is a decrease of 1% relative to baseline levels [95% CI: ‐22 to 19%]<sup>49</sup> . While neither mean effect is significant, it is important that the evidence is not showing any unintended consequences on these negative coping strategies. Not surprisingly, the programs specifically targeted towards children generally show the strongest effects on reducing child labor including Burkina Faso THR for girls, Lesotho CGP, Ethiopia SCT and the Kenya CTOVC.<sup>50</sup> All these programs have a strong communication strategy advocating for the rights and well‐being children, which may be helping to generate these results. Interestingly many of these same programs are also effective at reducing the off‐farm wage work in agricultural dependent households. There is also overlap between the programs that show strongest impacts on improved consumption and food security as those that impact these dimensions of resilience, indicating that complementarity in promoting these outcomes with safety nets.

Our review also picked up some important findings on coping strategies that are important in terms of understanding how safety nets protect vulnerable households, but could not be included in the meta‐ analysis due to lack of a standard way of measuring these strategies. The Ethiopia PSNP, Kenya HSNP, IDRC, Lesotho CGP, and Malawi SCTS and ZCTP programs address issues on coping strategies most directly. The Lesotho evaluation suggests that CGP beneficiaries were better equipped to deal with unanticipated shocks and less likely to engage in disruptive coping strategies around childcare, such as taking them out of school and foregoing health expenditures.<sup>51</sup> The Kenya HSNP and Ethiopia PSNP provide some evidence, though not conclusive, that cash transfers provide partial protection against shocks by enabling some households to avoid distress sales of livestock and other household assets.<sup>52</sup> Similarly, in the IDRC and PSNP, beneficiaries receiving cash transfers reported lower distress sales of household goods.<sup>53</sup> Where it has been measured, such as in the Malawi SCTP and ZCTP evaluations, programs have found reduced risky sexual health behaviors and delayed marriage and pregnancy rates among adolescent girls who were either direct beneficiaries of cash transfers (in the ZCTP) or part of beneficiary households (in the SCTP).<sup>54</sup> Early work on the topic indicates some tentative evidence for improved psychological well‐being among safety net beneficiaries. Our review revealed four studies that measured self‐reported state of well‐being, often by asking survey participants about their outlook for the current and future life and level of happiness. These studies include evaluations on the Kenya GIVE, Ghana LEAP, Ethiopia PSNP, and Malawi SCTS. In all cases beneficiaries reported a significantly improved level of well‐being. While this finding should not be overemphasized, given that beneficiaries on the programs may feel obligated to respond

> (Zambia ZCGP), Rosas and Sabarwal 2016 (Sierra Leone CFW), Beegle et al. 2015 (Malawi MASAF), Haushofer and Shapiro 2016 (Kenya GIVE), Asfaw et al., 2014 (Kenya CTOVC), Berhane et al., 2015 (Ethiopia SCTPP). 49 Sources: Edmonds, 2006 (South Africa OAP), Kazianga et al., 2009 (Burkina Faso SC/THR), Rodrigo, 2012 (Ethiopia PSNP), Handa and Park 2013 (Ghana LEAP), Daidone et al, 2014 (Lesotho LCGP), Merttens et al. (2013), Rosas and Sabarwal 2016 (Sierra Leone CFW), Asfaw et al., 2014 (Kenya CTOVC), Berhane et al., 2015 (Ethiopia SCTPP), Abdoulayi et al. 2015 (Malawi SCTP).

> 50 Kazianga et al., 2009 (Burkina Faso SC/THR), Daidone et al, 2014 (Lesotho LCGP), Berhane et al., 2015 (Ethiopia SCTPP), Asfaw et al., 2014 (Kenya CTOVC).

> 51 Pellerano et al. 2014 (Lesotho LCGP).

> 52 Merttens et al. (2013), Gilligan et al., 2009 (Ethiopia PSNP).

> 53 Aker, 2013 (DRC IDRC), Gilligan et al., 2009 (Ethiopia PSNP).

> 54 Abdoulayi et al. 2015 (Malawi SCTP), Baird et al., 2012 (Malawi ZCTP).

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