rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
- 1.8 -

It. In the bush fallow-cropping system, a plece of land is cultivated for a number of years and then It is left uncultivated for a while for the soil nutrients to be replenished befcre cropping Is done again. The length of the fallow normally depends on the pressure on land In the area.

Slnce land Is available the only critical factor in agricultural production is labor. Most of the agricultural labor Is supplied by the .armer and members of the household. High demands for labor during labor-intensive operatlons like harvesting and weeding used to be met by soliciting the help of a neighbor In an arrangement known as nnoboa. Nnoboa labor is not paid for but the farmer also provides the same service to the neighbor at another tkne. Wlth the dwindling In size of the farm household through schooling of children and rural-urban migratlon and the avallability of a pool of farm laborers, nnoboa Is ceasing to be an Important source of farm labor. A farm can hire labor on an annual contract or hire casual labor on a daily basis.

To be able to characterize the agricultural sector of Ghana, a nationwide agricultural economics survey (AES) was conducted from October 1987 to February 1988 to gather Information on land and animal holdings, cropping patterns and Input use in Ghanaian agriculture. The survey formed part of the cocoa sector rehabilitation project. A sample of 705 farm households constituting a probability sample of farm householas was used. The sample formed a subqet of the sample of 3,200 households being used for the Ghana Llving Standards Survey (GLSS). The GLSS sample was selected by a twostage sampling technique. In the first stage, 200 clusters or enumeration areas (EAS) were systematically selected from a total of 12,969 with probability proportional to the size of the EAs. The sample frame was a total of 2,444,836 households out of which 3,200 were selected. Through an arrangement with the Ghana Statistical Service which required that the AES should Interview the responoents after the GLSS enumerators had been there, the agricultural households of the first 1,070 households of the GLSS sample were interviewed for the AES. A total of 705 farm households were interviewed using a
An example of how to apply this technique is a project in the Philippines. Concern about high dropout rates and poor student performance in elementary schools led the Philippine government to embark on a long-term plan for improvement. Under the 10-year Program for Comprehensive Elementary Education Development launched in 1982, the government invested an estimated $800 million (in 1981 prices), with support from the World Bank, in such inputs as textbooks, equipment, resource materials, staff training and classroom facilities. In 1990, a follow-up Bank-financed project continued support for investments totaling $410 million (1990 prices) over a-4-year period. To inform the design of the future investments, Tan, Lane and Coustere (1995) used data generated under the previous two World Bank operations to assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative inputs to improve student learning. The authors first estimated the relation between selected school inputs and student learning using regression analysis, and then estimated the costs of the relevant input. The available data permitted evaluating the individual effects on student learning of workbooks, classroom furniture, class size, teacher qualifications, and preschool education, controlling for variations in student's initial levels of learning and their family background, as well as for differences in classroom and school management practices. Simple division of the costs by the corresponding regression coefficients gave the desired cost-effectiveness ratios.

The results showed that in this particular case smaller classes and higher teacher qualifications had no effect on student performance, and therefore could be ruled out as priorities for policy intervention. Three school inputs – workbooks, classroom furniture, and preschool education – had unambiguously positive effects on learning. Because in this case preschool education was costly, it was less cost-effective than the other two inputs.

35
investments going towards urban areas. Dustmann et al. (2002) develop a model where migrants decide simultaneously on the optimal migration duration and their activities after return. They find that Turkish migrants in Germany are more likely to engage in self-employment upon their return to Turkey, relying on savings from abroad to finance their businesses. Likewise, Ilahi (1999) using cross-sectional data from Pakistan, finds that upon return, overseas savings become a critical determinant of occupational choice as migrants with high savings choose selfemployment while others opt for wage employment. In addition, Mesnard (2004) also models migration as a way to overcome credit constraints in the presence of capital market failures and demonstrates that the majority of entrepreneurial projects started by Tunisian returnees were financed through overseas savings.

Furthermore, Murillo Castaño (1988) highlights how in the case of Colombian return migrants from Venezuela, savings were used to buy, establish, or expand self-employment activities, once basic needs had been satisfied. Similarly, Murphy (2000) reports that two counties of south Jiangxi in China had pursued a number of initiatives incorporating return migrants into a local state corporatism, creating the conditions for successful migrants to establish businesses within their native communities. For the author, this impetus to encourage return migrant entrepreneurship is not only a response to upper level directives in the Chinese government, but it also partially fueled by the fact that return migrants both create and salvage revenue-generating entities which augment the power-base of the local state and increase funds for local welfare expenditures.

Additionally, Arif et al. (1997) study the factors affecting the occupational composition of Pakistani workers upon their return from Middle East employment locations by utilizing the 1986 ILO/ARTEP Survey of Return Migrant Households. They estimate that 44% of those employed in the ILO sample changed their pre-migration occupations upon return from employment in production or service jobs to small business related employment; the highest level of occupational change was observed in non-irrigated areas. They add that occupational change was strongly related to duration of stay in the Middle East, ages upon return, and the level of educational attainment. It is also important to note the potential transfer of social capital by migrants to their societies, either at the point of return, or through engagement in transnational social activities during migration or after return. The relevance of social capital theory to a study of the business behavior of returning migrants is given ample justification in a

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create some economic distortions; a service delivered by a foreign worker under an employment contract to a local provider may be treated differently from the same service provided by the same person acting as an unattached service provider, say under a consultant contract. Such a distinction would channel into one form of service delivery transactions that ideally should take another form (Winters et al. 2001).

# **MODE 4 HAS SO FAR ELICITED LIMITED COMMITMENTS THAT DO NOT EVEN REFLECT EXISTING NATIONAL REGIMES**

Most existing commitments under the GATS pertain to business travelers and intra-corporate transferees who must be managers, executives, or specialists (Table 1). Such commitments are of limited interest to countries that are not significant foreign investors. Moreover, commitments are often qualified by other restrictions: prior employment, numerical quotas, economic needs tests, and residency requirements. It is widely acknowledged that WTO members' mode 4 commitments generally do not even reflect prevailing entry conditions for natural persons, because members have committed to less than the access granted in practice.

**Table 1: Types of natural persons supplying services (horizontal commitments), April 2002**

|||**No. of**<br>**entries**|**No. of**<br>**aggregate**<br>**entries**|**% of aggregate**<br>**entries**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|te<br>es|Executives|56|||
|tra-<br>ora<br>fere|Managers|55|168|42%|
|In<br>orp<br>ans|Specialists|56|||
|c<br>tr|Others|1|||
|Ex|ecutives|24|||
|M|anagers|42|110|28%|
|Sp|ecialists|44|||
|iness<br>tors|Commercial<br>Presence|41|93|23%|
|Bus<br>visi|Sale<br>Negotiations|52|||
|Contra|ct Suppliers|12|12|3%|
||Other|17|17|4%|
|T|otal<sup>a</sup>|400|400|100%|

a Total number of entries by those WTO Members that have included commitments on Mode 4 in the horizontal section of their schedules.

_Source:_ World Trade Organization No significant differences exist between the commitments scheduled by developed and developing countries; both groups seem to have been equally hesitant in undertaking liberal commitments for mode 4. But countries that acceded to the WTO after 1995 have been more willing to make commitments for "contract suppliers" (i.e., employees of a foreign enterprise that has concluded a contract to supply a service in a country but does not have a commercial presence in that market).

7
8 meter.<sup>8</sup> Consumers who were not charged according to their meter reading were charged on the basis of estimated consumption volumes that varied by type of consumer and type of neighborhood (see statistical appendix table 4) as well as by number of interruptions. SEDAPAL's consumption estimates were often higher than actual consumption because interruptions in service were not fully taken into account, a source of consumer complaints.

Notwithstanding the increase in real tariffs, Lima's pricing regime provided no incentive for unmetered consumers to conserve water. Indeed the price increases had the opposite effect, encouraging consumers to try to increase consumption at least to the amount for which they are billed and encouraging large industrial users to drill their own wells. Currently SEDAPAL estimates that average demand in Lima has increased to the equivalent of 460 liters per capita per day, above that of cities with ample water sources, although rationing keeps per capita sales much lower. On the other hand, higher prices gave SEDAPAL the incentive and wherewithal to reduce physical water losses and pursue bill collection more rigorously, as we discuss in more detail in the section on SEDAPAL's operations'below.

A weakness of the reform was the failure to implement an objective price setting formula. Tariff regulation was defined in the water and Sanitation Law (Ley 26338, 1994) and its Reglamento (DS 09-95, 1995). However, SUNASS deternined that the application of the new tariff regime would be gradual. The implementation of the new tariff system has three stages: preparatory, improvement, and definite. During the preparatory stage, the financial feasibility of the water utility will be stressed so that the

> 8 In 1988 about a third of industrial consumers were charged according to a meter versus 16 percent of residential users (see statistical appendix Table 3).
The Effect of Household Wealth on Educational Attainment Around the World: Demographic and Health Survey Evidence'

# _Introduction_

][n this paper we are interested not just in countries' average educational enrollment and attainment, for which there has been a great deal of examination both from official and academJ[c sources, but in how educational attainment differs by household wealth _within_ countries.<sup>2</sup> How much schooling are children from poor households India, Brazil, or Kenya receiving, both absolutely and relative to the rich in the same country?

Answering this question, especially in a way that produces valid comparisons across countries is hampered by the limited availability, difficulty of use, and comparability of household survey data. The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), having applied essentially the same survey instrument in 35 countries potentially overcomes these problems. One potential limitation of the DHS is that it lacks questions on household income or consumption expenditures, which are conventionally used as indicators of households' economic status. However, in a separate methodological paper (Filmer and Pritchett, 1998a) we shoNv that an index constructed from the questions asked in the DHS about household assets and housing characteristics (e.g. construction materials, drinking water and toilet facilities) works as well, and arguably _better,_ than consumption expenditures as a proxy for household long-run wealth. This finding allows us to use a comparable _method,_ principal components, in

> ' This work is the result of research developed jointly with Jee-Peng Tan, and it has greatly benefited from her input. We would also like to thank Emiliana Vegas and seminar participants for helpful comments and suggestions. This research was funded in part through a World Bank Research support grant (RPO 682-1 1).

> 2 Several recent estimates of the stocks of schooling years in many countries have been produced based on the UNESCO Yearbook series enrollment rates and labor free and census surveys (Nehru, Swanson and Dubey, 1993; Barro and Lee, 1993; Dubey and King, 1994; Ahuja and Filmer, 1996).

2
the Antidumping Agreement by the WTO Appellate Body, and has been a high profile source of heated debate in the Doha Round. However, zeroing is only used by the US in a subset of cases where dumping margins are low to start with. That is, the technique is aimed at increasing the level of the dumping margin, something that is not needed when it comes to the majority of antidumping investigations directed at developing countries. Standard methodologies, including the ability to resort to “facts available” to construct dumping margins, provide significant scope to generate high margins, so there is no need to apply zeroing. The WTO disputes on zeroing are between the US and the EU and Japan. In the cases that have gone to dispute settlement, the average US antidumping duty imposed on EU and Japanese firms was 12%, compared to an average of some 75% for all US antidumping actions (including those against the EU and Japan).<sup>19</sup> Nye (2008) estimates that zeroing accounts for 2.5 percentage points of an average 47% antidumping duty imposed by the US in a sample of cases.

This is not to say that zeroing is innocuous. If many countries were to use it, the discipline created by multilateral rules would be eroded – and as mentioned above the rules appear to have played a role in constraining the use of trade remedies during the recent global recession. The same is true for the SSM: the specific criteria that are agreed as potential triggers for action do matter (Hertel, Martin and Leister, 2009). However, the experience with safeguards of different types, including antidumping, suggests that the key source of discipline on their use is domestic – countervailing pressure by groups that are negatively affected by higher trade barriers. This in turn suggests that what is most important in terms of multilateral disciplines is to ensure that instruments of contingent protection are not “mechanical” or “automatic” but require a judgment by policymakers regarding the net impact on the economy as a whole of taking action. This will be facilitated by all economic interests having the opportunity (legal standing) to be heard in the decision-making process whether or not to apply temporary protection to assist import-competing industries (Finger, 2002).

# **_B. Sectorals_**

A perception that the formulae-based market access negotiating modalities would not generate “enough” actual liberalization of applied tariffs has generated a push for sectoral deals in specific sectors by some WTO members. What would be the implications of agreeing to sectorals?

For illustrative purposes what follows focuses on the case of the US. We compare a baseline scenario where all countries reduce bound tariffs by 40 percent and all tariffs are capped

> 19 These data were provided by Chad Bown and were derived from Bown (2009).

22
therefore, are familiar with the operators. Nigeria embraced EITI, passed a law to institutionalize the initiative, and conducted physical and process audits of the oil industry. It has been difficult, however, to implement the recommendations of NEITI audits and this is not unconnected to the underlying political economy of the sector. NEITI reports reveal the weaknesses in the oil industry revenue collection machinery. Although Nigeria‘s fiscal regime compares favorably with those of other oil-producing countries, it suffers from overlaps and contradictions and inconsistencies. The main institutions involved in revenue collection- NNPC, DPR, and FIRS- experience capacity inadequacies, do not coordinate their efforts, and are liable to political pressures. The Niger Delta conflict, criminal activities, and oil theft or bunkering are mutually reinforcing in a seemingly perpetual cycle which resists all sorts of previous intermittent military, amnesty, and rehabilitation interventions.

126. Expenditure of oil revenues is no less problematic, producing an impact that falls short of those in other oil-producing countries. The ability to achieve healthy economic growth rates is hampered by low capacity to manage oil revenues, wasteful expenditures, lagging structural reforms, and infrastructure inadequacy. These shortcomings are attributable to and deepened by a political economy that sustains weak institutions, elections lacking credibility, unaccountable leadership that is not overly concerned with public welfare, and political processes prone to violence. Nigerian leaders have struggled since 1999 to reverse these trends, and some successes have been recorded. The judiciary has self-reformed and started to assert its independence from the executive, giving greater assurance that the rule of law is achievable. Reforms at the federal level—of public expenditure management, fight against corruption, NEITI, fiscal responsibility, and procurement legislation—give much promise that Nigeria could improve its political economy and prospects for development. Yet, these reforms need to be sustained, deepened and reinforced and must be addressed not as purely technocratic matters but rather as issues of political economy and vested interests that through regulation and reform must be aligned with the public interest.

42
This section summarizes the key data employed in this study and their preparation, with the supplement providing further details. Table S1a describes the 88 exporting countries included, and table S1b provides similar statistics for the 26 industries, aggregating over countries.

# _Labor Productivity Data_

Productivity measures<sup>_z_</sup> _itk_<sup>are taken from the Industrial Statistics Database of the United</sup> Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). The UNIDO data provide an unbalanced panel over countries, industries, and time periods, and the availability of these data are the key determinant of this study’s sample design. Estimations consider manufacturing industries at the three-digit level of the International Standard Industrial Classification system (ISIC3). Data construction starts by calculating the annual labor productivity in available industries and countries during the 1980–1999 period. These annual measures are then collapsed into the mean labor productivity level for each fiveyear period from 1980–1984 to 1995–1999. This aggregation into five-year time periods affords a more balanced panel by abstracting away from the occasional years when an otherwise reported country-industry is not observed. The higher aggregation is also computationally necessary below due to the tremendous number of fixed effects considered.

These labor productivity measures are first differenced in log format for inclusion in equation (3). Thus, an exporter _i_ and industry _k_ is included if it is observed in the UNIDO database in two adjacent periods. Sample inclusion also requires that the country-industry be reported in two observations at least five years apart (e.g., to prevent an included observation only being present in 1989 and 1991). The main estimations consider the three change periods of 1980–1984 →1985–1989, 1985–1989 →1990–1994, and 1990– 1994 →1995–1999.

# _Export Volumes_

 _k_ Bilateral exports _xijt_ are taken from the 1975–2000 World Trade Flows Database (WTF) developed by Feenstra et al. (2005). This rich data source documents product-level values of bilateral trade for most countries from 1980–1999. Similar to the development of the
|Both|Std. Err.<br>(8)|[.090]***<br>[.103]|[1.535]**<br>[1.882]|[.097]**<br>[.096]|[3.553]***<br>[3.589]<br>[10.169]*|[11.352]*<br>[.029]***<br>[.030]|[7.797]***<br>[13.007]<br>[2.966]<br>[2.493]<br>[.038]<br>[.042]|covariates and<br>eterosketastic|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|)<br>|ITT<br>(7)|0.465<br>-0.024|3.036<br>0.436|0.240<br>0.086|20.695<br>-5.005<br>18.131|21.744<br>-0.100<br>-0.020|48.122<br>13.548<br>1.787<br>-1.416<br>-0.012<br>0.013|r baseline<br>rdized). H|
|ssion (N=947<br>sh only|Std. Err.<br>(6)|[.097]***<br>[.105]|[1.572]***<br>[1.663]|[.094]<br>[.097]|[4.199]***<br>[3.605]<br>[10.018]|[10.245]<br>[.029]***<br>[.029]|[8.410]***<br>[15.276]<br>[2.907]**<br>[2.525]<br>[.036]<br>[.042]**|controlling fo<br>s frst standa|
|ITT regre<br>Ca|ITT<br>(5)|0.486<br>-0.059|4.128<br>1.341|0.138<br>-0.111|24.040<br>-2.615<br>16.342|2.026<br>-0.090<br>0.016|55.750<br>19.391<br>7.439<br>0.681<br>-0.009<br>-0.086|long run,<br>(themselve<br>le size.|
|apy only|Std. Err.<br>(4)|[.089]***<br>[.111]|[1.592]<br>[1.723]|[.094]<br>[.096]|[3.812]***<br>[3.808]<br>[8.901]|[11.042]<br>[.029]<br>[.030]|[6.291]<br>[13.431]<br>[2.879]<br>[2.550]<br>[.035]<br>[.043]|the short and<br>e outcomes <br>maller samp|
|Ther|ITT<br>(3)|0.233<br>0.063|1.351<br>0.764|0.124<br>0.143|10.683<br>-1.870<br>-1.652|11.360<br>0.004<br>0.018|6.748<br>3.116<br>1.044<br>1.030<br>-0.011<br>-0.037|tment arm in<br>hree composit<br>0.1<br>sions have a s|
||Control<br>mean<br>(2)|-0.240<br>0.031|14.410<br>17.595|-0.093<br>0.009|44.394<br>47.347<br>45.957|51.395<br>0.202<br>0.145|18.444<br>26.121<br>36.773<br>34.273<br>0.859<br>0.797|of each trea<br>d mean of t<br><0.05, * p<<br> their regres|
||Round<br>(1)|2–5w<br>12–13m|2–5w<br>12–13m|2–5w<br>12–13m|2–5w<br>12–13m<br>2-5w|12-13m<br>2-5w<br>12-13m|2-5w<br>12-13m<br>2-5w<br>12-13m<br>2-5w<br>12-13m|of the efect<br> standardize<br>p<0.01, ** p<br>se/round, so|
||Outcome|Summary index of income measures, z-score_†_|Weekly earnings in past two weeks (USD)|Durable consumption assets, z-score_†_|Consumption, past 2 weeks, USD<br>Other economic outcomes:<br>Savings stock (USD)_†_|Homeless in past two weeks|Investment in past two weeks (USD)<br>Value of business assets (USD)_†_<br>Hours/week of work, past month<br>Home robbed or belongings stolen in past month<br>_†_|_Notes:_ The table reports intent to treat estimates<br>block fxed efects. The income summary index is the<br>robust standard errors are reported in brackets. *** <br>_†_These variables were not collected during every pha|

22