rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Bank lending for divestiture : a
            review of experience
The objectives of this paper are to: (a)
            describe the rationale for and key components of Bank
            support for divestiture; (b) examine the documented
            experiences and reform outcomes, and highlight the key
            implementation and management issues facing borrower
            governments and the Bank; and (c) draw some conclusions for
            the future role of the Bank in this reform area.  After
            reviewing Bank support for divestiture, this paper concludes
            that divestiture operations are best tailored to country
            conditions.  Sometimes divestiture yields minimal results.
            For example, small- and medium-sized public enterprises
            (PEs) may be divested, reducing the government's burden
            little; partial divestments may mean continued government
            interference; governments may assume liabilities higher than
            the sale price; or new investors may be given privileges and
            monopoly rights that produce more inefficiency. Sometimes
            the best policy may be to improve the environment in which
            PEs function.  Ownership changes are only one element of
            broader PE reform, the implementation of which could create
            a better climate for divestiture later. The Bank could
            assist by spelling out the institutional set-up for managing divestiture.
Rural - urban growth linkages in India
The rural nonfarm economy accounts for
            one-quarter of all full-time employment in rural India and
            for nearly one-third of rural income, and is also intimately
            linked to agriculture. This paper examines the importance of
            rural-urban growth linkages in India, and aims to assess the
            impact of agricultural growth on national demand for nonfarm
            products. In addition, because growing land scarcity raises
            concerns about prospects for rural labor absorption, the
            paper highlights the impact of agricultural growth on rural
            nonfarm incomes and employment. Four major sections address
            these objectives. The first provides a descriptive overview
            of nonfarm activity in India. It examines the importance,
            composition and location of nonfarm activity as well as
            general trends over the past 30 years. The second explores
            the relationship between agriculture and changes in nonfarm
            activity. After reviewing previous growth linkage studies,
            it compares nonfarm activity in high- and low-productivity
            agricultural states cross-sectionally and over time. The
            third section estimates the volume of rural nonfarm income
            and employment generated by agricultural growth, while the
            fourth projects patterns of demand for nonfarm goods
            emanating from alternative agricultural growth scenarios.
The design and sequencing of trade
            and investment policy reform : an institutional analysis
This paper analyzes from an
            institutional perspective the experiences of twelve
            countries with selected aspects of trade and investment
            policy reform. The analysis highlights two distinct but
            related determinants of the appropriate design of policy
            reform - the organizational capabilities of government
            bureaucracies, and the political flexibility of governments.
            There exists considerable variations among countries in
            their organizational capabilities and in their political
            commitment to change. It follows that the appropriate mix
            and sequence of policy reforms will be quite different. The
            design of lending programs supported by the World Bank
            should respond to these differences between countries.
Agricultural extension for women
            farmers in Africa
Women are responsible for at least 70
            percent of food staple production in Africa.  They are also
            important in other agricultural activities, including food
            processing and marketing, cash cropping and animal
            husbandry. Women's involvement is significant not only
            in terms of their labor input, but also in terms of their
            decision-making authority.  This paper proposes a series of
            operational guidelines on how to provide agricultural
            extension services in a cost-effective way to women farmers.
            All small-scale farmers, regardless of gender, face
            constraints, but the focus here is on women farmers in order
            to foster a better understanding of the particular
            gender-related barriers confronting women and the strategies
            needed to overcome them. Attention is concentrated on
            sub-Saharan Africa in view of the crucial role of women in
            agriculture throughout the sub-continent.  This paper
            addresses the question of why women need help -- the role
            women have in agriculture and the particular constraints
            they face in terms of access to resources and information.
            It examines the information needed to modify extension
            systems to better reach women farmers, to modify the focus
            of research to address women's activities and to
            monitor and evaluate programs.  The paper also deals with
            the transmission of the extension message to women farmers
            and the formulation of the message to be delivered, and the
            linkage between extension and agricultural research and technology.
Strategic trade policy : how new how sensible
This paper reviews some recent
            developments in the theory of trade policy that have to do
            with imperfect competition, strategic interactions as a
            result of oligopoly, and economies of scale. All these
            developments have been described as the "new
            international economics." In the view of some they
            represent major breakthroughs. One purpose of this paper is
            to examine how new some of this is and how it relates to the
            orthodox theory. The paper will focus on one major aspect of
            these developments, namely "Brander-Spencer profit
            sharing" and its policy implications. The conclusion is
            that it relates closely to the existing framework of the
            orthodox theory of trade policy.
Investments in solid waste
            management : opportunities for environmental improvement
This paper presents the findings of a
            brief evaluation of World Bank experience in municipal solid
            waste management (MSWM) and recommends approaches to
            improving future Bank performance in this subsector. The
            paper is presented in four chapters. Chapter I describes the
            methodology by which the MSWM investments were reviewed and
            presents definitions and discussion of the benefits of MSWM
            to the environment and urban productivity in developing
            countries. Chapter II presents the overall results relating
            to to the Bank's total lending for solid waste
            management, including the findings of the Regional
            evaluation of MSWM lending. Chapter III examines the
            findings related to the design and implementation of the
            Bank's MSWM components and discusses such issues as the
            size and scope of investments, borrowing levels, cost
            recovery, and private sector participation. Finally, chapter
            IV presents recommendations for improving the design and
            execution of future MSWM projects or components. Annexes to
            the paper include a series of tables containg summary data
            on MSWM components in Bank projects and eight individual
            case studies highlighting specific MSWM projects or
            components in selected countries.
After the cold war : security for development
If the Cold War is ending, the paradigm
            that has framed national security agendas for forty plus
            years must change. Threats to the environment, instant
            global communications, access to changing science and
            technology, and deepening economic interdependence are
            rapidly eroding national sovereignity and blurring foreign
            and domestic policy. How the multilateral financial
            institutions decide to respond to forces for economic reform
            in Eastern Europe and to advance peace processes underway or
            imminent in Africa, Asia and Central America, could be as
            important to the advancement of world order as support for
            reconstruction and development was for Europe 40 years ago.
            Multilateral finance and development institutions can ease
            the transition to a new post bipolar global security regime
            beneficial to developing countries. They can : 1) prepare
            briefs on regional and civil conflicts to aid long range
            planning and assistance for peacekeeping; 2) promote greater
            regional cooperation in trade, environmental management,
            communications, and education; 3) integrate the
            democratizing nations of Eastern Europe into the world
            economy; and 4) design long range approaches to involve
            developing countries in international efforts to deal with
            the degradation of the world's vital atmospheric,
            marine tropical, water, and biological resources.
Turkey : export miracle or
            accounting trick
Turkey's recovery from its debt
            crisis ( 1978 - 80 ) has made it the paragon of export led
            growth. The driving force behind the Turkish export miracle
            has remained a matter of debate. If what happened in Turkey
            was a spillover of its proximity to the Middle East, there
            is little other countries can learn from the Turkish
            experience. If active export subsidies were the main
            determinants of Turkey's export growth, one wonders
            about the costs of joining GATT. The last possible
            explanation, real exchange rate depreciation, would put the
            focus much more on the macroeconomic policies and trade
            reforms that made such a depreciation sustainable in real
            terms. The authors provide an assessment of the relative
            contributions of all the factors mentioned above and their
            relationship to Turkey's export growth. They begin with
            an assessment of whether there was an export miracle once
            the Middle East is discounted, or was it all a product of
            accounting tricks in response to changing incentives? In
            Section II, Turkey's trade statistics are compared with
            those reported by its main trading partners to assess
            whether there was significant growth to countries outside
            the Middle East. Finally, the authors present a simple model
            which focuses on the role of export incentives, relative
            prices and foreign income growth in export determination.
            The authors conclude by confirming the existence of the
            Turkish export miracle.
How Gambians save and what their
            strategies imply for international aid
Interventions in this small impoverished
            West African nation have been based mainly on credit ( debt
            ).  Public and private lending institutions have failed
            dramatically, with the resultant mounting debts.  Yet,
            lenders continue extending loans into the countryside.  The
            author suggests that there is room for new options.  One of
            these is for financial intermediaries to subsidize savings
            rather than credit.  The author looks at length at the
            question : How do Gambians save?  Saving takes many forms
            other than money, including livestock, jewelry, store crops,
            and resaleable household goods. Gambians do not prefer
            liquidity.  They often convert wealth into forms that
            shelter it from the daily demands of spouses, kin,
            neighbors, and from their own temptation.  Gambian farmers
            choosing saving options weigh trustworthiness and
            convenience more heavily than real or nominal interest rates
            or inflationary losses.  The author concludes that the
            Gambians need a balance between credit and saving, liquidity
            and illiquidity, individualism and group responsibility.
Threshold effects in international lending
The author's dynamic model of
            international borrowing subject to credit constraint was
            developed for an economy with increasing returns to physical
            capital.  Increases in the capital stock within the
            nonconvex range increase debtor borrowing opportunities.
            Conversely, a temporary liquidity shock may permanently
            lower the economy's growth path.  Introducing aggregate
            nonconvexities also has different implications for policy on
            debt overhangs. In particular, the model allows for rational
            relending by creditors.  It also predicts that new money (
            or interest capitalization ) is in the interest of creditors
            and will be part of a debt restructuring strategy - as it
            was recently for Mexico and the Philippines.
The rational expectations hypothesis
            in models of primary commodity prices
The purpose of this paper is to examine
            the implications of the rational expectations hypothesis for
            the econometric modeling of primary commodity markets.
            Muth's Rational Expectations Hypothesis (REH)
            revolutionized economic theory and modeling on price
            formation in a simple agricultural market.  The author
            studied the results of the few econometric models of primary
            commodity markets that have incorporated the REH.  In a
            commodity price model, it is useful to distinguish between
            application of the REH to the physical production and
            consumption relationships and its application to how
            intertemporal stockholding affects short term price
            determination.  In practice, most econometric work has
            concentrated on the implications of the REH for stock and
            price relationships.
Voluntary export restraints and
            resource allocation in exporting countries
Most literature on voluntary export
            restraints ( VERs ) analyzes the welfare costs of VERs to
            consumers in the importing country. The authors propose a
            method for measuring the effects of a VER on the
            productivity of factors employed in the exporting industry.
            Their model measures how a VER affects both revenues and
            efficiency in an exporting industry. They used the model to
            estimate the effects of the U.S. Orderly Marketing Agreement
            ( OMA ) on Korean producers of leather footwear ( 1977 - 81
            ). Their econometric estimates indicate a limited ability to
            redirect sales to unrestricted markets and a sharp fall in
            the marginal revenue during the period the OMA was in
            effect. They found that the marginal revenue product of
            factors employed in leather footwear declined as much as 9
            percent because of OMA. Based on illustrative counterfactual
            simulations, the authors show that a VER is likely to
            produce a welfare loss if demand is relatively elastic and
            supply is not.
The cost of capital and investment
            in developing countries
The author's model can be used to
            evaluate how current and new policies affect incentives to
            invest in a developing country.  The model takes into
            account factors that are often ignored in analyses of
            investment in more developed countries; such as risk,
            foreign tax provisions that affect capital flows, trade
            distortions, lack of domestic capital markets, and the
            relative credibility of government policy changes. The
            author reviews the literature on investment and capital
            costs, showing that the effects of tax and nontax government
            policies should be incorporated in any analysis of
            investment behavior. The following questions have been
            focused on : 1) for each dollar of forgone tax revenues, how
            much have tax incentives stimulated investment?; 2) do taxes
            affect foreign investment?; 3) how do taxes affect
            industrial production?; 4) how have tax instruments affected
            the use of labor?; 5) how have business taxes and tax
            expenditures affected technological change?; and 6) are
            these tax induced distortions preventing firms from holding
            optimal levels of fixed factors?
Exchange rate policy in developing countries
A distinction can be made between two
            approaches to exchange rate policy in developing countries.
            The "real targets" and the "nominal
            anchor" approach. Part I of this report gives an
            overview of the two approaches and the assumptions they
            imply. Part II expounds the "real targets"
            approach and its implications in some detail. This is really
            the approach that is now orthodox. Part III expounds the
            "nominal anchor" approach and its implications,
            and considers to what extent it might explain the low
            inflation experiences of the many countries where exchange
            rates have been (more or less) fixed for long periods. Part
            IV considers the implications of increasing capital mobility
            for exchange rate policy, and Part V has some conclusions
            for policy. The paper draws on examples of exchange rate
            policies and experiences of a group of seventeen developing countries.
Trade in banking services : issues
            for multilateral negotiations
When the General Agreement on Tariffs
            and Trade was instituted in 1948, its mandate excluded such
            industries as banking, insurance and telecommunciaitons.
            These services sectors were highly regulated and protected
            in most countries, partly because of their sensitivity to
            national security and cultural identity. Under U.S.
            pressure, the Uruguay Round talks have included financial
            services, particularly banking. The response of developing
            countries to the U.S. proposal to liberalize trade in
            financial services ranges from cautious to hostile. Partly
            this reflects concern about the perceived comparative
            advantage of industrial countries and the desire of strong
            vested interests to continue to use the financial system as
            an instrument of public policy. It also reflects the weak
            situation of the banking industry in many developing
            countries. In some there is no real banking industry; in
            many the banking sector is technically insolvent and needs
            costly restructuring and reform. Opening the borders to
            foreign competition is essential to liberalization. But this
            process must proceed at the pace appropriate to the
            wide-ranging domestic reforms essential in most developing countries.
Policing unfair imports : the U.S. example
This paper researched the numbers on
            U.S. import cases to find out how the Unites States uses
            antidumping and countervailing duty actions to regulate
            imports. It describes the procedures followed by the
            Commerce Department and the International Trade Commission,
            surveys cases and outcomes in the 1980's and analyzes
            what drives the unfair trade laws. The pattern of petitions
            and results, it concludes, suggests strongly that injury to
            U.S. producers beset by import competition is what the
            antidumping and countervailing duty laws are about. That is
            why the pattern of antidumping cases is not particularly
            different from the pattern of antisubsidy cases - and why
            the frequency of cases against politically powerful
            countries is the same as the frequency of cases against
            politically weaker ones. The political strength of the
            exporting country does influence the form of import
            restriction the U.S. government will use. A powerful country
            will receive the courtesy of a negotiated settlement. A less
            powerful country will in due course receive determinations
            through normal administrative procedures. In short, unfair
            trade cases are where the action is because they are broad
            enough to handle all the action.
The long term behavior of commodity prices
This report presents the short- and
            long-run behavior of primary commodity prices and the
            implications of movements in these prices for developing
            countries. Most earlier studies of the long-term trend in
            the net barter terms of trade between primary commodities
            and manufactures have suffered from statistical
            shortcomings. In this analysis, the authors use a fairly new
            statistical approach called structural time series, which
            they claim, overcomes those shortcomings. The tests that
            were run indicate that the deflated commodity price index is
            a stationary series with a unit root. The derived structural
            model outperforms ARIMA models in terms of fit and
            forecasting. The authors argue against the idea of
            "structural breaks" in the data. The results
            support the conclusion that the net barter terms of trade
            has declined an estimated 0.6 percent a year.