in the consumption threshold relative to the magnitude of the consumption decline.<sup>14</sup> Thus, even in this special case of how IPV might change following the onset of a disaster, it is still possible that IPV declines. But, as described in the Introduction, there are instances where a change in economic well-being leads either to little change in IPV or to an increase in IPV (e.g., Heise 2011; Bulte and Lensink 2019; etc.), which further emphasizes the possibility that there might be little change in IPV or even a decline following a disaster. Thus, more empirical analysis of disaster settings is needed to better illustrate the degree to which disasters impact IPV and in what direction.

# **3. Background on Intimate Partner Violence in PNG and the 2018 Earthquake**

Rates of IPV prevalence in PNG are among the highest in the world (e.g., Sardinha et al., 2022), where 56 percent of women between the ages of 15-49 years have experienced physical violence from the age of 15 and 63 percent of married women experienced any form of spousal violence by a current or former partner (DHS 2019). However, the reported patterns of IPV in the country are puzzling, suggesting that estimates of the prevalence of IPV might be imprecise. For example, reported IPV incidence is higher for more educated and more urban women despite the fact that IPV is more acceptable on average among both less educated and more rural men and women (Baxi et al. 2023; and Mambon 2023).<sup>15</sup> A full catalog of potential causes of IPV in PNG is out of the scope of this work, but it is important to note there is significant heterogeneity regarding gender norms and practices across the country. There are broad expectations for males to be dominant in society at large and in the home, while females are expected to be subservient domestically (e.g., Rooney et al. 2022), and differences between these assumptions and actual behavior can then contribute to the occurrence of IPV (e.g., Eves 2018; Smith 2024). Additionally, other practices in parts of PNG, such as the payment of bride prices, may also play a part in IPV through men perceiving a greater level of ownership or authority over their wives (e.g., Eves 2019).

While the PNG government has become increasingly aware and active on the issue of IPV,

> 14The share of husbands who change from potentially committing acts of IPV to being unwilling to is increasing in the magnitude of the decrease in the consumption threshold (<sup>_<u>δ</u>_</sup> _δSC_<sup> ̄</sup> _<u>i</u>_<sup>);andtheshareofhusbandsthatchangefrom</sup> unwilling to potentially able to commit IPV increases in the size of the consumption decrease (i.e., _δCδSi_<sup>1).Inthe</sup> _<u>i</u>_ case of sufficiently small<sup>_δC_</sup> _δS_<sup>1</sup> or a sufficiently small number of individuals with first period consumption such that  ̄ _<u>i i C</u>_<sup> ̄</sup> _<u>i</u> Ci_ +<sup>_δC_</sup> _δS_<sup>1</sup><sup>_<C_</sup> _i_<sup>1</sup><sup>_<C_ ̄</sup><sup>_i−δC_</sup> _δS_<sup>1,coupledwithasufficientlylarge</sup><sup>_<u>δ</u>_</sup> _δS_<sup>orasufficientlylargenumberofindividualswith</sup> initial consumption _C_<sup> ̄</sup> _i −_<sup>_<u>δ</u>_</sup> _δSC_<sup> ̄</sup> _<u>i</u>_<sup>_< C_</sup> _i_<sup>1</sup><sup>_<C_ ̄</sup><sup>_i_+</sup><sup>_<u>δ</u>_</sup> _δSC_<sup> ̄</sup> _<u>i</u>_<sup>,therewillbeadeclineintheshareofhusbandsthatmightpotentially</sup> engage in acts of IPV.

> 15These patterns are corroborated by the summary statistics reported in Section 3.

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