Japan and 1.5% for Indonesia. The percentage varies between 0.1% and 3.9% if the imports come from a high-income economy.

Russia and Ukraine lead, together with Vietnam, the list of emerging economies whose exports are subjected to a TTB. Table 13 presents the percentage of export values affected by foreign-imposed TTBs. In the case of Russia, 5.8% of exports oriented to the countries of the sample received a TTB in 2011. This includes 7.9% of exports to G20 high-income countries, 1.8% of exports to G20 emerging countries, and 0.7% of exports to other economies. In the case of Ukraine, 5.7% of overall exports were affected by a TTB. As was observed for Russia, exports to G20 high-income countries were the most affected (7.9%), followed by those to G20 emerging economies (1.8%), and those to other countries (0.7%). Kazakhstan presents a lower percentage of exports subjected to foreign-imposed TTBs (1.7%), but it registers a higher fraction of exports to non-G20 countries affected by this type of policy barrier, 36.9%. Almost all exports to the G20 emerging economies are not subjected to TTBs.

For Kazakhstan, Ukraine, and Russia, a lower percentage of overall exports were affected by TTBs in 2011 than in 2001. The difference is significant in Ukraine: 7.1 percentage points for total exports and 17 percentage points for exports to G20 emerging countries. The case of Kazakhstan is different because a larger share of exports to non-G20 countries is exposed to TTBs. In 2001, only 11.4% of the exports to those destinations were subjected to at least one TTB, while that percentage jumped to 36.9% by 2011.

Table 13. Economies with Significant Exports Subjected to Foreign-Imposed TTBs: 2001 vs. 2011

|Country|All<br>TTB-affe|G20 high-<br>income<br>cted share of|G20<br>emerging<br>exports in 201|Other*<br>1 to...|All<br>TTB-affe|G20 high-<br>income<br>cted share of|G20<br>emerging<br>exports in 200|Other*<br>1 to...|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Vietnam|6.2|8.1|1.3|<0.1|0.2|0.2|0.4|<0.1|
|Russia|5.8|6.3|5.5|1.4|7|7.6|6.2|1.6|
|Ukraine|5.7|7.9|1.8|0.7|12.8|12.2|18.8|1.3|
|China|4.9|4.7|10.8†|1|3.2|3.4|4.2|0.2|
|India|2.5|2.8|2.5|0.5|4.4|5.1|1.8|<0.1|
|Thailand|2.5|2.7|3|0.5|3.2|3.9|1.4|0.1|
|Pakistan|2.4|1.6|5.3|1.3|7.8|9.1|0.4|<0.1|
|Mexico|2.1|2.3|0.5|<0.1|1.1|1.1|2.1|0.4|
|Kazakhstan|1.7|2.8|0.2|36.9|4.1|5|2.4|11.4|
|Indonesia|1.7|1.2|3.4|1.1|3.7|4.6|1.5|0.4|
|Brazil|1.1|1.5|0.7|<0.1|2.1|1.9|3.4|0.4|
|Malaysia|0.9|0.9|1.2|0.3|1.2|1.5|0.2|<0.1|
|South Africa|0.4|0.3|0.4|1|1|1.1|0.8|<0.1|
|Argentina|0.4|0.4|0.2|0.8|3.5|2.2|2.7|10.4|
|Turkey|0.1|0.1|<0.1|0.3|1.1|1|2.4|0.8|
|Other emergingec.|0.2|0.2|0.4|0.1|0.7|0.6|1.9|0.3|

Notes: shares of nonoil exports. *"Other" policy-imposing economies include Pakistan, Peru, Thailand, Colombia, Malaysia, Philippines, Chile, New Zealand, Israel, and Taiwan, China. All includes the same list of countries as in Table 6.

Source: Bown (2012).

Data on antidumping investigations show that EAP countries have not opened antidumping investigations against Eurasian economies. But this is not the case with the EU, as most of the countries of the region have been exposed to antidumping investigations. Russia is the country with the highest number of investigations opened by the EU, 32, followed by Ukraine, 21, and Belarus, 9. In the case of Russia, 84.3% of the cases were associated to a final affirmative dumping decision, while for Ukraine it was 76.2%. For the rest of the economies, the rate of affirmative cases varied between 0% for Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Georgia, and 100% for Moldova and Kyrgyzstan. Safeguards in the EU are related to products such as steel, mandarins, salmon, strawberries, and wireless wide area 16