rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
20

- Gurdian, G. and D. Salamnanca. 1990. "Bilingual Education in Nicaragua."<sup>Prospects 20,3:</sup> 357-364.

- Hernandez, I. 1988. "Identidad Indigena y Educacion." Desarrollo Economico<sup>28,109: 121-</sup> 137.

- Ilon, L. and P. Moock. 1991. "School Attributes, Household Characteristics, and<sup>Demand</sup> for Schooling: A Case Study of Rural Peru." International Review of Education<sup>37,4:</sup> 429-452.

- Jallade, J.-P. 1977. "Basic Education and Income Inequality in Brazil: The<sup>Long-Term View."</sup> World Bank Staff Worldkg Paper No. 268.

- Jamison, D.T. 1978. "Radio Education and Student Repetition in Nicaragua."<sup>In P. Suppes,</sup> B. Searle, and J. Friend, eds., The Radio Mathematics Project: Nicaragua 1976-1977. Stanford: Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University.

- Kelley, J. 1988. "Class Conflict or Ethnic Oppression? The Cost of Being Indian<sup>in Rural</sup> Bolivia." Rural Sociolo 53,4: 399-420.

- Lopez, L.E. 1990. "Development of Human Resources in and for Bilingual Intercultural Education in Latin America." Proscts 20,3: 311-320.

- Lopez, L.E. and L. d'Emiio. 1992. "Bilingual Education Beyond National Frontiers. Bolivian-Peruvian Cooperation." The Maor Project of Education in Latin America<sup>and</sup> the Caribbean Bulletin 27: 41-56.

- Martinez, P.P. 1990. "Towards Standardization of<sup>T</sup> inguage for Teaching in the Andean Countries." Prospects 20,3: 377-386.

- Moya, R. 1990. "A Decade of Bilingual Education and Indigenous Participation<sup>in Ecuador."</sup> Proscts 20,3: 331-344.

- Organizacion de los Estados Americanos. 1992. Niveles Educativos Basicos en America<sup>Latina</sup> y el Caribe: Situacion Actual y Perspectivas. Documentos de Trabajo del Proyecto Multinacional de Educacion Basica (PRODEBAS), 1.

- Psacharopoulos, G. and H. Yang. 1991. "Educational Attainment among Venezuelan<sup>Youth:</sup> An Analysis of Its Determinants." International Journal of Educational<sup>Development</sup> 11,4: 289-294.

- Psacharopoulos, G., C. Rojas, and E. Velez. 1992. "Achievement Evaluation<sup>of Colombia's</sup> Escuela Nueva: Is Multigrade the Answer?", World Bank, Policy Working<sup>Papers No.</sup> 896.
Fafchamps et al. (2010b) use two pre-treatment and four post-treatment rounds of data collection in an experiment designed to alleviate capital constraints in Ghanaian microenterprises. This approach offers some hope for achieving adequate power levels to detect increases in employment or exporting with treatment and control groups of each 300 to 400 firms, but will still not yield enough power to detect a 20 percent increase in sales.

The bottom line therefore from this analysis is that many SME projects, even if experimentally implemented with 100 percent compliance, are unlikely to be able to tell whether they achieved their desired outcomes given the number and heterogeneity of the firms participating. Next, I discuss my thoughts on the ability of structural methods to resolve this problem, before returning to ask what we can identify with firm experiments.

# **3.3 Implications and Challenges for Structural Methods**

I should acknowledge here that I am at most a consumer, rather than producer, of research on firms using structural models. With this in mind, let me discuss what I see of three important challenges that structural modeling is likely to face given the nature of firms and projects aiming to assist firms in many African countries.

The first challenge is that structural modeling of firm production and productivity is more convincing when homogeneous firms can be reasonably assumed to be using the same common production technology, leading to a focus of many industrial organization papers on very specific industries such as ready-mix concrete, ready-to-eat cereals, minivans, etc. Nevertheless, when it comes to productivity estimation, such narrow focus is the exception, and it is more typical for studies to group together firms at the 2-digit ISIC industry level (e.g. textiles and apparel, or food products). This is done for sample size reasons rather than any theoretical or empirical justification that the same production function should apply for all such firms. The reality of many interventions directed at firms in Africa is instead one of a wide mix of heterogeneous firms operating in many different sectors, for which assuming a common production technology is highly inappropriate. Assuming that this problem can be solved by the inclusion of sector dummies also appears wishful thinking. Alternatively, one could focus on specific industries, but the small number of firms in many industries in most African countries makes this more difficult to do than in larger developed country markets.

11
WPS3950

# Infrastructure and Public Utilities Privatization in Developing Countries

Emmanuelle Auriol* University of Toulouse I

## Pierre M. Picard † University of Manchester

#### Abstract

The paper analyzes governments’ tradeoff between fiscal benefits and consumer surplus in privatization reforms of noncompetitive industries in developing countries. Under privatization, the control rights are transferred to private interests so that public subsidies decline. This benefit for tax-payers comes at the cost of price increases for consumers. In developing countries, tight budget constraints imply that privatization may be optimal for low profitability segments. For highly profitable public utilities, the combination of allocative inefficiency and critical budgetary conditions may favor public ownership. Finally, once a market segment gives room for more than one firm, governments prefer to regulate the industry. In the absence of a credible regulatory agency, regulation is achieved through public ownership.

### World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3950, June 2006

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at_ _<u>http://econ.worldbank.org.</u>_

*Emmanuelle Auriol: ARQADE and IDEI Université de Toulouse I, France. Email: eauriol@cict.fr. †Pierre Picard, University of Manchester and University of Louvain. Email: Pierre.Picard@man.ac.uk.
|**procedure_**|Expectional or|
|---|---|
|**type_**<br>**standard**|ordinary procedure<br>[English terms across<br>all countries]|
|**bill_type**|Categories available<br>on the source (e.g.<br>general laws,<br>omnibus laws,<br>budgetarylaws)|
|**bill_status**|Whether a bill was<br>passed/rejected by<br>the parliament otr<br>neither (under<br>consideration)|
|**modified_**<br>**law_id**|Reference bill_id(s)<br>of laws modified|
|**modified_**<br>**laws_count**|Count of laws<br>modified by the<br>enacted law|
|**date_**<br>**stage_1 **|Date of start of first<br>legislative step|
|**date_**<br>**stage_2**|Date of the start of<br>the second legislative<br>step|
|**date_**<br>**stage_n **|Date of the last<br>legislative step|
|**name_**<br>**stage_1 **|Name of the first<br>legislative step|
|**name_**<br>**stage_2 **|Name of the second<br>legislative step|
|**name_stage_n**|<br>Name of the nth<br>legislative step|
|**number_**<br>**stage_1**|Consecutive<br>numbering of the<br>stage|
|**number_**<br>**stage_2**|Consecutive<br>numbering of the<br>stage|
|**number_**<br>**stage_n**|Consecutive<br>numbering of the<br>stage|
|**size_**<br>**stage_1**|Cumulative<br>depth/size of all<br>debates during the<br>given stage; number<br>of characters of<br>speeches held or the<br>length of the report|

30
# PRE Working PaBer Series

|||Authob|D,|Contact<br>for Qr|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|WPS649|An Observation on the Bias in<br>Clinic-based Estimates of<br>Malnutrition Rates|Margaret E. Grosh<br>Kristin Fox<br>Maria Jackson|April 1991|B. Diallo<br>30997|
|WPS650|Administrative Valuation of Soviet<br>Agricultural Land: Results Using<br>Lithuanian Production Data|Karen Brooks|April 1991|C. Spooner<br>30464|
|WPS651|Taxation of Financial Assets in<br>Developing Countries|Christophe Chamley|April 1991|A. Bhalia<br>37699|
|WPS652|Demographic Response to Economic<br>Shock|Kenneth Hill|April 1991|WDR Office<br>31393|
|WPS653|The Effects of Option-Hedging on the<br>Costs of Domestic Price Stabilization<br>Schemes|Donald F. Larson<br>Jonatinan Coleman|April 1991|D. Gustafson<br>33714|
|'NPS654|Reflections on Credit Policy in<br>Developing Countries: Its Effect on<br>Private Investment|Mansoor Dailami<br>Marcelo Giugale|April 1991|M. Raggambi<br>37657|
|WPS655|Interest Rate Policy in Egypt: Its<br>Role in Stabilization and Adjustment|Mansoor Dailami<br>Hinh T. D.nh|April 1991|M. Raggambi<br>37657|
|WPS656|Relative Deprivation and Migration:<br>Theory, Evidence, and Policy<br>Implications|Oded Stark<br>J. Edward Taylor|April 1991|M. Felix<br>33724|
|WPS657|Distributional Aspects of Debt<br>Adjustment|Ishac Diwan<br>Thierry Verdier|April 1991|S. King-Watson<br>33730|
|WPS658|Fiscal Policy with Fixed Nominal<br>Exchange Rates: C6te d'lvoire|Christophe Chamley<br>Hafez Ghanem|April 1991|Raquel Luz<br>34303|
|WPS659|Inflation and Growth in the Transition<br>from Socialism: The Case of Bulgaria|Andres Solimano<br>|April 1991|E. Khine<br>37471|
|WPS660|The Development of the Colombian<br>Cut Flower Industry|Jose A. Mendez|May 1991|N. Artis<br>37947|
|WPS661|The Bretton Woods Agencies and<br>Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s:<br>Facing the Tough Questions|Richard E. Feinberg|May 1991|S. King-Watson<br>33730|
|WPS662|Trends in Social Indicators and<br>Social Sector Financing|Jacques van der Gaag<br>Elene Makonnen<br>Pierre Englebert|May 1991|B. Rosa<br>33751|
1 Economic development, as measured by growth in<sup>per capita GDP, is</sup> strongly correlated with a large number of variables that<sup>try to capture the</sup> "quality of life" or welfare status of a population. Such<sup>variables include</sup> life expectancy, child and infant mortality, literacy,<sup>nutritional status,</sup> access to clean drinking water, availability of school and<sup>teachers, clinics</sup> and doctors, and so forth. Taking these correlations for granted,<sup>one can</sup> expect that on average the quality of life has improved<sup>tremendously over the</sup> past three decades since per capita GDP increased<sup>worldwide.</sup> Yet, such an aggregated picture masks substantial regional<sup>differences</sup> in performance. Asian countries, for instance, showed<sup>a per capita growth</sup> rate of 5.7 per cent during the period 1980-89, while<sup>that of sub-Saharan</sup> Africa (excluding South Africa) declined by 0.3<sup>per cent (most recent estimate</sup> from World Development Report). Did the social<sup>indicators of lining standards</sup> show a similar trend? Did infant mortality rates<sup>drop sharply in Asia and</sup> increase in Africa? Did the gains in life expectancy<sup>of the 1960s and 1970s</sup> erode in the 1980s? Are school enrollment ratios declining<sup>in stagnating</sup> countries, with apparently tragic consequences for future<sup>growth?</sup> These and many related questions have been<sup>rassed, and answers have been</sup> suggested by many development specialists and institutions, most recently by the World Bank (World Development Report 1990)<sup>and UNDP (Human Development</sup> Report, 1990).
Table 2: Correlations of adverse events with depression

|||P|anel A||||Panel B||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||Over CES<br>for depres|-D cutoff (>10)<br>sive symptoms|||Over CES<br>for depre|-D cutoff (>10)<br>ssive symptoms||
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|
|Any adverse event|0.105***|0.102***|0.070***|0.038*|||||
||(0.017)|(0.016)|(0.014)|(0.020)|||||
|Covariate shock 2014-2016|||||0.028|0.017|0.007|-0.010|
||||||(0.021)|(0.022)|(0.021)|(0.024)|
|Idiosyncratic shock 2014-2016|||||0.115***|0.113***|0.074***|0.030|
||||||(0.018)|(0.018)|(0.016)|(0.025)|
|Experienced HH death 2014-16|||||0.024|0.014|0.031|0.039|
||||||(0.024)|(0.026)|(0.023)|(0.032)|
|Conflicts between 2014-2016|||||0.188***|0.205***|0.153***|0.180***|
||||||(0.038)|(0.037)|(0.034)|(0.046)|
|Asked about adverse events first (primed)||-0.010|-0.009|-0.036*||-0.012|-0.010|-0.033*|
|||(0.014)|(0.014)|(0.019)||(0.014)|(0.014)|(0.018)|
|Priming * Any shock||||0.065**|||||
|||||(0.027)|||||
|Priming x covariate shock||||||||0.038|
|||||||||(0.032)|
|Priming x idiosyncratic shock||||||||0.089**|
|||||||||(0.035)|
|Priming x death||||||||-0.019|
|||||||||(0.042)|
|Priming x conflicts||||||||-0.049|
|||||||||(0.066)|
|Log per capita consumption in 2013||-0.019|-0.033***|-0.034***||-0.018|-0.033**|-0.033***|
|||(0.013)|(0.013)|(0.013)||(0.013)|(0.013)|(0.013)|
|N|4579|4304|4224|4224|4579|4304|4224|4224|
|Fixed effects|||X|X|||X|X|

Notes: Columns 1-4 in Panel A: Ordered logit with clustered standard error (EA), Columns 1-4 in Panel B: Probit with clustered standard error (EA), *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. Covariates include urban, household head, female, age, age squared, years of education, marital status, Muslim, “other or unknown religion" and "recently moved or missing EA".

21
# **References**

- Abraham, R., & Shrivastava, A. (2022). How Comparable are India’s labour market surveys?. _The Indian Journal of Labour Economics_ , 65(2), 321-346.

- <mark>Ambler, K., Herskowitz, S., & Maredia, M. K. (2021). Are we done yet? Response fatigue and rural livelihoods.</mark> _<mark>Journal of Development Economics</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>153</mark>_ <mark>, 102736.</mark>

- <mark>Arthi, V., Beegle, K., De Weerdt, J., & Palacios-López, A. (2018). Not your average job: Measuring farm labor in Tanzania.</mark> _<mark>Journal of Development Economics</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>130</mark>_ <mark>, 160-172.</mark>

- <mark>Bardasi, E., Beegle, K., Dillon, A., & Serneels, P. (2011). Do labor statistics depend on how and to whom the questions are asked? Results from a survey experiment in Tanzania.</mark> _<mark>The World Bank Economic Review</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>25</mark>_ <mark>(3), 418-447.</mark>

- <mark>Blattman, C., Green, D. P., Ortega, D., & Tobón, S. (2021). Place-based interventions at scale: The direct and spillover effects of policing and city services on crime. Journal of the European Economic Association, 19(4), 2022-2051.</mark>

- <mark>Bruhn, M., & McKenzie, D. (2009). In pursuit of balance: Randomization in practice in development field experiments.</mark> _<mark>American economic journal: applied economics</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>1</mark>_ <mark>(4), 200-232.</mark>

- <mark>Borrowman, M., & Klasen, S. (2020). Drivers of gendered sectoral and occupational segregation in developing countries. Feminist Economics, 26(2), 62-94.</mark>

- Deshmukh, N., Desai, S., Pramanik, S., & Tiwari, D. (2020). Improving measurement of women’s work participation: Sensitivity of work participation rates to questionnaire design. _NCAER National Data Innovation Centre Measurement Brief No 2020-1_ .

- <mark>Dillon, A., Bardasi, E., Beegle, K., & Serneels, P. (2012). Explaining variation in child labor statistics.</mark> _<mark>Journal of Development Economics</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>98</mark>_ <mark>(1), 136-147.</mark>

- <mark>Discenza, A., Gaddis, I., Palacios-Lopez, A., Walsh, K. (2021). Measuring Women and Men’s Work: Main Findings from a Joint ILO and World Bank Study in Sri Lanka. Washington DC: World Bank.</mark>

25
25 Russia seems to be considering legal actions against the sanctioning countries.<sup>76</sup> However, this language would probably still leave a high bar to clear for Russia.

In interpreting this clause, courts are likely to be informed by their prior construction of _force majeure_ (FM) clauses since this seems to be at least a variant of one. The clause is atypically broad. FM clauses will generally delineate qualifying events in somewhat greater detail than was done here.<sup>77</sup> In fact, the definition of an “Alternative Payment Currency Event” is simply not being able to pay in the denomination currency for reasons beyond its control.<sup>78</sup> But what kinds of risks were shifted with such a broad clause? Does this mean Russia offloaded the risk of sanctions unto creditors?

The UKSC recently restated its general rule for contractual interpretation: “The court’s task is to ascertain the objective meaning of the language which the parties have chosen to express their agreement. _It has long been accepted that this is not a literalist exercise focused solely on a parsing of the wording of the particular clause but that the court must consider the contract as a whole_ and, depending on the nature, formality and quality of drafting of the contract, give more or less weight to elements of the wider context in reaching its view as to that objective meaning.”<sup>79</sup> In looking at the contract as a whole, the courts could consider disclosures and statements about risk factors regarding sanctions in their construction of the clause.<sup>80</sup> Additionally, these are likely to be considered contracts between sophisticated parties who are likely aware of the presence

> 76 _See_ Reuters, _<u>Russia threatens legal action if forced into sovereign debt default</u>_ (Apr. 10, 2022). Though it is unclear what sort of recourse it has, it seems the argument it would make is as to the impossibility of making payments and showing it tried to the furthest extent possible.

> 77 _-_ Rob Broom and Paul Brennan, _<u>Invoking Force Majeure Due to COVID 19 Under English Law</u>_ <u>, at 1,</u> Squire Patton Boggs UK (April 2020) (listing some events commonly seen in the definitions of FM clauses like Earthquakes, Military Actions, Coup d’etats, etc); _See also_ Ben Giaretta, _COVID-19 Force Majeure Notices Under English Law: What Comes Next?_ , New York State Bar Ass’n, New York Dispute Resolution Lawyer, 13:2, at 47 (Summer 2020).

> 78 _See e.g._ , Prospectus for the U.S.$ 2,500,000,000 5.25 percent Bonds due 2047 and U.S.$ 1,500,000,000 4.375 percent Bonds due 2029 at 15.

> 79 _Wood v. Capita Insurance Services Ltd_ [2017] UKSC 24 at para. 10. (emphasis added).

> 80 _See_ Lam, note 52 _supra_ (explaining that the “commercial context” must be considered and that it includes the words used in the parties documentary, factual, and commercial context); _see also_ Prospectus for the U.S.$ 2,500,000,000 5.25 percent Bonds due 2047 and U.S.$ 1,500,000,000 4.375 percent Bonds due 2029 at 16, 20-21 (the disclosures themselves).
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The average of the answers to the highest and lowest weekly incomes were then used by the interviewer to read a set of threshold levels of income, _Y1_ , _Y2_ , _Y3_ , and _Y4_ , from a predetermined table on the questionnaire. Respondents were then asked: “Thinking about the income that you would be earning if you were working in New Zealand right now, what do you think is the percent chance that your own weekly income from work would be less than _Y1_ New Zealand dollars?” The same question was then asked for thresholds of _Y2_ , _Y3_ and _Y4_ dollars. For example, an individual whose average of the highest and lowest weekly incomes was $375 would be asked what the percent chance was that their income would be less than $300, $350, $400 and $450.

# **3.2 Comparison with other approaches**

Very few surveys of migrants ask questions about expectations. It is therefore worth discussing the rationale for adopting the probabilistic questions used here in lieu of some of the more traditional qualitative and attitudinal questions. For employment, instead of asking the percent chance of being employed, a traditional approach could involve asking a question such as “what do you think your likelihood of being employed would be if you were living in New Zealand right now: very likely, likely, unlikely, highly unlikely”. As Dominitz and Manski (1997) and Manski (2004) note, such a question would have at least two drawbacks over the probabilistic question. The first is that it makes it very difficult to compare responses across individuals, since each individual can interpret terms such as “very likely” differently. Secondly, the coarseness of the response limits how much information can be obtained from such a question.

A more direct question with income would be to ask would-be emigrants how much they would expect to be paid if they were working in New Zealand. A variant of this is used in the New Immigrant Survey, which asks immigrants to state how much they think workers usually earn in various jobs in the United States. However, as Dominitz (1998) points out, it is not clear if individuals are reporting means, medians, modes, or some other quantiles of their subjective distributions when they respond to such questions. In 8
# **Table 15 Structure of the Tunisian economy before and after unilateral and bilateral services trade reforms**

||_In benchmark equilibrium_|_After reforms_|
|---|---|---|
|Output ($US million)|37758|37811|
|Services share (%)|48.4|48.7|
|Value added at factor cost ($US million)|16335|16600|
|Services share (%)|67.0|67.5|
|Intermediate usage ($US million)|20439|20347|
|Services share (%)|34.0|33.9|
|Household consumption ($US million)|11611|11693|
|Services share (%)|37.8|37.8|
|Investment ($US million)|5402|5421|
|Services share (%)|59.0|59.0|
|Government consumption ($US million)|3006|3027|
|Services share (%)|100.0|100.00|
|Imports cif ($US million)|10355|10438|
|Services share|10.6|10.9|
|Exports fob ($US million)|8976|9052|
|Services share (%)|25.0|26.2|
|Export share of output (%)|23.8|23.9|
|Foreign ownership share of output (%)|15.37|15.40|

_Source_ : FTAP model database and projections.

45