rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Table 3: Impacts on learning— by student and teacher gender

|(1)<br>All teachers|(2)<br>Female|(3)<br>Male|
|---|---|---|
|In-Kind<br>0.272<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.210<sup>_∗_</sup>|0.265<sup>_∗_</sup>|
|(0.100)|(0.116)|(0.156)|
|Recognition<br>0.223<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|0.237<sup>_∗_</sup>|0.127|
|(0.100)|(0.121)|(0.149)|
|Boy<br>0.182<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.079<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.303<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|
|(0.041)|(0.029)|(0.064)|
|In-Kind x Boy<br>-0.072|-0.011|-0.146|
|(0.060)|(0.043)|(0.099)|
|Recognition x Boy<br>-0.124<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|-0.012|-0.211<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|
|(0.062)|(0.060)|(0.088)|
|Observations<br>58891|47707|11184|
|R-squared<br>0.098|0.111|0.184|
|_F-test (p-value): Impact on boys_|||
|In-Kind<br>0.065|0.074|0.478|
|Recognition<br>0.389|0.102|0.614|
|_F-test (p-value): In-Kind vs Recog_|_nition_||
|Girls<br>0.635|0.812|0.391|
|Boys<br>0.372|0.842|0.226|

_Notes._ Each column represents a separate regression on the midline data, estimated using equation 2. Data are restricted to same sample as columns (1) to (3) in Table 2. The bottom four rows report the p-values of the ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ following respective F-tests: _α_ 1 + _α_ 3 = 0; _α_ 2 + _α_ 4 = 0 ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ _α_ 1 = _α_ 2; _α_ 1 + _α_ 3 = _α_ 2 + _α_ 4. Standard errors are in parentheses. . _∗p <_ 0 _._ 1, _∗∗ p <_ 0 _._ 05, _∗∗∗p <_ 0 _._ 01 19
Table 2 Assumptions in baseline calibration

|Category|Assumptions|
|---|---|
|Macroecono<br>mic variables|-<br>Real GDP is exogenous in the baseline<br>-<br>Labor force in state sector decreases to 51.7 million in 2020, is stable afterward<br>-<br>Ownership-specific TFP growth rate is endogenous<br>-<br>Trade balance gradually declines to 0 in 2010<br>-<br>Gross investment rate declines from 39.7 percent of GDP in 1995 to 32<br>percent of GDP in 2050|
||-<br>Ownership distribution of investment changes from state sector 54 percent,<br>individual and private 13 percent and other non-state sector 33 percent in 1995 to<br>state sector 20 percent, individual and private 20 percent and other non state sector<br>60 percent in 2050.|
|Demographic||
|parameters|-<br>Life expectancy and total fertility rate increase from 70.3 year and 1.9 percent,<br>respectively, in 1996 to 76.9 years and 2.1 percent in 2050, based on World Bank<br>projections.|
|Pension<br>system|-<br>Labor participation rates for people older than 45 increase 3 percentage points for<br>males and 5 percentage points for females between 1995 and 2050.|
|Characters|-<br>Pension system coverage in state-owned sector gradually increases to I between<br>1995 and 2000; coverage in other sectors is fixed at the base year level<br>-<br>Replacement rate declines to 60 percent (pillar I at 20 percent plus pillar 2 at 40<br>percent) in 2000, then remains constant<br>-<br>Contribution rate increases to official rate (24 percent) in 2000, then remains<br>constant<br>-<br>Ratio of worker contribution to employer contribution gradually increases to official<br>ratio in 2005, then remains constant<br>-<br>Compliance rate is 85 percent<br>-<br>Pension expenditure is financed by payroll tax and government saving/deficit|
|Govemment<br>fiscal closure|-<br>Govemrment consumption, transfers and saving (excluding saving/deficits for<br>pension) are exogenous<br>-<br>Corporate tax rate is endogenous to achieve government budget balance<br>-<br>All other tax rates are fixed at base year level.|

# **_Simulation scenario design_**

Three sets of policy simulations and eighteen experiments are conducted.

**Simulation** set 1: **Limited changes in current pension system.** Since results in the baseline show that the current pension system in China is not sustainable, the question arises: can we solve the probleiTi simply by raising the retirement age (which would reduce the system dependency ratio) and expanding program coverage (which would increase the pool size of contribution funds) to all SOEs and urban nonstate sectors without any fundamental reforn of the current system? The first set of policy simulation combines of one scenario of expending program coverage with three scenarios of increasing retirement age (Table3).

21
Coulombe and Demery, 1992)'.J/ Table 1 shows that<sup>this decline is recorded for all</sup> regions, with Abidjan reporting the lowest decline (15% over<sup>the four-year period). These</sup> results apply under alternative definitions of the household.<sup>In the CILSS, in order to</sup> qualify for inclusion in the household, a person must be<sup>resident in the household for three</sup> months or more during the previous 12 months. This is<sup>the definition of the household</sup> underlying the estimates reported in Table 1. However, it<sup>is perfectly feasible to re-estima:.</sup> household size under alternative definitions. Such calculations<sup>are presented in Table 2,</sup> comparing the 3-month residency requirement with 6- and<sup>9-month requirements. It is clear</sup> that the changes in residency qualification make little difference<sup>to the observed decline. If</sup> a stricter definition of membership is applied (for example,<sup>requiring that the person has</sup> been present at least 6 of the past 12 months), a decline<sup>of 23 percent is still observed. In</sup> what follows, we take the 6-month residence period<sup>as qualification for household</sup> membership. 2/ This period is the most logical choice<sup>for household membership since</sup> with a shorter qualification period a person can be a member<sup>of more than one household</sup> during the year, and thus be counted more than once in the survey.

The CILSS data collection followed a rotating panel design, i.e.,<sup>each year after 1985</sup> _50_ percent of the households were replaced with new ones<sup>and the other 50 percent were</sup> retained in order to (try to) revisit them. The data structure<sup>over the four years contains thus</sup> three overlapping panels (see Grootaert and Kanbur, 1992<sup>for further details). This feature</sup>

- 1/ Proper use of the CILSS data requires the application of three<sup>sets of weights. The</sup> first set is designed to correct for an over-representation<sup>of better-off households in</sup> the Abidjan sample for 1985-86. The second set is designed<sup>to correct for</sup> differences in the distribution of primary sampling units across<sup>regions in the 1987-88</sup> sampling frame as compared with the population distribution<sup>derived from the 1988</sup> Population Census. Unless stated otherwise, all data<sup>presented in this paper have</sup> been subjected to the application of those two sets of weights.<sup>A third set of weights</sup> designed to correct for household size sampling bias is the subject<sup>of this paper.</sup>

- 2/ Some members, such as babies newly born to the household<sup>and the household head</sup> are considered members even when they do not fulfill the<sup>6-month requirement.</sup> Others, such as servants and boarders, are always excluded<sup>because they are</sup> considered as members of separate households in the survey.

4
# **Figure 10: Procedures required to establish a foreign-owned company**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Procedures required of domestic and foreign companies<br>Additional procedures required only of foreign companies (including international trade license)<br>Eastern Europe and Central Asia 6 1<br>High-income OECD 6 2<br>Global average 7 2<br>East Asia and Pacific 8 2<br>Middle East and North Africa 9 2<br>Sub-Saharan Africa 7 2<br>Latin America and Caribbean 11 2<br>South Asia 7 3<br>0 5 10<br>Source: FDI Regulations database 2012<br><!-- End of picture text --> In high-income OECD and ECA economies, the time needed for incorporation does not vary much between domestic and foreign-owned companies (only an additional 2 days on average). In Sub-Saharan Africa, on the other hand, there can be up to two additional procedures on average, adding an additional average of 17 days to the process.

The MENA region shows the biggest discrepancy between domestic and foreign processes. Notwithstanding the above, the regional averages hide a great variation in scope and stringency among the different players in each of these regions. In fact, when looking more closely at an economy-level, in SAR for example, we notice that while Afghanistan offers the fastest start-up process in the region with 9 days and 6 procedures, in Nepal, the process takes as long as three months to complete. The same can be said of Latin American and the Caribbean with three of the world’s worst performers and one of the best. The República Bolivariana de Venezuela (325 days), Brazil (152 days) and Haiti (120 days) bring the regional average time up while Chile, with 10 days, offers one of the fastest processes (Figure 11). If the regional average for LAC is measured without counting the three outlier countries listed above, the total number of days needed to establish a foreign-owned firm drops from 69 to 34 days.

In EAP, the same variation can be observed where a foreign company establishing a subsidiary in Hong Kong SAR, China and Singapore will only need to account for 3 and 4 days respectively whereas in Brunei Darussalam, Papua New Guinea and Vietnam the same company will need 101, 112 and 110 days respectively.

- _ii. Additional procedures and other requirements relevant for foreign-owned companies_

The additional procedures required of foreign companies are summarized in Table 2. The four most common types of additional procedures required exclusively of foreign companies are:

- The legalization of the foreign parent’s incorporation document abroad. This process has been made easier with the 1961 Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for

15
Policy Research Working Paper 7491

# **Abstract**

China has defied the declining trend in domestic content in exports in many countries. This paper studies China’s rising domestic content in exports using firm- and customs transaction-level data. The approach embraces firm heterogeneity and hence reduces aggregation bias. The study finds that the substitution of domestic for imported materials by individual processing exporters caused China’s domestic content in exports to increase from 65 to 70 percent in 2000–2007. Such substitution was induced by the country’s trade and investment liberalization, which deepened its engagement in global value chains and led to a greater variety of domestic materials becoming available at lower prices.

This paper is a product of the Trade and International Integration Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at hlkee@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
5

# **An Alternative Assessment**

Overestimation of the gl.;wth rate in real consumption will lead to overestimation of the rate of poverty reduction. To help assess hcw much overestimation may be involved, I have calculated measures of poverty by two methods. One relies exclusively on the HES (following conventional practice), while the other uses information on mean consumption from the NA to supplement the data on relative inequalities from HES. The latter method illustrates a new and potentially iseful methodology for other purposes, so some elaboration is called for. The idea is that one derives formulae for the poverty measures of interest as functions of the mean of the distribution, ard a set of other parameters describing the Lorenz curve, which summarizes all relevant information about relative inequalities. The latter parameters are estimated econometrically. From these formulae one can then estimate the poverty measure that would be obtained if the mean changed, holding the Lorenz curve constant; thus one can estimate the poverty levels that would hold if the mean was that obtained from NA, rather than HES, holding -he Lorenz curve constant.<sup>3</sup> The Appendix gives details.

We should be clear about the purpose of these calcula:,ions. Their aim is not to come up with the "best" measure of the magnitude of poverty in Bangladesh, or even a "better" one than that used by BBS. Rather, the objective is to test the robustness of the BBS estimates of how poverty has changed in Bangladesh during the 1980s.

Various measures of poverty will be considered, aiming to embrace the range of possible value judgments on this issue. The proportion who are poor, or "headcount index of poverty", implicitly treats all of the poor identically; no distinction is made amongst the 50-60 million poor in
Table A.2: Share of second-generation refugees in Greece (European Social Survey: rounds 2002, 2004, and 2010)

||Percentage<br>|of respondents with<br>||
|---|---|---|---|
|Decade of birth|Parents born<br>in Turkey|Foreign-born parents<br>(outside Turkey)|Number of<br>respondents|
|1910–1920|2.82|2.82|71|
|1920–1930|10.91|4.65|559|
|1930–1940|14.70|3.09|1102|
|1940–1950|9.18|3.13|991|
|1950–1960|3.59|1.64|976|
|1960–1970|1.32|1.23|1137|
|1970–1980|0.36|1.19|1097|
|1980–1990|0.26|2.08|768|
|1990–2000|0.00|7.58|211|

**Notes** This table shows the share of respondents with at least one parent born in Turkey and with at least parent born in another foreign country other than Turkey across decades of birth. Source: European Social Survey, Greece sample for rounds 2002, 2004, and 2010.

Table A.3: Descriptive statistics: numbers of schools in the 1920s

||Low-refugee Province|High-refugee Provi|nce|
|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(2)-(1)|
|Number of schools in 1921 per 1000 children|7.335|3.184|-4.151***|
||(0.213)|(0.382)|(0.456)|
|Number of schools in 1927 per 1000 children|9.149|6.807|-2.342***|
||(0.284)|(0.533)|(0.602)|
|Number of schools built betw. 1921 and 19727|6.111|26.000|19.889***|
||(0.600)|(3.732)|(2.277)|
|Number of schools built betw. 1921-19727 per 1000 children|1.814|3.694|1.880***|
||(0.123)|(0.517)|(0.357)|
|N|108|31|139|

**Notes** The table presents the average number of schools by provinces. Standard errors in parentheses. *** _p <_ 0.01, ** _p <_ 0.05, * _p <_ 0.1; Source: Author’s elaboration on yearly statistical yearbook of Greece, 1926-1927.

34
the middle cohort was in its critical growth years. If these communities experienced economic growth between those two periods, the middle cohort may have been exposed to a better environment than the older cohort when they both were between 1 and 4 years old. Under those circumstances, the difference between 1 and 1 would include both the additional exposure mm05 oo02 to Oportunidades and the improvement over time that would have happened regardless of the αα αα program.

If time trends between community groups 1 and 4 were parallel, the difference between these two cohorts in control communities would take care of any relevant time effect. We can directly test the importance of this effect assuming that the time effect is homogeneous across cohorts. We can use the difference between the younger cohort in 2005 and the middle cohort in 2002, as these are two groups of children that experienced the same level of exposure to the program by the time of measurement and live in the same group of communities. As a result, 1 1 ) provides us yy05 mm02 with an estimate of the time effect between the middle and younger cohorts in community group (αα −αα 1 relative to the same time trend in community group 4.

Assuming the relative difference across communities between the middle and younger cohorts is a good indicator of the relative difference between the older and middle cohorts, the double difference 1 1 1 1 ) should give us an unbiased estimate of the program mm05 oo02 yy05 mm02 effect under full exposure relative to partial exposure.(αα −αα ) −(αα −αα<sup>18</sup>

# **_Measuring the impact for communities included between 1999 & 2002 (Group 2)_**

> 18 Note that the identification assumption regarding time effects is very specific. We need that the difference in the environment between the time period the middle cohort was 1 to 4 years old and the time period the younger cohort was 1 to 4 years old, be a good counterfactual for the difference between the time period the older cohort was 1 to 4 years old and the time period the middle cohort was 1 to 4 years old. The time effect between 2002 and 2005 is not the relevant concept because the time trend between those years affects the height of the three cohorts differently.

18
deprivation can be found even in poor but unequal countries, and that it is likely to become more important as such countries develop. It could well be that future measurement practices even in developing countries will need to be more relativist, if they are to be consistent with perceptions of welfare on the ground.

# **References**

Alpizar, F., Carlsson, F., and Johansson-Stenman, O., 2005. How much do we care about absolute versus relative income and consumption? _Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization,_ 56(3), p.405-21.

Angoff, W.H., 1993. Perspectives on differential item functioning methodology. In P. Holland and H. Wainer, eds. _Differential item functioning_ . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p.3-24.

Atkinson, A.B., 1987. On the measurement of poverty. _Econometrica,_ 55(4), p.749-64.

Becker, G.S., 1974. A theory of social interactions. _Journal of Political Economy_ 82(6), p.106393.

Betson, D.M., Citro, C.F., and Michael, R.T., 2000. Recent developments for poverty measurement in US official statistics. _Journal of Official Statistics_ , 16(2), p.87-111.

- Blackorby, C., and Donaldson, D., 1987. Welfare ratios and distributionally sensitive cost-

benefit analysis. _Journal of Public Economics_ , 34(3), p.265–90.

- Blanchflower, D., and Oswald, A., 2004. Well-being over time in Britain and the U.S.A. _Journal of Public Economics,_ 88(7-8), p.1359-86.

- Bowles, S., and Gintis, H., 2002. Social capital and community governance. _Economic Journal_ 112(483), p.419-36

- Browning, M., 1992. Children and household economic behavior. _Journal of Economic Literature_ , 30(3), p.1434-75.

Butler, J.S., Burkhauser, R., Mitchell, J., and Pincus, T., 1987. Measurement error in selfreported health variables. _Review of Economics and Statistics,_ 69(4), p.644-50.

- Citro, C.F., and Michael, R. T., 1995. _Measuring poverty: a new approach_ . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

- Clark, Andrew E., and Oswald, A.J., 1996. Satisfaction and comparison income. _Journal of Public Economics_ , 61(3), p.359-81.

21
Our approach is a practical one. We review what has been accomplished through WTO negotiations and through other means. e.g., bilateral and multilateral development agencies, we pull together lessons from these experiences. We will look in detail at progress that has been made through a number of instruments that exist in the international community. We look into the details of progress on trade facilitation in order to learn more about how the contributions of the different organizations fit together. This part of our work was in part sparked by a Japanese contribution to the WTO<sup>7</sup> discussion that brought forward the idea that institutions have comparative advantages, their different structures and capacities should be taken into account in determining which of the international community’s different instruments are best suited to different parts of the development challenge.<sup>8</sup> As to our findings, contrary to the pervading view that the Doha negotiations have achieved little, we find that on trade facilitation much progress has been made, particularly through development banks and bilateral development agencies. Active private sector participation has been an important input. Many agencies have been involved; we find that their roles have been consistent with their comparative advantages.

As to how the international community can best support continued progress, we conclude in favor of a cautious approach to the imposition of new WTO obligations in the area of trade facilitation. On the whole, this is the approach the WTO has taken, e.g., by limiting its negotiations on trade facilitation to several specific provisions of the GATT. The WTO can continue to function as a catalyst for reform; it is perhaps uniquely place to relate the trade facilitation agenda to the overall trade agenda.

On design and construction of the relevant infrastructures and capacities, the development institutions, including bilateral agencies, should continue to lead. We find little evidence to support the need for a comprehensive new “platform” to channel trade-related aid. We will suggest, however, that an innovative approach to using the well established, but under utilized Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) be considered to increase transparency on where new aid is going over time and to expand understanding of where and how country-based progress has been achieved.

> 7 WTO (2003)

> 8 An element of institutional rivalry often enters into such analysis, e.g., the WTO versus the World Bank.  We ask the reader – and ourselves – to keep in mind that these are all instruments created by the international community.  The issue in not “Which of these institutions is best? The issue is “How can we best use these institutions to advance our common objectives, development and poverty reduction?”

4
Policy ReseaRch WoRking PaPeR 4512-

# **Abstract**

This article studies the extent to which participation in productive associations in Nicaragua contributes to increase individuals’ access to social programs and credit services. By participating in productive associations, individuals give a good signal to firms and are rewarded with better transactions and more access to the services they provide, ceteris paribus. Estimates using 2005 data indicate that households that participate in productive associations display higher access to credit and to social programs that promote investment. Additionally, participation in productive associations is weakly associated to more favorable credit outcomes among those households that receive loans, such as lower interest rates and a lower probability of wanting more credit than what was accessible to them.

This paper—a product of LCRPP; Poverty and Gender Groups for Latin America and the Caribbean— is part of a larger effort in the department to enhance understanding on poverty and productivity issues in Nicaragua. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted atdangelurdinola@ worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team