university after the reform, this did not translate into an increase in university completion, largely due to the insufficient higher education places (Malamud and Pop-Eleches, 2011).

- Abolishing tracking yields mixed results. Kerr, Pekkarinen, and Uusitalo (2013) evaluated the effects of the school system on mathematical, verbal, and logical reasoning skills using data from the Finnish comprehensive school reform that abolished the two-track school system in the 1970s with newly obtained cognitive test score data. On average, they found that the reform had a small positive effect on the average verbal test scores and no significant positive or negative effect on the average arithmetic or logical reasoning test scores.

What is clear among the countries that have vocational upper secondary education is that workbased learning (WBL) design is a more effective approach in linking students with the labor market (European Commission 2013, 2015; Kis 2016; OECD 2014; World Bank 2018). WBL is defined as learning that takes place through some combination of observing, undertaking, and reflecting on productive work in real workplaces (Kis 2016). When implemented effectively, the technical skills acquired through WBL are better aligned with actual labor market skill demand than the skills that are acquired through other learning methods, such as classroom teaching or workplace simulations. In addition, it is believed that WBL helps equip students with essential nontechnical skills, such as the ability to work in teams, problem-solving, and communication skills, to an extent that is not achieved through other learning approaches. WBL can only take place when there is a strong partnership between employers and vocational education providers, and whether or not employers are motivated to engage in such a partnership depends on the extent to which they consider overall vocational education and training provision can meet skill demand. Consequently, only programs that meet employer needs will be able to identify WBL placements for their students.

There has been increasing focus on the trade-off between immediate employment gains of vocational-oriented education and general skills required for lifelong learning. Hanushek et al. (2017) argue that skills generated by technical-oriented training may facilitate the transition into the labor market but may become obsolete at a faster rate and that initial labor market advantage of vocational relative to general education decreases with age. The study pooled individuals from the 11 countries with sizeable vocational education systems and found that individuals with general education initially face worse employment outcomes but experience improved employment probability as they become older relative to individuals with vocational education. The pattern is most pronounced in the apprenticeship countries of Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland. In these countries, the easier entry into the labor market is balanced by noticeably greater withdrawal at older ages. Using Austrian social security data, the study showed that after a plant closure, the relative employment rates of displaced blue-collar workers (with more vocational training) are above those of white-collar workers at younger ages but below them at ages above 50.

Such a trade-off is likely to become more pronounced in light of technical advancement and automation. Kattan, Macdonald, and Patrinos (2018) show that while automation puts jobs at risk in general, upper-middle-income countries are at the highest risk. This risk can be mitigated through a boost in cognitive and socioemotional skills such as openness to experience. It might be difficult to acquire these skills only through technical and job-specific training, but high-quality education that focuses on general skills can help acquire the skills.

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