rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
are interested in the existence of a negative owner effect and a non-negative contest for control Data on media ownership is scarce. However, we extend the data of the paper by Djankov et al.[14] to the year 2003. We perform this task according to the availability of free and reliable information at the time to conduct the extension. The new sample covers 28 middle- and high-income countries. For each country, we have information on the ownership structure and market shares of the top two newspapers, which in most of the cases compete for the same market.<sup>3</sup> The empirical illustration focuses on the case of the press industry, instead on that of the T.V or radio ones, because it is in the first industry where the ownership structure of media firms experienced more changes. The estimating equation is as follows: where _Corrit_ denotes corruption in country _i_ at time _t_ ; _α_ 1 _jit_ is the fraction of shares owned by shareholder 1 from outlet _j_ of country _i_ at time _t_ ; _α_ 2 _jit_ is the fraction of shares owned by shareholder 2 from outlet _j_ of country _i_ at time _t_ ; _Ijit_ denotes a dummy variable that equals 1 if outlet _j_ of country _i_ in period _t_ has no majority shareholder and 0 otherwise; _Xi_ is a set of time invariant variables, which capture fixed effects; _Zit_ is a vector of time variant countries’ characteristics; and _αt_ are time effects.

The first term captures the sum of the owner effects in the top two newspapers of country _i_ . The second term stands for the sum of the contest for control effects in the same newspapers. Each effect measures the contestability of shareholders 1’ voting power. _Xi_ and _Zit_ control for previous findings in the corruption literature, such as the ones provided by Ades and Di Tella[1], La Porta et al.[22], Triesman[33], and Besley and Prat[9]. Thus, _Xi_ controls for legal origin, protestant traditions, federal states, ethnic and 3 Newspapers are ranked according to readership figures.

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Units that cannot be matched are discarded – this is central to good matching – because they “cannot support causal inferences about missing potential outcomes” (Diamond 2005, p.9). The hope is that this allows one to mimic the effects of randomization. Of course, the resulting measure of impact is only compelling to the extent that one believes that the matching has been done well and the treatment assignment is ignorable; in other words, we know that the treatment was not assigned randomly, but we believe that we may proceed as if it were.

To match treatment with non-treatment units it is helpful to create a summary measure of similarity in the form of a _propensity score_ . Let p( _Xi_ ) be the probability that unit _i_ be assigned to the treatment group, conditional on _Xi_ , and define This probability of participation – the propensity score – can be estimated using an _assignment model_ . Given survey and census information, we first pool the two samples (i.e. the participants and nonparticipants) and estimate a probit model of program participation as a function of pre-treatment and exogenous variables that might influence participation.

The computation of propensity scores is only the first step in the process. Rosenbaum and Rubin (1983) prove that treatment cases may be matched with comparison cases using just the propensity score rather than the entire set of pre-determined covariates _Xi_ . In other words, to find the non-participant that is most closely matched to the participant, one only needs to find the non-participants with the propensity scores closest to that of the participant. They also show that where _Gi_ | _T_ = ,1 _p_ ( _x_ ) is the difference between the treatment outcome<sup>_Y_</sup> _iT_ for treated unit _i_ and the (control) outcome for the non-treated unit closest in propensity score to _i._ In other words, the average treatment effect (the gain for the treated, here denoted by _G_<sup>_TT_</sup> ) may be obtained by computing the expected value of the difference in the outcome variable between each treated household and the perfectly matched comparison household as matched using the propensity score.

Perfect matching is not possible in reality, so in practice one needs to compute where _Yi_ is the observed outcome for the _i_ th individual who is treated and _Ji_ is the set of comparators for _i_ , and _N_ is the set of units for which the set of comparators is non-empty (the “common support”, discussed _Impact Evaluation: Egyptian Social Fund for Development_ _Version of June 29, 2009_ _Page 8 of 36_
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- Henderson, Yolanda H. "The Emergence<sup>of the Venture Capital Industry". New</sup> Enaland Economic Review. July/August<sup>1989.</sup>

- Ibanez, Fernan. "Venture Capital<sup>and Entrepreneurial Development." Policy.</sup> Planning and Research Working Papers,<sup>The World Bank, Working Paper No.</sup> 53, August 1989.

- International Finance Corporation.<sup>"Venture Capital Activities in Selected</sup> Countries: Another Look." 1986.

- Kitchen, Richard. "Venture<sup>Capital: A New Approach to Financing Small and</sup> Medium Enterprises in Developing Countries." Savings and Development, 1989.

- Koloski Morris, Jane. "The<sup>Pricing of a Venture Capital Investment." In</sup> Stanley E. Pratt (Ed.) Guide<sup>to Venture Capital Sources. Wellesley:</sup> Capital Publishing Corporation,<sup>1986.</sup>

- Leland, H.E.; and Pyle, D.H..<sup>"Informational Asymmetries, Financial</sup> Structure, and Financial Intermediation."<sup>Journal of Finance, 32,</sup> 1977.

- Lim, Joseph and Saunders, Anthony.<sup>"IPOs and Venture Capitalists: A Test of</sup> the Dynamic Strategy Hypothesis."<sup>New York University Working Paper,</sup> February 1990.

- MacMillan, I.C.; Siegel, R.;<sup>and SubbaNarasimha, P.N. "Criteria Used by</sup> Venture Capitalists to Evaluate<sup>New Venture Proposals." Journal of</sup> Business Venturing, 1985.

- MacMillan, I.C., Zemann, L.;<sup>and SubbaNarasimha, P.N.</sup> "Criteria Distinguishing Successful from<sup>Unsuccessful Ventures in the Venture</sup> Screening Process." Journal of<sup>Business Venturing, 1987.</sup>

- Marti Pellon, Jose. "La Oferta<sup>de Capital Riesgo (Venture Capital) en Espana</sup> en 1986." Informacion Economica<sup>Espanola. Revista de Economia.</sup> Ministerio de Economia y Hacienda.<sup>Num 651, Noviembre 1987.</sup>

- Nakamura, Hideichiro. "Japan's<sup>Venture Business-</sup> Its Problems and Prospects." Gestion 2000,<sup>1987.</sup>

- Neiswander, D. Kirk and Drollinger,<sup>J.M. "Origins of Successful Start-up</sup> Ventures." In Babson College Entrepreneurship<sup>Research Conference</sup> Proceedinas. Edited by the<sup>Center for Entrepreneurial Studies of</sup> Babson College. Wellesley,<sup>1986.</sup>

Nomtchiloff, Ivan N. "The 3i<sup>Approach to Venture Capital." In Stanley E.</sup> Pratt (Ed.) Guide to Venture<sup>Capital Sources. Wellesley: Capital</sup> Publishing Corporation, 1986.

- Noone, C. and Rubel, S. SBICs:<sup>Pioneers in Organized Venture Capital.</sup> Chicago: Capital Publishing,<sup>1970.</sup>
which participants are communicating to reach a mutually agreeable decision, and where citizens are able to actively participate in their governance.

By contrast, the citizens of Veeranam receive no response to their concerns about corruption within their local government. Not only does the president fail to respond to citizen’s specific accusation, but the _panchayat_ secretary swifly punts the issue to the end of the meeting, and redirects the conversation to another issue. Perhaps not surprisingly, the meeting ends before the corruption charge has been addressed.

## _Male 1_ : So far, **no work has been without bribing anybody** .

_(Crowd murmurs.)_ _Male 2_ : Wait. You answer his question.

_Male 1_ : So far, has our President done any work without geting a bribe?

_Male 3 (Secretary)_ : Te answer for this question will be given at the end of the meeting. **Discussion before** **_gram sabha_ now regards unused open bore wells** in public lands and individual lands...

Tiruvannamalai District, Tandarampet Block, Veeranam Panchayat Tese starkly different excerpts suggest the meaningful variation in _responsiveness by the state_ . As such, our last measure of deliberative quality examines how likely citizens are to receive a relevant response from officials, and how that varies by the gender of the speaker, the content of the speech, or the characteristics of the officials who are present.

# **4 Data & Measures**

To evaluate the quality of deliberation in Tamil Nadu’s _gram sahbas_ , we recorded, transcribed, and translated the proceedings of assemblies conducted on Republic Day 2014, one of the four mandated days for all villages in the state to hold a _gram sabha_ . Te full sample, which consisted of 100 such assemblies, was collected as part of a broader impact evaluation of the Pudhu Vaazhvu 15
interpretation can be attributed to the variable measuring ease of doing business. Our results suggest, as it is expected, that the situation in the investor country does not matter. What matters is the level of ease of doing business in the host country. The more difficult it is to do business in a host country, the less it will attract domestic and international investors. It is quite straightforward, but needed empirical proof. Studies on FDI demand and supply identified ease of doing business in the investor (source) country to be negatively correlated with FDI supply. This was explained by having local entrepreneurs in developing countries look for other markets because they can minimize their transaction cost of doing business at home. Our results suggest the same impact only in the case of using the number of projects as an indicator for the level of cooperation. In other cases this variable’s coefficient was not significant.

All other variables measure the natural endowment of a country and thus may be less affected by policy interventions. Our policy discussion would therefore be focused only on the suggestion that international development institutions focus mainly on the strengthening of multilateral interactions between countries and on domestic structural changes and reforms to economies, so that they are better prepared not only to adapt to climate change but also to be able to better cooperate in the CDM market and take advantage of the CDM dividend— development—that results from CDM joint investment.

There are several variables in the cooperation equation specification that are state variables in the sense their level cannot be controlled, at least directly, by policy makers. This leaves the range of policy interventions narrower. Still, _Governance_ and _EDB_ leave sufficient degrees of freedom to policy makers. One issue that has been raised in Carbon Finance discussions is the complications of the CDM project clearance process, which becomes a barrier to CDM project development. Simplifying the CDM project clearance cycle is an important policy option. _EDB_ goes hand in hand with _Governance_ although they are not necessarily correlated. Improved governance in the host and in the investor countries means higher political stability and trust between the countries for business. Finally, trade or other long-term economic activities that connect the countries is an important inhibitor for CDM cooperation. Having a regional or international trade agreement or the like will increase the likelihood of CDM incidence and higher level of cooperation on CDM projects.

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Table F.5: Productivity and Technology Sophistication Controlling for ln(K/L) and ln(Labor Cost/L)

|VARIABLES|(1)<br>ln(VAPW)|(2)<br>ln(VAPW)|(3)<br>ln(VAPW)|(4)<br>ln(VAPW)|(5)<br>ln(VAPW)|(6)<br>ln(VAPW)|(7)<br>ln(VAPW)|(8)<br>ln(VAPW)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|ln(K/L)|0.14***<br>(0.04)|0.14***<br>(0.04)|0.14***<br>(0.04)|0.14***<br>(0.03)|0.13***<br>(0.03)|0.13***<br>(0.03)|0.14***<br>(0.03)|0.14***<br>(0.03)|
|ln(Labor Cost/L)|0.68***|0.66***|0.67***|0.67***|0.67***|0.67***|0.67***|0.67***|
||(0.04)|(0.04)|(0.04)|(0.04)|(0.03)|(0.03)|(0.04)|(0.04)|
|ABF EXT|0.28***|1.27***||0.87**|||0.79**||
||(0.07)|(0.31)||(0.35)|||(0.35)||
|ABF EXT<sup>2</sup>||-0.17***||-0.11**|||-0.06||
|||(0.05)||(0.05)|||(0.06)||
|ABF MOST|||1.61***||1.25**|1.14**||1.34***|
||||(0.48)||(0.49)|(0.48)||(0.48)|
|ABF MOST<sup>2</sup>|||-0.30***||-0.22**|-0.20**||-0.19**|
||||(0.10)||(0.10)|(0.10)||(0.10)|
|ABF GAP|||0.27***||0.19*|0.16||0.38***|
||||(0.10)||(0.11)|(0.11)||(0.13)|
|Var(ABF EXT)||||0.26***|0.28***|0.92***|1.02**|1.10***|
|||||(0.10)|(0.10)|(0.25)|(0.45)|(0.42)|
|Var(ABF EXT)ˆ2||||||-0.26***<br>(0.08)|||
|Var(ABF EXT)*ABF EXT|||||||-0.26*<br>(0.14)|-0.28**<br>(0.13)|
|Firm Characteristics|_~~√~~_|_~~√~~_|_~~√~~_|_~~√~~_|_~~√~~_|_~~√~~_|_~~√~~_|_~~√~~_|
|Observations|2,496|2,496|2,496|2,496|2,496|2,496|2,496|2,496|
|R-squared|0.63|0.63|0.63|0.64|0.64|0.64|0.64|0.64|

Note: *** p _<_ 0.01, ** p _<_ 0.05, * p _<_ 0.1. Robust standard errors in parentheses. The regressions controlled for observable firm characteristics including size (i.e., small, medium, and large), sector (i.e., agriculture crops, livestock, food processing, wearing apparel, pharmaceutical, moto-vehicle, wholesale and retail, finance, land transport, hospital, other manufacturing, and other services), age (i.e., 0-5, 6-10, 11-15, and 16 or more), export, and multinational status.

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have current account deficits and, given the limited amount of land available for food production, they have to rely on imports for basic consumption.

In this economic context two sectors are particularly relevant to unlock Caribbean economies: tourism and trade. Tourism has been an important driver of the economy, and could become even more important. It is a major foreign exchange earner for the region. Trade dynamics is another area to look at very closely, as these dynamics directly impact the costs of inputs for non-tradable activities.

# <u>Tourism and Connectivity</u>

With the collapse of agricultural exports, tourism has risen as one of the key economic sectors, representing an important share of local GDP, now ranging from 24% to as high as 74% of GDP in the Caribbean. The Caribbean landscapes, sceneries, and beaches have very high potential.

During 2011, the sector contributed on average up to 12% of all jobs from the Caribbean region and about 14% of the region’s GDP (WTTC, 2012). This contribution to the Caribbean economy translates to about US$ 50 billion for 2011 and 2012, with roughly the following composition (Figure 1):

- 50% due to indirect contributions such a capital investment directly involved in the travel and tourism industry, government collective spending in support of tourism activity, and supply-chain effects;

- 30% due to direct contributions linked to the GDP generated by industries that deal directly with tourists, including transport services and food and leisure industries; and

- 20% due to induced contributions associated with the multiplying effect in the economy created by the spending associated to the indirect and direct contributions (WTTC, 2012, and WTO 2013).

**Figure 1: Total Contribution of Travel and Tourism to GDP in the Caribbean.**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 70 15.0<br>60<br>50 10.0<br>40<br>30<br>5.0<br>20<br>10<br>0 0.0<br>2011 2012 2022 2011 2012 2022<br>Direct Indirect Induced Direct Indirect Induced<br>Constant 2011 US$ bn<br>% of whole economy GDP<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source: WTTC (2012). All values are constant 2011 prices and exchange rates._ From a global perspective, tourism in the Caribbean holds 2.1% of the world share in the sector, with 20.8 million international arrivals in 2011 (WTO, 2012). The sector grew by 2.2% in 2010 and by 3.9% in 2011, showing a remarkable recovery after the global economic crisis. That recent recovery allowed the region to achieve an average growth rate of 1.7% annually over the 2005-2011 period. Larger destinations paved the road for such recovery. Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Barbados and Aruba all recorded recent increases in international arrivals in the order of 4-7% annual growth in 2010 and 2011 (UNWTO, 2012).

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# **Effect on Fuel Consumption and Costs**

Fuel economy of diesel-fueled vehicles is likely to suffer significantly as a result of stringent exhaust emission limits, with an overall increase in operating costs of about 2%. The techniques available for reducing NOx emissions (primarily ignition retard and EGR) will lead to poor economy while other engine improvements such as increased use of turbocharging and charge cooling, and better control of injection rates and timing may offset some of the fuel efficiency losses [ECMT 1990].

Additional equipment (for example, charge coolers or particulate traps) needed to comply with exhaust emission requirements are likely to increase vehicle costs. The use of more advanced equipment (such as electronic fuel injection systems or variable geometry turbocharges) will increase costs initially but the costs would go down when such equipment becomes standard. Vehicle maintenance costs are not likely to increase except for particulate traps which have not yet been shown to be durable. Table 39 shows estimated cost increases for individual engine modifications likely to be needed to meet future emissions standards.

# **Evaporative Emissions**

Unburned gasoline emitted from a vehicle other than from the tailpipe is an increasingly substantial contributor to overall hydrocarbon emissions. Evaporative standards, onboard refueling systems, and lower volatility fuel are all important elements of an overall evaporative emission control strategy. In motor vehicles, fuel related evaporative emissions originate in two parts of the fuel system - the fuel tank and the fuel metering system. Significant evaporation occurs during episodes of increased temperature in these parts of the fuel system; they are known as _hot-soak_ and _diurnal_ emissions.

Hot soak emissions are generated by the continued heating of the fuel by the engine after it is shut off. During this period, fuel in the fuel line, the carburetor or the fuel injection system, and in the fuel tank rises in temperature. The purpose of evaporative control systems is to capture the released vapors in a sealed system which feeds to the charcoal canister, where they can be adsorbed and retained on the charcoal granules. Diurnal emissions are caused by the daily heating of the fuel tank by outside air. Again, in a properly designed and operating system, the vapors released are channeled to the charcoal canister.

The capacity of evaporative canisters to store gasoline vapors is limited by canister size, and they must be purged each time the engine is operated. To achieve this, vehicles are equipped with a purging system which draws air across the carbon granules and carries the purged vapors to the engine to be burned. This flow must be carefully controlled so that exhaust emissions are not adversely affected or driveability impaired. Properly designed and operating systems should have no difficulty meeting tight evaporative requirements when running on the fuel for which the systems were designed.
<!-- Start of picture text --> 8.0 7.4<br>7.0<br>6.0<br>5.0<br>4.2<br>4.0 3.6 3.6 3.5<br>3.0 3.1<br>3.0<br>1.8 1.9<br>2.0 1.5<br>0.7<br>1.0<br>0.0<br>All Residence Area of control Displacement status Food security status<br>Urban Semi-urban Rural Houthi IRG Not displaced Displaced Poor Borderline Acceptable<br><!-- End of picture text --> While many Yemeni households rely on labor income, the importance of remittances to Yemen’s economic stability predates the current conflict (Ahmed, Zaid, and Mohsen 2019). For years, the scarcity of viable jobs in Yemen has compelled hundreds of thousands of Yemenis to seek employment abroad. It is likely that Yemeni households’ dependence on remittances increased dramatically during the conflict (ACAPS 2021), as they have helped households weather broader socioeconomic shocks, including the sharp depreciation of the local currency, income loss, inflation, and rising unemployment. Remittances have also become the main source of foreign currency and play a more significant role in terms of import financing and Yemen’s balance of payments (World Bank 2023a).

With many Yemeni men working abroad,<sup>2</sup> women are increasingly stepping in to manage family finances, with wives managing remittance flows more often than male family members. Based on interviews with key informants, an ACAPS report shows that in remittance-dependent households, wives and mothers are generally viewed as more trustworthy and responsible than sons or brothers (ACAPS 2021). Importantly, women encounter obstacles in directly receiving transferred funds, often depending on male guardians, while also facing challenges in accessing necessary identification documents.

# III. Literature review and conceptual framework

The methodology used in this paper closely follows the approach adopted by Bargain et al (2019), who find a significant improvement in women’s final say in decision making in regions most affected by the Arab Spring in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Using data from the Demographic and Health Surveys from 2011-13, the authors apply a double difference analysis that exploits

> 2 According to UN data for 2020, of the 1.3 million Yemeni migrants, about 454,000 were women and 847,000 men.

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# **3.2 Lending and Loan Performance**

Our credit market dataset combines district-level information on lending by all commercial banks in India, provided by the regulator, with proprietary data on lending and loan performance at the bank-district level, obtained from India’s largest commercial banks.

(a) _District-level._ Our main source of credit market data is the Reserve Bank of India’s Basic Statistical Returns of Commercial Banks in India (BSR) dataset, which is an annual panel of bank lending at the district level. The BSR data are based on annual “census” of credit and cover the lending activities of all commercial banks in India at more than 100,000 bank branches across the country. Unless otherwise indicated, we focus on direct agricultural credit, the type of credit that was most directly affected by the Adwdrs program, and use data on _Total credit_ ( _district_ ) and _Total loans_ ( _district_ ) for the years 2001 to 2012. Summary statistics for these variables, which are our primary measure of credit allocation, are reported in Table II. In the base year 2001, the median district had a total of 22,744 agricultural loans outstanding with a an average (median) loan size of US$ 515 (US$ 379).

(b) _Bank-district level_ . We augment our credit market dataset with information on lending and loan performance at the bank-district level. Because data at this level of disaggregation is not made available by the regulator, we construct a new dataset based on proprietary data from India’s four largest commercial banks. This data set contains information on lending and loan performance for 1,783 bank-district pairs observed annually between 2006 to 2012. In the base year 2001, the data cover 27,678 bank branches, accounting for approximately 40% of India’s network of bank branches and 62% of total credit. We again focus on direct agricultural loans and construct the variables _Total credit_ ( _bank-district_ ) and _Total loans_ ( _bank-district_ ).

Because data on loan performance at the sub-national level is not disclosed by the regulator, the bank-district panel is also our main source of information on loan performance.

11