rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
# World Bank Project-Financed Research on Population, Health, and Nutrition

This note reports on World Bank project-financed research on population, health, and nutrition (PHN). It is based on a review of 109 staff appraisal reports (SARs) for projects fLianced in fiscal years 1980 through 1991 and selected interviews with task managers. The projects reviewed include 47 in the Africa region; 13 in the East Asia and Pacific region; 15 in the South Asia region; 14 in the Middle East and North Africa region; and 19 in the Latin America and Caribbean region. In tbis note, Tu,rkey is tabulated in the Middle East and North Africa region. There were no operations in the Europe and Central Asia region during the period reviewed. (A list of the projects reviewed is given in the Annex.) The projects represent essentially all Bank financing in the PHN sector during the period under review.

The World Bank encourages PHN research tostrengthen Word Bnkenow gebase uPoN resech<sup>to</sup> to strengthen the kcnowledge base upon _Which_ **to** design cost-effective investments in population, health, and nutrition; to strengthen the analytical capacity of borrowing governments to undertake policy-related PHN research; and to evaluate program and project performance as a basis for improving future design.

four of the five regions covered, the proportion of projects which included a research component was over 90 percent; in MENA 80 percent of the projects included a research component.

## Categories of Research Financed

For every project reviewed, the research proposed in the SAR was dassified by one of six categories or else was noted as uncategorized (see box). Projects were reviewed and tabulated Bankwide and on a regional basis (Table 1).

The categories were medical, demographic/ epidemiological, human resources (including studies relating to personnel practices), managerial (including operational research), financial,<sup>and</sup> research needed to prepare information,<sup>education,</sup> and communication (IEC) programs.

This note is an initial, exploratory survey. It looks only at the simplest dimensions of projectfinanced research and examines research outcomes of only a few projects. Hence, the conclusions reached must be considered tentative and subject to , revision in the light of fuller investigation.

### Proportion of Projects with Research

Virtually every project in the PHN sector during the period reviewed contained some provision for research (Figure 1). Bank-wide and in <!-- Start of picture text --> tooprt .oo ....... ,..-------.--<br>9_<br>so . .. .. 0 .. .<br>0 ... .... ... ....<br>40 _ --- .... .. _ .. _ . ._<br>20 .... ... ... ...<br>A _ "t o A<br>& r"i54 W-<br><!-- End of picture text --> Figure 1. Proportion of projects with research components by region and Bank-wide.
# **Public Sector Pension Governance and Performance: Lessons for Developing Countries**

## Olivia S. Mvitchell

The cost of supporting retirees has risen quickly in both developed and developing nations, and promises to become ever greater in decades to come. Policymakers seek to prepare for these costs by designing better functioning pension plan structures. One item or. the policy agenda is to improve pension plan investment and funding performance. This paper examines public sector pension plans in the United States, asking why some plans appear to have been well-managed, and what structural design features are associated with good pension management outcomes. A new data set on more thau 200 state and local public sector plans in the U.S. indicates that many of these pensions experience decent investment performance, and some are relatively well-funded. Offsetting these successful plans is the experience of other pension systems who report poor investment performance and underfunding difficulties. Our analysis examines the relationship between public sector plan performance and management practices, seeking to draw lessons which might improve the design and governance of public pensions in developing countries.

The two pension plan performance outcome measures of central interest in this paper are the yields on public pension system assets, and the public pension plans' funding status. Investment performance is important since higher yie!ds reduce the need for additional taxes to support current and future retirees. Pension funding is important since better funded plans stand a better chance of having assets on hand to pay promised benefits.

Olivia S. Mitchell - Public Pension Governance and Performance
<!-- Start of picture text --> Employment Share<br>by Sector<br>8<br>z<br>23<br>=<br>° SP&.FFosLPEESEi&.FFosLPEESEiFFosLPEESEiosLPEESEiLPEESEii aeFFPEEFFPEEPEE PEESELEesRan,esRan,Ran, &<br>HE Mivincutity = RY RY Manutacturing<br>HE construction = IN services<br>‘Ar 2008,AGO 202,8402013.CPV 20, 2008,AGO 202,8402013.CPV 20,AGO 202,8402013.CPV 20, 202,8402013.CPV 20,8402013.CPV 20,CPV 20, 20, mH 210, 210, CW 2012, 2012, LS0 2018, MKD MKD 2018, MO 2018.2013,PRONE MO 2018.2013,PRONE 2018.2013,PRONE2013,PRONEPRONE PER 212SLE 20,SLE 20, 20, ZAF 2014, 2014, UGA V0, VN 2018 VN 2018 2018 28 2010 2010<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Share of Firms<br>by Sector<br>88<br>8z<br>8<br>$=<br>°PPv4PPv4v4 Fe ELLESFSF Y aSPS&SPS&& P EEEeS.ELEeS.ELE.ELEELE<br>HE Mivinoutity = ER ER Menutacturing<br>HEE constuction = NNN NNN services<br>9 208, M0 200,960 2012C9V2014 208, M0 200,960 2012C9V2014 M0 200,960 2012C9V2014 200,960 2012C9V2014 2012C9V20142014 CV 2012, 90205, 2012, 90205, 90205, MKD 216 216 M2 2018, WC2013 RYO, WC2013 RYO, RYO, PER 2012 SLE 2016, 2A 2044,UGA2010. 2016, 2A 2044,UGA2010. 2A 2044,UGA2010. 2044,UGA2010. NM 201, 2M8 2010 201, 2M8 2010 2M8 2010 2010<br><!-- End of picture text --> Share of Firms Employment Share by Sector by Sector 88 8z 8 23 55 $= gg °PPv4PPv4v4<sup>Fe</sup> ELLESFSF Y aSPS&SPS&& P EEEeS.ELEeS.ELE.ELEELE ° SP&.FFosLPEESEi&.FFosLPEESEiFFosLPEESEiosLPEESEiLPEESEii aeFFPEEFFPEEPEE PEESELEesRan,esRan,Ran, & HE Mivinoutity = ER ER Menutacturing HE Mivincutity = RY RY Manutacturing HEE constuction = NNN NNN services HE construction = IN services 9 208, M0 200,960 2012C9V2014 208, M0 200,960 2012C9V2014 M0 200,960 2012C9V2014 200,960 2012C9V2014 2012C9V20142014 CV 2012, 90205, 2012, 90205, 90205, MKD 216 216 M2 2018, WC2013 RYO, WC2013 RYO, RYO, PER 2012 SLE 2016, 2A 2044,UGA2010. 2016, 2A 2044,UGA2010. 2A 2044,UGA2010. 2044,UGA2010. NM 201, 2M8 2010 201, 2M8 2010 2M8 2010 2010 ‘Ar 2008,AGO 202,8402013.CPV 20, 2008,AGO 202,8402013.CPV 20,AGO 202,8402013.CPV 20, 202,8402013.CPV 20,8402013.CPV 20,CPV 20, 20, mH 210, 210, CW 2012, 2012, LS0 2018, MKD MKD 2018, MO 2018.2013,PRONE MO 2018.2013,PRONE 2018.2013,PRONE2013,PRONEPRONE PER 212SLE 20,SLE 20, 20, ZAF 2014, 2014, UGA V0, VN 2018 VN 2018 2018 28 2010 2010
# **Long-Term Shifts in Korean Manufacturing**

# **and Plant-Level Productivity Dynamics**<sup>∗</sup>

## Yoonsoo Lee

School of Economics, Sogang University E-mail: ylee@sogang.ac.kr

**_JEL_ Classification:** D24, L11, O12, O14, O47

**Keywords:** Structural Change, Productivity Dynamics, Entry and Exit, Misallocation

> ∗ All results have been reviewed to ensure that no confidential information is disclosed. I thank Norman Loayza, Arthur Mendes, Steven Pennings, Varlerie Smeets, and Frederic Warzinki for the insightful discussion and comments.  I thank seminar participants at World Bank, Seoul National University, JapanKorea microdata workshop, University of California at San Diego, and WEAI meeting.  Won Hyeok Kim and Sanghyun Jung provided excellent research assistance.  All errors are mine.
countries with fewer distortions (richer countries) should have more exporters but the implications for average exporter size and concentration at the top of the size distribution vary, depending on which firms are more constrained. If taxes and regulations (e.g., on the labor market and on business entry) become heavy as firms grow larger, only the most productive can overcome these costs and there would be a “missing middle”: many small firms and a few large firms but few medium-sized firms. Consistent with a “missing middle”, Tybout (2000) shows a U-shaped firmsize histogram for a number of developing countries, when firms are allocated to relatively wide size bins.<sup>10</sup> Tybout (2014) shows that the “missing middle” does not necessarily imply a bimodal firm-size distribution. Assuming that the undistorted firm-size distribution should be an exact Pareto distribution, he compares the actual distribution with an estimated country-specific Pareto distribution. Using data for a number of Asian countries, the U.S., and Mexico, he finds that the actual firm-size distribution is wider than the estimated Pareto distribution, as represented in Panel A of Figure 1, particularly in developing countries. His results, however, are dependent on allowing the Pareto dispersion parameter to vary across countries, and he estimates a lower Pareto index (a more skewed firm-size distribution) in higher-income countries. In related work, Alfaro et al. (2009) use Dun and Bradstreet’s WorldBase data for 79 countries and find that establishment size is decreasing in GDP per capita, and interpret this as being consistent with too few mediumsized firms in lower-income countries.<sup>11</sup> In contrast, Hsieh and Klenow (2009) calculate a hypothetical efficient firm-size distribution, assuming the marginal products of capital and labor are equalized across all firms in

> 10Tybout shows a large spike in the firm-size distribution for the 1-4 workers size bin and a quick drop-off in the 10-49 workers size bin in poor countries.

> 11 An important caveat about their data, as argued by Bento and Restuccia (2014), is that they cover listed firms so small firms are not covered and they have less complete coverage of medium-sized firms in lower-income countries. Therefore, their measure of average firm size is likely to be over-estimated for lower-income countries and this can help explain the negative correlation they find between average firm size and GDP per capita.

10
# **Conclusions**

The labor market performance in Croatia in 2002-2004 varied across individual groups and across regions. Both individual characteristics and regional characteristics played important roles in the determination of employment and earning. Youth, the less welleducated, and women face more difficulties in getting a job with a decent salary. A large part of the difference in regional labor market performance is associated with the difference in human capital endowment.

The combination of the favorable human capital endowment and the well rewarding labor market structure contributes to the good economic performance of the Zagreb Region, followed by the Adriatic North Region; while the combination of the less satisfactory situation of these two results in the backwardness of the development in the Eastern Region. Central Region has the highest employment rate, but the low human capital endowment and the prevalence of the low-paid manufacturing jobs keep the earnings level to the lower end similar to that in the Eastern Region. The individuals have relatively good salaries in Adriatic South Region if they manage to get employed, but the less dynamic labor market and the seasonal nature of many job-demands there lead to the high unemployment.

Both nation-wide education policies and regional specific labor market policies can be effective in enhancing employment and earnings. The entire country will benefit from an improvement in human capital endowment and an appropriate adjustment of labor market structure, and the lagging Eastern Region in particular will benefit more than the other regions.

# **References:**

Green W.H. (2003), Econometric Analysis, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prince-Hall. Gronau R. (1974), “Wage comparisons: a selectivity bias”, Journal of Political Economy92, pp.1119-1155.

- Heckman J. (1976), “The common structure of statistical models of truncation, sample selection, and limited dependent variables and a simple estimator for such models”, The Annals of Economic and Social Measurement 5, pp.475-492.

- Lovrincevic Z. and D. Mikulic (2006), “Regional development and social indicators in Croatia”, Croatia Living Standards Assessment background paper, mimeo, The World Bank.

- Munoz J. (2006), “Visit to Zagreb”, Croatia Living Standards Assessment background paper, mimeo, The World Bank.

- Nestic D. (2006), “Recent economic developments in Croatia”, Croatia Living Standards Assessment background paper, mimeo, The World Bank.

- Oaxaca R. L. (1973), “Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets”, International Economic Review, Vol.14, No.3, pp.693-709.

- Oaxaca R.L. and Ransom M.R. (1994), “On discrimination and the decomposition of wage differentials”, Journal of Econometrics 61, pp.5-21.

- Rutkowski J. (2002), “Toward a dynamic labor market and employment growth”, Croatia Country Economic Memorandum background paper, mimeo, The World Bank.

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differing national practices and do not permit the kind of cross-checks normally built into national accounting, by reconciling estimates from the sources (production) and income with uses (expenditure) approaches. This issue is particularly important for the PSU, given uncertainties about measurement of defense and security activities, informal markets, fiscal interventions (such as the FTDs), etc.

# b. Estimates of Outside Experts

As useful as the bridge tables are as a sign of the move towards SNA, they provide only qualified indications of SNA measures for the FSU. This was tacitly recognized by FSU compilers when they entered into detailed discussions with the US Bureau of Census' Center for International Research (CIR) about CIR's estimates of GNP for the FSU as a whole, which are built up from detailed income and outlay approaches rather than adjusting NMP with summary bridge items. While experts from the two governments were iterating towards comparable estimates, there were still noticeable differences for the FSU as a whole and clear signs that the bridge tables for individual FSU economies, which was not then an issue, would not necessarily show the same GNP/NMP relativities as prevailed for the whole.

Possible differences in choosing basic sources and methods were gauged by following two independent estimation procedures for compilation of GNP estimates in nominal rubles. One extends CIR's work to the 15 FSU economies, for 1987-90. The other provides a detailed, input-output, analysis of each FSU economy for 1987. The latter, prepared by Dmitri Steinberg of Intelligent Decisions Systems (IDS), includes adjustments from CMEA-style MPS accounting to more conventional SNA national accounts and extensive documentation (available upon request from IECSE). The attraction of this study is that it harmonizes sources and uses approaches, as well as the income approach, to measuring GNP.

This was extended forward to 1990 using national accounting time series collected during missions. For eight FSU economies (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Turkmenistan, Tajildstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Ukraine), IECSE staff participated in Bank missions to promote harmonization of the benchmark and mission compilations. This combination of sources was taken as the reference point for the estimates used in this paper.

The second study supported CIR's effort to extend its FSU estimation procedures to the 15 individual FSU economies. CIR relies heavily on financial statements like reports on the cash income and outlays of the population. Its results (shown in Table 3) differ somewhat from IDS results in the common year, 1987; differences tend to increase as one moves towards 1990 (IECSE = 100). The correlation coefficients between the four set of data are all virtually one.

17
effect, encourages households to supply more labor.<sup>17</sup> Given that skilled and unskilled workers are employed with different intensities across sectors and that final demand does not increase equally for all goods and services, the general equilibrium effects will differ across the types of workers. In this specific simulation the relative wage of unskilled workers increases slightly. Overall, total labor supply declines by 8,000 workers, which represents less than one percent of the overall employment. Although the change is small in aggregate terms, consider that this reduction in employment, were it concentrated in a single sector, would be enough to completely eliminate, for example, mining, processed sugar, beverages and tobacco, paper and printing, or refined oil.

_Table 4 Macroeconomic results: flexible budget deficit_

||Remittance effect,<br>percent change<br>from initial<br>equilibrium|Tax effect, percent<br>change from<br>remittance shock|Total effect,<br>percent change<br>from initial<br>equilibrium|
|---|---|---|---|
|Remittances|10.00|0.00|10.00|
|Total household income|2.04|1.16|3.22|
|Household labor income|1.43|2.20|3.67|
|CPI|0.54|-0.03|0.50|
|Real exchange rate|0.88|-0.08|0.80|
|Real GDP|-0.37|0.10|-0.26|
|Private consumption|1.50|1.19|2.71|
|Investment|-0.06|-2.58|-2.63|
|Exports|-2.70|0.05|-2.66|
|Imports|0.81|-0.06|0.75|
|Government savings|-0.24|-7.79|-8.01|
|Unskilled labor supply|-0.76|0.55|-0.21|
|Skilled labor supply|-0.84|0.40|-0.45|
|Unskilled wage|2.31|2.08|4.45|
|Skilled wage|2.26|1.99|4.29|
|_Memo_||||
|Absolute change in unskilled labor supply|-3,822|2,761|-1,061|
|Absolute change in skilled labor supply|-4,563|2,139|-2,424|

Greater household income generates more demand for consumption goods and services which is satisfied by a combination of increased domestic supply and import flows. International prices are not affected by this surge in Jamaican imports, whereas prices of the domestically produced goods rise in response to domestic market conditions. In a case of fixed fully employed factors, additional demand is translated into higher factor prices (and a sectoral reallocation towards non-tradables). In the current case, with an endogenous labor supply, the price increase is

> 17 See equations (4) and (5) above.

14
**To investigate tax compliance further, we adopt a “cell approach” (Bendek & Lelkes, 2011) and** The **estimate the tax compliance in 40 cells composed of gender (2), regions (4), and age groups  (5).** comparison of “true” and “reported” income across subgroups of the population allows for a better understanding of tax evasion patterns. We report the total outcomes of this exercise in Tables 5 and 6. Our results show that tax compliance is higher among women than men. In all “women” cells, the tax compliance (measured at the median of the income distribution) is higher than 90%; in some cells, the reported income is even higher than the tax income. In the case of men, in all cells except one, the tax compliance is lower than 90%; on average, the tax compliance is close to 80%, and in some cells, the tax compliance is lower than 70%.  D’Attoma et al. (2017) previously identified similar gender differences in tax compliance in the US, UK, Sweden, and Italy based on tax compliance experiments. According to their results, women are more compliant than men.

**Table 6. Tax compliance:“ cel” approach, men (measured at median income)**

|Age/region|<30|30 – 39|40–- 49|50-59|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|RO1 (North)|85.09%|66.82%|69.71%|67.58%|
|RO2 (East)|81.56%|80.34%|83.88%|85.88%|
|RO3 (South)|87.50%|74.71%|72.99%|74.28%|
|RO4 (West)|87.51%|89.88%|75.24%|79.53%|

_Source: Own estimation based on the imputed EU-SILC data_ 27
**Table 4. GATS Commitments by EU-15 Member States, by Mode of Supply**

|||Market A|ccess||N|ational|Treatme|nt||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Mode:|1|2|3|4|1|2|3|4|All|
|EU*|52.6|68.1|67.1|0.0|52.3|68.4|67.4|0.0|47.0|
|Belgium|51.0|68.1|64.2|0.3|51.0|68.4|67.4|1.0|46.4|
|Germany|51.6|66.8|65.5|1.0|50.3|67.7|67.1|0.6|46.3|
|Denmark|51.3|67.1|65.8|2.6|51.9|68.4|65.8|3.9|47.1|
|Spain|51.0|68.1|59.7|1.3|52.3|68.4|67.4|1.9|46.3|
|France|49.4|67.4|57.1|6.5|50.6|68.4|66.5|1.0|45.8|
|Greece|45.2|67.4|56.1|9.0|49.4|68.4|66.8|0.0|45.3|
|Italy|46.8|67.7|57.4|2.9|47.1|68.4|66.5|7.7|45.6|
|Ireland|50.6|68.1|63.5|0.0|51.0|68.4|67.4|0.0|46.1|
|Luxembourg|52.6|68.1|66.8|0.0|52.3|68.4|67.4|0.0|46.9|
|Netherlands|52.6|68.1|66.8|0.0|52.3|68.4|67.4|0.0|46.9|
|Portugal|43.5|67.7|51.0|2.9|49.0|68.4|67.1|4.2|44.2|
|UK|52.6|67.7|66.1|0.0|52.3|68.4|67.4|0.0|46.8|
|Austria|55.8|68.7|64.8|8.7|53.5|68.7|67.7|10.0|49.8|
|Sweden|47.4|60.0|50.0|0.6|48.1|60.0|53.5|1.9|40.2|
|Finland|51.3|58.7|52.3|0.6|52.6|58.7|56.8|36.1|45.9|
|Standard deviation|3.2|3.0|6.1|3.1|1.8|3.2|4.3|9.2|2.0|
|Mean|50.2|66.6|60.5|2.4|50.9|67.2|65.5|4.6|46.0|

_Source_ : Eschenbach and Hoekman (2006b).

Adlung and Roy (2005) update Hoekman’s assessment of the coverage of commitments, and note that little progress was made in extending the coverage post-1995 – essentially limited to commitments by a number of countries to liberalize access to telecommunications markets. Most developing countries have commitments that are less comprehensive than those of the OECD countries, while recent WTO accession countries often have made the most far reaching commitments. For many developing countries the coverage of specific commitments is well below 50 percent of all services and modes of supply. Adlung and Roy also note that the provisional requests and offers made in the 6 years following the launch of new negotiations on services in 2000 did not suggest there was much interest in using the GATS as a vehicle to commit to actual liberalization of markets.<sup>53</sup> Both theory and empirical research summarized above suggest that from a development perspective services should be center stage in multilateral negotiations. The WTO can potentially help to improve services performance by inducing countries to liberalize access to markets or to (pre-)commit to doing so, thus increasing competition. An important question is how large the incentives are for countries to use the multilateral negotiation process/mechanisms. Hoekman and Messerlin (2000) question how much scope there is in the services context for traditional

> 53 Barth et al. (2006) combine data on specific GATS commitments for financial services with measures of actual policy in this sector for 123 countries drawn from Barth, Caprio and Levine (2006) They conclude that in practice applied policy is much more liberal than what was committed to in the GATS.

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