rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
countries demonstrate a statistically significant relationship between household dietary diversity and child and adult nutritional status, and, more broadly, the access to and utilization of food (Hoddinott _et al._ , 2002; Ruel, 2003; Arimond and Ruel, 2004, Rose _et al._ , 2002).

Daily per capita calorie intake and protein intake are calculated by dividing weekly total household calories and protein intake by seven days and by the effective household size. The effective number of household members incorporates guests eating meals within the home.<sup>29</sup> Food quantities were converted to kilocalories and nutrients using the FAO Food Composition Tables for the Near East.<sup>30</sup> The food consumption score (FCS) is an indicator developed by the World Food Programme originally used in southern Africa, and now used in food security analyses throughout the world.<sup>31</sup> During the global food price crisis, the FCS was used in field assessments to gauge short-term changes in food security; a benefit of using the FCS is that it is comparable across countries.<sup>32</sup> It is constructed by taking the weighted sum of the frequencies with which households consume foods within eight food groups over the previous week.<sup>33</sup> The food groups are staples, pulses, vegetables, fruit, meat/fish, milk/dairy, sugar, and oil/fat.

# _3.2.2  Variable of interest and control variables_

Our coefficient of interest is ��, which measures the price elasticity of the dependent variable with respect to changes in the price of domestic wheat flour. (In other words, �� measures the percentage change in the food security measure from a one percent change in price.) We use the average price of domestic wheat flour since wheat is the primary staple of

> 29 Some studies use household size to calculate per capita amounts. In Afghanistan the custom of sharing meals with guests makes it important to account for guests eating meals from the household cooking pot. The effective household size also incorporates information on household members eating outside the home. 30 Spices, and ‘other’ foods do not contribute to total calories. USDA sources were used for a few items that were not available in the FAO tables.

> 31 See Weismann _et al._ (2009) for an evaluation of the effectiveness of the food consumption score in measuring household food security. See WFP (2008) for a general discussion of FCS analysis, as well as recent evidence from several developing countries.

> 32 Sanogo (2009)

> 33 Weights for food groups range from 0.5 to 4 based on nutrient density. Condiments receive zero nutritional weight. Frequencies are truncated at 7 for each food group.

12
# **5 Concluding remarks**

Despite the increase in quality of household surveys in recent years, most variables of interest to welfare analysts suffer from measurement error: the `outdetect` command focuses on outliers, that is, on values that are so large or so small that they seem “too far away” from the rest of the data. While ‘outlier’ is not necessarily a synonym for ‘error’, in practice their investigation often leads to the identification of gross errors; and even when outliers turn out to be legitimate values, their analysis is informative, and is integral to the initial stages of any data analysis. The literature provides three sets of results that motivate our interest in developing `outdetect` as a tool for detecting outliers and assessing their potential impact on poverty and inequality measures. First, the body of theoretical results that demonstrate the extent to which different inequality and poverty measures are sensitive to the presence of extreme values (Cowell and Victoria-Feser 1996a, 1996b; Victoria-Feser 2000; Cowell and Flachaire 2007, 2015; Cowell and van Kerm 2015). In general, welfare indices have been shown to be highly sensitive to extreme values in the tails of the distribution of income. Second, extreme values are omni-present in household surveys, both in low- and high-income countries (Hlasny and Verme 2018, Hlasny, Ceriani and Verme 2021). Third, while common experience and anecdotal evidence suggest that analysts always inspect their data, and often adjust them in some way, to protect their analyses from the impact of extreme values, these practices are rarely documented. Based on the examination of the documentation accompanying the release of some 200 official poverty and inequality estimates by national statistical offices, Mancini and Vecchi (2022) find that the overwhelming majority does not even mention whether outliers were dealt with, and how.

`outdetect` does not purport to solve the complex and long-standing problem of outlier identification and treatment once and for all. In fact, `outdetect` does not include options to treat extreme values, as no automatic procedures exist that can be recommended for that. Rather, the command should be thought of as a heuristic tool, much in the spirit of Hampel (1974) and Huber (1981), aimed at helping practitioners, particularly welfare analysts, with assessing the impact of extreme values in their calculations. Our effort in developing `outdetect` has focused on taking stock of both theoretical results and the practical constraints faced by empirical analysts. As a result, `outdetect` is simple to use, fast to execute even in the presence of relatively large samples, and rooted in the academic literature. The command is intended to greatly facilitate the documentation of choices made 34
- Fiorini, M., Sanfilippo, M., and Sundaram, A. (2021). Trade liberalization, roads and firm productivity. _Journal of Development Economics_ , 153:102712.

- Ghosh, T., Anderson, S. J., Elvidge, C. D., and Sutton, P. C. (2013). Using nighttime satellite imagery as a proxy measure of human well-being. _Sustainability_ , 5(12):4988–5019.

- Henderson, J. V., Storeygard, A., and Weil, D. N. (2012). Measuring economic growth from outer space. _American Economic Review_ , 102(2):994–1028.

- Iimi, A., Mengesha, H. A., Markland, J., Asrat, Y., and Kassahun, K. (2018). Heterogeneous Impacts of Main and Feeder Road Improvements: Evidence from Ethiopia. _World Bank Policy Research Working Paper_ , (8548).

- Jedwab, R. and Storeygard, A. (2016). The Heterogeneous Effects of Transportation Investments: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa 1960-2010. https://urbanisation.econ.ox.ac.uk/papers/the-heterogeneous-effectsof-transportation-investments-evidence-from-sub-saharan-africa-1960-2010.

- Kebede, H. A. (2021). The gains from market integration: The welfare effects of new rural roads in Ethiopia. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3971749.

- Li, X. and Zhou, Y. (2017). A Stepwise Calibration of Global DMSP/OLS Stable Nighttime Light Data (1992-2013). _Remote Sensing_ , 9(6).

- Li, X., Zhou, Y., Zhao, M., and Zhao, X. (2020). A harmonized global nighttime light dataset 1992–2018. _Sci Data_ , 7(168).

- Michaels, G. (2008). The Effect of Trade on the Demand for Skill: Evidence from the Interstate Highway System. _The Review of Economics and Statistics_ , 90.

- Michaels, G., Rauch, F., and Redding, S. J. (2012). Urbanization and structural transformation. _The Quarterly Journal of Economics_ , 127(2):535–586.

- Mitnik, O. A., Sanchez, R., and Yanez-Pagans, P. (2018). Bright Investments: Measuring the Impact of Transport Infrastructure Using Luminosity Data in Haiti.

- Moneke, N. (2019). Can big push infrastructure unlock development? Evidence from Ethiopia. Working paper.

- Morten, M. and Oliveira, J. (2018). The effects of roads on trade and migration: Evidence from a planned capital city.

30
within the same period. In contrast with the case of Uruguay, we do not observe a clear pattern in the time evolution of wage cuts and freezes in Brazil (figure 6).

The incidence of the two rigidity regimes in Uruguay clearly illustrates that the macroeconomic environment plays a crucial role in the determination of wage rigidities, as highlighted by a clear regime shift in 1999-2000 (figure 7). In the fist years of our sample period, DRWR is very important, most likely as a result of a recent history of high inflation and widespread indexation in labor contracts. The share of workers in the real rigidity regime �p<sup>R�</sup> is 72 percent in 1996-1997 and 88 percent in 1997-1998. As inflation goes down, however, real rigidity rapidly declines. In 1998-1999, the share of workers subject to the real rigidity regime is 65 percent; this plummets to 12 percent the next year, and remains relatively stable below 8 percent, for the remainder of the period.

The shift away from DRWR as inflation declines in Uruguay is accompanied by a sharp rise in DNWR. During the first two years of wage changes, DNWR is very low according to our estimates: the fraction of workers subject to DNWR is just 12 percent. After a mild increase in 1998-1999, DNWR jumps to a new equilibrium in 1999-2000, when the share of workers subject to DNWR stabilizes at around 65 for the remainder of the period. However, the relationship between the two types of rigidities and inflation is more complex than one might initially suspect. When inflation peaks again in 2001-2002 and 2002-2003, the share of workers subject to DRWR remains low, while DNWR is still binding for a majority of the labor force (p<sup>N</sup> 2001−2002<sup>= 62% and pN</sup> 2002−2003<sup>= 78%).Note</sup> that this is the same period in which the share of both wage cuts and freezes grows sharply in Uruguay. The rationale for this behavior must be found in the severe recession in Uruguay during these years. Uruguay enters into a long recession in 1998Q4 which reaches its trough in 2002Q3, after a temporary upswing between 2000Q2 and 2001Q3.<sup>8</sup> In 2002, the severe crisis that affected the economy forced the central bank to let the exchange rate float freely, putting an end to the use of the exchange rate as a nominal anchor. Hence, even in the presence of high inflation during these years, firms are in

> 8 Peaks and troughs are identified using the Bry-Boschan quarterly (BBQ) algorithm (Harding and Pagan, 2002) on quarterly real GDP data for the period 1988Q1-2010Q3.

17
the rising trade between India and Pakistan has also been accompanied by a sharp rise in the trade deficit between them.<sup>7</sup> Nevertheless, compared with their economic strength, trade between India and Pakistan is negligible and much below its potential.

||**Table 1: I**<br>|**ndia’s Tr**<br>|**ade with Paki**<br>|**stan **<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Export**|**Import**|**Total Trade**|**Trade Balance**|
|||**(**|**US$ million)**||
|1990|43.49|44.86|88.35|-1.37|
|1995|70.4|37.37|107.77|33.03|
|2000|163.33|65.05|228.38|98.28|
|2005|647.19|158.42|805.61|488.77|
|2010|2252.89|310.44|2563.33|1942.45|
||||**CAGR (%)**||
|1990-1999|9.22|9.88|9.56||
|2000-2009|27.45|17.32|25.18||

Source: Calculated based on UNCOMTRADE

**<u>Table 2: Composition of India’s Top 15 Exports to Pakistan</u>**

|||**20**|**00**|**20**|**05**|**20**|**10**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**HS**<br>**Code**|**Commodity Description**|**Export**<br>**(US$**<br>**million)**|**Share***<br>**(%)**|**Export**<br>**(US$**<br>**million)**|**Share***<br>**(%)**|**Export**<br>**(US$**<br>**million)**|**Share***<br>**(%)**|
|1701|Cane or beet sugar and chemically pure sucrose,in solid form|37.11|22.65|1.09|0.18|611.65|27.36|
|5201|Cotton,not carded or combed.|**|**|33.18|5.60|300.33|13.43|
|5407|Woven fabrics of synthetic filamentyarn|0.00|0.00|0.01|0.00|299.09|13.38|
|2902|Cyclic hydrocarbons.|0.13|0.08|119.03|20.07|177.73|7.95|
|2304|Oil-cake and other solid residues|25.95|15.84|47.31|7.98|75.52|3.38|
|0713|Dried leguminous vegetables and shelled|0.19|0.12|18.86|3.18|58.40|2.61|
|4011|Newpneumatic tyres,of rubber|7.01|4.28|35.28|5.95|36.88|1.65|
|3204|Synthetic organic colouringmatter|7.16|4.37|13.49|2.27|32.37|1.45|
|2710|Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous minerals|**|**|21.72|3.66|26.49|1.18|
|0904|Pepper of thegenus Piper|3.42|2.09|0.09|0.01|25.52|1.14|
|3808|Pesticides|0.05|0.03|2.63|0.44|24.88|1.11|
|0902|Tea|5.84|3.57|7.69|1.30|23.42|1.05|
|7202|Ferro-alloys|0.39|0.24|5.87|0.99|22.23|0.99|
|3902|Polymers ofpropylene or of other olefins|10.80|6.59|21.97|3.70|20.60|0.92|
|2942|Other organic compounds|6.17|3.76|45.12|7.61|20.47|0.92|
||**Total export from India to Pakistan **|**163.83**|**63.62 **|**593.06**|**63.11**|**2235.79**|**79.33**|

Note: *Share in total export ** No trade Source: Calculated based on UNCOMTRADE

> 7 The widening and surplus trade balance is in favor of India; but it should not be the major concern. Bilateral trade deficit has to be seen in the light of country’s total trade balance.

5
The precise technology employed in this study was chosen after market research and consultation of experts in this area, who largely emphasized reliability, immediate availability and user friendliness in the field.<sup>7</sup> For these reasons we chose to use the belt-worn FitBit accelerometer, a three-dimensional accelerometer which measures activity duration and intensity in minutes. The accelerometer reports time spent in four levels of activities: Sedentary Minutes, and Lightly, Fairly and Very Active Minutes. The proprietary algorithm assigns minute intervals to any activity if the assessed activity is more strenuous (in terms of estimated caloric expenditure) than a slow-paced walk. The caloric expenditure threshold is normed to the BMI of the worker, with the three partitions of activity representing increasingly greater energy expenditures. The device tracks worker physical activity continuously throughout the day and cannot be manually turned off by the worker.

# **3. Study Setting**

The study is implemented on a single large (5,700 hectares) sugarcane plantation in rural Nigeria. The plantation employs 680 sugarcane cutters who work for the entire harvest season that stretches from mid-November to April (in this case the study year 2012-13) and are paid a piece rate wage. While there are other activities on the plantation, including a sugar processing facility, this study focuses solely on the sugarcane cutter labor force.

Workers are hired from local villages surrounding the plantation and are transported daily to and from the assigned work site. The cane-cutters are organized into eight work groups and each group is managed by a supervisor. Every day the supervisor and his cutters are allocated to a set of starting fields in the plantation and additional fields when the starting fields are finished. Sugarcane cutters do not work in teams to complete the rows of cane but rather work individually along a row until finished and are then assigned by the supervisor to another row to harvest. Rows

> 7 Ease of use was an important consideration, and even after choosing the most user-friendly option at the time, a number of trackers were lost. One alternative approach would have been to develop one’s own accelerometer. While this has the advantage over commercial products available at the time of fieldwork in that the underlying algorithms are known and available, discussions with experts in this field who are and have been developing their own devices indicated that the development is time consuming and costly, beyond the scope of our study.

8
in all four sectors except motor vehicles (where the share of skilled wags appears to be lower in South Africa than in comparators). Nevertheless, job creation in GVC exports has generally been biased in favor of skilled workers. In the motor vehicle, wearing apparel and other food GVCs, the relative contribution of skilled labor to each $100 of gross exports has increased significantly over the decade. However, the relative contribution has somewhat declined in electronic exports. Behar (2010b) shows that skilled labor complements unskilled labor in South Africa’s manufacturing sector, supporting our findings that skilled labor is used in the indirect production of (unskilled) export sectors.<sup>18</sup> These findings suggest that GVC integration is likely to have distributional consequences, which may in fact accelerate the underlying skills bias that are already prevalent in South African export production. The substitution of direct manufacturing jobs to indirect services jobs has been biased towards skilled labor. Coupling this with the strong shift toward indirect services employment suggests that skilled job creation may also happen through the services sector’s forward linkages (given that services are relatively more skilled intensive). This increase in the demand for skills in the export sector is consistent with the rising inequality experienced by South Africa throughout the period (Bhorat and van der Westhuizen 2012).

**Figure 20: Skilled and unskilled labor content per $100 of gross exports in GVC-intensive sectors 2001 vs. 2011**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Wearing Apparel Motor Vehicles<br>BRA 20012011 BRA 20012011<br>CHL 20012011 CHL 20012011<br>CHN 20012011 CHN 20012011<br>COL 20012011 COL 20012011<br>IND 20012011 IND 20012011<br>PER 20012011 PER 20012011<br>RUS 20012011 RUS 20012011<br>THA 20012011 THA 20012011<br>TUR 20012011 TUR 20012011<br>ZAF 20012011 ZAF 20012011<br>0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80<br>Total LVAX share (%) Total LVAX share (%)<br>Total LVAX Unskilled Total LVAX Skilled Total LVAX Unskilled Total LVAX Skilled<br><!-- End of picture text -->

> 18 Edwards and Behar (2005) also find evidence that trade liberalization and technological change have affected the skill structure of employment, where export orientation is positively associated with the skill intensity of production.

31
Improving data collection can facilitate better policies to enhance migration for development.<sup>29</sup> The development community can further leverage remittance flows for development by making them cheaper, safer and more productive for both the sending and the receiving countries. An ―International Remittances Agenda‖ would involve: (1) monitoring, analysis and projections; (2) improving retail payment systems through use of better technologies and appropriate regulatory changes; (3) linking remittances to financial access at the household level; and (4) leveraging remittances for capital market access at the institutional or macro levels (Ratha 2007).

As the labor market becomes increasingly global, the educational policies in developing countries will need to be revised to invest in skills that are needed within the country as well as in the global labor markets. On the other hand, the race for talent has led some destination country institutions to actively engage in recruitment of highly educated migrants, such as doctors. However, attempts to regulate skilled-worker mobility, or so-called ―ethical recruitment policies‖, does little to address the underlying causes of emigration decisions, and often leads to unintended adverse consequences (Clemens 2009). The freedom of mobility should thus be allowed for all skill-levels, while complementary measures can be developed to foster service provision and skill development in the source country.

Recruitment companies account often for the majority of the cost of migrating, especially when it comes to low-skilled migrants (Lucas 2005, p. 278) that can leave the migrant in debt, lower wages than promised, long hours and unsafe working conditions (see e.g. Chammartin 2005). Facilitating migration through safe and legal channels through better monitoring of recruitment processes and bilateral coordination will help to protect the rights of the migrants and fight exploitation and trafficking (UNDP 2009, p. 103). Providing knowledge about the migration process and language of the destination

> wide discrepancies were discovered between the true estimated remittance flows and the figures reported in the balance of payment statistics to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

> 29 A recent report by the Commission on International Migration Data for Development Research and Policy (2009) suggest five concrete steps towards improved availability and quality of migrant and remittance data. Further guidance can be found in Black & Skeldon (2009).

20
_conditional_ or _unconditional_ transfers. This experimental design allows the study team to isolate the impact of the _conditionality_ on various outcomes of interest.

Second, two separate transfers were made to the household in which the target beneficiary lived. The household (or parental) transfer size was randomized _across_ treatment EAs, and the size of the transfer that was made directly to the girl was independently randomized at the individual level _within_ EAs, which allows us to estimate the elasticity of outcomes with respect to transfer size. ‘Pure’ income elasticity can be estimated by restricting the analysis to only those receiving _unconditional_ transfers. In addition, because these two transfer sizes are independently randomized, we have experimental identification over the impact of the _split_ of the transfers, conditional on the total transfer size. Therefore we can investigate whether, for a given cost, impacts can be improved by altering the recipient of the transfer. Finally, the percentage of girls assigned to the treatment group was randomized at the EA level, and hence our survey includes a group of randomly selected ‘within village controls’ who did not receive the treatment. Using this second control group, we can exploit the direct randomization of treatment saturations to test for the presence of spillover effects within villages.

The CCT program started at the beginning of the Malawian school year in January, 2008 and will continue for two years until November, 2009. Baseline data collection was conducted in the autumn of 2007 and follow-up data collection to assess the one-year impact of the program was conducted in the autumn of 2008. Our results are based on the first two rounds of a household survey covering 3,805 girls and young women, between the ages of 13 and 22, and never-married as of baseline. Our sample was randomly drawn (using the above eligibility criteria) using data from a full listing exercise, meaning that we are able to weight our estimates to represent the entire eligible population in the 176 study EAs.<sup>5</sup> We implemented a baseline survey after the listing exercise and before the selection of treatment status, and our follow-up survey comes at the end of the first school year in which the program operated. The reader

> 5 We choose not to weight our estimates to represent all of Zomba given that our sampling strategy explicitly sampled very few EAs further than 16km from Zomba city and no EAs from TA Mbiza.

4
19 labor force has grown somewhat more rapidly than in Latin America, this advance is fully explained by within sector gains in the fraction of women in the labor force. In North Africa and South and West Asia, where women are a decreasing fraction of the labor force, intersectoral shifts in employment are relatively unimportant. The declines in women's participation are widely distributed across sectors, either because there has been a widespread displacement of women from the work force, or the redrawing more narrowly of the definition of the labor force in censuses after 1961 has reduced the enumeration of women in informal and family production activities.

Table 8 therefore repeats the decomposition analysis based only on the fraction of wage earners who are women. This indicator of women's participation should be less affected by changes int he deitinition of gainful economic activity within the family. The wage earner data suggest, nonetheless, that the entire gain in women's status in firm employment can still be traced to the changing sectoral composition of wage employment in Latin America. In East Asia and Africa, the increase in the fraction of wage earners who are women is attributable to advances in this fraction within sectors, and is not linked to changes in the sectoral composition of employment. Thus, even when family employments are excluded, women in South and West Asia are still losing ground in terms of their fraction of wage employment, and this is not attributable to changes in the composition of employment in this region, or more accurately the lack of it.