trends in employment, unemployment or labor force participation. On the other hand, results by Malaeb and Wahba (2018) show that previous immigrants to Jordan were more likely to work informally, work fewer hours and had lower wages after the influx of Syrian refugees. In Jordan’s segregated labor market, Syrian refugees seem to be closer substitutes to immigrants than to natives. El-Mallakh and Wahba (2018), however, show that the probability of Jordanians migrating out of the regions with higher numbers of Syrian refugees increased. While confirming no significant effect on labor market outcomes of salaried Jordanians, Rozo and Sviastchi (2018) find negative effects of refugee exposure on self-employment.

Two papers looked at the impact of Syrian refugees on prices in Jordan. Alhawarin et al. (2018), find no evidence of impacts on predicted rental prices on average. Depending on the data set used, the impact on rental prices in regions closer to the Syrian border was insignificant or positive, and in regions distant from the border insignificant or negative. They do, however, find a negative and significant impact on a housing quality index. Rozo and Sviatschi (2018) confirm these results, finding larger expenditures on housing for individuals living closer to refugee camps, at the expense of other types of expenditures, and higher rental and property income in these areas. These latter authors do not find any evidence of impacts on overall consumption expenditures.

Overall, the evidence on the Syrian crisis points to no visible overall effects on the labor market in neighboring countries although there is evidence of competition between former immigrants and informal workers on the one side and the new wave of Syrian immigrants on the other side. Most studies show a positive impact on formal employment of natives in Turkey, also providing evidence for professional upgrading. The absorption of Syrian refugees in the Turkish labor market seems facilitated by an increase in the number of new Syrian-owned businesses (Altindag, Bakis and Rozo 2018; Akgündüz, van den Berg, and Hassink 2018) with firms substituting capital with Syrian workers (Akgündüz and Torun 2018). Results on prices in Turkey remain unclear with different studies showing positive, negative or non-significant results. Only in Jordan there is some evidence for increases in rental prices in areas closer to refugee camps.

# Ethnic Greeks from Turkey to Greece

After the Greco-Turkish war of 1919–1922, 1.2 million Greek Orthodox were forcibly resettled from Turkey to Greece, increasing the Greek population by more than 20% within a few months. Murard and Sakalli (2018) look at the impact of this resettlement on local municipalities almost 100 years after the event. They find that localities with a greater share of refugees in 1923 have today higher earnings, higher levels of household wealth, greater educational attainment and larger financial and manufacturing sectors. These results are similar to the positive long-term effects due to agglomeration economies found for German expellees (Braun and Kvasnicka 2014; Schumann 2014; Wyrwich 2018) and for the forced population relocation in rural areas within Finland after World War II (Sarvimäki 2011).

# 2.3 Low-income countries

# Burundian and Rwandan refugees in Tanzania

Following the assassination of the Burundian president in 1993 and the Rwandan genocide in 1994, a large number of Burundian and Rwandan refugees settled in the Kagera region of neighboring Tanzania. By 1995, this region of 1.5 m inhabitants hosted about 0.7 m refugees from these two countries alone. This is the largest crisis in terms of incidence of refugees over the host population and also the crisis that has the largest number of empirical studies in Sub-Saharan Africa thanks to the considerable number of household surveys that have been conducted in the affected region over the years.

Alix-Garcia and Saah (2009) was one of the first studies that looked at the impact of the Burundian and Rwandan refugees in Tanzania using a mix of USAID, WFP and DHS data sets on food aid, prices and household assets. They find positive effects on prices of non-aid foods and smaller but positive effects on aid-related food items. This is one of the few studies that looked at both aid and refugee effects separately finding that the aid effect is considerably smaller than the refugee effect. The authors also find a positive 59