rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
What does
            "entrepreneurship" data really show a comparison
            of the global entrepreneurship monitor and World Bank group datasets
This paper compares two datasets
            designed to measure entrepreneurship.  The Global
            Entrepreneurship Monitor dataset captures early-stage
            entrepreneurial activity; the World Bank Group
            Entrepreneurship Survey dataset captures formal business
            registration.  There are a number of important differences
            when the data are compared. First, GEM data tend to report
            significantly greater levels of early-stage entrepreneurship
            in developing economies than do the World Bank data. The
            World Bank data tend to be greater than GEM data for
            developed countries. Second, the magnitude of the difference
            between the datasets across countries is related to the
            local institutional and environmental conditions for
            entrepreneurs, after controlling for levels of economic
            development.  A possible explanation for this is that the
            World Bank data measure rates of entry in the formal
            economy, whereas GEM data are reflective of entrepreneurial
            intent and capture informality of entrepreneurship. This is
            particularly true for developing countries. Therefore, this
            discrepancy can be interpreted as the spread between
            individuals who could potentially operate businesses in the
            formal sector - and those that actually do so: In other
            words, GEM data may represent the potential supply of
            entrepreneurs, whereas the World Bank data may represent the
            actual rate of entrepreneurship. The findings suggest that
            entrepreneurs in developed countries have greater ease and
            incentives to incorporate, both for the benefits of greater
            access to formal financing and labor contracts, as well as
            for tax and other purposes not directly related to business activities.
Currency undervaluation and
            sovereign wealth funds : a new role for the World Trade Organization
Two aspects of global imbalances -
            undervalued exchange rates and sovereign wealth funds -
            require a multilateral response.  For reasons of inadequate
            leverage and eroding legitimacy, the International Monetary
            Fund has not been effective in dealing with undervalued
            exchange rates. This paper proposes new rules in the World
            Trade Organization to discipline cases of significant
            undervaluation that are clearly attributable to government
            action. The rationale for WTO involvement is that there are
            large trade consequences of undervalued exchange rates,
            which act as both import tariffs and export subsidies, and
            that the WTO's enforcement mechanism is credible and
            effective. The World Trade Organization would not be
            involved in exchange rate management, and would not displace
            the International Monetary Fund. Rather, the authors suggest
            ways to harness the comparative advantage of the two
            institutions, with the International Monetary Fund providing
            the essential technical expertise in the World Trade
            Organization's enforcement process. There is a bargain
            to be struck between countries with sovereign wealth funds,
            which want secure and liberal access for their capital, and
            capital-importing countries, which have concerns about the
            objectives and operations of sovereign wealth funds. The
            World Trade Organization is the natural place to strike this
            bargain. Its General Agreement on Trade in Services, already
            covers investments by sovereign wealth funds, and other
            agreements offer a precedent for designing disciplines for
            these funds. Placing exchange rates and sovereign wealth
            funds on the trade negotiating agenda may help revive the
            Doha Round by rekindling the interest of a wide variety of groups.
The worldwide governance indicators
            and tautology : causally related separable concepts,
            indicators of a common cause, or both
Aggregate indexes of the quality of
            governance, covering large samples of countries, are widely
            used in research and in aid policy. Few studies examine the
            validity of these indexes, however. This paper partially
            fills this gap by examining empirically the dimensionality
            of the Worldwide Governance Indicators. The six indexes
            purportedly measure distinct concepts of control of
            corruption, rule of law, government effectiveness,
            regulatory quality, political stability, and voice and
            accountability.  Using standard statistical techniques for
            testing measurement validity, the analysis concludes that
            the six indexes do not discriminate usefully among different
            aspects of governance.  Rather, each of the indexes merely
            reflects perceptions of the quality of governance more
            broadly.  An implication of the findings is that the
            Worldwide Governance Indicator indexes are frequently
            misused in research and policy applications, where it is
            commonly assumed that the indexes provide distinct measures
            of different aspects of the quality of governance.  A
            further implication is that Transparency
            International's even more widely-known aggregate index
            similarly reflects perceptions not only of corruption, as
            intended, but of the quality of governance more broadly.
The place premium : wage differences
            for identical workers across the US border
This paper compares the wages of workers
            inside the United States to the wages of observably
            identical workers outside the United States-controlling for
            country of birth, country of education, years of education,
            work experience, sex, and rural-urban residence. This is
            made possible by new and uniquely rich microdata on the
            wages of over two million individual formal-sector
            wage-earners in 43 countries. The paper then uses five
            independent methods to correct these estimates for
            unobserved differences and introduces a selection model to
            estimate how migrants' wage gains depend on their
            position in the distribution of unobserved wage
            determinants.  Following all adjustments for selectivity and
            compensating differentials, the authors estimate that the
            wages of a Bolivian worker of equal intrinsic productivity,
            willing to move, would be higher by a factor of 2.7 solely
            by working in the United States. While this is the median,
            this ratio is as high as 8.4 (for Nigeria). The paper
            documents that (1) for many countries, the wage gaps caused
            by barriers to movement across international borders are
            among the largest known forms of wage discrimination; (2)
            these gaps represent one of the largest remaining price
            distortions in any global market; and (3) these gaps imply
            that simply allowing labor mobility can reduce a given
            household's poverty to a much greater degree than most
            known in situ antipoverty interventions.
The Doha development agenda :
            what's on the table
The outlines of a potential agreement,
            emerging after seven years of negotiations, imply that Doha
            offers three key benefits: reduced uncertainty of market
            access in goods and services; improved market access in
            agriculture and manufacturing; and the mobilization of
            resources to deal with the trade problems of least developed
            countries. WTO Members have offered to make large reductions
            in legally bound levels of protection in goods and services.
            The reductions in currently applied levels of protection are
            smaller. For the least developed countries, the proposed
            "duty free and quota free" access will only add
            significantly to their access under existing preferential
            access arrangements if industrial and developing country
            members include vital tariff lines. The initiatives on trade
            facilitation and aid for trade can play a valuable catalytic
            role in promoting reform and mobilizing assistance, but
            substantial effort is still needed to translate notional
            benefits into actual gain.
Reaching the millennium development
            goals : Mauritania should care
Mauritania is a resource-rich developing
            country. As many other African nations, it will not reach
            most of the Millennium Development Goals, unless the
            authorities commit to accelerating progress. To succeed by
            2015, the government needs to: mobilize additional financial
            resources, introduce policy changes at the sector level, and
            strengthen the links between strategic objectives and the
            budget. Adopting the Millennium Development Goals as the
            overarching development framework will keep policy-makers
            focused on concrete results and help them avoid the
            so-called "natural resource curse." This paper
            calculates the total cost of the Millennium Development
            Goals and financing gap (on aggregate and for each goal);
            recommends changes in domestic sector policies; and proposes
            ways to integrate the Millennium Development Goals into the
            budget process. Over 2008-2015, the total cost of reaching
            the goals in Mauritania and the resulting financing gap
            stand at, respectively, around 9 and 3 percent of non-oil
            gross domestic product on average per year. Education is the
            most expensive goal in absolute terms, but the individual
            financing gaps are widest for poverty reduction and
            improving maternal health. On the policy side, sector
            strategies need to be aligned with the goals and resources
            allocated more than proportionally to the disadvantaged
            groups, mainly at the local level.
The concept of odious debt : some considerations
Despite the popularity of the term among
            advocates of debt forgiveness, there is little agreement on
            a workable definition of "odious" debts and there
            are but few examples where the concept has been invoked in
            law to justify non-payment of sovereign debts. Most often,
            these have been cases when a successor state or government
            has refused to honor certain debts contracted by its
            predecessor state or government. Repudiating sovereign debts
            on broader grounds - such as that money may have been
            misused by the borrower or that results were not as hoped
            for at the outset of lending - would create real risks not
            only of reduced financial flows to poorer countries as a
            result of the danger of ex post challenges to lenders'
            claims, but also of moral hazard and lack of project
            ownership. This paper presents a discussion of the extant
            legal and financial environment facing developing country
            sovereign borrowers and develops a proposed approach within
            this environment to address issues of concern underlying the
            concept of odious or illegitimate debt. The authors make the
            case for focusing attention on codes of conduct along the
            lines of the Equator Principles and on refining
            forward-looking attempts to increase aid effectiveness and
            recover stolen assets.
The consequences of child labor :
            evidence from longitudinal data in rural Tanzania
This paper exploits a unique
            longitudinal data set from Tanzania to examine the
            consequences of child labor on education, employment
            choices, and marital status over a 10-year horizon. Shocks
            to crop production and rainfall are used as instrumental
            variables for child labor. For boys, the findings show that
            a one-standard-deviation (5.7 hour) increase in child labor
            leads 10 years later to a loss of approximately one year of
            schooling and to a substantial increase in the likelihood of
            farming and of marrying at a younger age. Strikingly, there
            are no significant effects on education for girls, but there
            is a significant increase in the likelihood of marrying
            young. The findings also show that crop shocks lead to an
            increase in agricultural work for boys and instead lead to
            an increase in chore hours for girls. The results are
            consistent with education being a lower priority for girls
            and/or with chores causing less disruption for education
            than agricultural work. The increased chore hours could also
            account for the results on marriage for girls.
Do community-driven development
            projects enhance social capital evidence from the Philippines
This paper explores the social capital
            impacts of a large-scale, community-driven development
            project in the Philippines in which communities competed for
            block grants for infrastructure investment. The analysis
            uses a unique data set of about 2,100 households collected
            before the project started (2003) and after one cycle of
            sub-project implementation (2006) in 66 treatment and 69
            matched control communities. Participation in village
            assemblies, the frequency with which local officials meet
            with residents and trust towards strangers increased as a
            result of the project. However, there is a decline in group
            membership and participation in informal collective action
            activities. This may have been because households were
            time-constrained, so that in order to participate in project
            activities, they needed to temporarily reduce their
            participation in informal activities. An alternative
            explanation is that the project improved the efficiency of
            formal forms of social capital and thus households needed to
            rely less on informal forms. Finally, the results indicate
            that, in the short run, the project might have reduced the
            number of other investments.
Exploring the links between
            HIV/AIDS, social capital, and development
This paper attempts to quantify the
            impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on social capital with
            cross-country data. Using data from the World Values Survey,
            the authors estimate reduced-form regressions of the main
            determinants of social capital controlling for HIV
            prevalence, institutional quality, social distance, and
            economic indicators. The results obtained indicate that HIV
            prevalence affects social capital negatively. The empirical
            estimates suggest that a one standard deviation increase in
            HIV prevalence will lead to a decline of at least 1 percent
            in trust, controlling for other determinants of social
            capital. Moving from a country with a relatively low level
            of HIV prevalence, such as Estonia, to a country with a
            relatively high level, such as Uganda, there is a more than
            11 percent point decline in social capital. These results
            are robust in a number of dimensions and highlight the
            empirical importance of an additional mechanism through
            which HIV/AIDS hinders the development process.
Safeguards and antidumping in Latin
            American trade liberalization
The binding of tariff rates and adoption
            of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade
            Organization-sanctioned safeguards and antidumping
            mechanisms provided the basis to remove a multitude of
            instruments of protection in the Latin American countries
            discussed in this paper. At the same time, they helped in
            maintaining centralized control over the management of
            pressures for protection in agencies with economy-wide
            accountabilities. The World Trade Organization's
            procedural requirements (for example, to follow published
            criteria, or participation by interested parties) helped
            leaders to change the culture of decision-making from one
            based on relationships to one based on objective criteria.
            However, when Latin American governments attempted to
            introduce economic sense - such as base price comparisons on
            an economically sensible measure of long-run international
            price rather than the more generous constructed cost concept
            that is the core of WTO rules - protection-seekers used the
            rules against them. They pointed out that World Trade
            Organization rules do not require the use of such criteria,
            nor do procedures in leading users (industrial countries)
            include such criteria. In sum, the administrative content of
            the rules supported liberalization; the economic content did not.
Assessing interactions among
            education, social insurance, and labor market policies in a
            general equilibrium framework: an application to Morocco
This paper develops a general
            equilibrium model to analyze the marginal and joint impacts
            that alternative macroeconomic, education, and social
            protection policies have on the dynamics of employment and
            unemployment by skill level.  The model introduces a
            disaggregated treatment of the labor market that
            incorporates an informal sub-sector in every sector of the
            economy. The analysis explicitly models the distribution of
            skills in the labor force by following over time sex-age
            cohorts across various levels of the education system and in
            the labor market.  And it integrates a module that projects
            the revenues and expenditures of the pension system. The
            model is applied to the case of Morocco.  Simulations show
            that even under positive assumptions regarding economic
            growth, unemployment rates are likely to remain close to
            current levels in the next decade. The paper argues that
            only an integrated package of policies that affect the
            macro-economy, the investment climate, and the education and
            social protection systems would allow sustainable creation
            of enough "good quality" jobs.
A note on rising food prices
The rapid rise in food prices has been a
            burden on the poor in developing countries, who spend
            roughly half of their household incomes on food. This paper
            examines the factors behind the rapid increase in
            internationally traded food prices since 2002 and estimates
            the contribution of various factors such as the increased
            production of biofuels from food grains and oilseeds, the
            weak dollar, and the increase in food production costs due
            to higher energy prices. It concludes that the most
            important factor was the large increase in biofuels
            production in the U.S. and the EU. Without these increases,
            global wheat and maize stocks would not have declined
            appreciably, oilseed prices would not have tripled, and
            price increases due to other factors, such as droughts,
            would have been more moderate. Recent export bans and
            speculative activities would probably not have occurred
            because they were largely responses to rising prices. While
            it is difficult to compare the results of this study with
            those of other studies due to differences in methodologies,
            time periods and prices considered, many other studies have
            also recognized biofuels production as a major driver of
            food prices. The contribution of biofuels to the rise in
            food prices raises an important policy issue, since much of
            the increase was due to EU and U.S. government policies that
            provided incentives to biofuels production, and biofuels
            policies which subsidize production need to be reconsidered
            in light of their impact on food prices.
Kenya's quest for growth
            stabilization and reforms - but political stability
Kenya has long had a reputation of being
            politically risky, manifested in corruption, uncertainty
            about policies, and the importance of political connections
            in doing business.  Kenya began its economic liberalization
            in 1993.  Reform picked up speed after a tightening of aid
            by donors on governance grounds and an attempt to
            re-establish credibility following the costly Goldenberg
            scandal uncovered in 1992.  But tangible results in the
            shape of favorable government debt dynamics and a pick up in
            growth took a decade to materialize.  The paper argues that
            the peaceful presidential election and transfer of power in
            December 2002 was central to the economic upswing after
            2002.  The subsequent decline in political risk was singled
            out by the private sector as an important development.  The
            paper draws on an analysis of debt dynamics, the evolution
            of domestic interest rates, and the latest Investment
            Climate Assessment to present evidence on the criticality of
            low political risk in facilitating good economic outcomes
            after 2003.  The December 2007 elections have highlighted
            other aspects of political risk - ethnic and social tensions
            with roots in inequality. The findings of this paper
            underline the importance of establishing a foundation for
            long-term political stability and social cohesion in view of
            the disruptions following the December 2007 elections.  This
            process is likely to be at least as difficult and lengthy as
            fundamental economic policy and institutional reform.