sources is substantially constrained in low-income contexts, and addressal of these constraints is a necessary (but not sufficient) step to improving learning outcomes (Mbiti et al., 2019; Das et al., 2013). Inefficient allocation and utilization of available resources can exacerbate these constraints. In particular, inequitable allocation of teachers to classes can exacerbate schoollevel staff shortages by leading to larger class sizes in relatively understaffed classes, with negative impacts for learning (Angrist and Lavy, 1999; Grissom et al., 2017), and weaknesses in utilization of textbooks can exacerbate limited availability (Milligan et al., 2017). School leaders can improve allocation and utilization of resources by allocating teachers equitably to classes; encouraging or mandating proper usage of textbooks; and otherwise monitoring and directing full use of available resources in school (Grissom et al., 2021).

**Teacher behavior.** Teacher behaviors are a key determinant of learning outcomes (Chetty et al., 2014). In particular, it can negatively affect students’ learning outcomes if teachers do not attend school regularly, or when in school are not in the classroom. By contrast, teachers can improve learning outcomes by employing effective pedagogical techniques including assigning, collecting and marking homework and using teaching aids such as posters and models (Eren and Henderson, 2004; Asokhia, 2009). School leaders can improve teachers’ motivation to attend school regularly and apply effort to achieve students’ learning. Although some sources of low teacher motivation, such as poor pay or conditions, may be out of the locus of control of school leaders, school leaders may be able to exercise some influence on teachers’ motivation through simple low-cost measures such as verbally praising effective or high-effort teachers. Second, school leaders can improve teachers’ pedagogical skills by observing lessons, providing feedback, and encouraging and mandating specific pedagogical techniques that are underutilized (Grissom et al., 2021).

**School cultures.** School culture may be defined as the guiding beliefs and expectations evident in the way a school operates (Fullan, 2007), including the disciplinary climate, how well students and teachers get along, and how strongly students identify with their school (for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2005). Employing evidence from the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) examinations in 2000, for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005) find that an average of 8 percent of variation in PISA outcomes between schools is explained by school climates, a greater amount than school policies or resource availability. Akerlof and Kranton (2002), conducting a systematic review of case studies and other non-economic literature on successful schools, conclude that issues of culture and identity, particularly students’ sense of identification and alignment with the perceived values of a school, explain a significant portion of the success of certain schools in the face of challenges of resource availability or difficult social contexts. They note that head teachers in schools with successful cultures typically invest a non-negligible share of school resources into the creation of community and minimization of differences between students.

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