rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Although politicians sometimes conflate the concepts of aid and worker or profit remittances, the latter have a much more complicated impact on the welfare of both the sending and the host countries, and therefore present a singular problem in our empirical analysis of global redistribution. We discuss the nature of these difficulties while also presenting some recent results, which point to the scale of redistribution that occurs through these flows.

The paper first describes the actual level of international inequality in 2002, which we will treat as a baseline in our further analysis. Then, we provide a brief summary of the theoretical literature on the transfer problem, as it relates to redistribution via aid and other flows. Empirical sections that follow discuss the actual impact of aid flows and the potential impact of merchandise trade reform in high-income countries. Finally, there is a discussion of the conceptual and empirical difficulties of conducting a similar analysis for both worker and profit remittances. We conclude with a discussion of some tentative policy implications of the quantitative results.

# **II. The international distribution of income**

We used the World Bank’s World Development Indicators (WDI) 2004 for data on population and gross national income (GNI) in PPP-adjusted dollars.<sup>3</sup> (See Appendix 3 for the list of countries.) The international distribution of income was obtained by assigning to every individual in the world the GNI per capita of the country he/she lives in. Figure 1 reveals details about the international distribution of income in 2002. In population-weighted terms, the poorest 40 percent of world population received just over 10 percent of world GNI,

> 3 Drawing on the data used in Bourguignon et al. (2004), we deflated the GNI, PPP series to 1995 prices using the implicit United States GDP deflator found in WDI

3
Figure 4.2 <!-- Start of picture text --> Japan's Import Shares<br>25-<br>-4China<br>15 -<br>F ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~--Korea<br>i E<br>m ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U.S.<br>-*ASEAN<br>0<br>1980 1990 2000<br>Japan's Export Shares<br>35 -_<br>30-<br>25 -<br>'U20- G =KEU<br>15 -- U.S.<br><#> 15- =~~~~~~~~~~ASEAN<br>10<br>5_<br>1980 1990 2000<br><!-- End of picture text -->

> Source: Authors' calculations using IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics

> The proportion of trade with the U.S. and the EU, although still prominent, is on a downward trend while that with ASEAN and China is sloping upward. The U.S. remains Japan's most prominent trading partner with imports from that country making up 19

> percent of Japan's total imports, 30 percent in the case of exports. More remarkable, however, is that since 1990, Japan's imports from China have more than tripled in value

8
- 10-

# B. PROTECTION AND DOMESTIC TAXES

In most discussions of protection policy it is tacitly assumed that protection is provided by customs duties and/or QRs. This view overlooks the fact that domestic indirect taxes in developing countries frequently have an effect on protection because the tax rate on domestic goods and imports may not be identical. Even in cases where the statutory tax rates are equal, separate 'markup' factors may be used or the definition of the value base may be inappropriate so that protection to domestic production is affected. Exemption from sales taxes for selected domestic industries serves to add to the protection received by such industries. On the other hand, excise taxes often apply only to domestic goods and have the effect of reducing the protection given by the tariff structure. Reforms to the domestic indirect tax structure which address these aspects must therefore accompany tariff reforms designed to restructure protection. In the discussion below we focus on whether Bank studies seek to eliminate the protective effect of domestic taxes. It should be emphasized that tariffs continue to play a protective role in all the cases.

A number of studies included a comment on the need to reform features of the domestic indirect tax system that discriminated between imports and domestic items. However, the analysis underlying the proposals was often inadequate. In a few cases, initial studies identified elements of protection in the domestic tax system and recommended reforms. Subsequent analysis discovered additional elements of protection that had been overlooked. While a large number of reports did not discuss the issue at all, we cannot conclude that protection deriving from domestic indirect taxes was not relevant in these cases.
# **_Liquidity_**

Lack of standardization hampers liquidity. Sukuk are structured products that by nature tend to have limited liquidity. Yet, in sukuk, this issue is exacerbated by the lack of standardization of the structure. As individual sukuk are not immediately comparable, fungibility is low. Investors’ decisions to replace sukuk from one issuer with another, for a credit reason or otherwise, are not straightforward like in conventional securities. Different interpretations on Sharia permissibility create market segmentation, making the market practically smaller than it already is. The lack of standardization also makes it more difficult to price the securities.

The liquidity of sukuk is further constrained by the fact that sukuk tradability also depends on their structures, following Sharia principles. Some of the structures, such as _salam_ , are not eligible for trading—because if traded, they represent debt against advanced payment, which is inconsistent with Sharia principles. Other structures, such as _istisna_ and _murabaha_ , may not be tradable except at face value. Tradability of _mudharaba_ and _musyaraka_ depends on specific structure. These constraints create another layer of design challenge for sukuk and for market development generally.

A perceived short supply of sukuk drove some of the buy-and-hold behavior of sukuk investors. Currently, the market is in the state of excess demand,<sup>19</sup> and thus investors tend to hold on to the sukuk. In turn, the lack of secondary market trades affects valuation of investors’ portfolios because reliable market prices are not readily available.

# **V. DEVELOPING DOMESTIC SUKUK MARKETS**

Several countries are seriously engaged in efforts to develop their domestic sukuk markets, with different levels of success to date (see table 1). As shown in the trends section, Malaysia stands out for its dominating market share (61 percent), but GCC countries and a growing number of countries have also initiated attempts to develop such markets. Indonesia’s sukuk market, for example, has grown at a fast pace, and countries such as Turkey have developed recent regulations amplifying the set of eligible sukuk structures for domestic market placements. Bahrain, Brunei, and Sudan also have relevant volume of sukuk, being the largest issuers of short-term sukuk following Malaysia.<sup>20</sup> Table 1. Countries with Domestic Sukuk Offering

|Sovereign or<br>|Quasi-Sovereign<br>|Cor<br>|poration<br>|
|---|---|---|---|
|Bahrain|Pakistan|France|Saudi Arabia|
|Bangladesh|Qatar|Hong Kong (China)|Singapore|
|Brunei|Saudi Arabia|Indonesia|Turkey|
|Gambia, The|Sudan|Malaysia|United Arab Emirates|
|Hong Kong (China)|Turkey|Nigeria|United States|
|Indonesia|United Arab Emirates|||
|Luxembourg|United Kingdom|||
|Malaysia|Yemen|||

_Source:_ Bloomberg, various sources.

_Note:_ Although sukuk may be issued domestically and in local currencies, they may be purchased by international investors.

> 19According to Thomson Reuters Zawya (2013), for example.

> 20See International Islamic Financial Market (2013).

9
- European Central Bank. Study on the payment attitudes of consumers in the euro area (SPACE). `https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/ecb.spacereport202012~bb2038bbb6. en.pdf?05ce2c97d994fbcf1c93213ca04347dd` , 2020a.

- European Central Bank. Gradual change seen in euro area payment behaviour. `https:// www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2020/html/ecb.pr201202~0645677cf6.en.html` , 2020b. Press release, December 2, 2020.

- Ben Fung, Kim Huynh, and Leonard Sabetti. The Impact of Retail Payment Innovations on Cash Usage. Staff Working Papers 12-14, Bank of Canada, 2012. URL `https://ideas.repec. org/p/bca/bocawp/12-14.html` .

- Oded Galor and Daniel Tsiddon. Technological Progress, Mobility, and Economic Growth. _American Economic Review_ , 87(3):363–382, June 1997. URL `https://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/ aecrev/v87y1997i3p363-82.html` .

- Jeremy Greenwood, Zvi Hercowitz, and Per Krusell. Long-run implications of investmentspecific technological change. _American Economic Review_ , 87(3):342–62, 1997. URL `https: //EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:aea:aecrev:v:87:y:1997:i:3:p:342-62` .

- Veronica Guerrieri, Guido Lorenzoni, Ludwig Straub, and Iv ́an Werning. Macroeconomic implications of covid-19: Can negative supply shocks cause demand shortages? Working Paper 26918, National Bureau of Economic Research, April 2020. URL `http://www.nber.org/papers/ w26918` .

- Guido Imbens. Nonparametric estimation of average treatment effects under exogeneity: A review. _The Review of Economics and Statistics_ , 86(1):4–29, 2004. URL `https://EconPapers. repec.org/RePEc:tpr:restat:v:86:y:2004:i:1:p:4-29` .

- INSEE. _Economic outlook 2020_ . December 9 2020a. URL `https://www.insee.fr/en/ statistiques/5006971?sommaire=4473307` .

- INSEE. _Point de conjoncture_ . April 9 2020b. URL `https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/ 4479775?sommaire=4473307` .

- Callum J Jones, Thomas Philippon, and Venky Venkateswaran. Optimal mitigation policies in a pandemic: Social distancing and working from home. Working Paper 26984, National Bureau of Economic Research, April 2020. URL `http://www.nber.org/papers/w26984` .

38
built (or made available via refurbishment). It is estimated that another 370 classrooms were made available between 1999 and 2002. This policy was accompanied by an increase in the number of preschool teachers and a rationalization of existing spaces.

Based on government documents (ANEP, 2005), the reform was very successful at least as far as children incorporation into the system was concerned. In the face of a substantial stability in public pre-primary enrollment between 1992 and 1995 (with enrollment rising from 48,107 to 49,618 pupils), between 1995 and 2004 enrollment in public preschools grew from 49,618 to 87,237 pupils, a rise of 76% over 9 years. Moreover, the expansion attracted children from more disadvantaged backgrounds, while in 1991 attendance rates of 4 years old in households in the lowest quintile of the income distribution was in the order of 20%, by 2002 this figure was in the order of 60%.

# **2. Data and basic evidence**

For the purpose of the empirical analysis we use micro data from the Uruguayan _Encuesta Continua de Hogares_ (ECH). This is a representative household survey run throughout the year by the National Statistical Office (INE: _Instituto Nacional de Estadística_ ) that covers around 18,000 households each year in urban Uruguay. The survey collects data on the socio-demographic characteristics of the households and school attendance and highest grade completed for all individuals.

Starting from 2001 the ECH provides retrospective information on the number of years of preprimary education completed. We can hence use data from 2001 to 2005 to relate current school attainment to past preschool attendance. One limitation of the data is that retrospective data on either past repetition or on school entry age are not available. The data also do not distinguish between the type of pre-primary school attended, whether public or private.

> 2The preschool curriculum was explicitly designed with the objectives of promoting both a child's socialization and alphabetization (ANEP, 2000).

7
Table 4: Effect of Extended Provider Training and Patient Information on the Allocation of Malaria Treatment

||(1)<br>Full Sample|(2)<br>Has Valid Ho|(3)<br>me-Based RDT|
|---|---|---|---|
||Expected<br>Match|Expected<br>Match|Actual Match|
|Extended Training|0.0664<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|0.0671<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|0.131<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|
||(0.0336)|(0.0292)|(0.0427)|
|Patient Infomation|0.00191|0.0124|-0.00943|
||(0.0171)|(0.0169)|(0.0339)|
|Mean (Basic Training, No Pat. Info.)|0.44|0.41|0.43|
|N|1971|1093|1093|

_Notes_ : Robust standard errors clustered at the level in parentheses. All regressions include strata and survey date fixed effects. Additional covariates are selected using double lasso, from the set of all covariates listed in Table 1 and all individual-level characteristics in Table A4 (excluding predicted malaria risk and characteristics only measured at the home survey) as well as the square of patient age and illness duration. We also include pairwise interactions of the aforementioned characteristics. Missing values for all characteristics are dummied out and recoded to the mean prior to forming interactions. Missing dummies are also included in the potential covariate set and set of pairwise interactions. *, **, and *** indicate significance at the 10, 5, and 1 percent levels respectively.

30
the sample has domestic violence legislation while the remaining 69 percent does not. The variable shows substantial variation over time for the countries under study. For example, at the beginning of our time period, 1990, only one country had domestic violence legislation compared with 51 at the end of the study period, 2012. This is indicated in table 1 where we present the number of countries with domestic violence legislation in our sample. As a robustness check, we take into account lagged effects of the explanatory variable by reporting results with one year lagged values of the domestic violence legislation variable.

In our baseline model, the panel specification allows us to control for all time invariant country features as well as the annual global shock to the dependent variable. In order to further raise our confidence against this problem, we control for a number of additional factors (see section 2 for motivations for the controls). Another layer of defense is provided by the use of the IV estimation method (discussed in detail in section 5).

A formal definition of the various controls is as follows. The overall income level is a broad proxy measure for a number of factors that could affect the health, longevity and hence mortality rate of men and women. Whether such factors affect women more than men is a moot point. However, there is some evidence to suggest that growth and development may benefit the relatively less privileged sections of society more, which happen to be women as far as the mortality rate is concerned. For example, the growth literature documents catching up by the relatively poor countries (convergence) while the literature on access to finance suggests that smaller and less financially connected firms benefit more from overall financial development than larger and better connected firms (see for example, Beck et al. 2005). We filter out such factors from affecting our results by controlling for (log of) real GDP per capita (constant USD, 2005). The data source is WDI. We complement this with the control for the annual growth rate (%) of 11
Policy Research Working Paper 9358

# **Abstract**

Pay levels for public sector workers—and especially teachers—are a constant source of controversy. In many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, protests and strikes suggest that pay is low, while simple comparisons to average national income per capita suggest that it is high. This study presents data on teacher earnings from 15 African countries. The results suggest that in several (seven) countries, teachers’ monthly earnings are lower than other formal sector workers with comparable levels of education and experience. However, in all of those countries, teachers report working significantly fewer hours than other workers, so that their hourly earnings are higher. Teachers who report fewer hours are no more likely to report holding a second job, although teachers overall are nearly two times more likely to hold a second job than other workers. With higher national incomes, the absolute value of teacher earnings rises, but they fall as a percentage of income per capita. The study explores variation across types of teacher contracts, the association between teacher earnings and student performance, and the association between teacher earnings premia and other aspects of economies.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics Vice Presidency and the Center for Global Development. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at devans@cgdev.org, fyuan@g.harvard.edu, and dfilmer@worldbank.org _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
42

**Authors Methodology Main Findings** Boardman, Anthony E., Claude This study looks at the performance<sup>of</sup> Retum on sales or assets more<sup>thandoubleafter</sup> Laurin, and Aidan Vining. 2000. nine Canadian firms privatized between privatzabon and efficiency, sales and capital Privatization in Canada: Operating, 1988 and 1995. A variety of 3-year post spending also increase significantly.<sup>Leverageand</sup> Financial and Stock Price privatzation ratios are compared<sup>to5-</sup> employment decline significantly as well.<sup>Overlong-</sup> Performance With intematonal year pre pnvatizabon values. Long-run term periods the privatzed firms outperform<sup>the</sup> Comparisons.' _Working Paper._ stock retums are also calculated<sup>forthe</sup> Canadian stock market University of Britsh Columbia, divested firms. Vancouver. Davidson, Richard. 1998. 'Market The author examines SIPs from Austria, The results show a long period of market Analysis: Underperformnance Over?' France, Italy, Spain and the UK,<sup>looking</sup> underperformance (1-1.5% p.a.)<sup>untilthelast12</sup> _Privatisation Intemational_ Yearbook. partcularly at 1, 3, 5, and 10 year<sup>market</sup> months of the study where SIPs outperform London: IFR Publishing. adjusted retums. The study focuses<sup>on</sup> European market averages. the period up unbl March 1997. Kay, J.A., and D.J. Thompson. An overview of privatizabon in Britain. This report concludes that while<sup>privatizabonin</sup> 1986. 'Privatisabon: A Policy in Britain has been the most popular<sup>wayinwhichto</sup> Search of a Rationale.' Economic boost the performance of previously<sup>state-owned</sup> _Joumal._ 96:18-32. enterprises, the promoton of<sup>compebboncanhave</sup> effects that are just as beneficial. This is<sup>particularly</sup> true if a natural monopoly exists within a<sup>particular</sup> industry. Franchising in particular is an effective<sup>way</sup> of introdudng competbon. The main difficulty<sup>in</sup> achieving this is resistance from the<sup>incumbent</sup> management which, the authors argue,<sup>iswhy</sup> privatizabon has become such a widespread<sup>means</sup> of improving SOE performance.
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country’s annual economic output in 2015/16 (PERI 2017). Sixty-three percent of the province’s population lives in rural areas (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics 2017b).

Government schools in the province provide education at five levels: preprimary, primary (grades 1–5), middle (grades 6–8), high (grades 9–10), and intermediate (grades 11– 12). In this study, we define _secondary school_ as grades 6–10 (middle and high school), and _secondary school age_ as ages 11–15. Government schools provide free education.

Punjab tends to perform better than the other provinces in girls’ and boys’ school participation rates (see figure 1 for net enrollment rates in 2014/15). Nevertheless, within Punjab, there is a large gender gap in school participation rates. In 2014, near the end of our study’s observation period, the school participation rate for girls of secondary school age (66 percent) was 7 percentage points lower than that for boys (73 percent) (table 1).

Most students in Punjab attend government schools. In 2014, among students of secondary school age, 65 percent of boys and 67 percent of girls attended government schools, while most of the rest attended private schools.

School participation rates vary substantially across districts within the province. In 2014, for girls of secondary school age, they ranged from a low of 28 percent in Rajanpur to a high of 89 percent in Gujrat (figure 2).

While the levels differ across time, preprogram patterns in school participation are qualitatively similar to the patterns discussed here.

# **4. Program design**

The Punjab government initiated the Female School Stipend Program in 2004 with the aim of increasing the rate of girls’ participation in secondary education in parts of the province with 9
# **Appendix E: List of resource-dependent and resource-rich countries**

Table E.1: List <u>of Resource-dependent countries in our sample (2000-2016)</u>

||||Resource-dependent|Percent time wit|h|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|#|Region|Code|countries|RD revenues|Oil exporters|Mineral exporters|Other exporters|
|1|Sub-Saharan Africa|AGO|Angola|100%|yes|||
|2|Middle East and North Africa|ARE|United Arab Emirates|100%|yes|||
|3|Sub-Saharan Africa|BFA|Burkina Faso|86%||yes||
|4|Latin America and Caribbean|BOL|Bolivia|100%|yes|||
|5|Sub-Saharan Africa|BWA|Botswana|100%||yes||
|6|Sub-Saharan Africa|CIV|Côte d'Ivoire|100%|||yes (cocoa)|
|7|Sub-Saharan Africa|CMR|Cameroon|100%|yes|||
|8|Sub-Saharan Africa|COG|Congo, Rep.|100%|yes|||
|9|Middle East and North Africa|DZA|Algeria|100%|yes|||
|10|Latin America and Caribbean|ECU|Ecuador|100%|yes|||
|11|Sub-Saharan Africa|GAB|Gabon|100%|yes|||
|12|Sub-Saharan Africa|GIN|Guinea|100%|yes|||
|13|Sub-Saharan Africa|GMB|Gambia, The|100%|||yes (artificial filament)|
|14|Sub-Saharan Africa|GNB|Guinea-Bissau|65%|||yes (coconut, Brazil nuts, cashew)|
|15|South, East Asia and Pacific|IDN|Indonesia|88%|yes|||
|16|Middle East and North Africa|IRN|Iran, Islamic Rep.|100%|yes|||
|17|Middle East and North Africa|KWT|Kuwait|100%|yes|||
|18|Sub-Saharan Africa|LBR|Liberia|53%||yes||
|19|Sub-Saharan Africa|MLI|Mali|100%||yes||
|20|Sub-Saharan Africa|NGA|Nigeria|100%|yes|||
|21|Middle East and North Africa|OMN|Oman|100%|yes|||
|22|Latin America and Caribbean|PER|Peru|71%||yes||
|23|Europe and Central Asia|RUS|Russian Federation|94%|yes|||
|24|Middle East and North Africa|SAU|Saudi Arabia|100%|yes|||
|25|Sub-Saharan Africa|SDN|Sudan|88%|yes|||
|26|Sub-Saharan Africa|SEN|Senegal|94%||yes||
|27|Sub-Saharan Africa|SWZ|<br>Eswatini|100%||<br>yes||
|28|Sub-Saharan Africa|TCD|Chad|100%|yes|||
|29|Latin America and Caribbean|TTO|Trinidad and Tobago|100%|yes|||
|30|Latin America and Caribbean|VEN|Venezuela, RB|88%|yes|||
|31|South, East Asia and Pacific|VNM|Vietnam|88%|||yes (telephone sets)|
|32|Middle East and North Africa|YEM|Yemen, Rep.|100%|yes|||

Notes: The repartition is based on the principal exportation according to OEC (http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/hs07/export/fra/all/show/2014/ ; dataset HS07) for the last year available (2014).

51