mobility in LAC are more upwardly mobile than the five lowest (Malawi, Ethiopia, Sudan, Mozambique, and South Sudan) out of the 27 countries for which Alesina et al. (2021) provide estimates.

**Table 2:** Country-Level Estimates of Educational Intergenerational Mobility

|||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|mobility / N|census years|upward|upward|downward|downward|N|N|
|age range||14-18|14-25|14-18|14-25|14-18|14-25|
|Jamaica|1982,1991,2001|.868|.864|-.004|.003|43,404|77,227|
|Trinidad and Tobago|1970,1980,1990,2000,2011|.839|.833|.023|.023|41,253|81,100|
|Argentina|1970,1980,1991,2001,2010|.762|.789|.035|.034|1,068,471|2,017,618|
|Chile|1970,1982,1992,2002|.682|.709|.05|.044|344,149|651,737|
|Uruguay|1963,1975,1985,1996,2006,2011|.668|.685|.064|.052|108,528|199,653|
|Cuba|2002,2012|.662|.688|.027|.024|101,268|214,486|
|Panama|1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010|.635|.665|.049|.04|86,527|157,906|
|Costa Rica|1973,1984,2000,2011|.634|.643|.086|.068|107,088|197,018|
|Bolivia|1976,1992,2001,2012|.609|.634|.068|.057|206,745|358,013|
|Mexico|1970,1990,2000,2010|.602|.622|.048|.042|2,811,581|4,961,471|
|Ecuador|1974,1982,1990,2001,2010|.543|.572|.089|.074|373,130|667,055|
|Suriname|2012|.535|.563|.042|.031|2,999|6,141|
|Venezuela|1971,1981,1990,2001|.533|.587|.096|.08|517,834|940,766|
|Saint Lucia|1980,1991|.523|.492|.126|.142|2,089|3,679|
|Peru|1993,2007|.48|.524|.115|.088|357,472|668,806|
|Paraguay|1962,1972,1982,1992,2002|.432|.463|.116|.096|118,082|207,766|
|Colombia|1973,1985,1993,2005|.402|.437|.142|.114|886,765|1,605,718|
|Honduras|1974,1988,2001|.398|.433|.151|.133|109,458|182,786|
|Dominican Republic|1981,2002,2010|.376|.442|.15|.124|173,340|312,654|
|Brazil|1960,1970,1980,1991,2000,2010|.367|.422|.171|.128|10,755,296|18,713,402|
|El Salvador|1992,2007|.342|.374|.164|.138|85,402|150,582|
|Haiti|1971,1982,2003|.212|.266|.226|.178|104,465|183,588|
|Nicaragua|1971,1995,2005|.194|.238|.223|.18|93,635|167,740|
|Guatemala|1964,1973,1981,1994,2002|.181|.212|.159|.129|238,047|402,133|
|mean / total||.52|.548|.101|.084|18,737,028|33,129,045|

Notes: Columns (1) and (2) give upward-IGM estimates. They reflect the likelihood that children, aged 14-18 and 14-25, whose parents have not completed primary schooling will manage to complete at least primary education. Columns (3) and (4) give downward-IGM estimates. They reflect the likelihood that children, aged 14-18 and 14-25, whose parents have completed primary schooling or higher will not manage to complete primary education. Columns (5) and (6) give the number of observations used to estimate the country-specific IGM statistics (children whose parental education is reported in the censuses). Countries are sorted from the highest to the lowest level of upward IGM in the 14-18 sample (column (1)). “mean” gives the unweighted average of the 24 country-estimates.

Figure 6 maps the country-level estimates of upward and downward mobility in education. It highlights the heterogeneity found across the continent, showing that the patterns of upward mobility are inversely related to downward mobility and that there are combinations of low and high mobility countries in South America, as well as in Central America and the Caribbean. The estimates of upward and downward mobility at the level of country are 17