rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# **Dependent Variable: LN of total cost of tax compliance**

||Coeff.|Std. Error|Sig.|
|---|---|---|---|
|(Constant)|7.202|0.362|0.0%|
|LN full-time employees|0.086|0.035|1.6%|
|LN of q55 after imputed values were introduced (imputed "no|0.191|0.027|0.0%|
|answer")||||
|Share of activities completely outsourced|-0.855|0.130|0.0%|
|Share of activities partially outsourced|-0.222|0.126|7.9%|
|Guateng provincial dummy|0.167|0.075|2.7%|
|Western Cape provincial dummy|0.064|0.098|51.0%|
|sole proprietor dummy|-0.531|0.116|0.0%|
|close corporation dummy|-0.202|0.087|2.1%|
|Manufacturing|-0.189|0.105|7.1%|
|VAT|0.220|0.120|6.7%|
|PAYE|0.236|0.101|2.0%|
|Adj. R2|0.448|||
|Mean of the dependent variable|9.864|||

**Dependent Variable: Sensitivity analysis: LN Total cost of tax compliance (-10% across the board)**

||Coeff.|Std. Error|Sig.|
|---|---|---|---|
|(Constant)|7.110|0.361|0.0%|
|LN full-time employees|0.086|0.035|1.5%|
|LN of q55 after imputed values were introduced (imputed "no|0.192|0.027|0.0%|
|answer")||||
|Share of activities completely outsourced|-0.787|0.130|0.0%|
|Share of activities partially outsourced|-0.192|0.126|12.8%|
|Guateng provincial dummy|0.170|0.075|2.4%|
|Western Cape provincial dummy|0.073|0.098|45.3%|
|sole proprietor dummy|-0.537|0.115|0.0%|
|close corporation dummy|-0.211|0.087|1.6%|
|Manufacturing|-0.185|0.104|7.7%|
|VAT|0.226|0.120|6.0%|
|PAYE|0.232|0.101|2.2%|
|Adj. R2|0.444|||
|Mean of the dependent variable|9.818|||

|**Dependent Variable: Sensitivity analysis: LN Total cost of tax**<br>**board)**|**compliance (**|**-20% across**|**the**|
|---|---|---|---|
||Coeff.|Std. Error|Sig.|
|(Constant)|7.009|0.360|0.0%|
|LN full-time employees|0.087|0.035|1.4%|
|LN of q55 after imputed values were introduced (imputed "no|0.192|0.027|0.0%|
|answer")||||
|Share of activities completely outsourced|-0.714|0.130|0.0%|
|Share of activities partially outsourced|-0.159|0.126|20.7%|
|Guateng provincial dummy|0.174|0.075|2.1%|
|Western Cape provincial dummy|0.083|0.097|39.5%|

43
appear to have evicted tenants altogether, resorting instead to mechanization, cattle ranching, or cultivation using a hired labor force (de Janvry and Sadoulet, 1993). The implications for land rentals, although they have not been rigorously quantified in any of the cases, appear to have been considerable.

# 3.2 LAND **SALES MARKETS**

The discussion of the previous section implies that credit market imperfections tend to cause the equilibrium price of land to be above the capitalized value of the income stream that can be generated by an individual who has to rely on full mortgage-based land acquisition. In addition, policy distortions will tend to increase the wedge between the price of land and the capitalized value of the income from agricultural production. Use of land as an inflation hedge, as well as credit subsidies and tax advantages that allow the use agricultural activities as a tax shelter are examples (Gunjal et al. 1996; Brandao and Rezende 1992; Just and Miranowski 1989; Feldstein 1980). To the degree that such distortions confer disproportionate benefits to larger landholders (as in the case of tax advantages which are generally of no relevance to the poor), this would further bias the operation of the land sales market against redistributing land to landless or marginal landowning households who could have a productivity advantage as family farmers.

Analysis of land market transactions and offer and asking prices in Paraguay indicates the presence of a large gap between willingness to sell and willingness to pay,<sup>33</sup> significant differences in such prices across farm sizes, and very distinct regional patterns of land market performance depending whether or not other markets exist and how well they function (Carter and Zegarra 1996). Both reported and actual sales prices are downward sloping over the 1-40 hectare range (indicating superior productivity of small farmers) in traditionally settled zones in the country's interior, but not at the frontier where the labor cost advantage of family farms was overshadowed by capital market imperfections. Simulations using regression parameters suggest that the productivity advantage of small farmers would manifest itself in the land purchase market only if land market reform was combined with improved access to capital markets. A similar conclusion is implied by the observation that the degree to which financial markets were accessible to small producers was (together with the initial distribution of assets and the characteristics of the production system) one of the key factors that determined the response of land accumulation patterns to agro-export booms in Guatemala and Chile (Carter and Barham 1996).

> Willingness to sell was significantly higher than was willing to pay to purchase land but the gap decreases with farm size (from 50% for the smallest farms to 20% for medium sized units). This could be in indication for labor market imperfections, i.e. the value given to land as a source for self-employment, in addition to small farmers' unwillingness to be bought out.

20
- - <u>http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934 1184090646382/Lofgren Diaz-Bonilla-2010-MAMS-Descr+Math-June10.pdf</u>

Lofgren, Hans, Martin Cicowiez, and Carolina Diaz-Bonilla (2012) “MAMS – A Computable General Equilibrium Model for Developing Country Strategy Analysis”, pp. 159–276 in Dixon, Peter B. and Dale W. Jorgenson, D.W. (Eds.), Handbook of Computable General Equilibrium Modeling. North Holland, Elsevier B.V.

Luecke, Matthias, Alex Oprunenco, and Valeriu Prohnitchi (2011) _Options for a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement between Moldova and the EU_ . German Economic Team Moldova, Policy Paper Series, PP/02/2011, Berlin/Chisinau, May.

National Bank of Moldova (2012) Balance of payments data. Available at: http://www.bnm.md.

Oprunenco, Alex (2011) _The Impact of the Russian Wine Embargo: Estimation of the Economic Impact, Using a Computable General Equilibrium Model for Analyzing the Impact of the Economic Policies Relevant for Moldova’s European Integration_ , Expert Grup, Chisinau, February.

Prohnitchi, Valeríu, Alex Oprunenco (2010) _Moldova 2009: State of the Country Report_ , Expert Grup, Chisinau.

Prohnitchi, Valeríu (2011) _Moldova and EU Liberalizing Trade: How much for the Agro-industrial Sector to Suffer? Using a Computable General Equilibrium Model for Analyzing the Impact of the Economic Policies Relevant for Moldova’s European Integration_ . Expert Grup. Discussion Draft. Chisinau. February.

Qehaja, Driton (2012) _Fiscal Policy Responses to External Crises: The Case of Moldova 1998-2010_ , IMF Working Paper WP/12/82, March.

Statistics Moldova (2011) _External Trade of the Republic of Moldova 2001-2010_ , Statistical Yearbook.

Statistics Moldova(2011) National accounts data. Available at: <u>http://www.statistica.md/index.php?l=en</u> Walewski, Mateusz, Mayu Sandu, Georgeta Mincu, Eugene Hristev, and Beata Matysiewicz (2008) _The effects of migration and remittances in rural Moldova and a Poland’s case study of migration management_ . CASE - Centre for Social and Economic Research. Warsaw.

World Bank (2009) _Moldova: Policy Notes for the Government_ . May 2009.

World Bank (2011) _Moldova Country Economic Memorandum: After the Global Crisis: Promoting Competitiveness and Shared Growth_ , Report No. 55195-MD, April 4. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, Europe and Central Asia Region.

World Bank (2012) World Development Indicators. October 1. Available at: - <u>http://data.worldbank.org/data catalog</u> 38
# **Distributional Effects of WTO Agricultural Reforms in Rich and Poor Countries**

## **Abstract**

Rich countries’ agricultural trade policies are the battleground on which the future of the WTO’s troubled Doha Round will be determined. Subject to widespread criticism, they nonetheless appear to be almost immune to serious reform, and one of their most common defenses is that they protect poor farmers. Our findings reject this claim. The analysis conducted here uses detailed data on farm incomes to show that major commodity programs are highly regressive in the US, and that the only serious losses under trade reform are among large, wealthy, farmers in a few heavily protected subsectors. In contrast, analysis using household data from 15 developing countries indicates that reforming rich countries’ agricultural trade policies would lift large numbers of developing country farm households out of poverty. In the majority of cases these gains are not outweighed by the poverty-increasing effects of higher food prices among other households. Agricultural reforms that appear feasible, even under an ambitious Doha Round, achieve only a fraction of the benefits for developing countries that full liberalization promises, but protect the wealthiest US farms from most of the rigors of adjustment. Finally, the analysis conducted here indicates that maximal trade-led poverty reductions occur when developing countries participate more fully in agricultural trade liberalization.

Keywords: WTO, Poverty, Trade Liberalization, Distributional impacts of policy ii
|Author (Year)|Study Type &<br>Location|Participants|Diet Assessed|Nutrition, health<br>outcomes assessed|Key findings|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||includes Brazil,<br>China, the Islamic<br>Republic of Iran<br>Meta-analysis<br>(n=38)||food groups, dietary<br>patterns)||2.94), red and processed meat (RR 1.61;<br>1.06, 2.45). High dietary fiber negatively<br>associated with GDM (p<0.05). No<br>association for SSB, potato and fish intake.|
|Haghighatdoost et<br>al. (2023)|SRM of 31<br>observational<br>studies (18<br>prospective cohort,<br>7 cross-sectional, 6<br>case-control),<br>includes Brazil,<br>China, the Islamic<br>Republic of Iran;<br>meta-analysis<br>(n=27)|Pregnant women<br>16+ y (healthy diet<br>patterns 26 studies<br>n=80 849);<br>unhealthy diet<br>patterns 15 studies<br>n= 32 965)|Dietary patternsduring<br>pregnancy (n=25) or<br>pre-pregnancy (n=5);<br>assessed using FFQ<br>(n=23), dietary recall or<br>record (n=8)|GDM<br>Assessed using<br>glucose test (n-24) or<br>self-report (n=7)|Pregnant women with a healthier dietary<br>pattern (a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and<br>whole grains) had lower risk for GDM(RR =<br>0.86; 0.76–0.96). Marginally significant<br>association between unhealthy dietary<br>patterns and GDM risk (1.28; 0.99–1.67).|
|X. Gao et al. (2023)|SRM of 19 studies<br>(15 cohort, 4 case-<br>control), 5 in China,<br>3 in the Islamic<br>Republic of Iran<br>(11 studies<br>included in meta-<br>analysis)|Pregnant and pre-<br>pregnant (6 studies)<br>women (n=108,084)|Diet quality<br>(Mediterranean diet,<br>DASH, Alternate Healthy<br>Eating Index, other<br>quality indices or<br>scores)|GDM|Higher quality diet reduced risk of GDM<br>(Higher Mediterranean diet (OR 0.51;<br>0.30,0.86), DASH (0.66;0.44-0.97), AHEI<br>(0.61; 0.44-0.83), overall plant-based diet<br>index (0.57; 0.41-0.78), and adherence to<br>national dietary guidelines (0.39; 0.31-0.48).|
|Paula et al. (2022)|SRM of 61 studies<br>(47 cohort, 9 cross-<br>sectional, 5 case-<br>control) from<br>various countries|Pregnant women<br>(n=698,803)|UPF-rich diet<br>consumption(Western<br>diet pattern n=17;<br>sweetened beverages<br>n=12; specific UPF food<br>groups n=12; et al.)|GWG (n=5), GDM<br>(n=15), hypertension<br>(n=3), pre-eclampsia<br>(n=4)<br>LBW (n=11); LGA<br>(n=8); preterm birth<br>(n=4)|Higher consumption of UPF-rich diet<br>increased the odds of GDM (OR 1.48; 1.17,<br>1.87) and pre-eclampsia (OR 1.28; 1.15,<br>1.42) but not hypertension, excessive GWG,<br>LBW, LGA or PTB.|
|Abdollahi et al.<br>(2021)|SRM of 66 cohort<br>studies included in<br>meta-analysis,<br>various HICs and<br>LMICs|Adult mothers (18+<br>y)|Dietary patterns:<br>healthy, unhealthy,<br>mixed|GDM (n=17),<br>hypertension (n=15),<br>GWG (n=10), preterm<br>birth (n=12), LBW (n=7)|Higher maternal adherence to healthy diet<br>associated with lower risk of gestational<br>hypertension(OR 0.86; 0.81, 0.91), LBW (OR<br>0.72; 0.53, 0.97), preterm birth(OR 0.44;<br>0.31, 0.62), and higher birth weight (Hedges’<br>g: 0.91; 0.05, 0.32); adherence to unhealthy<br>or mixed diet associated with higher risk of<br>gestational hypertension (OR 1.23; 1.14,<br>1.34)|

28
**FIGURE 1: CRUDE OIL PRICES (US$ per barrel)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 70<br>Nominal Real (1990, MUV-deflated)<br>60<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005<br>Source: World Bank<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**_— 18 —_**
<mark>While this paper is primarily focused on changes in inequality over time, it is important to note that Mexico is characterized by relatively high inequality. Table 1 shows that Mexico is among the top 25 least equal countries. Mexico’s pattern of inequality over time offers an excellent opportunity to learn about the link between globalization and inequality. Dozens of papers have tried to explain the initial rise in inequality that occurred after Mexico joined the GATT in 1986. When considering the relationship between globalization and wage inequality, however, it is important to explain both rising and falling inequality. Explaining falling inequality is important because around 1997, Latin American wage inequality generally, and Mexican inequality in particular, started to fall. Figure 1 shows two separate measures of Mexican earnings inequality. T</mark> he first is based on the nonproduction-production worker wage ratio in manufacturing. The manufacturing wage series is calculated using data from the _Encuesta Industrial Mensual_ (Monthly Industrial Survey) available on line at http://dgcnesyp.inegi.gob.mx/bdiesi/bdie.html. The wage series is the average wages of nonproduction workers divided by the average wages of production workers.

<mark>The fall in inequality is not limited to manufacturing. The evolution of the Gini coefficient calculated from household surveys for 16-65 year-old males in 20 urban areas exhibits the same pattern. The rise and subsequent fall in inequality was first documented in Mexico following the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) by Robertson (2004) and followed by Robertson (2007) and Esquivel et al. (2010). Falling inequality was subsequently documented throughout Latin America (Lopez-Calva and Lustig 2010). Note that the manufacturing series rises more quickly but falls more slowly.</mark> <mark>Many trade theories, including the neoclassical Heckscher-Ohlin (HO) model and the related Stolper-Samuelson theorem, suggest that it is output prices that drive wage inequality. S</mark> tolper and Samuelson (1941) show that an increase in the relative price of, say, labor-intensive goods would increase the demand for labor relative to human capital (e.g. education) in the economy. This increase in demand causes wages to rise and the price of human capital to fall. Figure 2 plots the relative prices of skillintensive goods in Mexican manufacturing from 1988 to 2005. The ratio of nonproduction to production 4
# **H RD Plot with Local-linear Fitted Polynomial**

Figure H.1. Socioeconomic Well-being – Fuzzy RD Plots with Local-linear Fitted Polynomial <!-- Start of picture text --> Well-being (Index) Consumption per Capita (log)<br>-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200<br>Arrival (days from June 8, 2018) Arrival (days from June 8th 2018)<br>Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 1 Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 1<br>Labor Income (log) Employed<br>-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200<br>Arrival (days from June 8, 2018) Arrival (days from June 8, 2018)<br>Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 1 Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 1<br>.6 1.6<br>.5 1.55<br>.4 1.5<br>.3 1.45<br>.2 1.4<br>Well-being (Index) .1<br>1.35<br>0 Consumption per Capita (log)<br>1.3<br>-.1 1.25<br>.5 .75<br>.7<br>.45<br>.65<br>.6<br>.4<br>Employed .55<br>Labor Income (log) .35 .5<br>.45<br>.3 .4<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Notes:_ Each graph depicts the bias-corrected estimator 200 days around June 8, 2018, when the RAMV census closed, and the mean squared error (MSERD) optimal bandwidths. Confidence intervals are at the 95% significance level.

68
SOUTH SUDAN’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A CONTINENTAL PERSPECTIVE

- Eberhard, Anton, Vivien Foster, Cecilia Briceño-Garmendia, Fatimata Ouedraogo, Daniel Camos, and Maria Shkaratan. 2008. ―Underpowered: The State of the Power Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 6, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Foster, Vivien, and Jevgenijs Steinbuks. 2009. ―Paying the Price for Unreliable Power Supplies: In-House Generation of Electricity by Firms in Africa.‖ Policy Research Working Paper 4913, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Rosnes, Orvika, and Haakon Vennemo. 2009. ―Powering Up: Costing Power Infrastructure Spending Needs in Sub-Saharan Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 5, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

# Transport

- Bofinger, Heinrich C. 2009. ―An Unsteady Course: Growth and Challenges in Africa’s Air Transport Industry.‖ AICD Background Paper 16, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Bullock, Richard. 2009. ―Off Track: Sub-Saharan African Railways.‖ AICD Background Paper 17, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Carruthers, Robin, Ranga Rajan Krishnamani, and Siobhan Murray. 2009. ―Improving Connectivity: Investing in Transport Infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 7, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Gwilliam, Ken, Vivien Foster, Rodrigo Archondo-Callao, Cecilia Briceño-Garmendia, Alberto Nogales, and Kavita Sethi. 2008. ―The Burden of Maintenance: Roads in Sub-Saharan Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 14, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Kumar, Ajay, and Fanny Barrett. 2008. ―Stuck in Traffic: Urban Transport in Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 1, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Ocean Shipping Consultants, Inc. 2009. ―Beyond the Bottlenecks: Ports in Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 8, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Sudan Tribune. 2011. South Sudan: Fuel crisis hits, prices soar after referendum. January 28. <u>http://www.sudantribune.com/South-Sudan-Fuel-crisis-hits,37804</u>

- Teravaninthorn, Supee, and Gael Raballand. 2009. _Transport Prices and Costs in Africa_ . Washington, DC: World Bank.

# Water supply and sanitation

Banerjee, Sudeshna, Vivien Foster, Yvonne Ying, Heather Skilling, and Quentin Wodon. ―Cost

- Recovery, Equity, and Efficiency in Water Tariffs: Evidence from African Utilities.‖ AICD Working Paper 7, World Bank, Washington, DC.

- Banerjee, Sudeshna, Heather Skilling, Vivien Foster, Cecilia Briceño-Garmendia, Elvira Morella, and Tarik Chfadi. 2008. ―Ebbing Water, Surging Deficits: Urban Water Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa.‖ AICD Background Paper 12, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC.

51
# **Table S4.15.** ITT effects on other ISFM-related practices, FREG sample.

|||||FREG<br>|sample<br>||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Ado<br>ur|pted<br>ea|Ado<br>green m|pted<br>anuring|Ado<br>intercr|pted<br>opping|Ado<br>forag|pted<br>e crops|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|(7)|(8)|
|T1 (extension)|0.134***|0.136***|0.153**|0.139***|0.207***|0.208***|0.310***|0.310***|
||(0.048)|(0.029)|(0.059)|(0.037)|(0.072)|(0.053)|(0.048)|(0.046)|
|Unadjusted p-value|0.005|0.000|0.010|0.000|0.004|0.000|0.000|0.000|
|Adjusted p-value|0.014|0.000|0.033|0.000|0.013|0.000|0.000|0.000|
|T2 (extension + video)|0.177***|0.182***|0.139***|0.160***|0.177***|0.212***|0.221***|0.220***|
||(0.060)|(0.046)|(0.053)|(0.040)|(0.057)|(0.045)|(0.066)|(0.058)|
|Unadjusted p-value|0.003|0.000|0.008|0.000|0.002|0.000|0.001|0.000|
|Adjusted p-value|0.009|0.000|0.027|0.000|0.006|0.000|0.003|0.000|
|Test T1 >= T2 (unadjusted p-value)|0.235|0.132|0.600|0.300|0.654|0.467|0.904|0.939|
|Test T1 >= T2 (adjusted p-value)|0.534|0.332|0.953|0.697|0.968|0.870|1.000|1.000|
|Endline control mean|0.8|50|0.0|40|0.2|45|0.|190|
|Additional controls|No|Yes|No|Yes|No|Yes|No|Yes|
|(Pseudo)R-squared|0.123|0.478|0.078|0.356|0.034|0.203|0.074|0.171|
|Observations|400|400|400|400|400|400|400|400|

_Source:_ Authors’ analyses based on baseline and endline survey data.

_Note:_ Average marginal effects (AME) of probit models. FREG stands for ‘Farmer research and extension group’. FREG- and non-FREG samples consist of actual FREG respectively non-FREG farmers in treatment mws and their matched controls. Additional control variables identical to those listed in notes of Table 2. Bonferroni-adjusted p-values taking into account correlations between outcomes. One-sided equality tests of T1 and T2 are Wald tests. Robust standard errors in parentheses, clustered at the mws level. Significance levels indicated as following: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.

22
Policy Research Working Paper 10143

# **Abstract**

This paper uses high-frequency phone survey data from Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda to analyze the impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on work (including wage employment, self-employment, and farm work) and income, as well as heterogeneity by gender, family composition, education, age, pre-COVID19 industry of work, and between the rural and urban sectors. The paper links phone survey data collected throughout the pandemic to pre-COVID-19 face-to-face survey data to track the employment of respondents who were working before the pandemic and analyze individual-level indicators of job loss and re-employment. Finally, it analyzes both immediate impacts, during the first few months of the pandemic, as well as longer run impacts through February/March 2021. The findings show that in the early phase of the pandemic, women, young, and urban workers were significantly more likely to lose their jobs. A year after the onset of the pandemic, these inequalities disappeared and education became the main predictor of joblessness. The analysis finds significant rural/urban, age, and education gradients in household-level income loss. Households with income from nonfarm enterprises were the most likely to report income loss, in the short run as well as the longer run.

This paper is a product of the Development Data Group, Development Economics and the Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http:// www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at apalacioslopez@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team