the decline in within-sector productivity was driven by the commerce, utilities, and transport sectors. In particular, commerce accounted for 70 percent of the negative within-sector productivity growth. Manufacturing was the only sector that experienced relatively significant and positive productivity growth. All in all, ‘other services’, agriculture, and manufacturing explain most of the per capita growth since the early 2000s. Finally, the percent contribution of each sector to structural change is shown in Table 8. Agriculture played the most important role. Commerce and ‘other services’ contributed significantly, while manufacturing had a slight negative contribution.

**Table 8. Côte d’Ivoire: Sectoral contributions to inter-sectoral shifts**

||**2002-2014**<br>||
|---|---|---|
||Direction of<br>employment<br>share shift|Contribution to<br>inter-sectoral<br>shifts (%)|
|Agriculture|-|123.02|
|Mining|+|17.74|
|Manufacturing|-|-9.42|
|Utilities|-|-18.02|
|Construction|+|7.21|
|Transport|+|20.86|
|Commerce|+|-40.82|
|Finance|-|-34.48|
|Other services|+|33.93|
|_Total_||_100_|

Source: Author’s estimation based on data described in Section 2.

We found qualitatively similar results for 2008-2014. A third of Côte d’Ivoire’s average annual per capita growth in this period was due to structural change. In particular, static reallocation gains contributed over 20 percent of output per capita growth. The results suggest that improved economic performance since the late 2000s still has been driven by accelerated factor accumulation, while growth gains from structural change remained subdued. In addition, negative within-sector productivity growth held back growth. In general, the decomposition results indicate that plummeting within-sector productivity has been mainly responsible for the growth contraction in Côte d’Ivoire, but the movement of workers to higher productivity sectors contributed positively.

A stocktaking of the experiences of BBC drives home several points, both commonalities and distinctive features. Economic growth in these economies was generally accompanied by substantial relocation of workers across sectors, despite the incommensurate changes in their output structures. Despite strong growth for about two decades, the pace of structural change in Burkina Faso lagged far behind those in the other two countries. Structural change played an important positive role in Benin and Burkina Faso, accounting for the bulk of (labor) productivity growth and GDP per capita growth. Although BBC experienced somewhat negligible or negative productivity growth within sectors, reduction of allocative inefficiencies was an important engine of growth in BBC. However, structural change has been dominated by static reallocation gains. The vast majority of workers leaving agriculture ended up in market services industries, such as retail trade and distribution, which are marked by low productivity and high informality.

The missing contribution from manufacturing is one of the most notable features of these economies. In Benin and Côte d’Ivoire, within productivity loss reduced per capita growth while within gains contributed positively to Burkina Faso’s growth. In all three countries, the largest economic activity, namely agriculture, has registered comparatively low productivity increases while the second largest sector, commerce, has experienced productivity decline, which was most significant for Benin and Côte d’Ivoire. However, Benin took advantage of static productivity gains from labor reallocation earlier than Burkina Faso with a faster urbanization rate in the 1990s and early 2000s, although this 21