rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
and increased teacher stress (Clunies-Ross, Little, & Kienhuis, 2008). Instead, by focusing on the expected behavior, the teacher could use disruptions in the classroom as an opportunity to explicitly communicate behavioral expectations (Lemov, 2015; Zimmerman, 2002). The general consensus from this body of research suggests that teachers who redirect misbehavior by focusing on the expected classroom behavior, also known as “differential reinforcement,” will see more desirable behaviors occur in the future (Simonsen et al., 2008), less aggressive and destructive classroom behaviors, and overall reductions in classroom stress levels (Lentfer & Franks, 2016; Meehan, Hughes, & Cavell, 2003; Stage & Quiroz, 1997).

# **3.3 INSTRUCTION**

High-quality instruction is essential for student learning (Carver & Klahr, 2013). Decades of research point to a few key features present in virtually all definitions of effective instruction. Effective teachers deliver content in a way that is clear and interesting to students, engage students in varied activities that promote thinking, build in ways of assessing understanding, and offer feedback to students (Brophy, 1986, 1999; Porter & Brophy, 1988). Results from the Mid-Continental Research for Education and Learning (McREL; 2010) study indicate that the strategies of setting objectives, teaching the new material, and then checking students’ understanding and providing relevant feedback have positive impacts on students’ standardized achievement test scores. Teachers who demonstrate these behaviors produce as much as one-half of an SD gain in student achievement (Hattie, 2009). Further, instructional practices have been shown to be particularly beneficial for children with the lowest levels of academic abilities (Curby, Rimm-Kaufman, & Ponitz, 2009).

International research, too, draws attention to the importance of high-quality instruction. For instance, research from preschool classrooms in Chile linked teacher instructional practices to language and academic gains (Leyva, Weiland, Barata, Yoshikawa, Snow, Treviño, & Rolla, 2015), and research in German third grade classrooms revealed the importance of cognitive activation (e.g., presentation of challenging tasks, questions that ask students what they do or do not understand) in predicting student science understanding (DeCristan et al., 2015).

In _Teach_ , “Instruction” encompasses four elements: the extent to which the teacher is effective at “Lesson Facilitation,” the extent to which the teacher “Checks for 16
revised. The amount of the concessions granted to each professional group appears to depend on the strength of its union and its collective action power. The group members’ socioeconomic situation and actual needs are rarely a determinant of compensation changes (cf. the 2014 CGFP report on compensation).

**Other challenges are the disconnect between compensation and performance, and the fact that salary differentiation between professional groups impedes mobility across ministries.** The performance bonus is very small compared to the salary and allowances, and has even decreased in size through its partial integration into the base salary. Besides, the bonus is de facto affected only by attendance but not by quality of work. In contrast to the bonus, the specific allowances for certain professional groups are large. This complicates staff reassignments across professional groups or ministries, as they can result in a significant financial loss to the employee and also entail various bureaucratic hurdles.

**Despite successive salary increases and the proliferation of allowances, public sector salaries are not competitive if compared to the private sector** . According to a 2011 survey of Tunisia’s salary structure, the average monthly salary (including all bonuses and benefits) of an engineer in the private sector was TND 2,085. An engineer in the public sector would need more than 20 years of experience to earn the same amount. The starting salary for an A1-category engineer (at the lowest level for all allowances) was TND 1,222 in 2013, while the total salary for an engineer with 25 years of experience and receiving the highest level of all allowances was TND 2,276. According to interviews with engineers from the MoI, the salary available in the private sector is two to three times higher for an engineer at the beginning of his or her career and three to four times higher for an engineer with 25 years of service. The salary paid by SOEs is approximately double that paid in the public administration. Given this wage gap, many engineers contemplate leaving the public sector or choose to work on private sector projects in addition to their civil service job. At the recruitment stage, the low level of public sector compensation means that the _concours_ attract a limited pool of applicants, who are either intrinsically motivated to work in the public sector, or were not or did not expect to be successful when applying for a private sector job.

# **Box 2: The Exceptional Bonus (also known as the** **_Exceptional Worker Award_ )**

- Created in 1997 and governed by Title VI of the SGFP.

- Awarded to an employee who “devised a tool,” “saved the administration from serious damage,” or “showed a high degree of perfection.”

- Can take the form of a promotion to the next higher category/unit, advancement of one or several ranks, or an overall bonus of an amount determined on a case-by-case basis.

- Chosen by the President from proposals submitted by the relevant ministry and according to the number of recipients determined by a national commission within the Prime Minister’s office.

13
inheritance rights (Ali, Deininger, and Goldstein 2011).

Although it is clear that land titling has the capacity to improve the lot of women in developing countries, most studies are unable to distinguish the overall impact of titling from the _additional_ impact of joint-titling (what we will call co-titling in this paper). This distinction might seem less crucial in contexts where land titling is compulsory, but in the face of large costs for formalization governments are often resorting to demand-driven approaches (Payne et al. 2007). In these settings, if households see co-titling as a cost, then policymakers might find that convincing households to purchase property titles and getting them to co-title are conflicting goals. If making co-titling a requirement depresses a household’s demand for a title, we should be concerned with identifying the ‘price of empowerment’, the subsidy required to offset that reduction in demand.

# **2.3 Female land ownership in urban Tanzania**

One of the main aims of this experiment is to investigate whether Tanzanian households can actually be induced to co-title their land as part of the formalization process. While there are both theoretical arguments and some empirical evidence suggesting that cotitling actually improves women’s ownership claims and bargaining power, we must first investigate whether, ex-ante, we would expect co-titling to make a different in the Tanzanian setting. There are several states of the world to consider: the default position of female ownerships rights under informality, both in a _de jure_ sense and in a _de facto_ sense, and how this position changes as households adopt formal titles with only a male spouse as the owner or as a jointly-owned title. We will consider each of these states in turn:

1. **Informality** : Under informality, women’s _de facto_ ownership remains unclear. The 1999 Land Act was hailed as being one of the first pieces of land legislation to explicitly recognize the rights of women as landowners (Sundet 2005) and contains several provisions granting ownership rights to women who co-reside with their husbands. However, the language and framing of the Land Act supposes that formalization has taken places and titles have been granted, so it is uncertain whether or not women can actually take advantage of these ownership rights under informality. The state of women’s _de jure_ ownership claims prior to formalization appears to be weak at best. Table 1 gives a sense of the state of _de facto_ ownership: it is constructed using baseline data from the experimental intervention, which is discussed in more detail in the following section. Households in two unplanned settlements in Dar es Salaam were asked a series of questions about the _de facto_ ownership of land, including the rights of household members over the sale, rental and transfer of land, as well as who would be include in a CRO application if one was made. The results, which are restricted to dual-headed households, suggest that women have limited _de facto_ rights over land: roughly 13% of households report that a woman is one

7
Trust

|Variables|Trust in national institutions|Trust in friends and family|
|---|---|---|
|Number of Observations|388,602|388,602|
|Number of Countries|134|134|

_Note_ : Models estimated using unweighted individual-level data from the 2014-17 Gallup World Poll. Standard errors are in parentheses and clustered by country and robust to heteroskedasticity. References categories are single or never married, elementary education, employed full-time, poorest quintile, rural area or farm, and the year 2014. Each model includes country and years fixed effects. * Significance at the 0.10 level. ** Significance at the 0.05 level. *** Significance at the 0.01 level.

Estimates show that food insecurity is strongly associated with both vertical and horizontal trust among the sample respondents. Trust is lower as the severity of food insecurity is higher. Food insecurity is associated with a decrease in trust in national institutions by 2.7 percentage points and a decrease in trust in friends and family by 11.7 percentage points. This is a sizable effect considering that the average probabilities of trusting national institutions and friends and family are roughly 53% and 80%, respectively. The effect of food insecurity on trust in friends and family is larger than for any other explanatory variable, including government corruption, poor infrastructure, or if the respondent has been robbed. Friends and family have more direct everyday interactions with people than the national government, or other national institutions such as the judiciary, which may explain the differences in magnitudes. These results imply that alleviating food insecurity would have a spillover effect of increasing both types of trust.

Our control variables are well-behaved. For example, being an immigrant is a significant factor for trust in friends and family but is statistically insignificant for trust in institutions. Living in a city, compared to that of a rural area, is a significant factor to trust in institutions but is statistically insignificant to trust in friends and family. Column 2 shows that, controlling for other individual and household characteristics, immigrants are 3.3 percentage points less likely to trust friends and family. This suggests that, controlling for the level of food insecurity, immigrants may have access to less social capital to rely on in times of crisis, than native-born adults. Column 1 shows that, compared to living in a rural area, living in a large city is associated with a 4.7 percentage point decrease in trusting institutions. Putnam (2000) argues that rural areas have more social capital 12
|Panel B||Not incorpora|ted in euro area|||Not headquart|ered in euro area||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|(7)|(8)|
|Investment grade|0.0297***|0.0317***||0.0310**|0.0263***|0.0288***||0.0260*|
||(0.00432)|(0.00441)||(0.0114)|(0.00394)|(0.00391)||(0.0129)|
|Leverage|-0.0132|-0.0143|-0.0101|-0.00505|-0.0119|-0.0133|-0.0105|-0.00609|
||(0.0136)|(0.0124)|(0.0161)|(0.0156)|(0.0141)|(0.0126)|(0.0155)|(0.0147)|
|Log assets|-0.00212|-0.00241*|-0.000325|-0.00289*|-0.00196|-0.00233*|-0.000434|-0.00284*|
||(0.00132)|(0.00122)|(0.00148)|(0.00139)|(0.00132)|(0.00123)|(0.00146)|(0.00139)|
|ROA|-0.0154**|-0.0143**|-0.0323***|-0.0257***|-0.0167**|-0.0153**|-0.0319***|-0.0256***|
||(0.00656)|(0.00579)|(0.00987)|(0.00730)|(0.00656)|(0.00562)|(0.00943)|(0.00713)|
|Book-to-market|-0.00189|-0.00186|-0.00500**|-0.00316|-0.00150|-0.00155|-0.00515**|-0.00337|
||(0.00205)|(0.00204)|(0.00184)|(0.00231)|(0.00262)|(0.00252)|(0.00184)|(0.00229)|
|Non-investment grade||0.0124||0.00816||0.0153||0.00857|
|||(0.0101)||(0.0120)||(0.0109)||(0.0120)|
|Bonds/assets|||0.000423|-0.0348|||0.00427|-0.0319|
||||(0.0205)|(0.0272)|||(0.0207)|(0.0271)|
|Bonds/assets * Investment grade||||0.0354<br>(0.0798)||||0.0517<br>(0.0910)|
|Observations|1297|1297|1069|1069|1290|1290|1071|1071|
|Adjusted R-squared|0.047|0.047|0.043|0.057|0.043|0.044|0.045|0.057|
|CountryFE|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|

39
between the native born and the foreign born interactions is systematically reversed. It is striking that black women born abroad are doing better than any other category for labor force participation and holding a job.

While it would be interesting to analyze and compare in detail each of the interaction terms, the most striking result is the reversal of the traditional native/foreign born ranking among Blacks. That reversal is very clear and consistent among females for all labor market outcomes. It is less consistent among males, but still, for labor force participation and employment, the difference between foreign born and natives is positive and always the largest.

The next two sections of the paper further investigates that result, focusing on labor force participation, first by looking for possible explanatory channels such as citizenship, ability in English, age at arrival in the US as well as time since arrival and then by controlling for potential neighborhood and local effects.

# **IV. Sample composition effects and possible channels**

This section focuses on the fact that there might be large differences in the way the pool of immigrants is composed for each racial group. As indicated in panel B of table 1, the group of immigrants varies in the proportion of immigrants who became citizen, in their ability to speak English, by the length of their stay in the US or their age at arrival.

Citizenship might be an important asset on the labor markets and the proportion of foreign born who have become US citizens might vary by racial background. As reported in table 1 panel B, among White, Black and Asian foreign born, about 50 percent have obtained citizenship. That proportion is smaller (33.9% for women and 28.9% for men) among Hispanics. It would have been interesting to also take into account permanent residency (“green card”), but that information is not available in the US Census.

7
||With Zero Food<br>**wtrortc**. .e......................|1.70|
|---|---|---|
|I.C.23|Farm hcome**Uder**Food Self-Sufficlency .<br>.|1.71|
|I.C.24|Land Use Under Self-Sufficiency, 2015-19..|1.73|
|I.C.25|Labor Uses Under Food Self-SuffIcIency.<br>.|1.74|

# FIGURES: PART TWO

|1.|Production .2.12|
|---|---|
|2.|Real Cocoa Price (Producer prce' deflated by<br>rural CPI) ..........<br>2.13|
|3.|Cocoa Production, Prices, Income..<br>2.14|
|4.|Production and Lagged Prices ..<br>2.15|
|5.|Real Cocoa Pricos (at constant $1980).<br>2.17|
|8.|Ratio of Producer to World Price|
||(Ivory Coast and Ghana).<br>2.18|
|7.|Ghana Real Producer Prices (Deflate Rural CPI).<br>2.20|
|8.|Real Crop Prices (Deflated byRuralFood Price.<br>221|
|9.|Relative Prico of Cocoa (Defla'.. by Maize Prices) .<br>.23|
|9A.|Cocoa-Maize Price Ratio (Ratio of Domestic to World|
||Price Ratios).<br>2.24|
|10.|Area Under Crops..<br>................<br>2.25|
|11.|Area Under Cereals.<br>2.26|
|12.|Revenue from Cocoa Sales .<br>2.29|
|13.|Government Revenue (Deflated by CPI).<br>2.31|
|14.|Revenue from Cocoa Sales .2.32|

# **FIGES:** PART THREE

|1.|Cote d'lvoire Cocoa Production .3.9||
|---|---|---|
|2.|Brazil Cocoa Productlon .|3.12|
|3.|Malaysia--Peninsula Cocoa Production .3.15||
|4.|<br>Malaysla--Sabbah Cocoa Producton .3.17||
|5.|<br>Malaysla--Sarawak Cocoa Productlon.|3.19|
|6.|<br>Cocoa Consumptlon.|3.26|
|7.|<br>Cocoa Spot Price Ghana.|3.28|
|8.|<br>Ghana Cocoa Premium.|3.30|

- 5 -
<u>Table 5. Relationship between schooling and skills formation</u>

||(1)<br>Cognitive skills|(2)<br>Cognitive skills|(3)<br>Functional Lit. and Num.|(4)<br>Functional Lit. and Num.|(5)<br>SEM skills|(6)<br> <br>SEM skills|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Years of schooling|0.169***|0.168***|0.165***|0.165***|0.033***|0.033***|
||(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.004)|(0.004)|
|Respondent age|-0.009***|-0.009***|0.001|0.001|0.007**|0.008*|
||(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.004)|(0.004)|
|Respondent is female|0.124***|0.129***|-0.156***|-0.156***|-0.621***|-0.616***|
||(0.022)|(0.022)|(0.020)|(0.020)|(0.033)|(0.035)|
|Mother highest grade|0.011**|0.012**|0.001|-0.001|-0.001|-0.001|
||(0.005)|(0.005)|(0.004)|(0.005)|(0.006)|(0.006)|
|Father highest grade|0.010***|0.010***|-0.001|-0.000|-0.003|-0.003|
||(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.003)|(0.004)|(0.004)|
|HH SES in 2003|0.015***|0.011*|-0.001|-0.004|0.007|0.010|
||(0.005)|(0.006)|(0.006)|(0.006)|(0.008)|(0.009)|
|Constant|-1.330***|-1.367***|-1.324***|-1.379***|-0.214*|-0.056|
||(0.076)|(0.074)|(0.087)|(0.083)|(0.113)|(0.107)|
|Observations|4,399|4,399|4,402|4,402|4,395|4,395|
|Adjusted R-squared|0.659|0.665|0.668|0.677|0.153|0.171|
|Village FE|No|Yes|No|Yes|No|Yes|
|District FE|Yes|No|Yes|No|Yes|No|
|Number of clusters|108|108|108|108|108|108|

* p<.10 ** p<.05 *** p<.01

_Notes_ . The dependent variable in columns (1) and (2) is the mean of the Urdu, Mathematics, and English scores computed using Item Response Theory with a two-parameter logistic (2PL) model. Items come from the paper-based and tablet-based, computer-adaptive tests (leaving out items that less than 50 respondents answered and items that less than 5% or more than 95% of respondents solved correctly). The dependent variable in columns (3) and (4) is a functional literacy and numeracy index computed using principal-component factor analysis on 17 real-life literacy and numeracy questions. The dependent variable in columns (5) and (6) is a socioemotional (SEM) skills index computed using principal-component factor analysis on the big-five items, grit items, BART, and GoNoGo scores. The sample for each regression consists of respondents who completed the direct version of the questionnaire, in-person. Sample sizes differ due to item non-response. Regressions in columns (2), (4), and (6) include village fixed effects; regressions in columns (1), (3), and (5) include district fixed effects. Standard errors are in parentheses (clustered at the village level).

46
|P086277|2004|2009|9/29/2008|10 Closed|Georgia|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|P086277|2004|2009|4/16/2009|11 Closed|Georgia|
|P086277|2004|2010|10/20/2009|12 Closed|Georgia|
|P086277|2004|2010|4/1/2010|13 Closed|Georgia|
|P086277|2004|2011|12/18/2010|14 Closed|Georgia|
|P086277|2004|2012|8/7/2011|15 Closed|Georgia|
|P086277|2004|2012|6/26/2012|16 Closed|Georgia|
|P086294|2007|2007||0 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2008|2/15/2008|1 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2008|6/27/2008|2 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2009|8/31/2008|3 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2009|3/16/2009|4 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2009|6/30/2009|5 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2010|12/29/2009|6 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2010|6/27/2010|7 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2011|3/30/2011|8 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2012|10/16/2011|9 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2012|5/13/2012|10 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2013|12/7/2012|11 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2013|6/20/2013|12 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2014|11/9/2013|13 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2014|6/14/2014|14 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086294|2007|2015|12/10/2014|15 Closed|Congo,Democratic Re|
|P086308|2007|2007||0 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2008|9/9/2007|1 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2008|3/23/2008|2 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2009|11/9/2008|3 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2009|6/30/2009|4 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2010|12/14/2009|5 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2010|5/26/2010|6 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2011|1/12/2011|7 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2012|8/26/2011|8 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2012|10/26/2011|9 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2012|5/21/2012|10 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086308|2007|2013|5/21/2012|10 Closed|Yemen,Republic of|
|P086313|2008|2008||0 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2009|10/28/2008|1 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2009|6/11/2009|2 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2010|1/7/2010|3 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2010|5/12/2010|4 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2011|2/20/2011|5 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2012|3/3/2012|6 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2013|7/22/2012|7 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2013|1/15/2013|8 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2013|6/23/2013|9 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2014|10/19/2013|10 Closed|Samoa|
|P086313|2008|2014|1/21/2014|11 Closed|Samoa|
Comparing childhood conditions in 1992 we find that the non-stunted comparison group grew up in more disadvantaged settings than the general population living in the urban Jamaica.<sup>13</sup> The non-stunted sample was less likely to live in houses with piped water, their mothers were less likely to have completed grade 9 at school, and they were less likely to have the father present in the house. Despite this, by age 22, the non-stunted group attained comparable levels of human capital as those of the same age and living in the Kingston Area interviewed in the Labor Force Survey. The two samples are equally likely to still be in school and achieved the same level of educational attainment in terms of years of schooling and passing national comprehensive matriculation exams.<sup>14</sup>

# **2.3 Previous Studies**

The stimulation and the combined stimulation-nutrition arms of the Jamaica Study proved to have a large long-term impact on cognitive development. At age 22 the order of magnitude of the impacts of stimulation were large at 0.6 standard deviations on a WAIS test (Walker et al., 2011). While the treatment groups’ cognitive scores improved relative to those of the control group and caught up with the non-stunted sample in performance IQ , they did not completely catch-up in all cognitive function domains (Walker et al., 2005, 2000). Moreover, both stimulation arms had positive impacts on psychosocial skills, schooling attainment and crime reduction Walker et al. (2011). However, there was no long-term impact on anthropometric measures (Walker et al., 1996).

While the stimulation arms had strong and lasting effects, the nutrition-only arm had no long-term effect on any outcome (Walker et al., 2005, 2000).<sup>15</sup> Hence, we combine the

> 13See Table 14 Panel A in the Appendix.

> 14See Table 14 Panel B in the Appendix.

> 15This is in contrast to the Guatemala Study in which nutritional supplementation did affect both longterm health status and earnings (Hoddinott et al., 2008 and Maluccio et al., 2009). This may be due to the fact that the Guatemala study started supplementing children earlier, in utero and right at birth, while when the Jamaica program started children were already undernourished. Since there is no study showing sustained benefits from supplementation in children who were malnourished before beginning supplementation, supplementation in Jamaica may have begun too late to have an impact. Other possible reasons for the difference include the fact that the supplement was offered for less time in Jamaica, the supplement

6