employment rates, whereas the trend reversed in developed economies when public spending on UB was low.

A comprehensive cross-country meta-analysis of 207 micro level studies of ALMP – comprising 155 OECD, 33 non-OECD, and 19 LAC studies, conducted by Card et al. (2018), produced several interesting outcomes. It demonstrated that, overall, job search programs consistently yielded a positive effect on employment, while the impact of human capital programs became notably significant only after two to three years following program completion. Moreover, it highlighted that public sector employment programs exhibited either negligible or adverse effects across all time frames. Importantly, the effects of the ALMP programs tended to be more pronounced for female participants and individuals experiencing long-term unemployment, and the efficacy of the ALMP interventions was higher during economic downturns. Another meta-analysis by Betcherman et al. (2004) indicated that training programs for unemployed adults contribute to a higher employment rate, but do not necessarily translate into increased earnings, especially in developing nations. Additionally, the study revealed that retraining initiatives for workers affected by mass layoffs do not yield substantial positive effects on employment. Similarly, training programs tailored for youth in the least developed economies lack significant impact on enhancing employment opportunities.

Country-level studies of ALMP in developing economies typically reveal a positive impact of job search and placement support on labor market outcomes. For instance, Novella and Valencia (2022) showed that a comprehensive employee support program in Bolivia led to 9 and 4 percentage points increase in the probability of overall employment and formal employment, respectively, and a 10 percent rise in earnings. The program's effects were more pronounced among adults, individuals with tertiary education, and women. Abel et al. (2022) studied a temporary wage incentive for secondary school graduates in Mexico and demonstrated a notable increase in permanent formal employment, earnings, and human capital accumulation among program participants. In South Africa, an employment voucher initiative led to a 15– 25 percent increase in youth employment probabilities, sustained even two years after the voucher program concluded (Levinsohn and Leibbrandt 2014). Conversely, in Jordan, a six-month voucher supporting wages for female graduates initially resulted in a significant employment rate surge, which dwindled after the voucher period ended (Groh et al. 2012).

Likewise, most research on training programs in developing countries demonstrate evidence for their positive effect on the labor market outcomes of participants. For example, in Brazil a large-scale apprenticeship program in 2000 increased the probability of obtaining permanent jobs in the short term only for former apprentices in high skill occupations, but the effects were similar for all participants in the medium term (Corseuil et al. 2019). In addition, in the medium-term, turnover rates in formal employment decreased and participants who had their first job in large firms or were former apprentices benefited the most from the program. Similarly, in Tunisia, national vocational training in 2001 increased the probability of participants to find a job and their earnings (Bellakhal and Mahjoub 2015). In Dominican Republic, training program promoted the personal skills of the participants, however, only female participants had better labor market outcomes (Acevedo et al. 2020).

One of the few studies investigating the full macro level impacts of ALMP, Caicedo et al. (2022), assessed the effects of a Colombian reform program implemented in 2003. The program required firms to train 8