are the estimated control-group mean and standard deviation for outcome _k_ in family _K_ . Our estimates for these families represent standard deviation changes relative to the control group.

Following Kling et al. (2007), in case _yik_ is missing but another sub-component of the family is measured, we impute the mean from the same treatment arm and survey wave. Some sub-components, e.g., those that relate to childbirth, are only defined for a fraction of respondents. As such, we do not impute values when estimating treatment effects for individual sub-components. To demonstrate the imputation is innocuous when looking at effects on families, we follow Kling et al. (2004) and Casey et al. (2012) and aggregate treatment effects across the sub-components of each family using seemingly-unrelated regressions (SUR). These results (reported in Appendix Section D.2 generate nearly identical inferences.

Below we describe each family; Appendix Section B.1 provides additional detail on each family’s constituent outcomes.

1. **General utilization** measures the number of episodes in which individuals seek care at a western clinic, including in response to four of the most common health needs relevant for primary health units — childbirth in the past year, antenatal or postnatal care, vaccination, or any illness or injury in the past month — as well as a residual category of any other type of consultation in the past month. The residual category helps generate a comprehensive measure of utilization; we note, however, that regular health check-ups are not common in our setting, so nearly all utilization occurs in response to specific health needs. Utilization of western clinics reflects the decision to seek care at western-style medical facility (overwhelmingly at a government-run clinic given the lack of NGO-run or private clinics), rather than visiting a traditional healer or spiritual leader or avoiding any type of care.

2. **Maternal utilization** is measured among women who gave birth in the year before the endline survey. The family includes two outcomes: an index of the number of times a woman sought antenatal care (ANC) or postnatal care (PNC), and an indicator for whether the woman gave birth in a western-style medical facility.<sup>13</sup> 3. **Health outcomes** are measured at the household-level. The family includes four measures related to child health: under-5 mortality over the past six months; under-5 illnesses over the past month (e.g., malaria or diarrhea); under-2 vaccine completion; and under-5 child wasting, measured using the weight-for-length ratio.<sup>14</sup> The family also includes three other variables: two related to childbirth, maternal mortality over the last six months and problems faced by the mother or newborn within two months of delivery; and one

> 13 Some outcomes within families are themselves indices. Throughout we use the control-group standardized indices described above (Kling et al. 2007).

> 14 We collected data on upper-arm circumference. However, inspection of this variable reveals implausible values due to deviations from our survey protocol: some enumerators wrongly recorded measurements in inches; others, as directed, in centimeters. We cannot discern with certainty which units apply to many observations and, thus, rely on child weight-for-length to measure wasting.

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