<mark>deviation. However, the effects are less pronounced for students living in high-rise apartment buildings and newer construction areas that are less prone to flooding, thus suggesting that adaptive measures can play a role in reducing the impact of climate change on human development</mark> outcomes.

<mark>Similarly, research on health outcomes also indicates that negative environmental conditions can create long-term negative impact on health indicators of citizens. Researching the link between temperature inversion events and air pollution in Sweden, Jans et al. (2018) show that such events can increase air pollution (PM</mark> 10 <mark>levels) by 25 percent and children’s respiratory health problems by 5.5 percent with low-income children being the worse affected. Arceo et al. (2016) have previously shown that the effect of air pollution on infant mortality can be higher in developing</mark> countries as compared to developed countries.

<mark>Studying the impact of increasing oceanic acidity on early-childhood mortality and development, Armand and Taveras (2020) have gathered data on more than 1.5 million births taking place over the last 50 years in 36 developing countries. The study finds that in coastal areas, a 0.01 unit increase in acidity can lead to 2 additional neonatal deaths per 1,000 live births. Ebi and Hess (2020) further suggest that increased exposure to climate hazards has increased risks of deaths and injuries from extreme events, infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity in Europe. They propose simultaneous government policies and investments in social and health protections aimed at reducing inequities and investments in climate change mitigation and adaptation to reduce these health risks.</mark>

# **<mark>2.1. Adaptation and Mitigation Measures to Reduce the Impact of Climate Change</mark>**

<mark>As highlighted above, human development outcomes are frequently affected by environmental conditions while interventions targeting human development can in turn affect environmental outcomes. Numerous studies have advanced the role that human development interventions can play in adapting to and mitigating climate change. Bangay and Blum (2010) argue that a robust education system can equip and empower people to deal with climate uncertainties. They also present a generalized sequential framework to identify education responses ranging from provision of adequate educational infrastructure in the short term (adaptation) to equipping learners with the</mark> requisite skills, knowledge, and attributes to deal with future challenges in the long term.

<mark>Adaptation measures can include a variety of interventions that improve resilience or direct human behavior towards adaptation strategies. Instances of such short-term interventions include disasterproofing infrastructure, adapting to seasonality changes, and building disaster preparedness capacity to respond to climate emergencies. According to the World Bank’s World Development Report (2010), tackling climate change will require the expansion of some measures such as insurance and social protection as well as innovation in the implementation of others such as urban and infrastructure planning. DFID’s report on Education, Climate and Environment (Blum 2015) further emphasizes the role that education and educational infrastructure can play in building the resilience of communities (particularly poor and vulnerable population groups) to climate and environmental change, and the potential opportunities provided by low carbon technology and</mark> environmentally sensitive construction and design in that process.

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