errors. First, to reduce the likelihood of coding errors, we use closed-ended questions, which make coding the answers a mechanical task, eliminating the reliance on the enumerator’s interpretation of the answer and subjective judgement to code them, as it is the case with open-ended questions (Bloom et al., 2016). Second, to make sure that implementation is consistent across enumerators within and between country surveys, we implement the same standardized training in each country with enumerators, supervisors, and managers leading the data implementation. The training is led by team members directly involved in the elaboration of the questionnaire and implemented in local languages - English, French, Portuguese and Vietnamese,<sup>33</sup> and they include vignettes to ensure that enumerators understand the specific technologies they are asking about. The two to three days training consists of one general presentation about the project, covering the main motivation, relevance, coverage, and protocols that should be used to approach the interviewees and the review of the full questionnaire (question by question). The training material includes pictures of each technology mentioned in the survey both in general and sector-specific business functions, which are shared with enumerators. After going over the full questionnaire and clarifying any questions that emerge, the participants of the training conduct a mock interview using CAPI, under the supervision of our team.

Third, to guarantee that translations use words that are understood by firms managers, in each country we conduct a pre-test pilot of the questionnaire with firms out of the sample. A pilot of the questionnaire is implemented in each country with firms out of the sample. This allows to fine-tune questions to the local language, finalize the translation and select the most relevant examples in each question. After the pilot, our teams have the opportunity to discuss with the managers implementing the questionnaires and clarify any potential question over the implementation process.

Fourth, to attain greater quality control during the data collection process, enumerators record the answers via _Computer-Assisted Personal Interviews_ (CAPI) and _ComputerAssisted telephone Interviews_ (CATI) software.<sup>34</sup> Using CAPI/CATI has clear advantages. First, it allows the use of logical conditions and skips which prevent data inputting errors and omitting questions, and also reduces the potential for abnormal values or non-response to specific questions. Second, it reduces substantially the time of implementation of the survey, increasing the quality of responses and minimizing survey fatigue. Supervisors are assigned to review all interviews, identifying missing values and abnormal responses. In addition, the CAPI/CATI system can identify when enumerators complete the survey too fast and

> 33In the case of Vietnamese, we used translation services support.

> 34Randomized survey experiments with household survey has demonstrated that a large number of errors observed in _Pen-and-Paper Personal Interview_ (PAPI) data can be avoided in CAPI (Caeyers, Chalmers and De Weerdt, 2012).

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