rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
WPS3949

# **Universities as Drivers of the Urban Economies in Asia: The Case of Vietnam**

## **Tran Ngoc Ca**<sup>**1**</sup>

**National Institute for Science and Technology Policy and Strategy Studies**

### **Abstract**

This study looks at the contribution of the university system in Vietnam to the socioeconomic development in general, and their relationship with firms, dynamic actors of the economy in particular. The study uses different methods of research, from reliance on secondary data to interviews with universities and survey of firms. Several case studies of the key universities in four regions have been undertaken: Hanoi in the north, Danang in the center, and Ho Chi Minh City and Cantho in the south of Vietnam. The findings show that the role of Vietnamese universities in research is much weaker than teaching, and that their contribution to the socioeconomic development of the country is limited to the production of an educated labor force rather than innovation. However, in selected universities, innovation did take place to a certain extent and brought benefits for both the universities and firms they served. This situation is explained by both the inheritance of the previous build up of the university system in Vietnam and its shift in behavior in the context of economic renovation and globalization.

### World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3949, June 2006

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._ 1 With collaboration of Le Van Chuong, Nguyen Phuong Mai, Nguyen Do Anh Tuan, NISTPASS. The authors also would like to thank staff of universities and firms for providing data and interviews. 1
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Table 3. Indicators of Crises: What Worked Best? (concluded)

|Study|"Preferred" Indicators|Comments|Other Issues|
|---|---|---|---|
|Otker and Pazarbasioglu<br>(1995)|(1) real exchange rate<br>(2) international reserves<br>(3) inflation differential with<br>the United States<br>(4) central bank credit to the<br>banking system<br>(5) fiscal deficit<br>(6) financial sector reform<br>interaction dummy|(1)-(5) explain the probability<br>of a devaluation; the<br>remaining variables were not<br>statistically significant. The<br>interaction of (1}-(5) with (6)<br>was significant suggesting a<br>structural change.|The role of (4) becomes more<br>important while the role of (5)<br>becomes less so in<br>forecasting the December<br>1994 crisis. The predictive<br>capacity of the model<br>forecasting crisis 6 months<br>ahead deteriorates<br>considerably.|
|Sachs, Tornell ,and Velasco<br>(1995)|(1) change in real exchange<br>rate<br>(2) change in credit to the<br>private sector/GDP<br>(3) M2/international reserves<br>(4) short-term capital<br>inflows/GDP<br>(5) government<br>consumption/GDP|(1)-(2) are used to define<br>whether the "fundamentals"<br>are weak or strong, and (3) is<br>used to define whether<br>reserves are low or high. The<br>simultaneous combination of<br>weak fundamentals and low<br>reserves made countries<br>vulnerable to contagion<br>effects following the Mexican<br>crisis. (4) and (5) also had an<br>effect, but only in the<br>presence of weak<br>fundamentals and low<br>reserves.|The remaining indicators<br>were statistically<br>insignificant. The exercise<br>was intended to assess the<br>factors that made countries<br>vulnerable following the<br>Mexican crisis. However, it<br>does not assess the indicator<br>properties of the variables in<br>predicting individual crises<br>within the 1986-95 sample<br>analyzed.|
|**Tuberculosis testing**|3<br>3<br>3<br>3|
|---|---|
|**Tuberculosis treatment**|3<br>3<br>3<br>2|

_Source: Living Life data_

# **3.4.3. Time and Cost**

All antenatal care appointments and visits are free of charge when done through the public health system in all economies. Pregnant women do not need to be accompanied by someone else to attend an antenatal appointment. The World Health Organization (2016) recommends a minimum of eight antenatal visits to reduce perinatal mortality and to improve women’s pregnancy experiences. Even though antenatal care is widely available and free of charge, UNICEF data indicates that 87% of pregnant women in Ghana, 74% of pregnant women in Vietnam, and only 45% of pregnant women in India received at least four antenatal care visits 2014 when the World Health Organization’s recommendation was for pregnant women to receive a minimum of four antenatal visits.<sup>20</sup> Having a skilled birth attendant at the time of birth is free of charge in Chile, Ghana, and India when pregnant women opt to deliver in public health institutions. In these three economies, it is not possible to have a skilled birth attendant at the pregnant woman’s home at the time of birth, as opposed to in Vietnam where skilled birth attendants are available for home births. No data was collected for Vietnam regarding the cost of having a skilled birth attendant at the time of birth.

DTP immunization is mandatory by law in all four economies through their national expanded immunization programs. The World Health Organization recommends 3 initial doses, followed by 3 booster doses that should be administered to children and adolescents with at least 4 years between each booster dose.<sup>21</sup> Although all surveyed economies provide the first three doses of DTP immunization for free during the first semester of life, only Chile and India provide subsequent booster doses of the vaccine free of cost.

The data on time from initial contact to onset of treatment was provided by a limited number of respondents. As a result, the evidence is not representative of the average citizen experience. The average time in practice reported by contributors to access to antenatal care treatment and to obtain DTP immunization is 2 days in 3 out of 4 pilot economies. The time to obtain a combined oral contraception in all four countries varies. Figure 3.5 shows the time it takes for a woman to access family planning services, to receive antenatal care, and to have access to DTP immunization for her children in all four economies.

# **Figure 3.5: Time to Receive Family Planning, Antenatal Care, and DTP Immunization Services in Public Health Facility (calendar days)**

> 20 UNICEF global databases, 2016, based on Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and other nationally representative sources. No data available for Chile in 2014. Available at: <u>https://data.unicef.org/topic/maternal-health/antenatal-care/.</u> 21 Summary of WHO Position Papers – Recommendation for Routine Immunization (Updated on March 2017). Available at http://www.who.int/immunization/policy/Immunization_routine_table1.pdf.

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improvement is significant for most of the indicators. One indicator that significantly moved to the opposite direction is stunting.

# _3.2.4 Concentration indexes and concentration curves_

In this section, we provide a more comprehensive analysis of wealth- related inequalities in MNCH. We present results from concentration indexes (Tables 5a & 5b). The Tables provide information on the survey-to-survey progression. Negative and positive values are due to the definition of the health outcome under consideration. We focus on the magnitudes in absolute terms. A smaller value in absolute terms indicates improvement in health equality. Results in each outcome show no differences in the standard errors across the survey years. This facilitates comparisons of wealth- related inequalities over time (Koolman and van Doorslaer, 2004).

24
provide some initial support for this line of reasoning. When it comes to imparting mindset changes and psychological skills to entrepreneurs, instructors with some personal exposure to entrepreneurship seem to be better equipped than others.

In addition, while the TVET college system boasts infrastructure to provide entrepreneurial trainings at scale and may be helpful for youth, unemployed and start-up entrepreneurs; growth-oriented women entrepreneurs, such as those targeted by the Women Entrepreneurship Development Project (WEDP)<sup>5</sup> are less likely to be attracted to participate. The take-up of training for the PI/BSED trainings in Addis Ababa was 41% and for the DOT training in Mekelle it was 52%. Although, this is a fairly typical take-up rate found for other entrepreneurship trainings in comparable contexts (McKenzie & Woodruff, 2014), all three training programs in Ethiopia attracted the smallest and lowest performing businesses among those to whom the training was offered. While these classroom-based trainings present an opportunity for women to selfreflect on their own patterns of behavior, meet other business-owners to discuss challenges, and offer advice and encouragement to one another on how best to overcome problems, they may be missing out on the women entrepreneurs who have the higher growth prospects.

The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 outlines details of the trainings and section 3 describes our main data source and empirical strategies. Section 4 presents the results, including: characteristics of women who take up the trainings; a discussion of the relationship between psychology and economic success; impact of both the PI/BSED and DOT studies; and an analysis of the relationship between the characteristics of the trainer and student psychological outcomes. Section 5 concludes.

are graduated youth, not more than 25 years old, with any BA degree education background. The selection process of trainers is competitive and passed through intensive assessment; document review, interview, practical assessment and ICT skill. DOT may be accessing some of the best and brightest young teachers and therefore may prove good role models to encourage active behavior.

> 5 Launched in 2012, WEDP is a World Bank project that aims to increase the earnings and employment of micro and small enterprises fully or partly owned by female entrepreneurs in six selected cities. Women interested in participating in WEDP and fulfilling the criteria for project beneficiaries (not full time in school and being growth oriented) receive a WEDP membership card that entitles them to access WEDP services. The WEDP targets a specific group: growth-oriented female entrepreneurs, defined as female entrepreneurs with the ambition and potential to expand their micro-enterprises, innovate, and generate paid employment.
ELL <!-- Start of picture text --> BP<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 9°S - 9°S-<br>a@<br>,Nj hy,ii<br>11°S- » 4 11°S- :<br>3<br>4 ‘ Py [-] Protected Area<br>y 8s<br>; Poverty<br>y a at (0.685,0.973]<br>13°S tr a mS dll BS (0.619,0.685]<br>a a 13°85 t a! be (0.554,0.619]<br>“~ y ; U (0.51,0.554]<br>i N ‘ye N (0.454,0.51]<br>. 5 43 ; 5 :<br>fy x =, . (0.399,0.454]<br>: : bd> ] ‘.P : 7 : (0.297,0.399](0.167,0.297](0.0822,0.167]<br>15°S- > 15°S- : [0,0.0822]<br>qe wv y Fw<br>17°S- 17°84<br>33.5°E 35.0°E 33.5°E 35.0°E<br><!-- End of picture text -->
_Page ii_ _PENSIONREFORMINLATINAMERIcA_

### PAGE **#**

## **III.** ISSUES IN PENSION REFORM

|SSUES IN PENSION REFORM<br>......................|**16**|
|---|---|
|A. OBJECTIVES<br>OF REFORM<br>............................|**16**|
|B. PRINCIPLES<br>OF REFORM<br>...........................|**16**|
|**C.**ISSUES FOR REFORM...........................|17|
|Voluntary or Mandatory||
|Employee Choice||
|Establishing a Sound Regulatory Framework||

Financing the Transition

# IV. CONCLUSIONS: **QUICK** FIXES **OR** SUSTAINABLE REFORM? **... 19**

### 3BLIOGRAPHY ..........

**_21_**

The paper benefited from valuable comments and suggestions from J.P. Singh, Robert Holzmann, Luis Guasch, Krishna Chala, Dnmiti Vittas, Henry Hsiang Jacques van der Gaag, Robert Hindle, Michael Moore, Fernando de Mergelinda, Baralides Alberdi and John Pollner. Jorge A. Serraino carefully and patiently prepared several drafts and the cover for this paper.
**Figure 5. Inward- and outward-oriented policies**

# **(a) Inward-oriented policies**

<!-- Start of picture text --> (b) Outward-oriented policies<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 2.9<br>3.0 3.0<br>2.5 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.5<br>2.0<br>2.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0<br>1.5 1.5<br>1.5 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.4<br>1.1 1.1<br>1.0 1.0 0.9<br>0.5 0.5<br>0.0 0.0<br>Slovak Republic OECD EU15RomaniaBulgaria MICsCzech Rep.Hungary Poland EU15Czech Rep. OECDRomania BulgariaSlovak Republic Hungary MICs Poland<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ see Figure 3. _Note_ : Other MICs are Brazil, Mexico, Turkey. Values refer to 2006 for Bulgaria and Romania, 2004 for Brazil, and 2003 for all other countries. For full data set see appendix I.

# **1. Outward-oriented policies**

Compliance with international commitments may more easily impose discipline on policymakers. Indeed, this probably explains why all country groups do better on average in their outward-oriented policies ratings than in the inward-oriented one. In the case of Bulgaria, observance and implementation of the rules for membership of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and, even more strongly, the European Union (EU) has led it to significantly reduce barriers to trade and investment since the start of transition. Bulgaria’s foreign trade policy has been driven most of all by the commitments of the EU Eastern Enlargement project, promoting bilateral trade liberalization initially with the EU and EFTA and, subsequently, with other preferential partners of the EU. The _Pan-European Agreement on the Cumulation of the Rules of Origin_ combined with the removal of tariffs on all industrial products and the harmonization of technical standards has led to Bulgaria’s participation in a _de facto_ free trade area for industrial products (World Bank, 2005).

As a testament to Bulgaria’s success in this respect, foreign direct investment net inflows increased from 6% of GDP in 2001 to 16.5% in 2006, while trade in goods and services expanded from 119% to 149% of GDP in the same period. FDI has gone to a variety of sectors, notably manufacturing, financial sector, trade, and transport, and has amply made up for the expanding external current account deficit, which is expected to exceed 13% of GDP in 2006. Looking forward, strong FDI inflows will be instrumental in ensuring continued macroeconomic stability and productivity growth. Therefore, continued improvements in the business environment remains critical.

13
22 -

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# Table 5. Av-rago Annual Percentage Growth **Rates** of Export Volum and GOP for Solected Country Groupings, 1980-88

(unweighted **averages)**

|Indicator/country<br>group|1960|1W6|1932|1983|1964|1986|1966|1987|19688|Percenta<br>1904-86/<br>1980-82|ge change<br>1986-87/<br>1981-83|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Merchandise exports||||||||||||
|e8Doveloping countries|6.4|2.4|2.6|0.1|6.6|5.2|8.7|6.0|<br>4.4|49.0*|19.2**|
|10 Intensive trade||||||||||||
|loan recipients|12.1|7.6|7.8|-4.9|11.5|8.6|9.2|7.5|3.5|-11.7*|94.2|
|26 Trade loan recipients|9.1|4.6|2.2|-2.9|7.3|8.6|8.3|7.6|<br>6.1|19.3**|380.600|
|40 Trade loan recipients|7.6|4.7|-0.4|-1.2|<br>6.6|5.0|6.8|5.7|4.1|56.3*0|464.6**|
|46 Nonrecipients|3.5|0.3|651|1.2|6.5|6.4|1.0|6.8|<br>4.6|44.9|92.4|
|Manufacturing<br>exportsb||||||||||||
|88 Developing<br>countries<br>10 Intensive trade<br>loan recipients|1e.4<br>26.8|9.<br>20.2|1.2<br>-3.8|11.2<br>16.6|<br>9.8<br>11.9|10.6<br>9.6|<br>7.2<br>10.2|5.S<br>13.7|10.7<br>17.2|-6.8*<br>-26.9|6.4**<br>4.6*|
|26 Trade loan recipionts|18.7|7.8|0.9|6.7|9.0|11.6|<br>6.0|12.7|12.2|-6.2*|92.60*|
|40 Trade loan recipients|26.6|6.6|0.6|10.3|<br>7.4|14.1|11.6|9.9|13.7|1.2**|104.9*|
|48 Nonrecipisnts|11.9|12.6|<br>1.7|12.1|11.8|<br>7.4|8.6|1.7|7.S|-13.4|-62.2|
|GDP||||||||||||
|88 Developing countries<br>10 Inteneive trade|38.|3.4|1.6|1.2|2.4|8.1|8.2|2.8|3.3|-0.90*|34.8**|
|loan recipients|0.2|2.4|1.1|0.2|2.1|2.7|3.3|4.2|<br>4.1|128.8**|188.7**|
|26 Trade loan recipients|3.4|2.2|0.7|0.6|2.7|8.3|4.2|3.7|3.8|60.2**|214.1**|
|40 Trade loan recipients|2.7|2.8|0.8|0.4|2.2|3.6|3.9|8.2|3.6|63.7*|198.2*|
|48 Nonrecipients|4.4|8.8|3.1|1.9|2.6|2.7|2.6|1.6|8.0|-29.2|-20.6|

- Differonces in means between the trado adjustmont loan recipients and nonrecipi-nts were significant at the 6-percent confidence intervol.

**cc Differences** in **means between the** trado adjustment loan recipients and nonreciplents **were** significant at the 1-percent confidence interval.

- a. Preliminary estimates.

- b. The definition of manufactures is froe **the** Foreign Trade Statistics, International Economics Department, World Bank; It includ-e line itoem of 546+.78-68 in SITC.

## Source: World Bank data.

export processing zones, **ar.d** bonded warehouses, to ensure that exporters receive special access to imported inputs at world prices. The successful
Moreover, a marginal improvement in the HCI could increase backward GVC integration by 6 to 8 percent (see Table 4-5) comparing to the statistically insignificant 2 percent increase in forward participation. Tables 5 and 6 present the impact of migration on manufacturing GVC participation by respectively introducing net migration as a share of population and net remittances as a share of GDP. Net migration exhibits a positive and statistically significant effect on both backward and forward integration. Nonetheless, the benefits of migration on backward and forward GVC integration is greater for SSA countries compared to the rest of the world.

**Table 5: Estimation results – net migration**

||(28)|(29)|(30)|(31)|(32)|(33)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|VARIABLES|DVX LCX<br>Global|DVX LCX<br>SSA|FVA LCX<br>Global|FVA LCX<br>SSA<br>gvc_|participation LCX<br>Global|gvc_participation LCX<br>SSA|
|log_distance|-0.800***|2.667***|-0.599***|3.369***|-0.103***|0.0998|
||(0.162)|(0.640)|(0.184)|(0.645)|(0.0214)|(0.104)|
|log_GDP|0.934***|1.083***|0.777***|0.988***|-0.0299***|-0.0355***|
||(0.0219)|(0.0698)|(0.0269)|(0.0742)|(0.00293)|(0.00893)|
|LACEX_sk|1.958|17.30***|3.745**|23.15***|0.282|6.188**|
||(1.508)|(6.511)|(1.846)|(8.795)|(0.362)|(2.602)|
|LACEX_usk|-0.571|-3.854**|-0.582|-4.430**|-0.0785|-1.213**|
||(0.453)|(1.499)|(0.499)|(1.815)|(0.111)|(0.532)|
|HCI|4.040***|1.903|7.037***|6.129***|0.332***|-0.0511|
||(0.374)|(1.394)|(0.431)|(1.714)|(0.0562)|(0.153)|
|FCS|0.0285|0.537***|-0.0151|0.461**|0.0235|-0.00811|
||(0.0427)|(0.185)|(0.0458)|(0.185)|(0.0155)|(0.0200)|
|non_oil_rich|0.457***|0.245*|0.514***|0.160|0.0578***|0.0206|
||(0.157)|(0.144)|(0.181)|(0.150)|(0.0195)|(0.0225)|
|oil_rich|0.255|0.331|-0.577*|-0.575|0.0866**|0.0596|
||(0.235)|(0.327)|(0.313)|(0.366)|(0.0403)|(0.0486)|
|net_migration_sh|||||||
|are|0.224***|5.245**|0.276**|5.257*|0.0195|0.930|
||(0.0715)|(2.391)|(0.128)|(3.102)|(0.0277)|(0.741)|
|Constant|-8.909***|-42.71***|-9.220***|-49.34***|2.062***|0.424|
||(1.553)|(5.748)|(1.814)|(6.032)|(0.215)|(0.911)|
|Observations|2,626|508|2,626|508|2,626|508|
|Number of|||||||
|panelid|947|205|947|205|947|205|
|Sector FE|YES|YES|YES|YES|YES|YES|
|Year FE|YES|YES|YES|YES|YES|YES|
|||Ro|bust standard e<br>*** p<0.01, **|rrors in parentheses<br>p<0.05, * p<0.1|||

As shown in _Table 5_ , a 1% increase in net migration flow as a percentage of recipient country’s population could individually increase backward and forward GVC integration of the receiving 27
8 Table 3 Comparison of Clinic and Survey Estimates Combined Moderate and Sevexe Malnutrition Clinic Data Year Clinic Survey Estimate & Underestimates Estimates Confidence Interval Survey Estimate by Combined Gomez II and III 1976/78 4.6% 7.3% ± 0.9 37% 1985-Q1 3.9% 7.4% ± 0.9 47% qombtn.d _WHO_ Moderate and Severe .1989-Q3 6.4% 9.7% ± 2.6 34% 6.7% - 7.3% t 1.0 8 -- Sanple Calculstiona **In** the first quarter **of** 1985, the clinic data showed **Gone:** Grade 11 and **1II malnutxLtten** to be **3.9Z, while the** household survey showed lt to be **7.** 4 **using** the **same** aeasure. **The av^ZIi. data dew^eatluates the** survey data by 47S(l - 3.917.4 - 0.47). DNtes **The WUO** Moderate and Severe categories Lnclude all children with weights under **802** of the **Vf#zopea sta ndrd, while Genes II** and **III** categories include **childrer** with we*ihLs **umtde 75X** of **the a tadat. It** is not **accurate** to drav a **eouclus on** about **the trend in the** 5alnutrition tabIk **1%0,lf when the measures** used **_are_ not the sam. The reader** Interested **in** the **trend in Malnutrition** rate ab*ulA **refer** to the _rGoin Standard_ portion of SabLe **2.** _., i./*_ **?s.Sie** **_2._** 25. Not only is the degree of underestimation of malnutrition rates from clinic data large, it is not constant. It has ranged from 37 percent, to a high of 47 percent, down to a low of only 8 percent. If the estimate of malnutrition from clinic data were constantly of a certain magnitude, then following the rate over time would give a useful picture of changes in nutritional status. With the change in bias shown here, it would seem that clinic-based estimates will track changes in malnutrition rates only very imprecisely.

# Section IV: 'D_'scussion

26. If the malnutrition rate as estimated by clinic data was biased by a known amount, adjustments could be made to produce a more accurate estimate. This section discusses how the bias in the estimate from clinic data relates to some of the factors which might cause the bias.

27. Changes in patterns of health care use could be expected to change the amount of bias in a clinic-based estimate of malnutrition rates. In Jamaica, accurate records of aggregate health care use and service availability were kept from 1980 on. As Table 5 shows, the proportion of children making their first preventive health visit before the age of six months has grown steadily from 1980 to 1988. Likewise, vaccination rates have increased. By these two