distance of the school<sup>22</sup> and whose parents would have chosen that particular school for their child if they had sent their child to school in absence of the program. Walking distance for preschool age children is approximately 4 km. Note that, since all enrolled children walk to school, they must belong to the set of targeted children. Characterizing the targeted population is di¢ cult for two reasons. First, there is no household registry with records of where people live, hence there is no ready list of which children live within 4 km of the school. Second, even if there were such a list, one would still not know which school the parents would have chosen to send their children to, since most households live within 4 km of several schools.<sup>23</sup> This evaluation uses the following approach to characterize the targeted population. My basic assumption is that a household’s choice of schools for its children is very correlated between the children. For example, we assume that a household’s school choice for their 10-year old child is a good predictor of their school choice for their preschooler. If households have many children, if the probability that at least one child in the household goes to school is su¢ ciently large, and if all children are bound to go to school within 4 km of their home because they have to go to school on foot, then a baseline survey of all siblings age 4 to 6 of all children currently in the school will give a reasonable approximation of the targeted population.

ICS collected such a baseline survey prior to the program. The NGO ...rst collected a list of all families that had at least one child in the preschool or in the associated primary school. Subsequently, the oldest child was interviewed and asked for the names and ages of her siblings<sup>24</sup> below the age of seven. The list of all families in a school, including the names of the parents, the names of the oldest child in school and the names and ages of all children below age 7 constitutes that school’s baseline survey. To minimize the school’s incentives to distort baseline information, all baseline surveys were collected prior to the announcement of the randomization results to the schools. In addition, the schools were informed that the baseline survey information would not be used in determining the amount of food they would receive in case they became a treatment school. Prior to the start of the program, the households and children in the baselines in treatment and comparison schools were similar on most dimensions (Table 2).

The results presented in this paper are internally valid for children belonging to the baseline.

> 22 Preschool and primary school children in rural Busia and Teso go to school on foot. Bicycles are used by teachers and secondary school children. Cars or busses are not used as a mode of transportation in this context.

> 23 The Kenyan system of ...nancing school buildings and teachers provided strong incentives for building many schools. For a discussion of primary school ...nance, see Kremer, Moulin and Namunyu (2001). For a discussion of pupil sorting between schools, see Miguel and Gugerty (2002).

> 24 In the remainder of this paper, children living in the same compound will be called siblings, even though they are not necessarily biological brothers and sisters. During ...eld work, the older children were asked for the names of all children ”eating from the same kitchen”, which is a common expression in Kenya and avoids the di¢ culties involved in identifying parents in polygamous households.

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