rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Cheaper, faster, and more than good
            enough : is GPS the new gold standard in land area measurement
In rural societies of low- and
            middle-income countries, land is a major measure of wealth,
            a critical input in agricultural production, and a key
            variable for assessing agricultural performance and
            productivity. In the absence of cadastral information to
            refer to, measures of land plots have historically been
            taken with one of two approaches: traversing (accurate, but
            cumbersome), and farmers' self-report (cheap, but
            marred by measurement error). Recently, the advent of cheap
            handheld GPS devices has held promise for balancing cost and
            precision. Guided by purposely collected primary data from
            Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Tanzania (Zanzibar), and with
            consideration for practical household survey implementation,
            the paper assesses the nature and magnitude of measurement
            error under different measurement methods and proposes a set
            of recommendations for plot area measurement. The results
            largely point to the support of GPS measurement, with
            simultaneous collection of farmer self-reported areas.
Feedback matters : evidence from
            agricultural services
Feedback tools have become ubiquitous in
            the service industry and social development programs alike.
            This study designed a field experiment to test whether
            eliciting feedback can empower users and increase demand for
            a service. The study randomly assigned different feedback
            tools in the context of an agricultural service to document
            their impact on clients' demand and shed light on the
            underlying mechanisms. The analysis shows large demand
            effects, in the current and following growing periods. It
            also documents large demand effect spillovers, as other
            non-client farmers in the vicinity of treated groups are
            more likely to sign up for the service. To disentangle pure
            supply-side monitoring from demand-side accountability
            effects, additional monitoring was randomly announced to
            extension workers across treatment and control communities.
            Extension workers do not exert significantly more effort in
            villages where additional monitoring takes place. The study
            concludes that farmers’ taste for "respect" leads
            their higher demand for the service.
Vulnerability to Poverty in rural Malawi
Considerations of risk and vulnerability
            are key to understanding the dynamics of poverty in rural
            Malawi. This study measures vulnerability to consumption
            shortfalls and analyzes its sources using a two-period panel
            of 2,789 households, drawn from the 2010 Third Integrated
            Household Survey and the 2013 Integrated Household Panel
            Survey. The results show that in 2010 two-fifths of all
            households had a chance of at least 40 percent of falling
            below the poverty line in the future. The results show that
            many households in rural Malawi are vulnerable to poverty,
            although, as with many other studies of rural areas in other
            countries, much of the vulnerability is caused by chronic
            poverty.  Nonetheless, risks, particularly rainfall and loss
            of off-farm employment, are also important in explaining why
            poor households remain poor, and why some non-poor
            households are more likely to fall into poverty in the next
            period.  Household wealth and agricultural assets can
            protect households from falling into poverty and reduce the
            severity of the fall when shocks occur. However, there is
            little evidence to suggest that other strategies to reduce
            vulnerability are effective.
International financial integration
            of East Asia and Pacific
This paper provides a comprehensive
            analysis of how economies in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP)
            region have been integrating financially with the rest of
            the world since the 1990s, using bilateral data on portfolio
            investments, syndicated bank loans, mergers and acquisitions
            (M&As), and greenfield investments. Four main messages
            emerge from the analysis. First, the region is increasingly
            more connected with itself and with the rest of the world,
            even relative to GDP. Second, although economies in the
            North capture the bulk of the region's inward and
            outward investments, EAP's connectivity with the South
            has grown relatively faster. Third, EAP is relatively more
            connected through arm's length financing (portfolio
            investments and syndicated loans) with the more financially
            developed North, and through FDI (M&A and greenfield
            investments) with itself and the South. Fourth, more
            developed EAP economies have a larger role in EAP’s arm’s
            length investments than in the region's FDI.
Not your average job: measuring farm
            labor in Tanzania
A good understanding of the constraints
            on agricultural growth in Africa relies on the accurate
            measurement of smallholder labor. Yet, serious weaknesses in
            these statistics persist. The extent of bias in smallholder
            labor data is examined by conducting a randomized survey
            experiment among farming households in rural Tanzania.
            Agricultural labor estimates obtained through weekly surveys
            are compared with the results of reporting in a single
            end-of-season recall survey. The findings show strong
            evidence of recall bias: people in traditional recall-style
            modules report working up to four times as many hours per
            person-plot relative to those reporting labor on a weekly
            basis. If hours are aggregated to the household level,
            however, this discrepancy disappears, a factor driven by the
            underreporting by recall households of people and plots
            active in agricultural work. The evidence suggests that
            these competing forms of recall bias are driven not only by
            failures in memory, but also by the mental burdens of
            reporting on highly variable agricultural work patterns to
            provide a typical estimate. All things equal, studies
            suffering from this bias would understate agricultural labor productivity.
Factor endowments, technology,
            capital mobility and the sources of comparative advantage in manufacturing
Using data on net exports and factor
            endowments for more than 100 countries, this paper studies
            the relationship between factor endowments and comparative
            advantage in 28 manufacturing sectors between 1975 and 2010.
            The authors allow for systematic technological differences
            across countries, including differences in factor
            intensities across countries with different ratios of
            skilled labor over unskilled labor. Capital seems to be a
            source of comparative disadvantage in manufacturing, and
            skilled labor is a source of comparative advantage in the
            global sample. However, skilled labor is a source of
            comparative disadvantage in economies with low human
            capital, whereas it is a source of comparative advantage in
            the sample of countries with high human capital. The authors
            attribute this heterogeneity to the rise of capital mobility
            across countries, particularly since the mid-1990s.
Dictators walking the Mogadishu line
            : how men become monsters and monsters become men
History offers many examples of
            dictators who worsened their behavior significantly over
            time (like Zimbabwe's Mugabe) as well as dictators who
            displayed remarkable improvements (like Rawlings of Ghana).
            The authors show that such mutations can result from
            rational behavior when the dictator's flow use of
            repression is complementary to his stock of wrongdoings:
            past wrongdoings then perpetuate further wrongdoings and the
            dictator can unintentionally get trapped in a repressive
            steady state where he himself suffers from ex-post regret.
            This then begs the question why such a dictator would ever
            choose to do wrong in the first place. The authors show that
            this can be explained from the dictator's uncertainty
            over his degree of impunity in relation to wrongdoing, which
            induces him to experiment along this dimension. This
            produces a setting where any individual rising to power can
            end up as either a moderate leader, or as a dreaded tyrant.
            Since derailment is accidental and accompanied by ex-post
            regret, increasing accountability can be in the interest of
            both the public and the dictator.
Can labor market imperfections
            explain changes in the inverse farm size–productivity
            relationship longitudinal evidence from rural India
A large national farm panel from India
            covering a quarter century (1982, 1999, and 2008) is used to
            show that the inverse farm size-yield relationship weakened
            significantly over time, despite an increase in the
            dispersion of farm sizes. Key reasons are substitution of
            capital for labor in response to nonagricultural labor
            demand. Family labor was more efficient than hired labor in
            1982-99, but not in 1999–2008. In line with labor market
            imperfections as a key factor, separability of labor supply
            and demand decisions cannot be rejected in the second
            period, except in villages with very low nonagricultural
            labor demand.
Can labor market imperfections
            explain changes in the inverse farm size–productivity
            relationship longitudinal evidence from rural India
WPS7783 Policy Research Working Paper 7783 Can Labor Market Imperfections Explain Changes in the Inverse Farm Size–Productivity Relationship? Longitudinal Evidence from Rural India _Klaus Deininger Songqing Jin Yanyan Liu Sudhir K Singh_ Development Research Group Agriculture and Rural Development Team August 2016
Disaggregating the impact of the
            internet on international trade
The Internet has transformed the way
            countries trade by reducing the costs of exporting. This
            paper quantifies the impact of Internet adoption on
            international trade. It shows that the Internet has a
            positive, nuanced, impact on international trade: bilateral
            exports are more affected when Internet adoption increases
            in the exporter than importer. A 10 percent increase in the
            exporter's Internet adoption leads to a 1.9 percent
            increase in bilateral exports, largely explained by an
            increase in the number of goods exported. A 10 percent
            increase in the importer's Internet adoption leads to a
            0.6 percent increase in bilateral exports, explained by an
            increase in the average value of existing exported goods.
            The analysis also finds that when both countries have high
            levels of Internet adoption they are more likely to trade
            with each other, compared with country pairs with different
            (high and low) or low levels of Internet adoption.
Who uses electricity in Sub-Saharan
            Africa findings from household surveys
Analysis of household expenditure
            surveys since 2008 in 22 Sub-Saharan African countries shows
            that one-third of all people use electricity. As expected,
            users are disproportionately urban and rich. In communities
            with access to electricity, lack of affordability is the
            greatest barrier to household connection. Lifeline rates
            enabling the poor to use grid electricity vary in
            availability, with six countries allowing 30 kilowatt-hours
            or less of electricity usage a month at low prices.
            Affordability challenges are aggravated by sharing of meters
            by several households -- denying them access to lifeline
            rates -- and high connection costs in many countries, made
            worse by demands from utility staff for bribes in some
            countries. Collection of detailed information on residential
            schedules enabled calculation of the percentage of total
            household expenditures needed for electricity at the
            subsistence and other levels. Affordability varied across
            countries, with grid electricity even at the subsistence
            level being out of reach for the poor in half the countries
            and even more so once connection charges are considered.
            Examination of the gender of the head of household shows
            that female-headed households are not disadvantaged in
            electricity use once income and the place of residence
            (urban or rural) are taken into account. However,
            female-headed households tend to be poorer, making it all
            the more important to focus on helping the poor for the goal
            of achieving universal access. Installing individual meters
            and subsidizing installation, encouraging prepaid metering
            so as to avoid disconnection and reconnection charges,
            reformulating lifeline blocks and rates as appropriate, and
            stamping out corruption to eliminate bribe-taking can all
            help the poor.
Global health workforce labor market
            projections for 2030
In low- and middle-income countries,
            scaling essential health interventions to achieve health
            development targets is constrained by the lack of skilled
            health professionals to deliver services. This paper takes a
            labor market approach to project future health workforce
            demand based on an economic model that projects economic
            growth, demographics, and health coverage, and using health
            workforce data (1990-2013) for 165 countries from the World
            Health Organization's Global Health Observatory. The
            demand projections are compared with the projected growth in
            health worker supply and health worker "needs" as
            estimated by the World Health Organization to achieve
            essential health coverage. The model predicts that by 2030
            global demand for health workers will rise to 80 million
            workers, double the current (2013) stock of health workers.
            The supply of health workers is expected to reach 65 million
            over the same period, resulting in a worldwide shortage of
            15 million health workers. Growth in the demand for health
            workers will be highest among upper-middle-income countries,
            driven by economic growth and population growth and aging,
            resulting in the largest predicted shortages, which may fuel
            global competition for skilled health workers. Middle-income
            countries will face workforce shortages because their demand
            will exceed supply. By contrast, low-income countries will
            face low growth in demand and supply, but they will face
            workforce shortages because their needs will exceed supply
            and demand. In many low-income countries, demand may stay
            below projected supply, leading to the paradoxical
            phenomenon of unemployed ("surplus") health
            workers in those countries facing acute
            "needs-based" shortages.
Hidden human capital : psychological
            empowerment and adolescent girls' aspirations in India
This paper studies the role of
            social-emotional or psychological capital in determining the
            education and employment aspirations of adolescent girls and
            young women in India. The study finds that girls'
            self-efficacy and mental health are important determinants
            of their educational and employment aspirations, suggesting
            that these hidden forms of human capital may serve as
            critical targets for interventions aiming to alter
            girls' educational and economic trajectories. The study
            also identifies factors that correlate with girls'
            level of self-efficacy, and finds that an
            "enabling" and supportive family and community
            environment appears to be important.
Synergies in child nutrition :
            interactions of food security, health and environment, and
            child care
This paper examines the extent to which
            the three key underlying determinants of nutrition -- food
            security; adequate caregiving resources at the maternal,
            household, and community levels; and access to health
            services and a safe and hygienic environment -- on their own
            and interactively are correlated with nutrition outcomes,
            such as height-for-age z-scores.  Based on data from
            different years in eight countries in four regions where
            malnutrition is high, an indicator is constructed for each
            component of the three underlying drivers of nutrition. In
            spite of the limitations inherent in the available data, the
            analysis (i) reveals that progress toward improved access to
            adequate food security and adequate environment and health
            has been quite limited; and (ii) provides evidence of
            significant synergies among adequate food, child care, and
            environment and health.
Short- and long-term effects of a
            child-labor ban
This is the first study to investigate
            the short- and long-term causal effects of a child-labor
            ban. The study explores the law that increased the minimum
            employment age from 14 to 16 in Brazil in 1998, and uncovers
            its impact on time allocated to schooling and work in the
            short term and on school attainment and labor market
            outcomes in the long term. The analysis uses cross-sectional
            data from 1998 to 2014, and applies a fuzzy regression
            discontinuity design to estimate the impact of the ban at
            different points of individuals’ lifecycles. The estimates
            show that the ban reduced the incidence of boys in paid work
            activities by 4 percentage points or 27 percent. The study
            finds that the fall in child labor is mostly explained by
            the change in the proportions of boys working for pay and
            studying, and observes an increase in the proportion of boys
            only studying as a consequence. The results suggest that the
            ban reduced boys’ participation in the labor force. The
            study follows the same cohort affected by the ban over the
            years, and finds that the short-term effects persisted until
            2003 when the boys turned 18. The study pooled data from
            2007 to 2014 to check whether the ban affected individuals’
            stock of human capital and labor market outcomes. The
            estimates suggest that the ban did not have long-term
            effects for the whole cohort, but found some indication that
            it did negatively affect the log earnings of individuals at
            the lower tail of the earnings distribution.
Making the most of demographic
            change in Southern Africa
The countries of the Southern African
            Customs Union have relatively diverse demographic and
            economic starting points. These economies have the potential
            to realize demographic dividends and experience an
            acceleration in their income per capita growth and poverty
            reduction progress through forthcoming shifts in their age
            structures. Between 35 and 75 percent of poverty reduction
            in 2015-50 in Southern African Customs Union economies could
            be attributed to demographic shifts in a business-as-usual
            scenario of economic development, if employment rates are at
            least maintained. The magnitude of the demographic dividends
            could be greater if countries are able to achieve policy
            outcomes in parallel in the areas of education,
            savings-investment, and employment. Scenario analyses of
            these different policy outcomes interacting with the
            shifting age structures in different ways suggest
            quantitatively different economic impacts despite
            qualitatively similar policies. Improving educational
            attainment is found to be most important in Lesotho and
            Swaziland; mobilizing savings for higher investment can be
            most useful for Botswana; and improving employment rates,
            especially by closing gender gaps, can be most useful for
            South Africa and Namibia.
Can environmental policy reduce
            infant mortality evidence from the Ganga pollution cases
In many developing countries,
            environmental quality remains low and policies to improve it
            have been inconsistently effective. This paper conducts a
            case study of environmental policy in India, focusing on
            unprecedented Supreme Court rulings that targeted industrial
            pollution in the Ganga River. In a difference-in-differences
            framework, the rulings are found to have precipitated
            reductions in river pollution and one-month infant
            mortality, both of which persist for more than a decade. The
            authors then estimate a pollution-mortality dose-response
            function across twenty-nine rivers in the Ganga Basin,
            instrumenting for pollution with its upstream counterpart.
            The estimation reveals a significant external health burden
            of river pollution, not just in the district of measurement,
            but also on downstream communities. It further provides
            suggestive evidence that reducing pollution was an important
            driver behind declines in infant mortality observed after
            the rulings.
Predicting project outcomes : a
            simple methodology for predictions based on project ratings
The downgrading of projects at the
            closing from moderately satisfactory to moderately
            unsatisfactory has been a persistent problem in the World
            Bank and a particular problem in the World Bank's East
            Asia and Pacific region since 2012. Through analysis of the
            projects that exited the East Asia and Pacific region's
            portfolio in fiscal years 2012 and 2013, this paper derives
            a prediction model based on ratings for implementation
            progress and achievement of development objectives during
            project supervision. The model, used in combination with
            other indicators of project progress toward outcomes,
            appears to improve on existing methods for assessing the
            downgrade risk.