researchers and practitioners consider to be ‘learning’ and what the teachers perceive their responsibility to be.

## 3.2.2. Different forms of accountability

There is significant variation in the type of accountability regime that teachers support. We explore two types of regimes: (i) non‐zero‐sum accountability wherein teachers receive additional bonuses for student performance on tests; and (ii) zero‐sum accountability wherein teacher promotions or transfers are linked to student performance on tests.<sup>8</sup> In countries with positive accountability gaps (Tajikistan, Senegal, Pakistan from Figure 5), nearly all teachers (81 percent and above) favor reward‐based non‐zero‐sum accountability.<sup>9</sup> However, in some contexts (Argentina, Indonesia) there is much more support for zero‐sum accountability. In Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Tajikistan there is support for both types of accountability (see Figure 6).

Hence, perceptions about what are appropriate forms of ‘accountability’ vary significantly across countries. This makes sense. As mentioned above, a discussion of mental models is particularly relevant for ‘accountability’. Different systems might create different mental models about what accountability means or implies. According to World Development Report 2015: “ _shared understandings of our community. We tend not to question views when they reflect an outlook on the world that is shared by everyone around us ... Mental models, which need not be enforced by direct social pressure, often capture broad ideas about how the world works and one’s place in it_ .” These principles are applicable to the concept of accountability, implying that it could mean different things in different contexts, as suggested by our data (not only in this section but also in Section 3.1 on absenteeism).

# 3.3 Mental Model 3: Ownership of Student Learning

Most teachers in every context agree that it is difficult to pay equal attention to all students in a large classroom (see Figure 7). So how do teachers divide their attention? We explore mental models around the following questions: (i) when does a student deserve more attention from the teacher; (ii) when can a teacher not be expected to help a student; and (iii) do teachers believe themselves _able_ to address the needs of all students.

Overall, we find that teachers favor the idea of providing ‘extra’ attention to better‐performing students. The first indication on this is with respect to student preparation. In every context, more than half the interviewed teachers believe that students deserve more attention if they have the necessary foundations (Figures 8 and 12). Teachers also demonstrate low ownership for the learning of lagging students. In all countries, more than one in four teachers believe that there is little they can

> 8 Promotion may theoretically be non‐zero sum because it is possible to promote everyone. However, since this is not a feasible practical possibility, we consider this as zero‐sum accountability.

> 9 This is not to say that in countries with 0 or negative accountability gap there is low support for reward‐based accountability. Support for bonuses is still high in Zanzibar, Uganda, & Myanmar; and very low in Argentina and Indonesia.

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