rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
value of preschool education and guide them through the enrollment of their children at CPS. An additional component was to provide information about returns to education. Such information has been shown to effectively increase attendance and change the social composition of students in other lower-income contexts (Nguyen, 2008; Jensen, 2010). The local village head and the field staff responsible for the study’s data collection performed the D2D activities.

At baseline, caregivers were informed about the new preschools and key details, such as that a preschool has been constructed and that there was no school fee. In addition, caregivers received a printed leaflet that had more information about the newly established CPS (see Figure A2). It noted that the teacher had been trained and it suggested how preschool in general could help children improve primary school readiness and, potentially, their overall educational attainment. The leaflet also provided information about average incomes in Cambodia by educational background, visualized in a graph using data from the Cambodian Socioeconomic Survey 2009. Caregivers received another informational leaflet about one year later, at midline.<sup>10</sup> Importantly, since survey field staff were responsible for the leaflet distribution (after the baseline and midline survey), we can ascertain that all eligible respondents received at least the information contained in the leaflet.

The home-based program (HBP) formerly operated in Cambodia as an independent early childhood education service to support parents of children aged zero to five years. However, it was redesigned as supplementary to CPS, aiming to enhance the effect of CPS enrollment. The program was implemented by local “core mothers” who received initial and ongoing training from MoEYS. The 35 day long training covered a wide range of subjects such as child rights, pre- and postnatal care of mothers, hygiene, nutrition, disease prevention, developmentally appropriate activities for children, school readiness, disabilities, health services, and child protection. Similarly to CPS teachers, core mothers participated in a written examination before and after the training. They were responsible for promoting enrollment of children aged three to five years into CPS and for leading monthly informational meetings with parents of children aged zero to six. Core mothers were volunteers who only received stipends while in training. The HBP was supposed to take place regularly; it was designed as a more intensive demand-side intervention than the D2D as well as a light supply-side intervention, complementary to CPS.

> 10The content of the leaflets was developed in cooperation with MoEYS. After baseline, we received feedback from village heads that the leaflet contained too much information (see Figure A2). Therefore, the midline leaflet was simplified to focus only on the advent of a new CPS (see Figure A3).

10
33 Morisset J., "L'affectation du financement externe dans un pays en voie de developpement: un modele de portefeuille", Revue d'Economie Politigue, juillet 1989 Morisset J.," Is Financial Liberalization in LDCs really beneficial to private Investment?", working pager, University of Geneva, january 1990 Mosley P.,Hudson J. and Horell S., "Aid, the Public Sector and the Market in Less Developed Countries", Economic Journal, september 1987 Purvis D., "Dynamic Models of Portfolio Behavior : more Pitfalls in Financial Model Building", American Economic Review, 1978 Sachs J. "The Debt Overhang of Developing Countries, in Debt. Stabilization and Development, Oxford: Basil Blackwell,1989 Schmidt-Hebbel, "Foreign Debt, Macroeconomic Adjustment and Growth : Brazil, 1970-88, working paper World Bank, 1989 Serven L. & L. Solimano, "Private Investment and Macroeconomic Adjustment in LDCs: Theory, Country Experiences and Policy Implications", Country Economic Department Raper, World Bank, august 1990 Shapiro M., "Investment, Output, and the Cost of Capital", Brookings PaRers on Economic Activity, 1, 1986 Sundararajan V., "Debt-Equity Ratio of Firms and the Effectiveness of Interest Rate Policy : Analysis with a Dynamic Model of Savings, Investment, and Growth in Korea", IMF Staff RaRers, june 1987 Stiglitz J., "Money, Credit and Business Fluctuations", Economic Record, december 1988 Tobin, Money and Economic Growth", Econometrica, 33, october 1965 van Wijnbergen S., "Credit Policy, Inflation and Growth in a Financially Repressed Economy", Journal of Development Economics, vol.13, august 1983. van Wijnbergen S. "Mexico's External Debt Restructuring in 1989-90", the World Bank. WPS 424, 1990.

von Furstenberg G., "The Uncertain Effects of Inflatianory Finance on Growth in Developing Countries", Public Finance, 1983
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27
# 6. Empirical Evidence

This section presents evidence to assess the empirical plausibility of our interpretation of the recent Asian currency crisis. Specifically, we offer evidence in support of two key assumptions **iin** our model: (i) large losses in the banking sector were associated with increases in governments' prospective deficits, and (ii) the public knew that banks were in trouble before the exchange rate crises.

## _Some Background Information_

Figure 4 plots exchange rates of various Asian countries from July 1995 through May 1998. To provide a frame of reference, vertical lines are drawn at what we refer to as the crisis dates. These correspond to the first instance in which there were historically large devaluations or depreciations of the currency in question. Table 4 presents the cumulative depreciation rates of various Asian currencies from the crisis dates to May 1998. It is evident that the experience of the crisis countries was very different from that of the non-crisis countries (Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan).

Table 4: Cumulative Depreciation Rates (May 1998)

|IDN|MYS THA|KOR|<br>PH|L<br>HKG|SGP|TWN|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|77%*|35%* 36%*|34%*|* 32%|* 0%*|12%***|13%**|
|* from|July 97 ** from|Oct.|97 ***|from Aug|97||

As further background, Table 5 presents the annual growth rate of real GDP, the official CPI inflation rates and the fiscal surpluses for the Asian countries, Japan and the U.S, over the period 1995-1997. Note that there are no dramatic differences between the crisis and non-crisis countries. The crises certainly could not have been predicted on the basis of large and/or growing pre .crisis fiscal 30
# **1 Introduction**

China has made significant strides in innovation since it acceded to the WTO and opened its markets to international flows of trade, investment, people, and ideas. International integration catalyzed a period of rapid growth, with foreign firms playing a key role in facilitating the diffusion of advanced technologies and enhancing China’s innovation capacities (L. G. Branstetter et al. 2023; Fang et al. 2020; Jiang et al. 2024 and Wei et al. 2017). The share of patents filed by Chinese assignees in the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) increased from 0.2% in 2000 to 7.2% in 2022.<sup>1</sup> This remarkable growth in patent activity, driven by both technology transfers and learning by doing through supply chain relocation, demonstrates the importance of global integration and international collaboration for China’s innovation ecosystem.

Technology has, however, become a source of tension between the U.S. and China – raising the prospect of technological decoupling. The U.S. Department of Commerce has increasingly utilized its Entity List to regulate the technology transfer and exports of goods containing U.S. components to Chinese entities. The Entity List subjects selected foreign entities to licensing requirements for the export, reexport, and/or transfer of certain technologies and goods. For example, the inclusion of Huawei in the Entity List in 2019 prohibited Google from providing its services to Huawei. This restriction directly impacted Huawei’s smartphone business and led to the company developing its own operating system (Reuters 2019). The number of Chinese firms on this list has increased dramatically from 3 in 1997 to 345 in 2022, with a significant increase in 2018. Despite the extensive discussion of these U.S. sanctions in the media, there is little research exploring their effects on Chinese firms’ innovation.

This paper examines how inclusion in the U.S. Entity List affects the innovation activities of Chinese firms. Data from PATSTAT, a patent database, is used to measure firms’ innovation output and its quality by examining patent applications and citations. The key finding is that inclusion on the Entity List reduces the quantity and quality of a firm’s patent output.

> 1Based on data from WIPO IP Statistics Data Center.

1
Table 3 shows results from the IPW estimations of the correlations between the ECT and objective economic security outcomes.<sup>11</sup> The results show that in the short-term and medium-term, receiving the ECT is positively correlated to employment outcomes both at the extensive and intensive margin. At the extensive margin, there is no significant short-term correlation for ECT-R1 beneficiaries, but a significant medium-term positive coefficient of 13% is visible for ECT-R1 beneficiaries and of 18% for ECT-R2 beneficiaries. The pooled specification (Round 1 and 2 beneficiaries) which includes a larger set of observations also shows a significant positive correlation (12%) between receiving the ECT and the probability of working in the week preceding the survey. At the intensive margin, the ECT had a significant positive relationship for ECT-R1 beneficiaries with approximately 6 hours of additional weekly working hours in the short-term and 9 hours in the medium-term. For R2 beneficiaries, the relationship is also significant with 15 additional working hours. The pooled specification shows a significant coefficient of 10 hours, showing that all ECT beneficiaries worked more hours than their non- beneficiary counterparts.

The results in Table 3 also show that ECT-R1 beneficiaries had a significantly higher likelihood of being in a household in which income increased or remained stable and a lower chance of being in a household in which income decreased or stopped in the short-term. In the medium-term, no significant relationship is found for the main income and the reverse relationship is visible for ECT-R1 and ECT-R2 beneficiaries for other sources of income. These results suggest that the ECT allowed households to maintain a stable income at the onset of the pandemic with a visible effect for Round 1 beneficiaries, but that this effect did not last. In the medium-term, although there is a larger potential effect on labor market participation,

> 11 Full table available upon request.

19
treatment, and 31% to community greening. 79% of the respondents thought the dialogue topics were on extremely urgent issues they were facing.

35% of the respondents were from Chongqing, 23% from Tianjin, 26% from Chifeng, and 15 from Shenyang. 51% of the respondents were male and 49% were female. About 60% of the participants were 40 years old and older; 11.5% were younger than 30. More than 60% of the respondents received education higher than high school. The monthly income of the respondents was mostly between 500-3000 yuan.

# **5.3. Dialogue Design and Implementation**

Most participants thought the roundtable dialogues were well prepared in the aspects of pre-announcement, provision of background materials, location choice, representative selection, selection of moderators, and definition of rights and responsibilities. Less than 10% rated the preparation work as poor. Most participants regarded the community public announcement board as the best channel to pre-announce the dialogue meetings. There is no convergence with regard to the best way to select resident representatives. The favorite way is self-nomination plus striking a balance between districts or sectors.

All meetings were completed within 3 hours, with 24% less than one hour. More than 60% of the respondents thought the time allocation between different activities during the dialogue was reasonable. Most people (more than 80%) thought that representatives of each stakeholder should be less than ten. 42% thought the best choice of dialogue moderators were community leaders; 26% thought it should be independent NGO people.

About 80% thought the dialogue meetings had given the representatives enough time to discuss about the issues in concern. 19% of the respondents did not say anything in the meetings that they participated.

# **5.4. Impacts**

The survey statistics show that more than 80% of government officers who participated in the meetings felt that after the dialogue process they had better understandings in the issues involved, including enterprises’ measures on the issues, residents’ attitudes and impacts of pollution. About 80% of those government officers felt that the trust between the government and the residents/enterprises had increased. More than 85% of them felt that the 16
# **Table 5 (continued)**

||Ur<br>|ban<br>|Ru<br>|ral<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||1989|2004|1989|2004|
|Participation in off-farm activities|||||
|Home vegetable and/or fruit gardening|||0.081*<br>(1.87)|0.074<br>(1.57)|
|Livestock or poultry|||-0.198***<br>(-4.70)|-0.023<br>(-0.51)|
|Fishing|||0.299***<br>(3.61)|0.067<br>(0.51)|
|Small handicraft or commercial business|||0.428***<br>(10.08)|0.433***<br>(9.92)|
|Province fixed effect (Ref.:_Guizhou_)|||||
|_Liaoning_|0.273***|0.173*|-0.222***|-0.007|
||(5.13)|(1.74)|(-3.25)|(-0.10)|
|_Jiangsu_|0.297***|0.373***|0.501***|0.741***|
||(5.68)|(3.78)|(7.52)|(10.53)|
|_Shandong_|-0.002|0.279***|0.083|0.195***|
||(-0.04)|(2.85)|(1.22)|(2.68)|
|_Henan_|0.033|0.174*|0.145**|-0.184***|
||(0.63)|(1.84)|(2.27)|(-2.57)|
|_Hubei_|-0.003|-0.025|0.072|-0.059|
||(-0.06)|(-0.26)|(1.13)|(-0.85)|
|_Hunan_|0.195***|0.160*|0.152**|-0.075|
||(3.71)|(1.64)|(2.40)|(-1.04)|
|_Guangxi_|0.099*<br>(1.88)|-0.091<br>(-0.95)|0.205***<br>(3.24)|-0.149**<br>(-2.08)|
|Constant|6.370***<br>(59.23)|5.350***<br>(29.30)|5.845***<br>(44.41)|5.849***<br>(39.86)|
|2<br>_R_|0.199|0.354|0.227|0.309|
|Numberofobservations|1272|1250|2491|2493|

Note: The t-students are presented in parentheses. *** indicates coefficient significant at 1% level; ** indicates coefficient significant at 5% level; * indicates coefficient significant at 10% level.

We start by looking at the role of household demographic characteristics. The proportion of male adults has a significant impact on rural household income, as expected, but not for urban household income. This suggests that, in rural areas, as agriculture in China is still dominated by traditional mode of production, household income depends largely on male workers’ input; in urban areas, remuneration is not significantly different between men and women. The results also show that age of adults, which can be considered as a measure of experience, has positive impacts on household income.

One key finding of our estimations is that education plays an increasingly important role in household income determination for both urban and rural areas. Income gaps have increased between households with better human capital endowment and those with less. This is consistent with the results on distribution and trends of changes in income and non-income dimensions in the previous section and corroborates the findings of many researches that returns to education increased significantly as the reforms deepened in China (Wan, 2004). Knight and Song (1999) argue that in China, the place of a person’s birth is one of the most important determinants of that 16
The second piece of information is the effect of infrastructure expenditure on improvements in the infrastructure indices in Egypt. These parameters are obtained from the analysis on electricity and transportation/telecommunication improvements; specifically, we use the estimated coefficients reported in Tables 6 and 7, Col. 3. The third piece of information is the projected new level of infrastructure expenditure. In recent years, total infrastructure expenditures in Egypt are about 5% of GDP, allocated around 1.3% to electricity and 3.7% to transportation and telecommunication. For projected expenditures, we consider three scenarios. In the first, we allow total infrastructure expenditures to increase from 5% to 6% of GDP permanently. In the second one, the increase is substantially larger, from 5% to 8% of GDP permanently. In the third scenario, we consider a large initial increase that gradually diminishes over time. Specifically, infrastructure expenditures rise from 5% to 7% of GDP for the first twenty years, then decline to 6.5% of GDP for the following 20 years, and thereafter converge to 6% of GDP forever. In all cases, the increase is allocated proportionally to expenditures for electricity and transportation/telecommunication.

**Figure 8: Projected Growth Improvement from Higher Infrastructure Investment**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Growth Improvement<br>with respect to current infrastructure spending of 5%GDP<br>4.00<br>3.50<br>3.00<br>2.50<br>% 2.00<br>1.50<br>1.00<br>0.50<br>0.00<br>0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50<br>Five-year periods<br>Scenario 1: 6% GDP Scenario 2: 8% GDP Scenario 3: 7/6.5/6% GDP<br><!-- End of picture text --> 44
from the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation Station (CHIRPS) in association with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center. Several other satellite-based rainfall products lack geographical and temporal coverage. The CHIRPS data, however, has a relatively high spatial and temporal coverage and quasi-global coverage. We extract the 15-year monthly average precipitation for Afghanistan from September 2006 to September 2020.

_Vegetation Index (NDVI):_ The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data is obtained from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor aboard the NASA Earth Orbiting System Terra satellites. MODIS provides an NDVI estimate every eight days at an approximately 250-meter ground surface (pixel) resolution.<sup>12</sup> NDVI values range between -1 and 1. For this paper, we retrieved the average monthly NDVI between September 2006 to September 2020. NDVI relies on the light reflected by plants, in particular the different ways that near-infrared light and visible red light are absorbed and reflected (Huete et al., 2002; Fensholt and Sandholt, 2005), and is used as a tool to measure a wide variety of vegetation related metrics: land cover, crop type, and cover, famine, and drought warning, and indicators of biodiversity (see Morikawa (2014) for details). Higher NDVI values are associated with greener, healthier vegetation, while lower values are indicative of drier vegetation and bare soils (Hulley et al., 2019).

_Temperature (LST):_ The Land Surface Temperature (LST) was extracted from the NASA MODIS Terra satellite data. Temperatures are measured in Kelvin (which we converted to Celsius) at a 1-kilometer spatial resolution. We extract the 15-year monthly average temperature between September 2006 and September 2020.

# **3.3 Mapping Household Data with Remote Sensing Data**

We create a 2-km buffer around each household location to extract data for weather indicators around the buffer area. For the weather indicators, we combine descriptive statistics (mean, minimum, maximum, standard deviation) for every month between September 2006 and September 2020 in one image from the data sources described above. Then, these descriptive statistics were extracted into a single month-year image for each household location (and its buffer). Since a cluster is the smallest administrative unit (from which 10 households were sampled in the IE-LFS 2019-20), each household within a cluster is expected to experience similar weather conditions. Thus, weather data is extracted at the cluster-level. For each cluster, weather data (averaged for the month) is

> 12A higher resolution can be obtained through the use of Landsat data, although this product is more raw, and the researcher needs to calculate the relevant vegetation indexes manually.

8
34 Figure 9: Households living in electrified neighborhoods that have household connection <!-- Start of picture text --> 100<br>Bottom quintile Quintile 2<br>90<br>Quintile 3 Quintile 4<br>80<br>Top quintile<br>70<br>60<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>Urban Rural National Urban Rural National Urban Rural National<br>40% 13% 26% 49% 19% 39% 92% 80% 87%<br>Malawi Niger Nigeria<br>Source : World Bank staff calculations using household survey data.<br>Figure 10: Households without grid connection living in electrified neighborhoods<br>100<br>Bottom quintile Quintile 2 Quintile 3<br>90<br>Quintile 4 Top quintile<br>80<br>70<br>60<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>Urban Rural National Urban Rural National Urban Rural National<br>85% 19% 27% 94% 8% 17% 62% 17% 22%<br>Malawi Niger Nigeria<br>% of households in community<br>% of households without connection<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : World Bank staff calculations using household survey data.

Figure 10: Households without grid connection living in electrified neighborhoods _Source_ : World Bank staff calculations using household survey data.

For households living in communities connected to the grid, in Malawi and Nigeria the survey asked households without grid electricity why they had not connected (Table 13). The reasons were specified in the questionnaire and households selected from a range of options. Not surprisingly, unaffordability of the connection charge was the most common reason. In Malawi, the payment for the initial connection to the grid is large, costing about US$160 even when no grid extension is required and about US$450 if one‐pole extension is required. The second most common reason in urban Nigeria was poor reliability of grid electricity; all but one of those respondents who cited poor reliability had a private generator.