adults age 20 and above at the time of each wave of the survey along with the percentage of respondents who report they were in poor general health status.<sup>7</sup> The upper panel reports results for males and the lower panel for females. The left hand panel reports estimates that draw on reports from all respondents in each wave of the survey. The estimates are weighted so that they are representative of the underlying population.<sup>8</sup> The onset of the 1997 crisis was accompanied by a dramatic increase in all of the psychological distress indicators measured in IFLS. For both males and females, between 1993 and 1998, the prevalence of distress almost doubled for each indicator except one, difficulty sleeping, which increased by about 50%. For example, in 1993, about 12% of men reported feeling sad in the prior four weeks; in 1998, nearly 30% of men reported feeling sad. Women were slightly more likely to feel sad in 1993 (16%) and much more likely to feel sad in 1998 (41%). There were even larger proportionate increases in the prevalence of anxiety which rose three- to four-fold (from a lower base). Combining both markers into an index identifying those who report feeling either sad or anxious, about one in six respondents reported such feelings in 1993. In 1998, one in three males and almost one of every two females reported these feelings. In 1993, one in five respondents had difficulty sleeping and by 1998 this affected one in three adults. The prevalence of fatigue nearly doubled and short temper more than doubled. For both males and females, the prevalence of reported somatic pain tripled from around 20% to 60% of respondents.

The increase in prevalence of psychological problems between 1993 and 1998 suggests a substantial rise in underlying psychological and emotional distress over this period which, as shown in the third column of the table, persisted well beyond the onset of the crisis. There is only a small decline in the prevalence of psychological distress between 1998 and 2000 for both men and women. This persistence is noteworthy since by 2000 the Indonesian economy had begun to recover and mean household consumption levels had already returned to the pre-crisis levels of 1997. (Ravallion and Lokshin, 2007) In contrast with the increase in psychological problems, self-reported general health status changes very little over the entire seven year period. Around 11% of males and between 11 and 14% of females reports themselves as being in poor health. The relative stability of this general health measure suggests that the psychological distress indicators identify a change in a different dimension of health and

> 7 For ease of exposition, we have dichotomized the psychological distress and general health status questions. We combine respondents that report the experience of a particular psychological distress indicator either often or sometimes over the past four weeks. Likewise if a respondent reported their general health status as ‘somewhat unhealthy’ or ‘very unhealthy’ we recode to being in ‘poor general health’. One approach to measurement of health problems with survey data is to aggregate responses to several questions and create a summary index (see Das et al., forthcoming, for an example in psychological health). We present results for two domains of psychological problems – feeling sad or anxious – and suffering from sleep difficulties. Those are the only questions that are repeated across all three survey waves. Our results are qualitatively unchanged if we combine all six questions into an index and compare 1993 with 1998 or if we combine the three common questions across the three surveys into an index and compare 1993 with 1998 and 2000.

> 8 The sample sizes vary across the waves because of the survey design. In 1993, a subsample of adults was interviewed in each household. In 1998 and 2000, all adults were individually interviewed. The 1998 wave was restricted to a 25% sub-sample of households for cost reasons.

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