more than 280,000 women left the labor market. Female employment is likely to foster female agency and is also argued to be important for child health, schooling, and child survival (see Duflo, 2012 for an overview). Future studies should investigate the impacts of mining on these aspects as well. Using world market prices for ten different minerals we also find that the effects are strongest in periods when prices are higher.

We have not assessed the quality of the new work opportunities and whether women are facing decent and productive employment as a result of mining. Value added per worker differs between sectors in developing countries. The gap between agriculture and non-agriculture sectors has been found to be large (on average four times higher) and persistent according to national accounts. The difference remains after considering human capital and work hours differentials using micro-data (Gollin et al., 2012). The productivity difference is indicative of a misallocation of workers, with too many workers in agriculture. In this paper, we have shown that mine opening can pull people from low value added sectors to higher value added sectors, such as services and skilled manual labor. We also see that the probability of earning cash incomes increases for both men and women. Using data from the World Bank Living Standard Surveys, we explore wage rates further. The workers earning cash in the agricultural sector do not earn more than workers earning cash in the service sector (results are available upon request). This is not necessarily the interesting metric of remuneration to evaluate the effects of the mining industry; we have noticed an important shift from in kind to cash remuneration for work.

Our results are broadly consistent with the U-shaped development of female labor force participation with development as outlined by Goldin (1995). She shows that participation is initially reduced as women move from the farm but eventually increases as women enter the more advanced segments of the labor market. Whether women are winners in the scramble for Africa’s resources can only be concluded via a full welfare analysis. Such a welfare analysis must explore effects on agricultural productivity (see Aragón and Rud, 2013a regarding pollution effects from gold mines in Ghana) and access to land, which could induce the push of women from agriculture to service sector jobs, further analysis of income and substitutions effects driving women’s shifts on the labor market, exploration of secondary effects such as women’s bargaining power, and other environmental and social concerns associated with the large-scale mining industry.<sup>14</sup>

# **References**

Allcott, H. and D. Keniston (2014): “Dutch Disease or Agglomeration? The Local Economic Effects of Natural Resource Booms in Modern America,” _NBER Working Paper 20508_ .

Angrist, J. and A. Kugler (2008): “Rural Windfall or a New Resource Curse? Cocoa,

> 14 These include deforestation, land degradation, and pollution of air and water sources, as well as social issues such as displacement, inequality and tension between miners and non-miners, intra household economic inequality, the spread of HIV/AIDS, and boom and bust economies (UNECA, 2011).

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