rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
as compared to other economic activities such as producing for domestic consumption or producing services, which are not captured in the merchandise trade data used to identify export discoveries. More formally, the exogenous returns to export in country _c_ and commodity group _i_ , π _i_ , _c_ was calculated as: where subscript _T0_ is the initial year in the time window in which the discoveries were counted and _T_ is the final year of the period. _X_ represents the real value of exports excluding the contribution of the export discoveries at time _T,_ and lower-case _x_ and _y_ are merchandise exports and GDP per capita. This measure of export returns was calculated separately for each of the ten Leamer commodity categories. Furthermore, as discussed above, it is possible that barriers will have a differential impact across industries. Therefore, our analysis conducted at the country/Leamer commodity group level examines the relationship between the number of discoveries in a particular country/commodity group and export growth in that country/commodity group, as well as how that relationship changes with barriers to entry across countries. In the sample used in the regression analysis only Malaysia had exports that exceeded the value of GDP at the end of the period in 2003, which yielded a very high positive number for this proxy of export profitability, as shown in the table with descriptive statistics in the Appendix. The regression results discussed below, however, were qualitatively similar when this country’s observations were excluded from the sample, but the results regarding the presence of market failures were stronger than those reported below.

In addition to these variables of interest, there are some necessary controls to be included in our test of the model. As discussed above, the process of discovery is closely linked to stages of productive diversification and the changing nature of innovation as countries approach the global technological frontier. We therefore control for this relationship by including GDP per capita and GDP per capita squared. We also allow for the possibility that discovery is driven in part by factor endowments by controlling for endowments as measured by historical net exports per capita in that particular commodity group (Leamer 1984). In addition, to control for differences across commodity groups and the different number of products composing each commodity cluster, we include dummy variables for each Leamer commodity group.

Finally, we control for historical discoveries by country/commodity group. This is accomplished using export data at a higher level of aggregation<sup>9</sup> , which is available for a longer time period but only identifies broad, sectoral-level discoveries rather than disaggregated product-level discoveries. This measure of historical pre-sample discoveries controls for time-invariant and unobserved characteristics driving discoveries

> 9 SITC Revision 1 at the 3 digit level. See Appendix for data and filter description.

8
# **RURAL  Rayon Estimates**

**Figure A5: Standard Error as Percentage of point estimate: Rural Area Azerbaijan, FTG(0) Comparing survey based stratum-level estimates to census based raion-level estimates (58 rayons)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 50<br>45<br>40<br>35<br>30<br>25<br>20<br>15 Stratum ratio (from survey)<br>10<br>5<br>0<br>0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br>Ranking by (s.e./point estimate)<br>Percentage<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Figure A6: Standard Error as Percentage of point estimate: Rural Area Azerbaijan, monthly mean adult equivalent consumption Comparing survey based stratum-level estimates to census based rayon-level estimates (58 rayons)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 50<br>45<br>40<br>35<br>30<br>25<br>20<br>15<br>Stratum ratio (from survey)<br>10<br>5<br>0<br>0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br>Ranking by(s.e./point estimate)<br>Percentage<br><!-- End of picture text --> 43
of new private sector banks (including foreign banks) in 1993. Despite the massive growth of private sector banks, India’s banking system is still largely state dominated. As of 2012, India’s state-owned banks have 73% of the market share of assets and 83% of branches.<sup>18</sup> Even within this government dominated banking sector, there is a large variation across India’s states in level of financial development. Bajpai and Sachs (1999) note that there has been a wide variation in the adoption of economic reforms with states like Maharashtra being very reform oriented and others, especially the poorest BIMARU<sup>19</sup> states (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh) being laggards. Aghion et al. (2005) also note the reforms in the 1990s to be associated with increasing cross-state inequality in industrial performance.

Our measure of financial development is the ratio of total Commercial Bank Credit outstanding to the Net State Domestic Product (SDP) in each census year and gauges the depth of financial development. The data are sourced from Burgess and Pande (2005) with updates from the Reserve Bank of India (http://dbie.rbi.org.in). According to statistics by the Reserve Bank of India, in March 2006, there were about 217 commercial banks in operation, with 161 of them state owned (includes nationalized banks and regional rural banks), 27 private sector banks and the remaining 29 foreign banks.<sup>20</sup> Despite the entry of private banks, state-controlled banks still account for three-quarters of all loans in India. India’s largest commercial bank, the State Bank of India, is over two hundred years old and is government owned. Banerjee, Cole, and Duflo (2004) state that 83% of banking business in India is through government owned banks and even the private banks are subject to extensive regulations on who they can lend to.

> 18 Speech by Dr Duvvuri Subbarao, Governor of the Reserve Bank of India, at the FICCI–IBA (Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry – Indian Banks’ Association) Annual Banking Conference, Mumbai, 13 August 2013. http://www.bis.org/review/r130813b.pdf?frames=0.

> 19 BIMARU resembles the Hindi word “Bimar” meaning sick.

> 20 <u>http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/78903.pdf</u>

17
strengthen the public administration; and that clientelist parties organized around individual patron-politicians are least likely to be able to exhibit organizational characteristics that support collective action by politicians. Using data from World Bank evaluations of public sector reform projects, we test a reduced-form prediction that emerges from this argument: politicians organized into programmatic parties have stronger incentives to strengthen the public administration.

The analysis here exploits a new source of data that precisely characterizes the public sector reforms undertaken by countries. These are evaluations of World Bank public sector reform loans, produced by the Independent Evaluation Group, an independent unit of the Bank that reports to the Bank Board of Executive Directors and not to Bank management. IEG evaluations are commissioned by the Board or decided upon unilaterally by the IEG. Bank management cannot require any changes in the wording or conclusion of the IEG document or its underlying ratings.

We use IEG evaluations of 511 public sector loans that began in 1987 or later and ended in 2006 or earlier. World Bank loans often have multiple, cross-sectoral objectives; the IEG data allow us to focus on those loans that were most related to the types of public sector reforms that limit shirking by public officials and agencies, improve incentives for officials to pursue statutory goals, and improve the quality of officials in the public administration. Each of these maps directly into the earlier discussion (see the Data Appendix for a full explanation of the data). In particular, of the 511 loans, 439 were focused on public sector administration, public sector financial management, or tax administration (as opposed to, for example, judicial reform or decentralization).

18
# **Table A12: Relationship between earnings and hours for self‐employed**

Dependent variable = Earnings

|Hours|2.497***|2.289***|1.575***|
|---|---|---|---|
||[0.547]|[0.404]|[0.202]|
|Winsorization|none|1st/99th|5th/95th|
|Mean dependent variable|115.9|104.6|83.25|
|Observations|2,389|2,389|2,389|
|R‐squared|0.069|0.102|0.141|

_Notes: Sample includes respondents self‐employed at baseline. Estimation is via OLS. All specifications include individual fixed effects. Regressions include week‐of‐interview dummies interacted with gender, week‐of interview dummies interacted with city, and controls for the number of household members planning to work in that round interacted with gender. Standard errors in brackets, clustered at the household level: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1._
Table 12 Effect <u>of Forest User Group Formation Vintage (years since 1991) on Forest Quality</u> **<u>in NCFs</u>**

||Carbon per ha.<br>(kg)|Trees per ha.|<br>Crown Cover (%)|<br>Seedlings per<br>ha.|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Years after 1991<br>that FUG was<br>formed|0.316|-0.379|-0.117|0.275|
||(1.35)|(1.59)|(0.62)|(1.14)|
|Years after 1991<br>that FUG was<br>formed squared|-0.038|0.037|0.007|-0.025|
||(1.64)|(1.52)|(0.34)|(1.00)|
|Years after 1991<br>that FUG was<br>formedcubed|0.001|-0.001|-0.000|0.001|
||(1.67)|(1.52)|(0.16)|(0.92)|
|_R_<sup>2</sup>|0.53|0.55|0.41|0.42|
|_N_|37|37|37|34|

* _p_ <0.1; ** _p_ <0.05; *** _p_ <0.01; Dependent Variables in Logs, Robust t Statistics in Parentheses

We do not find evidence that older groups sequester more carbon, but number of trees per hectare, seedlings per hectare and canopy cover appear to benefit from older collective action. An additional year older increases canopy cover by 7% to 9% or 3 to 4 percentage points from the mean canopy cover of 48.6%, though these effects diminish by about 0.04% (0.1 percentage points) per year.

Vintage appears to have particularly broad effects in CFs (all of which have well defined formation dates) and include impacts on trees, canopy cover and seedling density, but not carbon sequestration. At the mean, first order effects are 20% (about 109 more trees) per year and 24% (about 7500) more seedlings per additional year of vintage, decaying at about 1% per year. Canopy cover effects are a bit smaller at 9% (about 4 percentage points per year older).

Other results are similar to previous models, except leaving out forests with no evidence of collective action and including vintage appears to bring out the importance of forests being

**29 |** P a g e
# References

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<mark>Deason, L. and Ferrantino, M.J., 2011. Determinants of Diffusion and Downstreaming of TechnologyIntensive Products in International Trade, in OECD,</mark> _<mark>Globalization, Comparative Advantage and the Changing Dynamics of Trade</mark>_ <mark>, Paris: OECD, pp. 261-283.</mark> Görg, H., 2000. Analysing foreign market entry‐The choice between greenfield investment and acquisitions. Journal of Economic Studies, 27(3), pp.165‐181.

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Lopez‐Acevedo, Gladys, Denis Medvedev and Vincent Palmade, eds., 2017, _South Asia’s Turn: Policies to Boost Competitiveness and Create the Next Export Powerhouse_ , Washiington, DC: World Bank.

Mattoo, A., Wang, Z. and Wei, S.J., 2013. Trade in value added: developing new measures of cross‐border trade. World Bank Publications.

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‐ ‐ World Band World Development Indicators database <u>(http://data.worldbank.org/data catalog/world development‐indicators).</u> 14
# **1. Introduction**<sup>1</sup>

Between 1945 and 1990, the communist economy of Albania was characterized by an absolute dependence on central planning, the elimination of private property, and the pursuit of national self-reliance. Since the country followed a policy of complete social and economic isolation, the international movement of its citizens was also prohibited. This self-seclusion was exacerbated during the 1970s, as foreign aid and investment were constitutionally outlawed in 1976. Consequently, the average annual GDP growth was 1 percent throughout the 1980s, compared to 5 percent in the previous decade. By 1990, the economic decline was so severe that over-reliance on central planning was abandoned. With the collapse of communism, industrial closures led to massive unemployment, and the subsequent contraction of the state revenues limited the government’s ability to provide adequate unemployment benefits for the laid-off workers. In addition, the removal of price controls triggered a significant decline in the real incomes of Albanian households.

In response to persistent unemployment, and rising poverty and social unrest, the government introduced an anti-poverty program, namely Ndihma Ekonomike (NE), in 1993. Although originally designed to support urban families without income, and rural households with small landholdings, the program was extended to all poor households in 1995. Even though the objective of the NE and many other Albanian social transfer initiatives instituted or expanded during the 1990s is to lift poor households out of poverty, their performance has never been assessed. Despite Albania’s impressive growth performance recently, survey data shows that the poverty rate remained at 18.5 percent in 2005 (World Bank and INSTAT, 2006). As the country strives to match its post-transition growth performance with significant reductions in poverty,

> 1The information presented in this section on Albania’s pre-transition background is obtained from Haderi, Papapanagos, Sanfey & Talka (1999).

1
EAST AFRICA’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE

**Figure 2.8. Ratio of current demand to reported capacity**

<!-- Start of picture text --> a. General cargo b. Container traffic<br>150% 150%<br>125% 125%<br>100% 100%<br>75% 75%<br>50% 50%<br>25% 25%<br>0% 0%<br>Source: AICD ports database, 2008.<br>Ratio of current demand to reported capacity Ratio of current demand to reported capacity<br>Cotonou Cape Town Luanda Port Sudan Douala Dar es Salaam Mombasa Cape Town Douala Cotonou Mombasa Luanda Tema Dar es Salaam Durban<br><!-- End of picture text --> East African ports do not compare favorably with those of southern Africa, and even less so with global best practice, in terms of performance and charges (table 2.6). Compared with global best practice, Africa’s ports are expensive to use and subject to extensive delays, though those of southern Africa tend to perform somewhat better than those in other African regions across a range of parameters. The services provided by East African ports cost nearly twice as much as those in other global ports. Crane productivity in East African ports, in terms of containers or weight, is about half the international benchmark. Global best practice for truck cycle time is 1 hour, but trucks spend between 4 and 24 hours in East African ports. The international standard for port dwell time is seven days or less, but in East Africa, containers routinely spend more than a week in the terminal. The result is terminal congestion and port inefficiency. Incentives for speedier pickups might include a daily storage charge after a given number of free days and specific rules to prevent the dumping of empty containers at the terminal. Unlike in East Africa, most terminals in southern Africa offer a given number of free days’ storage—typically up to seven days—and thereafter apply a daily storage charge, which sometimes increases on a sliding scale the longer the container remains in the terminal.

23
J.C. Duque, N. Lozano-Gracia, J.E. Patino, P. Restrepo / LCR Flagship Report on Cities and 17 Productivity literature has found empirical evidence between urban structure and economic performance; for example, Mills and Hamilton (1989) and Bogart (1998) found that better accessibility to labor force and efficient transport infrastructure reduces time and costs, which increases productivity levels; and Bertaud (2004) shows that shorter, and therefore cheaper, internal trips increase the levels of urban efficiency.

In order to capture such characteristics of the city structure, we used the OSMnx Python library (Boeing, 2017) to compute three geometry-based network topology variables: _Circuity_avg, Intersection_density_ and _Street_density_ .<sup>5</sup> The _Circuity_avg_ divides the sum of the length of all edges of the street network by the sum of the great-circle distances between nodes incident to each edge (Boeing, 2017). If all the streets in the network are straight, the value of the circuity average ( _Circuity_avg_ ) is 1. Higher values account for the presence of curvy streets, indicating a more organic urban layout. As shown in Giacomin and Levinson (2015), for the most populated Metropolitan Statistical Areas in the United States, low circuity is associated with more efficient and shorter trips. Using also metropolitan areas in the US, Huang and Levinson (2015) show that transit circuity affects accessibility of transit networks.

The second and third variables are the _Intersection_density_ and the _Street_density_ . These two variables inform about how fine grained and connected the network is, thus informing about the ease of movement across the city (Boeing, 2017). The existence of dense intersection patterns may allow for high rates of walking and non-motorized modes use, taking into account the possibility of having more controlled street crossings and more available access points (Cervero, 1997).

From the discussion above, we formulate the following hypotheses related to the structure of the urban extent:

> 5 The OSMnx Python library automatically downloads and analyzes street networks from OpenStreetMap data. These networks do not include <mark><?></mark> underground metro systems.
influential of which was that by Pollack and Wachter (1975). Becker's model possesses in an extreme form the properties of endogeneity, quantity-dependence (except under assumptions of non-joint production and constant returns to scale) and householdspecificity of prices that the basic model of SSS in the developing economy context so successfully avoids.

Later work that has used the concept of household production (Gronau 1977; Apps and Rees 1988, 2002) has moved away from the abstractness of the definition of household production activities in Becker. This work recognizes that household production activities, such as child care, meal preparation, laundry, house cleaning and shopping, typically have close but not perfect market substitutes and, in common with market production, have inputs and outputs that are inherently just as observable, although with varying degrees of difficulty. In the developing economy context one would add water collection and fuel gathering as important types of household production.<sup>6</sup> Given this redefinition of household production, the type of data collected in time use surveys are essential for the estimation of the production technology. However, a limitation of the surveys is that they tend to focus on collecting time inputs while excluding adequate measures of outputs of the household goods.<sup>7</sup> The development of the basic model of SSS drew on early farm production models as well as on the Becker model, and was motivated by the fact that the main form of economic organization in developing countries is the agricultural household. As SSS note, roughly 70 percent of the labor force in low-income countries was employed in the

> 5 Throughout the SSS volume, including chapter 1, there is extensive discussion of the nature of these problems.

> 6 These activities so obviously have close market substitutes that they are included in the System of National Accounts (SNA) work activities in many developing economy surveys.

> 7 There would seem to be no a priori reason for assuming that the output of household production is more difficult to observe than that of market production due, for example, to on-the-job consumption. Difficulties associated with measuring on-the-job consumption could well be greater in the market place, particularly in large firms with hierarchical job structures that give rise to stratified levels of peer recognition and social status as well as to various forms of conspicuous consumption. The more complex of these hierarchies have no parallel in the household.  For a two-sector model of the incidence of income taxation as a trade tax under these conditions, see Apps (1982).

6