need to work outside to earn more than girls during and after the flood disaster.

# Figure 5 to be inserted

In Figure 5, we simulate the flood impacts by assuming the sample mean of VGF receipt (in 1998-1999) and maximum education of 8 years. The simulations use the estimates in Columns 5 and 6. We found that public assistance can only mitigate the flood impact marginally (Case 2). However, human capital measured by the maximum education seems more effective in mitigating the impact (Case 3).

# Table 9 to be inserted

Table 9 reports our results on Ethiopia and Malawi. Columns 1 to 3 summarize findings from the Ethiopian case. First, the 2001 drought has a significant negative effect on grade progression in all estimations. Second, the availability of public work programs (indicator) has two effects: decreasing school progression per se, while increasing it when drought hits the area.<sup>17</sup> However, this result might have been caused by endogenous allocation of such a program to, for example, areas (or households) prone to droughts. We will check this possibility in Table 10. As the second possibility, adult members tend to work in the programs and demand for child labor in own production or domestic work may increase.

Interestingly, we do not find any significant effects of the household assets once public assistance variables are included. Therefore, in Ethiopia, we conclude that the role of public assistance is more important than that of private ex-ante actions.

Results for Malawi are summarized in Columns 4 to 6. In contrast to Ethiopia, our results indicate that receipt of food aid played only a small role in mitigating disaster impacts. Instead, total asset value and maximum education significantly mitigate the drought impacts.

# Table10 to be inserted

Next we check the robustness of the above results by restricting our sample to areas that severely exposed to the 1998 flood in Bangladesh, or high risk disaster areas in Ethiopia and Malawi. High risk areas are defined if the estimated probabilities of drought are greater than 0.4 and 0.5 respectively in Ethiopia and Malawi (see Table 1). Results summarized in Columns 1 to 4 support the previous findings, and also prove that the effects of public assistance are more significant and greater than those in Table 9. The role of public assistance is large in areas severely exposed to the flood.

Columns 5 and 6 report results on Ethiopia and Malawi respectively. In Ethiopia, the negative direct and disaster mitigating effects of public work are also confirmed in high-risk areas. However, the risk mitigation effect is found larger than the direct negative effect, implying that there seems to be bias from the endogenous allocation of public work programs, but still substitution effect among children is also not denied.

> 17In this analysis, we have not controlled for endogeneity of program allocation except by differencing schooling equations over time. Thus, as long as the initial period shock to schooling is uncorrelated with the allocation of public work programs, the estimate should be unbiased. Additional efforts to homogenize the sample using matching techniques are not adopted in this paper.

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