rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Internal migration in Egypt :
            levels, determinants, wages, and likelihood of employment
This paper describes stylized facts
            about internal migration and the labor force in Egypt, and
            shows how internal migration in the country is low compared
            with international standards. Using aggregate labor force
            survey data, the paper shows how individuals migrate to
            governorates with higher wages. With a Mincerian equation,
            the analysis finds that migrants earn premiums with respect
            to non-migrants, except for those migrants with low
            education levels. The aggregate labor statistics reveal
            lower unemployment rates among migrants, a phenomenon that
            is verified by an employment equation. According to the
            econometric results, migrants are more likely to be
            employed, even after controlling for other observable
            individual characteristics.  Finally, the paper estimates a
            Probit model for the decision to migrate, finding that more
            educated individuals are more likely to migrate,
            agricultural workers have a lower probability of migrating,
            and individuals from governorates in which food production
            for own consumption is higher are less likely to migrate.
            These results suggest that low educational attainment and
            the "food problem", which ties resources to food
            production to meet subsistence requirements, are at the root
            of low migration in Egypt.
Equality of opportunity for children
            in Egypt, 2000-2009 : achievements and challenges
This paper provides relevant indicators
            and measurements useful for public policies seeking the
            expansion of equitable human development opportunities for
            Egyptian children and youth. To measure equitable access to
            opportunities, the authors use the Human Opportunity Index
            to examine the evolution of 16 basic opportunity indicators
            grouped in four sectors: education, basic housing services,
            early childhood development, and nutrition and hunger. The
            main findings show that during the last decade most
            opportunities for children and youth improved
            unambiguously,for the first two sectors, but were stagnant
            for nutrition and early childhood development opportunities.
            Although the urban-rural and interregional gaps were
            partially reduced, there are still substantial opportunity
            gaps between children in favorable and unfavorable
            circumstances. Parents' education, income per capita,
            urban-rural location, number of siblings, and regional
            location, are the five most important factors affecting
            equality of opportunity, although their impact varies across indicators.
Equality of opportunity for children
            in Egypt, 2000-2009 : achievements and challenges
WPS6159 Policy Research Working Paper 6159 Equality of Opportunity for Children in Egypt, 2000–2009 Achievements and Challenges _Carlos E. Vélez Sherine Al-Shawarby Heba El-Laithy_ The World Bank Middle East and North Africa Region Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit August 2012
Who you train matters : identifying
            complementary effects of financial education on migrant households
There has long been a concern among
            policymakers that too much of remittances are consumed and
            too little saved, limiting the development impact of
            migration. Financial literacy programs have become an
            increasingly popular way to try and address this issue, but
            to date there is no evidence that they are effective in
            inducing savings among remittance-receiving households, nor
            is it clear whether such programs are best targeted at the
            migrant, the remittance receiver, or both. The authors
            conducted a randomized experiment in Indonesia which
            allocated migrants and their families to a control group, a
            migrant-only training group, a family member-only training
            group, and a training group in which both the migrant and a
            family member were trained. Three rounds of follow-up
            surveys are then used to measure impacts on the financial
            knowledge, behaviors, and remittance and savings outcomes of
            the remaining household. They find that training both the
            migrant and the family member together has large and
            significant impacts on knowledge, behaviors, and savings.
            Training the family member alone has some positive, but
            smaller effects, whilst training only the migrant leads to
            no impacts on the remaining family members. The results show
            that financial education can have large effects when
            provided at a teachable moment, but that this impact varies
            greatly with who receives training.
Estimating the social profitability
            of India's rural roads program : a bumpy ride
India's rural roads program,
            Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, aims to draw villagers
            into the mainstream by improving not only their terms of
            trade, but also their educational attainments and health.
            Treating each all-weather feeder road as an isolated element
            within the larger network, and using shadow prices to value
            the main components of costs and benefits, the paper
            demonstrates that further investments in the program are,
            with high probability, socially profitable, especially in
            poorer and more densely settled regions. Taking the entire
            set of new individual roads together, qualitative arguments
            suggest that their external and spill-over effects on the
            system as a whole probably generate some net additional
            benefits, but of very uncertain magnitude.
The benefits of India's rural
            roads program in the spheres of goods, education and health
            : joint estimation and decomposition
All-weather rural roads usually improve
            not only villagers' terms of trade, but also their
            educational attainments and health. Obtaining empirical
            estimates of the benefits generated by the first is
            straightforward, not so those generated by the others. The
            object of this paper is to estimate the relative sizes of
            their respective contributions to total benefits in
            connection with the all-India rural roads program Pradhan
            Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, using an overlapping generations
            model featuring the production and consumption of goods and
            the formation of human capital in the presence of both
            morbidity and mortality. Based on survey evidence from
            upland Orissa in India and Bangladesh, as well as elements
            of more usual forms of calibration, the model yields a ratio
            of commercial to non-commercial benefits of about two-to-one
            in the first generation, falling to three-to-four in the
            second. This is broadly consistent with the valuations
            expressed by respondents in the Orissa survey, who ranked
            the latter benefits at least on a par with the former.
Heterogeneous returns to education
            in the labor market
Since the development of human capital
            theory, countless estimates of the economic benefits of
            investing in education for the individual have been
            published. While it is a universal fact that in all
            countries of the world the more education one has the higher
            his or her earnings, it is nevertheless important to know
            the empirical returns to schooling. However, simply knowing
            average returns is not useful in a world of heterogeneity.
            This paper finds increasing returns going from the lower to
            the higher end of the earnings distribution, but with some
            important differences across regions. The returns increase
            by quantile for Latin America. The returns decrease by
            quantile for most East Asian countries, producing an overall
            equalizing effect. India and Pakistan demonstrate opposite
            results. In Ghana, the returns across the distribution are
            flat, while for Kenya and Tanzania education is dis-equalizing.
Distance to market and search costs
            in an African maize market
Farm-gate buying by small itinerant
            buyers is the dominant mode of primary marketing in
            Tanzania's maize market. This paper estimates the
            effect of household distance to market on maize farm-gate
            prices, and the extent to which seasonally determined search
            costs can explain price variations between the lean and the
            harvest seasons using data from the most recent Tanzania
            Household Budget Survey (2007). The author observes that
            greater distance to market depresses farm-gate prices but
            that it is a relatively modest effect, and that this effect
            is pro-cyclical in that it is stronger during the harvest
            season when prices are lowest. The paper discusses the
            latter result with reference to search costs as an
            explanatory factor. It also briefly places the findings in
            the context of Tanzania's food security patterns,
            making a link between food insecurity and high search costs.
            The main policy conclusion is that coordinating mechanisms
            such as village market places (in parallel with farm-gate
            buying) may reduce transaction costs in rural markets.
Sovereign bailouts and senior loans
Institutional lending in crisis is
            evaluated from a theoretical point of view. First, the share
            of senior loans in new loans is irrelevant under a given
            probability distribution of the country's resources.
            Second, seniority may partially alleviate the inefficiency
            of debt contracts when the distribution of resources is
            endogenous to the country's physical investment and
            effort towards success. Third, with multiple lending rate
            equilibria, institutional lending may induce a switch to a
            lower private loan rate if it can be done in a sufficiently
            large amount. Fourth, conditions are analyzed under which
            debt forgiveness is efficient under a financial shock.
Tourism sector in Panama : regional
            economic impacts and the potential to benefit the poor
Tourism is one of Latin America's
            fastest growing industries but the impact of tourism on the
            poor and the effects on lagging regions are under debate.
            Many studies have evaluated the growth impacts of the
            tourism sector but few have analyzed the impact of tourism
            on the economy and poverty at the subnational level in
            developing countries. As a country marked by a "dual
            economy," Panama shares with other Latin American
            countries a fast growing, modern urban sector side by side
            with impoverished rural and peri-urban populations. Tourism
            has been growing in Panama and contributes at least 6
            percent of gross domestic product. This paper presents the
            results of a top-down assessment of the impact of tourism
            spending on growth and poverty at the regional (province)
            level in Panama using a Social Accounting Matrix model. As
            revealed by this study, the tourism sector has large
            multiplier effects on the Panamanian economy and has the
            potential for significant benefits to the poor. But
            tourism's poverty benefits are neither automatic nor
            ubiquitous. They depend on where and how supply chains are
            structured and on the way tourists spend their money.
Household enterprises in Sub-Saharan
            Africa : why they matter for growth, jobs, and livelihoods
Despite 40 percent of households relying
            on household enterprises (non-farm enterprises operated by a
            single individual or with the help of family members) as an
            income source, household enterprises are usually ignored in
            low-income Sub-Saharan-African development strategies. Yet
            analysis of eight countries shows that although the fast
            growing economies generated new private non-farm wage jobs
            at high rates, household enterprises generated most new jobs
            outside agriculture. Owing to the small size of the non-farm
            wage job sector, this trend is expected to continue for the
            foreseeable future. This analysis of enterprises and their
            owners shows that although it is a heterogeneous sector
            within countries, there are many similarities across
            countries, indicating that cross-country learning is
            possible. For labor force participants who want to use their
            skills and energy to create a non-farm income source for
            themselves and their families, household enterprises offer a
            good opportunity even if they remain small. The paper finds
            that given household human capital and location, household
            enterprise earnings have the same marginal effect on
            consumption as private wage and salary employment. The
            authors argue that household enterprises should be seen as
            part of an integrated job and development strategy.
Drivers of convergence in eleven
            eastern European countries
This paper investigates the drivers of
            growth and prosperity in a group of eleven European
            countries -- Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia,
            Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, and
            Slovakia (the EU11). Since the EU11 began the transformation
            process, this group of emerging countries has made
            impressive strides as developing market economies and is
            anchoring development in European Union institutions. There
            are reasons to believe that the convergence of EU11 income
            per capita to Western European levels will continue, but
            will proceed more slowly. The paper concludes that trade and
            financial integration have sped along at a spectacular pace
            in the EU11 in the recent past, although trade in modern
            services and the integration of government bond and equity
            markets are somewhat behind. As in the rest of Europe,
            demographic developments will pose huge challenges for the
            sustainability of public finance in the EU11 economies. In
            the next several decades, the EU11 labor force is expected
            to contract more than labor forces in the rest of the
            European Union, making it even more urgent that countries in
            the region reform pension systems, change migration policy,
            and find incentives to attract talent to the region. Closing
            the gap with the rest of the European Union in educational
            attainment levels and improving education quality might
            significantly soften the constraints imposed by the
            demographic threats and produce sizable returns in terms of
            additional income convergence.
Climate change, agriculture and food
            security in Tanzania
The consequences of climate change for
            agriculture and food security in developing countries are of
            serious concern. Due to their reliance on rain-fed
            agriculture, both as a source of income and consumption,
            many low-income countries are considered to be the most
            vulnerable to climate change. This paper estimates the
            impact of climate change on food security in Tanzania.
            Representative climate projections are used in calibrated
            crop models to predict crop yield changes for 110 districts
            in the country. The results are in turn imposed on a
            highly-disaggregated, recursive dynamic economy-wide model
            of Tanzania. The authors find that, relative to a
            no-climate-change baseline and considering domestic
            agricultural production as the principal channel of impact,
            food security in Tanzania appears likely to deteriorate as a
            consequence of climate change. The analysis points to a high
            degree of diversity of outcomes (including some favorable
            outcomes) across climate scenarios, sectors, and regions.
            Noteworthy differences in impacts across households are also
            present both by region and by income category.
Effectiveness of interventions aimed
            at improving women's employability and quality of work
            : a critical review
This paper examines the effectiveness of
            a variety of policy interventions that have been tried in
            developing and transition economies with the goal of
            improving women's employability and quality of work.
            The programs include active labor market programs, education
            and training programs, programs that facilitate work (such
            as childcare subsidies, parental leave programs and land
            titling programs), microfinance programs, entrepreneurship
            and leadership programs, and conditional cash transfer
            programs. Some of these policy interventions were undertaken
            to increase employment, some to increase female employment,
            and some for other reasons. All of these programs have been
            subjected to impact evaluations of different kinds and some
            also to rigorous cost-benefit analyses. Many were found to
            be effective in increasing women's quantity of work as
            measured by increased rates of labor market participation
            and number of hours worked. In some cases, the programs also
            increased women's quality of work, for example, by
            increasing the capacity for women to work in the formal
            rather than the informal sector where wages are higher and
            where women are more likely to have access to health,
            retirement, and other benefits.
Bank ownership and lending patterns
            during the 2008-2009 financial crisis : evidence from Latin
            America and Eastern Europe
This paper examines the impact of bank
            ownership on credit growth in developing countries before
            and during the 2008-2009 crisis. Using bank-level data for
            countries in Eastern Europe and Latin America, it analyzes
            the growth of banks' total gross loans as well as the
            growth of corporate, consumer, and residential mortgage
            loans. Although domestic private banks in Eastern Europe and
            Latin America contracted their loan growth rates during the
            crisis, there are differences in foreign and
            government-owned bank credit growth across regions. In
            Eastern Europe, foreign bank total lending fell by more than
            domestic private bank credit. These results are primarily
            driven by reductions in corporate loans. Furthermore,
            government-owned banks in Eastern Europe did not act
            counter-cyclically. The opposite was true in Latin America,
            where the growth of government-owned banks' corporate
            and consumer loans during the crisis exceeded that of
            domestic and foreign banks. Contrary to the case of foreign
            banks in Eastern Europe, those in Latin America did not fuel
            loan growth prior to the crisis and did not contract lending
            at a faster pace than domestic banks during the crisis.
Bancassurance -- a valuable tool for
            developing insurance in emerging markets
Bancassurance is the process of using a
            bank's customer relationships to sell life and non-life
            insurance products. In some developed countries it has had a
            dramatic impact on developing sales volumes, attaining
            market shares in excess of 50 percent in life and more than
            10 percent in non-life. By contrast, in other developed
            countries it has had much lower impact. Its strategic
            benefits to developing countries are wide ranging. This
            paper discusses the potential of Bancassurance to contribute
            to the growth and the stability that both life and non-life
            insurance products can bring to developing countries. The
            details of how some approaches work better than others, and
            how regulation and consumer protection issues can impact
            such development, are reviewed here, together with a
            discussion of regulatory policy issues and recommendations
            for best practice. The paper provides a detailed study of
            the operation of Bancassurance in a major developed market
            (France). This is contrasted with a further study in a
            developing market (Mexico). A short summary draws together
            the key implications for developing countries.
Antidumping and market competition:
            implications for emerging economies
While the original justification of the
            antidumping laws in the industrial economies was to protect
            domestic consumers against predation by foreign suppliers,
            by the early 1990s the laws and their use had evolved so
            much that the opposite concern arose. Rather than attacking
            anti-competitive behavior, dumping complaints by domestic
            firms were being used to facilitate collusion among
            suppliers and enforce cartel arrangements. This paper
            examines the predation and anti-competitiveness issues from
            the perspective of the "new users" of antidumping
            -- the major emerging economies for which antidumping is now
            a major tool in the trade policy arsenal. The paper examines
            these concerns in light of important ways in which the world
            economy and international trading system have been changing
            since the early 1990s, including more firms and more
            countries participating in international trade, but also
            more extensive links among suppliers and consumers through
            multinational firm activity and vertical specialization.