set of countries being measured. To ensure availability and comparability, it is best to develop a set of indicators among the countries that are the most resource deprived first and expand from there. To maintain consistency with the literature, this paper selects indicators that are widely cited for each of the dimensions and listed in table 1.

# **d. Data limitations and dimensions considered in measuring job quality**

Given the tension described above between the completeness of data for one country versus producing comparable measures of job quality across the developing world, the approach as laid out in the methodology section follows Brummund, Mann, and Rodríguez-Castelán (2018) and develops a practical measure based on information available for most countries instead of limiting this study to a few countries with rich data. Data availability on all four dimensions of job quality varies across countries because labor force surveys or labor modules in household surveys reflect the labor market and regulatory environment of a country. For example, economies with a mainly casual labor force use more questions to understand the hazards and working conditions of employees, while countries with strong regulatory frameworks and a mostly formal labor force provide detailed information on benefits and income, but less on working conditions.

Coverage of the four dimensions also varies across employment types within countries. Surveys usually distinguish among four main employment types—wage employment, self-employment, unpaid employment, and other, such as apprenticeship—and divide the questionnaire into a comprehensive set of questions for wage employees and a short questionnaire for workers in all other employment types. In most countries, the coverage is therefore much more limited on the other employment types than on wage employees. Household surveys may provide income information for self-employed individuals in the earnings or household enterprise modules, but at the expense of a shorter labor module for wage employees. If both household and labor force surveys are available, the labor force surveys provide better coverage of the four dimensions even if only for wage employees.

Based on the sample of 40 developing countries used in the analysis, the two most common dimensions covered in the data are income and working conditions, followed by benefits and job security. Little additional information is available to capture separate potential fifth and sixth dimensions on safety and training, respectively. This analysis considers not only the availability of survey questions, but also the share of valid responses to survey questions, the implicit assumptions built into the questionnaire, such as whether universal health care should be provided, as well as how much additional information is gained by including an indicator. For instance, self-reported indicators that are found to be positive for virtually all respondents, such as subjective skill level, do not add much information because most respondents would not report that they are unqualified for their current job.

Labor force and household surveys classify employment types differently. For example, labor force surveys distinguish among several types of workers and often have country-specific employment categories. For the countries in which the analysis relies on household surveys, only general employment status is available. As a result, this paper chooses four broad employment categories as dictated by the survey with the fewest number of categories: wage employees (formal or informal), self-employed workers, unpaid workers, and other workers.<sup>19</sup> However, the quality of the data across employment types

> 19 Other workers include employers and individuals with job descriptions that do not align with the other three categories, such as apprentices. The survey with the fewest number of categories is the 2017 Labor Force Survey in Türkiye.

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