ing attitudes with measures of perceived norms (i.e. what individuals think others might approve or disapprove of) since perceptions are likely to matter for decision-making (see for example, Bernhardt et al., 2018; Bicchieri, 2016; Bursztyn and Yang, 2022).<sup>3</sup> An influential study by Bursztyn, Gonzalez and Yanagizawa-Drott (2020) documented that perceptions of peers’ opinions toward female employment outside the home influenced behavior beyond an individual’s own opinions.

In this paper, we fill data and knowledge gaps by leveraging a unique dataset that includes data both on personal attitudes and perceived norms and link them to individual-level employment outcomes on a global scale. We use data from over 150,000 individuals across 111 countries from all regions of the world collected through a survey implemented online via the Facebook platform, namely the Survey on Gender Equality at Home.<sup>4</sup> The survey has a greater coverage of low- and middle-income countries than alternative global databases that measure gender attitudes.<sup>5</sup> We designed questions for the survey to capture an individual’s personal belief and perception about others’ beliefs around traditional gender roles to study how gender norms relate to specific behaviors for women and men. We complement two levels of beliefs - what individuals think and what they think their community thinks - and correlate them with labor market, time use and decision-making behaviors. Specifically, this paper asks how do personal attitudes and perceived community norms towards a _broad norm on rights to equal opportunities_ , and the stereotypical gender roles of the _male breadwinner_ and _female caregiver_ correlate with labor force participation, intrahousehold decision-making power, and time spent on paid work, care and domestic activities for both men and women globally?

The stereotypical roles of the male breadwinner and female caregiver are hypothesized to have been born between the mid-19th and mid-20th century in many countries as industrialization gave rise to the separation of home and work. In this model of the family men are responsible for economic provision through employment while women are responsible for home and family. However, Alesina, Giuliano and Nunn (2013) examine the historical origins of gender norms based on a theory proposed by Boserup (1970), and show that gender attitudes are more unequal among descendants of societies that practiced plow agriculture. Since plow agriculture was much more capital-intensive and required greater upper-body strength, this led to a greater gender-based division of labor. The authors find historical

> 3Beliefs about what others do are referred to as _descriptive_ norms and beliefs about what others approve of are referred to as _injunctive_ norms in social norms theory (Cialdini, Kallgren and Reno, 1991; Heinicke, Konig-Kersting and Schmidt, 2022). Here we are measuring the injunctive norm.

> 4The survey was administered on Facebook in July 2020 to a sample of Facebook general population users. 5 See World Values Survey (WVS) for global data on gender beliefs and values and Bursztyn et al. (2023 _a_ ) for analysis of data on the rights of women to work outside the home and support for women in leadership positions from 60 countries in a 2020 Gallup World Poll survey.

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