midst of the ongoing 2016-2018 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). The survey consisted of a household survey, and then separate surveys for eligible men and women in the household. In all households in the survey, all women who were aged 15-49 and who were either usual residents of the household or who spent the night before in the household were eligible to be interviewed; and for every second household in the survey, all men who were aged 15-49 and who were either usual residents of the household or who spent the night before in the household were eligible to complete the men’s questionnaire. In total, 16,021 households were surveyed with a common questionnaire, 15,198 women were administered the women’s questionnaire,<sup>16</sup> and 7,333 men were administered the men’s questionnaire.<sup>17</sup> The survey is nationally and provincially representative, and can report estimates at the rural and urban levels. The fieldwork was conducted in four waves between October 2016 and December 2018.<sup>18</sup> However, the households interviewed were not randomized across waves. Rather, the survey began in the most urban areas in each province, and then progressively surveyed more rural and remote areas (DHS 2019).<sup>19</sup> All households to be interviewed were selected prior to the beginning of the survey in 2016, and no households were allowed to be replaced. But data collection was difficult and fieldwork could not be completed in 33 of the 800 census units originally selected in the sample design, reducing the overall sample size from the initial 19,200 households selected to the 16,012 households that were ultimately included in the survey. Reasons for the delays and for not completing work in each census unit include difficulties in handling the terrain in the country, adverse weather, and security issues (e.g., DHS 2019).

Importantly, the disaster did affect the survey. The worst-affected region by many measuresHela- was not able to field the fourth phase of the survey following the earthquake; and the second worst-affected region - Southern Highlands- delayed interviews in the fourth phase until seven months after the final large aftershock while other provinces were performing interviews continuously over the final phase. Although the disaster affected the timing of the survey in Southern Highlands, as discussed above, the choice of households was not affected.<sup>20</sup> But given the exclusion of Hela from

> 16The number of women interviewed in each household varied between one and 10.

> 17The number of men interviewed in each household varied between one and eight.

> 18Phase one was conducted between October 1 and December 9, 2016; phase two was conducted between March and June 2017; phase three was conducted between October and December 2017; and phase four was conducted between April and December 2018.

> 19The survey implementation was also corroborated by informal discussions with the National Statistical Office of Papua New Guinea.

> 20The survey documentation does not provide non-response rates of those initially selected to be interviewed by phase or province. However, we investigate the possibility in the robustness section.

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