variable approach and a propensity score estimation method where the treatment is being part of a GVC.

From a policy perspective, this topic is of particular importance as it addresses two important, and correlated, challenges in the MENA region that are low female labor force participation and a weak integration into GVCs. Indeed, if MENA countries are to improve firms’ insertion into GVCs, female labor participation can increase given that there are several sectors that are female intensive and that have a comparative advantage in the MENA region such as the textile, ready-made garments, processed food, and electronics sectors. Hence, from the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) perspective, our paper is related to two goals, namely promoting inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and fostering innovation (SDG9) and promoting gender equality (SDG5).

Yet, to move forward, three recommendations are worth taking into consideration. First, at the conception and the implementation of trade and industrial policies, it is important to mainstream gender as both trade agreements and GVCs can be used as tools to improve women’s participation. Yet, given that the majority of gender provisions are non-binding, it is important to have enforcement mechanisms that guarantee the implementation of gender provisions in trade agreements. Second, as the positive impact of GVCs on female owners or female production workers is attenuated by some obstacles (namely corruption, access to finance, and tax policies), it is important to address such barriers to maximize the impact of GVCs. This will require deeper and more structural reforms to improve the business environment. Finally, one of the important obstacles that hinder women’s empowerment is inadequate labor force participation. This is why investing in education (especially technical and vocational education for production workers) would provide women with the required skills that are relevant to firms that operate in GVCs.

# **References**

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