least 80 percent of the time.<sup>15</sup> The 9 dimensions are aggregated into three areas: Classroom Culture, Instruction, and Socioemotional Skills (see Box 5; further details are in Appendix 1 Table 4). The _Teach_ protocol includes an additional dimension to capture time-on-task. Every five minutes within the first 15 minutes of the video clip the rater takes a snapshot of the activities and records whether the teacher is engaged in teaching activities or has provided a learning activity for most students. If yes, then the rater also records how many students are “on-task,” which is reported as low (6 or more students are off-task), medium (2-5 students are off-task), and high (all students are on-task, with allowance for 1 student to be off-task).<sup>16</sup> We use these data to construct the Share of Time Teaching, defined as the share of the 3 snapshot observations in which the teacher is teaching or has provided a learning activity to most students, and the Share of Time Teaching and Learning as the share of the 3 snapshot observations in which teacher is teaching with no more than 6 students off-task (i.e. when students on-task is “medium” or “high”).

|**Box 5: Summ**|**ary of variables derive**|**d from****_Teach_observation instrument**|
|---|---|---|
|**Time-on-task (**<br>|**Level 1)**<br>||
|Share of Time T|eaching|Share of 3 snapshot observations in which teacher is engaged in<br>teaching activities|
|Share of Time T|eaching and Learning|Share of 3 snapshot observations in which teacher is teaching with no<br>more than 6 students are off-task.|
|**Teacher practic**|**es and classroom enviro**|**nment**|
|Area(Level 1)|Dimensions(Level 2)|Description|
|Classroom<br>Culture|Supportive Learning<br>Environment|The teacher creates a classroom environment where students can feel<br>emotionally safe and supported. Moreover, all students feel welcome,<br>as the teacher treats all students respectfully.|
||Positive Behavioral<br>Expectations|The teacher promotes positive behavior by acknowledging students’<br>behavior that meets or exceeds expectations. Moreover, the teacher<br>sets clear behavioral expectations for different parts of the lesson.|
|Instruction|Lesson Facilitation|The teacher facilitates the lesson to promote comprehension by<br>explicitly articulating the objectives, providing clear explanations of<br>concepts, and connecting the lesson with other content knowledge or<br>students’experiences.|
||Checks for<br>Understanding|The teacher checks for understanding to ensure most students<br>comprehend the lesson content. Moreover, the teacher adjusts the<br>pace of the lesson to provide students with additional learning<br>opportunities.|
||Feedback|The teacher provides specific comments or prompts to help identify<br>misunderstandings, understand successes, and guide thought<br>processes to promote learning.|

15 For this exercise, Tanzanian coders were trained in Bukoba, Tanzania, using the Teach Protocol. Enumerators had previously carried out Teach observations in the field for a separate exercise. All raters were certified as Teach raters. Videos were coded in Bukoba, Tanzania.

16 In Teach, off-task is defined as follows: students who are not participating in the learning activity provided by the teacher either because they are quiet but distracted, or because they are disrupting the class. For example, in the first category, students may be staring out the window, resting their head on the desk, looking down to the floor or at the observer, or sleeping. In the second category, they may be passing notes, whispering, talking to another student during an activity that does not require talking, moving around the class, shouting, or in any other way disrupting the class.

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