rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
who worked in 2009 for the first time and then returned for 2010 to the earnings in 2010 of workers who worked in 2010 for the first time, but returned for 2011. Assuming the selection process of whether to return for a second year is unchanged, the 9.6 percent higher wages of those in their second year reflects a productivity premium, and suggests there is not strong positive selection in who returns taking place at this orchard.

One may be concerned that differences in earnings also reflect differences in tasks or in bargaining arrangements, and so may not be a true measure of productivity. Table 8 therefore provides the one example we have where we were able to obtain data on physical productivity. Here all workers were picking bins of mandarins during the same 7 day period in 2011. We see that the RSE workers are vastly more productive: they picked an average of 54 percent more fruit per day than New Zealand contract labor, and 82 percent more than backpackers and working holiday-makers.

**<mark>Table 8: Physical productivity of labour at peak of mandarin harvest of 2011</mark>**

||RSE<br>Pacific<br>workers|New<br>Zealand<br>contract<br>labor|Backpackers<br>(including<br>working<br>Holiday-makers)|
|---|---|---|---|
|Average number ofpickersper day|60|21|17|
|Average kilogramspickedperpersonper day|759|494|416|
|Average wage earnedperpersonper day ($)|125.36|84.93|98.48|
|Average wagepaidper kilogram harvested(cents)|17|17|24|
|Source: Data provided by citrus RSE||||

Taken together this new evidence supports the notion that RSE workers are significantly more productive than local labor or working holiday-makers, and suggests that the returns to experience for RSE workers are approximately 8-10 percent for the first year, and continue to increase for the next two seasons.

# **5. Development Impacts of the RSE**

Despite the prevalence of seasonal worker programs throughout the OECD, there is strikingly little evidence on the impacts of participating in these programs for the migrants, their families, and their home countries. An innovative feature of the RSE was that the launch of the 20
mechanisms by which the combined effects of climate change and HIV/AIDS are greater than the sum of their separate effects. Section 5 introduces the six key Malawian institutions involved in disaster-related work selected as case study for this research: four government agencies and two NGOs. Section 6 describes the proposed approach to analyze the relationships between capacity and demand, and presents evidence of the problem. Section 7 concludes by discussing implications for climate change adaptation in Malawi and the region, formulating recommendations for institutions, donors, policymakers and practitioners.

# **2. HIV/AIDS and the erosion of institutional capacity in Malawi**

_In countries where 10% of the adult population has HIV infection, almost 80% of all_ _deaths in young adults aged 25-45 will be associated with HIV. (UNAIDS 2001)_ The first case of HIV in Malawi was reported in 1985. Since then, the spread of HIV has been alarming. According to the Malawi National AIDS Commission estimates (NAC 2006), 14.1% of Malawians between 15 to 49 years old are HIV positive - almost a million people. The estimated national prevalence rate points to the severity of the epidemic, especially in comparison to the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa where the average adult prevalence rate is 6.1% (UNAIDS/WHO, 2006).

The effect of HIV/AIDS on the Malawian population poses a phenomenal developmental and humanitarian crisis. The pandemic has been responsible for increased death and disability, reduction in the average life expectance at birth from 48 years in 1987 to just below 40 in 2005, a breakdown of social safety nets, high costs to the health care system due to re-emergence of other diseases such as tuberculosis, loss of productivity, and food insecurity at household, community and national levels.

A critical reason of concern for disaster-related institutions is the impact of HIV/AIDS on subsistence agriculture. Several studies have addressed this issue in Africa, notably Barnett and Blaikie (1992) and 5
estimates. This problem is not specific to development finance. Durlauf, Johnson, and Temple (2005) discuss it in the context of growth regressions. However, Bazzi and Clemens (2010) illustrate its practical relevance by discussing several well-known cross-country studies that repeatedly use a limited number of instruments, such as legal origin, in contexts where they are highly likely to be correlated with omitted variables.

An alternative approach, adopted when there is sufficient time-variation, has been to use panel-study methods. This not only allows for the use of fixed effects, but also lagged dependent variables to model partial adjustment over time. Moreover, the use of lagged variables as instruments advocated by Arellano and Bond (1991) and Blundell and Bond (1998), appears to solve the problem of finding valid instruments for use in GMM estimators. However, Bazzi and Clemens (2010) point to a potential often overlooked problem: the lagged variable instruments might be weak instruments, resulting in biased estimators in small samples. They illustrate these concerns using several high profile studies that they argue reached unsupported conclusions because the lagged variables in panel GMM estimation were weak instruments. Their analysis strongly suggests that the use of lagged variables as instruments needs to be justified by evidence that these instruments are in fact not weak.

There has recently been a great deal of controversy about the interpretation of instrumental variables estimates in development economics and the relative merits of commonly used econometric techniques and RCTs (see in particular, Heckman and Uruza, 2010; Deaton, 2010; Imbens, 2010; and Angrist and Pischke, 2010). As pointed out by Cartwright (2007), among others, both standard econometric methods and RCTs share the property that under the assumptions required by the respective method, a valid causal conclusion can reached. In practice, some of these assumptions are untestable, or may not fit the data at hand, and the use of any method entails trade-offs which can be controversial. Moreover, for a range of issues involving first order policy questions, RCTs are not feasible (Rodrik, 2008).

Notwithstanding these issues, Imbens (2010) argues, there are great advantages to adopting a RCT framework when examining questions where the researcher may have the ability to assign treatments to firms randomly, thereby sidestepping possible issues of self-selection and endogeneity. An example might be a study of whether small loans benefit micro-enterprises.

19
8 other reforming socialist countries, 3 has both pros and cone. On the poaitive side, it provides an explicit forum for checking the constitutionality of acts of the state. On the negative side, it takes away some of the power of the judiciary itself, which might otherwise develop into a constitutional watchdog much as it has in the United States.

The remaining chapters of the Constitution deal generally with local government (Articles 138-145), public finance (Articles 146-152), ' constitutionality and legality (Articles 153-159), and amendment (Articlee 168-171) a: trensition procedures (Articles 172-174). A constitutional law, adopted on the same day as the Constitution,2 provides that existing **laws** remain valid but should be harmonized with the constitutior by the end of 1993 (Article 1). Numerous issues that remain undecided in the constitution are to be addtessed in later legia'ation.2'

# Rijhts to Real Prooertv

As in most of Central and Eastern Europe, real property rights are in a state of flux in Slovenia as it moves to reverse decades of socialist mnd labor-management influence. Private ownership of land and housing ana privately-owned small businesses have long existed in Slovenia, albeit on a limited basis, and thus the concept is not as radical as in some of the more traditional former socialist states. Furthermore, basic principles of property law and property rights and the system of land registration (with accompanying records)" inherited from the Austro-Hungarian empire remain in

> 23 Poland and Romania, for example, have adopted a similar model, although the decisions of their constitutional courts can be overturned by a two-thirds vote of Parliament.

24 As an additional check upon the state, chapter 6 provides for a "court of accounts" to inspect public finances (Articles 150-151) and for a central bank responsible to the State Chamber and thus independent from the executive branch (Article 152).

25 Ustavni zakon za izvedbo ustave Republike Slovenije (Constitutional Law for Realization of Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia), Official Gazette RS, No 33 (1991), pages 1386-1387.

26 :wo reasons help to explain why numerous issues remained undecided when the Constitution was adopted. First, Parliament had promised and was under time pressure to adopt it one year after the national referendum on independence. Second, the ruling coalition of parties in Parliament only held 53 percent of the votes, while a two-thirds majority was needed to adopt the Constitution. Therefore, numerous controversial issues had to be omitted for the document to be acceptabls to opposing factions.

> 27 The Austro-Hungarian landbook law from 1871 and the land register (cadastre) law from the 1920s form the basis of the land registration system that exists today. rhe system of social property of the last 40 years,
|**OPERATIONS OF THE INTERN**|**ATIONAL DE**|**VELOPME**|**NT ASSOCI**|**ATION BY S**|**ECTOR (in**|**percent of**|**total cre**|**dits)**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**1961‐70**|**1971‐76**|**1977‐82**|**1984‐90**|**1991‐95 **|**1996‐2000 **|**2001‐05**|**2006‐10**|
|**Agriculture & Rural Dev**|23|32|42|34|23|14|9|9|
|**Energy**|6|8|16|11|7|8|8|9|
|**Transport**|30|17|10|13|12|12|11|12|
|**Telecomm**|5|5|3|3|1|1|1|1|
|**Infrastructure**|41|30|29|27|20|21|20|22|
|**Water supply & sewerage**|3|3|5|4|6|8|6|7|
|**Urbanization**|0|1|2|2|1|0|0|0|
|**Other Infrastructure**|3|4|7|6|7|8|6|7|
|**Industry**|4|10|8|6|13|9|5|4|
|**Education**|6|5|6|6|9|12|12|13|
|**Pop, health & nutrition**|.|1|1|2|8|13|18|15|
|**Social Sectors**|6|6|7|8|17|25|30|28|
|**Governance**|.|.|.|2|14|18|24|25|
|**Nonproject lending**|23|18|7|.|.|.|.|.|
|**Multisector**|.|.|.|13|2|0|0|0|
|"."means not available or no|n existant c|ategory|||||||
|sources: 1961‐82<br>on a com|mitment ba|sis (from I|DA in retro|spect, 1982|)||||
|<br>1964‐2010 on a disb<br>industry|<br>ursement b<br>includes mi|<br>asis (from<br>ning and fi|<br>Business W<br>nance|<br>arehouse|<br>database)||||
|<br>governa|<br>nce includes|<br>public ad|<br>ministratio|n and law|||||
|categori|es do not ad|d upto 100|due to rou|ndingerro|rs||||

- “Social infrastructure” which includes mostly water, sewerage and sanitation as well as a number of urban activities (housing and others), from the late 1970s until today represents a respectable 6-8 percent of the IDA portfolio.  The largest number of grants is for water and sewerage in the growing urban shantytowns of poor countries.

- Grants for governance projects, which include public administration and law, have experienced the most remarkable progression.  The category did not even exist until the 1980s.  Since then, they have grown from zero to 25 percent of the total IDA portfolio in the last 5 years.

30
WPS3805

# _Di Bao_ : A Guaranteed Minimum Income in China’s Cities?

Shaohua Chen, Martin Ravallion<sup>1</sup> _Development Research Group, World Bank_ and Youjuan Wang _National Bureau of Statistics, China_

**Abstract:** Concerns about incentives and targeting naturally arise when cash transfers are used to fight poverty. We address these concerns in the context of China’s _Di Bao_ program, which uses means-tested transfers to try to assure that no registered urban resident has an income below a stipulated “poverty line.” There is little sign in the data of poverty traps due to high benefit withdrawal rates. Targeting performance is excellent by various measures; indeed, _Di Bao_ appears to be better targeted than any other program in the developing world. However, all but one measure of targeting is found to be uninformative, or even deceptive, about impacts on poverty. We find that the majority of the poor are not receiving help, even with a generous allowance for measurement errors. While on paper, _Di Bao_ would eliminate urban poverty, it falls well short of that ideal in practice.

**Keywords:** Urban poverty, cash transfers, behavioral responses, targeting, China

**JEL:** I38, O15

World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3805, January 2006 _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> 1 For helpful discussions on this topic and comments on this paper the authors are grateful to Shubham Chaudhuri, Ren Mu, Philip O’Keefe, Xiaoqing Yu and staff of the Ministry of Civil Affairs, Government of China.
(−4.6 pp) and firm creation (−6.3 pp) between 2007 and 2012 compared to unaffected cities (Espinosa et al 2018).

Legal aid can improve economic and social outcomes by extending legal services to underprivileged groups (Gradinaru 2017). Legal aid workers not only must be knowledgeable concerning relevant laws and regulations, but also must be able to interact effectively on a personal, professional level with persons who have lower educational attainment or disabilities (Larson 2014). Similar results were found in the study of legal aid and access to justice for women victims of domestic violence in India (Hartanto et al 2018). The inability of disadvantaged people to access legal services is the result of the low degree of inclusion (Petre 2021).

Aberra and Chemin (2021), using a randomly controlled trials methodology, show that legal aid provided to farmers in Kenya to resolve land disputes resulted in effort on land (measured by days worked) increasing by 15 percent in the treatment group versus the control group. Investment increased by 21 percent, access to credit increased by 56 percent, and agricultural production increased by 42 percent. In sum, legal representation increased the security of property rights, which translated into greater investment and access to credit.

# **2c. Efficiency**

An efficient judicial system – which resolves disputes in a timely manner and without significant monetary costs to the parties involved – supports economic growth (Esposito et al., 2014). Where judicial systems guarantee the enforcement of rights, creditors are more likely to lend at better rates (Bae and Goyal, 2009), businesses are more productive (Chemin 2020), firm size increases (Giacomelli and Menon 2012; Chemin 2009b) and investment rises (Djankov et al., 2008; Aboal et al 2014). A proxy measuring the extent to which disputes can be resolved at a low cost finds that increasing access to justice by 1% increases the five-year growth rate of GDP per capita by 0.86 p.p. or 0.17 p.p. annually (Deseau et al 2019).

Some sectors rely more on the judiciary than others because of the need for relationshipspecific investments (Nunn 2007). An economy without an effective judiciary is trapped in the 17
Figure 1 continued Attainment profiles for ages 15 to 19, by economic group: Central America and Caribbean <!-- Start of picture text --> pominican Republic 1991 prnminican Republic 1996 Guatemala 1995<br>08 0 8 08<br>06 ~~~~~~~~ 06 06<br>0 4 0 4 04<br>04 2 04 2 04<br>02 02 02<br>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br>Grade Grade Grade<br>Haiti 1994-95<br>0.8<br>0 2<br>i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br>Grade<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text -->
* Poorest  *  Middle  A  Richest<br><!-- End of picture text -->

13
# PRE Working Paor Series

|||||Contact|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|WPS388|The Distortionary Effects of Tariff<br>Exemptions in Argentina|Faezeh Foroutan|March 1990|S. Fallon<br>38009|
|WPS389|Monetary Cooperation in the CFA<br>Zone|Patrick Honohan|March 1990|Wilai Pitayato-<br>nakam<br>37666|
|WPS390|Price and Monetary Convergence<br>in Currency Unions: The Franc and<br>Rand Zones|Patrick Honohan<br>|March 1990|Wilai Pitayato-<br>nakam<br>37666|
|WPS391|Weafth Effects of Voluntary Debt<br>Reduction in Latin America|Daniel Oks|April 1 990|S. King-Watson<br>31047|
|WPS392|Institutional Development in World<br>Bank Projects: A Cross-Sectional<br>Review|Samuel Paul|April 1990|E. Madrona<br>37489|
|WPS393|Debt-for-Nature Swaps|Michael Occhiolini|March 1990|S. King-Watson<br>31047|
|WPS394|Threshold Effects in International<br>Lending|Mark M. Spiegel|April 1990|S. King-Watson<br>31047|
|WPS395|How Gambians Save-<br>and What<br>Their Strategies Imply for Internatio<br>Aid|Parker Shipton<br>nal|April 1990|C. Spooner<br>30464|
|WPS396|Strategic Trade Policy: How New?<br>How Sensible?|W. Max Corden|April 1990|M. Corden<br>39175|
|WPS397|Antidumping Regulations or<br>Procartel Law? The EC Chemical<br>Cases|Patrick A. Messerlin|April 1990|S. Torrijos<br>33709|
|WPS398|Agricultural Extension for Women<br>Farmers in Africa|Katrine A. Saito<br>C. Jean Weidemann|April 1990|M. Villar<br>33752|
|WPS399|Macroeconomic Adjustment,<br>Stabilization, and Growth in<br>Reforming Socialist Economies:<br>Analytical and Policy Issues|Andres Solimano|April 1990|E. Khine<br>39361|
|WPS400|Macroeconomic Constraints for<br>Medium-Term Growth and Distributi<br>A Model for Chile|Andres Solimano<br>on:|April 1990|E. Khine<br>39361|
|WPS401|Policing Unfair Imports: The U.S.<br>Example|J. Michael Finger<br>Tracy Murray|March 1990|N. Artis<br>38010|
find that a larger pre-issue stock return significantly reduces the probability of issuing PIPEs, or in other words, increases the probability of a SEO issue, across all specifications. An extra 1 percent pre-issue period stock return decreases the probability of choosing a PIPE by almost 2 percent, holding all else constant at the sample mean. While the issuer size by itself is not significant, once we include the pre-issue stock performance, the coefficient for size becomes significant and larger issuers are slightly more likely to choose to issue a PIPE.

Given that the literature argues that private investors and PE investors in particular would be especially apt at overcoming potential undervaluation due to asymmetric information it is surprising that we do not find any evidence that asymmetric information significantly influences the equity selling choice.

# **4.3** **_Are PIPE issuers in greater financial distress than SEO issuers?_**

All recent studies on the US PIPEs have reported that PIPE financing appears to be the financing of last resort (Dai 2007, Brophy et al. 2009, Chaplinsky and Haushalter, 2010 and James 2012), in addition to PIPEs being positively related to measures of asymmetric information. In sharp contrast to findings in the US, our univariate statistics in Table 3, however, suggest that PEfinanced PIPEs in Asia are associated not only with profitable firms but moreover with more profitable firms compared to SEOs. However, those results do not control for other characteristics that may differ systematically across PIPE and SEO issuers. To more robustly test whether PIPE issuers are more financially constrained or in greater financial distress than SEO issuers, we estimate a probit model similar to the one estimated for Table 5: _PIPEi = α + βi (Financial Health) + γi (Controls) + εi_ (4) 17
The ELMO statistic, thus, may offer additional insight into the role of group differences in understanding overall inequality, but whether or not it does so is clearly an empirical question. An objective of this paper has been to demonstrate, first, that undertaking such an extended decomposition analysis is conceptually and practically straightforward and, second, that doing so at the micro-level, such as a village, may offer a deeper understanding of the factors and processes governing participation in the economic development process in India.

29
through countries outside Africa and improve direct links between the member states<sup>20</sup> . During the program’s implementation, 32 interstate links were planned, mostly between capital cities. The links would be realized on a bilateral basis with the participation of operators and assistance through the NEPAD action plan.

The West African Telecommunications Regulation Association (now Assembly) was formed in 2002 to serve as a vehicle for harmonizing policies and integrating telecom development in the region. Its primary purpose was to establish cooperation among West African States in the field of telecommunications regulation. WATRA also aims at benefiting more countries from the limited resources available in the region for the development of regulatory frameworks for the promotion of ICT development.

# **Harmonization of Telecommunications Policies Project**

In the same year, the ECOWAS secretariat – supported by the World Bank and Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (PPIAF) – launched a program to develop a common framework to facilitate the harmonization of national telecommunications policies. The community commissioned a consultant team to develop a telecommunications harmonization study (launched in 2002) for integrating national legislative and regulatory arrangements, with a view to evolving a telecommunications common market for the region<sup>21</sup> . The primary objective of the study was to create a plan and timetable for harmonizing telecommunications policy in the ECOWAS region. The study evaluated alternative approaches, especially from the perspective of potential investors. The overall conclusions of the study are as follows:<sup>22</sup>

- substantial work has already been accomplished to create the legal framework in the member states;

- several member states have adopted laws and regulations that largely meet expectations of international best practice;

> 20 G. Chukwudum Nwaobi. “Understanding the Determinants of ICTs Diffusion in ECOWAS Region: A Cross-Country Investigation.” Quantitative Economic Research Bureau, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria. 21 The World Bank, 2005: “Connecting Sub-Saharan Africa: A World Bank Group Strategy for Information and Communication Technology Sector Development”.

> 22 Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu for the World Bank. 2003: “Harmonization of Telecommunications Policies in ECOWAS – Final Report”.

15