on college education and university education is progressive only in relative terms, with college education spending being more progressive than spending on university education.<sup>52</sup> In fact, while the share of benefits in post-secondary and university education are relatively small for the poor, about half of spending on adult training centers goes to households with incomes of less than US $ 4 a day (figure 14A). However, this is not unique to South Africa, since much of tertiary education spending in other developing countries benefits higher-income groups in comparator countries as well (figure 14B).

<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 14. South Africa. Share of Education Benefits by Income Group<br>A. South Africa B. Education<br>(% of target population through secondary (% of school-aged target population)<br>school)<br>100% 100%<br>90%<br>90%<br>80%<br>80%<br>70%<br>70% 60%<br>60% 50%<br>50% 40%<br>30%<br>40%<br>20%<br>30%<br>10%<br>20% 0%<br>10%<br>0%<br>Armenia Bolivia (2009) Brazil (2009) Ethiopia Indonesia South<br>(2010) (2011) (2012) Africa<br>(2010)<br>y < 1.25 1.25 < y < 2.5 2.5 < y < 4<br>y < 1.25 1.25 < y < 2.5 2.5 < y < 4 4 < y < 10 10 < y < 50 y > 50<br>4 < y < 10 10 < y < 50 y > 50<br>Source: Own estimates based on IES 2010/2011. Source: Armenia (Younger and Khachatryan, forthcoming ), Bolivia (Paz et al,<br>2014), Brazil (Higgins and Pereira, 2014), Ethiopia (Woldehanna et al,<br>forthcoming ); and Indonesia (Jellema et al, forthcoming ). For South Africa, own<br>estimates based on IES 2010/2011.<br>Pre-school Primary Secondary Tertiary Pre-school Primary Secondary Tertiary Pre-school Primary Secondary Tertiary Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Tertiary Pre-school Primary Secondary<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# _Health_

For health, since the IES has no information on health utilization, the analysis had to impute values of health spending from the NIDS, which is a nationally representative household sample, to the IES.<sup>53</sup> In figure 15 we plotted the concentration curves for direct and in-kind transfers as a whole, and for education spending and health spending. Health spending is progressive in absolute terms in a (roughly) similar extent as education spending. The monetized value of health spending makes up a larger share of the market incomes of those at the bottom of the income distribution (figure 16A): health spending is nine times the size of the market incomes of the poorest market income decile. Health care utilization in South Africa is, however, more evenly distributed across socioeconomic groups than in other middle-income countries (figure 16B). Public spending on health is relatively well targeted not because poorer people use health facilities more, but rather because they use public health services more than richer people compared to those in other countries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, where most beneficiary households are non-poor. The proportion of households who reported using public-sector clinics—the

> 52 Note that students are captured in surveys at the places they find themselves when studying, which in some cases may not be the same as their households of origin. As a result, it may appear that some students from very poor households are not actually appearing in the survey as poor.

> 53 See Appendix 1 for full details on the methodology adopted.

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