Table 10: Impact of the Intervention on several mechanism indices

||(1)<br>Resource utilization|(2)<br>Teacher management|(3)<br>Teacher efort|(4)<br>Teacher practices|(5)<br>Remedial classes|(6)<br>School culture|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Treatment|0_._088|0_._148|0_._031|_−_0_._003|0_._193_∗_|_−_0_._116|
||(0_._094)|(0_._101)|(0_._103)|(0_._102)|(0_._102)|(0_._102)|
|Constant|_−_0_._046|_−_0_._099|_−_0_._009|_−_0_._057|_−_0_._085|0_._007|
||(0_._074)|(0_._080)|(0_._082)|(0_._076)|(0_._082)|(0_._113)|
|Observations|386|386|386|386|386|386|
|R-sqr|0_._144|0_._039|0_._007|0_._024|0_._022|0_._004|

_Notes:_ This table looks at the impact of the school leadership on summary indices of intermediate outcomes at school level. Indices constructed using the generalized least-square method proposed by Anderson (2018: Journal of the American Statistical Association 103: 1481–1495). All regressions are adjusted by the value of the outcome variable observed at MLSS baseline. Significant findings are robust to multiple hypothesis testing based on FWER Romano-Wolf p-values from 2000 bootstrapped replications. Robust standard errors are reported in the second row (in parentheses). ***, **, and * indicate significance at the 1, 5, and 10 percent critical level.

_Resource utilization_ includes indicators relating to lower primary PTRs, the ratio of PTRs between lower and upper primary, and lower primary pupil-textbook ratios.

_Teacher management_ , includes frequency of observation of teachers by Head Teachers and of use of rewards for teacher performance.

_Teacher effort_ includes teacher attendance and presence in the classroom, assigning and marking of homework, teacher job satisfaction, and time on task.

_Teaching practices_ includes whether teachers asked students questions, employed teaching aids or local materials to help deliver lessons, or displayed instructional materials in the classroom.

_Remedial classes_ includes the frequency of remedial classes and share of grades in which they are offered. _School cultures_ includes measures of the incidence of physical and verbal bullying by teachers and students. See Appendix A for full details of intermediate indicators.

Table 11: Impact of the Intervention on the components of the Remedial Classes mechanism

||(1)<br>School ofers<br>remedial classes|(2)<br>Remedial Classes<br>Average Frequency|(3)<br>Remedial Classes<br>(Share of Grades)|(4)<br>Free<br>Remedial Classes<br>(Share of Grades)|(5)<br>Lower Primary<br>Remedial Classes<br>(Share of Grades)|(6)<br>Upper Primary<br>Remedial Classes<br>(Share of Grades)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Treatment|0_._042|0_._655_∗∗_|5_._325_∗∗_|5_._220_∗∗_|3_._884|6_._602_∗_|
||(0_._026)|(0_._328)|(2_._550)|(2_._519)|(2_._970)|(3_._678)|
|Constant|0_._900_∗∗∗_|4_._518_∗∗∗_|54_._397_∗∗∗_|53_._614_∗∗∗_|87_._990_∗∗∗_|15_._364_∗∗∗_|
||(0_._046)|(0_._241)|(2_._003)|(1_._989)|(2_._412)|(2_._638)|
|Observations|386|386|386|386|386|386|
|R-sqr|0_._009|0_._022|0_._015|0_._015|0_._006|0_._015|

_Notes:_ This table looks at the impact of the school leadership on prevalence of remedial classes at the school level. All regressions are adjusted by the value of the outcome variable observed at MLSS baseline. Significant findings are robust to multiple hypothesis testing based on FWER Romano-Wolf p-values from 2000 bootstrapped replications. Robust standard errors are reported in the second row (in parentheses). ***, **, and * indicate significance at the 1, 5, and 10 percent critical level.

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