repair, recharge of talk-time, downloads of music and videos, etc. This is a relatively low-cost entry business and success would depend on location of the shop.

Finally, there is health service, with the growth of private health care, some of it based on telemedicine as in the Sky health centers in Bihar as well as non-certified health care providers of varying hues. There are also supportive activities, such as chemist shops, diagnostic centers, and pathology sample collection centers, supported by the relatively large share of private out of pocket health expenditures.

# **_Financing_**

Since the financial scale of most of these activities is small, financing is usually provided by friends and family or from personal savings, which may depend on remittances and savings as a result of migration. Formal bank finance is available for transport. Funds are also generated by the sale of agricultural land. In Erein, it was found that compensation received for land acquisition was invested in small economic activities. In Gopalpur (and Erein too), there were also co-operative financial institutions who extended finance.

# <u><mark>Box 1. Women and labor participation</mark></u>

In all the settlements studies, there are women involved in the local governance structure thanks to the quota provided in the 73<sup>rd</sup> and 74<sup>th</sup> , but their role appeared to be limited.

In terms of employment, their participation is also limited. Women are involved in agriculture in Satghara and in South Behar (Jhanjarpur). In Satghara, the rising involvement of women in agriculture seem to be triggered by the departure of men for migration while in Gopalpur women engaged in agriculture mostly belong to lower caste group.

Women’s job in services is limited though one finds teachers in Gopalpur and in Jhanjarpur, where women are also employees of the urban local body.

The only location where women seem to be involved at a large scale is the bidi industry in Gopalpur. An estimated 500 to 600 bidi makers are working in Gopalpur, a number that is increasing every year. Women, particularly, are joining the industry as they can complete their household chores and make bidis during the remaining time. On an average, each woman makes 4,000 to 5,000 bidi per week. Of late, they are getting paid Rs. 78 for 1,000 bidi as their labor charge.

There is some informal work, at times prompted by the Self-Help Groups that exist in Simri and Gopalpur. In Gopalpur, women make puffed rice but in Simri, the Self-Help Group does not work very well. Other casual activities are selling fruits and vegetables in the markets or involvement in traditional caste-based activities. This is the case in Bishnugarh Cherra where women are involved in the local wine making industry and in Satghara where 250 to 300 women are engaged in bangle making. In Jhanharpur, around 50 women are employed in a rice mill located outside the town boundaries and Gopalpur where some women are involved in rice mills and ice cream factories.

Finally, in Simri, there is mention of the difficulty to open bank accounts that is a hurdle for women since they depend on remittances and for widows who are beneficiaries of government schemes. This problem is not mentioned in other settlements but would be worth exploring since it does affect women’s livelihoods.

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