rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Ratha, Dilip. 2006. Trends, Determinants, and Macroeconomic Effects of Remittances,” in _Global Economic Prospects 2006: “Economic Implications of Remittances and Migration.”_ World Bank. (Washington: World Bank).

Ratha, Dilip, Sanket Mohapatra, and Ani Silwal. 2009. “Outlook for Remittance Flows 2009-2011: Remittances expected to fall by 7-9 percent in 2009.” Migration and Development Brief, July 13.

Sayan, Serdar. 2006. “Business Cycles and Workers’ Remittances: How Do Migrant Workers Respond to Cyclical Movements of GDP at Home?” IMF Working Paper WP/06/52. (Washington: International Monetary Fund).

World Bank’s World Development Indicators (WDI) various years.

Yang Dean and HwaJung Choi. 2007. “Are Remittances Insurance? Evidence from Rainfall Shocks in the Philippines.” World Bank Economic Review: 21(2): 219-248.

Yang Dean. 2008. “Coping with Disaster: The Impact of Hurricanes on International Financial Flows, 1970-2002.” B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy 8(1).

20
Policy Research Working Paper 5218

# **Abstract**

Using survey data from 86,000 enterprises in 104 countries, including 17,000 enterprises in 31 SubSaharan African countries, this paper finds that average enterprise-level employment growth rates are remarkably similar across regions. This is true despite significant differences in the quality of the investment climate in which these enterprises operate. Objective measures of investment climate conditions (including the number of outages, the share of firms with bank loans, and others) indicate that conditions are most challenging within Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as for smaller enterprises. However, enterprises’ employment in Sub-Saharan Africa is less sensitive to changes in access to infrastructure and finance relative to other low-income regions. This can be understood by looking at non-linear effects by firm size —and the finding that these size effects are particularly strong within Sub-Saharan Africa. Although unreliable infrastructure services and inadequate access to finance generally hamper growth, in Sub-Saharan Africa they are actually associated with higher employment growth rates among micro enterprises. Although employment growth is good news in Sub-Saharan Africa, that much of the expanded employment is in small, labor-intensive, less productive enterprises raises longer-run concerns about the efficiency of the allocation of resources and aggregate productivity growth in the region.

This paper—a product of the Macroeconomics and Growth Team, Development Research Group—is part of a larger effort in the department to explore firm dynamics and the microeconomics of growth. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at mhallward@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
# **Figure 3: Actual and Predicted Annual 2008-2020 CERs**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 1100.00<br>900.00<br>700.00<br>500.00<br>300.00<br>100.00<br>-100.00<br>Start of CDM Public Comment Period<br>All Projects CERs 2020 Model 1 Model 2<br>Cumulative CERs, MtCO2e<br><!-- End of picture text --> 22
Policy Research Working Paper 10080

# **Abstract**

This paper presents evidence on the extent to which a set of real-time indicators tracked changes in gross domestic product across 142 countries in 2020. The real-time indicators include Google mobility, Google search trends, food price information, nitrogen dioxide, and nighttime lights. Google mobility and staple food prices both declined sharply in March and April, followed by a rapid recovery that returned to baseline levels by July and August. Mobility and staple food prices fell less in low-income countries. Nitrogen dioxide levels show a similar pattern, with a steep fall and rapid recovery in high-income and upper-middle-income countries but not in low-income and lower-middle-income countries. In April and May, Google search terms reflecting economic distress and religiosity spiked in some regions but not others. Data on nighttime lights show no clear drop in March outside East Asia. Linear models selected using the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator explain about a third of the variation in annual gross domestic product growth rates across 72 countries. In a smaller subset of higher income countries, real-time indicators explain about 40 percent of the variation in quarterly gross domestic product growth. Overall, mobility and food price data, as well as pollution data in more developed countries, appeared to be best at capturing the widespread economic disruption experienced during the summer of 2020. The results indicate that these real-time indicators can track a substantial percentage of both annual and quarterly changes in gross domestic product.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at dnewhouse@worldbank.org and upape@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
cities of a small and relatively open economy like Bolivia. We measure the size and the speed of the price transmission, both internationally and within Bolivia, and test for upward and downward symmetry in that speed. We also shed light on the determinants of geographical price differences and price transmission. We focus on ten key products for the median Bolivian household: bananas, beef, cooking oil, chicken, milk, onions, potatoes, rice, sugar and wheat flour, and on the main four cities that accumulate more than half of the population: Cochabamba, El Alto, La Paz and Santa Cruz.<sup>2</sup> The main results of the paper are that domestic and foreign goods are imperfect substitutes, as transmission from world to domestic prices is imperfect and slow. Marked asymmetries in transmission patterns also point to departures from perfectly competitive settings. Finally, we identify a clear association between regional production levels and prices for non-industrial products, which point to the importance of transportation costs as determinant of price differences and a possible barrier to market integration.

The remaining of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the data and the methodology used. In section 3 we present the main results of the spatial integration analysis, both within Bolivian cities, and between world and domestic markets, and explores whether transmission from world to domestic prices is symmetric with respect to increases and decreases of world prices. Section 4 provides an informal discussion of possible determinants of geographical price differences. Section 5 provides some concluding remarks.

# 2. Data & Methodology

Domestic price data for the ten products analyzed here were obtained from the National Statistics Office of Bolivia (INE) for the period 1991m1 - 2008m9.<sup>3</sup> World price series for the corresponding products were obtained

> 2 El Alto and La Paz are virtually the same market, as they are contiguous.

> 3 For Bananas, we use price series No. 11016 from INE, for Beef, 112010, for Chicken, 112059, for Onions, 114039, for Potatoes, 115017, for Rice 111050, for Cooking Oil,

3
# ACKNOWLE DGEMENTS

A number of persons provided us with important information for this work or assisted us in preparing it in other ways. The Estimates and Projections Section of the U.N. Population Division has been continually supportive in providing us with data, often prior to its publication in their own books. We are grateful to the section chief, Y. C. Yu, and to his continually accomodating staff, as well as to the head of the division, Jean-Claude Chasteland. Through the U.N. Population Division, we also received data from the Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia (Celade).

World Bank country economists and population specialists in the operating divisions have also provided us with recent population estimates, bringing to our attention government reports we might not otherwise see. Among them, we wish to particularly acknowledge Althea Hill, who has in addition provided us with important analyses of her own.

This exercise was carried out using a personal computer program, PROJPC, written by Kenneth Hill of Johns Hopkins University. For this year's work, Hill undertook various revisions and refinements of the program that have speeded up the process.

As was its predecessor, the post-reorganization Population, Health and Nutrition Division has been hospitable to this work. Dean T. Jamison, the division chief during most of the period of this exercise, showed more interest in and enthusiasm for these figures than any of us would have predicted. His successor, Dr. Anthony R. Measham, has continued in the same supportive mode.

We also wish to acknowledge the interest of the Bank's International Economics Socioeconomic Data Division (IECSE), which not only consumes our numbers and incorporates them into the databases it maintains and publications it distributes but also helps coordinate communications with country economists.

Useful comments on the introduction were provided by Dr. Fred Sai and Susan H. Cochrane. In producing the manuscript, Ella Hornsby was responsible not only for typing and some data entry but also for coordinating the paper flow.

My T. Vu Eduard Bos Rodolfo A. Bulatao v
# Figure 2

# Panel A

<!-- Start of picture text --> % Employment in Agriculture vs. GDP per capita, 2008<br>Sri Lanka + Region Trends & Comparator Countries<br>IN - 1983<br>NP - 2008<br>BGD - 1984 IN - 2008<br>PK - 1980<br>BGD - 2008<br>PK - 2008<br>SL - 1981 Thailand<br>Philippines<br>SL - 2008<br>Brazil<br>Malaysia<br>KoreaRep<br>Unit e dKingdomUnitedStates<br>Singapore<br>.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50<br>GDP per capita, 000s (in constant 2005 international $ at PPP)<br>Data source: ILO (KILM 3rd & 4th eds. & LABORSTA) & World Bank World Development Indicators, 2010. India data from National Sample Survey.<br>2008 employment share regressed on log(2008 GDP per capita) & log(2008 GDP per capita) squared. Excludes ECA countries in transition.<br>Panel C<br>% Employment in Services vs. GDP per capita, 2008<br>Sri Lanka + Region Trends & Comparator Countries<br>UnitedKingdomUnitedStates<br>Singapore<br>KoreaRep<br>Brazil Malaysia<br>Philippines<br>BGD - 2008 PK - 2008 SL - 2008 Thailand<br>PK - 1980 SL - 1981<br>NP - 2008<br>BGD - 1984 IN - 2008<br>IN - 1983<br>.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50<br>GDP per capita, 000s (in constant 2005 international $ at PPP)<br>Data source: ILO (KILM 3rd & 4th eds. & LABORSTA) & World Bank World Development Indicators, 2010. India data from National Sample Survey.<br>2008 employment share regressed on log(2008 GDP per capita) & log(2008 GDP per capita) squared. Excludes ECA countries in transition.<br>80<br>60<br>40<br>20<br>Share of Employment in Agriculture<br>0<br>100<br>80<br>60<br>40<br>Share of Employment in Services<br>20<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# Panel B

<!-- Start of picture text --> % Employment in Manufacturing vs. GDP per capita, 2008<br>Sri Lanka + Region Trends & Comparator Countries<br>SL - 2008<br>Malaysia<br>Singapore<br>KoreaRep<br>PK - 1980<br>PK - 2008 B razil<br>Thailand<br>SL - 1981 UnitedKingdom<br>IN - 1983 IN - 2008 UnitedStates<br>BGD - 2008<br>BGD - 1984 NP - 2008 Philippines<br>.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50<br>GDP per capita, 000s (in constant 2005 international $ at PPP)<br>Data source: ILO (KILM 3rd & 4th eds. & LABORSTA) & World Bank World Development Indicators, 2010. India data from National Sample Survey.<br>2008 employment share regressed on log(2008 GDP per capita) & log(2008 GDP per capita) squared. Excludes ECA countries in transition.<br>25<br>20<br>15<br>10<br>Share of Employment in Manufacturing5<br><!-- End of picture text --> 26
Based on a two‐stage propensity score–weighted fixed‐effects model, the analysis finds that electrification is associated with a broad range of social and economic benefits in Pakistan, including higher income and expenditures, better health and education outcomes for children, and increased women’s labor force participation and decision‐making power. Lack of reliable access to electricity is conservatively estimated to cost the economy $5.8 billion—2.6 percent of GDP—a year.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II reviews the status of electricity access in Pakistan and identifies factors contributing to the low quality of electricity supply in the country. Section III presents the data and the descriptive analysis. Section IV discusses the empirical strategy. Section V describes estimation results and findings. Section VI summarizes the paper’s main conclusions.

# **II. Electricity Access in Pakistan**

Pakistan has made remarkable progress in connecting its towns and villages to the electric grid over the past few decades. The _Global Tracking Framework_ report issued jointly by the World Bank and the International Energy Agency ranked Pakistan fourth in the world in terms of the number of people who gained access to electricity between 1990 and 2010 (after India, China, and Indonesia) (SEforAll 2014). Over this period, roughly 91 million people in Pakistan received electrical services for the first time.

The actual access rate to electricity in Pakistan is very much up to debate, however—and by any measure a large share of the population continues to live without electricity 24/7. Pakistan’s latest official household survey reported that 97.5 percent of the population had access to electricity in 2016 (99.7 percent in urban areas and 95.6 percent in rural areas). Estimates based on census data and the number of connections reported by utilities suggest that access to grid electricity was only about 74 percent in 2016 (90 percent in urban areas and 63 percent in rural areas in 2016) (IEA 2017). The household survey sponsored by IFC suggests that 35 percent of Pakistan’s population lacked access to electricity in 2014 and that the access rate in parts of the country was still alarmingly low (almost half of the population in Sindh lived off‐grid, for example).

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-in determining trust or confidence. To isolate the role of kinship, 69 percent specified known relatives as their money-keepers, and 45 percent named their parents, spouses, full siblings, or offspring. 79 percent of women depositors used kin as their safe-keepers, as against only 55 percent of depositors. Among the women depositors, 36 percent named their husbands as the money-keepers, whereas among the men depositors, only 5 percent named their wives, raising interesting questions about who trusts whom with money in marriages. Only 24 percent of the male and female depositors identified their respective moneykeepers to be unrelated friends. Note, however, that the sample sizes behind these figures are small (see Table 2).

Gambians prefer to entrust their money to their elders. Thus they use their parents but not their offspring as money-keepers. That women entrust their money to their husbands more than men to their wives (Table 3) fits the age pattern too, since most husbands are older than their wives, some by many years.

How big are the amounts involved? Irn the 1987 survey they varied from 20 dalasis--the lowest reported, at any rate--to over 2,000, the median deposit being about 251 dalasis. Though women are more likely to deposit with moneykeepers than men, the men deposit bigger sums. In their last visits with moneykeepers before being interviewed in 1988, depositing men had left a median sum of 530 dalasis for safe keeping, as compared with the depositing women's median of 150 dalasis. And 26 percent of the men depositors, as against only 10 percent of the women ones, reported having entrusted amounts of 1,000 or more.
24 from 3% to say 5-6% and substituting a more reasonable test to measure domestic costs based not on average costs but marginal costs.

Unfortunately, retaliation has been an antidote to the use of antidumping. However, retaliation as an antidote works when large countries threaten small countries. Thus it is not an option available to all countries. Also retaliation could lead to further proliferation of antidumping.

Ultimately, the use of exceptional protection is a matter of commitment to liberal trade and competition by a country. Those countries that are committed to these ideals have institutions that encode these ideals and they resist domestic producers from attempting to use exceptional protection to raise their profits by reducing competition. Only through the eradication of antidumping policies and the transferring of jurisdiction to competition policies agencies, previous enactment of effective antitrust legislation and its proper enforcement will competition policies and antidumping become soul mates. Otherwise they will remain total strangers at a significant welfare cost to all countries involved.

# **Bibliography**

- Abbot, Kenneth W. "Trade Remedies and Legal Remedies: Antidumping, Safeguards, and Dispute Settlement after the Uruguay Round." Northwestern University School of Law, Chicago, 1995 (mimeo).

- Braga, Carlos Primo, Julio Nogues and Sarath Rajapatirana, "Latin America and the Caribbean in the World Economy," Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Development in Latin America 1995, Rio de Janeiro, June 12-13, World Bank Latin American and Caribbean Studies, World Bank 1995.

- Deardorff, A. V. 1989. "Economic Perspectives on Antidumping Law." In John Jackson and Robert Stern, eds., _Antidumping-Law and Practice._ Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.

- Finger, Michael J., Antidumping: How it Works and Who Gets Hurt. University of Michigan Press, 1993.

Guasch, J. Luis. 1994. _Competition Policies in Latin America._ Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
Policy Research Working Paper 8714

# **Abstract**

This paper uses a unique data set that captures the elimination of subnational regulatory barriers to firm entry and competition across 1,800 municipalities and matches it with establishment census panel data to estimate the impact on establishment productivity and markups. The elimination of local barriers that were inconsistent with national legislation was the result of legal reforms that strengthened the mandate of Peru’s competition authority. Legislative changes in 2013/14 empowered the competition authority to enforce the elimination of illegal, sector-specific subnational regulatory barriers to firm entry and competition, conditional on the existence of a precedence. The changes provide a unique quasi-experimental setting to identify the impact of enforcing competition within the controlled institutional environment of a single country. The paper finds that the elimination of subnational barriers to entry boosted the (revenue) productivity of establishments operating in reform municipalities and sectors relative to establishments in nonreform municipalities/sectors. But it did not raise the establishments’ markups, which, if anything, declined, suggesting that physical productivity improved. The paper provides a wide range of evidence supporting a causal interpretation of this finding. The results suggest that strengthening the mandate of institutions enforcing competition is critical to raise productivity.

This paper is a product of the Macroeconomics, Trade and Investment Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/research. The authors may be contacted at mschiffbauer@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team