institutional and human resource development. While based on different criteria, in practice this distinction is very close to his second classification, which is the standard project-related versus free-standing. Nevertheless, our task at hand is to show that different types of 'soft' TA, freestanding or otherwise, are amenable to quantitative analysis. The third classification is from the donor viewpoint and differentiates between skills transfer, control or management of project resources, and TA as a catalyst to breathe life into a dormant project or institution. The fourth distinguishes TA by the type of personnel; ie performner, substitute, teacher or trainer, or mobilizer. Finally, the fifth (World Bank (1991b)) classification consists of foreign experts or high-level policy advisers, gap-fillers, gatekeepers or project managers, and institutional twins.

In addition, Berg (1993: 61-62) lists seven different elements of institutional development, which also could be considered a typology of the goals of ID/TA projects: (i) changing incentives to induce behavioral changes; (ii) enhancing skills by training and education; (iii) strengthening organizational performance; (iv) reforming procedures or systems of coordination between organizations; (v) increasing financial capabilities by more effective resource mobilization; (vi) nurturing societal supports - for example, by encouraging formation of user groups, political reforms that bring greater transparency and accountability, and greater participation of wage eamers in determination of their conditions of employment; and (vii) cultivating new norms and values.

Cassen (1994: 143) lists 8 different types of TA: "(i) pre-feasibility and feasibility studies for capital projects; (ii) engineering design and construction oversight for capital projects; (iii) research; (iv) institution building projects (which may be free-standing or combined with capital projects); (v) policy studies; (vi) individual free-standing fellowships (that is, not part of an institution building or capital project); (vii) individual expert services (consultancies; seconded expatriates); and (viii) short-terrn training (seminars, study and observation tours, equipment familiarization)." In a Bank document Lethem and Cooper (1983: 37-40) distinguish between 4 types of TA, based on the role of the foreign and local personnel. These are: (a) performer or substitute model, (b) prescriptive or expert adviser model, (c) counterpart-adviser model, and (d) collaborative model.

In another Bank study, AFTPS (1989: 14), TA was classified into four categories: "(a) advisory services for supervision, implementation and engineering; (b) feasibility and other technical studies; (c) consultant services for management, economic and financial policy analysis, sectoral studies, organizational and institutional review studies, development of MIS, surveys, research, and collection of other statistics; and (d) training." Operations Policy Department (1996: 3) of the Bank differentiates free-standing technical assistance loans by objectives: (a) public sector capacity building, economic management, tax administration, judicial infrastructure improvement; (b) parastatal reform; (c) sectoral management; (d) privatization; and (e) environmental management.

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