rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
18 indicators of child mortality are more pronounced in large cities than in towns and medium sized cities. This study finds that while infant mortality amongst the wealthiest classes in large cities are particularly low, infant mortality rates amongst the poorest classes are quite pronounced – and indeed are higher than amongst the poorer segments in small and medium sized towns. These are suggestive findings and may be related to the particularly unhealthy living conditions in over-crowded slum areas of large cities. However, evidence on health outcomes across city sizes categories remains scarce and there does not appear to be a broad consensus in the literature on the relatively higher health risks in large cities. For example, Kapadia-Kundu and Kanitkar (2002) argue, also with reference to India, that urban public health services generally place greater emphasis on mega-cities and metro-centers, to the relative neglect of smaller cities and towns.

We probe this concern by examining the gradient across city size categories in Mexico of child anthropometric outcomes. We draw on a small area estimation effort undertaken by Rascón (2010) that parallels the work reported in preceding sections, but focuses on anthropometric outcomes rather than income poverty. Rascón combines the Mexican National Survey of Health and Nutrition 2006 with the Second Count of the Population and Dwellings 2005 in order to apply a variant of the Elbers et al. (2003) small area estimation procedure to the incidence of stunting and underweight amongst children aged 5 and below in Mexico.<sup>20</sup> Lanjouw and Rascón (2010) examine the correlation of child health outcomes in urban areas with city size. Table 8 summarizes their results and documents that the incidence of low height for age (stunting) and low weight for age (underweight) among children displays a similar gradient across city sizes as we have seen for income poverty. In Mexican cities that are larger than 500,000 inhabitants, the incidence of stunting and of underweight among children is 9%. In the case of stunting the incidence rises monotonically as cities decline in size. Amongst the smallest cities (of less than 10,000 inhabitants) the incidence is as high as 16%. In the case of underweight, the incidence also rises, but less markedly: from 9% in the largest cities to 11% in the small cities. The higher incidence of child malnutrition in small towns also translates into more malnourished children: 27% of stunted children in urban

> 20 Fujii (forthcoming) adapts the Elbers et al procedure for the estimation of anthropometric outcomes and applies this methodology to Cambodia. Rascón adapts this procedure further to apply it to Mexican data.
significant emotional distress were unemployed. Once employment was controlled for there was no significant effect of income on mental health. Demographic characteristics and length of time in New Zealand (which averaged four years) were also insignificant influences.

Pernice, Trlin, Henderson and North (2000) use the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) on a convenience sample of 107 skilled immigrants from China, India, and South Africa. There were no differences in mental health amongst these immigrants in terms of their employment status, length of time in New Zealand (which averaged less than one year) and origin country. Abbott, Wong, Williams, Au and Young (1999) also use the GHQ-12, but with a postal survey of 271 ethnic Chinese migrants living in Auckland. Amongst the recent (< 2 years) arrivals, those who were unemployed in New Zealand but had been employed in their origin country had worse mental health than those whose employment status did not change. Also, those who were younger, who could not read English, and who were female also had poorer mental health.<sup>4</sup> In contrast to these negative conclusions about the effect of migration on health, one of the earliest and most robust studies in New Zealand concluded that Pacific Island migrants were facing fewer mental health problems than were European New Zealanders (but this study did not cover the pre-migration health of the Pacific Islanders). Graves and Graves (1985) surveyed 228 Samoans, 212 Cook Islanders and 224 native-born New Zealanders of European background. These were random samples from three working class neighborhoods in Auckland, stratifying by city block. The Pacific Islanders had significantly fewer psychosomatic symptoms of health problems than did the European New Zealanders: In general, despite substantial disadvantages in terms of background experience, and training and a larger number of dependent family members to support, Pacific Island immigrants to New Zealand [...] reported fewer health problems than the European sample: for example, they are significantly _less_ likely to display the psychological tensions and pressures which manifest themselves in the form of insomnia, nervousness and a variety of little accidents” (Graves and Graves, 1985, p.15).

> 4 Many of the women in the sample were from so-called ‘astronaut families’ who had absent husbands still working in the origin country while the wives and children were fulfilling residency requirements in New Zealand.

6
# **Figure 11. The Impact of China on LatAm’s GDP Per Capita Growth**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 0.21<br>China's entry<br>0.19 into the WTO<br>0.17<br>0.15<br>0.13<br>0.11<br>0.09<br>0.07<br>LatAm Upper Middle Income South East Asia<br>1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source: WDI_

**Figure 12. Terms of Trade Bifurcation: LatAm North and LatAm South**

<!-- Start of picture text -->
1.2 1.4<br>1.1 1.3<br>Regional bifurcation<br>1 1.2<br>0.9 1.1<br>0.8 1<br>Region-wide<br>0.7 0.9<br>commodity dependence<br>0.6 0.8<br>LatAm South LatAm North (right axis)<br>1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016<br><!-- End of picture text -->

Note: LatAm South includes Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Uruguay and the República Bolivariana de Venezuela; LatAm North includes Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Panama, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. _Source: WDI._
|Secondary|2.1|Yes|Direct|
|---|---|---|---|
|Tertiary|0.7|Yes|No|
|Other n.p.c.|0.4|No|No|
|Health /4|5.8|Yes|Indirect|
|Housing|0.0|No|Indirect|
|**Other expenses**|15.7|No|No|

Source: authors Note:

*Grouped includes benefits that could not be individually identified or simulated using SILC information.

/1 Includes Cash benefit in case of adoption of a child up to the age of 5 and other family and children's contributory benefits /2 Includes lump sum pregnancy allowance, financial support for preventing abandonment, bringing up of a child by relatives or foster family and other family, and children's non-contributory benefits.

/3 Includes monthly allowance for a child without a right to a survivor's pension; targeted allowance for schoolchildren enrolled in 8th grade at a state or municipal school; and lump sum allowance in case of adoption, granted to adoptive parents of Bulgarian children. /4 Poverty effects were not estimated.

# III. Methodology: Expanding the Equity Commitment Assessment to understand fiscal policy with a child lens

## The CEQ approach

**The fiscal incidence approach is a comprehensive assessment method for analyzing the tax/benefit system** . It employs a diagnostic tool called the Commitment to Equity Assessment (CEQ) to evaluate the fiscal system's welfare impacts. The World Bank Poverty and Equity group has collaborated with the Economics Department at Tulane University to implement the CEQ in various countries across different regions. This approach represents one of the pioneering efforts to assess developing countries' tax/benefit systems thoroughly. It takes into account indirect subsidies, taxes, and in-kind benefits like free education and healthcare. The assessment aims to enable comparisons across countries and, over time, provide insights into the key obstacles hindering effective poverty and inequality reduction through tax and benefit policies.

**This paper's CEQ analysis encompasses seven distinct definitions of income.** In all instances, the per adult equivalent value was utilized **.** From a conceptual perspective, each type of income is defined as follows:

- Market income includes household income, wages, and other income not derived from labor, such as private transfers, without considering any aspect of fiscal policy.

- Market income plus pensions entails the previously mentioned income along with pensions.

- Gross income represents the total market income plus pensions and direct transfers.

- Net income is computed by subtracting income tax and social security contributions from market income plus pensions.

- Disposable income can be calculated by adding direct transfers to net income or deducting direct taxes and social security contributions from gross income.

- Consumable income is achieved by adding indirect subsidies and deducting indirect taxes from disposable income.

- Final income is the consumable income combined with the monetary value of public services received in education and health.

13
- 4 -

# **THE INTERNATIONAL OCEAN TRANSPORT INDUSTRY IN CRISIS** _Assessing the Reasons and Oatook_

# LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

|BFI|-|Baltic Freight Index|
|---|---|---|
|cgt|-|compensated gross tons|
|dwt|-|deadweight tons|
|EC|-|European Community|
|FOC|-|Flag of Convenience|
|FSU|-|Former Soviet Union|
|GECC|-|General Electric Capital Coiporation|
|grt|-|gross registered tons|
|gt|-|gross tonnage|
|Idt|-|light displacemen**t**ons|
|LNG|-|Liquefied Natural Gas|
|LPG|-|Liquefied Petroleum Gas|
|OBO|-|Ore/Bulk/Oil|
|OECD|-|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development|
|OPA|-|Oil Pollution Act (U.S.A.)|
|OPEC|-|Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries|
|RoRo|-|Roll On/Roll Off|
|SMY|-|Standard Man-Years|
|TEU|-|Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit|
|ULCC|-|Ultra Large Crude Carrier|
|U.S.A.|-|United States of America|
|US$|-|United States dollar|
|VLCC|-|Very Large Crude Carrier|
children’s education. We designed our study around the particular opportunities and challenges represented by this increasingly common choice-rich environment.

# **A. Data**

The data come from the Learning and Education Achievement in Punjab Schools Project (LEAPS, www.leapsproject.org), a multi-year study of education in Pakistan. For the LEAPS project, we sampled 112 villages across three districts in the Punjab province, the largest state with a population of 70 million in 2010.<sup>10</sup> Using a household census of schooling choices, we verified that these villages were effectively “closed” markets with children attending the schools in the village and school populations drawn from children in the village.<sup>11</sup> We included all schools in these villages that offered primary education in our sample, resulting in over 800 public and private schools (see Online Appendix I.A for sampling details).

In each of these villages, we conducted a series of annual surveys starting in 2004. First, we tested children who were in Grade 3 in the first survey round and continued to track and test them in each subsequent round. Around 12,000 children were tracked and tested in each round with a tracking rate over 96%.<sup>12</sup>

> 10 One district was chosen from each of the province’s three socioeconomic zones. Across a broad range of socioeconomic characteristics, the LEAPS villages are identical to villages with at least one private school in the three sampled districts (Andrabi et. al. 2007).

11 The villages are geographically separated by farmland, forests or wasteland, and distance to school is the primary determinant of enrollment and school choice. The census confirmed that 92% of children in the sampled villages attended the schools in our study; the remaining 8% were typically older children who had graduated to middle school by the time of our study (2% were studying in locations much farther away, including outside the country).

12 We developed norm-referenced tests for English, Mathematics and Urdu (the vernacular) to maximize variation across the population of test-takers. The test was piloted to improve the validity and reliability of the instrument and ensure that it was easy to understand, administer, and unbiased in terms of socioeconomic background. Preference was given to formats familiar to children and items were refined using differential item functioning (Andrabi et al., 2002, discuss the psychometric properties of the test, including tests of reliability). We equate test scores across 8
stoves. From the household perspective, these fuels and technologies are extremely expensive and typically unreliable in supply.

ICS technologies that use less biomass have therefore received significant attention as important intermediate technologies (Jeuland and Pattanayak, 2012), most of which use fuelwood, the most important biomass fuel. ICSs have important advantages, because they typically do not involve sophisticated technologies and may require only minor changes in household cooking habits. These important features can make them very attractive if meals can be cooked with less wood, ICSs are adopted and subsequently regularly used by households.

The Federal Government of Ethiopia is promoting the use of ICS as a key part of its REDD+, environmental and health agendas. Though activities are just beginning, the government has declared its intention to distribute 9.4 million stoves within five years. Achieving this goal would imply that roughly half the households in Ethiopia would use improved biomass stoves. Most of these stoves designed to more efficiently cook _injera_ .

The _Mirt injera_ stove, which is currently being promoted in Ethiopia and is the focus of this paper, has been found to save fuelwood under laboratory conditions (Megen Power Ltd, 2008) and using survey methodologies (Dresen et al., 2014), but its performance in the field using field experimental approaches common in the impact evaluation literature (Duflo et al, 2008) has not yet been fully evaluated. Moreover, while it is believed to be better from a technical perspective in terms of fuel consumption, its strengths and disadvantages from the user standpoint are not well understood; there is, therefore, no guarantee that on the balance households will find them to be “improved.” Households therefore take on risk and potentially incur costs when they adopt the _Mirt_ stove, costs that could be compensated under REDD+.

Our paper presents results from two rounds of controlled cooking tests (CCTs) with randomized behavioral treatments and presents evidence on user satisfaction. A total of 108 individuals, who are the primary cooks, participated in 4 CCTs, two in May/June 2013 and two in October/November 2013 using both _Mirt_ and traditional cooking technologies (a total of 432 tests). These individuals come from Amhara, Oromiya and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional States in Ethiopia. These regions include over 75% of the country’s population and a similar share of forest 5 | P a g e
# <u>Empirical Estimation II:  Revenues from Corporate Taxes and Financial Sector Profitability</u>

Another change that is of relevance to ECA is the impact of the financial sector boom on corporate, and particularly, financial, sector profitability. The magnitude and pattern of the financial sector’s booms and busts are not perfectly correlated with that of the output cycle. Yet, financial sector volatility may have substantial effects on revenues through its effect on the profits of financial and nonfinancial firms. A sustained reduction in financial sector profitability would be expected to have an impact on the share of the corporate income tax in GDP. This poses a potential concern for ECA countries- will tighter financial market conditions and lower returns in the financial sector have implications for tax revenues? Table 6 shows corporate income tax revenues as a share of GDP during 2007, 2009 and 2011. On average, CIT revenues tend to be a more important source of revenue for the higher income countries in ECA while VAT tends to be a relatively more important source of revenue for countries with lower income, as shown in Figure 6 below.

**Table 6:  CIT Revenue as a percent of GDP in 2007, 2009 & 2011**

|Country||CIT Revenue<br>||
|---|---|---|---|
||2007|2009|2011|
|Balkans Average|1.74|1.45|1.21|
|CIS & South Caucasus Average|2.82|2.23|2.42|
|EU11 Average|3.05|2.33|1.93|
|Russia & Oil Exporters<br>Average|8.99|4.75|5.33|
|ECA Average|3.36|2.39|2.3|

_<mark>Source:</mark>_ <mark>World Bank staff calculations based on government accounts.</mark> _Source:_ World Bank staff estimates based on government accounts.

**Figure 6:  CIT revenue/GDP vs. GDP per capita, average, 2000-2012**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 90% AZE RUS<br>80% TUR<br>70%<br>UKR<br>CZE<br>60%<br>50%<br>BLR<br>40% ROU SVK<br>ARM<br>30% BGR POL HUN<br>GEO LVA SVN<br>20% ALBKOS LTU HRV<br>TJK EST<br>10% KGZ MDA MKD MNE<br>SRB<br>0%<br>0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000<br>GDP per capita, US$ current<br>CIT revenue/ VAT revenue<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ World Bank staff estimates based on government accounts. _Note:_ Oil Exporters are excluded from the graph 19
- _Technical and management limitations._ Webster et al. (1998) stress more than any other study the importance of modern technology and skills for both managers and workers.

- _Public attitudes._ A 1999 survey carried out by MPDF revealed how the public opinion toward private enterprises is highly negative<sup>_39_</sup> . According to private sector analysts there is a need for a shift from an attitude of reluctance and control to one of active support and encouragement.

# **Are Key Obstacles to Further Private Sector Development Changing?**

64. In the past few years the government took a number of steps to reduce the constraints to business activities in Vietnam and create a more conducive environment for private enterprise. The question is however whether these measures have led to real changes in perceived business obstacles. In this survey enterprises were asked to list the three most important obstacles to their business development. The results were compared with the reported obstacles in the 1997 NIAS-survey in order to identify changes in perceptions over the past few years<sup>40</sup> .

_65._ The broad nature of the obstacles to private sector development has remained more or less the same but there seems to be a shift in the relative importance of certain obstacles. Table 6.1 compares the reported main obstacle in both surveys.

_66._ Capital remains the most important constraint for more than one third of the enterprises. Market constraints (limited market demand and too much competition) were reported as the main constraint by more than 30 percent of the respondents. The relative importance of this constraint has fallen, though, in comparison with previous years. There could be several reasons for this:

- Trade liberalization. The freeing up of trading rights for domestic private companies in the late 90s (Decree 57/CP) gave private companies direct access to foreign markets. Other commitments related to Vietnam’s entrance in bilateral, regional and multi-lateral agreements may also have resulted in greater access to markets.

- Increased purchasing power of consumers in the domestic market.

- Level playing field. In its efforts to promote private sector development the government has taken a number of measures to level the playing field between private and state enterprises. This may have led to a more fair access to markets for domestic private companies.

> 39 MPDF (1999). Report on Survey of Attitudes toward the Private Sector in Vietnam.

> 40 The NIAS survey was carried out with small private manufacturers (<100 employees)  in 5 provinces (Hanoi, Ha Tay, Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh and Long An). The results of the 1997 survey were compared with a subset of our survey. For the purpose of comparison we only analyzed the obstacles for the small manufacturing companies in the sample.

31
modal grades slightly affect the estimates and should be taken into account. In the regression and matching analysis we simply adjust for student grade to take into account these differences.

Reweighting clearly lowers the mean scores of students in 2003 and 2006 (Table 2). On the other hand, scores for students in the modal grade are slightly higher. These effects, which influence results in opposite ways, when combined are positive, suggesting that overall student performance increased between 2000 and 2003 or 2006. For example, the change in factual scores (weighted only with survey weights) from 2000 to 2003 is 17.5, and from 2000 to 2006 it is 28.5; but it diminishes after reweighting to 6.1 and 23.7, respectively. However, after reweighting and taking students from the modal grade only, the gains are equal to 13.5 and 30.6, respectively. Thus, there is no doubt that increases in mean scores occurred in Poland from 2000 to 2003. The change between 2003 and 2006 is less clear. After reweighting, the initial difference of 11.0 (or 11.6 in modal grade) almost disappears. Nevertheless, we clearly observe substantial overall improvement after 2000.

Table 2: PISA 2000, 2003 and 2006 results for Poland in Reading Factual (with survey weights), reweighted to the reference year (with survey and propensity score weights), and modal for modal grade

||_Factual_|_Factual_<br>_Modal grade_|_Factual_|_Reweighted_|_Factual_<br>_Modal grade_|_Reweighted_<br>_Modal grade_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Reweighting to 2000_||_2000_|||_2003_||
|Mean score|479.1|479.1|496.6|485.2|501.9|492.6|
|Change from 2000|-|-|17.5|6.1|22.8|13.5|
|_Reweighting to 2000_||_2000_|||_2006_||
|Mean score|479.1|479.1|507.6|502.8|513.5|509.7|
|Change from 2000|-|-|28.5|23.7|34.4|30.6|
|_Reweighting to 2003_||_2003_|||_2006_||
|Mean score|496.6|501.9|507.6|499.5|513.5|506.9|
|Change from 2003|-|-|11.0|2.9|11.6|5.0|

The change in mean scores is obviously interesting but looking at the change in whole distributions gives a more detailed picture. Figures 4 and 5 show estimated factual distributions of scores in 2000, 2003 and 2006, together with reweighted scores for 2003 or 2006. The figures clearly show that the whole score distributions are “shifted” to the right in 2003 or 2006 compared to 2000. This means that the difference in achievement across PISA cycles is not only for low-achievers but also for high-achievers. This way Poland closes the gap at all levels of performance. While in PISA 2000 the percentage of students in the top two reading proficiency levels (4<sup>th</sup> and 5<sup>th</sup> ) was 24.5 percent (compared to OECD average of 31.8 percent), this number in Poland increased in 2006 to 34.7 percent (compared to OECD average of 29.3 Percent). At the bottom of the distribution, the percentage of Polish students at the 1<sup>st</sup> or below proficiency level was 23.3 percent in 2000 (17.9 percent in OECD) and 16.2 percent in 2006 (20.1 percent in 17