are key determinants of female labor force participation. Other determinants include households’ characteristics such as household’s size, number of children, husband’s characteristics, and parents’ characteristics. Moreover, the characteristics of the community where women live play a significant role in their decision to participate in the labor market. Such characteristics include the unemployment rate and educational attainment levels (Assaad et al, 2014; Mehrotra and Parita, 2017; Nazier and Ramadan, 2017; Assaad et al, 2018; Klasen et al, 2019).

At the macro level, economic and social factors affect female labor force participation (Osundina, 2019). A country’s GDP growth, fertility and population growth, unemployment rate, education level, trade openness, and financial inclusion drive FLFP. Other drivers include traditions, norms, and values that shape gender roles and formal institutions, such as laws and regulations that promote more equal gender roles and redistribute child responsibilities between fathers and mothers (Rodgers and Zveglich, 2012; Elborgh-Woytek et al, 2013; IMF, 2013; Bursztyn et al, 2018; Efobi et al, 2018; Kooli and Al Muftah, 2020; Kleven et al, 2019; Assaad et al, 2020; Nazier and Ramadan, 2020; Patricia and Cortés, 2020).

Furthermore, the gender digital divide is tied to women’s inability to participate in economic activities (Antonio and Tuffley, 2014; Viollaz and Winkler, 2020). In four Mediterranean countries (Algeria, Morocco, France, and Spain), Kerras et al. (2020) found that the digital gender divide has a negative significant impact not only on the fifth UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG5) related to gender equality, but also on SDG2, SDG3, SDG4, SDG8, SDG9 and SDG10. Access to and use of the internet have a positive impact on labor market outcomes in general, and especially for women, by driving economic opportunities and facilitating access to knowledge and information. Access to affordable and relevant digital devices and information provides more flexible work arrangement and saves workers time and money (Dettling, 2013; Antonio and Tuffley, 2014; Ben Moussa and Seraphim, 2017; Valberg, 2020; Viollaz and Winkler, 2020; The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2021b). Such flexible arrangements may be more needed in developing countries, such as those in the MENA region, where women are the main caregivers (Chen, 2004; Antonio and Tuffley, 2014; World Bank, 2016).

In spite of a range of evidence suggesting the impact of digital divide on gender equality and women’s economic empowerment in developing countries, empirical literature on the question is scarce, particularly in the MENA region. A study in rural areas of South Africa showed that full coverage by a mobile phone network leads to a 15-percentage point increase in employment and that women accounted for most of the change, although most of the women entering the workforce were without significant childcare obligations (Kloner and Nolen, 2010). A study of the implications of ICT diffusion in the United Arab Emirates on women’s empowerment showed it promoted access to education and job market opportunities and other resources (Ben Moussa and Seraphim, 2017). Similarly, a study using the Jordanian Labor Market Panel Survey found that female labor force participation increases with internet adoption, mainly among older skilled women, a result researchers attributed to their access to online job search (Viollaz and Winkler, 2020).

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