rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
22 high margins.*’ In the Czech and Slovak republics, and Poland the explicit parity policy that linked farmers’ incomes to those of workers was abandoned.In yet others (e.g. the Baltics, Ukraine, Albania, Bulgaria), large dislocation of the farm sector occurred as land was privatized, collective farms disbanded, but uncertainly regarding ownership and confusion reigned. The second implication is increased regional inequality. Examples include Budapest vs. the rest of Hungary, Warsaw vs. South-east Poland, western vs. eastern Latvia and Estonia. The industrial areas, developed in the 1950’s and 1960’s, based on attracting labor force from villages, and oriented in their production towards the Eastern markets, have suffered the most.*® The current restructuring is partly the undoing of the misguided Communist industrialization. In most hard-hit countries (Romania, Armenia) some urban dwellers go back to the land. As a clear indicator of social demodernization in these countries, the importance of income in kind rises.

Table 4 Change in the relative position of farmers vis-a-vis workers (comparing 1987-88 with 1992-93)

|Change in relative<br>position|Farmers better off in <br>1987-88||Farmers=workers|Workers better off<br>in 1987-88|
|---|---|---|---|
|Farmers win|||Romania<br>Kyrgyzstan|
|The same||Belarus|Slovakia<br>Czech|
|Farmers lose|Poland<br>Estonia<br>Latvia<br>Bulgaria|Lithuania|Russia<br>Slovenia|

Note: Workers’ relative position improves if the ratio between worker-farmer per capita income has improved by more than 3 percentage points.

Source: PRDTE data base.

# Fact 7. Pensioners hold their ground.

Pensioners seem, on average, to have retained their relative position vis-a-vis workers.

“In the Czech republic, agricultural subsidies as a share of GDP decreased from 4.2 percent in 1989 to 0.8 percent in 1993 (from Mladek, 1994, p. 5).

> “See also Blanchard, Commander and Corricelli (1995, pp. 320-23).
announced targets keeping the timing of the implementation of the targets unchanged. We refer to this scenario as the enhanced target scenario (hereafter the ‘ET’ scenario). In India, however, we retain the AT target level, because it is already extremely high (16.7% in 2020). The shares of biofuels, calculated in terms of energy content, under the baseline and scenarios are presented in Figure 3.

To implement the mandates, we follow standard practice with CGE modeling by calculating the level of per-unit domestic consumption subsidies needed to achieve the desired biofuel demands. We assume that governments tax gasoline and diesel to find additional revenue to finance the subsidies required to realize the targets. The taxation of gasoline and diesel does not only provide needed revenue, but also helps lower the level of subsidies on biofuels because it induces lower total demand for fuels. The revenue neutral tax rates, however, turn out to be very small due to the large tax base. For more information on level of subsidies and corresponding revenue neutral tax rates, please refer to Timilsina et al. (2010). Some countries, such as U.S., Brazil, Malaysia and South Africa, meet their announced targets before 2020 due to existing policies (current mandates and subsidies). For these countries we assumed that the AT scenario follows the baseline starting from the year they first become binding. For example, Brazil meets the announced targets before 2009; therefore we do not impose an additional policy requirement prior to 2020 in Brazil. In the United States, the baseline would be equal to AT scenario by 2015 and we assumed that they be the same thereafter until 2020.

12
- Principle 4: We will promote acceptance and implementation of the Principles within the investment industry.

- Principle 5: We will work together to enhance our effectiveness in implementing the Principles.

- Principle 6: We will each report on our activities and progress towards implementing the Principles.

- The 2010 FAO/IFAD/UNCTAD/World Bank Principles for responsible investment in agriculture<sup>3</sup> :

- Principle 1: Existing rights to land and associated natural resources are recognized and respected.

- Principle 2: Investments do not jeopardize food security but rather strengthen it.

- Principle 3: Processes relating to investment in agriculture are transparent, monitored, and ensure accountability by all stakeholders, within a proper business, legal, and regulatory environment.

- Principle 4: All those materially affected are consulted, and agreements from consultations are recorded and enforced.

- Principle 5: Investors ensure that projects respect the rule of law, reflect industry best practice, are viable economically, and result in durable shared value.

- Principle 6: Investments generate desirable social and distributional impacts and do not increase vulnerability.

- Principle 7: Environmental impacts of a project are quantified and measures taken to encourage sustainable resource use, while minimizing the risk/magnitude of negative impacts and mitigating them.

- The UN Global Compact asks companies to embrace, support and enact, within their sphere of influence, a set of core values in the areas of human rights, labor standards, the environment and anti-corruption<sup>4</sup> :

_Human Rights_

- Principle 1: Businesses should support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights; and

- Principle 2: make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses. _Labor_

- Principle 3: Businesses should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining;

- Principle 4: the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labor;

- Principle 5: the effective abolition of child labor; and

- Principle 6: the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation. _Environment_

- Principle 7: Businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges;

- Principle 8: undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility; and

- Principle 9: encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies.

- _Anti-Corruption_

- Principle 10: Businesses should work against corruption in all its forms, including extortion and bribery.

The OECD also developed Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises<sup>5</sup> , and the ITC launched a webportal (standardsmap.org) that reviews 100 voluntary standards initiatives against criteria such as

> 3 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/214574-1111138388661/22453321/Principles_Extended.pdf

> 4 http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/

> 5 http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/

39
States in their data). Thus, there is some uncertainty currently about whether cognitive skills have differential effects on economic outcomes over the work-experience profile.<sup>10</sup>

**Figure 2.1: Returns to Observed Educational Quantity and Unobserved Educational Quality over the Work Life**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 14%<br>1 year of education 1 SD of academic achievement (AFQT)<br>12%<br>10%<br>8%<br>6%<br>4%<br>2%<br>0%<br>0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13<br>Work experience (years)<br>Increase in earning<br><!-- End of picture text --> Notes: Based on data from National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT). SD = standard deviation.

Source: Based on Altonji and Pierret (2001).

There are other reasons to believe that these estimates provide a lower bound on the impact of higher achievement. First, the labor market experiences that are observed begin in the mid-1980s and extend into the mid-1990s, but other evidence suggests that the value of skills and of schooling has grown throughout and past that period. Second, extrapolating from recent patterns, future general improvements in productivity are likely to lead to larger returns to skill.<sup>11</sup> Finally, cognitive skills 10Hanushek and Zhang (2006), discussed below, do find that the importance of cognitive skills is not restricted just to younger workers (represented in most prior research) but holds across the experience spectrum.

11 The considered analyses typically compare workers of different ages at one point in time to obtain an estimate of how earnings will change for any individual. If, however, productivity improvements occur in the economy, these will tend to raise the earnings of individuals over time. If recent patterns of skill bias in productivity improvement continue, the 9
# PPR Working Paper Series

|Title|Author|Date|Contact|
|---|---|---|---|
|WPS97 Export-Promoting<br>Subsidies and What<br>to Do About Them|Richard H. Snape|September1988|J.Sweeney<br>31021|
|WPS98 Diversification<br>In Rural Asia|Agriculture and Rural<br>Development Staff|October1988|S.Barghouti<br>38408|
|WPS99 Trade Policies and the Debt Crisis|Sam Laird<br>JulioNogues|September1988|S.Torrijos<br>33709|
|WPS100 Public Infrastructure<br>and Private||||
|Sector Profitability<br>and Productivity<br>In Mexico|Anwar Shah|September1988|A. Bhalla<br>60359|
|WPS11 Measuring the Impact of Minimum Wage<br>Policies on the Economy|Luis A. Riveros<br>Ricardo Paredes|October1988|R. Luz<br>61762|
|WPS102Effects of the Multifibre<br>Arrangement<br>(MFA) on Developing Countries:<br>A Survey|Junichi Goto|October 1988|J. Epps<br>33710|
|WPS103Industrial<br>Portfolio Responses<br>to Macroeconomic<br>Shocks: An||||
|Econometric<br>Model for LDCs|James Tybout<br>Taeho Bark|October1988|C.Cabana<br>61539|
|WPS104 Financial Crises In Developing<br>Countries|Manuel Hinds|||
|WPS105Securing International<br>Market Access|Richard H. Snape|October1988|J.Sweeney<br>31021|
|WPS106Energy Issues In the Developing<br>World|Mohan Munasinghe<br>RobertJ.Saunders|||
|WPS107A Review of World Bank Lending for<br>Electric Power|Mohan Munasinghe<br>Joseph Glillng<br>Melody Mason|||
|WPS108Some Considerations<br>in Collecting<br>Data<br>on Household Energy Consumption|L. Leltmann|||
|WPS109 Improving Power System Efficiency In<br>the Developing<br>Countries Through<br>Performance<br>Contracting|Philip Yates|||
Log (Nft) = α0 + α1Log (Exportsft) + ǫ1 ̄ Log �Exportsft� = β0 + β1Log (Exportsft) + ǫ1 where Nft is the log number of varieties exported by firm f at time t, Exportsft stand for firm f ’s total exports at time t and Exports ̄ ft denotes the average exports per variety exported by firm f at time t. When total firm exports increase, α1 captures the percentage contribution from the number of products (the extensive margin), holding constant average exports per product (the intensive margin). Similarly, β1 captures the percentage contribution of the intensive margin, holding constant the extensive margin.<sup>14</sup> The results of the first regression are reported in Table 18 and are qualitatively similar to those obtained by Bernard, Redding, and Schott (2006a).<sup>15</sup> There are, however, two important differences. First, while Bernard, Redding, and Schott (2006a) focus on production in general, we consider exports. Second, the coefficient found for Mexico is much smaller than the coefficient of between .23 and .28 found in the US sample. In conclusion, bearing in mind the difference in data used, we find that the importance of the extensive margin is not negligible for Mexican firms but appears smaller than for US firms.

Table 18: Importance of extensive margin in export growth

||ols|weighted ols|
|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|
|Log Tot Exports|.110***|.06***|
||(.0004)|(.003)|
|Constant|.02***|3188***|
||(.0003)|(512)|
|N|67980|67980|

Our results are consistent with a growing literature analyzing the relative importance of extensive versus intensive margin in determining export growth using aggregate trade statistics. These studies, with differences in their approaches and focus, seem to point toward the fact that “extensive margin” plays an especially crucial role for more advanced rewrite the total output, Xi = Ni ̄xi, as the product of the average exports per product ( ̄xi = N1i P xij) and the number of exported products (Ni). From these relationships we can immediately derive the equations 2.

> 14Note that we think of these regressions as describing correlations rather than aiming to establish a direction of causality.

> 15We do not need to report the results of the second regression as we know that α1 is equal to 1 − β1.

31
|_______________<br>Table 4: Expor|____________<br>ter productiv|______<br>ity pr|____________<br>emia II: Shar|___________________<br>e of exports in total|______________________<br>sales and its squared v|_____________________<br>alue|_____________________|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Country|Model||All|20 – 49|50 – 249|250 – 499|500 and more|
|_______________|____________|______|firms<br>____________|employees<br>___________________|employees<br>______________________|employees<br>_____________________|employees<br>_____________________|
|Austria|Pooled|ß1|0.579|0.688|0.510|0.461|0.302|
|1999-2005||p|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.07]|
|||ß2|-0.295|-0.401|-0.270|-0.079|-0.054|
|||p|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.45]|[0.72]|
||Fixed|ß1|0.229|0.305|0.136|0.036|-0.234|
||effects|p|[0.00]|[0.001]|[0.13]|[0.87]|[0.57]|
|||ß2|0.117|0.167|0.151|0.118|0.470|
|||p|[0.06]|[0.09]|[0.10]|[0.59]|[0.20]|
||N||5,176|2,910|1,785|295|186|
||NxT||26,404|13,308|10,171|1,778|1,147|
|Belgium|Pooled|ß1|1.397|1.456|1.328|1.235|1.296|
|1996-2005||p|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|
|||<br>ß2|-1.000|-0.970|-1.000|-0.970|-0.772|
|||p|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.00]|
||Fixed|ß1|0.576|0.235|0.799|1.106|0.673|
||effects|p|[0.00]|[0.002]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.01]|
|||<br>ß2|-0.365|-0.071|-0.560|-0.795|-0.473|
|||p|[0.00]|[0.33]|[0.00]|[0.00]|[0.02]|
||N||4,709|1,746|1,754|242|184|
||NxT||29,035|12,861|13,283|1,876|1,563|

38
**Table 12** Simulated Business Cycle Correlation and Persistence from the Open Economy Model

This table compares business cycle correlation of various macroeconomic indicators with output cycle and persistence from the simulated model for the preand post-reform periods with the patterns observed in the data.

||<br>|Correlation<br>|||Auto-co<br>|rrelation<br>||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||C|I|_TB_<br>_Y_|Y|C|I|_TB_<br>_Y_|
|Data||||||||
|Pre-<br>reform|0.71|0.19|0.25|0.055|0.038|0.510|0.245|
|Post-<br>reform|0.83|0.76|-0.59|0.701|0.605|0.607|0.502|
|Model||||||||
|Pre-<br>reform|0.80|0.20|-0.15|0.354|0.633|0.806|0.793|
|Post-<br>reform|0.72|0.21|-0.21|0.376|0.751|0.799|0.775|

Source: Authors’ analysis outlined in the Financial Development, Permanent Income Shock, and Relative Consumption Volatility in a Small Open Economy section 51
# **5.2 Results by type of visa provisions**

In Table 5 we show the effect of specific migration-related provisions in RTAs.<sup>26</sup> Visa provisions having legal enforceability _via_ a dedicated dispute settlement mechanism (column 1), and those easing of administrative procedures for migration (column 4) are the most effective in boosting bilateral migration. In particular, the inclusion of a dispute settlement mechanism in visa provision as well as provisions aimed at reducing the administrative burden for migration increase the bilateral stock of migrants by 11.8%. Provisions _calling_ for the free movement of persons have a significant effect but smaller in magnitude (i.e. 7.2%).

## – Table 5 about here –

The bilateral stock of migrants may also be affected by the presence of Job Posting related provisions. Under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), posting is defined as one of the four ways to supply services across borders. Simply put, it allows workers to perform a task (i.e. service) in a foreign country establishment while staying formally employed in its firm’s country of origin. In our case, Posting provisions refers to clauses in RTAs that facilitate the entry of professionals and/or investors among the member countries of an RTA. While we have a provision in our Visa-and-Asylum database that concerns the international mobility of investors, additional Job Posting related provisions may be found in other chapters of an RTA. Indeed, the database on the Investment chapter of Deep Trade Agreements contains a provision dealing with the movement of professionals within the boundary of a multi-national enterprise, which fits even better with the very definition of Job Posting.

In Table 6 we estimate the effect of job posting related provisions on bilateral migration. Namely, in columns (1) and (2) we show the effect of provisions within the Investment chapter of RTAs that aim at easing the movement of business persons (column 1) and professionals (column 2).<sup>27</sup> In column (3) we show the effect of Visa-and-Asylum related provisions aimed at facilitating the movement of investors among RTA member countries. All in all, job posting related provisions on natural persons and investors have a positive and significant effect on bilateral migration.

– Table 6 about here –

> 26Among all country-pairs that share an RTA at any given point in time, 45% of them include at least one Visa related provisions. More specifically, 29% legally enforce Visa-type provisions, 23.5% call for freedom of movement of persons, 16.8% encourage parties to expedite the application procedures for immigration formalities for natural persons and 14.7% positively address or facilitate persons obtaining residency.

> 27More precisely, in column (1) we show the effect of a provision that eases the temporary presence of business persons among RTA member countries. In column (2) the dummy variable of interest is equal to one if the temporary presence of business persons covers specific categories of professionals, such as architects or lawyers.

12
# Decentralization (localization) and corruption: New cross-country evidence

Maksym Ivanyna, Anwar Shah<sup>∗</sup> World Bank May 7, 2010 Keywords: corruption, decentralization, fiscal autonomy, political autonomy, administrative autonomy, local governance JEL-classification: H10, H11, H83, I31, O10 ∗The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors alone and should not be attributed to the World Bank Group and its Executive Directors. The authors are grateful to Professors Jorge Martinez-Vasquez , Francois Vaillancourt, Roy Bahl, Albert Sole-Olle, Maria del Mar Salinas and participants at the International Conference on the Political and Economic Consequences of Decentralization held at Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain from November 5-6, 2009. Comments are welcome and should be addressed to: shah.anwar@gmail.com.

1
**Table 1: Is attrition related to treatment status?**

||Baseline<br>Full S|Follow-up<br>ample|Baseline<br>Male|Follow-up<br>Youth|Baseline<br>Older|Follow-up <br>Males|Baseline<br>Femal|Follow-up <br>e Youth|Baseline<br>Older|Follow-up<br>Females|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Assigned to Treatment|-0.027***|-0.014**|-0.059***|-0.031**|-0.059***|-0.038**|-0.020|-0.001|0.001|-0.002|
||(0.008)|(0.006)|(0.020)|(0.015)|(0.018)|(0.015)|(0.015)|(0.012)|(0.012)|(0.010)|
|Control group attrition rate|0.114|0.070|0.155|0.085|0.130|0.084|0.111|0.064|0.087|0.058|
|Sample size|5902|5902|1146|1146|1059|1059|1583|1583|2114|2114|

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. *, **, and *** indicate significance at the 10, 5 and 1 percent levels respectively. All regressions include controls for course*gender*age group lotteries applied for. Youth denotes individuals under 25, Older denotes individuals 25 and up.

34
30

# Power Gaslifers

74. In the IENHE analysis, estimates of installed cost, plant life, annual power output, efficiency, and O&M cost vary by technology and plant size. Some representative installed cost and plant life assumptions in the baseline comparison are tabulated below. The discount rate, fuel costs, and load characteristic under which these technologies are compared is also specified.

|||Instal<br>($/|led Cost<br>kW)||Lifetime<br>(years)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||50kW||500kW|50kW|<br>500kW|
|High speed diesel<br>|585||553|6|8|
|Charcoalgasifier|910||-|_5_||
|Woodgasifier (manual)|1300||-|_5_||
|Wood gasifier (automatic)|||2135|-|6|
|Discount rate||10%||||
|High speed diesel fuel costs (e/l)<br>Charcoal costs (S/mt)||40<br>80||||
|Wood fuel costs ($/mt)||20||||
|Hi speed diesel energy content (MJ|/1)|36||||
|Charcoal energy content (MJ/kg)||29||||
|Wood energy content (MJ/kg)||14||||
|Moisture content (w.b.) wood||30%||||

Load characteristic: 30 % of time: 80 % of rated load 70 % of time: 30 % of rated load
USD 1.4 billion and USD 1.6 billion in 2019 prices) based on macro-economic modeling. Bangladesh’s e- procurement is also estimated to have led to employment increases in Bangladesh, in the region of 0.15% to 0.17%, or around 93,000 to 105,000 extra jobs in total. These additional jobs are widely dispersed among different sectors of the economy. The largest economic impacts of e-procurement come from cost savings accruing to the Bangladesh government as also observed in the cost savings estimate. The productivity increase in government tendering would allow the government to increase output in other areas, and this higher level of spending would spread throughout the economy because of multiplier effects (Pollitt et all, forthcoming).

96. It is estimated that bidding firms that compete for government tenders have also seen efficiency improvements from e-procurement, but these would have had negligible impact on the wider economy. While these bidding firms saw reductions in the per-tender cost of procurement, the reduced cost per tender led to an increase in the overall number of bids, which increased tender preparation costs overall. However, these higher tender preparation costs were in turn outweighed by greater savings from security costs, as firms no longer needed to protect their staff from intimidation tactics when submitting paper bid documents in person. E-procurement reduced the need for governments to advertise tenders in print, which has led to a fall in revenues for newspapers, print publishers and advertisers. This is the only industry to be negatively impacted by e-procurement. Overall, the direct impacts on private firms are far outweighed by the indirect impacts of higher government spending.

97. Nevertheless, the present findings could only identify and carefully assess the main effects while highlighting a few notable impact mechanisms without being exhaustive. Among others, future research could look at the impact channels in detail in order to deliver a more nuanced understanding of why and under which conditions e-procurement delivers the hoped for impacts. On the one hand, a more detailed understanding of administrative preconditions for successful e-procurement reform can be explored by combining data from the procuring entity survey with procurement records. On the other hand, a better understanding of the constraints imposed and opportunities presented by different bidding markets could be investigated by additionally drawing on bidder registration data and a tailored bidder survey.

98. While more research is needed in this area, our findings already lend themselves to a range of policy recommendations in and beyond Bangladesh: i) Introduce and expand the scope of e-procurement systems to encompass all public procurement tenders; and ii) Capitalize on the available data in the e-procurement system by developing a contract performance dashboard which enables continuous monitoring and optimization of processes in real-time.

37