rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Agricultural policies and trade
            paths in Turkey
In 1959, shortly after the European
            Economic Community was founded under the 1957 Treaty of
            Rome, Turkey applied for Associate Membership in the then
            six-member common market. By 1963, a path for integrating
            the economies of Turkey and the eventual European Union had
            been mapped. As with many trade agreements, agriculture
            posed difficult political hurdles, which were never fully
            cleared, even as trade barriers to other sectors were
            eventually removed and a Customs Union formed. This essay
            traces the influences the Turkey-European Union economic
            institutions have had on agricultural policies and the
            agriculture sector. An applied general equilibrium framework
            is used to provide estimates of what including agriculture
            under the Customs Union would mean for the sector and the
            economy. The paper also discusses the implications of fully
            aligning Turkey's agricultural policies with the
            European Union's Common Agricultural Policy, as would
            be required under full membership.
Green subsidies and the WTO
This paper provides a detailed
            explanation how the law of the World Trade Organization
            regulates environmental subsidies with a focus on renewable
            energy subsidies. The paper begins by discussing the
            economic justifications for such subsidies and the
            criticisms of them and then gives examples of categories of
            subsidies. The paper provides an overview of the relevant
            World Trade Organization rules and case law, including the
            recent Canada-Renewable Energy case. The paper also makes
            specific recommendations for how World Trade Organization
            law can be improved and discusses the literature on reform
            proposals. The study finds that because of a lack of clarity
            in World Trade Organizaion rules, for some clean energy
            subsidies, a government will not know in advance whether the
            subsidy is World Trade Organization-legal.
Performance of renewable energy
            auctions : experience in Brazil, China and India
This paper considers the design and
            performance of auction mechanisms used to deploy renewable
            energy in three emerging economies: Brazil, China, and
            India. The analysis focuses on the countries'
            experience in various dimensions, including price
            reductions, bidding dynamics, coordination with transmission
            planning, risk allocation strategies, and the issue of
            domestic content. Several countries have turned to public
            competitive bidding as a mechanism for developing the
            renewable generation sector in recent years, with the number
            of countries implementing some sort of auction procedure
            rising from nine in 2009 to 36 by the end of 2011 and about
            43 in 2013. In general, the use of auctions makes sense when
            the contracting authority expects a large volume of
            potentially suitable bids, so that the gains from
            competition can offset the costs of implementation. A study
            of the successes and failures of the particular auction
            design schemes described in this paper can be instrumental
            in informing future policy making.
Credit conditions and foreign direct
            investment during the global financial crisis
This paper investigates the effect that
            tight credit conditions had on outward foreign direct
            investment flows during the 2008-2010 global financial
            crisis. A difference-in-differences approach is used to
            isolate a "credit channel" impact of the global
            financial crisis on foreign direct investment. The global
            financial crisis had a stronger negative impact on the
            relative volume of outward foreign direct investment in
            financially vulnerable sectors in more financially developed
            countries, especially if these countries also experienced a
            banking crisis. These results suggest that lack of access to
            external finance can partly explain the drop in foreign
            direct investment during the global financial crisis.
Non-farm enterprises in rural Africa
            : new empirical evidence
Although non-farm enterprises are
            ubiquitous in rural Sub-Saharan Africa, little is yet known
            about them. The motivation for households to operate
            enterprises, how productive they are, and why they exit the
            market are neglected questions. Drawing on the Living
            Standards Measurement Study -- Integrated Surveys on
            Agriculture and using discrete choice, selection model and
            panel data estimators, this paper provide answers using data
            from Ethiopia, Niger, Nigeria, Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda.
            The necessity to cope following shocks, seasonality in
            agriculture, and household size can push rural households
            into operating a non-farm enterprise. Households are also
            pulled into entrepreneurship to exploit opportunities.
            Access to credit and markets, household wealth, and the
            education and age of the household head are positively
            associated with the likelihood of operating an enterprise.
            The characteristics are also associated with the type of
            business activity a household operates. Rural and
            female-headed enterprises and enterprises with young
            enterprise owners are less productive than urban and
            male-owned enterprises and enterprises with older owners.
            Shocks have a negative association with enterprise operation
            and productivity and a large share of rural enterprises does
            not operate continuously over a year. Enterprises cease
            operations because of low profits, a lack of finance, or the
            effects of idiosyncratic shocks. Overall the findings are
            indicative that rural enterprises are "small businesses
            in a big continent" where large distances, rural
            isolation, low population density, and farming risks limit
            productivity and growth.
Urban infrastructure investment and
            rent-capture potentials
In a context of rapid urbanization and
            energy transition, massive investments will be required to
            develop efficient public transport networks. Capturing the
            increase in land value caused by transport infrastructure
            (for example, through a betterment tax) appears a promising
            way to finance public transport. However, it is no trivial
            task, as it is difficult to anticipate the rent creation.
            This paper uses a simple city model based on urban economic
            theory to compute the rent created by improvements in public
            transport infrastructure in Paris, France. To apply in
            places where models or data are not available, a reduced
            form of the model is shown to provide acceptable
            approximations of the rent creation. Simulations confirm
            that land value capture can finance a significant part of
            transport investments. The simulations also show that value
            capture potentials are influenced by what happens in the
            entire agglomeration. Simultaneous infrastructure
            investments in different parts of the city play a
            significant role, as they change overall accessibility
            patterns. Evolutions taking place in other cities also have
            a comparable influence. Non-local effects can change the
            total potential for land value capture and multiply this
            potential by as much as a factor of two.
The effects of financial development
            on foreign direct investment
This paper examines how financial
            development influences foreign direct investment. The direct
            and indirect sector-specific effects that source
            countries' financial development and destination
            countries' financial development can have on foreign
            direct investment are first identified in a conceptual
            framework. The presence and relative strength of these
            various channels of influence at the different margins of
            foreign direct investment are then empirically investigated
            using unique and underexploited sector-specific bilateral
            panel data on greenfield foreign direct investment over the
            period 2003-2006. Causality is established by applying a
            difference-in-differences approach that exploits the
            variation in financial vulnerability across manufacturing
            sectors. The overall effects of higher source
            countries' financial development and destination
            countries' financial development on the relative volume
            of bilateral foreign direct investment in financially
            vulnerable sectors are large, positive, and complementary.
            These effects appear to operate mainly at the intensive
            margin rather than at the extensive margin of foreign direct
            investment. There is also evidence of direct and indirect
            effects of financial development. The key findings are
            robust to the use of data on the number of bilateral
            Mergers\&Acquisitions transactions. Overall, the
            empirical results unambiguously indicate that a
            sophisticated and well-functioning financial system in
            source and destination countries greatly facilitates the
            international expansion of firms through foreign direct
            investment, especially in financially vulnerable sectors.
The second wave of independence :
            shopping for solutions
In the 21st century, many developing
            countries will become emerging markets and will no longer be
            in need of the carrot-and-stick approach to development
            assistance most prevalent today: development financing made
            available conditional on certain policies and interventions.
            This paper suggests that interactions between development
            agencies and recipient governments are mostly about inputs
            deemed (but not known) to contribute to improvements in
            living standards in recipient countries, rather than
            outcomes. The paper argues that the development marketplace
            is beset by market imperfections because of externalities,
            principal-agent problems, and decision making under
            uncertainty, which not only make it difficult to achieve the
            right outcomes, but also take away incentives to learn about
            outcomes. A fundamental rethink of responsibilities and
            accountabilities in the development business would make sure
            that development outcomes are traded in the development
            marketplace. It would put recipient countries in charge of
            contracting development agencies to provide these outcomes.
            Development agencies would commit to and be held financially
            accountable for outcomes, that is, real improvements in
            welfare indicators. The paper describes the role of the
            evaluation function in aligning incentives with the ultimate
            goal of improving lives and provides examples of emerging solutions.
Drivers of entrepreneurship and
            post-entry performance of newborn firms in developing countries
The aim of this paper is to provide an
            updated survey of the "state of the art" in
            entrepreneurial studies with a particular focus on
            developing countries (DCs). In particular, the concept of
            "entrepreneurship" is critically discussed,
            followed by a discussion of the institutional,
            macroeconomic, and microeconomic conditions that affect the
            entry of new firms and the post-entry performance of newborn
            firms. The reviewed literature bears some policy
            implications for the support of the creation new firms, such
            as the targeting of policy measures to prospective
            entrepreneurs who possess high education levels, long
            previous job experience, and innovative skills.
            Specifically, for DCs, tailored subsidies and support should
            be coupled with framework and infrastructural policies that
            are able to improve the business environment such that new
            ventures can start and grow.
Village political economy, land
            tenure insecurity, and the rural to urban migration decision
            : evidence from China
This paper investigates the impact of
            land tenure insecurity on the migration decisions of
            China's rural residents. A simple model first frames
            the relationship among these variables and the probability
            that a reallocation of land will occur in the following
            year. After first demonstrating that a village leader's
            support for administrative land reallocation carries with it
            the risk of losing a future election, the paper exploits
            election-timing and village heterogeneity in lineage group
            composition and demographic change to identify the effect of
            land security. In response to an expected land reallocation
            in the following year, the probability that a rural resident
            migrates out of the county declines by 2.8 percentage
            points, which accounts for 17.5 percent of the annual share
            of village residents, aged 16 to 50, who worked as migrants
            during the period. This finding underscores the potential
            importance of secure property rights for facilitating labor
            market integration and the movement of labor out of agriculture.
Strengthening public financial
            management : exploring drivers and effects
This paper explores two relationships,
            first between country characteristics and the quality of
            public financial management ('drivers'), and
            second between the quality of public financial management
            systems and expected outcomes ('effects'). On the
            influence of country characteristics, the paper investigates
            economic factors (income level, growth, and resource
            dependency), population size, levels and sources of revenue,
            and three macro-political characteristics -- political
            stability, regime type, and the presence of programmatic
            parties. These characteristics jointly explain about 40
            percent of the variation in the quality of public financial
            management across countries. Furthermore, first-difference
            analysis suggests that countries with lower initial public
            financial management quality improve at a higher rate over
            time. This implies that structural factors set the scene for
            the likelihood of better or worse performance, but also that
            there is substantial variation among countries sharing
            certain characteristics and reform opportunities exist even
            in unfavorable environments. Methodologically, a key
            limitation is that the direction of causality cannot be
            fully addressed with the types of data available. On the
            effects of the performance of public financial management,
            the paper finds evidence that stronger performance results
            in better budget credibility, but not in lower deficits.
            Furthermore, there is no clear evidence regarding
            operational efficiency. The observed disconnect could be
            caused by missing complementary state capacities,
            measurement problems, or other issues, which need to be
            explored further.  Overall, the findings are consistent with
            the assumption that stakeholder incentives and
            constellations matter and that reform approaches combining
            good technical calibration and political economy
            considerations are likely to influence success in
            strengthening public financial management.
Inheritance law reform, empowerment,
            and human capital accumulation : second-generation effects
            from India
This paper uses evidence from three
            Indian states, one of which amended inheritance legislation
            in 1994, to assess first- and second-generation effects of
            inheritance reform using a triple-difference strategy.
            Second-generation effects on education, time use, and health
            are larger and more significant than first-generation
            effects even controlling for mothers' endowments.
            Improved access to bank accounts and sanitation as well as
            lower fertility in the parent generation suggest that
            inheritance reform empowered females in a sustainable way, a
            notion supported by significantly higher female survival rates.
Some simple analytics of trade and
            labor mobility
This paper studies a simple, tractable
            model of labor adjustment in a trade model that allows
            researchers to analyze the economy's dynamic response
            to trade liberalization. Since it is a neoclassical
            market-clearing model, duality techniques can be employed to
            study the equilibrium and, despite its simplicity, a rich
            variety of properties emerge. The model generates gross
            flows of labor across industries, even in the steady state;
            persistent wage differentials across industries; gradual
            adjustment to a liberalization; and anticipatory adjustment
            to a pre-announced liberalization. Pre-announcement induces
            anticipatory flight from the liberalizing sector, driving up
            wages there temporarily and giving workers remaining there
            what this paper calls "anticipation rents." By
            this process, pre-announcement makes liberalization less
            attractive to export-sector workers and more attractive to
            import-sector workers, eventually making workers unanimous
            either in favor of or in opposition to liberalization. Based
            on these results, the paper identifies many pitfalls to
            conventional methods of empirical study of trade
            liberalization that are based on static models.
Protected areas and deforestation :
            new results from high resolution panel data
This paper investigates the
            effectiveness of protected areas in slowing tropical forest
            clearing in 64 countries in Asia/Pacific, Africa, and Latin
            America for the period 2001-2012. The investigation compares
            deforestation rates inside and within 10 kilometers outside
            the boundary of protected areas. Annual time series of these
            deforestation rates were constructed from recently published
            high-resolution data on forest clearing. For 4,028 parks,
            panel estimation based on a variety of park characteristics
            was conducted to test if deforestation is lower in protected
            areas because of their protected status, or if other factors
            explain the difference. For a sample of 726 parks
            established since 2002, a test also was conducted to
            investigate the effect of park establishment on protection.
            The findings suggest park size, national park status, and
            management by indigenous people all have significant
            association with effective protection across regions. For
            the Asia/Pacific region, the test offers compelling evidence
            that park establishment has a near-immediate and powerful effect.
Does culture matter for development
Economists have either avoided or
            struggled with the concept of culture and its role in
            economic development. Although a few theoretical works --
            and even fewer empirical studies -- have appeared in the
            past decades, this paper tries to build on a
            multidisciplinary approach to review the evidence on whether
            and how culture matters for development. First, the paper
            reviews available definitions of culture and illustrates
            ways in which culture can change and create favorable
            conditions for economic development. Second, the paper
            discusses the challenges of separating the effect of culture
            from other drivers of human behavior such as incentives, the
            availability of information, or climate. Finally, the paper
            argues that globalization has led to the emergence of a set
            of progressive values that are common cultural traits of all
            developed economies.
Can agricultural households farm
            their way out of poverty
This paper examines the determinants of
            agricultural productivity and its link to poverty using
            nationally representative data from the Nigeria General
            Household Survey Panel, 2010/11. The findings indicate an
            elasticity of poverty reduction with respect to agricultural
            productivity of between 0.25 to 0.3 percent, implying that a
            10 percent increase in agricultural productivity will
            decrease the likelihood of being poor by between 2.5 and 3
            percent. To increase agricultural productivity, land, labor,
            fertilizer, agricultural advice, and diversification within
            agriculture are the most important factors. As commonly
            found in the literature, the results indicate the
            inverse-land size productivity relationship. More
            specifically, a 10 percent increase in harvested land size
            will decrease productivity by 6.6 percent, all else being
            equal. In a simulation exercise where land quality is
            assumed to be constant across small and large holdings, the
            results show that if farms in the top land quintile had half
            the median yield per hectare of farms in the lowest
            quintile, production of the top quintile would be 10 times
            higher. The higher overall values of harvests from larger
            land sizes are more likely because of cultivation of larger
            expanses of land, rather than from efficient production. It
            should be noted that having larger land sizes in itself is
            not positively correlated with a lower likelihood of being
            poor. This is not to say that having larger land sizes is
            not important for farming, but rather it indicates that
            increasing efficiency is the more important need that could
            lead to poverty reduction for agricultural households.