rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
This version: 15 Feb 2024 54 Knight, John, Bianjing Ma, and Ramani Gunatilaka. 2022. "The Puzzle of Falling Happiness despite Rising Income in Rural China: Eleven Hypotheses," _Economic Development and Cultural Change_ , 70(3), 1103-1131.

Meadows, Donnela, Dennis L Meadows, Jorgen Randers, and William W Behrens III. 1973. _The Limits to Growth_ .

<mark>Meerman, J. 2008. “The Malaysian Success Story, the Public Sector, and Inter-ethnic Inequality”, in Nelson, J., Jacob, M. and Abdul Rahman, E. (eds.)</mark> _<mark>Globalization and Autonomy: The Experience of Malaysia</mark>_ <mark>, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) jointly with the Institute of Malaysian and International Studies (IKMAS), pp. 76-115. -</mark> <u><mark>https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1355/9789812308184 008/html</mark></u> Metcalf, Peter. 2021. The poverty of ‘economic growth’, _Al-Jazeera_ , 10 Jun 2021 https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/6/10/the-poverty-of-economic <mark>Morduch, Jonathan, and Rachel Schneider. 2017.</mark> _<mark>T</mark> he financial diaries: How American families cope in a world of uncertaint_ _<mark>y</mark>_ <mark>. Princeton University Press.</mark> Offer, Avner. 2007. _The Challenge of Affluence: Self-Control and Well-Being in the United States and Britain since 1950._ Oxford.

Polanyi, Karl, 1944, _The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time_ , Farrar & Rinehart, New York Pradhan, M. and M. Ravallion. 2000. Measuring poverty using qualitative perceptions of consumption adequacy, _Review of Economics and Statistics_ , 82(3).

<mark>Rao, Vijayendra. 2023. "Can Economics Become More Reflexive? Exploring the Potential of Mixed Methods." In A. Deshpande (edited)</mark> _Handbook on Economics of Discrimination and Affirmative Action_ <mark>, pp. 1-27. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.</mark> Ravallion, Martin and Shaohua Chen, 2003, “Measuring pro-poor growth, _Economics Letters_ , Volume 78, Issue 1, Pp 93-99, Ravallion, Martin. 2012. Poor, or just feeling poor? On using subjective data in measuring poverty, World Bank Policy Research Paper No. 5968.

________________. 2019a. “Has Malaysia virtually eliminated poverty?” _The Edge_ , 29 January.

________________. 2019b. "Ethnic Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia Since 1969," NBER Working Papers 25640, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.

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account of the region's lack of integration. This is particularly so for resource poor landlocked countries, whose performance, globally, can be expected to be more dependent than coastal and resource rich countries on neighbor growth. Consistent with this, Collier and O'Connell find that, globally, a 1 percentage point increase in neighbor growth is associated with a, statistically significant, 0.392 % increase in the domestic growth rate, rising to a 0.71% increase for resource poor landlocked countries. However, for resource poor landlocked countries in SSA, there is no significant estimated influence of neighbor growth. This implies that, _contra_ Easterly and Levine, strong neighborhood multiplier effects, which have the potential to enhance the growth returns from coordinated policy actions, exist only outside of SSA.<sup>9, 10</sup> In this paper we investigate in greater depth the validity of the hypotheses forwarded by Collier and O'Connell. To do so, however, we follow the majority of the literature in making use of longer-run growth data as opposed to annual data. The framework, therefore, bears more resemblance to the standard empirical growth literature, with the crucial difference that it allows for spatial effects. Through analyzing the interrelationships between landlockedness, the level of transport and telecommunications infrastructure, and the strength of cross-country growth spillovers, this paper explores in

> 9 Collier and O'Connell (2007) include a full set of year dummies in their regressions. It is not clear, however, whether or not they also include country FEs. Also unclear is precisely how they define a country's neighbors. In using annual macroeconomic data, spurious correlation associated with nonstationary data may also pose a problem.

> 10 The results discussed in the main text are Collier and O'Connell's results based on OLS. They also report qualitatively similar results using IV and least absolute deviation (LAD) estimation methods (see Collier and O'Connell, 2007, p. 40, Table 20, and Table A3, p 55).

10
# **Table 3: The Role of Debt.**

|_This table reports regression_<br>_OLS and IV approaches (het_<br>_errors are in parentheses, *_<br>_and Profitability are measur_<br><br>|_results reg_<br>_eroscedasti_<br>_p < 0.10, *_<br>_ed in the la_|_arding ho_<br>_city-based_<br>_* p < 0.05,_<br>_st quarter_|_w the rela_<br>_identifica_<br>_*** p < 0._<br>_of the cale_<br>|_tionship be_<br>_tion). The d_<br>_01. Standa_<br>_ndar year_<br>|_tween cha_<br>_ependent_<br>_rd errors a_<br>_2019. Beta_|_nges in oil_<br>_variable, ∆_<br>_re clustere_<br>_and Mom_|_prices and_<br>_log(stock),_<br>_d at the fir_<br>_entum are_|_oil stock ret_<br>_is the daily r_<br>_m level. Tota_<br>_calculated_|_urns is med_<br>_eturn of a f_<br>_l Debt, Cas_<br>_with 2019 d_|_iated by tot_<br>_irm’s stock_<br>_h, Asset, Ma_<br>_ata._<br>|_al debt level_<br>_price. Notes:_<br>_rket2Book,_|_s, with both_<br>_Standard_<br>_Log(Asset),_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|∆ll(stock)<br>|||O|LS||||||IV|||
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|(7)|(8)|(9)|(10)|(11)|(12)|
|∆ll(oil)<br>|0.166***|0.0761|0.0922|0.0710|0.0788|0.0157|0.0934|-0.161|-0.141|-0.387***|-0.377**|-0.371***|
||(0.0544)|(0.0709)|(0.0667)|(0.0630)|(0.0615)|(0.0995)|(0.139)|(0.146)|(0.149)|(0.146)|(0.147)|(0.140)|
|∆ll(oil)t-1<br>|0.0389**|0.0391**|0.0385**|0.0386**|0.0380**|0.0379**|0.0940**|0.0947**|0.0885**|0.0890**|0.0885**|0.0885**|
||(0.0160)|(0.0161)|(0.0163)|(0.0163)|(0.0164)|(0.0163)|(0.0414)|(0.0420)|(0.0421)|(0.0421)|(0.0422)|(0.0423)|
|∆ll(stock)t-1<br>|-0.0453|-0.0459|-0.0457|-0.0459|-0.0450|-0.0447|-0.0546|-0.0563|-0.0550|-0.0565|-0.0553|-0.0553|
||(0.0599)|(0.0605)|(0.0612)|(0.0612)|(0.0614)|(0.0613)|(0.0605)|(0.0627)|(0.0634)|(0.0636)|(0.0638)|(0.0642)|
|∆ll(**oil)*TotalDebt/Assets**<br>|0.623***|0.465**|0.471**|0.447|0.409|0.427|1.331***|0.881***|0.810**|0.528|0.479|0.477|
||(0.191)|(0.210)|(0.231)|(0.266)|(0.265)|(0.278)|(0.372)|(0.323)|(0.348)|(0.342)|(0.344)|(0.349)|
|∆ll(oil)*Cash/Assets<br>|-0.193*|-0.139|-0.0809|-0.0607|-0.141|-0.125|-0.117|0.0363|0.132|0.364*|0.256|0.255|
||(0.106)|(0.112)|(0.173)|(0.138)|(0.169)|(0.177)|(0.279)|(0.266)|(0.289)|(0.217)|(0.256)|(0.250)|
|∆ll(oil)*Beta<br>||0.125*|0.120*|0.118|0.132*|0.136*||0.354***|0.366***|0.334***|0.353***|0.352***|
|||(0.0636)|(0.0676)|(0.0703)|(0.0737)|(0.0779)||(0.113)|(0.119)|(0.108)|(0.111)|(0.111)|
|∆ll(oil)*Market2Book<br>|||-0.0217|-0.0218|-0.0138|-0.0105|||-0.0363|-0.0374|-0.0264|-0.0267|
||||(0.0363)|(0.0362)|(0.0417)|(0.0412)|||(0.0483)|(0.0469)|(0.0540)|(0.0533)|
|∆ll(oil)*log(Assets)<br>||||0.00413|0.00139|0.00164||||0.0477**|0.0441**|0.0441**|
|||||(0.0141)|(0.0154)|(0.0157)||||(0.0198)|(0.0214)|(0.0211)|
|∆ll(oil)*Profitability<br>|||||0.553|0.555|||||0.729|0.729|
||||||(0.497)|(0.476)|||||(0.734)|(0.736)|
|∆ll(oil)*Momentum||||||0.0312||||||-0.00297|
|||||||(0.0389)||||||(0.0666)|
|constant|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|
|_N_|5,203|5,203|5,082|5,082|5,082|5,082|5,203|5,203|5,082|5,082|5,082|5,082|
|r2|0.083|0.085|0.085|0.085|0.086|0.086|||||||
|Firm fixed effects|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|yes|Yes|

12
Policy Research Working Paper 9269

# **Abstract**

This paper crowdsources information on ~22,000 train rides undertaken by 357 women commuters in Rio de Janeiro to study sexual harassment in the public space and its effects on demand for a women-reserved space. Women in the public space experience harassment on average once a week and randomly tasking them to ride in the reserved space reduces harassment by 50%. A revealed preference experiment shows that demand for the reserved space is heterogeneous, with top-tercile users making up 80% of the demand. These high-level users experience half of the harassment in our sample. The authors find that perceptions of norms around the reserved space may limit women’s agency. Data on commuters’ attitudes show over half men and women commuters associate women in the public space with more sexual openness; women who perceive this attitude to be the prevailing norm are 79% more likely to report using the reserved space.

This paper is a product of the Development Impact Evaluation Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at fkondylis@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility.worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
more trampling by humans and animals. Carbon is not affected. It is notable, though, that this important measure of population density is often positively associated with forest quality. Forestperhh is not a statistically significant determinant of forest quality. More migration generally does not affect forest quality, though in one model a 1% increase in migration is associated with a 2.8% increase in carbon at the 10% significance level. Forests in the hills are estimated to have more seedling regeneration and forests with more average evidence of fire, somewhat paradoxically, have better forest quality by several measures.

Of course, our main interests are in the CF and CanIDFUGyear dummies. These models suggest that CF status has at best no effect on forest quality. CanIDFUGyear is, however, positively associated with carbon per hectare in both models in which it appears, with a marginal effect of 44% (p<0.12) to 79% (p<0.01). The OLS models therefore suggest that NCF communities that can identify the year of user group formation sequester substantially more carbon than those who cannot. Our conjecture is that this effect is due to collective action proxied by CanIDFUGyear that matters for forest quality, suggesting that collective action may potentially be important for REDD+.

If this conjecture that collective action is important for forest quality is correct, it may follow that collective action that has been in play for longer (and therefore had more time to affect forests) would lead to more carbon sequestration (and perhaps other measures of forest quality) than newer collective action. Tables 10 to 12 present OLS models analyzing the effect of forest user group vintage (for groups that were able to identify formation years) on our four measures of forest quality for the full sample, CFs and NCFs.

As time under collective action progresses we would expect to see diminishing returns to collective action. We therefore include quadratic and cubic terms to allow for curvature. In the

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days earlier under commitment. That previous choice was made clear and salient. Then, facing the same rate of return, the participant was allowed to revise the original allocation decision. That decision (revised or unrevised) was then implemented with certainty. Surveys at both stages measured household wealth, income, and expenditures as well as the participants’ expectations for each of these variables.

We now turn to a description of the setting and its advantages for the experiment, followed by a more detailed description of the two stages of the experiment.

# **2.1 The Setting**

As a setting for experimental study of intertemporal choice, rural Malawi has a number of advantages. Most important, financial markets are thin there, especially during the rainy season when the entire experiment was conducted. As a consequence, participants lack effective methods for smoothing the large amounts of new consumption made possible by the experiment.

The farmers in our study have virtually no cash during the rainy season; and borrowing substantial cash in rural Malawi during the rainy season is not merely expensive, it often appears impossible. Similarly, short-term saving is difficult due to limited banking institutions, and familial or social demands for what appears like excess cash.<sup>15,16</sup> This lack of borrowing and saving opportunities is important because it sharply reduces the smoothing opportunities that confound efforts to elicit time preferences in developed economies. In economies with thick financial markets and low transaction costs, answers to the questions asked in typical time-preference experiments should, in theory, bracket only the market rates of return that participants face, and reveal very little about their “true” preferences regarding consumption (Fuchs, 1982).<sup>17</sup> To the extent that rural Malawi in the rainy season approximates autarchy, 15 Data from a 2008 nationally representative survey in Malawi indicates that only 26 percent of respondents use a formal financial product, and around 60 percent had never heard of a savings account (FinScope, 2008). 16 Longer-run saving instruments are more common, typically in the form of agricultural inputs, such as livestock. 17 To illustrate, suppose that outside of the lab a participant can borrow or save at market rate _r_ and faces no financial transaction costs. A typical experiment asks the participant to choose between $ _x_ sooner or $  1  _re_  _x_ later, where<sup>_r_</sup> _e_<sup>denotes the rate of return implied by the later option. The participant may view this as a</sup> choice between Option _A_ , $ _x_ sooner and access to the interest rate _r_ , and Option _B_ , $  1  _re_  _x_ later and access to the interest rate _r_ . If _re_  _r_ , then the set of allocations of consumption between sooner and later is strictly larger under option _B_ than under option _A_ . Thus, for any monotonic preferences, option _B_ is preferred. Analogously, if _re_  _r_ , then _A_ is preferred for any monotonic preferences.

7
moisture meters. Household cooks were identified based on who does most of the cooking in the household and the cooking was done with no input or prompting from enumerators. The CCT was supported by two field assistants to ensure high quality.

# _3.2 Information Provided to Respondents and Behavioral Treatments_

Prior to seeking informed consent, participants were told that they were chosen randomly to receive a stove under the same terms as others in their village and were informed about the terms. They were informed about the purpose of the study and they knew why they were observed during the CCTs. Participants were provided with full information on stove features and they were aware of the expected fuel savings associated with the _Mirt_ stove.

These terms (i.e. the behavioral treatments) were randomized at the village level, with sample villages assigned into six treatment groups. Thus, one treatment is randomly assigned to 6 villages, implying that 6 villages received the same treatment. All sample households in one village received the same treatment. Descriptions of the attributes making up the six treatments are provided in Appendix D. There were three aspects to each treatment, with only two levels of each aspect (present or absent) divided equally so one-third of all sites received each treatment aspect. These aspects are: 1) payment for stove use; 2) cost of the stove and 3) networking.

Separately from the CCT, respondents were also informed that if they agreed to participate, their stove use would be monitored using stove use monitors (SUMs) and that enumerators would come back to their houses to download data. As the SUMs results are discussed in detail in Beyene et al. (2015) and are not used in this paper, we very briefly cover this part of the research. Respondents were informed that SUMs would be placed on the stoves by enumerators, the device records the temperature of the stove and respondents were requested not to touch these temperature loggers. If they were moved, respondents were asked to put them back on the same spot using the provided heat resistant tape. Respondents were informed that the SUMs are safe at reasonable temperatures, but they are potentially unsafe if they are put in or very close to fires, because they have flammable components. If SUMs fall in the fire, they were told to 11 | P a g e
and also point to some questionable claims in past historical narratives. The paper then documents the time series of references to a number of n-grams related to poverty. The rise and fall of the various schools of economic thought is documented, as is the evolution of views on the role of the state and specific policies for fighting poverty. The set of graphs will also allow an assessment of the robustness of some of the paper‟s earlier claims.

# **Using the** **_NGram Viewer_ as a research tool**

I began by identifying a series of seemingly relevant topics (which will unfold in the coming sections) and a list of key n-grams for each, with the same n-gram appearing more than once. The choice is not unconstrained. The same word or phrase can have different meanings at one date or changing meaning over time, and sometimes the word is so ambiguous as to be useless for the present purpose. “Poverty” appears to have had a relatively stable usage over time; when (say) Samuel Johnson writes about “poverty” in the mid-18th century he appears to be talking about essentially the same concept found in modern usage. Even so, one also finds some n-grams using the word “poverty” that have a different meaning, though they have low frequency.<sup>4</sup> There are other words, such as “poor,” “misery,” “rich” and “welfare” that are too ambiguous to be useful. “Inequality” is probably more ambiguous than “poverty” (there is, for example, the usage of “inequality” in mathematics), but is nonetheless too important to exclude.

While I have tried to select with care, I am sure that I have picked up some unintended or ambiguous usages. I will test whether my claims about trends are robust to acknowledging the use of other words for “poverty” at various times, such as “indigence,” “destitution,” “working class.” (The latter term does not mean “poverty” but was often used to refer to poor people in the 19th century, notably in the literature on socialism.) Sometimes I chose to drop one of my selected n-grams for a given topic either because its frequency was so low relative to others in the series as to be of little interest, or it was evidently so synonymous with another n-gram that there was little new information (singular and plural

> 4 One example is the expression “poverty of ideas” (including at least one example from Dr Johnson‟s writings). Even at its peak usage the incidence of the expression “poverty of ideas” was only 0.1% of the incidence of “poverty.” Another example is the phrase “poverty of philosophy,” which was the title of Karl Marx‟s famous critique of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon‟s _Philosophy of Poverty_ , published in 1847. But, again, this is a very low-frequency n-gram.

4
Figlio and Ozek,<sup> ̈</sup> 2019; Sacerdote, 2012). Moreover, Kovac et al. (2021) (from the current series of papers) finds that greater exposure to conflict is associated with lower educational measures for forced migrants and refugees. Furthermore, UNESCO (2019) finds that although migrants could be nominally included in the education system, in practice this might not be the case.

Other scholarly research has shown that the gaps between natives and migrants in the latter’s educational performance and grade advancement are the result of a series of cultural and institutional roadblocks faced by migrants and refugees. Some of the variables highlighted in these studies correspond to migrants’ uprootedness from their homelands (Becker et al., 2020), lack of access to job networks (Behtoui and Olsson, 2014), low economic returns to schooling for the adult migrant population (Swinnerton, 2016), and the interaction between family resources and local institutional arrangements (Crul, 2013). We therefore test the following hypothesis related to migrant status and educational attainment:

**H1 (Roadblocks to Grade Advancement):** Migrant students will have a lower grade advancement at every level of education.

**H2 (Roadblocks to Higher Education):** Migrant students will have a lower enrollment rate in higher education.

Previous scholarly work has found that financial aid programs have an overall positive impact on educational attainment and access to students who receive them in Chile (Solis, 2017) and Colombia (Londo ̃no-V ́elez et al., 2020; Angrist et al., 2002). However, children from disadvantaged social groups, including migrants and refugees, tend to be underrepresented in tertiary education all over the world (Chetty et al., 2017; Hoxby and Avery, 2012). This is the case in Latin America (Londo ̃no-V ́elez et al., 2020; Ferreyra et al., 2017) despite access to financial aid options (Melguizo et al., 2016). Yet since no studies have examined migrant and refugee children’s access to higher education, we are unsure how migrant status affects access to higher education via financial aid applications.

Promoting migrant children’s school enrollment is not only desirable; it is also necessary to diminish intergenerational inequalities (Chetty et al., 2017). Hence, expanding education access to migrant children will lead to positive results like access to better jobs and access to higher education. Studies in the US have demonstrated that immigrant children who were granted legal status, and hence access to education, are 8