Elsewhere, examining two similar unconditional cash transfer programs in Malawi and Zambia targeting labor-constrained households (i.e. households with high dependency ratios), de Hoop et al. (2017) find that such households substitute away from being wage laborers for others and start spending more time in own-agricultural work in both countries. In Zambia, overall economic activity increases, along with participation in non-agricultural household businesses, while these changes are not observed in Malawi.<sup>5</sup> Evaluating the effects of a two-year child grant program in Zambia (targeted to households with children under the age of three), Prifti et al. (2017) find similar switches from off-farm paid work to own-farm labor, along with increases in hired agricultural labor among beneficiary households. Using the same RCT, Handa et al. (2018) find increases in the _likelihood of operating a non-farm enterprise and revenues from those enterprises_ for the Child Grant Program (CGP), but not the multiple category targeted program (MCP) for labor-constrained households.<sup>6</sup> While Child Support Grants target families with children, old age pension programs target the elderly. These schemes affect not only the labor supply of the elderly beneficiaries themselves, but also of the prime-aged adults and children, who are related to pensioners or would-be pensioners. Below, we summarize the findings from South Africa’s old age pension scheme (OAP), which is perhaps as well-known and -studied as Mexico’s PROGRESA.

Bertrand, Mullainathan, and Miller (2003) find sharp decreases in the labor supply of prime-aged individuals living with elderly (household members, aged 16-50) around the time they become eligible for pensions, especially when the pensioner is female.<sup>7</sup> The effects are both on employment status (extensive margin) and on hours worked (intensive margin), larger for older

> Dehzooei (2017) find no effects (of the combined reform of cash transfers and price increases) on _weekly hours worked_ .

> 5 Interestingly, in both countries, children’s engagement in economic activity (including agricultural work for the household, herding livestock, and household chores) and their exposure to hazardous work increase among beneficiary households, without negative effects on school attendance, presumably due to the increased own-agricultural and nonfarm enterprise activity. This finding implies that leisure time must decrease for children under these UCT programs and contrasts with findings from CCT programs that consistently find decreases in child labor and increases in school attendance.

> 6 Ralston et al. (2017) conduct a meta-analysis of 27 safety net programs in Africa (including the Malawi and Zambia programs discussed here), of which 20 reported some outcomes on productive assets. They find that only six report significant earnings or productivity increases, calling “...into question the ability for all safety net programs to obtain the desired productive impacts they may hope for.” They find no significant effects on employment or business ownership, but positive effects on earnings – the latter two showing a high degree of heterogeneity in impacts.

> 7 The finding on female pensioners is consistent with Ambler (2016), who finds that women experience much larger gains in income than men after becoming eligible for pensions in South Africa, because eligibility does not increase incomes for males, who withdraw from the labor force.

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