and are vectors with some standard child and mother/household characteristics known to affect newborn health: gender, an indicator of parity, the birth interval with respect to the cc pp ii,mm,tt ii,mm,tt XXprevious live birth, an indicator for a multiple birth (twins or more), for whether the birth was XX attended by a doctor or nurse, and for the day of birth (before/after the 15th of the month), the years of education of the mother, her age at birth, an indicator for whether she had any disability since birth or resulting from illness, the area of residence of the household (urban, rural or rural disperse), and a measure of multidimensional poverty.<sup>39</sup> are municipal characteristics previously defined; y y , m are time fixed-effects,<sup>40</sup> and mm are municipal fixed-effects. ii,mm,tt XX mmtth mm I exclude from the sample the children whose mothers migrated into municipalityγγ γγ γγ _m_ after _m_ after conception because they were exposed to different violence shocks. This could be solved by matching the violence data on the municipality of residence at the time of pregnancy, but it is not possible because DHS do not identify this place. Of the total sample of children with birthweight information, 15% of cases are excluded from the analysis for this reason,<sup>41</sup> but only a small proportion of mothers stated that they migrated as a result of violence: less than 6% of the pregnancies that occurred in a different municipality.<sup>42</sup> Instead, the most commonly stated reasons for migration, with about 44% of the responses each, were economic (‘looking for opportunities’ or ‘work') and family motives. I deal with migration arising from women moving out of municipalities exposed to violence as a robustness check.

# **V. Results**

# **A. Summary statistics**

Across the three DHS waves there are 37,500 observations of children born in the five years before each survey and whose mothers lived in the municipality of interview during since conception. Of those, 27,183 (72.49%) reported the baby’s weight at birth, 75% of which were from the mother’s recall, and 24.7% from a birth certificate or hospital record.<sup>43</sup> The average baby weighs 3.222 kg; girls are on average 110 gr lighter than boys _(_ Table 2 _),_ and their whole birthweight distribution is slightly to the left (Figure 3). 8.17% of babies are born weighing less than 2.5 kg, but because of the tendency to report birthweight in round multiples (heaping), it is preferred to include the threshold cases in a low birthweight indicator when using household survey data (Blanc and Wardlaw 2005). This adjustment brings the share of low birthweight babies in the sample to 11.79%. Less than 1% of babies die within the first 28 days of life in the sample of babies with birthweight data, and 1.1% in the full sample. In both cases, the boys’ rate of neonatal mortality is

> interpretation of this estimate would be slightly different, returning an intention to treat rather than an average treatment effect. Results do not significantly differ from the ones presented here and are available upon request. 39 Because DHS surveys have no information on household income or expenditure, I calculate the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) following United Nations Development Programme guidelines for the international version of the index. Colombia has a local version (Angulo, Díaz, and Pardo 2013), but some of the indicators are not available in DHS. Here I use the household deprivation score, without capping it for households below the poverty threshold.

> 40 The specification also includes survey round fixed-effects.

> 41 The share is similar for the whole sample of children (including those without birthweight report) or when using only observations with the complete set of covariates.

> 42 There are also a few women who migrated within the municipality and these are included in the sample; 0.73% of them moved because of violence.

> 43 There are no statistically significant differences in birthweight, and only a very small one in the share of low birthweight when comparing the two reporting methods.

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