rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Sectoral Value Added — Electricity
            Elasticities across Countries
Many developing countries face severe
            electricity constraints, which are reflected in low
            electrification rates, frequent and prolonged outages, and
            high electricity tariffs, all of which result in low
            electricity consumption that impedes economic development.
            This study estimates the impact of electricity consumption
            on value added through reduced form equations for three
            sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and services. It uses
            panel data on 126 countries for 1996&#x2013;2014 from
            the International Energy Agency and World Development
            Indicators databases. To control for endogeneity and reverse
            causality bias in the ordinary least squares estimators, the
            study applies two-step difference and system panel
            generalized method of moments estimation techniques, which
            improve the ordinary least squares estimates by applying
            lags of the explanatory variables as instruments that are
            not correlated with the error term and account for
            countries&#x2019; fixed effects generating bias in the
            coefficients. The estimation results indicate that
            electricity consumption has a significant and positive
            impact on the manufacturing sector&#x2019;s value added
            in non-high-income countries (with an elasticity of 0.022).
            By contrast, the electricity consumption elasticities are
            insignificant in agriculture and services in non-high-income
            countries, as the production technologies of these
            industries vary substantially across income groups compared
            with those in manufacturing. Finally, using all the
            countries in the sample produce positive and significant
            results for all sectors, with the highest elasticity of
            0.036 in manufacturing.
Targeting for Social Safety Nets :
            Evidence from Nine Programs in the Sahel
Proxy-Means Testing (PMT) and
            Community-Based Targeting (CBT) are among the most widely
            used methods for poverty targeting in low-income settings.
            This paper analyzes household data from nine programs
            implemented in the Sahel region using a harmonized approach
            to compare PMT and CBT selection as conducted in practice,
            once geographical targeting has been applied. The results
            show that the targeting performance measured depends
            critically on the definition of the targeting objectives,
            share of beneficiaries selected, and indexes used to
            evaluate targeting. While PMT performs better in reaching
            the poorest households based on per capita consumption, it
            differs little from CBT, or a random or universal allocation
            of benefits when distances to poverty lines are considered.
            When aiming to identify food insecure households, most PMT
            and CBT targeting schemes perform no better than a random
            allocation of benefits. On the other hand, targeting costs
            represent only a small share of budgets. Overall, the
            results emphasize the need to study programs as implemented
            in practice instead of relying on simulations of targeting
            performance, as widely used by practitioners and academics.
            Taken together, the findings suggest that while there may be
            a need to select households resulting from budget
            constraints, PMT and CBT contribute little to poverty or
            food insecurity reduction efforts in poor and homogeneous settings.
Differences in Household Composition
            : Hidden Dimensions of Poverty and Displacement in Somalia
Little is known about how gender
            inequality influences poverty rates of forcibly displaced
            people. This paper uses a nationally representative survey
            to analyze poverty among internally displaced people and
            non-displaced people in Somalia. More than half of
            internally displaced people’s households and 47 percent of
            non-displaced people’s households are female headed.
            Although poverty rates are higher among internally displaced
            people than non-displaced people (77 versus 66 percent),
            male-headed households are poorer than female-headed ones
            among both groups. Extending the analysis beyond headship to
            demographic characteristics and by the gender and number of
            earners provides a more nuanced picture. Demographic
            characteristics are strongly associated with poverty rates
            for internally displaced people but not for non-displaced
            people. Having more income earners reduces poverty risk for
            all households. For internally displaced people’s
            households, the largest decrease in poverty risk is
            associated with having more female earners, while having
            more male earners is associated with the lowest poverty for
            nondisplaced people’s households. The analysis highlights
            that poverty reduction policies and programs must cover all
            households and lift barriers to women’s economic
            opportunities. Programs that respond to women’s care
            responsibilities and address barriers to women’s economic
            opportunities are especially important for internally
            displaced people.
Do Gender Norms Become Less
            Traditional with Displacement The Case of Colombia
Conflict-induced displacement is
            associated with loss of human and physical capital and
            psychological trauma. Households and social structures that
            produce and reproduce gender norms are disrupted, providing
            opportunities for change. This paper operationalizes a
            definition of gender norms that brings together the
            behaviors and attitudes of displaced and non-displaced women
            using household survey data for Colombia. The results of a
            two-step estimation involving kernel-based propensity score
            matching and multilevel linear regression models show that
            gender norms condoning violence against women relax with
            displacement, while those that limit women’s economic
            opportunities become more rigid. The findings also reveal a
            misalignment between attitudes and behaviors in other
            domains. Displaced women have less rigid patriarchal
            attitudes, but their ability to decide about contraception
            and their own earnings decreases following displacement.
Multidimensional Poverty, Gender,
            and Forced Displacement : A Multi-Country, Intrahousehold
            Analysis in Sub-Saharan Africa
This paper examines multidimensional
            poverty among forcibly displaced populations, using a
            gendered lens. Although past studies have explored poverty
            in forcibly displaced contexts, and others have looked at
            the relationship between multidimensional poverty and
            gender, none has brought together these three
            issues—multidimensional poverty, forcibly displaced persons,
            and gender. A tailored measure of multidimensional poverty
            is developed and applied for refugees and internally
            displaced populations in five Sub-Saharan African settings
            substantially affected by forced displacement—Ethiopia,
            Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan. The gendered
            analysis builds on prior analysis of the Multidimensional
            Poverty Index (MPI) by examining individual-level
            deprivations of women and men in forcibly displaced
            households and host communities, as well as synthesizing
            intrahousehold dynamics of multidimensional poverty in
            forcibly displaced communities. The results provide insights
            into the educational constraints of boys and girls living in
            forcibly displaced households, the labor market inequalities
            experienced by men and women in these communities, and their
            differential access to legal documentation and employment as
            part and parcel of the forced displacement experience.
The Double Burden of Female
            Protracted Displacement : Survey Evidence on Gendered
            Livelihoods in El Fasher, Darfur
During protracted displacement, women
            and girls often face serious gender-speciﬁc challenges and
            vulnerabilities, including adverse norms and institutional
            barriers. Yet, quantitative evidence on gendered drivers and
            differentials during protracted displacement remains scarce.
            Using survey data from 18,533 displaced and non-displaced
            individuals in El Fasher, Sudan, this paper documents that
            livelihood outcomes are signiﬁcantly shaped by strong and
            complex intersectionality between long-term displacement and
            gender. Being female and being a long-term displaced person
            have separate negative impacts on work and welfare.
            Therefore, being a long-term displaced woman is particularly
            challenging: internally displaced women work more than
            non–internally displaced women but are poorer, on average.
            For men, there is no such difference in employment between
            the internally displaced and non–internally displaced. These
            outcomes are the result of the ‘double burden of female
            displacement’: women are disadvantaged by norms and
            institutions both at their destination (due to being a
            displaced person) and their place of origin (due to their
            gender). The double burden is strongest for older displaced
            women. In contrast, protracted displacement can be an
            opportunity for younger displaced women. Future policies
            should address the challenges stemming from the
            intersectionality of gender and displacement and develop
            targeted programs.
Improving the Well-Being of
            Adolescent Girls in Developing Countries
This paper conducts a large, narrative
            literature review of interventions that seek to (1) increase
            educational attainment, (2) delay childbearing, and/or (3)
            delay marriage for adolescent girls in developing countries.
            Using 104 interventions from 70 studies, predominantly in
            developing countries, the paper summarizes the performance
            of 16 categories of interventions in improving each of the
            three outcomes of interest. It then provides high-level
            policy strategies to improve each outcome, informed by this
            review. Finally, the paper discusses several promising
            future research avenues to help close knowledge gaps and,
            thus, improve policy guidance for enhancing the well-being
            of adolescent girls in developing settings.
Childcare and Mothers’ Labor Market
            Outcomes in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries
Improving women’s labor force
            participation and the quality of their employment can boost
            economic growth and support poverty and inequality
            reduction; thus, it is highly pertinent for the development
            agenda. However, most systematic reviews on female labor
            market outcomes and childcare, which can arguably improve
            these outcomes, are focused on developed countries. This
            paper reviews 22 studies that plausibly identify the causal
            impact of institutional childcare on maternal labor market
            outcomes in lower- and-middle-income countries. All but one
            study finds positive impacts on the extensive or intensive
            margin of maternal labor market outcomes, which aligns with
            findings for developed countries. The paper further analyzes
            aspects of childcare design, including hours, ages of
            children, and coordination with other childcare services
            that may increase the impacts on maternal labor market
            outcomes. The paper concludes with a discussion of
            directions for future research.
Introducing the Adequate Housing
            Index (AHI) : A New Approach to Estimate the Adequate
            Housing Deficit within and across Emerging Economies
This paper introduces a micro-founded
            methodological framework to estimate the housing deficit
            across and within emerging economies. It introduces the
            Adequate Housing Index, which provides a comparable
            assessment of adequate housing based on seven adequacy
            dimensions that are held constant across all countries. The
            adequacy dimensions were obtained and harmonized from
            countries’ most recent household expenditure and consumption
            surveys. The paper documents large differences in housing
            adequacy across a sample of 64 emerging economies, as well
            as wide within-country disparities such as across income
            groups, locations, and occupations. Estimates of the
            Adequate Housing Index show that across the sample of 64
            emerging economies, there is a current housing deficit of
            268 million housing units affecting 1.26 billion people.
            About 26 percent of the current housing stock in these
            economies is inadequate. The paper further estimates that at
            least 40 million additional housing units will have to be
            added by 2030 to provide adequate housing to all and
            accommodate the growing population and urbanization patterns.
Introducing the Adequate Housing
            Index (AHI) : A New Approach to Estimate the Adequate
            Housing Deficit within and across Emerging Economies
Policy Research Working Paper 9830

# Introducing the Adequate Housing Index (AHI)

A New Approach to Estimate the Adequate Housing Deficit within and across Emerging Economies _Daniela M. Behr Lixue Chen Ankita Goel Khondoker Tanveer Haider Sandeep Singh Asad Zaman_ International Finance Corporation November 2021
Empowering Migrant Women : Impacts
            of Amnesties on Crime Reports : Empowering Migrant Women :
            Regularization Programs and Crime
Do undocumented forced migrants change
            their propensity to report or commit a crime when they are
            granted proper documentation, a job permit, and access to
            social services? This paper examines the impacts of a
            regularization program that granted temporary economic
            rights to over 281,000 undocumented Venezuelan forced
            migrants in Colombia. The program resulted in a general
            reduction in crimes committed by forced migrants, also while
            increasing the number of domestic abuse and sex crimes
            female migrants reported. These findings suggest that
            empowerment and greater trust in local authorities are key
            mechanisms driving the behavioral changes for females, while
            proper enforcement facilitated by adequate documentation and
            the positive income effects of the program reduced the
            general propensity for migrants to commit crimes.
A Tale of Two Programs: Assessing
            Treatment and Control in NREGA Studies
This paper revisits impact evaluation
            studies on the largest public workfare in the world, NREGA.
            In an environment where randomization is not feasible, I
            show why an impact evaluation exercise on NREGA should
            acknowledge the existence of an older program, SGRY. Using
            novel district-level expenditure data on SGRY, this article
            shows how ignoring the older program is likely to
            underestimate the general equilibrium impact of the
            employment policy on various relevant socio-economic
            outcomes. In most cases, ignoring SGRY underestimates
            NREGA’s impact by 30–40 percent.
The Intergenerational Effects of
            Economic Sanctions
While economic sanctions are successful
            in achieving political goals, can hurt the civilian
            population. These negative effects could be even more
            detrimental and long-lasting for future generations. This
            study estimates the effects of economic sanctions on
            children’s education by exploiting the United Nations
            sanctions imposed on Iran in 2006. Using the variation in
            the strength of sanctions across industries and
            difference-in-differences with synthetic control analyses,
            this study finds that the sanctions decreased children’s
            total years of schooling by 0.1 years and the probability of
            attending college by 4.8 percentage points. Moreover,
            households reduced education spending by 58 percent—
            particularly on school tuition. These effects are larger for
            children who were exposed longer to the sanctions. The
            results imply that sanctions have a larger effect on the
            income of children than their parents. Therefore, ignoring
            the effects of sanctions on future generations significantly
            understates their total economic costs.
Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy :
            Survey and Experimental Evidence from Papua New Guinea
This paper examines the drivers of
            COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and tests various means of
            increasing people’s willingness to receive a COVID-19
            vaccine. The study draws on data collected through a broadly
            representative phone survey with 2,533 respondents and an
            online randomized survey experiment with 2,392 participants
            in Papua New Guinea. Both surveys show that less than 20
            percent of the respondents who were aware a vaccine existed
            were willing to be vaccinated. The main reason respondents
            stated for their hesitancy regarding the vaccine was concern
            about side effects; however, the majority also said health
            workers could change their mind, particularly if information
            was communicated in person. The phone survey illustrated
            that people’s level of trust in the vaccine and their
            beliefs about the behavior of others are strongly associated
            with their intention to get a COVID-19 vaccine. In contrast,
            people’s concern about COVID-19, most trusted source of
            information (including social media), and vaccination
            history were unrelated to their intention to get vaccinated.
            The online experiment showed that a message that emphasized
            the relative safety of the vaccine by highlighting that
            severe side effects are rare, while also emphasizing the
            dangers of COVID-19, increased intention to get vaccinated
            by around 50 percent. Collectively, these results suggest
            that policy makers would be well placed to direct their
            efforts to boosting the general population’s trust that
            getting vaccinated substantially reduces the risk of severe
            illness or death from COVID-19.
The Pass-Through of International
            Commodity Price Shocks to Producers’ Welfare : Evidence from
            Ethiopian Coffee Farmers
International commodity price shocks may
            have large impacts on producers in developing countries. In
            this paper, a unique household panel data from Ethiopia is
            utilize to show that a decrease in international coffee
            price has strong pass-through to the consumption of
            households that rely on coffee production as a main source
            of livelihood. It also results in decreases in on-farm labor
            supply (particularly male labor supply) and induces
            reallocation of labor towards non-coffee fields, but has
            negligible effect on off-farm labor supply. The decline in
            consumption has significant consequences on child
            malnutrition: children born in coffee-producing households
            during low coffee price periods have lower weight-to-age and
            weight-to-height z-scores than their peers born in
            non-coffee households.
Knowledge and Adoption of Complex
            Agricultural Technologies : Evidence from an Extension Experiment
In most of Sub-Saharan Africa,
            agricultural extension models have become more decentralized
            and participatory and thus, rely on effective
            farmer-to-farmer learning, while increasingly including
            non-traditional forms of education. At the same time,
            agricultural technologies become more complex and are now
            often promoted as integrated packages, likely to increase
            the complexity of the diffusion process. Based on a
            randomized controlled trial, this study assesses the effects
            of ‘farmer-to-farmer’ extension and a video intervention on
            adoption of a complex technology package among 2,382
            smallholders in Ethiopia. Both extension-only and extension
            combined with video increase adoption and knowledge of the
            package, especially of its more complex components; although
            on average, there is no additional effect of the video
            intervention on adoption. Knowledge and the number of
            adopted practices also increase among farmers not actively
            participating in extension activities, suggesting
            information diffusion. For this group, the additional video
            intervention has a reinforcing effect, and particularly
            fosters adoption of the integrated package.