rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
14 percent higher in the treatment group as compared to the control group, is similar to that reported in table 7 (using facility records).

Table 8 also shows that households in the treatment community reduced the number of visits to traditional healers and the extent of self-treatment (regressions 4 and 5), while there are no statistically signi...cant di¤erences (regressions 2, 3, 6 and 7) across the two groups in the use of other providers (NGO, for-pro...t, or other government facilities). Thus, households in the treatment communities switched from traditional healers and self-treatment to the project facility in response to the intervention.

# 7.5 Health outcomes

The main objective of the community-based monitoring project was to improve health outcomes in rural areas of Uganda where health indicators have been stagnating. To achieve this objective, the project intended to enhance communities’abilities to monitor the public health care provider, thereby strengthening providers’incentives to increase both the quality and quantity of primary health care provision. As reported above, the project was successful in raising both utilization and, to the extent that this can be measured, service quality. Next, we turn to health outcomes.

Data on two health outcomes were collected. First, we collected information on whether the household had su¤ered from the death of a child (under ...ve years) in 2005, i.e., the ...rst year of the community monitoring project. Second, we measured the weight of all infants (i.e., under 18 months of age) and children (between 18 and 36 months of age) in the surveyed households.<sup>29</sup> Health outcomes (under-...ve mortality and weight of infants) could have improved for several reasons. As noted in the Introduction, access to a small set of proven, inexpensive services could, worldwide, have prevented more than half of all under-...ve deaths. In the community monitoring project speci...cally, having patients switching from self-treatment or traditional healers to seeking care at the treatment facility could have an e¤ect. Holding utilization constant, better service quality and increased immunization of children (particular measles) could also result in a reduction in mortality and improved health status. The increased use of preventive care (health education) may also have an e¤ect.

Table 9 presents the results on child mortality. 3.2 percent of the surveyed households in the treatment community had su¤ered from the death of a child in 2005. The corresponding number in the control community is 4.9 percent. The di¤erence –a 33 percent reduction in child deaths in the treatment communities –is signi...cant and

> 29The weighing scale was a regular hanging baby scale with trousers (Salter type). Two trained enumerators assisted in the task. During the weighing process, the enumerators took help from family members, mostly mothers. When the infant/child was hanging calmly on the scale, the enumerators recorded the weight.

21
<!-- Start of picture text --> Social trust vs. Earnings, in. (1)<br>35<br>30 S<br>25<br>20 e e e s<br>e State<br>15<br>° $ ° @ Private<br>10 e e<br>od<br>5<br>°<br>e<br>0<br>() 1 2 3 4 5<br>5<br>Social trust vs. Earnings, in. (2)<br>25<br>20<br>15 °<br>State<br>10 @ Private<br>° 3<br>5<br>e e :<br>0 e td<br>0 1 2 3 4 5<br><!-- End of picture text -->
et al. (2019) also find that similar patterns of measurement error in earnings in the US Current Population Survey (CPS).

# _Sparseness_

Household surveys used to measure the top tail of the wealth or income distribution may have a sample of only a few thousand households. This makes it possible that no very high-income households or individuals are sampled, meaning one has a right truncated distribution. And when such individuals do appear in the sample, they may appear to be incorrect outliers (Jenkins, 2017, Lustig, 2020). This can lead to volatility when measuring the top tail of the distribution over time within countries (Burkhauser et al., 2017) or across countries, meaning it is harder to discern trends or make cross country comparisons. But there may also be incorrect outliers, and discerning which data are real and which are not is thus important.

# _Proxy respondents_

We highlighted above that item non-response can result from proxy respondents answering “don’t know” to questions on incomes of other household members. Many household surveys, including the LSMS, ask most or many questions to the most knowledgeable household member (Kilic et al. 2021, Doss et al. 2008) or, in the US CPS, to any one household member (Bollinger et al. 2019), rather than to each member individually.<sup>4</sup> In discussing the measurement of consumption, Deaton (2005) notes that proxy respondents may also answer incorrectly or under-report and that this is likely to be worse for richer households when the responding household member may not know about all consumption of other household members. This means proxy respondents may introduce additional measurement error, over and above that discussed above.

Hasanbasri et al. (2022) showed that measured wealth inequality is higher when questions about individual asset ownership assets are asked to each household member individually, rather than to a most knowledgeable household member. This research suggests that whether data was collected from each member or from one member in a household survey will matter when measuring the top tail of the wealth distribution.

> 4 The South African National Income Dynamics Study is one example of a survey which attempted to interview each household member separately as well as obtaining household information from the oldest woman in the household. A shorter proxy respondent questionnaire was completed if the individual could not be interviewed.

8
|S/N|**Table A3 continued**<br>Data dimension|Data category|Representative indicators|Categorical disaggregation|Coverage element 1 scoring guidelines*|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|16|Economic statistics|Balance of Payments|(16.1) Current account;<br>(16.2) Capital and Financial<br>account.|(16.1) Goods and services,<br>income, and current transfers<br>(or secondary income);<br>(16.2) Direct investment or<br>international investment<br>position.|To receive full point: Must have (16.1) and (16.2) with one<br>disaggregation each.<br>To receive half point: Must have (16.1) or (16.2) with one<br>disaggregation.|
|17|Environmental statistics|Land Use|(17.1) Data on land use or land<br>cover.<br>(17.2) Data on protected lands.|(17.1) Urban and rural;<br>agricultural use (crop type);<br>environmental zones.<br>(17.2) None|To receive full point: Must have (17.1) with two<br>disaggregations, as well as (17.2). Land use data with one<br>disaggregation and land cover data with one disaggregation is<br>accepted.<br>To receive half point: Must have one indicator with one<br>disaggregation.|
|18||Resource Use|(18.1) Data on fishery harvests;<br>(18.2) Data on timber harvests<br>or deforestation;<br>(18.3) Data on major mining or<br>extractive activities;<br>(18.4) Water supply and/ or<br>consumption.|(18.1, 18.2) None<br>(18.3) Type of mining activity;<br>(18.4) None|To receive full point: Must have three indicators,<br>disaggregated<br>To receive half point: Must have two indicators, disaggregated|
|19<br>||Energy Use<br>|(19.1) Energy consumption<br>|(19.1) Energy type; end-use<br>sector; industrial sector.<br>|To receive full point: Must have (19.1) by energy type and<br>one other disaggregation. Three energy types must be present.<br>To receive half point: Must have (19.1) by energy type and one<br>other disaggregation. Two energytypes must bepresent.<br> **Table A3 continued**|

39
Table 6 presents data on fiscal balances and public external debt in Armenia, the Kyrgyz Republic and Moldova. The fiscal position in Armenia is strong, with low fiscal deficits and very low external public debt. Furthermore, their energy sectors QFDs have been largely eliminated. The Kyrgyz Republic and Moldova also had low fiscal deficits in 2007 and 2008 but their external public debt was much higher as a percent of GDP. In the DSA completed in December 2008, the Kyrgyz Republic was assessed to be at moderate risk of external debt distress but vulnerable to exogenous shocks. In all three countries domestic public debt is small. The Kyrgyz Republic also has large QFDs, with that of the electricity sector estimated at 7.9 percent of GDP in 2008. To summarise, Armenia has fiscal space for a more expansionary fiscal stance, but fiscal space in the Kyrgyz Republic and Moldova is constrained by high stocks of public debt and QFDs.

**Table 6**

**Fiscal Balances and External Public Debt as percent of GDP in Armenia, the Kyrgyz Republic and Moldova, 2007 and 2008**

||Fiscal Balance<br>2007|Fiscal<br>2008|Balance|External Public Debt<br>2008|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Armenia|-1.5|-1.2||13.2|
|Kyrgyz Republic|0.0|0.3*||46.9|
|Moldova|-0.2|-1.0||43.8|

This is a cash budget balance: if unfunded expenditure commitments equivalent to 1.4 percent of GDP were included, the balance would be negative Source: ECA database

# _3.3 How can macroeconomic and fiscal space be created?_

Given the BOP constraint facing the Tajik economy, macroeconomic space to avoid cuts in government expenditure can only be created if external resources are mobilized. Given 18
BERR (2008). “ _High growth firms in the UK: Lessons from an analysis of comparative UK performance_ ”. BERR economics paper 03.

- Bigsten, A., M. Gebreeyesus and M. Söderbom (2016). “ _Tariffs and Firm Performance in Ethiopia, The Journal of Development Studies_ ”, 52(7), 986-1001

- Bigsten, A., and Gebreeyesus, M, Siba, E., and Söderbom, M. (2012). _“Enterprise agglomeration, output prices, and physical productivity: Firm-level evidence from Ethiopia.”_ WIDER working paper. No. 2012/85.

- Bigsten, A., and Söderbom, M. (2006). “ _What have we learned from a decade of manufacturing enterprise surveys in Africa_ ?” World Bank Research Observer, 21(2), 241–265.

- Bigsten, A., and Gebreeyesus, M. (2007). _“The small, the young, and the productive: Determinants of manufacturing firm growth in Ethiopia.”_ Economic Development and Cultural Change, 55(4), 813-840.

- Bigsten, A., and Gebreeyesus, M. (2009). _“Firm productivity and exports: Evidence from Ethiopian manufacturing.”_ The Journal of Development Studies, 45(10), 1594-1614.

- Bigsten, A., Gebreeyesus, M., and Söderbom, M. (2009). _“Gradual trade liberalization and firm performance in Ethiopia.”_ University of Oxford. Department of economics. Centre for the study of African economies (CSAE).

- Birch, David L., (1979). _The Job Generation Process_ . Cambridge, MA: MIT Program on Neighborhood and Regional Change.

- Bogas, P., and N. Barbosa. (2015). “ _High-Growth Firms: What Is the Impact of Region-Specific Characteristics?_ ” In Entrepreneurship, Human Capital, and Regional Development, edited by Rui Baptista and João Leitão, 295–308. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

- Bottazzi, G., and Secchi, A. (2003). _“Common properties and sectoral specificities in the dynamics of US manufacturing companies.”_ Review of Industrial Organization, 23(3), 217-232.

- Bravo-Biosca, A., C. Criscuolo, and C. Menon. (2016). “ _What Drives the Dynamics of Business Growth?”_ Economic Policy 31 (88), 703–42.

- Bravo-Biosca, A. (2011). _“A look at business growth and contraction in Europe.”_ In 3rd European Conference on Corporate R&D and Innovation CONCORD-2011.

- Choi, T., A. Rupasingha, J. C. Robertson, and N. G. Leigh. (2017). “ _The Effects of High Growth on New Business Survival_ .” Review of Regional Studies 47 (1), 1–23.

- Coad, A., Daunfeldt, S. O., Hölzl, W., Johansson, D., and Nightingale, P. (2014). _“High-growth firms: introduction to the special section.”_ Industrial and Corporate Change, 23(1), 91-112.

- Collier, P., and A. J. Venables. 2008. “ _Managing the Exploitation of Natural Assets: Lessons for Low Income Countries_ .” Paper prepared for the African Research Consortium annual conference, Nairobi, Kenya.

- Cusolito, A. P., and W. F. Maloney. (2019). Productivity Revisited: Shifting Paradigms in Analysis and Policy. Washington, DC: World Bank.

24
Policy Research Working Paper 8555

# **Abstract**

State-owned enterprises play an important role in economic growth and the delivery of critical public services such as health, education, water, and energy. The underperformance of state-owned enterprises can lead to significant challenges in overall national growth and competitiveness and pose a fiscal risk to the government. Consequently, improving the performance of state-owned enterprises remains an important issue for policy makers and development practitioners. More recently, efforts to strengthen corporate governance have been gaining international momentum as a means to improve the performance of state-owned enterprises. This study aims to examine the relationship between corporate governance and the performance of state-owned enterprises. Using data from 320 state-owned enterprises in the Republic of Korea, the study examines the effects of corporate governance on various measures of state-owned enterprise performance, including performance evaluation results, customer satisfaction, and financial performance. The empirical results indicate that board size, corporatization, and transparency and disclosure are positively related to the performance of state-owned enterprises, suggesting that they have an impact on the efficiency of state-owned enterprises. Independence of the board of directors and separation between the positions of board chair and chief executive officer have an insignificant or negative impact on specific measures of performance. These results suggest that a larger board, corporatization of state-owned enterprises, and more transparent disclosure practices can be beneficial for the performance of state-owned enterprises.

This paper is a product of the Governance Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/research. The author may be contacted at ksheo72@gmail.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
-45-

# Levels of Value Added in 17 Industries

Table 3.9 shows Brazilian and Mexican value added in US dollars at official exchange rates, compared with US figures for value added derived from the Annual Survey of Manufactures.

------------------------------------------------------------

__--------------

|Value Added (US Census Concept)<br>at official<br>exchan<br>-----------------------------------------------------------------|TABLE**3.9**<br> <br>in Brazil,<br>M<br>ge<br>rates<br>(1975<br>|exico and the<br>US dollars)<br>|USA in 1975,<br>__---------<br>|
|---|---|---|---|
||Brazil<br>(million<br>dollars)|Mexico<br>(million<br>dollars)|USA<br>(million<br>dollars)|
|Total Manufacturing<br>Value Added|37,748.2|17<sup>,</sup>585 <sup>.6ab</sup>|<sup>442,485.2</sup>|
|Grain Mill Products|236.0|207.3<br>|1,587.8<br>|
|Sugar & Sugar Products|571.4|257.3a|<br>933.9|
|Malt and Malt Beverage|248.7|550.0a|<br>2,129.8|
|Tobacco and Tobacco Products<br>|395.0<br>|145 <sup>.3</sup><br>|3,721.5<br>|
|Textiles|1,260.4|669.2|6,217.3|
|Footwear and Leather Products|583.8|266.4|2,941.6|
|Pulp and Paper|571.6|502.3|7.626.1|
|Soap and Detergents|169.7|216.3|2,419.7|
|Paints|350.8|127.8<br>|2,126.3<br>|
|Agricultural Fertilizers|445.5|1<sup>8</sup>0.9ab|<br>3,306.1|
|Petroleum Refining and Products|<br>1,883.0|684.9|9,332.3|
|Tires and Inner Tubes|388.6|236.4|3,462.8|
|Cement|382.3|276.0|1,332.9|
|Bricks|5L42.2|<br>69.4|715.7|
|Iron and Steel|2,223.8|1,082.8|15,783.2|
|Radio and TV Receivers|447.3|205.3|1,542.5|
|Motor Vehicles|1,772.6|1,163.3|21,465.9|
||-------------------------------------|-||
|Total in our sample|12,472.8|6,840.9|86,645.4|
|as%of Total Manufacturing|33.04|38.90|19.58|

a) indirect taxes and subsidies are deducted (see table 2.3).

b) includes 571.8 million US$ (excl. indirect taxes and subsidies) for petroleum refining, which are not shown in the census Resumen General but taken from Sistema de Cuentas Nacionales de Mexico.

Notes: Figures are converted at the exchange rate of 8.13 cruzeiros to the US$ and 12.5 pesos to the US$.

Source: Figures for Brazil from Censo Industrial, figures for Mexico from Resumen General (except for figures mentioned under footnotes a) and b)), and figures for USA from the Annual Survey of Manufa^tures 1975-1976.
**<u>Table 2 Features of Traditional and Output-Based Conditional Grants</u>**

|_Feature_|_Traditional grant_|_Output-based grant_|
|---|---|---|
|Grant objectives<br>|Spending levels<br>|Quality and access to public<br>services<br>|
|Grant design and administration<br>Eligibility|Complex<br>Recipient government<br>departments/agencies|Simple and transparent<br>Recipient government provides<br>funds to all government and<br>nongovernment providers|
|Conditions|Expenditures on authorized<br>functions and objects|Outputs -service delivery results|
|Allocation criteria|Program or project proposals<br>approvals with expenditure<br>details|Demographic data on potential<br>clients|
|Compliance verification|Higher level inspections and<br>audits|Client feedback and redress,<br>comparison of baseline and<br>postgrant data on quality and<br>access|
|Penalties|Audit observations on financial<br>compliance|Public censure, competitive<br>pressures, voice and exit options<br>for clients|
|Managerial flexibility|Little or none. No tolerance for<br>risk and no accountability for<br>failure.|Absolute. Rewards for risks but<br>penalties for persistent failure.|
|Local government autonomy and<br>budgetary flexibility|Little|Absolute|
|Transparency|Little|Absolute|
|Focus|Internal|External, competition, innovation<br>and benchmarking|
|Accountability|Hierarchical to higher-level<br>government, controls on inputs<br>and process with little or no<br>concern for results|Results-based, bottom-up, client-<br>driven|

_Source_ : Author.

Output-based grants create incentive regimes that promote a results-based accountability culture. Consider the case in which the national government aims to improve access to education by the poor and to enhance the quality of such education. A common approach is to provide grants to government schools through conditional grants. These grants specify the type of expenditures eligible for grant financing (books, computers, teacher aids, and so forth) as well as financial reporting and audit requirements. Such input conditionality undermines budgetary autonomy and flexibility without providing any assurance about the achievement of results. Moreover, in practice it is difficult to enforce, as there may be significant opportunities for fungibility of funds. Experience has shown that there is no one-to-one link between increases in public spending and improvements in service delivery performance (see Huther, Roberts, and Shah 1997).

Output-based design of such grants can help achieve accountability for results. Under this approach, the national government allocates funds to local governments based on the size of the school-age population. Local governments in turn pass these funds on to both government and non-government providers based on school enrollments. Nongovernment providers are eligible to receive grant funds if they admit students based on merit and provide a tuition subsidy to students whose parents cannot afford the tuition.
concepts and approaches has been proposed in the literature to estimate living wages in several countries, including those in the EU, either using relative or absolute thresholds (Martin, 2014; Anker, 2016; Parker et al, 2016; <mark>Schulten & Müller, 2019, ILO, 2024</mark> ). While the concept of a living wage is widely accepted, challenges remain in its practical application and economic impact assessment, necessitating further research and refinement of estimation methods.

**In many countries, the real living wage, or living wage, is not based on a relative measure, as a fixed percentage of a country's mean income, but on an absolute measure of actual living costs.** The advantage of an absolute measure is that it clearly indicates whether or not a family's income is sufficient to sustain a minimal level of subsistence. Absolute estimates of workers' needs are necessary. To calculate the living wage using an absolute approach, one generally defines a basic basket of consumption goods and estimates the cost of this basket. In most countries, poverty is measured using consumption, which corresponds to the poverty line and includes the sum of food and non-food components. The food component is estimated using the cost of basic needs method. It represents the cost of a calorie intake of 2,100 kilocalories per person per day, while the non-food component includes the cost of other essentials for clothing, shelter, etc. In some countries, research polls and surveys can inform the exact definition of the basket. For example, the Living Wage Foundation in the UK uses a public consultation method called Minimum Income Standard to inform their living wage.<sup>12</sup>

**The minimum income level of a Romanian family should be compared to the amount of income needed to buy a basket of goods and services that a household needs to enjoy a minimum standard of living.** The benchmark income for the comparisons is generally created by establishing a basket or basket of minimum goods and services that are costed at current price levels, usually called the minimum consumption basket. The amount of the minimum basket may vary from the minimum food basket necessary for survival to "comprehensive" baskets, which, in addition to food, include the cost of clothing, shelter, education, and health as minimum preconditions for a life with dignity. Following an absolute concept of the poverty line related to the cost of a minimum basket is helpful to determine an adequate level of social benefits or minimum wages even though a relative concept is used in national statistics, given that it is tied to a minimum cost of living rather than a concept of relative position in the income distribution.

The simple approximation to the net monthly living wage<sup>13</sup> is as follows: M C <u>p</u> ∗HH size F MM=

> 12 Living Wage Foundation (2021). The calculation. Link: https://www.livingwage.org.uk/calculation 13 This can be also calculated using adult equivalent scales.

15