gender in Colombia are less than five percentage points. Thus, these may not make much difference to the final estimates in practice.

# **IFLS panel household survey data: Indonesia**

The IFLS includes a total of 54,000 household observations over five waves from 2,556 subdistricts in 26 provinces. Focusing on the socioeconomic and health aspects of the households, the survey was conducted for the first time in 1993 covering 13 of the total 26 provinces in the country. In a sample of 22,000 individuals from 7,224 households, the survey collected data on individual respondents and their families (households) in addition to data on communities, health, and education facilities. In 1997/98, the second wave was administered to the same respondents with a recontact rate of 94.4 percent. That survey had the particularity to account for the economic and political crisis in Indonesia. The third wave in 2000 was managed to recontact 95.3 percent of the first wave sample while the fourth and the fifth rounds conducted in 2007/08 and 2014/15 recontacted 93.6 and 90.5 percent, respectively, of the first wave sample (Strauss et al. 2016, cited in Setiawan, Tiwari, and Rizal 2018).

We measured poverty based on per capita consumption expenditures with the national poverty line following Setiawan, Tiwari, and Rizal (2018). The IFLS accounts for the expenditure of the consumption of 37 food items over a seven-day recall period and various nonfood items.<sup>4</sup> The nominal consumption aggregate is both temporally and spatially deflated.<sup>5</sup> In addition to poverty, we identified vulnerable people with a vulnerability line, which is set at 1.5 times the poverty line.

Roberts, Sander, and Tiwari (2019) highlight the importance of classifying urban areas based on their functionality instead of mere population size in Indonesia. Following Duranton (2015), we defined the following four location categories: (1) _metro core_ , which stands for Jakarta or a district with the highest population density for other metros; (2) _urban peripheries_ , which are predominantly urban non-core districts; (3) _other urban areas_ that account for single-district metro (predominantly urban with _kotas)_ or non-metro urban (predominantly urban non-metro districts); and (4) _rural areas_ , which encompass the rural periphery (predominantly rural non-core district) or non-metro rural areas (predominantly rural non-metro districts).

# **Climate data: Flood risk index and SPEI**

To account for climatic and environmental shocks, we used two indicators: flood risk index and the SPEI. Those climatic variables are prepared at the subdistrict level.

The primary climatic stressor analyzed in this study is flood risk, given its potential threat to urban livelihoods. To capture the flood risk, we used the flood depth data provided by FATHOM in 2016. The flood depth is expressed in meters and computed <mark>at 3 arc-second (approximately 90 m) resolution and has a global coverage between 56°S and 60°N.</mark> The computation is based on pluvial data with a return period of 100 years (1-in-100 flood depth).<sup>6</sup> The 1-in-100 flood depth means <mark>a flood event that has a 1 percent probability of occurring in any given year w</mark> ithin 100 years. We classified the areas

> 4 Nonfood expenditures include household amenities (for example, refrigerator, TV, and telephone); housing; assorted items such as clothing, furniture, medical, ceremonies, education (tuition, uniform, transportation, boarding); and others. Regarding the housing expenditure, the actual monthly rent paid was recorded. However, if the household owns the house, the estimated rent was imputed.

> 5 Temporal deflation is based on the consumer price index series; spatial deflator is calculated based on the ratio of the regional poverty lines to the national poverty line, obtained from the National Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS) of the corresponding wave.

> 6 See <u><mark>https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/2015WR016954 f</mark></u> or more details on the computation method.

6