rates and micro level indicators based on information from labor surveys (ILO 2008). The ILO put forward profiles on several countries reporting these indicators.<sup>5</sup> The OECD also offers a valuable proposal based on microdata with some indicators presented at the aggregate level, such as average earnings (Cazes, Hijzen, and Saint-Martin 2016). More recently, the Inter-American Development Bank has developed a methodology to measure job quality in the Latin America and Caribbean region that relies solely on macro level indicators (Busso et al. 2017). Leschke and Watt (2014) propose a JQM for 27 countries in the European Union using a combination of indicators defined at the individual level and aggregate measures on wages, collective bargaining coverage, and trade union density. One of the challenges with these measures is their inability to uncover heterogeneity in job quality across sectors and groups. They thus cannot help identify vulnerable subpopulations or study determinants of job quality in developing countries.<sup>6</sup> Researchers have addressed these challenges by constructing measures of job quality based exclusively on microdata from labor force and household surveys. Many of these studies focus on a single country or on a selected group of countries. Studies on developed countries include Australia (Ribar and Wooden 2020), Canada (Chen and Mehdi 2019), Spain (Díaz-Chao, Ficapal-Cusí, and Torrent-Sellens 2016), and the United States (Horowitz 2016). Olsen, Kalleberg, and Nesheim (2010) explore perceived job quality in four dimensions in West Germany, Norway, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The literature on developing countries includes Poland (Lewandowski, Góra, and Lis 2017), Türkiye (Del Carpio, Gruen, and Levin 2017), and several papers on Latin American countries, including Brazil (Huneeus et al. 2015), Chile (Huneeus, Landerretche, and Puentes 2012; Sehnbruch 2006), Colombia (Gómez-Salcedo, Galvis-Aponte, and Royuela 2016), Ecuador (Villacís and Reis 2016), and Mexico (Ortega Díaz 2013). The job quality studies on poor countries are scarce (For example, on Benin, see Kponou and Kamga 2019).

Given the paucity of indicators and the difficulty in harmonizing micro level data across countries, the existing cross-country literature is thin. Instead, studies predominantly focus on developed countries with more granular data or on a single region with comparable surveys. There have been several attempts to benchmark job quality across European countries, commonly using the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) (Eurofound 2012; Muñoz de Bustillo et al. 2012; Simões, Crespo, and Pinto 2015; Smith et al. 2008). The main advantage of the EWCS is that it provides comparable micro level data for European countries that encompass a wide range of information on job quality. In addition to more common job characteristics, such as earnings and job security, the EWCS also includes information on less common features, such as career progression, level of autonomy, and pace of work (Eurofound 2012). Nonetheless, a major disadvantage of this dataset is the limited sample size and the inability of researchers to use the data to explore heterogeneity in job quality across sociodemographic characteristics, such as age, educational attainment, sector, or region (Leschke and Watt 2014). To circumvent this issue, Erhel et al. (2012) use the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions dataset to explore withincountry inequalities in three dimensions (nonstandard employment, working time and skills, and career development) in 24 European countries.<sup>7</sup> Brisbois (2003) uses the EWCS dataset, together with the Ekos

> 5 See Measuring Decent Work (dashboard), International Labour Organization, Geneva, https://www.ilo.org/integration/themes/mdw/lang--en/index.htm.

> 6 Multidimensional poverty indexes often include good quality employment as one of the dimensions considered (Dirksen 2020). Employment is not part of the World Bank’s multidimensional poverty measure because, in the surveys considered for that aim, the relevant indicators of employment are not sufficiently harmonized (World Bank 2018).

> 7 EU-SILC (European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions) (dashboard), Eurostat, European Commission, Luxembourg, http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/microdata/european-union-statistics-on-income-and-living-conditions.

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