evidenced in Table 2 Model 1 (β = 0.38, p < 0.001). Additionally, these data showed no significant interactions between ECE enrollment and child gender (see Figure 3).

# **Discussion**

The presence and patterns of gender disparities across domains in the early years of life have not been well explored in Pakistan. This study contributes to the knowledge base not only by exploring differences in distributions of risk and protective factors and outcomes by child gender, but also by investigating how a child’s gender may moderate differential outcomes in the early years. Our findings indicate that distributions of ECD outcomes and risk or protective factors were similar for both boys and girls. Equally low levels of psychosocial stimulation for boys and girls support findings from prior work that overall levels of minimum adequate stimulation in South Asian populations are low (Cuartas et al., 2020). Levels may be particularly low in the present sample, given it comprises about 80% father caregivers, who on average provide lower levels of stimulation for children relative to other caregivers in the region (Cuartas et al., 2020). Average levels of parental distress were also similar by child gender, though under-reporting of potentially sensitive topics should be considered. Overall ECE enrollment rates in our sample were higher compared to the 2019-2020 PSLM survey (35% vs. 19%, respectively). Average enrollment rates were also slightly higher in our sample for girls than boys (two percentage point gap), though this was not statistically significant. The differences in the two survey results may be attributed to requirements for phone access for participation in the current survey. This approach systematically excludes the population in Pakistan that does not have a mobile phone (6%), typically those in the lowest wealth brackets (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2021). Additionally, PSLM data were collected in 2019-2020 while the present data were gathered in late 2021/early 2022.

With respect to the second research question, we found some variables had strong positive associations regardless of child age and gender (psychosocial stimulation, ECE enrollment) and some associations were negative and further moderated by gender (parental distress, with girls showing greater sensitivity at ages 0-35 months than boys). Higher psychosocial stimulation was consistently and positively associated with better child development outcomes for both girls and boys and across both age cohorts. This was true even after controlling for relevant covariates, underscoring its powerful role in favorable child development. While psychosocial stimulation was a strong predictor of ECD outcomes for both girls and boys in the younger cohort (0-35 months), the slope for girls was marginally steeper. In other words, girls experienced lower ECD outcomes on average than boys when psychosocial stimulation levels were low. Among children aged 36-72 months, gender did not moderate the results; the presence of adequate stimulation was equally highly predictive of positive school readiness outcomes for both boys and girls. Results differ from prior work in rural Sindh, where stimulation was positively associated with verbal skills for 4-year-old boys but not for girls, and no differences in child gender were observed in associations between stimulation and executive functioning (Rathore et al., 2023). This discrepancy could stem from differences in measurement or outcome of focus. Rathore et al. used direct observation and mother-reports in the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Inventory (HOME; Caldwell & Bradley, 1984) to assess psychosocial stimulation and focused on verbal skills and executive function. In contrast, the current study uses phonebased caregiver-reports of stimulation and a multidimensional ECD outcome. Nonetheless, findings corroborate existing research affirming the essential role of psychosocial stimulation for 11