traditional building materials and practices erode indigenous knowledge (Rautela 2005, cited in Adger et al. 2014).

The chapter also notes that the large majority of studies on climate change and indigeneity have focused on rural settings while leaving a knowledge gap with respect to urban indigenous communities. Main obstacles that undermine indigenous peoples’ adaptive efforts to maintain cultures, livelihoods, and traditional food sources stem from relocation enforced by governments, obstacles regarding knowledge transmission between generations, dependencies created by disaster relief and ill‐suited policies, and inadequate entitlements and rights as currently provided through the Western judicial system. Additional barriers result from lack of voice and inclusion in formal, governmental decision‐making processes over resources and development opportunities, for instance tourism and industrial activities, which may increase rather than reduce risks.

# **<mark>Short case studies (vignettes)</mark>**

## _3)_ _<u>Indigeneity as a driver of inequality in the highlands of Bolivia</u>_

Studies on the state of glaciers in the tropical Andes (see Rabatel et al. 2013 for a good overview) show unprecedented glacier retreat in this part of the world over the last three decades, at least since the Little Ice Age in the mid‐17th–early 18th century. Mass balance records show declining trends, with a critical threshold possibly crossed in the late 1970s. Measurements indicate that the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean drives the reduction in mass balance and dramatic shrinkage in glaciers more so than precipitation, coupled with temperature increase and higher frequency of El Niño events. Now, how do these climatic stressors interact with inequality along the axis of indigeneity?

<!-- Start of picture text --> Measurements indicate that the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean drives the reduction<br>in mass balance and dramatic shrinkage in glaciers more so than precipitation, coupled with<br>temperature increase and higher frequency of El Niño events. Now, how do these climatic<br>stressors interact with inequality along the axis of indigeneity?<br>McDowell and Hess (2012) depict differential consequences for marginalized Aymara farmers in<br><!-- End of picture text --> McDowell and Hess (2012) depict differential consequences for marginalized Aymara farmers in the highlands of Bolivia, Municipality of Palca, who experience the dramatic retreat of the Mururata glacier compounded with a host of other environmental and social stressors. Various stressors over time are at play that put many Aymara highland farmers precariously close to a poverty trap while already having trapped the poorest of the poor: pervasive poverty, the legacy of a major agrarian reform in the 1950s, volatility in the agricultural market, bureaucratic hurdles in obtaining land titles and accessing bank loans, lacking support for irrigation infra‐ structure and technical assistance, and institutional racism and systemic discrimination against indigenous citizens, although the last has decreased over the last 15 years. All these factors are now overlaid with delayed seasonal rainfall, increased temperature, unpredictable frost, and more intense hailstorms.

<!-- Start of picture text --> Mururata glacier compounded with a host of other environmental and social stressors. Various<br>stressors over time are at play that put many Aymara highland farmers precariously close to a<br>poverty trap while already having trapped the poorest of the poor: pervasive poverty, the legacy<br>of a major agrarian reform in the 1950s, volatility in the agricultural market, bureaucratic<br>hurdles in obtaining land titles and accessing bank loans, lacking support for irrigation infra‐<br>structure and technical assistance, and institutional racism and systemic discrimination against<br><!-- End of picture text --> Livelihood trajectories among the Aymara vary between farmers depending on key assets, particularly financial and physical capital (e.g. land at various levels of altitude). Some few 21