinath, G. (2004). Lending booms, sharp reversals and real exchange rate dynamics. _Journal of International Economics 62_ (1), 1–23.

- Jeanne, O. and A. Korinek (2010). Excessive volatility in capital flows: A pigouvian taxation approach. Technical report.

- Kaminsky, G. L. and C. M. Reinhart (2000, June). On crises, contagion, and confusion. _Journal of International Economics 51_ (1), 145–168.

- Kaminsky, G. L., C. M. Reinhart, and C. A. Vegh (2003, Fall). The unholy trinity of financial contagion. _Journal of Economic Perspectives 17_ (4), 51–74.

- Kiyotaki, N. and J. Moore (1997, April). Credit cycles. _Journal of Political Economy 105_ (2), 211–48.

20
# **Table 8: Inclusion of Learning Studies across Reviews**

||**Conn**<br>**2014**|**Glewwe**<br>**et al.**<br>**2014**|**Kremer,**<br>**Brannen, &**<br>**Glennerster**<br>**2013**|**Krishnaratne,**<br>**White, &**<br>**Carpenter**<br>**2013**|**McEwan**<br>**2014**|**Murnane &**<br>**Ganimian**<br>**2014**|**Studies in**<br>**this**<br>**category**<br>**across**<br>**reviews**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Studies with Learning Outcomes_||||||||
|Number of studies in this review|56|67|30|43|66|92|227|
|As percentage of all studies with learning outcomes|25%|30%|13%|19%|29%|41%||
|_RCTs with Learning Outcomes_||||||||
|Number of studies in this review|44|12|30|33|66|68|134|
|As percentage of all RCTs with learning outcomes|33%|9%|22%|25%|49%|51%||
|_RCTs with Learning Outcomes, Primary Level, 1990-2010_||||||||
|Number of studies in this review|33|12|28|26|64|53|107|
|As percentage of all RCTs with LO, primary, 1990-2010|31%|11%|26%|24%|60%|50%||
|_RCTs with Learning Outcomes, Primary Level, 1990-2010,_<br>_SSA_||||||||
|Number of studies in this review|33|4|11|11|22|19|42|
|As percentage of all RCTs with LO, primary, 1990-2010, SSA|79%|10%|26%|26%|52%|45%||

<mark>Note: LO stands for learning outcomes; SSA stands for Sub-Saharan Africa. Studies are coded as SSA if they include learning outcomes for at least one country in Sub-Saharan</mark> Africa.

30
year when the province p experienced for the first time a severe drought event over the observed period. We considered absorbing treatment processes, assuming that once a province is shocked it remains treated for the remainder of the panel length. βe are the parameters of interest that measure the marginal difference in the labor outcomes between treated and control provinces after e years of exposure to the treatment, relative to the same difference in _e_ = −1.

Recent studies have demonstrated that when units are treated at different points in time, as in our case, estimates from a TWFE can be biased because of the _negative weight problem_ .<sup>5</sup> Among the alternative methods used to address these limitations, we follow Callaway and Sant’Anna (2021), who developed a disaggregated causal parameter, the group-time average treatment effect ( _ATT_ ( _g, t_ ) ), in which the group is defined by the provinces that receive the first shock in a common year. Under parallel trends and without anticipation effect, the _ATT_ ( _g, t_ ) is identified by comparing the expected change in outcome for group _g_ between periods _g −_ 1 and _t_ to that for a control group, as follows: where the control group space Gcan include either the never-treated or the not-yet treated provinces. Building on the _ATT_ ( _g, t_ ) , it is possible to obtain several aggregate parameters of interest such as the weighted average, by group size, of the _ATT_ ( _g, t_ ) across all groups and periods, or the simple average _ATT_ for all groups across all periods. Further, the dynamic _ATTs_ , by the length of exposure _e_ , can be estimated in an event study setting with the proper weighting:

> 5 _β_ represents a weighted average of some underlying treatment effect parameters but some of the weights on these parameters can be negative leading to an extreme case in which the treatment effect is positive for all the provinces but the TWFE results in a negative _β_ (Sun and Abraham, 2021; Goodman-Bacon, 2021). This occurs when the dynamic TWFE does not aggregate natural comparisons of units and allows bad comparisons between always, earlier, later, and never-treated provinces.

11
2011/2012 (MOEVT, 2013). While most programs offered by NACTE institutions are at the diploma and certificate level, about 22 percent of enrollments are in degree programs, up from 9 percent in 2006/2007. This rapid growth in tertiary-level enrollments over this period was made possible in large part by the expansion, registration and accreditation of private universities, colleges, and technical education institutions.<sup>16</sup>

**<u>Figure 2:  Education Distribution of the Population</u>**

<!-- Start of picture text --> South Africa (2007) Malaysia (2010)<br>Above secondary (14%) Above secondary (20%)<br>Secondary (24%) Secondary (33%)<br>Primary (50%) Primary (41%)<br>Less than primary (12%) Less than primary (5%)<br>Vietnam (2010) Tanzania (2012 Census)<br>Above secondary (8%) Above secondary (5%)<br>Secondary (16%) Secondary (6%)<br>Primary (69%) Primary (62%)<br>Less than primary (7%) Less than primary (27%)<br>Note: Author’s calculations using South Africa and Vietnam harmonized microdata from the International<br>Income Distribution Database-I2D2 version 6 (World Bank 2013). Estimates for Tanzania are from the<br>2012 Tanzania National Census. Malaysia levels of attainment are estimated using microdata from the<br>2010 Malaysia Labour Force Survey.<br><!-- End of picture text --> The actual availability of skills for enterprises in Tanzania is undoubtedly much lower than is suggested by the average years of educational attainment because of the low quality of education, 16 The number of private universities increased from 20 to 34 while public universities/colleges intuitions increased from 11 to 13 (MOEVT, 2009 and 2014). NACTE also registered 528 colleges and technical institutions between 2005 and 2015, 206 of which were public and 322 private. Of these, NACTE accredited technical institutions rose from 59 to 122, of which 38 institutions were private/and or faith-based colleges (The Guardian, 2015).

8