whether any of a woman’s children have died, the number of children who have died, and the share of children who have died.<sup>25</sup> For the sample of women who have had children, nearly 30 percent have had at least one child die, the average number of children who died is 0.57 and 10 percent of children born have died.<sup>26</sup> None of the average effects are statistically significant, although they are negative as expected, except for the OLS estimate of any children died and the IV estimate of share of children that died. The reductions in whether a woman has had at least one child die by age group are small, statistically insignificant, and many have a positive rather than negative sign. For the number of children that have died, there are statistically significant and negative effect of family planning for women 30-34 using OLS. Likewise, for the share of children who have died, the only statistically significant effect is for women younger than 20. For older women the effects are small and not statistically significant, although negative (except for women age 40 to 45). The small effects on child mortality and that the effects seem to be concentrated among the youngest women indicate that it is unlikely that the reduction in fertility comes from a reduction in mortality because of access to health facilities. A more convincing explanation is that family planning services reduced fertility and that lead to slightly lower child mortality.<sup>27</sup> Yet another indirect approach to determining whether it is access to health facility services in general or access to family planning services specifically that are responsible for the reduction in fertility is to examine two outcomes that are mainly influenced by family planning rather than health facilities: unwanted births or pregnancies, and recent birth or pregnancy. Even if lower child mortality leads to lower desired fertility, it is, for example, harder to avoid unwanted births or pregnancies unless one has regular access to family planning services.

Table 6 shows the effects of family planning on the last birth or current pregnancy being unwanted. The results should, however, be interpreted with caution because around 80 percent of women have had access 25The corresponding results using any health facility access are available on request, but lead to qualitatively similar results.

> 26It should be kept in mind that this includes mortality after age 5 and the sample consists solely of women with no schooling. For comparison the 2005 Ethiopian DHS show an under 5 mortality rate of 123 per 1000 live births for the 5 years preceeding the survey, 141 per 1000 live births for the period 5 to 9 years before the survey, and 165 per 1000 live births for the period 10 to 14 years before the survey. In addition, the under 5 mortality rate for women with schooling for the 10 years before the survey was 139 per 1000 live births (Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia and ORC Macro 2006).

> 27The reduction in mortality among younger women is consistent with the delay in fertility among very young women. This delay would lead to higher birth weight and therefore higher survival probability for each birth.

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