where _p_ and _h_ denote parcel and household, respectively; _y_ represents a specific intra-household reporting discrepancy on ownership/rights based on the spousal cross-reports; and _α_ and _ɛ_ represent constant and error terms, respectively. _D_ is a vector of household and parcel attributes, subsuming those included in the vector _C_ from equation (1), and augmenting those with additional variables to better understand whether certain features of the parcel, household economic activity and spouses’ decision-making in agriculture that could affect reporting discrepancies pertaining to reported and, separately, economic ownership. In the case of parcels where different individuals may be involved in agricultural production or decision making on different plots within, there may also be variation in responses among household members over who is responsible for, and/or owns, that parcel (Doss et. al, 2019). Additional variables in _D_ , therefore, include the number of plots in the garden, whether the household sells some of its crop, and whether the wife is listed as the main decision-maker for cropping activities on any plot.<sup>26</sup> Table 3 presents the distribution of parcel-level responses regarding ownership and rights outcomes, as reported by the principal couples in the IHPS sample.<sup>27</sup> There is spousal agreement regarding individuals with reported ownership, economic ownership, right to sell and right to bequeath concerning 71 percent, 58 percent, 88 percent and 86 percent of the parcels, respectively.<sup>28</sup> The extent of spousal agreement is, however, higher than the levels reported in MEXA T5, where the comparable estimates for parcel-level agreement on reported owners and economic owners stood at 45 percent and 48 percent, respectively.

Country/regional context may contribute to these differences. In studies from Uganda and South Africa, for example, Jacobs and Kes (2015) find that around 10 to 16 percent of women in Uganda own land in their own right, and that the majority of couples disagree specifically on joint ownership. In a study from Ecuador, Twyman et al. (2015) find higher agreement on joint ownership of land (in 79 percent of parcels, couples agree on joint ownership), but also do find that where disagreement occurs, it is almost always where one spouse reports a parcel is owned jointly, while the other attributes ownership to oneself/their spouse. Similarly, where discrepancies over reported/economic ownership occur in the IHPS (Table 3), it typically involves one spouse claiming joint ownership (and in this case, the other claiming no ownership). There are, otherwise, very few cases of disagreement where each spouse claims they are the exclusive owner/have

> 26 The corresponding question in the agricultural questionnaire asks, “Who in the household makes the decisions concerning crops to be planted, input use and the timing of cropping activities on this [PLOT]?” There is one respondent for each plot, who identifies one main decision-maker and two additional decision-makers on each plot. In the IHS4, 78 percent of individuals who were identified as the main decision-maker were also the respondent for the plot. This figure stood at 95 percent while looking at whether the respondent was one of the three decision-makers. For the IHPS, these shares were 74 and 93 percent, respectively.

> 27 Documented ownership is almost negligible, with husbands and wives agreeing 98 percent of the time that they do not have an ownership document for the parcel in question.

> 28 The country pilots that had been supported by the EDGE initiative had presented substantial agreement among couples (83 percent in Georgia and Mongolia, 90 percent in the Philippines), although this was regarding dwelling as opposed to agricultural land (United Nations, 2019).

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