rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
- **Bruce, Neil and Michael Waldman** , “Transfers in kind: Why they can be efficient and nonpaternalistic,” _The American Economic Review_ , 1991, pp. 1345–1351.

- **Buchanan, James M** , _Freedom in constitutional contract: Perspectives of a political economist_ , Vol. 2, College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 1977.

- **Carter, Michael R, Francisco Galarza, and Stephen Boucher** , “Underwriting areabased yield insurance to crowd-in credit supply and demand,” _Savings and Development_ , 2007, pp. 335–362.

- **Charpentier, Arthur and Benoît Le Maux** , “Natural catastrophe insurance: How should the government intervene?,” _Journal of Public Economics_ , 2014, _115_ , 1–17.

- **Clarke, Daniel and Stefan Dercon** , _Dull Disasters? How Planning Ahead Will Make a Difference_ , Oxford University Press, 2016.

- **Clarke, Daniel J and Ruth Vargas Hill** , “Cost-benefit analysis of the African risk capacity facility,” 2013.

- **Coate, Stephen** , “Altruism, the Samaritan’s dilemma, and government transfer policy,” _The American Economic Review_ , 1995, pp. 46–57.

- **Cordella, Tito and Eduardo Levy Yeyati** , “CATalytic insurance: the case of natural disasters,” _Oxford Review of Economic Policy_ , 2015, _31_ (3-4), 330–349.

- **Dercon, Stefan** , _Insurance against poverty_ , Oxford University Press, 2005.

- **Estache, Antonio, Tomas Serebrisky, and Liam Wren-Lewis** , “Financing infrastructure in developing countries,” _Oxford Review of Economic Policy_ , 2015, _31_ (3-4), 279–304.

- **Germanwatch** , “Global Climate Risk Index 2015,” Technical Report 2015.

- **Government of India** , “Report of the Committee to Review the Implementation of Crop Insurance Schemes in India ,” Technical Report, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture 2014.

- **Hagen, Rune Jansen** , “Samaritan agents? On the strategic delegation of aid policy,” _Journal of Development Economics_ , 2006, _79_ (1), 249–263.

23
**Table OA3. Demand for actual financial product (Mexico)**

||(1)<br>|(2)<br>|
|---|---|---|
||Consider getting pr<br>months|oduct in the next 6<br>(1=yes)|
||Credit|Savings|
|Participated in the experiment (1=yes)|0.099***|0.179***|
||(0.034)|(0.037)|
|**_Demographics_**|||
|Male (1=yes)|0.113***|0.064*|
||(0.036)|(0.038)|
|Married (1=yes)|0.023|0.066*|
||(0.034)|(0.036)|
|Age|-0.004**|-0.002|
||(0.002)|(0.002)|
|**_Socioeconomic level*: (1 = yes)_**|||
|NSE: C|-0.028|0.010|
||(0.044)|(0.047)|
|NSE: C-|-0.001|-0.013|
||(0.040)|(0.045)|
|**_Education: (1 = yes)_**|||
|Post Secundary|-0.089*|-0.044|
||(0.049)|(0.050)|
|**_Occupation: (1 = yes)_**|||
|Employed|0.056|0.080*|
||(0.040)|(0.043)|
|Owns business|0.134***|0.136***|
||(0.048)|(0.048)|
|**_Internet: (1 = yes)_**|||
|Has internet at home or office|0.077**|0.040|
||(0.036)|(0.041)|
|**_Product Usage: (1 = yes)_**|||
|Has credit|0.114***|0.019|
||(0.039)|(0.042)|
|Has savings account|-0.051|0.023|
||(0.037)|(0.039)|
|Has credit card|0.035|-0.061|
||(0.049)|(0.050)|
|**_Financial literacy (1 = yes)_**|||
|Knowledge of interest rate**|0.004|0.024|
||(0.035)|(0.039)|
|Number of individuals|626|733|
|_Experiment participants_|290|395|
|_Non-participants_|336|338|
|R-squared|0.101|0.078|
|Mean Dep. Var. for non-participants|0.185|0.290|

Notes: This table reports the estimates of the regression of a dummy variable that takes value of one of the respondent considers getting a credit or savings product in the next 6 months on another dummy variable that takes value of one if the individual participated in the lab experiment and individual characteristics. Data comes from survey taken in Mexico only. Data come from the initial survey. *In Mexico, C-D socioeconomic groups identify low-to-middle income household. ** Knowledge of interest rate is tested with the following multiple choice question: "If you deposit 100 soles in a bank account that charges you nothing and guarantees you a yield of 2% per year, how much would there be in the account by the end of the year, if no deposits or withdrawals are made?". Possible answers are: (a) Over 102. (b) Exactly 102. (c) Less than 102. (d) I don’t know. (e) I prefer not to answer. Standard errors are reported in parenthesis under coefficient estimates. Levels of significance * p<0.10 ** p<0.05 *** p<0.01.

26
employees. The dataset is an unbalanced panel capturing plant entry and exit. The dataset covers the 1992-2004 period and includes an average of 4913 plants per year classified into 4-digit ISIC revision 2 industries.<sup>16</sup> The Appendix provides details on how the final sample of 57025 observations is obtained and shows the sample composition across years and 3-digit industries as well as summary statistics for the variables used in our econometric analysis. The ENIA survey collects plant-level information on sales, employment, raw materials, investments (buildings, machinery and equipment, transportation, and land) which are used to construct output and inputs for the extended production function specification described in Section 5. All nominal variables are expressed in real terms using appropriate deflators and capital is constructed applying the perpetual inventory method formula, as described in the Appendix.

A particularly interesting feature of the ENIA survey is that it collects information on plant-level expenditures on a variety of services: advertising, banking commissions and interest payments, communications, insurance, legal, technical, and accounting services, licenses and foreign technical assistance, rental payments, transport, other services, electricity, and water. This information allows us to include services (with the exception of electricity) appropriately deflated as inputs in the production function presented in Section 5.1. For electricity, the quantity consumed is the input included. This information also enables us to construct plant-specific time-varying weights representing the intensity of services usage for four categories of services: electricity and water, transport and communications, financial, insurance, and business services, and real estate,

> 16 The ENIA dataset has been widely used in research e.g., by Pavcnik (2002), Alvarez and Lopez (2004), and Bergoeing and Repetto (2006). Note that the dataset provides information by plant and not by firm. However, according to Pavcnik (2002) more <mark>than 90% percent of firms during the 1979-1986 period were single-plant firms. Therefore plant information</mark> corresponds to a large extent to firm information.

11
O.A.M.D.G.

The municipalities in the violence dataset do not completely match those in the _Familias_ dataset, so that close to 3,000 household observations are lost through matching. _Familias_ , while covering households in the lowest national welfare stratum near exhaustively, does not reach all municipalities. And the violence database misses the departments of Antioquia, Choco and Guajira, which are nonetheless included in _Familias_ . Our results will therefore have external validity for the lowest national welfare stratum in the area excluding the above departments. While excluding Choco and Guajira should not have a noticeable effect on the average and median prevalence of violence in the sample, excluding Antioquia may miss the upper limit of common delinquent activity alone. However, we still prefer this violence dataset, assembled by Colombian violence historians and economists, to geographically more complete official sources, because it contains vital control variables, such as the rate of captures under the drug act by the police.

Household level variables from the _Familias_ survey cover day-to-day decision-making, the socio-economics of members and consumption information. The dataset also covers whether and how many family members have left the municipality. It also covers the political activity of the household expressed as membership in groups such as parties, religious groups, pro-peace and other groups.

At the municipality level, we chiefly have two sets of variables: violence variables, which are discussed in more detail in the next section, and other municipality characteristics - some of which may facilitate violence. Here, the empirical literature on Colombia has pointed to geography, judicial efficiency and welfare, respectively. Regarding geography, from _Familias_ we obtain the altitude in meters, a dummy for three different degrees of rurality and a dummy for one of four regions. In our context, geography is important for two reasons. First, a municipality with difficult physical access will naturally enjoy less
Table 6. Growth in GVA, by sector

||Arm<br>|ington<br>|Monopolistic<br>|Competition<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||Primary|Manuf.|Primary|Manuf.|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|
|China‐3|‐2%|3%|‐2%|4% M|
|Kazakhstan|3%|2%|3%|3% M|
|Kyrgyzstan|6%|‐3%|7%|‐6%|
|Pakistan|1%|3%|2%|4% M|
|Tajikistan|4%|0%|4%|‐1%|
|Turkmenistan|2%|0%|3%|‐1%|
|Uzbekistan|2%|1%|2%|2%|

# **4.2:  BRI and real incomes:  Cell‐level changes**

The model operates at the level of the cell which gives a finer picture of the effect of the BRI. We summarize results in three scatter plots, figures 3‐5. The horizontal axis of each is the direct effect of the decline in trade costs, and the vertical is the percentage change in real incomes. The direct effect is measured as an average of the reduction in the transport costs of export and of imports experienced by each country. The straight lines show the line of best fit from linear OLS regression for which the slope and R<sup>2</sup> are reported in the graphs.

Figure 3 gives the Armington case, corresponding to the first column of table 5. Several points stand out. First, all cells experience an increase in real per capita income, and the range of gains is quite dispersed, from close to zero to around 7%. Second, as expected, there is a strong positive relationship between the direct effect and the full effect, with the direct effect accounting for 97% of the variance of the change in per capita income. Third, the cells that gain the most are in Kyrgyzstan, namely Osh city, Osh oblast, Naryn and Batken. While the direct effects reported on the x‐axis are a mean of export and import weighted reductions in trade costs, Kyrgyzstan has the highest reduction in import costs, which fall by 11% at the country level (compared to 1‐2% reductions elsewhere). This is driving the growth in real incomes in Kyrgyzstan.

Figure 4, monopolistic competition, allows for fuller adjustment in manufacturing, although holds labor immobile, fixed in its initial cell. Visually, the figure is similar to the previous, although the relationship between the direct reduction in trade costs and the real income growth is slightly less strong, with the former now explaining 84% of the variation in the latter. This is due to increased variation both within and across country, as the economy adjusts to the changing costs of trade. For example, while Kazakhstan’s average per capita income growth is 2.1%, this ranges from a minimum cell level growth of 1.25% (Shymkent) to a maximum of 6.3% (Aqtau).

Figure 5 shows monopolistic competition with some (but not perfect) labor mobility between cells in each country. At the country aggregate level, the addition of labor mobility makes only very small differences to results (so was not reported in tables 2 and 3). But at the cell level, labor mobility narrows the variance in real income changes. People move into areas where the economy grows, dampening real wage growth in these cells by putting downward pressure on wages and upward 15
ever they yield positive returns (including the externality), while subsidies crowd in the remaining projects where the private sector has a substantial e¢ ciency advantage; reforms, when su¢ ciently e¢ cient, play the residual role. Lastly, in the GRS scenario, reforms completely crowd out subsidies for intermediate and high values of �, but not for lower ones.

# 4.4 Optimal myopic sequencing

In the previous section, we illustrated the policy allocations associated with the di¤erent possible policy sequences. The obvious question that remains to be answered is which sequence is superior on welfare grounds, and under which circumstances. By a simple comparison of the di¤erent policy allocations with the COPA, it is evident that the latter coincides with SRG and SGR for low values of � and with SGR alone for intermediate values. Instead, for high values of �, the cascade, or the identical RGS scenario, are the ones that resemble more to the COPA. To ...nd a de...nitive answer to the question we compute, for all values of � and c, the welfare functions derived in the Appendix (integrating over xi and �j), we compare them all and, for each combination of the parameters, we compute the policy allocation(s) that leads to higher welfare levels. We ...nd that: Proposition 1 (i) When reform e¢ ciency is low (low values of � ) the optimal myopic sequencing is SRG or SGR (which are identical). (ii) When reform e¢ ciency is high, the optimal myopic sequencing is RSG (the cascade) or RGS (which are identical). (iii) For intermediate values of �, the optimal myopic sequencing is SRG or SGR (which are identical), when the cost of resources c is low, SGR for intermediate values of c, and SRG when c is large.

## Proof: In Appendix

The ...ndings of our analysis are illustrated in Figure 4, which fully characterizes the optimal myopic policy allocations for any value of the parameters, that is in the (�, c) space. From the discussion in the previous section, and from an even cursory inspection of the ...gure, it is evident that, for low values of �, the optimal (myopic) policy sequencing are SRG and SGR–which in this case coincide, since no reform is undertaken–that mimic the COPA. When reforms are very e¢ cient, the cascade (RSG) or RGS–which coincide since reforms completely crowd out subsidies– are instead the optimal allocations. For intermediate values of �, the optimal allocation depends on the value of c. If c is small, so that subsidy costs are limited, reforms will never be implemented and, again, SRG and SGR will be identical, and constitute the preferred option. For intermediate values of c, reforms are implemented and the larger is c, the more likely it is that reforms are a better instrument to ...ll the ...nancing gap than public investments.

# 4.5 Optimal forward-looking sequencing

To understand the results derived in the previous section, it is useful to think of a government with three agencies dealing with the investment gap, one in charge of reforms, one of subsidies, and one of public investments. Each of the agencies is given the mandate of maximizing total 14
**Table 5. Parameters of the quality-adjustment factor used to assess universities**

||TH<br>Overall|E<br>RTC|Q<br>Overall|S<br>RTC|ARWU<br>RTC|CWUR<br>Overall|U.S.<br>News<br>Overall|U-Mul<br>Overall|tirank<br>RTC|Aggreg<br>score<br>All<br>sample|ate quality<br>(overall)<br>Common|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|(7)|(8)|(9)|(10)|(11)|
|_β_|0.0032|0.0031|0.0027|0.0024|0.0045|0.0073|0.0019|0.0040|0.0032|**0.0024**|0.0044|
|_m_|0.726|0.733|0.763|0.787|0.638|0.747|0.826|0.668|0.728|**0.787**|0.647|

_Note:_ ARWU = Academic Ranking of World Universities; CWUR = Center for World University Rankings; QS = Quacquarelly Symonds; RTC = research, teaching, and citations; THE = Times Higher Education.

To estimate the ECA-HCI, we use the values estimated from the use of the aggregate quality score in the extended sample (Table 5, column 10). These values can be understood as a conservative estimate of the productivity effects of quality, as the estimates from the sample of universities present in the six rankings (Table 5, column 11) imply a larger effect. The parameters are derived from the implied differences in the wages of graduates of a low-quality university compared with those of a high-quality university in the United States. This implied wage differential may be even higher when comparing a low-quality university in a given country with a high-quality university in another country. Interpretation of the results emerging from the use of this quality-adjustment factor needs to take these limitations into account.

# _3.3 Quality-adjusted years of higher education_

Based on the estimates of the previous paragraphs, the detailed calculation formula for the quality-adjusted years of higher education ( _QAYH_ ) is as follows: where _Q_ is the aggregate quality score for higher education for country _c_ . There is also positive association between quality-adjusted years of higher education and income level (see Figure 3).

13
<!-- Start of picture text --> 15 0<br>Nominal rate of assistance (%)<br>Border price<br>250<br>10 0<br>200<br>50<br>150<br>100<br>0<br>50<br>1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010<br>Year<br>Nominal rate of assistance Border price (US$/ton)<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Figure 2. Nominal rate of assistance and border price on French wheat market.** Source: Anderson and Nelgen (2012c).

49
The pension schemes in the United Kingdom and the Province of Quebec in Canada operate with traditional EET schemes.

**Table 5a. Tax incentives in back loaded voluntary** **<u>pension schemes.</u>**

||**United Kingdom**|**USA**|**Canada/Quebec**|
|---|---|---|---|
||Workplace pensions|401k|VRSP|
|Type of Tax system|EET|EET|EET|
|Maximum<br>Employ|ee|||
|deduction allowed (USD)|7, 000 (2013‐2014)|17,500|21,300|

Source: national sources

**Table 5b. Tax incentives in front loaded voluntary** **<u>pension schemes</u>**

||**New Zealand**|**USA**|
|---|---|---|
|Name of the plan|Kiwisaver|Roth 401k|
|Type of Tax system|TTE|TEE|
|Employees can deduct upto|NA|17,500|
|Tax credit Employee|410|0|

Source: national sources Neutrality between consumption now and consumption in retirement is one of the most relevant concepts for taxing savings, and neutrality is achieved by the use of an expenditure tax. Tax neutrality is broken once the taxes are imposed on interest earned, as they impose inefficiencies in the savings decisions of contributors.

By taxing the portion of income that is consumed, but exempting the portion that is saved for retirement, there are no distortions on the savings/consumption decision. This scheme is similar to imposing a consumption tax.<sup>33</sup> A consumption-type tax treatment can, in principle, be achieved by front-loading and back-loading taxation, while being neutral for the intertemporal budget constraint of government. Examples of this tax neutrality are found in the cases of the private pension funds in the United Kingdom, the 401(k) plans in the United States and the VRSP in the Province of Quebec. On the other hand, Kiwisaver program in New Zealand (TTE) and the IKZE program in Poland (ETT) depart from this neutrality.

In the absence of automatic enrollment, which is the main driver of any voluntary pension fund scheme, tax incentives need to be attractive enough to motivate the participation of active savers. Active savers may play an important role in pulling passive savers, especially if the peer pressure mechanism occurs. The attractiveness of the tax incentives of voluntary savings needs to be measured against the benefits of other tax incentives.

The same tax cannot be used for promoting simultaneously consumption and savings. For example in the case of Hungary, companies receive the same tax benefit if they make contributions to employees in their voluntary accounts, or whether they pass those resources to employees in the form of vouchers

> 33 These taxes are also called expenditure taxes.

24
|int<br>in|erest; and where aboriginal rights now being defined are reconciled<br>a just andfair manner.|
|---|---|
|**_Twelve Principles_**||
|Mutual Dependence|Land, water, air and all living organisms including humans, are<br>integralparts ofthe ecosystem.Biodiversitymust be conserved.|
|Accountability|All residents are responsible for the social, economic and<br>environmental consequences of their decisions and accountable<br>fortheiractions.|
|Equity|All communities and regions must have equal opportunities to<br>provide for the social, economic and environmental needs of<br>residents.|
|Integration|Consideration of social, economic and environmental costs and<br>benefitsmust be an integralpart ofalldecision making.|
|Adaptive<br>Approaches|Plans and activities must be adaptable and able to respond to<br>externalpressures and changing socialvalues.|
|Coordinated<br>and<br>CooperativeEfforts|Coordinated and cooperative efforts are needed among all<br>government andnon-governmentinterests.|
|Open and Informed<br>Decision Making|Open decision making depends on the best available information.|
|Exercising Caution|Caution must be exercised when shaping decisions to avoid<br>makingirreversiblemistakes.|
|Managing<br>Uncertainty|A lack of certainty should not prevent decisive actions for<br>sustainability.|
|Recognition|There must be recognition of existing rights, agreements and<br>obligationsinalldecision making.|
|Aboriginal<br>Rights<br>and Title|We recognize that aboriginal nations within the Fraser basin<br>assert aboriginal rights and title. These rights and title now being<br>defined must be acknowledged and reconciled in a just and fair<br>manner.|
|Transition<br>Takes<br>Time|Sustainability is a journey that requires constant feedback,<br>learning and adjustment. In the short term, the elements of<br>sustainabilitymaynot always beinbalance.|

Source: Fraser Basin Council 1997 The breadth of the basin sustainability concept is further illustrated by the following list of basin-wide and regional concerns that have been the subject of Fraser Basin Council programs or have been topics for discussion on the agenda of the council or one or more of its committees:

- Maintaining a healthy estuary at the mouth of the Fraser River

- Managing waterborne debris in the lower basin

- Removal of gravel accumulation in the lower Fraser River

- Cleaning up pollution from the Britannia Mine (which is not located in the Fraser Basin but the clean-up effort was led by the Basin Council)

- Flood preparation

19