choice is based on unobserved determinants of labor market outcomes. Non-random selection into employment can also bias the estimated effects of school type on formality and wages, if unobserved determinants of school type are correlated with the probability that different types of graduates choose to work. It is therefore important to control for as many pre-determined or exogenous characteristics as possible. Fortunately, the survey collects a large amount of data on individual and family characteristics. We include parental education, for both resident and non-co-resident parents; height; self-reported size of residence at age 12; grade repetition in junior high and elementary school; public lower secondary school attendance; working while attending elementary school, or lower secondary, and year of interview. In addition, the youngest cohort was asked to report their lower secondary test score, which can be used to gauge the bias due to omitting this variable. Finally, we include district of junior secondary graduation fixed effects to take into account differences in the supply of education, community characteristics, and peer effects that vary across districts.<sup>15</sup> Table 5 shows the estimated labor market effects of different school types relative to public general, while the full estimation results are in Appendix 2. For robustness, the fourth and fifth columns give the estimates of average and median returns.<sup>16</sup> For men, public vocational attendance raises the chance of working in a formal job, while graduating from private general lowers it. Furthermore, the wage results show a substantial public school premium. In contrast, there is no statistically significant difference between general and vocational schools. The estimates are sufficiently precise to rule out a public vocational premium, relative to public general, exceeding 12 percent. For private schools, the average wage penalty is similar for vocational and general graduates, although vocational graduates face a lower median wage penalty. This is notable, since private vocational graduates tend to have lower parental education levels and, in the most recent cohort, test scores.

Among women, private general schools are associated with reduced labor force participation and formality rates, compared with graduates of other three school types. With regards to wage, meanwhile, public vocational graduate earns a moderate wage premium of 8 percent, although this is not statistically significant. The wage estimates for females are less precise but can nonetheless rule out a public vocational wage premium that is greater than 25

> unavailable, and the village censuses ( _Podes_ ) show little change in the local prevalence of different types across time. Therefore, we elected to abandon the instrumental variables approach.

> 15 District of lower secondary school is highly collinear with district of secondary school, as less than a quarter of the sample attended junior and senior secondary schools in different districts.

> 16 Although median regression is more robust to outliers, it does not allow for the inclusion of district fixed effects. As a result, we included provincial rather than district effects in the median regression specification.

16