rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
case, the RBF generates an impact of approximately 0 _._ 15 standard deviation on Mathematics and Portuguese scores. No impacts are found for students in 5<sup>_th_</sup> grade. As shown in Figures 1 _C_ and 1 _D_ , these increases close the score gaps at the border observed during pre-RBF periods. To put these results into another perspective, the _RBF_ effect on 9<sup>_th_</sup> grade translates into an increase equivalent to 3 _._ 7 months of schooling in Mathematics and 3 months in Portuguese.<sup>15</sup> The second finding relates to the gains of providing TA to municipalities. Results from Panel B show that 5<sup>_th_</sup> graders have a significant improvement of 0 _._ 22SD (5 months of schooling) in mathematics and 0 _._ 162SD (3 months of schooling) in Portuguese relative to the difference at the border when only the RBF was in place. For 9<sup>_th_</sup> grade, columns (3) and (4) illustrate a similar conclusion: the TA component almost doubled the RBF impacts in Panel A. One explanation for such gains is that the TA component provides pedagogical materials, teacher training, and knowledge exchange between schools, which benefit municipalities with particularly low capacity to implement similar policies.

Finally, Panel C suggests that reformulating the RBF mechanism by penalizing higher percentages of students performing below minimum levels in SPAECE generates further increases on test scores. Intuitively, this reformulation may reflect that mayors and schools focus on the students who are significantly lagging behind. Observing the estimates in Panel C reinforces this interpretation. When the reformulation occurred without the support TA ( _β_<sup>_rbf_(</sup><sup>_re_)</sup> _− β_<sup>_rbf_</sup> ), the impacts are approximately 0 _._ 092SD (2 _._ 2 months of schooling) for 9<sup>_th_</sup> grade. Yet, when minimum thresholds are introduced in the RBF formula _and_ the TA component is available to municipalities, the impacts on test scores are twice as large (columns (1) and (2), Panel C). Thus, it seems that if mayors understand which students have a stronger impact on the RBF redistribution and TA is available, there are significantly larger impacts on test scores.

> 15 We calculated schooling-equivalent months by the difference in SAEB test scores for the _same_ cohort of students in municipalities outside _Ceará_ between 2007 (when students were in 5<sup>_th_</sup> grade) and 2011 (when these students were in 9<sup>_th_</sup> grade) divided by two. According to the exercise, every two years represents an average gain of 0 _._ 47 _−_ 0 _._ 495 standard deviation in mathematics and 0 _._ 56 _−_ 0 _._ 62 in Portuguese.

22
random sample of approximately 150,000 households. Each household remains in the survey for five consecutive quarters. I use data for 2000-II to 2004-IV (19 quarters in total)<sup>4</sup> .

The ENE includes detailed information on each individual’s employment status and occupation. In particular, the survey asks all currently employed individuals whether they work as wage workers or whether they are employers or self-employed in their main job. I group employers and the self-employed together and call them business owners. The survey then asks these business owners whether their business is formally registered with the authorities. Close to 50 percent of business owners report that their business is not registered with the authorities. I refer to these business owners as informal business owners<sup>5</sup> . Among working age (20 to 65) individuals in the ENE, 49.5 percent are wage workers, 8.6 percent are formal business owners and 8 percent are informal business owners. The remaining individuals are not employed (either unemployed or not in the labor force).

# _Personal background characteristics_

Following De Mel, McKenzie, and Woodruff (2010), I classify the group of informal business owners into wage worker and formal business owner species using discriminant analysis. As described in De Mel, McKenzie and Woodruff, discriminant analysis is a tool used by biologists to separate animals or plants into species on the basis of easily measured characteristics. For the species classification, De Mel, McKenzie, and Woodruff rely on a large number of background, ability, and attitude measures, collected through their own survey. I have to work with a less rich set of personal characteristics since the ENE only includes basic background characteristics for each individual: age, gender, marital status, education, whether or not the individual is a head of household, and whether or not the individual is a migrant (defined as living in a state that is different from the state where the person was born). The reason for using ENE data in this paper is that it is high frequency data with broad geographic coverage that allows me to identify informal business owners and to track them over time. These features are essential for the impact analysis performed in later sections of this paper.

> 4 After 2004-IV, the ENE was changed to a new survey, the ENOE, and some of the questions used to define the variables in this paper where modified, limiting comparability across the two surveys. 5 Bruhn (2008) includes a detailed description of how I classified individuals into different occupation groups.

4
-25-

# **Table 3.2: Disbursement Categories**

(US$ Million Equivalent)

|**Disburseoieit Category**|**IDA Amount**|**Percent of Expewditiresto**<br>**be:**|
|---|---|---|
||**(US$ Million)**|**Financed**|
|Civil Works:|||
|Dar es Salaarn Water Supply|1.0|100% of foreign expenditures and 60%|
|Municipal Services|22.8|of local expenditures|
|Water Supply and Sewerage, 8 towns|17.6||
|Dar es Salaam Community-Based|||
|Infrastructure|4.6||
|Goods:||100% of foreign expenditures.|
|Dar es Salaam Water Supply|1.3|100% of local expenditures (ex-factory|
|All others|12.5|<br>cost) and 80% of local expenditures for<br>other items procured locally|
|Consulting Services and Training:|||
|Dar es Salaam Water Supply|1.0|100%|
|All others|12.4||
|Studies:|||
|Dar es Salaam Water Supply|2.7|100%|
|All others|_3.5_||
|O&M Costs (see Table 3.1,|3.0|90% for FY97 & 98; 60% for|
|Footnote 1)||FY99&00; and 30% thereafter|
|Incremental Operating Costs (see Table|4.0|100%|
|3. 1, Footnote 2)|||
|Refunding of PPF|1.9|Amount due|
|Unallocated|16.7||
|**TOTAL**|105.0||

# **D. ACCOUNTING, AUDITING, AND REPORTING**

3.21 Assurances were obtained during negotiations that (a) PMO, MOW and NUWA will each maintain appropriate records and _accounts for expenditures_ under their respective project component, including SOEs, as well as the Special Accounts A, B and C, respectively, in accordance with internationally acceptable accounting standards; that the Government will have such records and accounts audited by independent auditors acceptable to IDA<sup>7</sup> ; and that a certified copy of the audit reports, including a separate report on the SOEs, as well as the Special Accounts, will be provided to IDA within six months of the end of each fiscal year; (b) the _institutional accounts_ (balance sheets, statements of income and expenses, and related statements) of the eight project towns and nine UWSDs, and their operations will be audited by independent auditors acceptable to IDA; a certified copy of the audit reports will be provided to the PMO within six weeks of the end of each fiscal year together with financial projections for three years in formats satisfactory to IDA, and PMO would send a summary of the audited accounts to IDA The independent auditors would either be the Controller and Auditor General or a private audit firn under contract to, and supervised by, the Controller and Auditor General and acceptable to IDA.
**<u>Table 6  Examples of products with the final bound rate above the applied MFN rate</u>**

|**10 digit code**|**Description**|**Import in 2010,**<br>**million USD**|<br>**CU applied**<br>**MFN rate,**<br>**2011**|**Final**<br>**bound rate**<br>**2020**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|8707101000|Car bodies|1135|0|15|
|8502392000|Electricity turbo-generators<br>Parts and accessories of the motor|1037|0|5|
|8708291000|vehicles<br>Spark- ignition reciprocating or rotary|725|0|5|
|8407341000|internal combustion piston engines<br>Boards, panels, consoles, desks,<br>cabinets and other bases for electric|610|0|10|
|8537109900|control or the distribution of electricity<br>Mixing, kneading, crushing, grinding,<br>screening, sifting, homogenising,|402|0|5|
|8479820000|emulsifying or stirring machines|351|0|5|
|8455210009|Metal- rolling mills and rolls therefor|349|0|5|
|8415900009|Parts of air-conditioning machines|325|0|5|
|8415109000|Air-conditioning machines|286|0|5|
|7305110004|Tubes and pipes|285|0|7.5|
|8708402001|Gear boxes|278|0|5|
|9022120000|Computed tomography apparatus|275|0|5|
|1511909908|<br>Palm oil and its fractions|271|0|3|
||Food grinders and mixers, fruit or||||
|8509400000|vegetable juice extractors|268|5|10|
|9018120000|ultrasonic scanning apparatus|264|0|5|
|8422400008|<br>packing and wrapping machinery<br>Flat- rolled products of iron or non- alloy|258|0|5|
|7208512009|steel|249|0|5|
||ozone therapy, oxygen therapy, aerosol<br>therapy, artificial respiration or other||||
|9019200000|<br>therapeutic respiration apparatus|244|0|4|
||machinery for filling, closing,sealing, or||||
|8422300008|<br>labelling bottles<br>Machines for treating metal, including|229|0|5|
|8479810000|electric wire coil- winders|226|0|5|

Note: An applied MFN rate includes both ad valorem and specific components of the tariff. Specific component of the tariff is translated into the ad valorem equivalent according to the formula that is explained in the methodology section and using import statistics of Russia in 2006-2010. For 2011-2020, the ad valorem equivalent is computed using the 2009-2011 import data.

30
significant differences. Technology and location—both in terms of political region and underlying hydrogeology—grow in importance as water points age, but decline in importance for schemes. On the other hand, the presence of a WASHCOM grows in importance as a scheme’s infrastructure ages, a pattern that does not hold for water points. Finally, the importance of the initial promoter does not change much as water points age, while it declines in importance for schemes.

The results have several policy implications. The finding that 61% of first-year failures can be linked to factors relevant to the design, implementation, and operational stages suggests that these need to be given top priority to drastically reduce failure rates. Results from our regression analysis also suggest that the presence of a WASHCOM and the availability of spare parts may play a large role in preventing the breakdown of water schemes. Thus, WASHCOMs need to play an increasing role in the maintenance of water schemes throughout the country.

There is also a need to address other important issues for functionality to be improved in the future. For instance, there is a tendency for projects to fall apart when donors leave. This may be because local skills are inadequate, or because the technology may be costly to adopt and maintain. Furthermore, a scheme designed for use by, for example, 200 people a day might instead be used by 300 people, resulting in more wear and tear and greater need for costly maintenance and repair. The maintenance of water schemes remains a challenge, and one that requires careful attention.

19
Table 9: Impacts on social capital indices

||(1)|(2)|(3)|
|---|---|---|---|
||**Full**|**2011-2012**|**2013-2014**|
|||**Panel A: Community survey**||
|Total|0.048***|0.084***|0.038*|
||(0.016)|(0.030)|(0.020)|
|Control Mean|0.559|0.548|0.567|
|Trust|0.050|0.120*|0.037|
||(0.033)|(0.061)|(0.041)|
|Control Mean|0.562|0.547|0.572|
|Inclusion|-0.007|0.091|-0.077*|
||(0.033)|(0.059)|(0.043)|
|Control Mean|0.590|0.610|0.576|
|Governance|0.022|0.065|0.014|
||(0.018)|(0.041)|(0.021)|
|Control Mean|0.532|0.535|0.530|
|Participation|0.058|0.025|0.072|
||(0.042)|(0.072)|(0.052)|
|Control Mean|0.533|0.502|0.554|
|Infrastructure|0.115***|0.118*|0.146***|
||(0.035)|(0.065)|(0.043)|
|Control Mean|0.581|0.547|0.604|
|Obs|862|357|505|
|||**Panel B: Household survey**||
|Total|0.018|0.029|0.004|
||(0.018)|(0.030)|(0.023)|
|Control Mean|0.377|0.360|0.389|
|Trust|0.022|0.032|0.020|
||(0.015)|(0.024)|(0.019)|
|Control Mean|0.287|0.280|0.291|
|Participation|0.014|0.026|-0.011|
||(0.030)|(0.052)|(0.038)|
|Control Mean|0.468|0.440|0.487|
|Obs|8413|3466|4947|

> 1 Regressions include the threshold dummy, the first and second order polynomials of the re-centered point score and their interactions with the threshold dummy and state fixed effects. For the community level analysis, robust standard errors are presented in parentheses. For the household level analysis, standard errors were clustered at the community level. *** p _<_ .01; ** p _<_ .05; * p _<_ .10

> 2 The inclusion index contained two questions related to the participation in assemblies of members without rights to communal land. In communities where there were no such individuals, these questions were skipped. To avoid working on a restricted dataset due to those missing values, we imputed them to the mean.

41
- 37 -

The. Psoito Regioa "Poist4ecoonda ducation study **is** one of a sof Pad Cou ' S being undert.ak by the Wor.ld.EBank encompass4'ingfii, W. Sama, Tonga, Kiribati. Solomon Islands and Vawatu.i Tle luate. tXe :islaed' institu higher edu.cation aocording- **t** o aponsivasto market demands (oly' with r o...n. The ....'s i alysis of the paioipatn of women in post-secondary education I most onco~rsging Oii of t.he.n~o g er O" und egardig th' labor ftore was ta over the time period, stdied there was substntal ncrese. C; tlythore itl a shortage tit'woman in tachngg nurWing,busines adIt t id _ndt_ ,manyf th trini fa,Iti.s eprienevacancies (from n urs .lin to" **_42._** i* ssJous ad teci regs in nsites _of._ teobnlag), _sugetng the_ no _tar.-_ incnie oIces D ~~~~Attioipedou ~ oe figrrdcsiat~ pllcants g? ~ ~ .-The stud highlights tlhe 'following apraceor. ~ ~ t - 0 ; approa. . 0 rninttue 'increasing:female.. 00i; 0 Err recerve fo aac9,; assis.'anctoatd -scndayeuoati,X, only30% of scholashi' ar' allocated =_ to women. af the fourty^as of ,........~.......rsbs currently offer otunyeEi n Mr)'d aots' r.~ ~ ~ ~~ _!:._ m , , , g ,S .R.,.;..>-d' rate oar.roly m ent,n mlth hla in dioates he deeand for oomen sholarshins a.i {,.;,: .. :,--,:,,;S:,..,.-, :: ,,. .-x.,.-: **-** ; **-** E::: ingprojesg toaiing options woet _toe womkaen_ ivdoati -Ai~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~` _hat_ Pesliomihoaryrshlts i ndicatethskewhed e ho pel in higher ca againsrwoens theae tion for womenhighsf vels **i** ca in prghet idenatified;:~>...<~.::. . .. .... .... . .. .... . .ntroduc. and No single measue catns fresolve persighen soino-culturnalditonas~traint afecing woen' participation in highereducationc.a Theret~iisfore anme torasn tumben fofg reconents Bak-roecshv intrduce mulipleintervestiogtedns. Fnte ex aor ample, an revent proeate intlc Neal istumont es _mute Package Appmach:_ Prelminary results indicate that where barriers to female access are particularly stringent, multiple interventions may be needed to overcome the constraints. _No_ single measure can resolve persistent socio-cultural constraints affecting women's participation in higher education. Therefore, an increasing number of recent Bank-projects have introduced multiple interventions. For example, a recent project in Nepal is among best promising projects to improve women's participation in higher education in technical fields. The project identified the barriers affecting women's participation in higher education and introduced multiple interventions to overcome identified constrants (see Box _5)._
knowledge would be less expensive, but quality tests require expertise and would need to be done by an independent party that would need to learn the course objectives and come up with an accurate and reliable tool. In the Guangdong context, this could possibly be the Teacher Research Institute or a completely independent private organization.

- **Independent evaluation group:** In the case of course satisfaction surveys, the service provider simply hands out an evaluation form at the end of the course. There is almost no cost involved. The stakes involved in the results are also low, so there is little need to have an independent evaluation. In the case of an RBF, the evaluation would need to be done by an independent group. This could be done by the group originally responsible for proposing the training (which, in Guangdong, is the department of in-service teacher training) through the formation of expert panels, but would most likely be best carried out through the hiring of a private and fully independent evaluation group.

# **C.6 Conclusions on feasibility**

The feasibility of implementing an RBF scheme for delivery of teacher professional development activities can be considered both at a general level and with the use of classroom observation as a tool to measure outcomes.

## **_RBF to service providers of professional development_**

Taking the above points into account, there are many potential obstacles to introducing RBF into the service provider scheme for professional development. It would most likely be extremely difficult to use RBF for all forms of training—particularly small training programs—but could be beneficial and cost-effective for the most critical large-scale and training programs.

## **_Videotaped lesson observation as a measure in an RBF scheme_**

The use of videotaped lesson observation for RBF is likely too costly to be used in a high-stakes endeavor such as RBF. The sample would need to be quite large in order to achieve sufficient reliability for changes in teaching practices. This could make cost of the measure too high to justify. It may be possible to include in-person lesson observation as a lower-cost alternative.

43
**Polac,Pnnlng, and ResearchC**

# Education and Employment

Eighty percent of the trainees headed for Israel's labor force go to full-time vocational secondary schools that devote a third to a half of the curriculum time to general studies. Students tei.d to come from a higher socioeconomic level than those in other training programs.

The rest of Israel's vocational students are evenly divided among the Ministry of Labor's remaining three programs. The apprentice attends school one day a week and works on the job the rest of the time. The student is typically a low academic achiever with a low socioeconomic background.

Students in industrial schools spend three days a week in the plant where the school is located and three days in the school. The program is less demanding and more practical than the vocational school curriculum. No tuition is charged and trainees are paid for their work.

The one-year full-time training courses for 16 and 17-year-olds, mmny of whom are dropouts, concentrate on practical training. Those who complete the course get additional training in the army during their compulsory three-year service.

Of the four types of training in Israelvocational secondary schools, apprenticeship courses, industrial schools, and full-time training courses - vocational school is by far the most expensive. In 1977 Michael Borus found that the cost of apprenticeship courses was one-seventh that of vocational schools; industrial suiools and trairing courses cost only a third to a quarter as much. This 7-year longitudinal study confirms Borus' earlier tentative findings, concluding that since post-training earnings were roughly the same for all four programs, the apprenticeship system was the most cost-effective.

These findings echo those of case studies in other countries. But, to conclude that vocational training schools are not cost-effective on the basis of eventual earnings alone is to ignore part of tC. picture. The goals of the vocational secondary school in Israel extend beyond those of providing usable labor market skills. These wider social and educational goals are largely absent from the narrower and more workoriented types of training. In any cost-benefit evaluation of vocational schooling, these goals would have to be given more weight.

This paper is a product of the Education and Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department. Copies are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433. Please contactWorkie Ketema, room S-6228, extension 33651.

|TChe PPR Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work undcr way in the Banles Policyh Planning, and Research Complex. An objective of the series is to get these findings out quickly, even if presentations are less than fully polishedL 'Me findings, interpretations, and conclusions in these papers do not necessarily represent official policy of the Bank.

Copyright 0 1988 by the Intemational E:ank for Reconstruction and Dvcvloprnent[Me World Bank
and Willan (2007) for overviews and applications; and related analyses in Gold et al (1996), Samson et al (1989); Dakins et al (1996); and Tanner and Wong (1987). See also Costello, Polasky and Solow (2001), and Kennedy and Barbier (2013), for value of information analyses in the context of renewable resource management. The number of applications is however even here not very large, in part due to the perceived analytical and computational complexities involved.

As however noted, this paper also recognizes that practical decisions to save or protect a natural resource object are often not globally optimal. The value of additional information then needs to be considered in that light.

# **3. The model**

Assume in the following that P (the principal or buyer) initially observes not the true value of B, but instead an indicator variable b. From the point of view of P, B has distribution F(B), with expectation E(B) and standard deviation σB.

S (the potential seller of the resource) is assumed to observe the true opportunity value of the resource in question, V. P however only knows a (subjective and continuous) distribution function G(V) with density g(V). This is thus where asymmetric information enters. Both P and S are assumed to be risk neutral.

Asymmetric information about V is likely the typical case, studied here. It takes the same basic form as in recent related work by Benthem and Kerr (2013) and Mason and Plantinga (2013), who introduce asymmetric information about the opportunity value of the resource, V. S knows the true V, while P does not. Our model is however more general than theirs in assuming that the “gross protection value” of the resource, B, is not known but stochastic for the buyer. We still assume that S has no specific information about B to be extracted, and that B and V are generally independent.

Assume that B and V are uncorrelated. For B, V has a distribution function G(V) defined on (-∞, ∞), assumed perfectly continuous.<sup>6</sup> For a given payment H from P to S, the probability that the resource is saved is then G(H).

The objective function for P can be written as where α is a weight given by P to the expected outcome (or net gain) of B. The resource is here purchased with probability less than unity, G(H); so that the cost H, while always offered from P

> 6 We consider both B and V as generally not possessing bounds, mainly with a view to later simulations where normality will be assumed.

6