In Niger, the PMT method was used systematically during the first phase of the program. Then, during the second phase of the program, it was applied in a subset of beneficiary villages as part of the present experiment. The PMT formula was developed based on a national household survey (LSMS) collected in 2011. The survey was representative at the national level and at the livelihood zone level.<sup>11</sup> The survey included two rounds of data collection, the first during the lean season, and the second during the harvest season. The formula was designed to predict average consumption between the two rounds. Separate models were estimated for each livelihood zone. The formula was derived from a step‐wise regression model and relied on a set of variables including household demographics, dwelling characteristics, land ownership, livestock, and assets.

Once beneficiary villages were selected, private firms were hired to collect a registry survey in all households residing in the selected villages. The survey was based on a two‐page questionnaire and lasted approximately 30 minutes. Based on these data, the formula was applied, and a PMT score was estimated for each household. Next, within each village, households were ranked according to their score, which together with the village quotas, and after community validation, determined their beneficiary status.

# Community‐Based Targeting (CBT)

The CBT method relies on village members to select beneficiaries. The process to implement CBT can vary widely in practice, ranging from simple nomination by local leaders to participatory wealth ranking approaches, whereby villagers are asked to rank households according to their poverty level (Coady et. al 2004; McCord 2013).

In the context of the Niger safety nets project, application of the CBT approach followed a well‐defined participatory wealth ranking process, with detailed and strict protocols. A village assembly was organized to provide information about the objectives and process of the exercise, and form three selection committees. To ensure that key information was correctly explained throughout, scripts with key messages were developed in the different local languages. Specifically, key messages aimed to (i) recall the objectives and key features of the cash transfer program; (ii) explain the objectives and process to identify program beneficiaries; (iii) guide the community in selecting three committees. Protocols were put in place to maximize participation during the assembly. With guidance from a field agent, all villagers together were asked to form three committees of five members each. Committee members were chosen on the basis that they knew most residents and were trusted by the community. The three committees include a group of leaders (with at least two women), a group of non‐leader women, and a mixed group of non‐leaders (with at least two women). Finally, within each group and to the extent possible, diversity was encouraged in dimensions such as household location, education, wealth levels, or ethnicity.

Once the three committees were in place, the ranking exercise was conducted separately by each committee. The discussion started by asking members to define the usual characteristics of households that have a low, medium, and high capacity to satisfy basic needs during the entire year. Next, the committees were given a set of pre‐printed cards (each representing a household from the registry survey)

> 11 Niger is subdivided in various livelihood zones, and the survey is representative of the pastoral, agro‐pastoral and agricultural zones.

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