rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
FIGURE A 2. PREDICTED POVERTY HEADCOUNT BY COUNTRY RESOURCE ORIENTATION <!-- Start of picture text --> Panel A. ROCs Panel B. NROCs<br>(Base period: 1980–2014) (Base period: 1980–2014)<br>75 75<br>60 60<br>45 45<br>30 30<br>15 15<br>0 0<br>1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040<br>Years Years<br>Poverty headcount o utcomes derived from 500 random draws pe r year in each of the 150 Poverty headcount o utcomes derived from 500 random draws pe r year in each of the 150<br>selected countries. T he 2015 a nd 2030 corresponding resul ts are: i) median = 22.73 and 20.68; selected countries. T he 2015 and 2030 corresponding resu lts are: i ) median = 8.03 and 3.53;<br>ii) mean = 22.75 and 20.49; ii i) skewness = -0.07 and -0.3 7; iv) stan dard deviation = 0.93 and ii) mean = 8.04 and 3 .69; iii) s kewness = 0.12 and 2.26; iv) standard deviation = 0.56 and 0.89.<br>3.14. Estimated number of persons living in extreme poverty corresponding to the median Estimated number of persons living in extreme poverty corresponding to the median headcount<br>headcount = 369 and 438 million people. = 440 and 215 million people.<br>96% confidence interval 80% confidence interval<br>40% confidence interval Median<br>Poverty headcount of 3 percent Year = 2030<br>Source: Penn World Table 9.0, World Development Indicators, World Bank PovcalNet, United Nations, and the author’s<br>estimates.<br>(percentage) (percentage)<br>Poverty headcount(ROC economies) Poverty headcount(NROC economies)<br><!-- End of picture text --> FIGURE A 3. PREDICTED GINI COEFFICIENT BY COUNTRY RESOURCE ORIENTATION <!-- Start of picture text --> Panel A. ROCs Panel B. NROCs<br>(Base period: 1980–2014) (Base period: 1980–2014)<br>70 70<br>57.5 57.5<br>45 45<br>32.5 32.5<br>20 20<br>1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040<br>Years Years<br>Aggregated Gini index s tats deriv ed from 500 random dra ws per ye ar in each of the 46 selected Aggregated Gini index stats deri ved from 500 random draws pe r year in each of the 104<br>countries. The 2015 and 2030 cor responding results are: i ) median = 39.22 and 34.68; ii) mean selected countries. The 2 015 and 2 030 corresponding resu lts are: i) median = 38.78 and 38.48;<br>= 39.20 and 34.87; iii) s kewness = 0.04 and 0.43; iv) standard deviation = 0.70 and 2.33. ii) mean = 38.81 and 38 .62; iii) s kewness = 0.25 and 0.25; iv) standard deviation = 0.61 and<br>2.45.<br>96% confidence interval 80% confidence interval<br>Gini index proxied(ROC economies) Gini index proxied(NROC economies)<br>(weighted by population) (weighted by population)<br><!-- End of picture text --> 96% confidence interval 40% confidence interval Poverty headcount of 3 percent 80% confidence interval Median Year = 2030 _Source:_ Penn World Table 9.0, World Development Indicators, World Bank PovcalNet, United Nations, and the author’s estimates.

Page **33** of **45**
Both the ineffectiveness of low-level public sector health clinics and the element of individual choice are highlighted in the phenomenon of "bypassing." People often do not go to the closest public facility but "bypass" it in favor of either more costly private facilities or higher level public facilities. There are few empirical studies of bypassing as this requires detailed information on both the health seeking behavior by individuals as well as information on all potential sources of supply. A recent study in Sri Lanka uses detailed surveys of health care supply and demand to document large amounts of blypassing (Sarasinghe and Akin, 1994). Table 2 shows that of all illness episodes only 29 percent are treated at the closest facility (which are predominantly Ayurvedic and "minor public western"), as 31 percent "self-treat" with no medical consultation and, of those that seek some treatment, 58 percent do not go to the nearest facility.'" Of the non-Ayurvedic sources, the "minor public western" facilities, the type that PHC would promote, are bypassed the most. Most individuals who bypass either "minor" or "major" public facilities do so to visit a "private western" facility.

Table 2: Summary of bypassing results of Sri Lankan study

|1||2||3||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Treatment chosen by ill||Percent of times each type|of|For each type of facility i|n column|
|Self-care|31%|facility is bypassed||2, the main type of facflI|tybat the|
|Closest facility|29%|||bypassing individuals go|to|
|||Ayurvedic|40%|Private western|41%|
|Not cls f4|0%|Minor public western|21%|Private western|_50%_|
|Not closest facility||Private westein|10%|Major public western|58%|
|||Major public western|3%|Private westem|68%|

Source: Adapted from Sarasinghe and Akin, 1994 The authors fimd the _public_ facilities bypassed have fewer doctors, nurses, services, '9 Ayurvedic are the local "traditional" sources of medical treatment.

21
Rutherford, Thomas F., Rutstrom, E.E. and Tarr, David G. (1993), “Morocco's free trade agreement with the European Community: A quantitative assessment,” _Economic Modeling_ , Vol. 14, No. 9, 237269.

- Rutherford, Thomas, Rutstrom, E.E. and Tarr, David (1995), “The free trade agreement between Tunisia and the European Union,” World Bank: Washington, D.C.  Mimeo.  Reprinted as Rutherford, Thomas F.; Rutstrom, E.E.; and Tarr, David G. (2000) “A Free Trade Agreement Between the European Agreement and a Representative Arab Mediterranean Country: A Quantitative Assessment,” in Bernard Hoekman and Jamel Zarrouk (eds.), _Catching Up with the Competition: Trade Opportunities and Challenges for Arab Countries_ , Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

- Schiff, Maurice and Yanling Wang (2006), “North-South and South-South Trade Related Technology Diffusion: An Industry Level Analysis of Direct and Indirect Effects,” _Canadian Journal of Economics_ , Vol. 39 (3), August, 831-844.

- Schiff, Maurice, Yanling Wang and Marcelo Olarreaga (2002), “Trade Related Technology Diffusion and the Dynamics of North-South and South-South Integration,” World Bank Policy and Research Working Paper 2861, June.

- Schiff, Maurice and L. Alan Winters (2003), _Regional Integration and Development_ , Oxford: Oxford University Press and the World Bank.

- Smith, Alasdair, and Venables, Anthony J. (1988), "Completing the Internal Market in the European Community: Some Industry Simulations," _European Economic Review_ , 32, 1501-1525.

- Tarr, David (2002), "On the Design of Tariff Policy: Arguments for and Against Uniform Tariffs,” in B. Hoekman, A. Mattoo and P. English (eds.), _Development, Trade and the WTO: A Handbook_ , Washington: World Bank.

- Warren, Tony (2000), “The Impact on Output of Impediments  to Trade and Investment in Telecommunications Services,” in _Impediments to Trade in Services: Measurement and Policy Implications_ , Christopher Findlay and Tony Warren (eds), London: Routledge.

- Willenbockel, D. (2013), General Equilibrium Analysis of the COMESA-EAC-SADC Tripartite FTA, Draft Final Report, August 2013.

- Wonnacott, Paul and Ronald Wonnacott (1981), “Is Unilateral Tariff Reduction Preferable to a Customs Union? The Curious Case of the Missing Foreign Tariffs,” _American Economic Review_ , Vol. 71 (4), 704-714.

- World Bank (2012), _East African Community: Reshaping Economic Geography of East Africa: From Regional to Global Integration_ , Report No. 6599-AFR, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, Africa Region, June.

37
Policy Research Working Paper 7556

# **Abstract**

Improving the quality of education is one of today’s main challenges for governments in the developing world. Based on a unique matched student-to-teacher panel data set on test scores this paper presents two empirical results for Indonesia. First, through detailed inspection of teacherlevel responses to test questions, the paper concludes that subject matter knowledge of primary school teachers in Indonesia is low on average and that a 1.0, but also a 2.0 standard deviation increase in teachers’ subject matter knowledge seem to be achievable medium-term goals for education policy making in Indonesia. Second, the paper presents the results of three types of value-added regressions, a (standard) level specification, a school fixed-effects specification, and a flexible student-teacher fixed-effects specification. The student-teacher fixed-effects approach estimates the parameters of a value-added model using test score variation within each student-teacher pair across three different subjects, mathematics, science and Indonesian language. The results suggest that a 1.0 (and 2.0) standard deviation increase in teachers’ subject matter knowledge across-the-board can yield increases in student achievement by 0.25 (and 0.50) student-level standard deviations by the time students complete the six-year primary school cycle.

This paper is a product of the Education Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at joppederee@ gmail.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
Over the past two decades, an estimated 1.2 billion adults have gained access to basic financial accounts (World Bank, 2019). While greater financial inclusion has brought significant benefits (see Burgess and Pande, 2005; Batista and Vicente, 2018; Braza and Chandrasekhar, 2019; Callen et al. 2019; Jack and Suri, 2014; Dupas et al., 2018; Kast and Pomeranz, 2014; Schaner, 2018), it has also raised concerns that individuals are acquiring products that do not suit their needs, especially among those with limited financial capabilities (see, e.g., Gross and Souleles, 2002; Choi et al., 2011; Duarte and Hastings, 2012; Hastings et al., 2012; Agarwal et al., 2013, 2015; Gin ́e and Mazer, 2018 and Campbell et al., 2011; DellaVigna, 2009 for reviews).

Policymakers have tried to improve consumer knowledge with financial literacy programs and legislation aimed at increased disclosure and transparency, but these literacy efforts have often proven ineffective (see Cole et al., 2011 and Miller et al., 2014; Hastings et al., 2013 for reviews) and disclosure regulation is typically poorly enforced (Garz et al., 2020).

Before considering the implementation of policies or the enactment of new regulation, it is important to ask whether the simple experience in using financial products can improve financial decision-making. While critical, however, experience obtained through ordinary usage is typically endogenous, making causal inference difficult.

In this paper we combine two field experiments to understand how experience accumulated through usage of a savings account affects the decision to switch to a cheaper alternative when it becomes available. We present a sample of bank account holders from 14 villages in southern Malawi with three choices: to keep their existing account but incur higher monthly fees, to close their existing account and receive the remaining balance, or to switch to a new account with lower fees and transfer the balance from the old account to the new.

In 2012, as part of a previous study, individuals were offered fully subsidized basic savings accounts with a local bank. In 2015, some of those who had opened accounts were randomly chosen to receive MK 25,000 windfall payments (USD 160 using the 2015 purchasing power parity [PPP] exchange rate; see Brune et al., 2017 for details). This transfer did not have persistent effects on saving or spending, but it did increase the number of transactions that subjects made at the bank branch. The random allocation of these transfers thus created exogenous variation in the experience subjects had in using their accounts.

In 2016, the previous research project concluded and subsidies for monthly account maintenance fees were discontinued. Starting in May 2016, account holders had to pay a monthly maintenance fee that had previously been covered by funds raised by the researchers and paid directly to the bank. Concurrently but independently, the bank introduced a new account called the Pafupi account. This account had a different fee structure with withdrawal fees, 2
Table 1: Baseline summary statistics and test of balance for select covariates

||||Te|st of rando|mization ba|lance (N=|999)||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Sample|Assigne|d therapy|Assign|ed cash|Assign|ed both|F-Test|
|Baseline covariate|Mean|Coef.|_p_ value|Coef.|_p_ value|Coef.|_p_ value|_p_ value|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|(7)|(8)|
|Age|25.40|-0.16|0.68|0.19|0.59|-0.18|0.68|0.18|
|Married or partnered|0.16|-0.03|0.65|-0.04|0.67|0.04|0.76|0.93|
|# children <15 in household|2.20|-0.59|0.07|-0.50|0.19|0.62|0.30|0.33|
|Years of schooling|7.72|-0.19|0.68|0.04|0.95|-0.01|0.99|0.55|
|Has any disabilities|0.08|0.04|0.29|0.00|1.00|-0.04|0.48|0.19|
|Ex-combatant|0.41|0.06|0.09|0.08|0.11|-0.09|0.12|0.15|
|Weekly cash earnings (USD)|17.02|-1.89|0.03|-4.85|0.03|5.48|0.00|0.02|
|Currently sleeping on street|0.25|-0.01|0.82|0.00|0.93|-0.02|0.74|0.33|
|Savings stock (USD)|33.83|-10.08|0.26|-12.74|0.31|15.71|0.31|0.53|
|Hours/week, illicit activities|13.55|1.21|0.68|-0.86|0.67|0.06|0.99|0.14|
|Hrs/week, agriculture|0.36|0.34|0.26|-0.10|0.35|0.13|0.84|0.01|
|Hrs/week, low-skill wage labor|19.39|0.54|0.88|1.24|0.73|-0.43|0.90|0.94|
|Hrs/week, in low-skill business|11.53|0.16|0.92|-1.53|0.60|5.76|0.13|0.50|
|Hrs/week, high-skill work|1.51|-0.05|0.91|0.94|0.03|0.11|0.85|0.01|
|Sells drugs|0.20|0.01|0.69|0.00|0.92|0.00|0.93|0.92|
|Uses marijuana daily|0.44|0.08|0.14|0.04|0.12|-0.09|0.21|0.34|
|Uses hard drugs daily|0.15|-0.04|0.21|0.02|0.52|0.01|0.90|0.37|
|Committed theft, past 2 weeks|0.53|0.05|0.51|0.01|0.64|-0.02|0.66|0.80|
|R-squared||0|.17|0.|11|0|.33||
|_p_ value on F-statistic||0|.53|0.|66|0|.25||

_Notes:_ We report a selection of covariates here, and all 57 covariates are reported in Appendix A.1. Column (1) reports the sample mean. A small number of missing values are imputed at the median. Columns (2)-(7) report the coefficients and _p_ values from ordinary least squares regressions of each baseline covariate on three indicators, one for assignment to each treatment arm, controlling for block fixed effects. Column (8) reports the p value from a joint test of statistical significance of all three treatment indicators.

but also as “homework” (Beck, 2011).<sup>12</sup>

**Origins and aims of STYL** STYL grew from of the experiences of NEPI’s founders, but over time they integrated standard Western CBT practices, in part through interactions with international organizations and experts.

The program combined group therapy with one-on-one counseling. Twenty men met in groups three times a week, four hours at a time, led by two NEPI facilitators. On alternate days when groups did not meet, facilitators visited men at home or work to provide advising and encouragement. NEPI offered no compensation except lunch, since men who sacrificed

> 12CBT has been studied extensively and validated as a treatment for several of the behaviors targeted by STYL: anger, aggression, criminality, and substance abuse (Saini, 2009; Pearson et al., 2002; Wilson et al., 2005; Del Vecchio and O’Leary, 2004).

7
Policy Research Working Paper 6938

# **Abstract**

This working paper presents a benchmarking analysis of School Based Management (SBM) using empirical data from the Philippines. School based management is widely used as a policy tool in many countries that seek to improve the quality of service delivery through decentralization. School based management typically takes many years to have an impact on educational outcomes, but policy makers need to know sooner how well the policy is being implemented. The paper extends the well-known Rasch methodology from the literature on student achievement, including the Programme for International Student Assessment, to the measurement of the implementation of school based management by computing a Rasch measure of the implementation of school based management. To test whether the resulting benchmarked measure is plausible and has practical policy value, the measure is tested for correlations with standardized measures of personality and political skills of school principals, developed in the psychology and political science literatures. The paper will be useful for readers interested in studying school based management as well as those interested more generally in the methodology of benchmarking implementation of public policy where the ultimate results are subject to long implementation periods. The methodology presented in this paper can be applied to enhance the rigor of the ongoing Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) exercise to benchmark educational policies in various domains. That exercise is set to become one of the flagship policy analytical tools being developed by the World Bank and partner agencies.

This paper is a product of the Human Development Department, East Asia and the Pacific Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at sparandekar@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
children for having their work substituted by others. For instance, the presence of adult females in the household may allow young girls to allocate less time to housework. It would therefore be important to control for the household's demographic composition. After controlling for age, the birth order of the children may also influence the household's decision to invest in their schooling. Patrinos and Psacharopoulos (1997) find that the larger the number of younger siblings the greater the chance the child works and lower the grade-for-age attainment. Their analysis does not distinguish however whether these effects are different between boys and girls. I include birth order as an independent regressor. Lastly, size of the household, which has been found to be an indicator of poverty in Peru (World Bank, 1998) is also included as a regressor.

I capture gender and vulnerability indicators by using a dummy for female headship. While the concept of female headship has come under a lot of criticism for not adequately identifying gender vulnerability, it remains the most useful single indicator in the absence of anything better.<sup>23</sup> Psacharopoulos (1997) finds the probability a child works is higher in femaleheaded households in Bolivia. On the opposite end, Canagarajah and Coulombe (1998) find that children from female-headed household are more likely to go to school in Ghana. My objective in including female headship as an indicator of gender vulnerability or female decision-making is to see if boy-girl time allocation in such households is significantly different from their counterparts in male-headed households.

Ethnic origin in Latin America is an important indicator of poverty. Household poverty has been found to be significantly higher among native groups than their non-native counterparts and educational attainment of native boys and girls falls behind that of non-native ones. Using the 1994 cross section of the Peru LSMS, Patrinos and Psacharopoulos (1997) find that after controlling for gender, native status results in significantly lower grade-for-age attainment.

> 22 This paper does not address the even more complicated issue of correcting for the endogenous placement of basic services. This is due to a lack of data.

13
Bolivia, Fiji and Ecuador. In 2009, Bolivia went through a huge adjustment in its tari¤ policy. It increased tari¤s on 27 percent of its MFN tari¤ lines and on 30 percent of its bilateral tari¤ lines while concurrently decreasing tari¤s on about 11% of its tari¤ lines. The net result was a jump in average bilateral tari¤ from 8% to 10%. Fiji and Ecuador each increased close to 15 percent of their bilateral tari¤ lines.<sup>6</sup> Other leading countries in terms of the percentage of tari¤ lines that have increased tari¤s are Argentina (9.6% of bilateral tari¤ lines), Belarus (7.6%), Mexico (6.6%), Brazil (5.6%), China (4.2%) and Malawi (4.2%).

On the other hand, many countries went through tari¤ liberalization from 2008 to 2009. Countries that have the largest percentage of tari¤ lines with lower tari¤s in 2009 are Costa Rica, Morocco and Mexico. Costa Rica reduced tari¤s in 98 percent of its bilateral tari¤ line products, which led to a drop in the average tari¤ from 6.3 percent to 5.2 percent. Similarly, Morocco and Mexico liberalized 40 to 60 percent of their bilateral tari¤ line products. Other leading countries in terms of the percentage of tari¤ lines that have decreased tari¤s are Ecuador (27%), Switzerland (23%), Ukraine (20%), and Australia (15%). Thus, it is not too surprising that we do not ...nd a widespread increase in protectionism during the crisis period, given that most countries in fact went through tari¤ reduction.

Data from anti-dumping duties are retrieved from the publicly available Global Anti-dumping Database of the World Bank, which is maintained by Chad Bown (2009a). The dataset provides detailed information on the anti-dumping cases by the initiating countries. While data can be traced back as far as the early 1990s, given that our focus is the changes during the 2008-2009

> 6 For Ecuador, ITC data only re‡ect changes up to December 2008. However, in January 2009, due to a balance-ofpayment crisis, Ecuador increased tari¤ on 5% of tari¤ lines (including both ad valorem and speci...c tari¤ additions), and imposed quota on 3.7% of its tari¤ lines. This set of trade measures a¤ects 23% of its imports (WTO, 2009). We complemented our ITC data with information on 75 subheadings for which there were increases in ad valorem tari¤s as a result of the January 2009 measure. Data were obtained from COMEXI Resolution No. 466, of 19 January 2009 published in O¢ cial Journal No. 512 and COMEXI Resolution No. 468 of 30 January 2009.

9