older (Echeverria, Herrera, and Segure 2002).<sup>9</sup> We use standardized scores based on the suggested normalizations from the publishers of the test, as well as standardized scores based on the estimation of our own latent construct for receptive language using IRT methods. Results are similar regardless of the method used to construct these scores.

<u>Executive function: These are the cognitive aspects of self-regulation (Blair and Razza 2007) and</u> sometimes defined as working memory, inhibitory control, attention, and cognitive flexibility, which have been shown to be important predictors for children’s social and academic development. We applied both at baseline and endline the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) task (Zelazo 2006), which is appropriate for longitudinal uses starting from age 21⁄2 until adulthood. In the standard version of the test, children are asked to order a series of cards according to one dimension (for example, the color), and then according to another dimension (for example, the shape). The test requires holding two pieces of information in mind and at the same time inhibiting a dominant tendency when the task is switched. This is primarily a test of cognitive flexibility. At endline, we also administered a Leiter-R scale to measure the capacity to sustain attention.

<u>Socio-Emotional Development: Approximately one-third of the group discussions in NEP-B were</u> devoted to behavioral issues in children. This reflected the interests of program participants, who were looking for practical tools to address their children’s behaviors. We use two measures to capture the range of behavioral problems (maladaptive behavior) as well as the positive socioemotional development (adaptive behavior) as reported by the primary caregiver. We administered the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (CLBC, Achenbach and Ruffle 2000), which captures internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems for children aged 11⁄2 years and older. In order to measure positive dimensions of how the child establish interpersonal relationships, we used the Battelle Developmental Inventory Screening Test (BDIST II) Personal- Social Scale. (Ringwalt 2008) We focused on the three subscales that capture three dimensions of the socio-emotional development of children: interaction with adults, interactions with peers, and the self-concept and social role. The first two subscales of BDIST II are available for children up to 71 months (5 years and 11 months), whereas the latter is available for children up to 83 months of age (6 years and 11 months). In our analysis, we report the results of a composite index obtained from these three subscales using principal components analysis.

# 2.3.4 Maternal mental health and endowments

We collected data on symptoms of depression using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD) (Knight et al. 1997), and collected measures of maternal distress with the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) (Abidin 1990). We also apply two scales of the Wechlser Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) to caregivers (vocabulary and digit span). This allows us to control for maternal IQ, which is an important predictor of child cognitive skills. In addition, we also measure the caregiver’s personality traits using the Big Five test (Goldberg 1993), which assesses extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness and neuroticism.

> 9 A subset of children older than 36 months and younger than 71 months of age were administered as a result both the PLS-IV and the TEVI-R. The two measures align well for this subset.

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