rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Inflation stabilization in Turkey :
            an application of the RMSM-X model
This paper reviews the theoretical
            framework of an inflation stabilization program. In the
            absence of price rigidities, a reduction in inflation simply
            implies finding a replacement for revenue lost from a
            decline in the inflation rate. In reality, backward-looking
            nominal contracts and credibility problems induce short-run
            costs, making a fall in the economic growth rate an
            inevitable part of inflation stabilization. The theoretical
            framework yields the specification of a few key behavioral
            equations to be implemented in the model. The author's
            simulation results show that even if a credible program is
            implemented, at least two years of negative per capita
            growth are needed to bring inflation down from its current
            levels to below 10 percent a year. The accompanying fiscal
            effort is great: the equivalent of a 40 percent increase in
            direct tax revenues if no other expenditure or revenue
            measures are taken. Scenarios that do not incorporate strong
            fiscal action do not succeed in permanently lowering
            inflation and lead to lower per capita GDP at the end of the
            decade than does the scenario of fiscal stabilization.
            Inflation in the Turkish context is costly because it
            reduces not only the level of productive investment but also
            its efficiency.
Comparative resource allocations to
            human resource development in Asia, Europe, and Latin America
This study compiles statistics for
            selected Latin American countries and two reference groups
            of countries in East Asia and northern and southern Europe.
            The authors emphasize the need to increase attention to and
            expenditure on education and health systems in many
            developing countries, especially in Latin America, to
            improve the coverage and quality of the services they
            provide. This paper notes that wider access to secondary
            education and greater emphasis on the quality of higher
            education tends to be a distinguishing feature of the better
            performers (East Asian and northern and southern European
            countries). Much of East Asia's success can be
            attributed to the region's consistent efforts to
            improve technical and higher education, particularly in
            research and development and in engineering and other
            technical applications. Specialized technical human
            resources take time to develop. No country today can afford
            not to provide enough financial resources to develop
            critical human resources.
Governance and economy : a review
Governments determine how well, or how
            poorly, markets function. This simple truth explains the
            current concern with "governance" as the world
            shifts toward an overwhelming endorsement of markets as the
            base of economic activity. If governments are assumed to be
            neutral, and committed to serving the public good, then
            deviations from optimum economic performance can generally
            be corrected simply through policy reform, or through
            improving information systems. To understand economic
            performance, it is important to factor in the political role
            of governments. The exercise of power and authority lies at
            the heart of governance. Governments use their power and
            authority to establish and maintain the formal and informal
            framework of institutions that regulate social and economic
            interaction. This paper attempts to give the current concern
            with governance an historical dimension, and to locate
            governance as a technical and intellectual issue within a
            body of literature that has long addressed these concerns.
            It examines a limited number of governance dimensions --
            accountability (including legitimacy, institutional
            pluralism and participation), openness and transparency, and
            predictability (or the rule of law) -- in a selective review
            of recent social science literature. The paper makes no
            claim to be exhaustive, but rather to offer an introduction
            to recent work which is built in part upon the analysis of
            how politics and economics interact in shaping economic development.
Finance, growth, and public policy
Development economists have long argued
            that modern financial markets are important to growth and
            that financial repression is a serious obstacle to progress
            in many developing countries. The authors consider the
            relationship between finance and growth and the appropriate
            role of government policy. Many economists have stressed how
            problems of asymmetric information and contract enforcement
            impede the functioning of financial markets in developing
            countries. In addition, they try to elaborate on these
            theories to make them relevant to policymakers. Information
            gaps and enforcement frictions introduce a premium in the
            cost of external funds. Factors such as the borrower's
            financial health, the efficiency of financial
            intermediation, and the ease of enforcing private financial
            contracts govern the size of this premium. How financial
            factors contribute to development may be understood along
            these lines. Financial contracts and institutions should be
            designed to minimize this premium.
How does Brady-type commercial debt
            restructuring work
The Brady Plan is a pragmatic approach
            to debt restructuring that combines the relatively recent
            feature of debt and debt service reduction and the support
            of official creditors. The underlying premise of those
            adopting the Brady Plan is that the existing stock of debt
            can never be fully serviced, even through the country has
            embarked on a far-reaching adjustment program. To date, only
            a handful of countries (Costa Rica, Mexico, Uruguay, and
            Venezuela) have successfully concluded their debt reduction
            negotiations through a Brady Plan with commercial creditors.
            Others, such as the Philippines, have engaged in Brady-type
            debt reduction for part of their outstanding commercial
            debt. The author explains what happens when, in response to
            a country's request, the creditors agree to negotiate
            to reduce the burden of outstanding commercial debt.
Poverty and income distribution
            during adjustment : issues and evidence from the OECD project
Drawing lessons from country studies,
            the authors examine the effects of adjustment policies on
            the distribution of income in Chile, Cote d'Ivoire,
            Ecuador, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Morocco. After analyzing
            the issues that must be confronted in designing adjustment
            programs with a focus on poverty, they synthesize the main
            conclusions of the different country studies. With
            simulation exercises they explore the effects of the design
            of the adjustment packages on poverty and on the
            sustainability of the measures undertaken in these
            countries. These exercises show considerable diversity in
            the evolution of income distribution during adjustment. They
            also expose the fatal flaws of narrowly designed adjustment
            programs. Adjustment programs - whether focused on
            efficiency or on welfare - will fail when they do not
            recognize the interdependence of the three criteria of
            efficiency, welfare, and political feasibility. Adjustment
            programs must be carefully packaged to fit country
            circumstances, taking into account both the political and
            economic environments.
Openness and growth : a time series,
            cross-country analysis for developing countries
This paper compares the association
            between many popular proxies for openness and the rate of
            GDP growth, as well as the results from cross-section and
            panel estimation, controlling for country effects. The
            results suggest that using period averages versus annual
            data critically affects the strength of the association
            between openness and growth. The paper reviews the empirical
            literature on openness and technological change. It
            discusses the dataset for this paper and the empirical
            specification, while also presenting the main results. The
            sensitivity of the results to the inclusion of both
            macroeconomic variables and country size are also tested. It
            concludes with an agenda for future research.
The new trade protection : price
            effects of antidumping and countervailing measures in the
            United States
The frequent application of antidumping
            and countervailing measures in the United States in the
            1980s has been described as a new form of protection. The
            author measures the effect not only of investigations (to
            evaluation claims of dumping or subsidies) but of the
            resulting duties, by measuring their impact on import
            prices. The dataset combines cross-section and time series
            data for 1981 - 86, making it possible to control for
            differences across industries and separately measure the
            effects of duties and investigations. The result suggests
            that for some sectors the price effect of investigations is
            as great as imposing a duty. Investigations that end in
            duties have different effects than those resulting in no action.
Intrahousehold inequality and the
            theory of targeting
The two literatures on targeting and on
            intrahousehold inequality have developed rapidly over the
            past 15 years, but largely independent of each other. The
            literature on targeting concerns itself with the design of
            tax and transfer programs for poverty alleviation in the
            presence of limited information on who the poor are. The
            literature on intrahousehold inequality arose out of a
            dissatisfaction with "unitary" models of the
            household, especially in explaining inequality in
            consumption and achievements of different household members,
            even after allowing for relevant differences among them. The
            authors begin to forge the link between the two literatures,
            so they can address issues policymakers face around the
            world. After a brief reprise of the key features of the two
            literatures, they indicate how the presence of
            intrahousehold inequality and allocation mechanisms could
            affect the standard analysis of targeting theory. They
            conclude with a list of policy questions for further research.
Optimal user charges and cost
            recovery for roads in developing countries
The optimal charge for road use is equal
            to variable costs for road maintenance, together with the
            costs road users impose on other road users and on the rest
            of society.  One persistent question raised about such
            charges is what impact they have on cost recovery.  The
            theoretical literature argues that if there are constant
            returns to scale in road construction and in road use, the
            optimal user charge will recover the capital costs of the
            road network and the total expenditures on road maintenance.
            Empirical estimates for such a system of road user charges
            in Tunisia similarly suggest that they would generate twice
            the revenues currently spent on roads.  The authors examine
            these issues from both theoretical and practical
            perspectives.  They conclude that there are substantial
            economies of scale in both road construction and road use.
            Also, road maintenance costs include a number of fixed costs
            that do not vary with traffic.  Moreover, since roads cannot
            be smoothly adjusted to traffic, marginal costs for the
            entire road network are significantly lower than average
            costs in most developing countries, unless capacity is
            artificially constrained by environmental or other
            constraints. Under these conditions, optimal user charges
            result in a substantial financial deficit.  The authors also
            address the question of how this deficit should be financed.
Special programme of research,
            development and research training in human reproduction
The Special Programme of Research,
            Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction is
            one of the few organizations engaged in contraceptive
            research and development that focusses on the needs of the
            developing world. Its scope has widened since its inception
            to include broader issues of reproductive health, and it has
            recently increased attention to developing national capacity
            to identify and address country needs. The establishment of
            a worldwide network of centers collaborating in research,
            simultaneously contributing to fertility research and
            institutional development; documentation of the risks and
            benefits of developing country use of the most widely
            available contraceptives; and the introduction of two new
            contraceptive methods, have been its main achievements to
            date. This paper provides a brief overview of the factors
            which led the World Bank to begin providing financial
            support in FY1988, and of the program's accomplishments
            and present directions.
Using field visits to improve the
            quality of family planning, health, and nutrition programs :
            a supervisor's manual
Most health professionals who have
            worked in rural areas have had the experience of being
            supervised badly: the flying visit by a superior who
            inspects the records, delivers a critical speech, and
            disappears without ever finding out what is really going on
            in the health center area. Such visits seem designed more to
            demonstrate the supervisor's authority than to help the
            field worker to serve local people better. This manual is
            designed to help field supervisors supervise in a way that
            deepens insights into local situations, supports health
            workers, and focuses on improving the quality of service to
            the poor. The checklist of questions is not intended to be
            definitive or rigidly applied. Depending on the needs of a
            given program, some areas may need to be probed more deeply,
            and others shortened or omitted altogether. The author
            provides guidelines for: planning visits to a program area;
            visiting villages and talking with mothers; visiting health
            care workers; visiting nutrition workers; and using findings
            to make changes in program design or implementation, to
            reorient the way supervision is done, and to change worker
            behavior. He also provides a sample field visit report.
Fiscal policy for managing
            Indonesia's environment
The objective of this paper is to
            examine the role of fiscal policy in the management of
            Indonesia's environment.  The aim is to develop a
            framework that will allow an examination of possible fiscal
            instruments and their relevance to Indonesia's context.
            It is important to note that fiscal policy is one possible
            area of policy intervention.  Regulatory policies would also
            continue to play a major role.  A comprehensive
            environmental management strategy will need to be based on a
            balanced combination of regulatory and fiscal policy
            instruments.  Furthermore, a critical element underlying the
            successful implementation of this strategy will be the
            availability of an appropriate institutional mechanism.  The
            paper provides an overview of Indonesia's key
            environmental issues followed by the framework for fiscal
            policy instruments.  The Indonesian Government's
            progress on environmental management policies is examined
            briefly to provide background for the discussion of possible
            fiscal policy options.  Finally, the paper provides a
            summary and conclusions.
How did the Asian countries avoid
            the debt crisis
Economic stability, sound macroeconomic
            policies, and appropriate microeconomic incentives hold down
            a country's external debt burden. Most of the Asian
            countries pursued prudent macroeconomic policies, paid
            attention to price stability, and minimized price
            distortions. These countries avoided the overvalued exchange
            rates and uncompetitive interest rates that caused massive
            capital flight from Latin American and some African
            countries. The author contrasts Asian country debt crisis
            behavior with that of 12 highly indebted Latin American and
            African countries.
Chemicals from Poland : a tempest in
            a teacup
In the early 1980s, the Polish chemical
            industry got caught up in a battle waged by the European
            Community's chemical industry to preserve the EC market
            for itself. The Polish share of that market was very small,
            and the performance of the Polish companies did not depend
            on it, so they emerged from the battle unscathed. Perhaps
            the most striking finding of this study is what it tells us
            about the business ethics implicit in antidumping
            regulation. This ethic stresses collective behavior and the
            resolution of economic questions through political
            negotiation and compromise. The business behavior the
            antidumping rules attempt to impose on is in direct conflict
            with the antimonopoly laws - a basic part of the business
            ethics of a market system - but it fits well into the
            business ethics of a nonmarket economy. As an interface
            between the two systems, the antidumping rules teach the
            capitalists to behave like socialists, rather than teach the
            socialists how to behave as capitalists.
How do national policies affect
            long-run growth : a research agenda
The authors suggest that there are
            important opportunities to empirically evaluate the
            theoretically predicted channels from policy to growth. They
            propose a research agenda based on the endogenous growth
            literature, designed to address the questions: How do
            national policies affect long-run growth? Which policies
            strongly affect long-run growth? Do policies explain why
            some poor countries have stagnated and others have advanced?
            Do policies explain successive periods of rapid growth and
            stagnation in the same country? And to what extent do
            national policies rather than external influences explain
            the stagnation of many countries in Africa, Latin America,
            and Asia in the 1980s? The authors discuss five national
            policies: fiscal policy; monetary policy; trade
            intervention; financial policies; and openness to foreign
            capital. Their analytical framework is based on the simple
            idea that all factors of production can be increased by
            investing in human or physical capital. Economic growth will
            be related to policies that affect the incentive to invest
            and the efficient use of capital and intermediate inputs.
            Such a framework can be used to consider which policies
            affect the long-run growth rate rather than affecting simply
            the level of income once and for all.
Decollectivization and the
            agricultural transition in Eastern and Central Europe
The agricultural transition is an
            essential part of stabilization and adjustment in Eastern
            and Central Europe because agricultural sectors are large
            and food is important.  The supply response that many within
            and outside the region expected to emerge early and
            expeditiously is complicated by the removal of consumer
            subsidies and constrained export demand.  In an atmosphere
            of acute economic uncertainty and declining farm incomes,
            the distribution of agricultural land is proceeding.  The
            author traces the liberalization of food prices and the
            distribution of agricultural land to date.  The essence of
            the agricultural transition is the state's withdrawal
            from its traditional role as residual claimant of rents for
            the use of agricultural resources.  This role will pass in
            stages to owners of land.  The author concludes that an
            agricultural transition when demand is constrained is more
            difficult to manage than one in which the fruits of
            institutional change and productivity growth find ready
            outlets.  Moreover, although price movements are not yet
            clear, it appears that removing subsidies on feed, credit,
            fertilizer, machinery, and energy will move the terms of
            trade against agriculture - particularly against the large
            livestock sector.  The  need to increase productivity will
            thus be even greater than in the past.  Any progress on the
            demand side will thus give a major impetus to the
            institutional changes needed on the supply side.