power to enforce members to comply with regulations. Therefore, there are few cases that industry associations act as an influential regulator.

Singapore is the one of the few countries where there is the self-regulator who has been successful in regulating the freight forwarding industry. Singapore Logistics Association (SLA), in coordination with the ministry of trade (Trade Development Board), has established the Registry of Accredited Multimodal Transport in 1995. SLA has administered the registry of multimodal transport operators. Once an operator is registered, it will be expected to follow the disciplines and standards as a member of the SLA. The regulatory system was set by SLA with sufficient support from the government, who aims to attract more private investment in Singapore.

On the other hand, the Pakistani self-regulator, Pakistan International Freight Forwarders Association (PIFFA) lacks the enforcement power by the government due to the absence of relevant laws. Pakistani operators have faced operational problems such as violating the use of Bill of Lading (B/L). With no laws to regulate freight forwarders, there is no sanction scheme as PIFFA does not have legal enforcement power against incompliance. In addition to the different capacity level between SLA and PIFFA, the principle difference would lie in the enabling environment with or without the support from the governments for selfregulators to play an influential regulatory role.

# _Customs in relation to transporters regulations_

While it is common for freight forwarders to offer customs clearing services in mature markets, customs often involve in regulatory matters for the freight forwarding business, which is beyond the natural role of customs. Some African countries commonly call forwarders “clearing and forwarding (C&F) agents”. A clearing license is apparently granted by customs to C&F agents. In conjunction with customs clearing activities, there is a case that customs controls a part of forwarding activities as well. For instance, in South Africa, all road cargo carriers transporting goods within the boundaries of South Africa need to be licensed (Transporter / Remover of goods license) with South African Revenue Authority (SARS).<sup>21</sup> This regulatory system in principle is in view of tax collection from transporters. Customs engagement in transport may also reflect the nature of cargo transport network between South Africa and Southern African Customs Union (SACU) countries. However, when foreign operators enter the domestic market, Cross-Border Road Transport Act (amended in 2008) is in force, regulated by Cross-Border Road Transport Agency under Ministry of Transport. Similarly in South Asia, freight forwarders who are involved in inland freight services are usually not regulated by transport authorities, but these operators are regulated by customs provided they handle goods in transit under the customs’ control.

Kenyan C&F applies for a clearing agent license to Kenya Revenue Authority (ministry of finance). According to the Traffic Act (revised in 2013),<sup>22</sup> the National Transport and Safety Authority is responsible for registration and license of motor vehicle trailers. However, the customs are entitled to inspect the vehicles records at any time. Customs has a close relationship with the freight forwarding business because

> 21 http://www.sars.gov.za/ClientSegments/Customs‐Excise/Processing/Pre‐ assessment/Licensing/Pages/default.aspx

> 22http://www.kenyalaw.org:8181/exist/rest//db/kenyalex/Kenya/Legislation/English/Acts+and+Regulations/T/Traf fic+Act+Cap.+403+‐+No.+39+of+1953/docs/TrafficAct39of1953.pdf

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