rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
TABLE 1.4: StAdent **Pau** Rates In Mathenatics **and** English **at** the ZIC<sup>Lavul,</sup> 1984- 1988

||~~|EN5L-ISRH<br>No!a~Nnn|<br>_1 PA_uAO, W|No. §igir|MATHEMA-TICS<br>Ng. ap|-<br>%Psa1t|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1985|148670|80832|<br>54|<br>122461|<br>15770|13|
|1986|129909|62660|48|130266|23865|IS|
|1987|146674|62377|3|146241|13672|9|
|1988|169913|58252|34|169009|26716|16|

Source: See Table 1.1 Table 1.4 provides data on pupile reaching a passing standard in the Zimbabwe Junior Certificate national examinations in Mathematics and English. Of 101,086 students who wrote tho ZJC English examination in 1984 on&ly 29 percent attained a passing standard, and the number of students<sup>successfully</sup> completing the ZJC English program has declined steadily since the<sup>leap in</sup> 1985. For Mathematics, the rate of ettlent academic achievement ia disappointingly low (9-18%).

# Context of the Study

These declining levelr of attainmment signal the erosion of educational quality through pressures to expand the educational system in the face of diminishing resources. Within Zimbabw3 such scarce resources include salaries, tuition expenditures, physical facilities, and instructional materials. What appears an appropriate strategy to curb the decline in education,l quality in Zimbabwe secondary schools is to identify school, and class characteristics which boost student academic achievement. The principal aim of this study was to identify schools which produce the best and worst ZJC results in English and Mathematics after controlling for the students' academic background on intake and , determine the characteristics of effective and ineffective secondary schools. The results of the study were an important input into a joint Zimbabwe Ministry of Education and Culture and 6
the total national amount is equal to €40.2 billion;

- Investment demand calculated as:

where _NatINV_ is the national investment from the national SAM. Finally, the total national investment demand, as sum over regions and commodities of _INVrc_ , is equal to €297,797 billion;

- Export, from regional export (ISTAT-ICE from Bank of Italy report REF) re-proportioned on national demand of commodities from the rest of the world. Total regional exports are equal to €497.3 billion.

The total demand results equal to €4,083 billion, which is the sum of the accounts listed above. The imbalances in the total demand account are considered as stocks (this aspect will be better described in Subsection 3.10 dedicated to the balancing procedure).

# **3.3 Value Added**

Value added is composed of:

- Regional labor value added equal to the compensation of labor net SSC and the total amount is equal to €490.6 billion;

- Capital value added equals the total value added net regional labor VA, SSC, taxes on production, IRAP, IRES, and IMU. The total national amount is equal to €787.2 billion.

As sum of labor and capital regional value added, the total amount for Italy in 2016 is equal to €1,277.9 billion.

# **3.4 Income**

We must redistribute the regional labor VA and national capital VA across the agents.

- The Households’ income equals the sum of labor income (€490.6 billion), households’ capital income (€396.8 billion), surplus from enterprises to households (€112.2 billion), transfers from Government to households (€329 billion), and interests paid to households (€25.4 billion). The labor income is obtained as the sum over commodities of the Labor

10
# **Why is voluntary financial education so unpopular? Experimental evidence from Mexico**<sup>**#**</sup>

Miriam Bruhn, _World Bank_ Gabriel Lara Ibarra, _World Bank_ David McKenzie, _World Bank_ _Keywords:_ Financial literacy; financial capability; encouragement design; low take-up.

_JEL codes:_ D14, O12, G28.

> # We thank the Russian Trust Fund for Financial Literacy for financing this work; Pablo Antón Díaz, Eder González Ramos and the staff at Innovations for Poverty Action for their assistance in implementing the surveys and impact evaluation; and the staff at our partnering financial institution for their support for this project. All opinions expressed in this work are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily represent those of the World Bank, IPA, or the partnering financial institution.

1
lagged GDP growth and unemployment rate) and bank-specific variables in a panel regression.

The Bulgarian and Croatian Central Banks also work on developing methodologies for gauging PDs. In the Bulgarian case, this combines model estimations, where PDs are linked to macroeconomic variables such as GDP growth, inflation, interest rates, and unemployment (for household PDs)<sup>17</sup> with information from a bottom-up stress test. The Croatian Central Bank forms an insight about corporate sector’s PDs from transition matrixes.

# **4.2. Market Risk Factors**

The market risk factors typically comprise changes in the exchange rate, the interest rate, security prices, and funding spreads. Interest rate and exchange rate changes ought to be considered, both as direct market risk factors and indirectly as explanatory variables in the credit risk models for evaluating NPL ratios, PDs, and LGDs.

The direct effects of changes in interest rates and exchange rates are incorporated in the stress tests of Albania Austria, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia. In addition, the Austrian, Czech and Slovak macro stress-test models work with the risk of a decline in equity prices. The Bulgarian Central Bank, in addition to requiring banks to report the effect of a predefined direct interest rate shock, gathers information about the market risk factors from the “worst scenarios” reported by banks in a survey. The Central Bank of Slovakia generates the market risk factors using a vector errorcorrection model that estimates the pass-through of the key ECB interest rate into the interbank market rate, bank rates for loans and deposits, and interest rates of securities.

Concerning interest rate risk, either changes in a single interest rate or a parallel shift in the yield curve are considered by the CSEECBs in the stress tests. However, recent work (see Villa et al, 2008) questions the relevance of the common approach to simulate changes in interest risk factors by a parallel shift in the yield curve. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (2001, 2006) guides banks to use a parallel shift in the yield curve by ±200 basis points or by the interest rate changes implied by 1<sup>st</sup> and 99<sup>th</sup> percentile of the distribution of historical changes in interest rate. However, a parallel shift in the yield curve tends to understate the actual impact on profitability during a macroeconomic distress because an adverse macro scenario usually implies flattening or inversion of the yield curve.<sup>18</sup>

# **4.3 Liquidity Risk Factors**

> 17 The estimation methodology has not been finalized yet.

> 18 Since banks earn their profits by maturity transformation (borrowing short and lending long), the declining slope of the yield curve further lowers banks’ net interest earnings.

14
- 38 -

countries. For further details on countries which are active in shipbreaking, see Table 10 below. While presently not involved in shipbreaking activities, there are indications that Vietnam has much potential to become an active player in this field. But in contrast to South Korea and Taiwan the present shipbreaking regions all have sizeable domestic ore or coal deposits and typically do not export steel. Vessels purchased for scrapping are therefore a net drain on already slim foreign exchange reserves.

Table 10: ANALYSIS OF VESSELS BROKEN UP IN 1992 Developing Countries are in the Lead

|||**Total**|**T**|**ankers**|**Dry**|**Bulkers**|Gen.**C**|**argo Ships**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||No.|dwt<br>('000)|;Z.|dwt<br>('000)|No.|dwt<br>('000)|<br>No.|<br>dwt<br>('000)|
|China|36|3,187|15|2,442|12|666|9|79|
|India|109|2,733|32|1,528|13|420|64|785|
|Bangladesh|34|1,727|12|1,370|3|113|19|243|
|Pakistan|20|1,715|13|1,472|4|214|3|29|
|Turkey|7|185|2|106|2|41|3|38|
|Thailand|1|15|--|--|--|--|1|15|
|Mexico|1|13||*-|-||1|13|
|Spain|2|5|--|--|--|--|2|5|
|**Pe**||3|||||1|3|
|Greece|1|3|--|--|--|-|1|3|
|Por*ugal|1|2||-|--||1<br>1|2|
|Denmark|2|2|--|--|--|--|2|2|
|Japan|2|1|-|--|||2|1|
|Netherlands|I|I|--|--|--|--|I|I|
|Gernany|1|1||-|-|*|I||
|United Kingdom|I|I|-|*|*||I|I|
|**_TToAL_**<br>_|_|_220_|**_9,593_**|_74_|_6,919_|_34_|_1,453_|**_112_**|_1,221_|

Source: Lloyd's Shipping Economist. Research files. London 79. The projected annual demand for tonnage demolition is expected to amount tc 26 million dwt in 1993 and to increase to 38 million dwt annually towards the end of the current decade. The act.dlly scrapped tonnage was barely ten million dwt in 1992 and much less during the preceding three years. There are two factors accounting for this discrepancy. One is low productivity in those countries were ship scrapping currently takes place. At the extreme was a West African nation where it took 26 months to break a medium-size bulk carrier. Taiwanese breakers used to accomplish the same task in under four weeks. But the productivity rates in all other countries are also three to four times lower than those that
# **I. Introduction**

The recent debate concerning the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in both policy circles and the popular press suggested that the primary impact of the regional trade accord would not be a small reduction in already low tariff levels between the NAFTA partners, but a fundamental change in the attractiveness of Mexico as a location for investment, resulting in a large amount of capital movement between the Northern and Southern trading partners. This claim was popularized by such opponents of NAFTA as Ross Perot who claimed that NAFTA would create a "large sucking sound" as capital flowed from North to South in response to the trade accord. Indeed, there is some evidence that "financial diversion" has taken place in response to North-South integration, both in the case of Portugal and Spain in the EEC and Mexico under NAFTA [Primo Braga (1993)].

Despite the consensus that the impact of trade accords on capital movements is potentially important, the issue seems to have received less attention in the standard literature on the welfare implications of customs unions,1 which center on the trade-off between trade creation and trade diversion.<sup>2</sup> We should note that this is even true of more recent analyses of trade accords which stress both strategic issues [McLaren (1993), Bagwell and Staiger (1993)] and the political-economic implications of trade accords [Grossman and Helpman (1993)]. The reason for this gap in the literature is probably historical. Prior to NAFTA, successful regional trade 1See Lipsey (1960) and de Melo et al (1993) for extensive early and more recent surveys.

2Notable exceptions include Miyagiwa and Young (1986) who explicitly introduce factor mobility into their analysis of customs unions in a different context, and Manchester and McKibbin (1994) who analyze the implications of an ad hoc decrease in Mexico's risk premium as a result of the NAFTA accord.

1
cate high rates of re-investment in women’s business portfolios, which we take to be indicative of increases in the resources women control. We find no significant increases in consumption expenditures at midline or endline, indicating that the program does not have significant impacts on poverty reduction over the period of our study. Given high observed rates of re-investment and overall low baseline profits, our results on consumption spending align with other program impacts.

Our study bridges a gap between the evidence on graduation from poverty programs and that on entrepreneurship training programs. We do so by studying the effects of building skills for entrepreneurship in an ultra-poor population of women. The women in our sample demographically resemble the populations targeted by graduation programs (Banerjee, Duflo, Goldberg, et al. 2015, Blattman et al. 2016, Bandiera, Burgess, et al. 2017, Banerjee, Duflo, and Sharma 2021, Bossuroy et al. 2022, Angelucci, Heath, and Noble 2023). Although the individual coaching and some of the financial management units in the program we study resemble skills-based components of graduation programs, the entrepreneurship skills are more closely related to those studied in the business training literature (see McKenzie, Woodruff, et al. (2023) for a systematic review of the literature).

In bridging these two bodies of evidence, we make three contributions. First, our results support the inclusion of skills in graduation approaches by showing that skills alone generate gains in women’s economic inclusion. Second, we demonstrate that general entrepreneurship skills can promote economic inclusion for ultra-poor, rural women, particularly on the extensive margin of women entering entrepreneurship. Our results align with those in Calderone et al. (2022), who to our knowledge provide the only other experimental evidence on extensive-margin impacts in rural areas.<sup>6</sup> More broadly, our results suggest that the heavily mixed results on business training programs may be driven by differences in the populations studied.<sup>7</sup> The women

> 6deMel, McKenzie, and Woodruff (2014) and Brudevold-Newman et al. (2023) document positive extensive margin effects in urban populations that diminish over time.

> 7Thirteen of seventeen studies of programs with existing entrepreneurs in urban markets cited in McKenzie, Woodruff, et al. (2023) found no significant effect on profits (Berge,

6
globalization-one beginning in the mid 1980s and the other in the early 1990s--might be seen as a mere evolution in the process of economic integration. Chart 2 shows that for LMICs, however, the rising trend in trade integration that started in the mid 1980s was a rather new phenomenon. In fact, out of the 16 percent rise in LMICs' trade integration ratio (trade/GDP) in the past 35 years, a 15 percent surge was observed only after the mid 1980s. A series of reform and liberalization efforts undertaken by LMICs in the past decade represents an effective shift in development strategy from an inward-oriented import-substituting framework designed strategically to reduce dependence on the outer world, to an outward-oriented export-promoting framework designed to create a virtuous cycle of higher integration and faster growth with expanded opportunities. As far as LMCs are concerned, therefore, this upward kink in the integration trend is a revolution that signifies a shift in development strategy.

Chart 2. Trade Integration (export plus import volumes, ratio to GDP*) <!-- Start of picture text --> Percent<br>40 :<br>35-<br>30-<br>25 -<br>20 -- '''' 1<br>60 65 70 75 80 85 90<br>----- Worid<br>High Income Countries<br>Developing Countries (LMIC)<br>'Based on National Incomr Accounts, Trade in Goods and SeMces.<br>Source: Inlrtlonal Economics Oeparient. Wortd Bank.<br><!-- End of picture text --> 2
In all countries, private health insurance plays a minor role in the private health care expenditure. For example, in Thailand, private insurance covers only 2% of those participating in health insurance. The main purchasers of these products are the middle and high income groups.

# _Quality of healthcare services_

Concerns about the quality and regulation of private healthcare services have been expressed in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.<sup>9</sup> In some circumstances, regulatory deficiencies have reportedly led to adverse health outcomes and a proliferation of informal medical practitioners. Public health facilities in these countries sometimes suffer from demoralized staff and insufficient medical equipment and drugs. In Vietnam, improper drug use has led to high levels of antibiotic resistance in the population. In Laos, despite the relatively large number of health personnel, training is considered to be inadequate, leading to high rates of misdiagnosis and maltreatment.<sup>10</sup> In Cambodia, many private facilities use obsolete equipment and more than half do not hold a license from the Ministry of Health.<sup>11</sup> In Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand high quality medical care is, in principle, available. A number of hospitals in these countries offer advanced specialized services, relying on modern equipment and highly qualified medical personnel. However, the best medical care is typically provided by private hospitals and can only be afforded by upper-middle-income and high-income patients. While the richer ASEAN countries have the basic regulatory infrastructure in place, monitoring and quality enforcement is often insufficient, leading to large variations in the quality of healthcare within countries.

To sum up, many of the healthcare indicators presented in this section vary closely with countries’ level of economic development. Economic research suggests that causality goes both ways: healthier societies are more productive and richer countries can afford better healthcare. At the same time, differences in health performance are not fully accounted for by income. In particular, comparisons among ASEAN countries suggest that there is an important role for government policy to maximize resources available for healthcare and to ensure that those resources are effectively utilized.

# **III.  Current trade patterns in the ASEAN region**

The concept of trade in services goes beyond the traditional concept of trade, whereby physical goods move across borders from one country to another. Since most services require close

> 9 See Chea (2005), Leebouapao (2004), and Thang (2005).

> 10 There is only one medical school in Laos and six nursing schools.  There are approximately 100 graduates in medicine, pharmacy and dentistry per year.

> 11 It is estimated that there are approx. 896 legal pharmacies and almost 3 times the number of unlicensed ones; 500 legal clinics coexist with approx. 1,700 unlicensed clinics; and 13,000 village drug sellers.  In all, approx. 87% of drug stores are unlicensed.

10
- Migration: internal migration across states is defined when respondents report a different current state (ER36004 for 2007, and ER66004 for 2017) with respect to baseline (ER17005). International migration is defined when the respondent reports living in a foreign country and was living in the US at baseline (or the opposite).

# **C Randomized and data con- experiments: Summary struction**

## **C.1 Uganda Youth Opportunities Program (YOP)**

YOP was a program implemented by the Uganda government, which invited groups of people aged 16 to 35 to apply for cash grants to start a skilled self-employed activity. The intervention had four main characteristics: (i) people had to apply in groups; (ii) each group had to submit a proposal on how they would use the grant for nonagricultural training and start-up costs; (iii) proposals were screened by government officials at the village and district level; and (iv) the grant given to successful applications was unconditional and not subject to government monitoring thereafter. The program was initially started in 2006, but the data collected by Blattman et al. (2014) and Blattman et al. (2019b) comes from 14 northern Uganda districts with funds still available as of 2008. Of the 535 groups passing initial government screening, 265 (5,460 individuals) were randomly assigned to treatment, and 270 (5,820 people) to control, stratified by district. The authors surveyed five people per group, for a total of 2,677 individuals. The baseline survey was administered in February–March 2008. The government disbursed then funds to groups in the treatment group between July and September 2008. The authors conducted three endline surveys: the first between August 2010 and March 2011 (24 to 30 months after disbursement); the second between April and June 2012 (44 to 47 months after); the third between March and May 2017 (103 to 106 months after).

<u>Variable details:</u>

- Self-employment: if the respondent reports positive average work hours in the past four weeks in activities that are non-agricultural and not (i) as a teacher or public employee, (ii) as a health or NGO worker, (iii) in the military, or (iv) as an employee in a company or firm. See the beginning of section Economic Activities of each endline survey for a complete list of the activities considered.

58
|Constant|0.025|-0.003|-0.027**|-0.115|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||(0.031)|(0.029)|(0.011)|(0.082)|
|Country Fixed effects|No|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Region (within country) Fixed Effects|Yes|No|No|No|
|Sector (2 digit) Fixed Effects|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Number of observations|27,712|24,747|10,257|13,219|

Note: Survey weights have been applied to all regressions, using Stata’s svy prefix. Linearized Taylor standard errors that account for survey stratification are indicated in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

# **<u>Table 3: Water Shortages and Sales</u>**

|**Y = Log of sales**|**Translog**<br>**(1)**|**Cobb-Douglas**<br>**(2)**|
|---|---|---|
|Log of labor (lnL)|0.769***|0.815***|
||(0.022)|(0.036)|
|Log of capital (replacement value) (lnK)|0.020**|0.036***|
||(0.010)|(0.009)|
|Log of raw materials (costs) (lnM)|0.238***|0.205***|
||(0.011)|(0.029)|
|No. of water shortages per day in a typical month|-0.087**|-0.125***|
||(0.037)|(0.044)|
|Average duration of water shortage|0.002|-0.001|
||(0.004)|(0.004)|
|No. of electrical outages per day in a typical month|0.013|-0.006|
||(0.023)|(0.027)|
|Average duration of electrical outages (hours)|0.001|0.001|
||(0.001)|(0.001)|
|Firm owns or shares a generator Y/N|0.100***|0.156***|
||(0.034)|(0.042)|
|Losses due to breakage/spoilage shipped domestically (% of value of the<br>products|0.0002|-0.007|
||(0.003)|(0.005)|
|Log of age of firm|0.015|0.015|
||(0.018)|(0.026)|
|Foreign ownership Y/N|0.110**|0.198***|
||(0.052)|(0.066)|
|Exports 10% or more of sales Y/N|0.103***|0.189***|
||(0.038)|(0.046)|

24