rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
we would likely observe different trends before starting the pre-trial across plaintiffs (who can influence case timing) and defendants (who cannot), which is not the case (Figure A11). Taken together, these results provide reassurance that the event study design produces an unbiased estimate of the impact of starting pre-trial.

Next, we test for differential attrition of firms across our court data (court-only) and the matched tax records and firm survey samples described in Section 3.2. We perform two attrition balance tests. First we look for balance on baseline case and firm characteristics across samples (Table A10). Reassuringly, we find no significant difference in the share of court cases a firm has after the decree across court-only and tax and survey samples (Panels B and C). However, the average firm in both the tax records and survey samples has higher baseline revenues and a larger number of cases than the average court-only firm (Panels B and C), and parties included in party-level analyses using the tax records sample have significantly smaller claim amounts (Panel A). These imbalances suggest care is needed in extrapolating our firm-level results to the full sample of firms having experienced a court dispute over our study period.

Second, we look for differential attrition across samples based on (in-court) decree impact. In Table A11, we replicate our main within court case-level analysis (presented in Table 3) first at the party level, testing for differential reform impacts across whether or not a party is in the tax records sample (cols 1–3), and then at the firm level, testing for differential impacts across whether or not a firm is in the survey sample (cols 4–6). In both of these specifications, we fail to reject the null hypothesis that firms appearing in either the tax records or the survey sample experience the same decree impact, in terms of speed and quality, as those that do not appear. These results suggest no selective attrition into the tax records and firm survey samples on decree impacts.

29
# **Survey**

The “Survey of Land and Real Estate Transactions in the Russian Federation” investigates the problems faced by businesses in carrying out land and real estate transactions. The survey covered 15 regions which represent all 7 Federal districts of the Russian Federation, 17% of the territory, 33% of the population and 44% of the GDP of Russian Federation. They are Kaliningrad oblast, Leningrad Oblast and Saint-Petersburg, Moscow Oblast and Moscow, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Novgorod Oblast, Tomsk Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, Irkutsk Oblast, Rostov Oblast, Perm Oblast, Novosibirsk Oblast, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and Sakhalin Oblast.

The survey included two questionnaires:

- The “Business Intermediary Survey” (BIS)

- The “Administrative and Regulatory Cost Survey” (ARCS)

In the course of the survey information was collected from 517 business intermediaries that helped clients with land and real estate transactions in 2004 (further referred to as BIS companies) and 1188 legal entities and sole proprietors that attempted, underwent or completed locating procedures (i.e. land and real estate transactions) in 2004 (referred to as ARCS companies).

The information was collected on the following types of locating procedures:

**Procedure no. 1** : Obtaining a short term lease for a land plot, which is currently state or municipal property, for purposes of construction, with a preliminary agreement on the object location.

**Procedure no. 2A and 2B** : Obtaining (by purchase (2A) or long term lease (2B)) a land plot, which is currently state or municipal property for purposes of construction, without a preliminary agreement on the object location, during auctions or tenders.

**Procedure no. 3A and 3B** : Obtaining ownership (3A) or long term lease (3B) rights on land plots that are currently state or municipal property, with premises, buildings or constructions, which are private property.

**Procedure no. 4** : Lease of a real estate object (premise, building or construction) which is currently municipal property, without the procedure of tender (including purposive appointment).

**Procedure no. 5** : Lease of a real estate object (premise, building or construction) which is currently the municipal property during tenders or auctions.

**Procedure no. 6** : Transferring a premise (building) from the residential use to non-residential.

**Procedure no. 7A and 7B** : State registration of rights on real estate and real estate transactions (in the cases of (7A) buying or selling a real estate object (land plot, building or premise) in the secondary market, (7B) drawing a contract of a real estate object (land plot, building or premise) lease for the term of more than 12 months in the secondary market).

10
# **_Human Rights Based Approaches to Development: Concepts, Evidence, and Policy_**

Varun Gauri and Siri Gloppen<sup>1</sup> <u>JEL:</u> K32, K33, K40 <u>Keywords:</u> Human rights, international law, constitutions, development policy, social policy <u>Sector board:</u> Public Sector Management

> 1 Varun Gauri is Senior Economist at the World Bank; Siri Gloppen is Professor of Comparative Politics at the University of Bergen. For their comments and guidance, the authors thank the members of the American Political Science Association Task Force on Democracy, Economic Security, and Social Justice in a Volatile World, especially Michael Goodhart.
# **1. Introduction**

Food security remains a major issue in Liberia as well as a number of other developing countries, and the recent increase in food prices is likely to have a strong negative impact on the poor (on the impact of the recent food price crisis, see among others Ivanic and Martin, 2007; International Monetary Fund, 2008; Wodon and Zaman, 2008; and World Bank, 2008a and 2008b). As noted in the Comprehensive Assessment of the Agriculture Sector prepared by Liberia’s Ministry of Agriculture (2007), improving rural incomes, food production, food security, safety nets and nutrition remains a key priority for the country. In part because rice production has fallen substantially during the period of conflict, a large majority of the population today is a net buyer of food, with much of food consumption coming from rice imports. There have been numerous accounts in the press over the years related to the price of rice in the country, including on issues regarding the awarding of import licenses for rice. The issues related to rice are not new in Liberia. Already in 1980, riots about the price of rice led to a coup.

Any solutions to the country’s rice and cereal deficit, and more generally lack of food security, will have to be multiple (see the analysis of the Comprehensive food security and nutrition survey in Republic of Liberia, 2006; see also Ejigu, 2006). High on the agenda is the fact that improved technologies must be used by farmers to increase their yields. To this end, the government and its partners are implementing a variety of programs that aim to provide better and more seeds as well as tools to farmers. As part of the 150-day action plan of the new government that took office in January 2006, one of the actions for economic revitalization consisted in distributing 20.5 million tons of seed rice to farmers, as well as 41,500 tools. In the medium term, substantial progress is expected from improved rice varieties (e.g., NERICA) and the expansion of small-scale mechanization. But for the immediate years to come, rice imports are likely to continue to remain large, with potential fluctuations in the price for consumers of rice likely also to have a major impact on the poor.

In this paper, our objective is not to advocate a particular policy for increasing local rice production (which should help in the medium term for reducing prices paid by consumers), or for reducing the price of imported rice paid by consumers through import and VAT tax reform or through further regulatory reforms (the country has already liberalized rice imports, so that there is no more monopoly on rice imports). Instead, our objective simply consists in using the 2007 CWIQ (Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire) survey to make an assessment of the patterns of consumption and production of rice in the country, and to assess the potential impact on poverty of changes in the price of rice.
on comtrade, i.e. not just the eBay image, as well as all eBay trade flows and not only those that match offline products. Results are consistent across aggregations suggesting that across all types of eBay flows distance matters less. Interestingly, the distance coefficient is smaller for new than for used goods, and for goods sold through auctions than for goods sold through set-price transactions. Thus when information is more difficult to obtain regarding the quality of the good or the price at which it will be sold (i.e. in the case of used goods and auction transactions) distance seems to matter more, suggesting that the reason the distance coefficient declines for eBay may be because it helps reduce information asymmetries regarding product or seller characteristics.<sup>15</sup> The final two columns of Table 3 verify whether eBay seller reputation matters for the impact of distance on trade flows. Online platforms adopt mechanisms to overcome the incentives for opportunistic behavior in global markets where buyers and sellers do not necessarily meet repeatedly. The eBay PowerSeller status is one of these mechanisms. It certifies that the seller has received 98% positive feedback, has been active for more than 90 days, has completed at least 100 transactions or transactions worth at least $3000 during the past year, and complies with eBay policies.<sup>16</sup> Seller reputation is in principle much more important than buyer reputation on eBay as transactions are usually of the “cash-in-advance” type where the buyer pays first and waits for the seller to send the goods.<sup>17</sup> The last two columns of Table 2 look at whether the impact of distance on trade flows is different for PowerSellers and non-PowerSellers. If the distance coefficient partly captures the costs of trust in exporters, and if the PowerSeller mechanism were to be effective, then we would expect a smaller distance coefficient for transactions undertaken by PowerSellers. As predicted, we find that distance affects non-PowerSellers significantly more. We test for the statistical significance of the difference on the distance coefficient of PowerSellers by appending the PowerSeller and non-PowerSeller data and interacting each of the trade cost

> 15We also run the same specification for sales by non-business exporters (e.g. consumers) and perhaps surprisingly found a similar distance elasticity as for B2C flows of around -0.5.

> 16See eBay’s website for more details here: http://pages.ebay.com/sellerinformation/sellingresources/powerseller.html

> 17See Cabral and Horta ̧csu (2010) for a recent analysis of the export consequences of seller reputation on eBay

12
I have been looking for a way to separate the two fi rst theoretical explanations of the link between education and HIV/AIDS from the third explanation that states that the correlation between education and health is not causal but due to common unobservables like the discount factor or the ability. To distinguish this explanation from the two other ones, one would need some exogenous variation in the level of education. If choices about education are not entirely endogenous but are also determined by some exogenous factor, like the structure of the school system, then the contribution of education in the health decision can be estimated without the selection bias due to unobservables. The facts that there was no secondary school in the surveyed area before 1982, that there was only one between 1982 and the 1990s and there are now fi ve secondary schools all located close to the center of the area suggests that an identi fi cation strategy based on the availability of secondary schools, given the birth cohort and the location of the household, might be feasible. I tried to implement this approach, but the fi rst stage regressions were not signi fi cant, maybe due to the small number of observations, or due to the fact that all the surveyed villages are in a three miles radius of the center implying that differences in distance to schools are not very important.

The question of whether education is causal in reducing the risk of being infected by HIV/AIDS is an important one for policy purposes. This paper does not ignore this issue but does not provide a de fi nitive answer. Elsewhere, I have addressed this question in studying the relationship between smoking behaviors and education (De Walque 2003; 2004). Using data from the U.S. and the exposure to the Vietnam draft as an instrument for college education, I suggest, in an instrumental variable strategy, that at least part of the effect of education on the smoking decision is causal. Similarly, Currie and Moretti (2003) use the openings of two and four year colleges in the United States to establish that higher maternal education improves infant health and in particular reduces smoking during the pregnancy.

# 7 Conclusions and Orientations for Further Research

This paper exploits the arrival of information about the existence and transmission modes of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and investigates how different education groups reacted to this new information.

Using individual data from the General Population Cohort of the Medical Research Council Programme on AIDS in Uganda, this paper analyzes how the gradient between education and HIV 19
- 13 -

# **TABLE 8**

|**Dependent Variaible:**Total Capital Flows (TCF)||
|---|---|
|Variable<br>Coefficient|T-Statistic|
|c<br>234|3.18**|
|TCF(-1)<br>0.40|4.06**|
|AUIP(-1)<br>4794|2.62**|
|G(-1)<br>803|1.20|

RL= 0.23 Durbin-Watson Statistic= 2.18 F-Statistic=8.00 (P-value=0.00)

# **Dependent Variable:** Short Term Capital Flows (STC)

|Variable|Coefficient|T-Statistic|
|---|---|---|
|c|67|1.20|
|STC(-1,)|0.42|2.35**|
|UIP(-1)|2199|1.76*|
|G(-1)|131|0.21|
|AR(1)|-0.16|-0.81|

RL= 0.13 Durbin-Watson Statistic= 2.09 F-Statistic=2.94 (P-value=0.03)

|**Dependent Variable:**Portfo<br>|lio Flows (PI)<br>||
|---|---|---|
|Variable|Coefficient|T-Statistic|
|c|57798|2.09**|
|PI(-I)|0.02|0.17|
|LIBOR(- l)|-56234|-2.04**|
|TB3(-l)i|-1181|-1.57|
|G(-1)|-66|-0.19|

RI= 0.09 Durbin-Watson Statistic= 1.94 F-Statistic=l1.99 (P-value=0. 10)

# **Dependent Variable:** Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

||Variable<br>Coefficient<br>T-Statistic|
|---|---|
||c<br>162<br>5.82**|
||FDI(-1)<br>0.02<br>0.13|
||UIP(-1)<br>9.96<br>0.13|
||G(-1)<br>142<br>2.56**|
|R<sup>2</sup>= 0.23|<br>Durbin-Watson Statistic= 1.78 F-Statistic=2.60 (P-value=0.07)|

Note: **: Significant at 5 _%,_ * :Significant at 10 % .

# **IV. Impact Of Capital Flows On the Real Economy**

Capital flows and macroeconomic developments clearly have impacts on one another through various channels. For example, the high growth rates of GDP in the most recent
tion, although ost methods in this toolkit extend o more complex int rventions. The indienotes treatment participation: if observation ev inth reatment group participates and no one nthe contro group participates, ssume that outcom tre t, with cumulative s are contin ous. fr tenti | comes without istribution nctio thq tile . Potential outle Ea h__ these potential , th rib tion of ou om

F llowing the practice o e the population f interest th pop ation of individuals w under evaluation. For this reason, estimates from RCTs are often considered to be impacts “on the treated” and we follow this practice. This terminology only depends on what population one considers the available sample to represent, and not on which individuals from this sample participate or the methods used. In practice, there is usually a second selection step, which is compliance with We consider methods to adjust for this second selection step in Sections 3.3 and 3.4. These methods can be extended to the methods in Sections 4 and 5 or to correct for selective application to participate in the RCT. For mean impacts, researchers often settle for intent-to-treat parameters instead, to avoid further assumptions. Methodoin treatment effects. It will usually be more informative to analyze these two sources of hetTwo Unconditional Approaches , consider questions such as: nswer this question, we would estimate the aver t m ct s hospital regulation raise minimum levels of patie f While the e e ie nuo te or binary outcomes, they add little in the binary case s fe) tso and is completely characterized by its mean. treatment c g sa ula n terms of Note that this is take-up given participation in the RCT. For prediction about policy impacts in the population, we need the unconditional take-up model unless the RCT sample i representative of the entire population.
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|---|
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|Universal Basic Education Project<br>Marito H. Garcia|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|DO-HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Proj.<br>Fernando Montenegro Torres|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Drylands Management GEF Project<br>Michael G. Carroll|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
|Community-Based Coastal and Marine BiodiversityManagement Pr Salimata D. Follea|
# **Risk insurance for the vulnerable has expanded in recent years**<sup>**26**</sup>

Until recently, the vulnerable population in Mexico has been only partially covered by social programs and none of these programs were oriented to protect against risks (health, weather and unemployment insurance). The exceptions are _Oportunidades_ (incidentally, not by design) and the _65 y mas_ program, but mainly the _Seguro Popular_ scheme, developed to provide security against financial risks linked to ill health, and whose coverage has expanded significantly in recent years. This program is especially important in Mexico, where the relevance that health insurance holds for preventing poverty (See section 4.1) is compounded by the fact that both poor and vulnerable groups have very low coverage of “formal” channels<sup>27</sup> of social security and medical services. According to Table 4, contributory pensions cover only 13.5 percent of the poor and 34.4 percent of the vulnerable, while formal medical services (IMSS, ISSSTE, Pemex, Sedena, Semar, etc.) reach 9.3 and 31.3 percent, respectively—nonetheless, the incidence of health shocks is similar in relative terms for all the groups shown (see the bottom of Table 2). Furthermore, one-quarter of both the vulnerable and poor populations have no access to medical services at all.

**Table 4. Social security and medical services among the poor, vulnerable, middle class, and upper class in Mexico, 2012**

||**<$4**|**$4 - 10**|**$10 - 50**|**>$50**|**Total**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Pensions_||||||
|Contributory (social security)|13.5%|34.4%|58.6%|66.9%|38.8%|
|Non-contributory (_adultos mayores)_|43.8%|36.7%|26.2%|8.8%|34.2%|
|_Medical services_||||||
|No access|24.7%|22.6%|18.6%|15.8%|21.5%|
|_Seguro Popular_|65.9%|46.0%|20.2%|6.5%|40.7%|
|_IMSS_|7.9%|25.5%|40.7%|36.3%|27.0%|
|ISSSTE or ISSSTE|0.7%|3.1%|12.3%|14.7%|6.0%|
|_Pemex_, _Sedena_and_Semar_|0.1%|0.4%|1.5%|3.8%|0.8%|
|Other social securityservices|0.4%|1.5%|2.3%|2.4%|1.5%|
|Private|0.1%|0.1%|1.4%|15.1%|0.9%|
|Other|0.3%|0.8%|2.9%|5.5%|1.5%|
||_100%_|_100%_|_100%_|_100%_|_100%_|

_Source:_ Author’s estimations based on ENIGH 2012 The above results highlight the relevance of (non-contributory) social protection strategies such as the _Adultos Mayores_ program for pensions, and the universal pension introduced for elder beneficiaries of Progresa since 2006 as well as the extended health coverage granted for the uninsured through _Seguro Popular_ [“Popular Insurance”]. In principle, these schemes should help to

> 26 The weather risk discussion in this section is based on De la Fuente and Giné (2014).

> 27 It refers to the access to pensions and medical services for workers in the formal, private and public, labor market.

25
- Region Overall

- Croatian Coastline and Istria 0.530 Dalmatia 0.519

- Northern Croatia 0.514 Slavonia 0.526 Zagreb 0.571

Notes: ‘Management Score’ is calculated following MOPS (See Bloom et al., 2018).

<!-- Start of picture text --> 0.06 3<br>3 lll Management spread = 0.08 2<br>2 Mm Management level 0.02 1<br>5 (sample normalized to 0)<br>cin© wR 0 0-3 4-7 8-11 12-45 16-19 20 eo 31 0<br>83° "85 -0.02 4<br>25 2<br>ge 63 0.04 2<br>Do Ep<br>88 a n 22 -0.06 -3<br>8 -0.08 -4<br>E @ mamzwement xore (mean deviation) Mspread<br>“g g<br>1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 35+<br>Age bins<br><!-- End of picture text -->