revised 19<sup>th</sup> ICLS definitions of work and employment. This has been a particularly challenging area for economies with a large share of smallholder farmers, for whom paid and subsistence work often vary seasonally throughout the year, and where women often have economically productive but hidden roles (Benes and Walsh, 2018a; Koolwal, 2019). Over the last few years, country labor force surveys and the surveys supported under the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study – Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) initiative have been introducing individual-level questions on the main intended destination of agricultural output to better elicit employment in agriculture under the new definitions.

Management of, and working in, an NFE and wage employment are also underreported under the IHS4 business-as-usual approach, and the difference widens when the recall period is longer. Although participation rates might differ, the ranking of importance of activities is similar in both scenarios, with cropping as the most common activity, then _ganyu_ and livestock, management of a non-farm enterprise, off-farm wage employment and self-employment as least common activities. Further, Table 2 shows that weekly hours worked among those employed are not statistically different across survey approaches for most activities, with some variations by gender (wage employment for men and _ganyu_ for women). This suggests that if participation is screened correctly, weekly hours tend to be adequately estimated for most activities under the business-asusual approach. For annual hours and earnings, we do find greater differences across survey approaches (among women, for example, conditional annual hours worked in wage employment are significantly higher in the IHS4, and conditional hours and earnings in _ganyu_ for both men and women are also significantly higher in the IHS4 as well). The choice of survey approach may matter more, for example, with longer recall periods as well as seasonality of different activities among this population.

Looking at gender differences, the last two columns of Table 2 show that women are significantly more likely than men under both survey approaches to work in crop agriculture over the last 12 months — particularly in own-use production as opposed to market activity — and less likely to work in wage employment and _ganyu_ . Weekly hours, on the other hand, tend to be greater for men across both farm and off-farm activities.<sup>14</sup> While men are significantly more likely to report management of a non-farm enterprise than women under the business-as-usual approach, this difference disappears in the individual-interview approach. Figure 1 looks at gender differences across samples by age, finding that the individual-interview approach in the IHPS tends to raise reported wage employment and NFE management for nearly all men across the age distribution, but for women the largest increases in these activities are focused on younger age groups (around 30 years of age; for NFE management there is an additional increase among older women (55+) in the IHPS as well). For women, lower time constraints outside of their child-rearing years may be one reason for these trends. Generally, Table 2 shows that men’s participation across different

> 14 Within crop work, hours spent separately in market activity versus own-use production were not collected (and also would be very difficult to collect).

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