strong evidence base documenting the positive impacts of these programs, including their longer‐term effects which vary from positive to more mixed (Baez et al, 2001; Gertler et al, 2012; Behrman et al, 2011). The second dimension, productive inclusion, revolves around the effectiveness of safety nets in promoting a sustained exit out of poverty. Such an exit is fostered by engaging households in more productive activities that lead to higher income trajectories. The previous section touched on this by considering the degree to which safety nets encourage investments in productive assets. This section investigates whether safety net programs have led to higher incomes and earning opportunities among beneficiaries.

Impact evaluations of safety net program have a considerable focus on education, concentrated mainly on short term enrollment and attendance outcomes. Out of the 27 programs covered by the meta‐ analysis, 13 were found to report on school enrollment rates and 15 on school attendance rates. The mean effect programs have on enrollment is a 7% [95% CI: ‐2 to 16%]<sup>68</sup> increase relative to baseline enrollment rates, and a 6% [95% CI: ‐6 to 18%]<sup>69</sup> improvement in attendance, again relative to baseline (see Figure 7). Neither of these mean effects is statistically significant. However, programs that focus on children as the key beneficiaries, for example, in child grant programs, find stronger results: the mean improvement on attendance is 15% [95%: 0, 29%] and mean improvement on enrollment is 9% [95%: ‐2, 20%]. One of the most striking result comes from Burkina Faso’s Nahouri Cash Transfers Pilot Project, which increased enrollment from 49% to 57% and attendance from 46% to 56%, 17% and 22% increases respectively relative to baseline levels.<sup>70</sup> Improvements in enrollment and school attendance are consistent with other positive impacts detected on educational expenditure for shoes, uniforms and blankets, a key barrier to enrollment and attendance especially at secondary age. For example, educational related expenditures are reported to increase by 16% in Malawi SCTP, 23% in Kenya GIVE, and 16% in Lesotho CGP.<sup>71</sup> Similarly, in Kenya’s CSP program, finds that giving a uniform reduced school absenteeism by 6.4 percentage points (43%) from a base of 15% school absenteeism.<sup>72</sup> It is notable that programs targeting poor and vulnerable households more generally, appear to have stronger enrollment rather than attendance outcomes (e.g. Malawi SCT, Tanzania CB‐CCT and Ghana LEAP).<sup>73</sup> This may also be related to the importance of messaging and communications to beneficiaries on what is the intended purpose of a transfer.

A closer look at individual evaluations shows that education gains are especially pronounced at the upper primary school and secondary level, where drop‐out rates start to increase. For example, alongside the 68 Sources: Abdoulayi et al. 2015 (Malawi SCTP), Evans et al. 2014 (Tanzania CB‐CCT), Merttens et al. (2013), Seidenfeld et al. 2013 (Zambia ZCGP), Akresh et al., 2013 (Burkina Faso NCTPP), Alderman et al., 2008 (Uganda SF/THR), Robertson et al., 2013 (Zimbabwe MHIV), Evans et al., 2009 (Kenya CSP), Ward et al. 2010 (Kenya CTOVC), Kazianga et al., 2009 (Burkina Faso SC/THR), Rosas and Sabarwal 2016 (Sierra Leone CFW), Baird et al., 2011 (Malawi ZCTP), Premand and Del Ninno 2016 (Niger NSNP), Edmonds, 2006 (South Africa OAP). 69 Sources: Abdoulayi et al. 2015 (Malawi SCTP), Evans et al. 2014 (Tanzania CB‐CCT), Berhane et al., 2015 (Ethiopia SCTPP), Handa and Park 2013 (Ghana LEAP), Akresh et al., 2013 (Burkina Faso NCTPP), Kazianga et al., 2009 (Burkina Faso SC/THR), Pellerano et al. 2014 (Lesotho LCGP), Seidenfeld et al. 2013 (Zambia ZCGP), Ward et al. 2010 (Kenya CTOVC), Alderman et al., 2008 (Uganda SF/THR), Rosas and Sabarwal 2016 (Sierra Leone CFW), Baird et al., 2011 (Malawi ZCTP), Premand and Del Ninno 2016 (Niger NSNP).

70 Akresh et al., 2013 (Burkina Faso NCTPP).

71 Haushofer and Shapiro 2016 (Kenya GIVE), Pellerano et al. 2014 (Lesotho LCGP), Abdoulayi et al. 2015 (Malawi SCTP).

72 Evans et al., 2009 (Kenya CSP).

73 Abdoulayi et al. 2015 (Malawi SCTP), Evans et al. 2014 (Tanzania CB‐CCT), Handa and Park 2013 (Ghana LEAP).

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