because it tends to cost much less than technical or business skills, and because of variation in programs and studies as to the definition of “socio-emotional skills”. Future research should examine which types of socio-emotional skills matter most for young women, by experimentation within an impact evaluation, or by documenting skills gaps between young men and women through inferential research, for example using the World Bank’s STEP surveys.<sup>25</sup> In terms of delivery, more experimentation is needed with lower-cost methods of delivering skills, including the use of non-professional trainers (including peer-topeer learning or mentors) or remote learning, as well as comparing classroom-based training versus onthe-job training through internships or apprenticeships. As formal education is often not indicative of ability or skill level in certain contexts, an ongoing GIL evaluation in South Africa is running cognitive and non-cognitive assessments of young women and men, then reporting them back to individuals to examine the impact of results on job search methodology and signaling ability to employers.

**_Which skills when?_** Another research area concerns the optimal sequencing of skills, in light of the pathdependence of skills acquisition. People build on the skills they already have, and skills gaps originating from younger ages become harder to close over time.<sup>26</sup> Consequently, an important line of research would examine the impact of building foundational skills, including literacy, financial literacy, and ageappropriate life skills, for younger girls (ages 10-15). These foundational skills could be promoted either through formal school or community-based programs. In addition to their direct impacts, such interventions might better prepare girls for vocational or business skills training programs at later ages. How big is the gain (if any) from intervening sooner in the life of young women? In terms of delivery, how do school-based approaches compare to community-based ones? Can improved foundational skills for younger girls affect their labor market outcomes, even if not followed by subsequent employmentrelated skills training? Would the channels of impact of such interventions be direct, through the building of skills, or indirect, through potentially delayed family formation? These questions could be examined through longer term follow-up of existing programs for younger girls that promote education (e.g., the Zomba cash transfer program) or life skills (e.g., the GIL-evaluated Sisters of Success life skills program in Liberia). Does participation in such programs improve later skills acquisition when offered vocational and/or business skills training at an older age?

**_Skills or Cash?_** The success of cash transfers has led a growing number of experts to question whether cash alone is the best method to improve the livelihoods of poor people in Africa.<sup>27</sup> One idea is for every development intervention to be benchmarked against cash transfers.<sup>28</sup> In the case of training programs, the argument is that either skills are not the binding constraint they are often assumed to be (in the absence of training, poor people are able to improve their earnings and productivity) or that the cash can allow those constrained by a lack of skills to invest in training on their own. However, even if cash outperforms skills

> 25 The Skills Towards Employment and Productivity (STEP) household surveys assess reading and numeracy proficiency, jobrelevant skills, socio-emotional skills, and risk preferences across cohorts of working-age individuals. STEP employer surveys assess the skills that employers look for when hiring, the satisfaction of employers with the skills level of the labor force, and the provision of training and compensation.

> 26 http://blogs.worldbank.org/futuredevelopment/skills-gaps-and-jobs-strategies

> 27 Ozler, Berk. “Should we just give people cash?” Policy Research talk given on September 29, 2015. And Kenny, Charles. “Give Poor People Cash”. The Atlantic. September 25, 2015. http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/09/welfarereform-direct-cash-poor/407236/

> 28 Blattman and Niehaus. “Show them the money”. Foreign Affairs. May/June 2014. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/show-them-money

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