responsibilities are frequently attributed as a reason for women’s absence from the labor force. This trend has remained mostly unchanged in the 15-year period since 1999 (Amir et al., 2018).

Women’s ability and voice in decision-making within the household, and the social norms, such as expected gender roles, that regulate it, have implications beyond childbearing. These include women’s mobility (Jejeebhoy, and Sathar, 2001, Kantor 2002) when norms bound women to limited access to means of transport, or limited ability to leave their homes; their ability to build their capabilities and access economic opportunities (Afridi, et al., 2018; Rahman and Islam 2013; Kabeer, 1999), and their experience of IPV when participating in the labor market or earning an income (Krishnan et al. 2010; Weitzman 2014; Raj et al. 2018).

# **3. Data**

To explore the role and evolution of social norms in women’s outcomes in South Asia, we searched for sources of data on both gender outcomes and their related attitude indicators that were available for more than a single period. While most countries in South Asia have several waves of comprehensive household surveys, the combination of outcome and attitude variables is not common in any single survey. Surveys were mapped based on these criteria, and several potential secondary data sources were identified.<sup>7</sup> In our analysis, we use nationally representative data from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) and the World Value Survey (WVS) surveys. Among the secondary data sources considered, DHS provided the most comprehensive combination of gender-relevant outcome variables across all countries and time periods. However, one limitation of the DHS sample is that it is restricted to women of childbearing age (and in some countries, it covers only women who have married or live in a consensual union). WVS, though not available for all countries in the region, was selected due to the availability of gender attitude variables that could serve as a proxy for relevant norms (see Table A1 in the Annex for more details).

Following the survey identification, we proceeded to review the indicators in the identified surveys that were related to norms and FLFP. This was done in an iterative process, similar to the one Malhotra, Shuler and Boender (2002) follow for identifying empowerment indicators. Building on the literature on agency and empowerment, and publications on social and gender norms, we identified a set of indicators and variables repeatedly appearing in the literature as norms-related indicators.<sup>8</sup> We then looked at how

> 7  This included the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), World Values Survey (WVS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), Gallup Poll, Gender and Adolescence: Global Evidence (GAGE) (see Table A1 in the Annex for more detail on these data sources). Upon careful review, the latter three were dropped due to limited data availability (GAGE) and duplication of variables already available in the DHS and WVS surveys (MICS and Gallup) .

> 8 For the review we assume social and gender norms to be conditional preference for following behavioral rules based on expectations of other’s approval and/or sanctions for conformity or transgression of that rule (Bicchieri, 2006); that are embedded in formal and informal institutions, as well as individuals’ minds, and specifically define

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