rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Punjab. However, as noted earlier, many pre-primary aged children in Pakistan are either not enrolled in school or are studying in private schools that were not included in this study. Further, given the sampling design, children who are chronically absent are less likely to be included. As such, the generalizability of the sample may be somewhat limited to this albeit large and important subset of public pre-primary aged children in South Punjab.

# **_Design_**

We have reported outcomes disaggregated by numerous factors and statistically tested associations between classroom quality and early learning and developmental outcomes. These findings represent the results of a cross-sectional analysis at a single point of time and do not utilize any quasi-experimental sources of exogenous variation. As such, the inherently correlational nature of our analysis prohibits us from making any causal claims. We attempt to address some sources of confounding in the model building process used to address Q4, but it is possible that there are additional unobserved factors that may be influencing results. This is particularly important given the literature on longer-term impacts of classroom quality on learning outcomes in primary education or better income in life. Further research utilizing stronger causal designs must be implemented in order to better understand these types of conclusions.

# **_Interpretation_**

Our exemplar items on AIM-ECD and Teach ECE are a useful framework to understand in concrete terms what the children in the study in South Punjab are and are not able to do and the levels of quality present in classrooms. However, these comparisons are inherently limited without a more robust normative interpretation. Our descriptive analysis is an empirical examination of what children are _able_ to do and what quality levels teachers demonstrate, but we do not report on what level they _should_ be able to achieve. Further work is required to define minimum levels of acceptable proficiency on the AIM-ECD and stronger definitions of minimum benchmarks on Teach ECE in order to better interpret the gaps that exist.

# **Conclusion**

This study is the first large-scale, in-depth study of pre-primary aged children’s outcomes and classroom quality in South Punjab, Pakistan. We find that while some classrooms demonstrate adequate levels of quality, there is substantial room for improvement. We find variable levels of achievement on a range of important school readiness and early learning and developmental skills and identify several factors that may be important to consider for policy.

The data also present some findings that run contrary to popular belief. These include the findings on teacher certification, the schooling outcomes of girls, and the strengths and weaknesses of being in a multigrade classroom – to name a few.

39
**Table 15. Significance of legal and regulatory obstacles: Investment approvals**

|VARIABLES|(1)<br>OLS|(2)<br>OLS|(3)<br>OLS|(4)<br>OLS|(5)<br>Ologit|(6)<br>Ologit|(7)<br>Ologit|(8)<br>Ologit|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Services|0.0169|0.0134|||0.0342|0.0262|||
||(0.0630)|(0.0620)|||(0.106)|(0.110)|||
|Export % of sales|-0.000856|-0.000210|-0.00109|-0.000453|-0.00141|-0.000338|-0.00190|-0.000881|
||(0.000843)|(0.000855)|(0.000858)|(0.000859)|(0.00145)|(0.00156)|(0.00152)|(0.00162)|
|Share of sourcing via imports|0.000162|-0.000680|0.000447|-0.000487|0.000540|-0.000678|0.00111|-0.000172|
||(0.000919)|(0.000924)|(0.000948)|(0.000960)|(0.00160)|(0.00167)|(0.00170)|(0.00180)|
|High-income source country|-0.154*|-0.0639|-0.180*|-0.0756|-0.284*|-0.103|-0.342**|-0.147|
||(0.0932)|(0.0917)|(0.0927)|(0.0902)|(0.166)|(0.170)|(0.170)|(0.174)|
|>250 employees|-0.00680|-0.0261|-0.0192|-0.0414|-0.0126|-0.0544|-0.0370|-0.0838|
||(0.0798)|(0.0773)|(0.0781)|(0.0762)|(0.137)|(0.138)|(0.138)|(0.139)|
|Cumulative inv. >US$10M|0.00533|0.0241|0.00394|0.0276|0.0304|0.0452|0.0341|0.0575|
||(0.0776)|(0.0766)|(0.0771)|(0.0756)|(0.138)|(0.143)|(0.141)|(0.144)|
|Years in country|-0.00337|-0.00407*|-0.00266|-0.00359|-0.00587*|-0.00763**|-0.00497|-0.00686*|
||(0.00225)|(0.00221)|(0.00221)|(0.00221)|(0.00354)|(0.00377)|(0.00360)|(0.00389)|
|Level of foreign ownership (%)|0.000359|0.000947|0.000462|0.00148|0.000677|0.00158|0.000814|0.00245|
||(0.00137)|(0.00146)|(0.00137)|(0.00140)|(0.00233)|(0.00264)|(0.00241)|(0.00263)|
|Country fixed effects||X||X||X||X|
|Subsector fixed effects|||X|X|||X|X|
|Observations|2,424|2,424|2,424|2,424|2,424|2,424|2,424|2,424|
|R-squared|0.005|0.079|0.037|0.107|||||

Standard errors in parentheses

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

The dependent variable in all models is an ordered categorical variable corresponding to responses to the following question: "To what degree are the following factors an obstacle for your company to operate in this country? [Cumbersome investment approvals to start and operate a business]". Higher numbers denote more significant obstacles. Subsector fixed effects are at the ISIC A38 level.

Coefficients for constants (for OLS), cut points (for ordered logit), and fixed effects not shown in table.

32
56 (GM), the U.S. EPA revised the 0.26 grams per mile (0.16 _g/km)_ diesel particulate standard for certain light duty trucks. Light duty diesel trucks (LDDTs) with a loaded vehicle weight of 3,751 pounds or greater were required to meet a 0.50 gpm (0.31 g/km) standard for 1987 and 0.45 gpm (0.28 g/km) level for 1988-1990. For the 1991 and later model years the standard would be tightened to 0.13 gpm (0.08 g/km).

# **Canada**

In March 1985, in parallel with a significant tightening of gaseous emissions standards, Canada adopted the U.S. particulate standards for automobiles and light trucks (0.2 and 0.26 gpm, respectively) to go into effect in 1988. Since then, Canada has adopted U.S. standards for heavy-duty vehicles for 1988 as well. Canada intends to closely monitor developments in the United States as 1991 approaches; if technology advances sufficiently, and if the United States retains its existing standards, it appears likely that Canada will adopt them.

## **Japan**

Japan does not currently regulate exhaust particulate emissions from diesel engines. However, smoke standards have applied to both new and in-use vehicles since 1972 and 1975, respectively. The maximum permissible limits for both are _50%_ opacity; the new vehicle standard, however, is more stringent because smoke is measured at full load, while in-use vehicles are required to meet standards under the less severe no-load acceleration test.

# **European Community (EC)**

Smoke limits similar to those for the United States and Japan have been in effect in Europe for many years. Exhaust smoke levels are currently recommended by ECE Regulation 24 (equivalent to EEC Directive 72/306). Measurements are taken using light absorption type apparatus. However, recognizing that these requirements were not adequate, the Environmental Ministers of the European Community decided in December 1987 to adopt a particulate standard for light duty diesels, 1.1 grams per test (1.4 for conformity of production). In addition, the Ministers ordered the Commission to develop a second step proposal by the end of 1989, which would lower particulates to 0.8 (1.0 for conformity of production) unless it was determined that such levels were technically or economically infeasible. Approximate conversion rates between the U.S. and ECE tests are summarized in Table 32. As of 1989 there was no particulate emission legislation in force for heavy-duty diesel vehicles in the EC.

**Table 32. Conversion between** U. **S. and ECE Tests**

|US Federal|ECE|
|---|---|
|test procedures|test procedure|
|<br>2rams/mile|<br>grams/test|
|0.6|1.8|
|0.2|0.6|
|0.08|0.24|
(a) Differences between the crest level of embankment of each polder and the storm surge level projected for 2050, with and without climate change have been computed to quantify the potential extent of overtopping of an embankment.

(b) The amount of earth needed for this purpose has been derived from engineering designs. Current local price for earthwork from the BWDB (Tk 109.96/ m<sup>3</sup> if collected from 300m to 1km distance; and Tk 133.44/ m<sup>3</sup> if collected from 1km to 5 km distance) has been used in the estimation. See appendix 4 for details.

(c) Compaction and turfing cost (Tk 7.07 per sq meter), used by the BWDB, have been used to derive total related costs.

(d) As “toe erosion” of the embankment of polders is a serious problem in Bangladesh, some sections of the polders would need hard protection. Cost of such hard protection has been computed using the rate for using cement concrete (CC) blocks with sand filters and geo‐textile, Tk. 224,100/meter ‐ the locally available technology, ranked as the best technology so far.<sup>53</sup> (e) Height enhancement of embankments will require more land for strengthening the bases. For sea facing polders, foreshore land is usually government owned or _khas_ land. For interior and marginal polders, however, neighboring land is often under private ownership. Hence, requisition of such land would involve compensating the landowners, and in some cases, their rehabilitation cost. This cost is included in the estimate.

(f) As per standard procedure of operation and maintenance (O&M) cost estimation, a fixed percentage (2%) of capital investment has been assumed to be the regular maintenance cost.

The result from this algorithm is in a projection of an adaptation cost of $892 million for coastal polders (26 interior polders and 33 sea facing polders) in a changing climate. Table 6 summarizes the projected cost(s) for “interior” and “sea facing polders” without and with climate change (See Table 6).

> 53 In order to protect minor erosion, the use of vetivera grass is often recommended.  However, past experience with the vetivera grass option is not very encouraging.  The growth and survival rate has been poor along the Chittagong belt, apparently due to a combination of factors including high salinity of the soil.  As the soil along the south‐western coast is even more saline, it’s not clear whether vetiver is the right option for Bangladesh.  However, in other regions Vetivera grass may work, and cost of the vetivera plantation is Tk 70700/ ha.
# **MAIN TABLES**

## <u>Table 1. Summary statistics</u>

|||**All**||**Me**|**n/Fath**|**ers**|**Wom**|**en/Mo**|**thers**|**Difference**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Mean**|**SD**|**Obs.**|**Mean**|**SD**|**Obs.**|**Mean**|**SD**|**Obs.**|**Women-Men**|
|**Panel A: Individual (2018)**|||||||||||
|Age|23.77|3.62|4956|23.8|3.54|2596|23.73|3.7|2360|-0.07|
|Years of schooling|8.55|4.89|4955|8.92|4.35|2595|8.13|5.39|2360|-0.79***|
|Respondent can read|0.73|0.44|4402|0.74|0.44|2222|0.73|0.45|2180|-0.01|
|<br>Ever married|0.45|0.5|4956|0.34|0.47|2596|0.58|0.49|2360|0.25***|
|Age at first marriage|20.95|3.43|2248|22.37|3.31|874|20.05|3.2|1374|-2.31***|
|Has children|0.33|0.47|4956|0.22|0.41|2596|0.45|0.5|2360|0.23***|
|Working (students excl.)|0.47|0.5|4455|0.85|0.36|2351|0.05|0.22|2104|-0.79***|
|Main work is farming (students excl.)|0.04|0.19|4455|0.07|0.26|2351|0|0|2104|-0.07***|
|HH has toilets on premises|0.96|0.19|4404|0.97|0.18|2223|0.96|0.2|2181|-0.01|
|HH has access to electricity|0.98|0.14|4404|0.98|0.13|2223|0.98|0.15|2181|-0.00|
|Lives in same village as in 2003|0.61|0.49|4956|0.65|0.48|2596|0.57|0.5|2360|-0.08***|
|**Panel B: Parents (2003)**|||||||||||
|Parent years of schooling|3.1|4.28|8780|4.74|4.75|4201|1.6|3.12|4579|-3.15***|
|Parent can read|0.37|0.48|8945|0.53|0.5|4219|0.23|0.42|4726|-0.30***|
|Parent age at first marriage|22.07|4.82|7522|24.6|4.8|3648|19.69|3.42|3874|-4.92***|
|Parent main work is farming|0.18|0.39|8964|0.33|0.47|4230|0.05|0.21|4734|-0.29***|
|Parent has toilets on premises|0.58|0.49|9699|0.58|0.49|4847|0.58|0.49|4852|-0.00|
|Parent has access to electricity|0.88|0.33|9685|0.88|0.33|4840|0.88|0.33|4845|-0.00|

* p<.10 ** p<.05 *** p<.01

_Notes._ This table provides sample characteristics (overall and by gender). Panel A shows respondent characteristics (for 2018). “Respondent can read” comes from the functional literacy and numeracy section. It indicates that the respondent could read and understand a greeting text message in Urdu script. Only respondents who completed the survey in person filled out this section. “Age at first marriage” excludes those who never married. “HH has toilets on-premises/access to electricity” indicates that the respondent lives in a household with a toilet on-premises/access to electricity. These variables are filled in all in-person surveys. Panel B shows the characteristics of the respondents’ parents (for 2003, with the exception of “Parent age at first marriage", which was collected in 2011). The respective sample consists of individuals whose household was surveyed that year and who were living with their parents. The table also shows the differences in the means across men/fathers and women/mothers. Standard errors are clustered at the village level. There are 108 clusters in the sample.

40
# **Preferences for REDD+ Contract Attributes in Low-Income Countries: A Choice Experiment in Ethiopia**<sup>**1**</sup>

## **1. Introduction**

According to Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), approximately 30% of the global forest has been cut down in the last two centuries and 25 countries lost their forests completely, another 29 countries lost over 90% of their forests. Moreover, the total size of tropical forest is decreasing at a rate of over 10 million hectares per year. This rate of deforestation and the associated harm has not only created concerns for the local people who largely depend on the forests and forestry products for their livelihood, but also the world at large for the ecosystem services they provide. Worldwide, some 1 to 2 billion people depend primarily on forests for their livelihoods and deforestation and forest degradation accounts for 11%–20% of annual greenhouse gas emissions (Saatchi et al. 2011; van der Werfet al. 2009; Chao, 2012; UNEP 2012). Therefore preventing deforestation and forest degradation is necessary from both a climate stabilization and sustainable development point of view. It is difficult to envision reaching a climate stabilization goal without the inclusion of forests in an international carbon mitigation framework (Angelsen and Brockhaus, 2009).

> 1 Author information: Sahan T. M. Dissanayake, Assistant Professor of Economics, Colby College, Waterville and Assistant Professor (by courtesy), Portland State University, Portland, OR.  Abebe Damte Beyene, Research Fellow, Environmental Economics Policy Forum for Ethiopia. Randall Bluffstone, Professor of Economics, Portland State University, Portland, OR. Zenebe Gebreegziabher, Senior Research Fellow and Deputy Director, Environmental Economics Policy Forum for Ethiopia and Assistant Professor of Economics, Mekelle University. Alemu Mekonnen, Senior Research Fellow and Center Director, Environmental Economics Policy Forum for Ethiopia and Assistant Professor of Economics, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa.  Peter Martinsson, Professor of Economics, University of Gothenburg. Michael Toman, Lead Economist, Development Research Group, World Bank.  Ferdinand M. Vieider, Head Junior Research Unit, Risk & Development, WZB Berlin Social Science Center. Financial support for this work was provided by the World Bank through the Knowledge for Change Program and the Trust Fund for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development. We would like to thank participants at the Seminar Series at the University of New Hampshire, the University of Maine, Reed College, and Resources for the Future, the 2014 World Bank Land and Poverty Conference, the 2014 Maine Economics Conference, and the 2014 World Congress on Environmental and Resource Economics for valuable feedback and suggestions on this work.

2
for about 30-40 percent of total job flows. Within the OECD sample, the entry of new firms played a particularly strong role in total job creation in Finland in the 1990s (46 and 51 percent of total job creation in total economy and manufacturing, respectively), Slovenia (42 and 46 percent of total job creation) and Portugal (41 and 38 percent of total job creation). At the same time, the exit of obsolete firms also accounted for a significant fraction of overall job destruction, particularly so in Argentina (42 and 38 percent of total job destruction), Finland (39 and 41 percent of total job destruction) and Portugal (38 and 40 percent of total job destruction). In transition countries, entry was more important in the early years of transition and exit in the second half of the 1990s, both for the total economy and in manufacturing.<sup>5</sup> The large job flows in the transition countries are not surprising. The process of transition started in the early 1990s and it included downsizing or exit of existing firms as well as the entry of new firms as the economies progressed towards a market economy. Indeed, entering firms created 40.2 percent of jobs in transition countries, compared to 35.4 percent in the OECD countries. In addition, job destruction due to exit represented 35.4 percent of total job destruction in the OECD countries, but only 30.5 percent in transition countries. Findings are similar if we focus only on industries within manufacturing.

# **3.3 Small and Large Firms Contribute the Most to Job Flows**

Small firms account for the vast majority of total firm dynamics in all countries in our sample. However, their contribution to overall job reallocation, while still important, is less dominant. Figure 2 presents job reallocation rates by firm size classes. In general, job reallocation is highest in firms with less than 20 employees, and the lowest in firms with 100+ employees. In the United States, job turnover declines monotonically with firm size, and the decline is particularly marked among large units (100+). Latin American countries follow similar patterns to those of the United States, while the European countries, with the exception of France, have a less marked drop of job reallocation among larger units. The transition countries, on the other hand, show a steeper slope in smaller size classes, especially in the early years of transition.

The analysis of size specific job reallocation rates should be complemented with a decomposition of the overall job reallocation into that due to firms of different sizes. Tables 4 and 5 present the percentage of job creation/destruction/reallocation in each size class as a

> 5This was especially so in Slovenia, a lot of entry occurred in the early 1990s, since private firms were few and far in between prior to that; exit did not keep up with that early on and was relatively low compared to OECD and other transition countries.

11
such as price discrimination or exclusive dealing, defendants have the opportunity to argue that their practices actually enhance efficiency, mitigate possible anti-competitive effects, and improve consumer welfare. In such cases, the authority can choose not to impose a sanction, even if evidence of the conduct is conclusive.

Lancieri, Posner and Zingales (2022) attribute a historical decline in United States antitrust sanctions to discretion by professional judges who retained a permissive “Chicago” school of thought that asserted many conspiracies by firms could promote efficiencies, and so should not be punished if they can be shown to benefit consumers. For instance Bork (1966), who was educated at the University of Chicago and taught at Yale University, argued that firms may fix prices if they use shared marketing services, to avoid a situation where a firm with a low-priced product benefits disproportionately from others’ marketing expenditure. If firms did not fix prices in this example, firms might reduce spending on marketing, reducing overall sales. Mexican law adheres to a more skeptical “post-Chicago” school since it identifies price fixing and market division agreements as punishable without evidence of market power or consumer harm. Only in certain “relative monopolistic practices” can defendants argue their conduct was beneficial.

Once the arguments and evidence are presented, the secretariat proposes a resolution to the Board that includes the amount of a financial sanction ( _sanci ́on_ ) to punish the illegal conduct. The Board adopts a final decision based on the proposal. In rare cases, one of which is discussed in Section 3, the Board’s decision can be appealed to a higher court, which may later ask the Board to reverse its decision and issue a new resolution.

# **2.2 Data**

**Relevant markets in antitrust investigations** Our analysis begins with the universe of 261 investigations into suspected monopolistic practices as of the end of 2018, since the founding of the Commission in 1993. The Commission’s website provides a list of all cases and access to the disclosures of each investigation and final resolutions. Unlike in other jurisdictions including the United States, the Commission discloses the relevant market for each investigation, not just those that go to trial.

A task in antitrust investigation is the definition of the relevant market, or the set of products and geography in which the agent or agents under investigation compete (see Davis and Garc ́es, 2009). To analyze outcomes in investigated markets, we map the relevant market for each investigation to economic activities classified in the Economic Census. In doing so, we address two challenges highlighted by Shapiro (2018) and Benkard, Yurikoglu and Zhang (2021) that arise when mapping relevant markets in antitrust investigations to industrial 11
Table 1. Regressing inequality on democracy: transition countries

||Ginic|hag|Ginipost-tra|nsitionlevel|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Cumulativeliberalization|<br>-0.106<br>(-0.89)|<br>0.131<br>(0.38)|-0.076<br>(-0.59)|0.146<br>(0.37)|
|GDP1988(in$PPP)x<br>1000|-1.03<br>(-0.98)|-0.80<br>(0.40)|-1.67<br>(-1.49)|-1.45<br>(-1.4)|
|CISdummy||13.15**<br>(2.41)||12.29*<br>(2.0)|
|Constant<br>z______________________|28.81**<br>(3.60)|4.00<br>(0.32)|52.25**<br>(6.13)|29.07*<br>(2.1)|
|R<sup>2 </sup>adjusted(F)|0.07|0.27|0.12|0.25|
|Numberofobservations|21|21|21|21|

Note: t-values between brackets.

* = significant at 5 percent. **=significant at I percent.

The analysis of transition economies allows us to make, we believe, some broader tentative conclusions about the relationship between democracy and inequality. First, the cross-sectional relationship between current democracy and current inequality might not tell the whole story: while the current levels of democracy and inequality are negatively correlated even for transition economies, the truly important story of the 1990's is their positive correlation (both increased). Their evolution through time may differ from the conclusion we would obtain from a snapshot picture (cross-section regression). Second, and related point: to explain current inequality, one may need to use a longer-term measure of democracy: either cumulative democracy as we have done here, or length of democratic experience.

But our analysis still begs the crucial point-this is: why did socialist countries, characterized by a strong concentration of power, exhibit very low levels of inequality (see e.g. Atkinson and Micklewright, 1992)? For the entire discussion of the socialist enigma would have been redundant had these countries, in accordance with theory, exhibited very high inequality which "goes together" with high concentration of 27